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Contact Us
School Logo
Our Lady's
Catholic Primary School
'Follow your dreams using the guiding light of Jesus'
School Video
9th May
LO : Describe and name the symbols of Easter used in the Church (Paschal candle, white cloth, water) and design an Easter Candle.
Revisit the Paschal Candle and discuss its meaning.
Look at the 5 nails, why do you think 5 nails have been put in the candle? What do the nails contain? What do the nails tell us about Jesus? Can you think of another story when frankincense was brought to Jesus?
Watch a video presentation of the lighting of the Paschal Candle at the Easter Vigil. Describe what happens to the Paschal candle.
Activity - Children to design an Easter candle and explain their design.
The Lighting of the Pascal Candle
Play defend and attack games. Be a soldier attacking a castle, dodging arrows (small balls or bean bags). Fire their arrows through an arrow loop into a hoop or box. Play dodge games with an opposing partner and balance across a drawbridge.
Look at pictures and photographs of great towers from around the world. Match the tower to its location using world maps and globes. Using a simple key, show the locations of the towers on a world map.
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Gaucher Disease: Pregnancy and Genetics
Gaucher disease pregnancy
What is Gaucher disease?
Gaucher disease is a genetic disorder that affects lysosomes, which are spherical compartments inside your cells that function to digest molecules and remove waste. They do this by producing certain enzymes that break apart molecules so, in a sense, lysosomes are like little stomachs for your cells. One of the enzymes is called glucocerebrosidase and its job is to break down certain biological chemicals called glycolipids. Glucocerebrosidase is produced using instructions that are encoded in a gene, of which your cells have two copies, one that you received from your mother and the other from your father. As long as at least one of the two copies of the genes is normal, you can produce enough normal glucocerebrosidase to keep all of your cells healthy. This makes Gaucher disease what geneticists call a recessive condition, a condition that occurs only if two abnormal gene copies come together in the same individual.
The problem occurs if a child is born with two abnormal copies of the glucocerebrosidase gene. There are hundreds of different mutations known to affect the gene. The different mutations vary greatly in how common they are throughout humanity and among different ethnic groups, and they also vary in terms of which types of body cells and tissues are affected. This, in turn, affects the symptoms and other consequences of the disease.
Types of Gaucher disease
Although numerous different mutations affect the glucocerebrosidase gene, Gaucher disease is classified into three main types –Type I, Type II, and Type II– based on the body organs that are affected and the severity and timing of the course of the disease. Each type is divided into different subtypes.
Type I Gaucher disease is the most common in Western countries overall, but it is especially common among Ashkenazi Jews, meaning Jews whose ancestors lived in central and eastern Europe. About 1 per 15 Ashkenazi Jews carries a Gaucher type I gene copy. However, since you need two abnormal gene copies to have the disease, a 1:15 ratio for carrying the gene results in a disease prevalence of 1 case per 855 Ashkenazi Jews. This may sound rare, but it is much more common than in the non-Jewish population, where the prevalence is 1 case per 40,000 people. The main characteristic distinguishing Type 1 Gaucher disease is that lysosomes in brain cells function normally so development of the brain is normal. However, people with Gaucher Type I develop problems in the liver and spleen, which enlarge due to glycolipids accumulating in cells of those organs. Glycolipid accumulation also harms bone cells and cells in bone marrow, leading to anemia and bleeding disorders.
Type II Gaucher disease, which is quite rare, is also called acute infantile neuronopathic Gaucher disease because its rapid development of central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) problems that usually lead to death by age 2.
Type III Gaucher disease features problems in various organs, such as bones and the brain. However, since the brain problems develop much more slowly compared with Gaucher Type II, Type III is also known as chronic neuronopathic Gaucher disease. This is the most common type of Gaucher disease in Asia, the Middle East, and the Pacific Rim, which also makes it the most common Gaucher disease type overall. There is a particular subtype of Gaucher disease type III that occurs most commonly in people from the Norrbottnian region of Sweden. Because the different types and subtypes of Gaucher disease result from different mutations of the glucocerebrosidase gene, the symptoms and severity differ widely. With Type III, for instance, the form that the disease takes varies widely between Sweden and the Middle East.
Gaucher Disease and Pregnancy
As for as how Gaucher disease can affect your pregnancy, one big issue is that it can exacerbate anemia of pregnancy that usually would be mild. Gaucher disease can cause severe bleeding after you deliver because the effects on the bone marrow cause you to have low numbers of platelets. Pregnant women with Gaucher disease also have an increased risk of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) and infections, and if the liver and spleen are enlarged, the growth of the fetus can make your abdomen especially crowded inside.
Being a carrier of Gaucher disease
Much more common that having Gaucher disease is being a carrier, meaning that you have one copy of a Gaucher gene and one normal copy. If your partner also has the same situation, neither one of you will have the disease, but you’ll have a 25 percent chance that your child will receive two detective gene copies. This is true whether or not you and your spouse have the same Gaucher mutation. To be prepared for this possibility, if both you and your partner are from an ethnic group that carries Gaucher mutations, for instance if both of you are Ashkenazi Jews, you should contact Dor Yeshorim and have genetic counseling.
Disgnosis and treatment of Gaucher disease
If it turns out that you and your partner do have that 25 percent chance, then the condition can be diagnosed easily in early infancy by measuring the level of glucocerebrosidase enzyme in the baby’s blood and by doing genetic tests. If you do have Gaucher disease, or if you give birth to a child with Gaucher disease, the condition is easily treated with enzyme replacement therapy (ERT). This means that the enzyme is administered to the affected person in lieu of the enzyme that the person’s cells cannot make. ERT is not dangerous to the fetus nor to a nursing infant.
David Warmflash
Leave a Reply
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Complexity Explorer Santa Fe Institute
Vector and Matrix Algebra
Lead instructor:
3.4 Markov Chains » Quiz #21
Suppose that there are three states with the following migration patterns. Those who live in state A, remain there with probability .7, while with probability .2 they will move to state B and with probability .1 they will move to state C. Of those who live in state B, 10% move to state A, 60% stay in state B and 30% move to state C. And finally, of those who live in state C, 15% move to state A, 65% Initially the population of the states (respectively) are in millions: 10, 20, 300. In the long run, what will the population be of these three states?
Find a stochastic (i.e. transition matrix for this problem); find the long-term behabior of the population of the three states by solving for the steady-state vector. (See next segment for solution.)
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Leigh Davidson Leigh Davidson
Are You Afraid of the Dark? Part 2: Green-Blooded Hobgoblins
Upper-Intermediate to Advanced level
In this lesson, the second part of the 'Strange and Mysterious' LP series, Ss will discuss the existence of aliens (Is it possible or not for alien life forms to exist on other planets?) and the possibility (and probability) of alien contact with planet Earth. The first half of the lesson will focus on alien depiction in popular culture (specifically in cinema) and the second half will explore the potential of alien contact (how will it occur; has it occurred before; and how would the Ss respond to such an experience?). A short film will provide the Ss with a cinematic example of alien contact to explore, comment on, and improve. A pre-lesson reading activity will also explore the topic of hoaxes, highlighting some alien contact stories that have been later revealed to be hoaxes. The lesson will wrap up with a discussion of the 2016 movie 'Arrival'--an alien movie with a linguistic theme that can provide some poignant lessons for language learners and ESL instructors. This movie could be assigned as a pre-lesson or post-lesson supplementary homework activity.
Abc Take Me to Your Leader
Abc Alien Contact
Main Aims
• To provide Ss with the opportunity for freer-speaking practice on the topic of aliens and alien contact.
Subsidiary Aims
• To provide Ss with an opportunity to practice their gist and detailed reading skills, on the subject of historical hoaxes.
Warmer/Lead-in (15-17 minutes) • To set lesson context and engage students
Show the WC some film posters of famous alien movies (Alien, Arrival, Mars Attacks, Prometheus, Avatar, Star Trek, District 9, Starship Troopers, Pitch Black, and The Hitchhikers Guide). Elicit from the WC which movies they are familiar with and how those movies depict the aliens. Elicit from the WC which alien portrayal is their favorite and why. Elicit from the WC which of the aliens, in which of the movies, the Ss consider the scariest, and why? Focus on the common and popular depiction, in cinema, of aliens as dangerous invaders. Elicit from the WC their thoughts and explanation for this highly negative conception of alien contact. Expand the discussion further with a hypothetical question. "If aliens do visit the Earth one day, do you think their intentions will be peaceful, or will they come to conquer, kill or enslave us?" Focus on the physical aspects of each alien (from the previously discussed alien movies). "Why do you think aliens are generally depicted as having a human shape and eyes?" Elicit from the WC which physical form is most likely and probable for an alien race. "What do you think alien life might look like?" Elicit from the WC whether they believe that life on other planets is possible. "Do you think there might be life on other planets? Why [not]?"
Write on the WB ALIEN VOCABULARY and beneath the header, the following words: SIGHTING, FOOTAGE, AN ENCOUNTER, COVER-UP, and BEAM-UP. Elicit from the WC the meaning of these words, when used in the context of discussing aliens and alien contact.
Productive Task: Alien Contact (27-31 minutes) • To provide an opportunity to practice target productive skills
Elicit from the WC their thoughts on the following hypothetical situations: 1) "If aliens landed somewhere in the United States and attempted to make contact with the American government, what do you think would happen?" 2) "What about Turkey? Would the response be similar, or any different?" Divide the WC into groups and distribute a HO, which includes images of some of the cinematic aliens discussed from the Warmer section ('Take Me to Your Leader'). Instruct the groups to consider each of the alien species and discuss how they think the Turkish Republic would respond to alien contact from each of those species. "What do you think Turkey would do if [this species of alien] landed in Ankara and asked to see your leader?" Following GW discussion, bring the WC together for FB. Inform the WC that they are going to watch a short film on this very topic. Mention that this film is very similar to the Hollywood movie 'District 9.' It was made by the same director. Instruct the WC to observe, while watching the film, how the city of Johannesburg (in South Africa) responds to the alien contact, and to consider the following questions: 1) "Why do you think the Government of South Africa responds the way that they do to this species contact?" Write on the WB REASON FOR RESPONSE? 2) "Do you think that this is a proper, and appropriate response, to the species of alien that contacts Johannesburg?" Write on the WB APPROPRIATE RESPONSE? 3) "If you were the Government of South Africa, what would you have done differently, if anything, when this species landed in your city?" Write on the WB WHAT WOULD YOU DO? "Alive in Joburg" [6:22] https://www.shortoftheweek.com/2007/05/23/alive-in-joburg/ Following a viewing of the film, have the Ss, in groups, discuss the pre-listening questions (on the WB) and come up with their own response to the alien contact and settlement in Johannesburg. Following GW discussion, bring the WC together for FB. Present the groups with another hypothetical situation. "If aliens visited Earth for a week, what do you think they should see (and do) to fully understand us and our achievements?" Provide the groups with a HO to complete during their discussion ('Alien Contact'). Following GW discussion, bring the WC together for FB. Write some of the Ss' answers on the WB, beneath the header ALIEN CONTACT ITINERARY.
Productive Task: Alien Questions (18-20 minutes) • To provide an opportunity to practice target productive skills
Elicit from the WC their thoughts concerning the public allure and fascination with the (possible) existence of alien life forms. "Why are humans so fascinated with the (possible) existence of aliens?" Distribute the HO on 'Alien Questions' and instruct the groups to read through and discuss some of the questions from each list. Instruct Student A to ask 5 of the questions from their list; Student B will ask 5 of the questions from their list as well. Emphasize that both Student A and Student B should ask 'why' follow-up Q's to the 5 Q's that they select. Following GW discussion, bring the Ss together for WC FB and a response to each other's thoughts.
Productive Task: Alien Hoaxes (15-18 minutes) • To provide an opportunity to practice target productive skills
Refer the WC to the pre-lesson reading task--the Hot English article on alien hoaxes ('Alien Tricks'). Elicit from the Ss their answers to the reading comprehension questions: 1) "Based on the examples described in the article, how would you define a 'hoax'?" 2) "What was the purpose behind each 'hoax'? Why did each person tell their alien contact story?" [T Answer: 1) April Fool's Day joke, for public entertainment; 2) A trick, for personal entertainment; 3) To provide validity and authenticity for the rumors surrounding Roswell/Area 51; 4) To highlight the gullibility of people] 3) "The article concludes with this final statement: 'They say that fiction is a lie that tells the truth. Maybe it's true in these cases.' What is the author of the article claiming in this statement? And do you agree with this claim?" "So if these hoaxes exist, what does that say about the existence of alien life forms and the possibility of alien contact (both in the past and in the present)? Have aliens actually contacted us if hoaxes, connected to stories of alien contact, exist?" Conclude the lesson with a general discussion of the 2016 film 'Arrival.' Assign the film as extended HW (for those interested Ss). Focus the WC on the linguistic nature of the film. Instruct the Ss to consider the following themes, concerning language learning, communication, and translation: [write on the WB] 1) The implications of misunderstanding 2) The cultural advantage of human translation 3) The importance of every word "How are these themes portrayed and what lessons can we learn, as ESL learners and instructors, from the film?"
Web site designed by: Nikue
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Geyser (disambiguation).
Geyser of water and steam erupting from an ashen cone.
A geyser (US /ˈɡzər/; UK /ˈɡzə/ or /ˈɡzə/[1][2]) is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by a vapour phase (steam).
Over one thousand known geysers exist worldwide. A study that was completed in 2011[3][4] found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States, and an average of 465 geysers are active there in a given year. A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention.[5]
Form and function[edit]
Geysers are temporary geological features. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas.[6] As the water boils, the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser's internal plumbing. The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain.[6]
Intense heat
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma that needs to be near the surface of the earth. The fact that geysers need heat much higher than normally found near the earth's surface is the reason they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic areas. The pressures encountered at the areas where the water is heated makes the boiling point of the water much higher than at normal atmospheric pressures.
The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel underground through deep, pressurized fissures in the Earth's crust.
A plumbing system
In order for the heated water to form a geyser, a plumbing system is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults.[6] The plumbing system is made up of a system of fractures, fissures, porous spaces and sometimes cavities. Constrictions in the system are essential to the building up of pressure before an eruption.
See caption.See caption.See caption.See caption.
1. Steam rises from heated water
2. Pulses of water swell upward
3. Surface is broken
4. Ejected water spouts upward and falls back down into the pipe
General categorization[edit]
Geyser erupts up and blows sideways from a pool.High geyser of water erupts out of the sparsely vegetated earth.
1. Fountain geyser (erupting from the pool)
Most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water and forms mineral deposits called siliceous sinter, or geyserite, along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender. Over time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling the geyser to persist, as mentioned in the previous section.
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can go dormant or extinct. Many geysers have been destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power plants. The Great Geysir of Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes artificially induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of surfactants to the water.
Biology of geysers[edit]
Further information: Thermophile and Hyperthermophile
Surreal blue pool surround by orange border on a purple ground.
In the 1960s, when the research of biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 °C maximum (163 °F)—the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria, as the structure of key cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C average (131 °F).[9]
However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of water. Dozens of such bacteria are known.[10] Thermophiles prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C (122 to 158 °F), whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C (176 to 230 °F). As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that are important in medicine and biotechnology,[11] for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics, detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation products (for example ethanol is produced). Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is Thermus aquaticus.[12] The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other celestial bodies, both within and beyond the solar system.
Major geyser fields and their distribution[edit]
Distribution of major geysers in the world.
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of water, heat, and fortuitous plumbing. The combination exists in few places on Earth.[13][14]
Yellowstone National Park, U.S.[edit]
Valley of Geysers, Russia[edit]
Main article: Valley of Geysers
The Valley of Geysers ("Dolina Geiserov" in Russian) located in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia is the only geyser field in Eurasia and the second largest concentration of geysers in the world. The area was discovered and explored by Tatyana Ustinova in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to a vigorous volcanic activity. The peculiar way of eruptions are an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields.[14] On June 3, 2007 a massive mudflow influenced two thirds of the valley.[16] It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley.[17] Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. Velikan Geyser, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently been observed to be active.[18]
El Tatio, Chile[edit]
A geyser bubbling at El Tatio geyser field
Main article: El Tatio
The name "El Tatio" roughly translates as "the grandfather". El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes surrounded by many active volcanoes in Chile, South America at around 4,200 metres (13,800 ft) above mean sea level. The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers, and is the third largest geyser field in the world. The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, the tallest being only 6 metres (20 ft) high, but with steam columns that can be over 20 metres (66 ft) high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about 750 millimetres (30 in).[14][19]
Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand[edit]
Main article: Taupo Volcanic Zone
The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand's North Island. It is 350 kilometres (217 mi) long by 50 km wide (31 mi) and lies over a subduction zone in the Earth's crust. Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano (85 km or 53 mi beyond White Island) is considered its northeastern limit.[20] Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to geothermal developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the 20th century, the largest geyser ever known, the Waimangu Geyser existed in this zone. It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local water table. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach 160 metres (520 ft) and some superbursts are known to have reached 500 metres (1,600 ft).[14] Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the zone may be as little as 5 kilometres (3 mi) thick. Beneath this lies a film of magma 50 km wide (31 mi) and 160 km long (99 mi).[21]
Main article: Iceland
Geysir Hot Spring Area
Extinct and dormant geyser fields[edit]
Misnamed geysers[edit]
Tall, thin geyser erupts as bystanders watch.
Geyser Andernach (Germany), the world's highest cold-water geyser
There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt. Such geysers are not true[citation needed] geysers but are yet referred as such as they all emit water under pressure.
Artificial geysers[edit]
Cold-water geyser Wallender Born (Germany)
Cold-water geysers[edit]
Cold-water geysers' eruption is similar to that of their hot-water counterparts, except that CO2 bubbles drive the eruption instead of steam. In cold-water geysers, CO2-laden water lies in a confined aquifer, in which water and CO2 are trapped by less permeable overlying strata. This water and CO2 can escape this strata only in weak regions like faults, joints, or drilled wells. A drilled borehole provides an escape for the pressurized water and CO2 to reach the surface. The magnitude and frequency of such eruptions depend on various factors such as plumbing depth, CO2 concentrations, aquifer yield etc. The column of water exerts enough pressure on the gaseous CO2 so that it remains in the water in small bubbles. When the pressure decreases due to formation of a fissure, the CO2 bubbles expand. This expansion displaces the water and causes the eruption. Cold-water geysers may look quite similar to their steam-driven counterparts; however, often CO2-laden water is more white and frothy.[25] The best known of these is probably Crystal Geyser, near Green River, Utah.[26] There are also two cold-water geysers in Germany, Wallender Born (aka Brubbel) and Andernach Geyser (de) (aka Namedyer Sprudel), and one in Slovakia, Herľany.
Perpetual spouter[edit]
Commercial uses of geysers[edit]
Bystanders watch a nearby geyser erupting.
The geyser Strokkur in Iceland; as a tourist spot.
Dark blotches speckle the surface of Neptune's largest moon.
Dark streaks deposited by geysers on Triton
"Geysers" elsewhere in the Solar System[edit]
Main article: Cryovolcano
There are several bodies elsewhere in the Solar System where jet-like eruptions, often termed "geysers" and "cryogeysers", have been observed or are believed to occur. Unlike geysers on Earth, these represent eruptions of gas, together with entrained dust or ice particles, without liquid.
See also[edit]
1. ^ "Definition of geyser noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online". Retrieved 2011-07-09.
2. ^
5. ^ Bryan, T.S. 1995
6. ^ a b c d How geysers form Gregory L.
7. ^ a b c d Lee Krystek Weird Geology: Geysers Retrieved on 2008-03-28
8. ^ Yellowstone thermal features Yahoo! Inc. Retrieved on 2008-04-02
10. ^ Michael T. Madigan and Barry L. Marrs; Extremophiles Retrieved on 2008-04-01
12. ^ Industrial Uses of Thermophilic Cellulase University of Delaware, Retrieved on 2008-03-29 Archived October 10, 2007 at the Wayback Machine
13. ^ Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995
14. ^ a b c d e f g Glennon, J Allan "World Geyser Fields" Retrieved on 2008-04-04
15. ^ "Yellowstone geysers" Retrieved on 2008-03-20
17. ^ Harding, Luke (2007-06-05). "Mudslide fully changes terrain in Kamchatka’s Valley of Geysers". Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
18. ^ Shpilenok, Igor (2007-06-09). "June 2007 Special release - The Natural Disaster at the Valley of the Geysers". Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-16.
19. ^ Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff. R.M., 2003
20. ^ Gamble, J. A., I. C. Wright and J. A. Baker (1993). "Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 36 (4): 417–435. doi:10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588.
21. ^ Central North Island sitting on magma film Paul Easton, The Dominion Post, 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2008-04-16
22. ^ Gardner Servian, Solveig "Geysers of Iceland" Retrieved on 2008-04-16
23. ^ "Whakarewarewa, The Thermal Village" Retrieved 2008-04-04
24. ^ Jones, Wyoming "Old Faithful Geyser of California" WyoJones' Geyser Pages Retrieved on 2008-03-31
25. ^ Glennon, J. Alan "Carbon-Dioxide-Driven, Cold-Water Geysers" Retrieved on 2008-04-01
26. ^ Glennon, J.A. 2005; Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff, R.M. 2005
27. ^ WyoJones "Thermal Feature Definitions" WyoJones Retrieved on 2008-04-03
30. ^ "Triton (Voyager)". NASA (Voyager The Interstellar Mission). June 1, 2005. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
External links[edit]
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Goal of reduced forces calculation
You can obtain results for panels in a quick and simple manner. The results can be used for other calculations such as reinforcement to be used in walls that maintain the stability of a building undergoing wind and seismic impact. In order to carry out such calculations, the reduced forces along different cross-sections must be known.
The cross-sections for which the reduced forces are to be calculated may have the following orientation: horizontal (at the wall base (Section AA and Section BB)), or vertical (Section CC and Section DD).
To obtain a system to calculate reduced forces that would be both simple for the user and quick in its use, the walls should be divided into rectangular panels according to the following scheme.
Reduced forces should be calculated only for two-dimensional panels with the shape of a convex quadrilateral. They will not be calculated for the following types of panels.
Convex, quadrilateral 2D panel
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What is the crisscross method in chemistry?
The crisscross method in chemistry is the process of writing chemical formulas using oxidation numbers. It is used to find the chemical formula of a metal and non-metal that combine to form an ionic bond. While using this method, the first word is the metal, which retains its name while the second is the non-metal, which retains its element prefix.
Q&A Related to "What is the crisscross method in chemistry?"
to establish an ion's elecrical charge.
The criss-cross method is a mindless method of solving chemistry problems. You should stay away from it. The criss-cross method advises automatic input of numbers, followed by turning
The criss-cross method helps one find the least common multiple
These diagrams are all drawn as though looking from the front of the shoe, such that the lower part of the lacing (near the toes) is at the bottom of the diagram, and are colour-coded
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"Rationalizing Race in US History"
by Ashlinn Quinn
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Learning Activity 1:
1. Prepare to show the first few seconds of Clip 1 to the class. Explain that in this video clip, the students will see a woman named Bliss Broyard, looking at some of her family photographs. Provide the students with a FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION, asking students to determine the race of the family in the photograph.
Insert thumbnail of Clip 1 here.
2. PLAY the beginning of Clip 1, "More Than Meets the Eye," for the class, and PAUSE it approximately 10 seconds in, when the photograph of the blond woman and two children is onscreen and Bliss Broyard has just said "this was my dad's favorite photo of my mom, my brother, and me."
3. Review the focus question. To what race does this family belong? (The family in the picture is fair-skinned and blond. Most students will probably say "white.")
4. Tell the students that you will now play a bit more of the clip. Provide the students with a new FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION, asking them to determine what Bliss Broyard learned about her father that she didn't know before?
5. RESUME the clip. PAUSE the clip when the title "White Like Me" is onscreen, and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. has just said "this is the first time Bliss and I have seen each other since she read that article in 1996."
6. Review the focus question. What did Bliss Broyard learn about her father? (That he was black). Ask the students how they think it is possible that Bliss did not know of her father's black ancestry? (Accept all answers, but ensure that students understand that Anatole Broyard had some white ancestors and some black ancestors. With his light skin and facial features, Broyard could live and work in white society without raising any suspicions of his black heritage - a phenomenon sometimes referred to as "passing." He chose not to tell his children of their black ancestors, so they grew up believing they were "white.")
7. Before resuming the clip, provide the students with a new FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION, asking them to determine what the choices were for "color" on the Social Security Card application Anatole Broyard filled out. RESUME the clip and PLAY to the end.
8. Review the focus question: What were the choices for "color" on the Social Security Card application? (White, Negro, and Other). How did Anatole Broyard answer the "color" question on the form? (He checked "White," checked "Negro" and crossed it out, and put a "C" next to the line for "Other"). Do the students think it may have been difficult for Anatole Broyard to respond to this question on the form? Why? (Accept all answers, but encourage the students to think about the fact that for a person of mixed-race descent like Anatole Broyard, the choice of which box to check among the three choices of "White," "Negro," and "Other" may not have been obvious. He may have struggled with aligning himself with any of the groups, feeling like he didn't really fit in.)
9. Ask the students if they have ever had to indicate their race on a form. What kinds of forms collect information on race? (Answers may include school applications, standardized tests, surveys, as optional information on job applications and other forms). If the students have not mentioned it already, tell them that one type of survey that collects information on race, among many other types of information, is the US Census. Explain that the US Census is a survey of the population in the United States that has been conducted every ten years since 1790. The census has consistently collected data on race or "color," but the categories for race - and the way this information is reported - have changed over time.
10. Tell the students that they will compare several versions of the US Census to determine how categories for race have changed over time in this country. Divide the students into working groups and distribute the "US Census Student Organizer" and one copy of each of the five sample US Census forms (1850, 1880, 1950, 1970, and 2000) to each student group.
11. Allow the students about 15-20 minutes to complete their student organizers. Review the results as a class. What were the different categories for "color" or "race" in the different censuses? (Refer to Teacher Answer Key for responses). Why might the categories have changed over time? (There are many factors that contributed to the change, but waves of immigration on the one hand, and civil rights struggles on the other, both played a role). Besides the different categories, what other differences did the students notice between the censuses? (Accept all answers, but point out that prior to 1960, census-takers employed by the government filled out the census forms, and were responsible for assigning a person's race based on their subjective assessment. Starting in 1970, individual residents began filling out the forms themselves and self-identified their race. Also, the 2000 census was the first that allowed respondents to mark multiple boxes in response to the "race" question.)
12. In the next activity, students will explore historical examples demonstrating some of the ways categorization of people into racial groups has been used over the course of US history.
Learning Activity 2:
1. Explain that throughout US history, the categorization of people by race has unfortunately been used numerous times to discriminate against particular groups of people and to deny them rights. In this activity, students will explore three examples of racial discrimination that have occurred at various points in our history: in our founding documents; in the late 1800s, and during World War II.
2. Divide the students into working groups and assign each group one of the three case studies: the Constitution, Plessy v. Ferguson, or Japanese Relocation. Distribute the "Case Study Student Organizer" to the students and direct them to the appropriate Web site to conduct their case study research (the pages can be printed out if internet access is a problem).
3. Provide the students with a FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION, asking them to research their assigned case study using the provided Web sites, and to be prepared to report the following key information to the class: the time period of the case study; the group discriminated against; the rights that were denied this group; and the date when that particular episode of discrimination was overturned. Give the students approximately 15 minutes to explore their case study, then ask representatives from each group to report their findings to the class (See Teacher Answer Key for responses).
Learning Activity 3:
1. Prepare to show Clip 2: "A Fine Mocha" to the class. Explain that Henry Louis Gates, Jr. has been researching the heritage of a number of prominent African Americans. Write the names Linda Johnson-Rice, Chris Rock, Tom Joyner, Don Cheadle, Peter Gomes, Tina Turner, and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. on the board. Provide the students with a FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION, asking students to predict how many of these seven African Americans can trace 100% of their ancestry back to Africa (rather than to Europe, Asia, or to Native American populations?) Tell students to write down their predictions. In this clip, they will test their predictions and see if they are right. PLAY Clip 2: "A Fine Mocha" for the class.
Insert thumbnail of Clip 2 here.
2. Review the focus question: How many of the profiled African Americans could trace 100% of their heritage to Africa? (None, DNA tests revealed that all of the guests' heritage contained significant European ancestry - from 19 to 50% - in addition to their African ancestry).
3. Next prepare to show Clip 3: "Mixed-Race Ancestry" to the class. Provide the students with a FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION, asking them to listen for Chris Rock's definition of a black person. PLAY about 15 seconds of the clip, and PAUSE it just after Chris Rock finishes saying "You're in the Matrix now. You took the pill. You're just in, man."
Insert thumbnail of Clip 3 here.
4. Review the focus question. What is Chris Rock's definition of a black person? (Anyone who has the slightest bit of black heritage is black.) Explain that this explanation is a commonly held definition of blackness in the United States (but not necessarily shared elsewhere in the world). Point out that this manner of deciding who is in the "black" or "African American" group is very inclusive - according to this principle, as long as someone has a little bit of African heritage, he or she can be considered "black." Explain that this definition of blackness is sometimes called the "one drop rule." Remind students of the Plessy v. Ferguson case that they studied earlier in the lesson, and explain that the "one drop rule" was the basis for the Louisiana law that classified Homer Adolph Plessy, who was 7/8 Caucasian and 1/8 black, as "black" and hence ineligible to ride in the white railway car.
5. Ask the students if they remember Bliss Broyard, who discovered as an adult that her father had been hiding his black heritage. According to the "one drop rule," would Bliss Broyard be considered black? (Yes). Explain that the "one drop rule" is not a legal rule in the United States, and emphasize that in current-day America, there are no rules or official benchmarks defining the boundaries of any racial groups. As students may remember from their study of the most recent census forms, official racial groups in this country are created through self-identification. In census forms and other formal documents, each person in this country can self-identify a race according to whatever terms we like.
6. Prepare to show the rest of the clip to the class. Explain that the students will see three people discussing their racial identity: Bliss Broyard, Linda Johnson-Rice, and Don Cheadle. Each of them has some European (white) ancestry, and some African (black) ancestry. Provide the students with a FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION. Ask 1/3 of the class to particularly pay attention to Bliss Broyard; 1/3 of the class to pay attention to Linda Johnson-Rice, and 1/3 of the class to pay attention to Don Cheadle. For their assigned person, ask the students to tell the class whether their assigned subject considers him- or her-self to be black, and to discuss the reasons given for this choice.
7. RESUME Clip 3, "Mixed-Race Ancestry" from the previous stopping point and play to the end. After the clip is over, review the focus question. Does each person consider him- or her-self to be black? Why or why not? (Bliss Broyard does not consider herself to be black - she identifies as a person with mixed-race ancestry. Linda Johnson-Rice identifies as a black person and thinks both culture and genetics are important in determining racial identity. Don Cheadle identifies as black because no matter his mixed genetic heritage, he has the struggles and challenges that black people in America have.)
8. Finally, prepare students to view Clip 4: "Black, White, or Other." Explain to the class that in the course of researching his own family line, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. has not only discovered that he is 50% white, but also has been able to trace back his paternal line to one particular country - the country of Ireland. In this clip, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. travels to Ireland to research his roots, and discovers that his paternal line can be traced back to a man called "Niall of the Nine Hostages," an Irish warlord who lived about 450 A.D. As a result of his own discovery that he is 50% white and that many of his African American guests have mixed-race ancestry as well, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. wonders how relevant the terms "black" and "white" are for today's population. Provide the students with a FOCUS FOR MEDIA INTERACTION, asking them to determine why Tom Joyner prefers terms like "black" and "African American" to various other terms used to describe Americans with African heritage? PLAY Clip 4: "Black, White, or Other?" for the class.
Insert thumbnail of Clip 4 here.
9. After playing the clip, review the focus: Why does Tom Joyner prefer terms like "black" and "African American?" (DNA testing shows that African Americans have extremely tangled roots, and most African Americans have mixed-race heritage. Nonetheless, Tom Joyner and others who share his opinion see value in the group identity that inclusive terms like "black" and "African American" provide. This group identity gives a voice to African Americans and speaks to a common experience. It can provide the basis for mobilization around causes such as fighting discrimination, injustice, and racism.)
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The Coca-Cola Company Johnson & Johnson Buick
KUNHARDT Thirteen/WNET New York
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A 410 Million-Year-Old Arachnid Crawls Back To Life
first predator that walked the earth now come's alive in the virtual world.
A 410 million-year-old Arachnid's fossil was so well preserved, it was possible for scientists to see it's joints and they used this to recreate this in the virtual world. Known in the scientific world as trigonotarbid, the creature was the first predator to walk on the surface of the earth.
It's specimens were found in Scotland, near the Aberdeenshire town of Rhynie. To recreate this ancient animal, Russell Garwood from the University of Manchester, UK, and his colleagues analysed these immaculately preserved specimens.
They closely studied the trigonotarbids visible muscle structure and studied its possible preys. "Between each part of the leg, there are darker pieces where they join, and that allowed us to work out the range of movement," said Garwood to BBC News.
The gait of the trigonotarbids were compared with the gaits of modern spiders because they have similar leg proportions, he explained. They used an open source graphic program called Blender to recreate the motion, which enabled them to see the centre of mass and find a gait that worked. "If it's too far back compared to the legs, the posterior drags on the ground. The trigonotarbid is an alternating tetrapod, meaning there are four feet on the ground at any one time," he explained.
The co-author of the research, Jason Dunlop of the Museum of Natural History in Berlin, Germany, stated that now it would be much simpler to make these animations, and scientists themselves could do it without needing "the technical wizardry and immense costs of a Jurassic Park-Style Film."
The work is published in the the Journal Of Palentology as a part of a special collection of papers on 3D visualizations of fossils.
Join the Discussion
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The Bells
Sensorial Exploration of the Bells
These are two sets of identical bells showing the Major scale of C. The compromise a set of eight while bells, also called a ‘Keyboard’ mirrored by black bells and in front five bells on black stands mirrored by and five bells on brown stands. These are ideally left out on a bells cabinet, which allows the white bells to be kept by the wall as these are only moved for one exercise. There should be three mallets and two dampers. Damage and polish can affect the tone of the bells, the children can clean them with the duster.
How to carry and strike a bell
While this should be done in the Casa with one child at Elementary it is a good idea to show this to a group so that they are used consistently.
Tell the child, ‘These are the brown bells, we will play them, this is a mallet and this is how we carry it,’ (at each end between two fingers) and this is the dampener, we carry it like this, (hold it from the base) I will show you how we carry the bell (pick up the stem carefully, placing it on a flat open palm, supporting the stem with the other hand). I will show you how we strike the bell, (strike it once on the rim, hold the arm parallel to the floor from the elbow leaving the mallet loose and swinging) comment on how long the should can be heard. If I don’t want to hear the sound for so long I can use a dampener (bring the end of the dampener gently up to touch the base of the rim).
Invite the children to pick up, move and replace a brown bell to encourage them to connect with the material.
Show the children how to strike a bell and mimic the pitch or sing a short phrase.
A writer on the bells has said,
The tone of the bell which is soft and gentle is an admirable accompaniment to the child’s voice…the children sing or hum very softly…to sing softly is usually an individual lesson which ends as a collective exercise. When it is done everyday the initial interest of the small group spreads until the whole group is interested and develops pitch. The bells allow for the appreciation of the diminution of sound, striking them in different ways gives more or less tone, striking softly makes a clearer sound.’
Matching the pitches of the bells
We match the pitches, building up a memory of the pitch and finally developing the ability to hold a sound in the abstract.
Play the brown bells in sequence. Take three brown bells at random (but not the first and the last as they are an octave which is difficult to distinguish). Place them in a different order in front of the brown set. Play one of the now-unpaired white bells and try to find it’s match amongst the isolated three, strike the white bell after each strike of the brown ones. When you find a match place it in front of the space it used to occupy. When all three have been paired test them with their pair as a control. Replace them. Play the whole sequence.
Invite the children to try. Later pair more than three sets and finally mix the bells with flats and sharps.
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Games with Matching
Select a white bell, move it forward so you know it is selected. Play the white bells, pair them with the brown bells which are kept on a distant table.
Select a white bell, move it forward so you know it is selected. Play the white bell, walk around the classroom and then find the brown bell.
Select a white bell, move it forward so you know it is selected. Play the white bell, speak to a friend and then find the brown bell.
Select a white bell, move it forward so you know it is selected. Play the white bell, play all of the bells and then find the brown bell.
The Parade with Matching
This can be done with sixteen children, eight have white bells and make a line, the other eight have brown bells and face them. Another child plays a white bell and finds its pair, she invites them to stand together and she checks, if the pair is accurate the children holding the bells stand together at ninety degrees to the other children, the child continues till all are paired in any order. The child has a sensorial experience of the intervals.
Giving the Names
After the children are very comfortable with this given them the names of the tones that are culturally appropriate. Play a tone and give it’s name in a three period lesson, give two at a time, reviewing ones already done. Give none-adjacent tones so the child can compare.
Games with Names
The child plays a tone and sings it’s name.
Later after the sensorial impression has been given draw the children’s attention to the fact that the names are in the sequence of the alphabet.
Establishing up and down
Say, ‘I can play up the bells’, play three notes in sequence getting higher, ‘I can also play down the bells’, play three tones in sequence getting lower. Invite the children to try, they do not need to go in sequence.
Also let the child know the comparatives and superlatives.
Games with up and down
Relate movements reaching up and crouching down with the tones height, ask the child to move in relation to the way you play.
This is given after matching and singing the scale, the names are not necessarily known.
Play the brown bells ‘down’ and the white bells ‘up’. Isolate the brown bells, putting then to the front in a mixed order. Play the white bell ‘c’ and find its pair, move it in front of its place, and check before you continue. Match the ‘d’ in the same way comparing it to the white ‘d’, then continue by grading (comparing to the full sequence of paired brown bells rather than the white ones so you can anticipate the tone you are searching for). When all the bells are arranged check the sequence before replacing them to their usual position. Begin matching the ‘c’ and ‘d’ to work in a way which is familiar to the children before grading.
1. Match only the C and continuing by grading.
2. Use the brown bells independently from the white ones and grade without initially matching. First hunt for the ‘c’, taking the first bell in front of the others and playing it with each other bell, one at a time to determine if the first bell is lower. When you find a bell that is lower replace it in the line and continue using the new lowest to determine which is ‘c’. When it is found isolate it. Isolate the new ‘first’ bell and continue. Work like this with all of the bells and finally play in sequence as a control. The more the bells are mixed up the easier this is, when the sequence is nearly correct it is more difficult.
The Parade with Grading
This can be done with eight children each of who have a brown bell. Another child plays them searching for the lowest bell, she invites the child with the lowest bell to stand at one-side. Then she searches for the ‘next lowest’ At Elementary the children will also participate, organising themselves.
Games with grading
Place the brown bells in at a distance, find the lowest, put it on the bells table and go back to grade the others holding the tone abstractly.
Play a sequence of two or three bells and sing or hum the next tone in sequence.
Play a bell at one table and ask the child to bring you the next higher bell.
‘The next step for the child to distinguish differences and at the same time relations of stimuli is for the child to mix eight bells at random which gives them to find ‘d’, ‘re’ and so on, through the octave, one note after the other’ (p.365). **– Maria Montessori
As these exercises are sensorial and focus on sound we give much less language while doing these presentations even with Elementary children.
The Major Scale Pattern
This draws the child’s attention and gives terminology to a sensorial experience. Here we introduce the terms, ‘half step’, ‘whole step’ and ‘tetrachord’, the children need a well trained ear. We use cards to show the symbols for these.
Play two adjacent bells, saying, ‘We have left a space in between, this is called a whole step’, continue, the next two bells are also whole steps, the next two adjacent bells are half steps, play them, saying, ‘There is no space in between, they are really close together, this is called a a half step’, after giving a few oral examples do some laying the cards as you vocalise what you are doing, place the ‘whole step’ chords in front of these bells and the ‘half step’ card in between the half step bells.
Say, ‘In our scale sometimes we have whole steps and sometimes we have half steps’, do a loose three period lessons with the cards displayed so the children discover the pattern.
The scale has a symmetry divided it in half, four upper and lower four tones. Divide the bells into two groups
Say, ‘Our scale is made of two halves, they are called ‘Tetrachords’. The word ‘tetrachord’ comes from the Latin, ‘tetra’ means ‘four’ and ‘chord’ means ‘rope’. In each ‘tetrachord’ we have a whole step, another whole step and a half step. You should have a control slip so the children can do this independently
Games with half and whole steps
Play either a whole or half step and ask the children to either take a whole or half step with their feet.
Playing music with the bells
The children may spontaneously play songs with the bells that they know or they invent.
Games playing music
Play a song and invite the children to join you by singing, they can try to leave out the highest or lowest pitch.
We give the scale of C as it is the only which has no flats and sharps
Home Elementary Education Music
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Understanding Advertising : Ncert / Cbse Solutions & Revision Notes
A Brand refers to a special identification or name associated with a product. Branding is done by manufacturers to differentiate their product from the competitor’s products. Branding of a product is done in two ways i.e. 1. choosing a special mark or name for the product, and 2. creating a brand value for the product.
Brand values are special values associated with a product. Brand values and brand are created by advertising agencies which create advertisements to promote the respective brands. Advertisements are public promotions that talk about the various goods and services.
However, before creating an advertisement the advertising agency has to study the needs of the manufacturer, analyze the features of the product, conduct a market survey for determining the target audience and hence to create a brand and brand value that will appeal to the target audience.
The main aim of advertisements is to induce the buyer to buy the product by targeting his or her personal emotions. Advertisements are a costly affair and hence only the big companies can afford it as compared to the small-scale manufacturers.
An advertisement can make people believe that branded and packaged goods are much better that the unbranded ones. Advertisements serve as an important tool to help us known about the products and services available in the market.
CBSE NCERT Class VII (7th) | Social Studies | Social and Political Life
Chapter : Understanding Advertising
CBSE NCERT Solved Question Answer
Get to know about Understanding Advertising (Ncert / Cbse Solutions & Revision Notes), Chapter Summary CBSE / NCERT Revision Notes, CBSE NCERT Class VII (7th) | Social Studies | Social and Political Life, CBSE NCERT Solved Question Answer, CBSE NCERT Solution.Q1 What is the idea behind advertising a product?
Advertisements draw our attention to various products and describe them positively so that we become interested in buying them. It plays a crucial role in trying to convince us to buy the product that is advertised.
Q2 What is branding and why is it done?
‘Branding’ means stamping a product with a particular name or sign. This is done in order to differentiate it from other products in the market.
Q3 How does the advertisement affect our social and cultural lives?
Advertisements are an important part of our social and cultural life today. We watch advertisements, discuss them and often judge people according to the brand products they use. They often target our personal emotions. By linking our personal emotions to products, advertisements tend to influence the ways in which we value ourselves as persons.
Q4 Why does the branded product cost more than the non-branded products?
Branded products cost much more than the non-branded products because they include the costs of packaging and advertising.
Q5 How do advertisements persuade us to buy things?
· Often several of our cricket heroes and our favourite film stars also try and sell products to us through advertisements. We may feel tempted to buy these products because persons whom we consider our heroes tell us that they are worth buying.
· In addition, advertisements often show us images of the lifestyles of rich people and seldom show us the reality of peoples’ lives that we see around us.
Q6 What role advertisements play in our lives?
Advertisements play a big role in our lives. We not only buy products based on them, but often, having certain brand products influences the ways in which we think about ourselves, our friends and our family.
It is, therefore, important to know how advertising works and understand what it does before we choose to buy the products that advertisements sell.
We need to be able to critically understand why they use particular images, the personal emotion that they are appealing to and the ways in which this affects how we think about ourselves when we use the product or are not able to buy it.
Q7 How do the advertisements hamper the idea of democracy?
Advertising a product costs a lot of money. Producing and showing advertisements in the media is very expensive. Because there are so many advertisements in the market today, companies have to show the advertisement again and again to have it stick in people’s minds.
What this often means is that only large companies can advertise. If you own a small business, you will not have the money to show your product on TV or national newspapers and magazines. They often have to sell their products in weekly markets and neighbourhood shops.
It also makes us believe that things that are packaged and have a brand name are far better than things that do not come in packets. We forget that the quality of a product has little to do with the packaging that it comes in. This shift to packaged products negatively affects the sales of several small businesses forcing people out of their livelihoods.
In a democracy in which all people are equal and should be able to lead a life of dignity, advertising tends to promote a certain lack of respect for the poor.
Advertising, because it appeals to personal emotions also tends to make people who cannot afford certain brands feel bad. They feel that they are unable to give their loved ones the best care that brand products appear to offer.
Q8 How can you be a smart customer?
As citizens of a democratic society, it is important for us to be aware of the strong influence that advertising has on our lives. By critically understanding what advertisements do, we can make better decisions about whether we wish to buy a product or not.
Q9 What impact does advertisement has on the ideas of equality?
Advertising by focusing on the lives of the rich and famous helps us forget about issues of poverty, discrimination and dignity, all of which are central to the functioning of equality in a democracy. More than just selling us products, advertisements tell us how we should live our lives, what we should aspire and dream for, how we should express our love, what it means to be smart, successful and beautiful.
Q10 What is social advertisements?
Social advertisements refer to advertisements made by the State or private agencies that have a larger message for the society.
Post a Comment Blogger
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Home Tardigrades
Tardigrades are often called Water Bears, or Moss Piglets. They are so odd that an extraterrestrial origin has even been suggested. There is more about this later in the article.
They are normally referred to as being microscopic, but the biggest of them are just within what a Human can see without aid, being up to about one millimetre long.
Eight Legs
Tardigrades have eight stumpy legs. They walk over sand grains and plants looking like tiny bears.
Some tardigrades eat small animals and algae whole, while others suck out the cell contents of these things.
Discovery and Classification
They were discovered by an amateur microscopist in 1773. Biologists had some trouble trying to fit this new animal into their classification systems. Now they have been given their own phylum, the Tardigrada. When classifying living organisms, the highest classification is the Kingdom, for example the plant kingdom or the animal kingdom. Apart from subkingdom, the second highest classification is the phylum. The fact that the Tardigrades have been given such as high classification (Vertebrates only rate the classification of sub-phylum) suggests that they are not closely related to anything else.
However, they have some similarities to both the annelids and the arthropods. This suggests that they are of Earthly origin. Proponents of Panspermia might disagree with this.
There are about 750 species of tardigrade that have been described. It is absolutely certain that there are others not yet scientifically described, and it is very likely that there are a lot more undiscovered ones than discovered tardigrades.
Tardigrades are all over the place. There are probably millions outside my window in our front yard, living in moss and other things. The fact that most of the yard gets hot and dry in the summer would not matter to these creatures.
Tardigrades live in the Antarctic dry valleys and the depths of the Atlantic Ocean.
Many of them are aquatic, living in fresh or saltwater, but others live in dry areas, but to be active they need some liquid water.
Tardigrades can dry out and be apparently dead, but will revive when water in available again. This ability is called cryptobiosis. In this state, Tardigrades are resistant to a wide range of things including cold down to at least minus 200 degrees C (minus 328 degrees F). They can also survive heating to 151 degrees C (304 degrees F) for a short time, and radiation thousands of times what a Human can survive.
Tardigrades in Space
Tardigrades are so tough, especially in the dry state that the possibility was considered of them being able to survive in outer space.
A project was stated to test this, called Tardigrades In Space or TARDIS for short.
It was found that the dry tardigrades had no trouble with the vacuum of space, but there was some effect of the radiation, although many of then even survived this. The two species tested were different in this regard.
There is little doubt that if a piece of the Earth was knocked off by a meteorite with tardigrades in it that the tardigrades could survive in space and if there were things like algae with them, they could colonise suitable habitats on other planets or moons.
Survival on Mars
A meteorite from the Earth could take a little as a year to reach Mars, or it could take longer, even billions of years. No habitat so far discovered on Mars could support tardigrades, but our exploration of the Red Planet is not very well advanced.
By Goldstein lab - tardigrades (originally posted to Flickr as water bear) [CC-BY-SA-2.0 (], via Wikimedia Commons.
Hypsibius dujardini
By Rpgch at en.wikipedia [CC-BY-SA-2.5 (], from Wikimedia Commons.
Scanning electron micrograph of an adult tardigrade (water bear).
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The Hmong people lived in China until about 200 years ago. At that time, the Chinese tried to conquer the Hmong. To maintain their freedom, the Hmong fled to the mountains of Laos. During the Vietnam War, the Hmong helped the American side by rescuing American pilots, attacking enemy supply lines, and gathering valuable information. After the war, with their homes and villages destroyed, many Hmong fled to Thailand, where they were placed in refugee camps. Some Hmong, sponsored by church groups, came to the United States, especially Wisconsin, Minnesota, and California.
Paj ntaub (pon dow) means flower cloth. It is the traditional needlework of the Hmong. Hmong women create beautiful designs by taking two layers of cloth, cutting a design in the top layer so that the bottom layer shows through (reverse applique), and embroidering the resulting design. Traditional designs are drawn from nature. Names of designs include "elephant foot", "snail", and "dragon tail". The embroidered and applique designs were added to jackets, collars, headdresses, and other clothing. Traditional paj ntaub patterns are never written down, but are learned from watching others.
Hmong girls are taught to sew at an early age, usually seven or eight, by their mothers and grandmothers. Skillful needlework is admired by all and can help raise the prospects of a future bride. Traditionally, women did all the sewing, but in recent years men in refugee camps have also begun to sew as a way to pass the time and earn extra money.
To create a paj ntaub, the sewer divides the cloth into four equal quadrants and a grid of equally spaced vertical and horizontal lines by making lines in the cloth with a needle. The completed paj ntaub contains vertical and horizontal line symmetry. Most designs also contain rotational symmetry.
Examples of Hmong Embroidery
Materials: Three squares of different colored construction paper, sized 8" x 8", 10" x 10", and 12" x 12" and one square of 6" x 6" tracing paper.
1. Divide the tracing paper into four equal quadrants by folding the tracing paper vertically and horizontally. Choose one of the designs and trace this onto one quadrant of the tracing paper. Trace the same design onto the other three quadrants so that the design has vertical and horizontal line symmetry. Does your design have rotational symmetry? How can you tell? Which of the designs illustrated have rotational symmetry?
2. Center the square of tracing paper on the 8" x 8" square and paste. How do you know your design is centered? Find the area of the border between the two squares and explain how you did this. Now center your design on the 10" x 10" square and paste. Repeat with the 12" x 12" square.
3. Find the perimeter and area of the 6" x 6" and the 8" x 8" squares. Find the ratio of the sides of these two squares and compare to the ratio of the perimeters and areas of the two squares. What do you notice? What conclusions can you draw?
Dia's Story Cloth by Dia Cha recalls the history of the Hmong people and one particular family through their previous peaceful life in Laos, the Vietnam War, their stay in a refugee camp in Thailand, and finally, life in the United States. The book is beautifully illustrated and includes a great deal of useful, hard to find information about the Hmong.
The Whispering Cloth, by Peggy Deitz Shea tells the story of a child in a refugee camp learning to embroider a paj ntaub and longing to come to the United States.
Problems or Suggestions?
Order Information
[ Legal Statement ]
sower2 © 1998 Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A Simon & Schuster Company
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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Pitch Pine
The tree that fueled the Army of Independence
Charcoal makers piled and burned pitch pine for charcoal to feed the iron smelters in Colonial America.
Barely an hour's drive east of Philadelphia lies a 2,400-square-mile area that still approaches wilderness. Called the Pine Barrens, this part of New Jersey played an important role in Colonial America and a vital one in the Revolutionary War.
The Pine Barrens did not represent valuable land back then. Just the opposite—the soil was boggy and sandy, as it remains to this day. But the land did support a thick forest of pine trees. And in the damp, soggy ground one could find iron ore.
To early Americans, that combination of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) and iron ore was heaven sent. That's because iron ore was transformed into iron by melting it to remove impurities, a process called smelting, and the fuel of choice was wood charcoal rather than the mined coal of later times. The resinous pitch pine—its sappy, hard-to-work wood seldom desired—proved perfect as a source of charcoal.
So began the intensive "mining" of the Pine Barrens. Colonists extracted the iron ore from the ground and felled the surrounding pitch pine for smelting. From the iron, blacksmiths crafted tools, hardware, and weapons. In fact, iron that originated in the Pine Barrens was forged into guns that fed the War of Independence, and later, the War of 1812.
Over the centuries, the pitch pine forests were cut extensively for fuel and for building barns and bridges. Forest fires also raged. Scrub oaks replaced the virgin forest, so shading the younger pines that they became stunted. But even today, the Pine Barrens has not yielded to agriculture or extensive development.
Illustration: Jim Stevenson
Read more about
Tip of the Day
How to safely make mortise plugs using your tablesaw
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News flash from the firefly!
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News flash from the firefly
In our world, boys buy bling to fetch females. In their world, fireflies use a bioluminescent belly — the abdominal embodiment of beetle-bling. Male and female fireflies use their flashes for mutual attraction; each of approximately 2,000 species uses a distinct signal to attract each other and avoid mating with other species.
But why do the males in some firefly species flash in unison, and what does that say about the infinitesimal insect brain? Those questions weighed on the massive mammalian brain of neurophysiologist Andrew Moiseff, of the University of Connecticut. He used Photinus carolinus, a lightning bug from the Smoky Mountains, as a way to understand how fireflies process signals and distinguish “us” from “them.”
Young boy holding a jar to catch fireflies
For many, fireflies are at the center happy childhood memories. For science, they could be a peephole into the brain.”
Although the behavior he studied concerns mating, “We are looking at this from a different perspective,” says Moiseff. “What strategies do they need to allow the communication to take place? This is a very convenient system for understanding signal processing.”
A flash in the dark
Normally, local males of P. carolinus flash in unison, timed by an internal body clock. After a brief interval, nearby females flash the response call appropriate to females of the species. This unmistakable “come hither” allows the guys to find and mate with the glowing gal.
Most firefly males flash sporadically. Do P. carolinus guys get an evolutionary advantage from flashing all at once?
Definitely, according to a study published today in Science by Moiseff and Jonathan Copeland, of Georgia Southern University. They found that females respond dramatically better to unison flashing. Using a digital gadget to display phony flashes to a lady lightning bug, they found that her response rate fell from 82 percent after unison flashes to as low as 3 percent after sporadic flashes.
That would virtually guarantee that he would die a virgin — would be unfit for survival, in evolutionary terms.
Asynchronous on left, synchronous on right
P. carolinus forms a carnivorous larva that typically overwinters in the soil for a year before changing into a pupa and then an adult. The adult’s only job is to mate, so it lives only two to four weeks. Although adults don’t seem to eat, they do drink nectar.
After mating, momma flies deposit their larvae and kick the bucket.
In the Smokies, P. carolinus usually emerges in the first week of June, depending on the weather.
Large grassy field speckled with glowing fireflies, trees in background.
Unison flashing appears to increase the male firefly's chance at attracting a mate.
Advantage: unison!
We wondered if unison flashing could be confusing to the ladies, but Moiseff countered, “It depends on what you consider confusing. Yes, that does make it more difficult for her to chose a specific individual, but we don’t know if she chooses an individual.”
Changing the question to, “Can she see the pattern of the species she’s looking for?” illustrates the utility of unison illumination, Moiseff says. “Imagine, with a bunch of things flashing that may appear random, it may be difficult to detect that any one is the correct pattern, but if they are flashing simultaneously, the pattern will jump out at you.”
We can see why this would work for females, but why would greater competition for guys lead to more offspring, the test of evolutionary advantage? After all, most male sexual displays are designed to make one guy stand out in a crowd, not to make many guys look like a crowd. “It might be that if a male does not play along, he will not get chance to mate at all,” says Moiseff, hastening to note that he’s not tested this idea. “Under these conditions, you must cooperate and take your chance.”
Evolutionary enigma
The evolutionary question of unison flashing begs for an answer, but as neuroscientists, Moiseff and Copeland want to know about the mental equipment that the females need to recognize the signal of her own species. “She probably has to count, and to be able measure the time interval,” says Moiseff. “One major goal is to understand the brain circuits and sensory system that would allow the visual system to count, and detect a specific pattern from all the other things the visual system can see.”
The firefly brain contains just a few thousand neurons, and Moiseff notes that, using electrodes, it’s possible to measure their action, one by one.
One final note: The firefly offers something that the rat, fruitfly and nematode do not: a lovable research subject. “I’ve never met anyone who does not like them,” says Moiseff. “Even in places with no fireflies, there are firefly books and kid’s stories. Most people had the experience of catching them as a kid in summer. It’s such a pleasant childhood memory.”
And yes, as a kid, Moiseff did catch lightning bugs in a jar.
– David J. Tenenbaum
1. Firefly Synchrony: A Behavioral Strategy to Minimize Visual Clutter, Andrew Moiseff and Jonathan Copeland, Science, 9 July 2010.
2. More on Moiseff’s research.
3. The Firefly Files.
4. National Geographic’s firefly facts.
5. The hidden cost of firefly flashes.
6. The Bioluminescence Web Page.
7. Weird animal courtship rituals.
8. Short films about animal attraction by Isabella Rosellini.
9. Another video of P. carolinus in action.
10. Great Smokey Mountains and their synchronous fireflies.
11. Great Smokey Mountain’s biodiversity inventory.
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Pre Spanish Era
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The Filipinos lived in settlements called barangays before the colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards. As the unit of government, a barangay consisted from 30 to 100 families. It was headed by a datu and was independent from the other groups. (The Tagalog word barangay came from the Malay word balangay, a boat that transported them to the islands.)
Usually, several barangays settled near each other to help one another in case of war or any emergency. The position of datu was passed on by the holder of the position to the eldest son or, if none, the eldest daughter. However, later, any member of the barangay could be chieftain, based on his talent and ability. He had the usual responsibilities of leading and protecting the members of his barangay. In turn, they had to pay tribute to the datu, help him till the land, and help him fight for the barangay in case of war.
In the old days, a datu had a council of elders to advise him, especially whenever he wanted a law to be enacted. The law was written and announced to the whole barangay by a town crier, called the umalohokan.
The People’s Commandments. Pre-college Filipino textbooks teach that the only written laws of pre-colonial Philippines that have survived are the Maragtas Code and the Code of Kalantiaw, both prepared in Panay. Some historians believe that the Maragtas Code was written by Datu Sumakwel, one of the chieftains from Borneo who settled there. As for the Code of Kalantiaw, it was said to have been promulgated by the third chief of Panay and possibly a descendant of Datu Sumakwel, Rajah Kalantiaw, in 1433. W. Henry Scott, however, has disputed the authenticity of the Code of Kalantiaw.
Classes of Society. There were four classes of society. They were the ruling class (datu), the freemen and notable persons (maharlika), the commoners (timawa), and the dependents and slaves (alipin). The alipin were of two kinds: the aliping namamahay, who were household servants, and the aliping saguiguilid, who were slave workers.
Clothing and Ornaments. The natives already wore clothes and personal ornaments. The men wore short-sleeved and collarless jackets, whose length reached slightly below the waist. The color of the jacket appeared to indicate the position of the wearer in society, e.g., red for the chief, and blue or black for those below him, depending on the societal class. For the lower part, they wore a bahag, a strip of cloth wrapped around the waist, passing between the thighs. Their thighs and legs were left exposed.
A piece of cloth wrapped around the head, called a putong, served as a head gear. The kind of putong one wore was important. For example, a red putong meant the wearer had killed a man in war while one who had killed at least seven people signified so by wearing an embroidered putong. They also wore necklaces, armlets or kalombiga, earrings, rings, and anklets, usually made of gold and precious stones.
Tattoos were part of the body ornaments of pre-Hispanic Filipinos, men and women alike. These were also sported as war “medals.” The more tattoos, the more impressive was a man’s war record.
The Filipinos from the Visayas Islands were the most tattooed, which was why early Spanish writers referred to them as Pintados or painted people. The writers referred to their Islands as Islas del Pintados or Islands of the Painted People.
Rice and More Rice. Agriculture was the early Filipinos’ main means of livelihood. They also grew an abundance of rice, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, coconuts, bananas, and many other fruits and vegetables. Land cultivation was by tilling or by the kaingin system. With the kaingin system, the land was cleared by burning the shrubs and bushes. After that, it was planted...
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body - definición en el diccionario inglés para estudiantes - Cambridge Dictionaries Online
Cambridge Dictionaries online Cambridge Dictionaries online
Definición de “body” en inglés
See all translations
PERSON [C] A1 the whole physical structure of a person or animal: the human body They covered their bodies with mud. The bodyObjects - general words
DEAD [C] A2 a dead person: Police found the body in a field.Death and dying
NOT ARMS/LEGS [C] B1 the main part of a person or animal's body, not the head, arms, or legs: a dog with a thin body and short legsThe body
GROUP [group] an official group of people who work together: the sport's regulatory bodySocieties, clubs and organizations
MAIN PART [no plural] the main part of something: The body of the book is about his childhood.Words meaning parts of things
AMOUNT [no plural] a large amount of information: a body of research into AIDSGeneral words for size and amount
VEHICLE [C] the main part of a vehicle: The body of the ship was not damaged.The exterior of vehiclesParts of aeroplanesWords meaning parts of things
(Definition of body from the Cambridge Learner's Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)
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The Americans
at point_forWeb
Westward Expansion
The Mexican-American War (1846-48) made New Mexico part of the United States. Army expeditions to the Zuni country and into troubled Navajo land began at once. Lt. James H. Simpson of the Army's Topographical Engineers accompanied one of these and, with artist Richard Kern, took a side trip to El Morro in September 1849.
The beautiful inscriptions inspired the men to spend two days copying them. Midway through their task, they paused before the "exquisite picture" of the shaded pool, then climbed to El Morro's crest. From the aerie of the abandoned ruins, they took in the "extensive and pleasing prospect" below. Simpson's was the first written description of what he named Inscription Rock, and Kern's drawings were the first recording of the inscriptions.
Emigrants to California used the El Morro route. One group, escorted by a company of dragoons, passed through in 1849. Another party that same year robbed the hospitable people of Zuni, who traditionally welcomed and fed all travelers. A later party left 26 names on the rock.
Army exploration and railroad survey expeditions stopped at El Morro in 1851 and 1853. A few years later (1857) the Army experimented with camels for desert transportation. Thus did a caravan more Arabic than American pass by El Morro.
An 1868 Union Pacific survey party looked for a rail route past El Morro. But the 35th parallel route, earlier recommended by the Topographical Engineers, took the trains through Campbell's Pass some 25 miles north of El Morro.
When the first train steamed over the Continental Divide in 1881, the old trace past El Morro was obsolete as a long-distance thoroughfare. Traditional traffic between Acoma and Zuni persisted. The Navajo Indians and Mormon settlers of the nearby Ramah district continued to pass by as trade, herding, and ranching demanded. But the shift of mainline transportation north of the Zuni Mountains ended the historic function of El Morro as a watering place and camp on the long trail between the Rio Grande and western deserts.
Did You Know?
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Lecture 28
Francis Turbine
Figure 28.1 A Francis turbine
A Francis turbine comprises mainly the four components:
(i) sprical casing,
(ii) guide on stay vanes,
(iii) runner blades,
(iv) draft-tube as shown in Figure 28.1 .
Figure 28.2 Spiral Casing
Guide or Stay vane:
Draft tube:
Net head across a reaction turbine and the purpose to providing a draft tube . The effective head across any turbine is the difference between the head at inlet to the machine and the head at outlet from it. A reaction turbine always runs completely filled with the working fluid. The tube that connects the end of the runner to the tail race is known as a draft tube and should completely to filled with the working fluid flowing through it. The kinetic energy of the fluid finally discharged into the tail race is wasted. A draft tube is made divergent so as to reduce the velocity at outlet to a minimum. Therefore a draft tube is basically a diffuser and should be designed properly with the angle between the walls of the tube to be limited to about 8 degree so as to prevent the flow separation from the wall and to reduce accordingly the loss of energy in the tube. Figure 28.3 shows a flow diagram from the reservoir via a reaction turbine to the tail race.
The total head at the entrance to the turbine can be found out by applying the Bernoulli's equation between the free surface of the reservoir and the inlet to the turbine as
where is the head lost due to friction in the pipeline connecting the reservoir and the turbine. Since the draft tube is a part of the turbine, the net head across the turbine, for the conversion of mechanical work, is the difference of total head at inlet to the machine and the total head at discharge from the draft tube at tail race and is shown as H in Figure 28.3
Figure 28.3 Head across a reaction turbine
Therefore, H = total head at inlet to machine (1) - total head at discharge (3)
The pressures are defined in terms of their values above the atmospheric pressure. Section 2 and 3 in Figure 28.3 represent the exits from the runner and the draft tube respectively. If the losses in the draft tube are neglected, then the total head at 2 becomes equal to that at 3. Therefore, the net head across the machine is either or . Applying the Bernoull's equation between 2 and 3 in consideration of flow, without losses, through the draft tube, we can write.
Since , both the terms in the bracket are positive and hence is always negative, which implies that the static pressure at the outlet of the runner is always below the atmospheric pressure. Equation (28.1) also shows that the value of the suction pressure at runner outlet depends on z, the height of the runner above the tail race and , the decrease in kinetic energy of the fluid in the draft tube. The value of this minimum pressure should never fall below the vapour pressure of the liquid at its operating temperature to avoid the problem of cavitation. Therefore, we fine that the incorporation of a draft tube allows the turbine runner to be set above the tail race without any drop of available head by maintaining a vacuum pressure at the outlet of the runner.
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The Oregon Coast—"Forists and Green Verdent Launs"
Contact and Settlement
Before Contact
Archaeological evidence along the lower Columbia River and throughout present-day Oregon and Washington dates the earliest human habitation between 11,500 BP and 10,500 BP. New research suggests that for at least five thousand years before that time, people lived a relatively settled life in Beringia, a 600-mile-wide area that is now beneath the Bering Strait between Asia and North America.
Because the restless molding of land by water tends to obliterate traces of human history, there is no archaeological evidence to document precisely how long the Oregon Coast has been inhabited. With its mild climate, abundant and easily gathered food and fiber, and waterways for transportation, it is a hospitable place to live. Moreover, nearly all the language families of North America are represented in the diverse tongues spoken by Northwest coast peoples, suggesting that the region may have been settled earlier than the rest of the continent.
At the time of their first contact with whites, the Clatsop, a band of the Chinook, lived around the mouth of the Columbia and upriver as far as tidewater. South of Tillamook Head were the Tillamook and Nehalem Tillamook—rendered by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in their journals as “Kilamox” and “Killamuck”—whose homeland extended to the mouth of the Salmon River north of present-day Lincoln City. Farther to the south were the homelands of the Siletz, Yaquina, and Alsea peoples, who lived in villages along the ocean and around the bays of the rivers now named after them. The Kalapuya people resided in the foothills of the Cascade Range.
The Siuslaw and Lower Umpqua peoples lived from Heceta Head south to the dunes around present-day Reedsport. Around Coos Bay lived the Hanis Coos, the Miluk Coos, and the Upper Coquille. The Lower Coquille lived around the mouth of the Coquille River, and south to the mouth of the Smith River in northern California lived the Coastal Rogue, also called Tututni, and the Chetco.
These peoples were mostly isolated from one another by the rough country between the river mouths, and the Coast Range separated them from the inland peoples. They spoke many languages from very different linguistic groups—Alsea/Siuslaw, Athapaskan, Chinookan, Coosan, Kalapuyan, Klickitat, Molala, Shastan, Takelma, and Tillamook. Nevertheless, the geography of the region gave the peoples of the Oregon Coast an important similarity: they looked primarily to the sea and the forest for their livelihood and culture.
People lived in permanent villages of extended families, clustered around coastal rivers and estuaries that offered shelter from storms and a variety of animals and plants. They built a variety of structures, including semi-subterranean dwellings and cedar plankhouses. Each village was autonomous, with its own political authority. People traveled by trail along the beaches and over the headlands and established trade routes and networks that enabled them to sustain contact with neighbors.
People in many communities traveled by canoe, using large, high-prow, Chinook-style canoes for deep water, ocean-going transportation and traveling in shovel-nosed river canoes in slower, shallower waters. In the spring and summer, canoes transported people to places where they could harvest crops, fish, and hunt. Canoes also enabled communities to participate in regional trade networks. The use of canoes stopped in the mid nineteenth century after the tribes were removed from their ancestral lands to federal reservations, as people could not leave the reservations without special permits. The introduction of horses also altered how many people moved from place to place. Many communities were without a canoe culture for more than a hundred years, and many tribes have been working to revive those traditions.
Native communities along the coast and in the lower Columbia River relied heavily on fish. While salmon was important, it was not the only fish harvested by tribes. Anthropologist Virginia L. Butler and archaeologist Michael A. Martin report that Native fishers subsisted on a variety of fish, including eulachon, sturgeons, lampreys, minnows, and suckers, in addition to salmon. Fisheries were seasonal, with specific species caught between the early spring and late fall at specific sites throughout the region.
Fishers used a variety of strategies and technology to catch, process, and preserve the fish, and communities practiced rituals to ensure that the fish would return to the rivers year after year. The Tututni and people in other Athapaskan villages, for example, built driftwood bonfires to guide and welcome the annual runs of chinook salmon; the light and smoke from the fires were said to be visible up and down the Oregon Coast. Men danced around the pyres, singing songs to encourage the salmon to return. Once the salmon harvest began, the Tututni and many other Oregon peoples conducted the First Salmon ceremony, a tradition that continues in the twenty-first century in many Native communities. Cooking the ritual first salmon over an alder fire, each villager received a piece of the fish as religious leaders and community members offered thanks for the salmon’s return. Coastal people also gathered food from the beaches and salt marshes and the edges of the forest, including shellfish, berries, acorns and other nuts, seeds of wild grains, and roots and bulbs such as the camas and wapato. They also hunted deer, elk, and waterfowl.
Food was so abundant that, unlike the inhabitants of some harsher environments inland, the coastal people had enough to eat year-round. The relative lightness of the work required to survive gave rise to a socially stratified, wealth- and status-conscious society. Some of the coastal groups in present-day Oregon were among the wealthiest of pre-contact complex hunter-gatherer communities in America.
Slavery was practiced in most of the region, with the practice more common among the Chinook and Clatsop and, to a lesser extent, the Tillamook societies. Slaves were captured, traded, gambled, purchased, and given away by their male or female owners, who had near-absolute power over their lives. For some, servitude was permanent and hereditary, while others were enslaved to pay debts and could eventually be released.
Peoples on the Northwest Coast displayed artistry in their clothing and tools, and they were particularly skilled woodworkers. Wood, especially cedar, spruce, fir, and pine, was the principal material for houses, canoes, and hunting and fishing equipment. Harder woods like alder, ash, maple, and yew were used to make smaller items, such as containers. Lewis and Clark reported that the Clatsop used wedges of seasoned crabapple wood to split cedar and spruce boards, carved canoes from logs, wove baskets and hats from shredded cedar bark and beargrass, and made bows and arrows out of cedar and elk sinew. On January 29, 1806, William Clark described the utility and beauty of the hats worn by local people:
Maney of the nativs of the Columbia were hats & most commonly of a conic figure without a brim confined on the head by means of a String which passes under the chin....these hats are made of the bark of Cedar and beargrass wrought with the fingers So closely that it Casts the rain most effectually....on these hats they work various figures of different colours, but most commonly only black and white are employed. these figures are faint representations of the whale, the Canoes and the harpoonners Strikeing them. Sometimes Squares dimonds triangle &c.
In 1700, a massive earthquake and tsunami struck the coast, dramatically altering the coastline, estuaries, and low-lying river tidal areas; affecting subsistence resources and technologies; and destroying housing, storage shelters, and other structures as well as nets, fish weirs, and baskets. Oral tradition has preserved some descriptions of earthquakes and tsunamis, and stories told for generations by coastal Native peoples captured the devastating events.
In The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence, anthropologist Robert T. Boyd presents a conservative precontact population estimate of 180,000 Native people in the 1770s; that figure declined to 35,000 to 40,000 by the 1850s. He calculated a precontact population of 22,800 along the south coast, which included modern-day Oregon. The number of Indians on the coast plummeted to 2,966 by the 1850s. Smallpox was most likely introduced to the coast in 1775 by crewmembers of the Santiago and the Sonora, two Spanish ships captained by Bruno Hezeta and Juan Francisco de la Bodega. The explorers encountered Indians at the mouth of the Trinidad River (in modern California) as well at the Quinault River (in modern Washington). In March 1806, Lewis and Clark visited Cathlapotle, a major Chinookan village and trade center about eighty miles upriver, at the confluence of the Columbia, Lake, and Lewis Rivers. They estimated the village population to be between 900 to 1,400 people. Occupied since 1450, the village was abandoned in the 1830s.
The Native population throughout the Northwest declined rapidly between the 1770s and 1850s because of introduced European diseases such as smallpox, measles, malaria, and influenza. With no prior exposure to such diseases, Native peoples had no natural immunity against the pathogens that cause them. The diseases spread first from whites to Natives with whom they came into contact and from them, via trade networks, to people who had never seen a white person.
An outbreak of malaria in the 1830s was especially devastating to both Native and white populations. According to anthropologist Robert T. Boyd, the “fever and ague” epidemic was “the single most important epidemiological event in the recorded history of what would eventually become the state of Oregon.” Such diseases decimated Native communities, with tribes on the Northwest Coast losing an estimated 80 percent of their populations, or 150,000 people. The population of the Siletz confederation, for example, declined from 52,000 in the 1770s to 4,200 in the 1850s, a loss of 92 percent in less than a century.
Historical Records from the Oregon History Project
The Oregon Coast is a sliver of land between the mountains and the sea, almost three hundred miles long and an average of about fifty miles wide, measured from the high-tide mark to the crest of the Coast Range.
When European sea captains first glimpsed the Pacific Coast, the vast and dense forests caught their attention. British trader John Meares, who sailed the Northwest Coast in 1788, described the land along the Olympic Peninsula as “wild in the extreme...immense forests covered the whole of it within our sight down to the very beach.”
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Online Encyclopedia
Online Encyclopedia
Originally appearing in Volume V27, Page 787 of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica.
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URAL MOUNTAINS, a system of mountains which extends from the Arctic Ocean southwards nearly to the Caspian Sea, and is regarded as separating Europe from Asia. Russians describe them either as Kamen (stone) merely, or by the appropriate name of Poyas (girdle), while the name of Urals (Uraly)—derived either from the Ostyak urr (chain of mountains) or from the Turkish aral-tau or ural-tau--has with them become a generic name for extensive mountain chains. Although the real structure of the Urals, both orographical and geological, is imperfectly ascertained, enough is known to warrant the statement that they have been affected by a series of separate upheavals, some having a north-western strike and some a north-eastern, and that they reach their maximum altitudes along a zone stretching nearly north and south. The composite nature of the Urals is best seen at the northern and southern extremities of the system, where the upheavals assume the character of distinct chains of mountains. The Pa-khoy or coast ridge (Samoyedic " stony ridge ") is quite independent of the Urals proper, from which it is separated by a marshy tundra, some 30 m. wide. It has a distinct north-northwesterly and north-westerly trend along the shores of the Kara Sea; and, although it is cut through by the Ugrian Strait (Yugorskiyshar), there is no doubt that it is continued in Vaygach Island and Novaya-Zemlya. Its dome-shaped summits, which rise woo ft. above the tundra (Vozaipae, 1312 ft.), are completely destitute of trees, and its stony crags are separated by broad marshy tundras. The Obdorsk or Northern Urals, which begin within a few miles of the head of Kara Bay (Konstantinov Kamen, in 68° 30' N., 1465 ft.), and extend south-west as far as the 64th parallel, form a distinct range, stony and craggy, sloping steeply towards the south-east and gently towards the marshes of European Russia. Its highest elevations (e.g. Khard-yues, 3715 ft., and Pae-yer, 4650 ft.) are on the 66th and 67th parallels. Sometimes the main chain has on the west two or three secondary chains, formed by the upheaval of sedimentary rocks, and it is towards the southern extremity of one of these that the highest peaks of the Urals occur (Sablya, 5135 ft., in 64° 47' N., and To11-poz-iz or Murai-chakhl, 5535 ft. in 6 ° 55'). Dense forests, chiefly fir, pine and larch, clothe the slopes of the mountains and the narrow valleys; but, as the less hospitable latitudes are approached, every species except the larch gradually disappears and the upper limit of vegetation (2400 ft. in the south) rapidly descends till it reaches the very base of the mountains towards the Arctic Circle, and forest vegetation disappears altogether about 65° N. (67° in the plains of Russia and Siberia). Although usually reckoned to the Northern Urals, the section between 64° and 61° N. has again a wholly distinct character. Here the main chain (or, more correctly, the main water-parting) of the Urals is a succession of plateaus stretching in a north-westerly direction, and dimpled with broad, flat, marshy valleys, rising here and there into isolated dome-shaped, flattened summits, mostly under 3000 ft. (Yang-tump, 62° 43' N., 4170 ft.). The whole region, except the mountain summits, is densely clothed with coniferous forests, birch appearing only occasionally in the south, and even the Scotch pine only in a few valleys. This part of the range is also uninhabited. The Middle Urals, between 61 ° and 55° 30' N. and about 8o m. in breadth, are the best known, as they contain the richest iron, copper and gold mines (Bogoslovsk, Goroblagodatsk and Ekaterinburg Urals). The Denezhkin Kamen in the north (5355 ft.) andthe Tara-tash in the south (2800 ft.) may be considered as marking the limits of this section. Here the orographical structure is still more complicated. In the north (61st to 6oth parallel) there is a succession of chains with a distinct north-eastern trend ; and it still remains an open question whether, for two degrees farther south, the whole of the Bogoslovsk Urals (4795 ft. in the Konzhakovski-Kamen, and from 3000 to 4000 ft. in several other summits) do not consist of chains having the same direction. South of Kachkanar (2885 ft.), i.e. from the 58th to the 56th parallel, the orals assume the appearance of broad swellings woo to 2000 ft. in height, deeply trenched by ravines. These low and ravine-broken plateaus, the higher parts of which can be reached from Russia on a very gentle gradient, have been utilized for centuries as the chief highway to Siberia. The water-parting between the Russian and Siberian rivers is here not more than 1245 ft. above sea-level on the great Russo-Siberian highway (W. of Ekaterinburg). The eastern slope is steeper, but even there Ekaterinburg is only 435 ft. below the water-parting. The valleys have a decidedly south-eastern direction, and such is also the course of the railway from Perm to Tyumen, as soon as it reaches the Siberian slope. The Middle Urals are densely forested. The valleys and lower slopes are covered with a thick sheet of rich humus and have become the site of large and wealthy villages. The mines also support a considerable population. The Southern Urals (55° 30' to 51° N.), instead of being made up of three chains of mountains radiating from Mount Yurma, as was formerly supposed, consist of three parallel chains running north-east and south-west, and therefore constitute a quite independent part of the Ural system. The Urals proper are a low sinuous chain extending due south-west and hardly exceeding 2200 to 2800 ft. in altitude. They slope gently towards the north-west and abruptly towards the south-east, where several short, low spurs (Ilmen, Irenly) rise in the basins of the Miyas and the Ui. In the west a chain, separated from the main range, or Ural-tau, by a longitudinal valley, accompanies it throughout its entire length. This, although pierced by the rivers which rise in the longitudinal valley just mentioned (Ai, Upper Byelaya), nevertheless rises to a much greater height than the main range. Its wild stony crest reaches an extreme altitude of 5230 ft. Farther west, another series of chains reach nearly the same altitudes. The gorges by which the rivers pierce the Devonian limestones on their way towards the lower terraces are most picturesque in the west, where the Urals assume an alpine character. The forests are no longer continuous; the gentle slopes of the hilly tracts are dotted with woods, mostly of deciduous trees, while the hollows contain rich pasture grounds. The whole region, formerly the exclusive abode of the Bashkirs, is being colonized by Russians. Farther south, between the 53rd and 51st parallels, the main range continues in the same direction, and, except when deeply trenched by the rivers, assumes the appearance of a plateau which hardly reaches 1500 ft. It is continued farther south-west (towards the Volga) under the name of Obshchiy Syrt. As a rule, the Urals are not considered to continue south of the great bend of the Ural river, where quite independent ranges of hills, or flat swellings, appear (e.g. Dzhaman-tau, Mugodzhar Hills). It appears, however, that the Mugodzhar Hills may safely be regarded as an actual prolongation of the upheavals which constitute the Urals. These consist of diorites and crystalline slates, and reach their maximum in AIryuk (1885 ft.). A range of heights connects the Mugodzhar Hills with the Ust-Urt plateau (see TRANSCASPIAN REGION). Geology.—The Ural Mountains are no more than the western edge of a broad belt of folding of which the greater part is buried beneath the Tertiary deposits of western Siberia. Throughout the greater portion of the chain a broad strip of granites, diorites, peridotites, gneisses and other crystalline rocks rises directly from the Siberian plain, and is covered towards the west by Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic strata, which are thrown into numerous folds parallel to the length of the chain and usually rise to much greater heights than the crystalline zone. In the north, however, folded sedimentary rocks lie to the east as well as to the west of the crystalline axis, and between 6o° 40' and 46° 5o' N. Fedorov distinguishes three zones: (i.) the eastern hill region, where one finds Mesozoic rocks (Chalk, Jurassic) in the north, and Devonian limestones, porphyrites and quartz-porphyries farther south; in this zone most gold placers are found; (ii.) the central mountain zone consists of various amphibolitic metamorphic slates, and also of syenite and gabbro; granites, gneisses, and occasionally serpentines and porphyrites are found subordinately; and (iii.) the western hilly zone consists chiefly of Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous deposits; Middle and Upper Devonian limestones and, occasionally, crystalline slates are found in a few meridional ridges. The crystalline rocks are usually believed to be of Archean age. The Carboniferous deposits—coal-bearing in the Middle and Southern Urals—although appearing at the surface only as a narrow strip in the west Urals, occupy an extensive area, but are concealed by the largely developed Permian deposits, and that series of sediments which must be considered as intermediate between the Carboniferous and the Permian. These latter, described as " Permo-Carbon " by Russian and German geologists, are largely developed in the west Urals. The Permian deposits cover a wide zone all along the western slope of the Urals from north to south, and are most important on account of their copper ores, salt beds and salt springs. They are also covered with variegated marls which are almost destitute of fossil organisms, so that their age is not yet quite settled. Climatic, Geo-Botanical and Geo-Zoological Importance.—The importance of the Urals as a climatic and geo-botanical boundary can no longer be regarded as very great. Most European species of plants freely cross the Urals into Siberia, and several Siberian species travel across them into northern Russia. But, being a zone of hilly tracts extending from north to south, the Ural Mountains necessarily exercise a powerful influence in pushing a colder northern climate, as well as a northern flora and fauna, farther south along their axis. The harshness of the climate at the meteorological stations of Bogoslovsk, Zlatoust and Ekaterinburg is not owing merely to their elevation a few hundred feet above sea-level. Even if reduced to sea-level, the average temperatures of the Ural meteorological stations are such as to produce a local deflexion of the isotherms towards the south. The same is true with regard to the limits of distribution of vegetable and animal species. The reindeer, for instance, is met with as far south as the 52nd parallel. The Southern Urals introduce into the Cis-Caspian steppes the flora and fauna of middle Russia. In the distribution of the races of mankind the Urals have played an important part. To the present day the Northern Urals are inhabited by Finnish races (Samoyedes, Syryenians, Voguls and Permians) who have been driven from their former homes by Slav colonization, while the steppes on the slopes of the Southern Urals have continued to be inhabited by the Turkish Bashkirs. The Middle Urals were in the 9th century the abode of the Ugrians, and their land, Bjarmeland or Biarmia (now Perm), was well known to the Byzantine historians for its mineral wealth,—there being at that time a lively intercourse between the Ugrians and the Greeks. Compelled to abandon these regions, they moved (in the 9th century) south along the Ural slopes towards the land of the Khazars, and through the prairies of south-eastern and southern Russia (the Ae$edta of Constantine Porphyrogenitus) towards the Danube and to their present seat—Hungary—leaving but very few memorials behind them in the Northern and Middle Urals.' At present the Urals, especially the Middle and the Southern, are being more and more colonized by Great Russian immigrants, while the Finnish tribes are rapidly melting away. Metallurgy and Mining.—The• mineral wealth of the Urals was known to the Greeks in the 9th century, and afterwards to the Novgorodians, who penetrated there in the 11th century for trade with the Ugrians. When the colonies of Novgorod (Vyatka, Perm) fell under the rule of Moscow, the Russian tsars soon grasped the importance of the Ural mines, and Ivan III. sent out German engineers to explore that region. in 1558 the whole of the present government of Perm was granted by the rulers of Moscow to the brothers Stroganov, who began to establish salt-works and mines for iron and copper. Peter the Great gave a new impulse to the mining industry by founding several iron-works, and from 1745, when gold was first discovered, the Russian colonization of the Urals took a new departure. The colonization was of a double character, being partly free chiefly by Nonconformists in search of religious freedom—and partly compulsory,—the government sending peasant settlers who became serfs at the iron and copper works. Until 1861 all work at the mines was done by serfs belonging either to private persons (the Stroganovs, Demidovs and others) or to the crown. Not only are the Urals very rich in minerals, but the vast areas covered with forests afford an almost inexhaustible supply of cheap fuel for smelting purposes. Thus for a long time the Urals were the chief mining region in Russia. But when coal began to be used for smelting purposes, south Russia generally, and Ekaterinoslav in particular, became the chief iron-producing region. Attention has, however, again been directed to the great mineral wealth locked up in the mountain region, and the last two years of the 19th century witnessed a " boom " in the purchase of iron and gold mines by foreign companies. The chief pig-iron and iron-works are at Nizhniy-Tagilsk, and the principal steel-works at Bogoslovsk. The manufacture of agricultural machinery has increased in the southern Urals, especially at Krasno-ufimsk, and the manufacture of tea-urns has grown in importance at Perm. Gold is met with in the Urals both in veins and in placers; the output increased from about 30,000 oz. in 1883 to three times that amount at the end of the century. The Urals have also rich placers of platinum, often mixed with gold, iridium, osmium and other rare metals, and supply annually some 13,000 Ib, i.e. 95% of all the platinum obtained in the world. Silver, mercury, nickel, zinc and cobalt ores are found. Rich mines of copper are found at Turinsk, Gumishev and other places, yielding as much as 5% of pure copper; nickel is obtained at Revdinsk, and the extraction 'Comp. Moravia and the Madiars, by K. J. Groth ; Zabyelin's History of Russian Life, and the polemics on the subject in Izvestia of the Russ. Geogr. Soc., xix. (1883).of iron chromates has developed. Coal exists in many places on the western slope of the Urals, mainly on the Yaiva river, in the basin of the Kama, and on the Usva (basin of the Chusovaya), and about 500,000 tons are raised annually. Several. beds of coal have been found on the eastern..slope; excellent anthracite exists at Irbit and good coal at Kamyshlov. Sapphires, emeralds beryls, chrysoberyls, tourmalines, aquamarines, topaz, amethysts, rock-crystals, garnets and many kinds of jade, malachite and marble are cut and polished at several stone-cutting works, especially at Ekaterinburg; and diamond-mining may prove successful. Good asbestos is extracted, and pyrites is worked for the manufacture of sulphuric acid Many varieties of mineral waters occur in the Urals, the best being those at Serginsk, Klyuchevsk and Elovsk. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
End of Article: URAL MOUNTAINS
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The Elected Monarchy
With the death of Zygmunt, the last of the Jagiellonians in 1574, there was nobody who could legally convene the Sejm. An "interrex" (Regent), the Archbishop of Gniezno, was appointed by the Senate and a special "Convocational Sejm" was called which decided to let the "szlachta" (nobility) the elect a king in a free election. Prior to his coronation the king-elect had to swear to uphold the Constitution and all "szlachta" privileges. In 1573, Henri de Valois, younger brother to Charles IX of France, was elected king by an overwhelming majority. In May 1574 Charles died suddenly and Henri had become King of France. It was generally agreed that he should hold both crowns and go back to France in the autumn but, in his impatience Henri slipped away early. Affronted, the Poles presented him with the ultimatum of returning by May 1575 or the throne would be declared vacant.
In December, under the influence of Jan Zamoyski, Stefan Batory (b. Szilagysomlyo, Transylvania 1533; d. nr Grodno 1586), Prince of Transylvania (1571 - 76) was elected king of Poland (1575 - 86) by the szlachta (the nobility). Batory was the son of Istvan Bathory, governor of Transylvania for the Habsburg king of Hungary. He won renown as a soldier with John Sigismund Zapolya, prince of the newly independent Transylvania and was elected as Zapolya's successor (1571). As king of Poland, Batory carried out important reforms, encouraged further overseas trade and creating the first regular Polish infantry by conscripting peasants from the Royal estates. He was also the first to employ Cossacks on a regular basis. He overcame the revolt of Danzig (1577), which was given autonomy in its internal affairs (at a price) and in a war with Muscovy (1579 - 82), after a successful campaign and a brilliant victory at Pskov, Batory defeated Ivan the Terrible in the Livonian War (1558 - 83). By the Treaty of Vam Zapolsky, Ivan returned all Lithuanian territory it had captured and renounced his claims on Livonia; Livonia joined the Commonwealth and Poland was now recognised as the greatest power in Central Europe and only the Turkish Sultan ruled over more extensive territories. In 1579 he created the University at Wilno. By the 1550s eighty per cent of the world's Jews lived in Poland. Batory gave the Jews their own national assembly drawn from the local self-governing communities (Kahal). In 1583 Batory granted the postal monopoly to Sebastian Montelupi who organised a regular postal system both internally and abroad. After his sudden death, Batory was succeeded, in the 1587 election, by Sigismund (Zygmunt) Vasa, son of John III Vasa of Sweden.
The Vasa were a dynasty of Swedish Kings whose name is derived from the family estate around Uppsala. The founder of the dynasty was Gustav Eriksson Vasa who became, firstly, Regent of Sweden (1521) and then King Gustavus I Vasa (1523 - 60). After the unexpected death of Batory in 1586, there was a major crisis when the pro-Hapsburg Zborowski faction forced through the election of Archduke Maximilian and almost brought the nation to a state of civil war. The great Renaissance politician (and staunch anti-Austrian), Jan Zamoyski confronted Maximilian and held Krakow for the Swedish crown prince, grandson of Gustavus I and son of John III of Sweden, Zygmunt III Vasa (b. Gripsholm, 1566; d. Warsaw,1632), who came to the throne 1587 - 1632. There would eventually be three Vasa Kings and the period would see long rivalry and wars between Poland and Sweden for the control of the Baltic. Under Zygmunt's reign the Polish magnates (great lords) rose to a position of power and would eventually destroy Poland through their greed; he was also in constant struggle with Jan Zamoyski, the Chancellor (1587 - 1605) whose diplomatic and military successes he regarded with suspicion. Zygmunt was forced to work with Zamoyski when he overreached himself in arranging a secret marriage with the Austrian Archduchess Anna (1592) and was subsequently humiliated by the Inquisition Diet of 1592. In the same year he received the Sejm's permission to become King of Sweden but was only crowned (1594) after promising to uphold Swedish Lutheranism.
Returning to Poland, Zygmunt left his uncle, Charles Suderman, as Regent of Sweden. He then decided to move the capital from Krakow to Warsaw (1596), which was closer to Sweden and the junction of all major routes criss-crossing the Commonwealth. When his uncle rose in rebellion Zygmunt invaded Sweden (thus losing any support there was for him amongst the Swedish nobility) only to be defeated at Stangebro (1598). In 1599 the Riksdag (Swedish Parliament) dethroned Zygmunt offering the crown to his four-year-old son, Wladyslaw, on condition that he would come to Sweden and accept Lutheranism. Zygmunt refused to accept these conditions and lost the crown of Sweden to his uncle (who was crowned Charles IX, 1604 - 11). Zygmunt never relinquished the throne and his foreign policy was, from that point onwards, directed at regaining the Swedish crown.
From 1605, after the death of Zamoyski, Poland became involved in internal problems as a result of Zygmunt's absolutionist tendencies (the Zebrzydowski rebellion, 1606 - 8) and wars with Sweden (1617 - 29) and the Turks (1620 - 21). During the Swedish War, Gustavus II Adolphus (the son of Charles IX) seized Riga (1621) and almost all of Livonia. The Poles also, inevitably, became involved in the internal "troubles" of Muscovy ("Smuta", 1605 onwards), usually at the request of the boyars, but the events surrounding the short-lived careers of the two "False Dimitris" did not benefit the Republic. In 1610, after a successful military campaign, Zygmunt proposed his own son, Wladyslaw, as candidate to the Muscovite throne but Wladyslaw's refusal to convert to the Orthodox faith led to the driving out of the Poles and the enthroning of the first Romanov (1613). The devastation and loss of life were tremendous and Poland was only saved by a number of outstanding military commanders; Stanislaw Zolkiewski, Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, Stefan Czarniecki (b. 1599; d. 1665) and Stanislaw Koniecpolski who achieved some great victories (Kluszyn, 1610; Kircholm, 1605; Chocim, 1612).
This was also the period that saw the Republic at its greatest territorial extent and economically the nation was prosperous (but there were also new extremes of wealth and poverty). Religious tolerance was maintained despite Zygmunt's own Catholic fanaticism (his greatest success was the establishment of the Uniates; the union of the greater part of the Ruthenian Orthodox Church with Rome in 1596 ratified at the Synod of Brzesc). The followers of Fausto Sozzini (Socinius, b. 1539; d. 1604), the Polish Brethren, founded a centre of protestant culture at Rakow (which became known as the Sarmatian Athens), between Kielce and Sandomierz, where they published the Rakowian Catechism (1604), the most well-known statement of Unitarian theology at the time and an important expression of radical thought. When the Hussites suffered the crushing defeat at the battle of White Mountain (1620) many were forced into exile, some making their way to Poland and influencing the Arian movement there. The Jewish community thrived and spread out from the cities into the provinces; but by linking their fortunes with greedy lords through the "arenda" system (whereby an estate would be leased out by an absentee lord to a manager who could exploit it and those who worked it) they exposed themselves to the hatred of the peasantry.
Zygmunt's son, Wladyslaw IV (b. 1595; d. 1648), King 1632 - 1648, served as a youth in the Muscovite campaigns (1610 - 12 and 1617 - 18). On his accession to the throne he fought a war with Muscovy and won a victorious peace (1634). He made a favourable settlement with the Turks (1634) and with Sweden (1635). He was involved in serious disputes with the Sejm and unsuccessfully attempted to establish order in the last years of his reign. For some time the Arian movement had thrived in the climate of religious tolerance that Poland had offered but their own success led to their downfall. In 1641 all Arians were forced to convert or leave the country, resulting in mass exodus. A particular danger came from within when, in 1648, the Cossacks, mainly of Ruthenian and Polish origin, for a variety of reasons but chiefly due to the arrogance of the magnates who were treating the free Cossacks as serfs, broke their oath of allegiance to the Polish King under the instigation of their Hetman, Chmielnicki. Wladyslaw died whilst this revolt was still in force. Wladyslaw travelled widely visiting Florence where he was honoured by the Italian composer, Francesco Caccini who wrote a composition "La Liberazione di Ruggero dell Isola di Alcina" dedicated to him. He corresponded with Galileo, ordering telescopes from him, and modelled for Peter Paul Rubens in his studio in Antwerp.
Wladyslaw's son, Jan II Kazimierz (b. 1609; d. 1672), was a Jesuit and Cardinal (1640) and had to be absolved of his religious vows by the Pope in order to be able to take on his duties as King 1648 - 1668. In the continued revolt of the Cossacks, Chmielnicki used the Ukraine as a pawn between the powers of Poland, Muscovy and Turkey which resulted in further wars, with the Tartars (1649), and a disastrous 13 - year war with Muscovy (1654 - 67). Janusz Radziwill, Grand Hetman of Lithuania, defeated by Tsar Alexei of Muscovy during Chmielnicki's revolt (1654), appealed for help from Charles X Gustavus of Sweden, himself fearful of Muscovite expansion. He invaded Poland in 1655. This period in which the Republic was inundated by enemy forces, and the chaos that accompanied it, became known as the "Deluge" ("Potop"). The collapse of Polish resistance led to the desertion of many Polish officers and szlachta (the nobility) from Jan Kazimierz to Charles. In October Radziwill signed an agreement at Kiejdany which detached Lithuania from Poland, placing it under the protection of Sweden. In the following guerrilla war, where Polish forces were supported by Tartars fearful of the further expansion of Muscovy into the vacuum caused by the war with Sweden, and Danish and Dutch fleets came to the defence of Gdansk, it is the defence of Czestochowa, at the monastery of Jasna Gora, (1655), Poland's most sacred shrine containing the picture of the Virgin Mary (the "Black Madonna"), by a small force led by Prior Kordecki and his monks against a besieging army of 9,000 Swedes, that actually changed the course of the war and became a signal for a general uprising that resulted in the eventual expulsion of the Swedes from the Republic. In 1658, at Hadziacz, an agreement between the King and the new Cossack Hetman, Wyhowski, was to enable Ruthenia to join the Commonwealth on equal terms with Poland and Lithuania but a further Cossack rebellion (1659) instigated by Muscovy (herself attempting to annex the Ukraine) and Polish involvement in war with Sweden (1655 - 60), meant that the agreement bore no fruit and in 1667, by the treaty of Andruszowo, the Ukraine was divided evenly along the Dnieper between the Commonwealth and Muscovy. For the Polish Commonwealth this was a disaster since it weakened an important frontier area and left a discontented people open to manipulation by Poland's enemies.
The general decline was especially noticed in the Sejm; the parliamentary system grew awkward and ineffective as deputies used the notorious "Liberum Veto", which allowed any deputy to prevent legislation since all resolutions had to be carried unanimously. The idea of consensus rule was, in principle, a good one but the "Liberum Veto" was first used in a manner that destroyed the working of the Sejm, in 1652, by a Jan Sicinski on the orders of Janusz Radziwill. It soon became obvious to Poland's neighbours that the veto could be used to their own political ends and they soon clubbed together to "defend Polish freedoms". The szlachta, themselves, becoming less influential as they lost their military valour and, in many cases, impoverished, saw the veto as the last symbol of their ability to play a role in the running of the Commonwealth.
This was also a period of great rivalry and suspicion between the pro-Bourbon factions (led by the Queen, Louise-Marie) and the pro-Habsburg szlachta (many of whom were in the pockets of Vienna. The need for reform had become obvious and the Jesuit preacher, Piotr Skarga, had blamed social injustice as the main cause of evil. The final indignity came when, as a direct result of attempting to introduce reforms that would modernise the state, Jerzy Lubomirski, the Grand Marshal, rebelled against the King. The royal faction was defeated at the battle of Matwy (1666) but not long afterwards Lubomirski came and begged for a pardon which was granted; the whole farce had merely served to damage the prestige of the crown. Shortly after his chief support, Queen Louise-Marie, died (1667) Jan Kazimierz took refuge in Silesia, resigned as King (1668) and retired to France as Abbe de Saint-Germain. The farcical elections that followed led to the appointment of a Polish nonentity despised by both Bourbon and Habsburg factions, Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki.
The Wisnioweckis were a noble Ukrainian family. During the early 1500s the idea of hiring the Cossacks to guard the Dnieper crossings by building fortresses on its islands was proposed but never developed, it was Dmitri (d.1563), a magnate from Southern Volhynia who independently founded the first Cossack fortress, Niz, at Chortyca, out of which grew the Sicz of Zaporoze. After a failed attempt to involve Poland-Lithuania in a war against the Tartars, he became heavily involved in Moldavian affairs only to be betrayed to the Turks and executed for piracy. Dmitri is credited with being the first to create a stable organisation for the Cossacks and for putting the Cossack-Ukrainian cause on the map. His son signed the Union of Lublin and his grandson led a notorious expedition to Moldavia (1616). His great-grandson was Prince Jarema (b. 1612; d. 1651), Voivode of Ruthenia and chief enemy of Chmielnicki.
The farcical elections that followed the resignation of Jan II Kazimierz, the last of the Vasas (1668), led to the appointment of a Polish nonentity, the favourite of the szlachta (the nobility) suspicious of foreigners and seeking a "new Piast", despised by both Bourbon and Habsburg factions, Jarema's son, Michal Korybut (b. 1640; d. 1673), king (1669 - 1673); he proved to be a weak monarch unable to control the magnates who nicknamed him "le Singe". In 1672 the Turkish invasion of Podolia led to the fall of the fortress of Kamieniec Podolsk and, with the country in a state of chaos, the Poles sued for peace; at the Treaty of Buczacz the Poles lost what was left of Podolia and the Ukraine and had to pay a humiliating annual tribute. Michal Korybut died suddenly whilst a new invasion was in force, on the eve of Chocim; he was succeeded by the victor of that battle, Jan Sobieski.
Sobieski, Jan III (b. Olesko, nr. Lwow, 1674; d. 1696) the son of Jakub Sobieski, the Castellan of Krakow and Voivode of Ruthenia, Jan Sobieski was educated in Krakow. A great military leader, Sobieski entered military service in 1648, seeing action against both the Tartars and Cossacks (1651 - 52) and Swedes under Lubomirski and Czarniecki, although, along with many other officers who had deserted the royal cause in the dark days of the Deluge, he had briefly accepted a commission under Swedish King, Charles X (1655 - 56). He was first entered the Sejm in 1659. Sobieski was appointed Commander - in - Chief of the Polish Army (1665) and Grand Hetman in 1668. Besieged by an army of Cossacks and Tartars at Podhajce he raised 8000 men at his own expense and forced the enemy to retire. Later, when the Turks seized the fortress of Kamieniec (1672), Sobieski beat the Turkish forces back and virtually annihilated them at Chocim (1673), earning from them the nickname of the "Fearful Lion of the North". He was elected King a few months later (1674 - 96). The climax of his career came in 1683 when, with 20,000 Polish troops he relieved the Turkish siege of Vienna. Unable to break into Europe through Poland, the Turks had invaded Hungary and Austria in 1683 and swept all before them. 130,000 Turks besieged Vienna and threatened to overpower Europe. Sobieski, at the request of the Pope, marched on Vienna through rugged mountain passes and sent the Husaria into their last great charge, taking the Turks unawares. It was a turning point in history. Combined with the Imperial Army, he drove the Turks back to the Raab. He was acclaimed as the hero of Christendom - Jan Matejko's painting of "Sobieski at Vienna" hangs in the Vatican. His later years were a failure, unable to overturn the political decline of Poland; he was unable to solve Poland's problems on the Baltic or on the eastern frontier because the long years of campaigning and wars had drained her resources and, in 1686, in an unbelievably naive move, the Grzymultowski Peace literally gave away the entire Ukraine and transformed "Muscovy" into "Russia" - enabling her to emerge as the major power in Eastern Europe. He was a patron of science and literature and his marvellous palace at Wilanow, on the outskirts of Warsaw reflect his domestic grandeur. The elections after the death of Sobieski were contentious; his son, Jakub (b. 1667; d. 1737), was forced to withdraw for lack of funds, and the French candidate was cheated of victory by bribery and corruption so that the Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus was elected king, Augustus II. It would be the beginning of the end. Sobieski's granddaughter, Clementina (b. 1702; d.1735), married James Edward Stuart, the "Old Pretender"; their son was Charles Edward Louis Philip Kazimierz, the "young Pretender" - "Bonny Prince Charlie".
The Wettins were a German dynasty that was active, in the Tenth century, in pushing Germany's eastern frontier into Slav lands. By c.1100 they had acquired the Margrave of Meissen and extended their rule over Thuringia and Saxony. In 1485 the dynasty divided into the Ernestine and Albertine branches. The Albertines became the Electors of Saxony (1547) and provided two kings of Poland, Augustus II and Augustus III. The sixty-six years of Saxon rule, from 1697 - 1763, were a national disaster and drove the country to the brink of anarchy. The causes are twofold: firstly, from the outset the Saxon kings fell into a partnership with Russia in which they became more and more dependent on the support of the stronger partner; secondly, The Republic, which had been severely weakened by the period of warfare and internal strife of the seventeenth century, was reduced to the state of a helpless bystander in the wars of the eighteenth. The nation was further undermined as the powerful land-owning magnates began to look to the preservation their own self-interests in whatever manner they could, whilst the less powerful szlachta attempted to hang on to the only power they held - their traditional rights - even at the expense of important reforms. The Republic had no standing army, it was a citizen army with only a small core of professionals. Whilst Sobieski had carried out important reforms which had significantly improved the army's tactical and technological stature there was a heavy reliance on foreign infantry and there was no centralised funding. There was, also, internal resistance to the idea of a regular army which could be used by an autocratic ruler to restrict personal liberties (as in Prussia, for example). Poland also became sandwiched between two rising powers; Russia, ruled by Peter the Great, and Prussia which the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick III, was to declare a kingdom in 1701.
The Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus (b. Dresden, 1670; d. 1733), who had unsuccessfully commanded the imperial Army against the Turks (1695 - 96), converted to Catholicism (the Republic was "worth a mass") and was elected king Augustus II of Poland in 1697 after a contentious election which, in many ways, reflected the disintegration of the nation. His reign started auspiciously with the treaty of Karlowicz by which the former provinces of Podolia and the Ukraine, including the important fortress of Kamieniec, were restored to Poland by the Turks (1699). In the mistaken belief that Sweden was in decline and with the intention of acquiring Livonia for Saxony, Augustus entered into a disastrous three-way alliance with Frederick IV of Denmark and Peter I the Great of Russia (1672 - 1725) that would eventually embroil Poland in the Great Northern War (1700-21). Although the Sejm refused to support him, Augustus invaded Livonia and laid siege to Riga. The Swedish king, Charles XII (the "Lion of the North", 1682 - 1718) defeated the Danes who had invaded Schleswig (1700), destroyed the Russian Army at Narva (November 1700) and raised the siege of Riga (1701). Charles then invaded Poland with the intention of deposing Augustus from the Polish throne as a punishment for his central role in the anti-Swedish alliance. He seized Warsaw and defeated Augustus at Kliszow (where the Polish Army, having failed in two charges against the Swedish infantry, refused to fight on, 1702) and Pultusk (1703). Charles XII then imposed his candidate, Stanislaw Leszczynski (1704 - 09), on the Polish throne.
The Leszczynskis were a noble Polish family which played a prominent part during the 16th. to 18th. centuries. The general, Rafael Leszczynski, was the father of Stanislaw I Leszczynski (b. Lwow, 1677; d. 1766), king of Poland (1704 - 09, and 1733 - 35). When Augustus II of Saxony and Poland allied himself with Russia (1700 - 1721) against Sweden in the Great Northern War, Leszczynski, the Voivode of Poznan, proved to be a staunch opponent and gained the support of Charles XII of Sweden. In 1704 Sweden won, Augustus was removed and Leszczynski was elected in his place. In 1709 the Russians defeated the Swedes at Poltava and Augustus was returned to the throne. Leszczynski settled in Alsace (1709) and, later, became governor of Zweibruken in the Palatinate (1718 - 25). In 1725, his daughter, Maria (b. Wroclaw, 1703; d. 1768), married Louis XV of France who ensured that, on Augustus' death, in 1733, Leszczynski was again elected King. The War of Polish Succession (1733 - 35) followed, Stanislaw was supported by France and Spain, while Austria and Russia supported Frederick Augustus II, elector of Saxony, Augustus II's son. Leszczynski was besieged at Danzig, receiving only moral support from France, while his rival received full military aid from Russia. Inevitably, he was obliged to flee from Danzig (1734) and accept the terms of the Treaty of Vienna (1735) by which he kept the royal title but renounced his actual rights in favour of Frederick Augustus. Leszczynski was awarded the Duchy of Lorraine and Bar (1737) by Francis I, the Holy Roman Emperor, in exchange for Tuscany and also received a pension from France. He maintained court at Luneville and Nancy which was a model of the Enlightenment. Leszczynski corresponded with the finest thinkers of his time, most notably with Rousseau who, on his request, drafted a new constitution for Poland. He wrote the influential reforming tract, "A Free Voice Insuring Freedom" (1749), and "Oeuvres du Philosophe Bienfaisant" (published 1767).
The unconstitutional manner of Leszczynski's election (where a hastily thrown together Sejm had been surrounded by armed Swedish troops ready to enforce Charles' will) divided the country into pro-Leszczynski and pro-Augustus camps; the Northern War had now, for the Poles, become a civil war. An attempt by Augustus to regain Poland was stopped at Fraustadt (February 1706). Charles XII invaded Saxony in August 1706 and seized Leipzig; Augustus sued for peace and abdicated the throne of Poland (Treaty of Altranstadt, 1706). Augustus was restored after the Swedish invasion of Russia failed at the battle of Poltava (1709) - in which an important role was played by Polish peasants harassing the Swedish columns, and the pro-Saxon Confederates of Sandomierz who prevented reinforcements from reaching the Swedes. By the end of this war Russia was able to interfere freely in the internal affairs of the nation. Augustus maintained a Saxon Army in Poland which reinforced the Polish view that he was intending to turn the Polish throne into that of an absolute monarch. Conflict between Augustus and the Sejm almost ended in civil war with the setting up of the Confederation of Tarnogrod (1715), only prevented by a Russian offer of mediation; 18,000 Russian troops surrounded the chamber where the deputies met, they were denied the right to speak whilst the Russian "mediator" dictated the Russian " solution". This Sejm became known as the "Dumb Sejm" and the Republic became little more than a Russian client state; a "Protectorate".
The emasculation of both Augustus and the Sejm lead to the dissipation of power into the hands of a small group of magnates who ruled their own lands as princes making independent political alliances depending on the state of their finances or interests; "a state within the state". The army had virtually disappeared as a fighting force; morale had collapsed, technical proficiency declined, corruption was rife, nobles absented themselves from duty or preferred to serve the magnates: all this at a time when the Republic's neighbours were undergoing massive militarisation. In the Northern War Russia seized Livonia and began to dominate the Baltic; Augustus, awake to the Russian threat, entered into an alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI, and England (who both had their own reasons to be wary of the sudden rise of Russia) to cast off Russian interference in Poland (Vienna, 1719) but the Sejm rejected the treaty (1720), at which point Augustus condemned their shameful weakness. Now Augustus attempted to establish another treaty with Prussia aimed directly at the partition of Poland - but nothing came of this for Russia made a secret pact with Prussia at Potsdam (1720) to maintain the paralysis of law and order within Poland by protecting Polish "rights" such as the Liberum Veto.
It was in this period that intolerance towards religious dissidents was intensified and perhaps the lowest point in the history of the Republic came in 1724 when the mayor of Torun and nine other Protestants were executed because they had failed to prevent anti-Jesuit excesses. The English protested at this outrage and, when Poland was partitioned (1772), the image of a bigoted and intolerant nation put aside any feelings of sympathy that there might have been. The Russo-Prussian alliance of 1730 went so far as to pledge to protect religious minorities and to secure their former privileges (despite the fact that these two states refused to offer similar rights to their own religious minorities). The Convocation Sejm of 1733 was to bring Poland into line with the rest of Europe with its ending of religious freedoms and debarring of non-Catholics from holding office or acting as representatives in the Sejm; a move that was to have its repercussions in 1766 when Russia and Prussia would use their pledges to protect the rights of dissidents as an excuse to prevent reform and a revival of the Polish state.
Augustus was a patron of the arts, greatly embellishing his capital, Dresden, and created the Meissen china industry. He is also known as Augustus the Strong but this is more in reference to his numerous affairs and his prodigious number of, largely illegitimate, offspring.
On Augustus' death, in 1733, the French candidate, Leszczynski, was again elected King; this sparked off the War of Polish Succession (1733 - 35) during which Polish resistance, the Confederation of Dzikow under the leadership of Adam Tarlo, was crushed by combined Prussian and Russian armies. The Russians sent in an army and reran the election; their candidate, Augustus' son, Frederik Augustus II (b. Dresden, 1696; d. 1763) was elected king, Augustus III, in 1734. Augustus spent his reign almost exclusively in Dresden, only fleeing to Poland when the Prussians occupied Saxony during the Seven Years War; Poland was ruled by his adviser Bruhl and son-in-law, Mniszech. He supported Prussia in the first Silesian War (1740 - 42) but sided with Austria in the second Silesian War (1744 - 45), was defeated and forced to pay indemnity. The Electorate of Saxony was occupied by Prussia during the Seven Years War - the third Silesian War (1756 - 63); during this war, by which Prussia gained Silesia, Poland's neutrality was ignored and she became a staging area for the deployment of the combatants. Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia recouped his war costs by flooding Poland with counterfeit money and imposing illegal tolls on the Wisla. Prussia and Russia continued to renew their alliances by which Poland would be kept weakened. At Augustus' death, the Russians forced the election of Stanislaw Poniatowski, destined to become the last King of Poland.
The Poniatowskis were a noble family of Italian origin including; Stanislaw (b. 1676; d. 1762), a general and diplomat who joined Charles XII of Sweden in support of Stanislaw Leszczynski, and fought at Poltava (1709). He represented Charles at the Porte. Stanislaw was the brother-in-law of Michal and August Czartoryski and formed part of that powerful group aiming at reform, "the Family". His son, Stanislaw II Augustus (b. Wolczyn, 1732; d. St. Petersburg, 1798), was a refined man who, after his education, spent a great deal of time in the West, mainly Paris and London. He was sent to St. Petersburg (1757) to gain support for the proposed overthrow of Augustus III but succeeded instead in becoming a lover of the future Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia. On the death of Augustus III, Catherine used her influence to ensure that Stanislaw Augustus became King (1764 - 1795); Poniatowski was to become the last King of Poland.
On acceding to the throne Stanislaw Augustus attempted to show that he was no puppet by setting up a range of commissions and ministries aimed at improving the process of government, carrying out financial and educational reforms and establishing a military school (the Szkola Rycerska); it was obvious that a Polish revival was under way. At this point Prussia and Russia raised the whole issue of the rights of Lutheran and Orthodox dissidents knowing that this would stir up trouble (1766). The issue was discussed in the Sejm in chaotic conditions, the Papal Nuncio protested and the proposed changes were rejected. As a result two Confederations were formed, that of the Protestants at Thorn and the Orthodox dissidents at Slupsk strongly supported by Russian troops. More significantly the Confederation of Radom (1767) was formed by a number of Catholic szlachta who had been skilfully manipulated by Russian diplomats. Now a treaty was imposed on Poland and forced through the Sejm (1768), which hypocritically protected the rights of the szlachta to elect the king and maintain the "Liberum Veto" - thus using these ancient privileges as a means to make the state impotent. A number of representatives of the Sejm who opposed Russian demands were arrested and deported to Kaluga in Russia. A large number of the szlachta, disgusted at this turn of events, revolted by setting up the Confederation of Bar (1768 - 72). Russian attempts to put the rising down were hindered by having to repress a peasant uprising in the Polish Ukraine, and by the Ottoman Turks who declared war on Russia (1768). After four years struggle, during which Stanislaw Augustus was actually kidnapped by some of the Bar Confederates (though he managed to escape in the bungled affair), the rising was eventually crushed and over 5000 captured szlachta were sent to Siberia; among the few who escaped was Kazimierz Pulaski who was to play an important role in the United States' struggle for independence.
The campaigns of 1768 - 72 so devastated Poland and weakened the government that the nation was unable to put up any meaningful resistance when Prussia, Russia and Austria agreed to annex parts of Poland in 1772. The Commonwealth lost 224,173.5 (29.5%) of her former territory and 4,020,000 of her population (a reduction by 35.2%): Prussia took the smallest, but economically best, area (5%) - cutting Poland off from the Baltic - and severed its feudal dependence on the Polish Crown; Austria took the most heavily populated areas (11.8%), whilst Russia took the largest, but least important (12.7%). To give the crime some legality the Sejm was forced to ratify the partition in 1773, despite the resistance of some Deputies, led by Tadeusz Rejtan. Amazingly some of the szlachta saw partition as a plot between Poniatowski and the Russians in order to introduce an absolute monarchy into Poland.
Despite the disaster of this first partition, Poland underwent a national revival in 1773, thanks to the efforts of Stanislaw Augustus. The first step was the creation of the "Komisija Edukacji Narodowej" ("Committee of National Education"), the first Ministry of Education in Europe; hundreds of schools were founded and the standard of education was raised. Writers, poets, artists and scholars were encouraged by the King and the ideas of the Enlightenment were taking hold. This was the period of Naruszewicz, Krasicki, Boguslawski, and Karpinski. Taking advantage of Russia's involvement in a war against Turkey, the King launched a reform programme (1788-1792) and the task was carried out by the "Four-Year" or "Great Sejm" which established a new Constitution; the Constitution of the Third of May, 1791, in which the "Liberum Veto" was abolished, majority rule introduced, and personal freedoms guaranteed to all the people. The Constitution was hailed in the United States, England and France, but was seen as a threat to the absolute rulers of Prussia, Austria and, especially, Russia. In 1792, at Russia's instigation, a handful of magnates led by Ksawery Branicki, Szczesny Potocki and Seweryn Rzewuski betrayed the Commonwealth and formed the Confederation of Targowica against the new Constitution and then "asked" for help. Russian troops crossed the borders and war broke out. The King's nephew, Joseph Poniatowski and Tadeusz Kosciuszko, a veteran of the American War of Independence, put up heroic resistance but all hope faded away when Stanislaw Augustus, under pressure from his ministers who could see the writing on the wall, declared his adherence to the Confederation of Targowica (August 1792). Meanwhile the Prussians attacked the Polish armies in the rear. The dismayed Army dispersed; many patriots were forced to flee. In 1793 Russia and Prussia signed the Second Partition Treaty, seizing more than half the country and about four million more of the population. The last Sejm of the Commonwealth, which met at Grodno, was forced to legalise the partition and abolish most of the reforms of the "Great Sejm". Popular discontent led to Insurrection, proclaimed by Kosciuszko on 24 March 1794, followed by victory at Raclawice and Warsaw.
Tadeusz Andrzej Bonawentura Kosciuszko (b. nr. Slonim, 12 February 1746. d. Soleure, Switzerland,1817) is one of the giants of Polish history. At an early age Kosciuszko decided to join the military and studied at the Warsaw Cadet School, and in France, engineering and artillery. He volunteered to fight in the American War of Independence where he was appointed colonel of engineers in the Continental army (Oct.18 1776). During the southern advance of Burgoyne after the fall of Fort Ticonderoga (1777) he effectively delayed the British thus granting the Americans valuable time to build up their forces and he made important tactical decisions concerning the battle of Saratoga which followed. He was in charge of construction of the fortifications at West Point (1778 - 80) which made full use of the natural terrain and interlocking fields of fire. Kosciuszko proposed the establishment of a technical military school where all officers would be trained in engineering and the sciences which became the United States Military Academy at West Point. He was one of the founders of the Society of Cincinnati. In 1783 the American Congress awarded him citizenship and promoted him to the rank of Brigadier.
During the Russo-Polish War (1792- 93), or the War of the Second Partition, he defended the Bug at Dubienka for five days with only 4000 men against 18,000. After the Second Partition of 1792, following the growing humiliation of the nation by Catherine the Great, in an effort to stop the destruction of Poland, Kosciuszko went to France to propose a league of republics which would oppose the league of sovereigns. The French were vague in their response and Kosciuszko had to return empty-handed. When, on 21 February 1794 the Russians ordered a further reduction of the army and the arrest of suspected subversives, the seeds had been sown for a national uprising. Finding that Polish officers were already in the act of revolting against the limitation of the army to 15,000 men, his hand forced, Kosciuszko arrived in Krakow on 23rd March, proclaimed the Act of Insurrection on the 24th with his famous oath in the Rynek;
"I, Tadeusz Kosciuszko, swear in the sight of God to the whole Polish nation that I will use the power entrusted to me for the personal oppression of none, but will only use it for the defence of the integrity of the boundaries, the regaining of the independence of the nation, and the solid establishment of universal freedom. So help me God and the Innocent Passion of His Son."
and was appointed dictator and commander-in-chief. His army of peasants defeated a greatly superior force of Russians at Raclawice, as a result of which a national insurrection flared up in Lithuania and Warsaw. The red four-cornered caps worn by the Krakow peasants were adopted by the National Cavalry, and later worn by the Polish lancers in Napoleon's army, after which they became traditional wear for lancer units in all European armies. At Szczekociny, on 6 May, Kosciuszko was outnumbered by the Prussians under Frederick William, and defeated, leaving the way open for the occupation of Krakow (which they entered on 15 June). On 7 May his Polanice Manifesto gave freedom to the peasants. The new government's army could not withstand the combined forces of Austria, Prussia and Russia and was annihilated at the bloody battle of Maciejowice, 10 October, where Kosciuszko was seriously wounded and captured. In November, Warsaw was taken by the Russians who slaughtered the population of the suburb, Praga, including women and children. Then, in 1795, the Third Partition wiped what was left of Poland off the map. The King, Stanislaw Augustus, was forced to abdicate and taken captive to St. Petersburg (where he died in 1798).
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January 30, 2015
Homework Help: social studies
Posted by Brianna on Monday, January 23, 2012 at 7:34pm.
What were the conditions onthe holding parts of the ships where the slaves were stacked?
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What is Pykrete?
posted: 04/11/12
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As seen in "MythBusters: Alaska Special II."
For a brief period during World War II, the hopes of Allied defense efforts were pinned on ice. In 1942, journalist-turned-scientist Geoffrey Pyke, working for the British military, thought that massive ships made of ice could serve as bulletproof aircraft carriers to protect trans-Atlantic shipping lines between the United States and Great Britain. Shrouded under the codename Habbakuk (a misspelling of the Biblical book Habakkuk), Pyke's idea got the green light for funding from Winston Churchill. Drawing on Pyke's initial concept, Habbakuk researchers, including Nobel Prize winner Max Perutz, created an icy -- and incredibly strong -- material called pykrete.
Powerful Pykrete
Pure ice has a peculiar set of characteristics, being both soft and brittle. When water freezes, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms form six-sided crystalline structures. The open space in those crystals explains why water expands as it freezes and why it's susceptible to pressure changes. Pykrete takes advantage of the strength of that crystalline structure and improves upon it, somewhat like reinforcing concrete with steel wiring. It's a simple mixture of 14 percent wood pulp and 86 percent water. The cellulose fibers from the wood pulp enhance the frozen water's strength and durability. In fact, upon freezing the sludge, pykrete is up to 14 times stronger than regular ice. It also outperforms the power of concrete.
High seas were riddled with stealthy German U-boats during Word War II. So the British sought to create an indestructible fleet of their own.
The iceberg ships that George Pyke first envisioned would've had incredibly thick walls to resist damage. Thinner blocks of ice couldn't withstand bullets and torpedoes. Pykrete, on the other hand, is bulletproof. A material's resistance to bullets depends on how well it absorbs energy across it to minimize force of impact. Brittle substances like ice shatter more readily than, say, bullet-resistant glass treated with energy-absorbing plastic. According to Max Perutz, the wood pulp fibers in pykrete remedy that brittleness problem while remaining ductile. That slight tweak gives pykrete its remarkable crush resistance.
Melting Ship: Pykrete's Thermal Conductivity
Although pykrete is highly durable, there's still the potential problem of it melting. The rate at which heat can move through a substance is referred to as thermal conductivity. In regard to ice, thermal conductivity measures the speed at which it melts. The physical process of ice melting happens when the chemical bonds between water molecules in the crystalline structure of ice are broken due to heat activity. Adding the wood fiber particles lowers the overall thermal conductivity, therefore slowing melting. However, the wood pulp can't completely halt pykrete from melting, especially in warmer waters.
In the end, cost barriers and resource depletion had chilling effects on George Pyke's icy fleets. For instance, it would've required more steel to house the frozen ice than it would've taken to build an entirely new ship. Also, by 1943, technology had caught up with necessity, with better equipped aircraft carriers in use.
The end result? Although physics proved that pykrete had impressive potential, it was mostly left to thaw out after the British government shut down project Habbakuk.
More on
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Mochealso called Mochicadominant civilization present on the northern coast of present-day what is now Peru from the 1st to the 8th century AD, and dominant during the Early Intermediate Period (c. 400 BCAD 600). The name is taken from the great site of Moche, in the river valley of the same name, which appears to have been the capital or chief city of the Moche peoples. Their settlements extended along the hot, arid coast of northern Peru from the Lambayeque River valley south for more than 215 miles (350 km) to the Nepeña River valley.
Until the 1980s , the culture’s best-known remains were those of Moche itself, near Trujillo in the Moche River valley. Two giant structures, known as the Temple of the Sun (Huaca del Sol) and the Temple of the Moon (Huaca de la Luna), dominate the site, though there is no evidence that they were ever so dedicated. The Temple of the Sun is a causeway and stepped pyramid, about 1,090 by 446 feet (340 by 136 metres) at the base and 135 feet (41 metres) high. A short distance away, the Temple of the Moon is a terraced platform built against a natural hillside and capped with large rooms and courtyards. Over the surrounding ground, for several hundred metres in all directions, are evidences of a dense occupation, indicating that Moche was not only a political and ceremonial centre but also a city.
In 1987 archaeologists excavated a site called Huaca Rajada, near the village of Sipán in the Lambayeque valley, and uncovered the elaborate, jewelry-filled tomb of a Moche warrior-priest. Several more burial chambers containing the remains of Moche royalty were soon excavated, all dating from about AD 300. These finds greatly aided In 1997 excavations at Dos Cabezas, a site inhabited from roughly AD 150 to 500, revealed the first of three tombs containing the remains of three Moche elite. Each tomb was adjacent to a small compartment containing a miniature representation of the contents of the tomb, complete with a copper figure representing the dead man. The skeletal remains indicated that each of the men was 8 to 12 inches taller than the average Moche adult male. These finds enriched the understanding of Moche society, religion, and culture. Dozens of other Moche pyramid-platform sites exist in the coastal valleys of northern Peru, with most either looted by artifact hunters or still unexcavatedof them looted to some degree.
The Moche channeled streams flowing down from the Andes into an extensive system of irrigation canals that were used to grow corn (maize), beans, and other crops. This intensive agriculture supported numerous urban centres. Political authority was fragmented, however, with each river valley or string of valley towns and villages having its own royalty and warrior-priesthood. The Moche produced sophisticated craft goods, including mold-made pottery that is among the finest naturalistic sculpture in pre-Columbian Peru. These vessels—fine-quality water jars with characteristic stirrup spouts—bear portrait heads of individuals, animals, plants, buildings, and fantastic or demonic beings. Painted scenes on some vessels have yielded an understanding of ceremonial and everyday life in the Moche culture, including the sacrifice of prisoners-of-war and the ritual consumption of their blood. The Moche also were skilled metalworkers who in their jewelry used chemical means to electroplate gold and silver. Moche architecture featured flat-topped pyramids and platforms connected by ramps and dotted with courtyards and plazas.
The reasons for the demise of the Moche are unknown, but the civilization may have succumbed to earthquakes, prolonged drought, catastrophic flooding arising from the El Niño climatic anomaly, the encroachment of sand dunes on populated areas, or less-tangible social and cultural factors.
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Increasing Adult Vaccination Rates What Works
Image of Julie
Julie is a nineteen year old first-year college student who will be living in a dormitory this fall. She presents to you in August. In the state where she lives, colleges require that her vaccinations are "up to date." You review her medical record and find that she had 5 doses of DTP, 5 doses of oral poliomyelitis vaccine, and 1 dose of MMR prior to age 5 years. Her medical history also includes Chlamydia cervicitis that she contracted from her boyfriend last year. Although it is not noted in her medical history, she states that her mother told her she had chickenpox when she was 3 years old.
What vaccine(s), if any, should Julie receive?
Hepatitis A Hepatitis B
Human Papillomavirus Influenza
Meningococcal Measles/Mumps/Rubella
Pneumococcal Tetanus/Diphtheria
Tetanus/Diphtheria/Pertussis Varicella
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Creation of Man by Prometheus
Creation of Man by Prometheus
Prometheus and Epimetheus, two Titans, were spared imprisonment in Tartarus after the Titanomachy, the War between the Titans and the Olympians, because they had not fought alongside the other Titans. Instead, they were given the task of creating man. Prometheus shaped man out of mud, and Athena breathed life into his clay figure.
Prometheus assigned Epimetheus with the task of giving the creatures of the earth their various qualities, such as swiftness, cunning, strength, fur, wings. Unfortunately, by the time he got to man, Epimetheus had given all the good qualities out and there were none left for man. So Prometheus decided to make man stand upright just like the gods did and to give them fire.
Prometheus loved man more than the Olympians, who had banished most of his family to Tartarus. So when Zeus decreed that man must sacrifice a portion of each food to the gods, Prometheus decided to trick Zeus. He created two piles, one with bones wrapped in juicy fat, and another with the finest meat hidden inside a hide. He then asked Zeus to choose one of the piles; Zeus, unaware, chose the bones and since he had given his word, was forced to accept the bones as his share for future sacrifices. In his anger over the trick, he took fire away from man. However, Prometheus lit a torch from the sun and brought it back again to man. Zeus was enraged that man again had fire. He decided to inflict a terrible punishment on both man and Prometheus.
To punish man, Zeus had Hephaestus create a mortal of stunning beauty. The gods gave the mortal many gifts of wealth. He then had Hermes give the mortal a deceptive heart and a lying tongue. This creation was Pandora, the first woman. A final gift was a jar which Pandora was forbidden to open. Thus, Zeus sent Pandora to Epimetheus, who had decided to live amongst men.
Prometheus had warned Epimetheus not to accept gifts from Zeus, but Pandora's beauty was too great; so, he let her stay. Eventually, Pandora's curiosity about the forbidden jar overwhelmed her; she opened it, releasing all evils upon the earth. Only one thing was left in the jar when Pandora managed to close the lid again - hope.
Zeus was angry at Prometheus for three things: being tricked on sacrifices, stealing fire for man, and for refusing to tell Zeus which of Zeus's children would dethrone him. Zeus commanded his servants, Force and Violence, to seize Prometheus, take him to the Caucasus Mountains, and chain him to a rock with unbreakable, diamond chains. There, he was tormented day and night by a giant eagle tearing at his liver. Zeus gave Prometheus two ways out of this torment. He could tell Zeus who the mother of the child that would dethrone him was. Or meet two conditions: first, that an immortal must volunteer to die for Prometheus. And second, that a mortal must kill the eagle and unchain him. Eventually, Chiron the Centaur agreed to die for him and Heracles killed the eagle and unbound him.
More: The Creation, The Creation II
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To teach how to foreshorten, entirely as a separate proposition, is difficult. Definitions of the word itself are somewhat vague. "Foreshorten to represent figures as they appear to the eye when seen obliquely"; "to represent objects in accordance with the laws of perspective"; "the art of diminishing the entire length of an object when viewed obliquely."
"Foreshortening is to draw what we don't see," explained an exasperated art student on being examined as to his knowledge of certain rules of drawing. One can sympathize with him if not agree with his definition.
Knowledge of the rudiments of perspective gives one a. better conception of the proper manner to foreshorten an object, animate or otherwise, than any amount of special instruction on the subject. Foreshortening is one branch of the study of the elementary laws of perspective.
Much of what we see in nature is foreshortened. With the exception of the lines at right angles with the line of vision, all dimensions appear foreshortened. Unless one were looking through a hole in the ceiling, the table and practically every article in a room would appear foreshortened.
Even the pictures on the wall, if above the level of the eye, are seen foreshortened. This will not be the case if they are tilted in such a way that their surfaces are at right angles to the line of vision.
The pupil may be able to draw in perspective, according to instruction, a hemisphere and a cylinder lying on their sides and yet not realize that the same instruction applied to any object offering a round plane surface, as its principal problem for the moment, is of equal value a lemon for instance.
Having drawn a hemisphere, a cylinder and a lemon, the same pupil may ask, "How do you draw the two wheels of a cart?" The answer is: By the same rules as one draws the two planes of a cylinder lying on its side.
The pupil, having mastered these, comes back inquiring how to foreshorten a leaf.
Fashion Design Drawing - Dress Design
Part-1 Part-2 Part-3
<-- New Analytics Code 10-14-09 Linked to Adsense -->
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Tolkien Gateway
All middle earth.png
Physical Description
LocationArda, east of Belegaer
InhabitantsMen, Elves, Dwarves, Orcs, Hobbits, Ents, others
DescriptionA continent set between two oceans
General Information
Other namesEnnorath, Endor
EtymologyOld English middanġeard
[edit] Geography
The Westlands of Middle-earth
[edit] History
Early Arda
Arda was initially a flat, symmetric shape, until the Valar (and Morgoth) created several seas and mountains. Two seas, Belegaer to the west and the East Sea, formed a central landmass in the centre of Arda, the earliest shape of what would be the Great Lands of Middle-earth. Major features of that landmass were two inland seas, the Sea of Helcar and the Sea of Ringil. Around them, massive mountain chains were formed, the Blue and Red Mountains to the north, and the Grey and Yellow Mountains to the south. The Mountains of the World were a smaller chain in the East.[2]
Eventually the Valar left the Great Lands for the Uttermost West, leaving Morgoth and his creatures from his fortress at Utumno behind the Iron Mountains. He would also erect the Misty Mountains to hinder the Vala Orome who hunted his creatures.[3]
Western Middle-earth with deluged Beleriand
[edit] Names
Other epithets of the continent were Hither Shores or Hither Lands contrasted to Aman beyond the sea. The Hobbits envisioned Middle-earth as the Wide World[4] and the Outer Lands[5] or Great Lands, since it was so much larger than the continent of Aman.[6].
[edit] Inspiration
Henry Resnick quoted Tolkien saying that "Middle-earth is Europe".[8]
[edit] Appendix
[edit] Terminology
The continent of Middle-earth is the main setting of most of the stories of the legendarium. There are a few stories that take place in Aman (like some chapters of The Silmarillion) and Númenor (like the Akallabêth and Aldarion and Erendis).
In fandom, the term "Middle-earth" is used to refer to Tolkien's secondary world or fictional universe in general, including its pantheon and cosmology. Tolkien himself used the term loosely at times to refer to his creation.[9]
Being actually The Atlas of Arda
As a result, Middle-earth is used synonymously as "Arda" as a more recogniseable term for titles such as The Atlas of Middle-earth, even while its subject is beyond the scope of the strict geographical definition of the continent of Endor. Even Christopher Tolkien, while publishing the early drafts and manuscripts of his father, he titled the series The History of Middle-earth,[9] thus equating the term "Middle-earth" with the Legendarium. Wikipedia is also an example of this usage, with article names such as Elf (Middle-earth) and the (somewhat erroneous) Arda (Middle-earth).
The term "Arda", which refers to the whole world proper, first appeared in The Silmarillion[9] and is a more technical term. But the term "Arda" is sometimes appropriately used to refer to the world of Tolkien, seen in example in the names of Encyclopedia of Arda or Ardalambion.
Another misuse of the term is the equation of "Middle-earth" with the mapped regions, as seen in the maps to Lord of the Rings. Actually these regions are just the Westlands of Middle-earth, being the north-western portion of the continent. Actually how far Middle-earth extends to the East and the South of the map is unknown. Although Mordor is seen to the south-easter corner of the map, it doesn't mean it belongs to the south-eastern Middle-earth, as there are presumably other lands to the east and south.[10] Karen Fonstad has attempted to reconstruct the entirety of the continent, beyond the Westlands, based on an early map by Tolkien.[11]
[edit] Middle-earth and the Old World
In his earliest drafts of the Legendarium, The Book of Lost Tales, the mythology had more direct connections with our history: Littleheart compares the Fall of Gondolin with the fall of "Bablon", "Ninwi" and "Trui".[12] The Mannish language of Taliska was based on Gothic.[13] Britain was supposed to be former Tol Eressea that was driven towards the Great Lands, with Ireland (the Isle of Iverin) being a part that broke from it. The main character Ottor Wǽfre was intended to be the father of legendary figures Hengest and Horsa who conquered England from the Guidlin, the Brithonin and the Rumhoth. In a later sketch, the Elves were from the region of Luthany before it was pulled out of the mainland and became an island.[14]
Tolkien envisioned his stories to take place on our world, in an imaginary historical period and contains the essentials of the northwestern Europe. He did not see his stories to happen on a "remote globe in 'space'" as was the case with other contemporary fiction.[15]
As for the later legendarium, The Shire not only was conceptually based on rural England[16] but also was expressly stated to be "in this region"[17], "the North-West of the Old World, east of the Sea".[18] Concerning the Shire, Tolkien stated that he intended it to correspond about to the latitide of Oxford, which would result to other Middle-earth locations to correspond (but not necessarily equate with) real-life locations. For instance, Pelargir would fall to about the latitude of ancient Troy.[19] This enabled Andreas Moehn to make more correspondences, and even project the Westlands on a real map of Europe.[20]
On the other hand, Tolkien designed his maps to accomodate the mythology, and was conscious that they did not fit the ancient Earth, as understood by contemporary archeology and historical geology.[21][17]
[edit] Portrayal in adaptations
Middle-earth has been depicted in a variety of adaptations of Tolkien's work -- the most prominent of which have been the Lord of the Rings and Hobbit film trilogies by Peter Jackson. Middle-earth has appeared in animation in Ralph Bakshi's The Lord of the Rings and Rankin/Bass' adaptations of The Hobbit and The Return of the King. Middle-earth has also been adapted for numerous video games such as The Lord of the Rings Online and War in the North and tabletop role-playing games like the Middle-earth Role Playing system by Iron Crown Enterprises.
[edit] See Also
[edit] References
3. Robert Foster, The Complete Guide to Middle-earth, entry "Misty Mountains"
4. J.R.R. Tolkien, The Hobbit, "Flies and Spiders"
8. Tolkien Journal II, 2 p. 1
9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Middle-earth - Usage and misunderstandings" , Wikipedia (accessed 31 January 2015)
10. Robert Foster, The Complete Guide to Middle-earth, entry "Middle-earth"
11. Karen Wynn Fonstad (1991), The Atlas of Middle-earth
13. J.R.R. Tolkien, "Quenya Phonology", in Parma Eldalamberon XIX (edited by Christopher Gilson), "The Comparative Tales", p. 22
15. J.R.R. Tolkien; Humphrey Carpenter, Christopher Tolkien (eds.), The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, Letter 183, (undated, probably written 1956)
18. J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings, "Prologue"
20. Andreas Moehn, "A Meridional Grid on the Middle-Earth Map" , Lalaith's Middle-earth Science Pages (accessed 31 January 2015)
21. J.R.R. Tolkien; Humphrey Carpenter, Christopher Tolkien (eds.), The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, Letter 169, (dated 11 September 1955)
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Friday, April 15, 2011
Mystery Skull
Sixty to seventy years ago an American girl of Mexican heritage in her late teens (15 to 18) was taken by her parents to visit relatives living in a small rural village 100 miles southwest of Chihuahua, Mexico. The girl was forbidden to enter any of the area's numerous caves and mine tunnels, but like most teenagers, she went exploring. At the back of a mine tunnel she found a complete human skeleton lying on the ground's surface. Beside it, sticking up out of the ground, was a malformed skeletal hand entwined in one of the human skeleton's upper arms. The girl proceeded to scrape the dirt off a shallow grave to reveal a buried skeleton smaller than the human one and also malformed. She did not specify the type or degree of any of the "malformations."
The Mystery Skull
Skull suturing and baby teeth in a detached piece of maxilla (upper jaw and palate) indicate death around 5 years of age. The face is missing from the upper bridge of the nose to the foramen magnum (the hole where the spine enters the skull), but the cranium and most of both eye orbits (the external parts of the sockets) are intact.
This skull's degree of humanity is at issue because several aspects of its morphology defy categorizing as genetic defect (inherited), congenital deformation (birth defect), or inflicted deformity (cranial binding).
Brain Volume
Though markedly different in shape, the skulls are roughly the same size. However, they exhibit a stunning difference in brain volume. The average volume for a human brain is 1400 cubic centimeters (cc). The volume of the human skull is 1200 cc, typical for a small human. In contrast, the volume of the child's skull is 1600 cc, which is 200 cc beyond the average for adult humans. And had it lived to become an adult, its brain capacity would have grown to 1800 cc or more, well beyond the human average.
The Starchild's brain volume, contained inside a cranium the size of a smallish human's,
For more interesting topics related to archaeology, visit archaeology excavations.
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Mesopotamian social structure
Published on
Project for Comparative Civilizations
Published in: Education
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• Mesopotamian social structure
1. 1. Mesopotamia Social Structure
2. 2. The Slaves Slaves were the bottom of the social hierarchy, but were generally treated well All slaves were identified by their specific haircut. Had no rights, were owned by the wealthy, merchants, some even worked for commoners and worked in the temples, the palace, or on farms. Slaves were obtained as prisoners of war, or people who couldn’t pay debts. Sometimes they were offered as payment for a relatives debt. The civilizations of Mesopotamia would raid the hills for slaves from ‘Hill People’ tribes Law didn’t protect them, but attributed what rights they had to their owner,(e.g- if the slaves arm was broken, the owner would receive compensation)
3. 3. The Commoners-The labouring lower-class of the kingdom-85% were in farming-The specialized tradesmen (non-farmers)were paid uniform wages from the surpluscollected from the farmers as taxes-Women enjoyed more rights than in othersocial orders-Had close family tiesWeren’t educated, boys were taught theirfather’s trade, girls were taught to care thehome and children by their mother
4. 4. Merchants and Artisans Invented Cuneiform to document trade deals Traded ideas and products throughout the euphrates and tigris rivers, taking caravans as far as Egypt, Cyprus, and Lebanon Produced the wealth that made civilization possible Merchants would lead groups with barley and textiles to Asia minor, returning with timber, stone and metal Worked raw materials into tools, weapons, and jewellery T keep track of trade, they invented calendars, that were based on the o cycle of the moon (included 12 months, leaps years, and a zodiac)
5. 5. The ScribesThey were the educated class,sons of the wealthyWere able to read and writeWorked for the palace, thegovernment, the army,merchants, or set up their ownbusiness as public writersWere nearly always menHad to undergo training andcomplete a specific program tobe called a scribe
6. 6. The Priests They were the upper-class of society Influential because of the importance of religion and their relationship with the gods Controlled the distribution of land to farmers and crops to workers Ran the school Considered ‘doctors’ of the time
7. 7. The King Pinnacle of the social order. Were ‘divinely ordained humans’ as believed by the Sumerians, or literal ‘gods on earth’ as the Assyrians believed. The word of a king was law Generally head of the army Were sometimes also priests
8. 8. Impact on UsWomen had more rights than later civilizations, and it’s even believedthey served on the council to the King. Although their rights slowlybecame less as it became a more male-dominated societyFor the first time, power was shifting to Kings from religionHad schools and education with specialized occupations
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A History of the Native People of Canada
Volume I (10,000 to 1,000 B.C.)
Middle Plains Culture (Précis, Chapter 17)
Period III falls into the middle of a classificatory unit used on the Northern Plains called the Mesoindian Period (Wormington and Forbis 1965) that extends from the end of Plano culture to the Neoindian Period and involves a time range from 8,000 to 2,000 B.P. In a succinct, insightful summary of the Mesoindian Period it has been proposed that the continuous occupation of the short grass Grasslands did not occur until shortly after the beginning of Period III as used in this work and was due to five major factors. These were as follows: the amelioration of the Altithermal droughts; the evolution of the modern bison species from earlier, extinct species; the training of the dog to carry and pull household affects thus markedly increasing mobility; the construction of tipi rings and ceremonial structures using field stones; and the introduction of the method of boiling water with hot rocks in order to produce the grease necessary in the manufacture pemmican (Forbis 1992: 59).
Bison Skeletal Parts - Drawing: David Laverie Bison Skeletal Parts from the Harder Site, Saskatchewan
Bones and pieces positively identifiedBones and pieces positively identified
Represented by comminuted boneRepresented by comminuted bone
In most instances only selected fat and marrow rich bones were carried back to camp from the kill site. The portion of the head most often found, for example, is the marrow-rich jaw. Limb bones, rich in marrow as well as being a source of raw material for tools, probably were carried back to camp encased in their flesh. As can be seen from the drawing, the spinal column, the pelvic girdle, and skull appear to have been largely abandoned at the kill location. Comminuted bone refers to highly fragmented bone.
(Adapted from Dyck 1977: Figures 7 and 8. Drawing by Mr. David W. Laverie.)
Perhaps to a greater extent than any other region of Canada cultural developments on the Northern Plains has been based upon changes in projectile point styles. Given the general nature of most of the remaining chipped stone technology this emphasis upon one tool category is understandable. In many instances, however, the reliance upon projectile point types to reconstruct culture history has created problems. Even the major archaeological complexes are essentially based on their characteristic point types. The 3,000 years involved in Period III is dominated by three such sequential complexes. The earliest is called Oxbow and was first recognized at the Oxbow Dam site in southeastern Saskatchewan. There is a consensus that the Oxbow complex developed out of earlier, indigenous occupations characterized by side-notched points variously called Mummy Cave, Bitteroot, Salmon River, etc. (Walker 1992: 132-142). The second complex is generally referred to as McKean or as McKean/Duncan/Hanna or some combination of the three different but intergrading and sequential projectile point styles. The McKean complex has been regarded as an intrusive culture on the Canadian Plains with ultimate origins in the Great Basin of Nevada, Utah and adjoining states. Contrary to the preceding, a hypothesis advocating a single unbroken development from Oxbow to McKean is favoured in this work. The third and latest complex is called Pelican Lake and is believed to have developed out of the McKean complex. These three complexes are all included under the rubric Middle Plains culture. If the relationship between the Oxbow and McKean complexes should eventually be demonstrated to be something other than a single, in situ, cultural development then separate cultural designations will be necessary.
Each complex encompasses roughly 1,000 years within Period III (Oxbow - 4,000 to 3,000 B.C., McKean - 3,000 to 2,000 B.C., and Pelican Lake - 2,000 to 1,000 B.C.) with the Pelican Lake complex continuing into Period IV (1,000 B.C. to A.D. 500). Given the fact that many of the Pelican Lake complex dates fall into Period IV or straddle the Period III/Period IV boundary, the complex will be mainly considered within the Late Plains culture of Period IV. The preceding date ranges represent a simplified view of the radiocarbon evidence and substantial overlapping of dates occurs within the linear progression from Oxbow to McKean to Pelican Lake as revealed by stratigraphy. In this respect, the radiocarbon chronology and the stratigraphic chronology are somewhat at odds. As each of the complexes within Period III encompasses approximately the same amount of time, the complex names are retained as useful designations for the early, middle, and late segments of Middle Plains culture development.
Much has been made of the fact that the Oxbow and McKean complexes generally post-date the Altithermal. One palaeoclimatic classificatory system (Bryson et al. 1970) suggests that the warm and dry period of the Altithermal, that ended around 3,500 B.C., permitted the maximum extension of the grasslands. During a cooler and moister period shortly after 2,000 B.C. the forests encroached upon the parklands and grasslands by some 50 km to 100 km with the modern climate becoming stabilized around 500 B.C. It was after 2,000 B.C. that significant evidence of mass communal killing of bison herds becomes apparent. This development has been equated with an increase in bison populations (Dyck and Morlan: In press). In addition to bison, however, Middle Plains culture people were capable of exploiting the resources of the Boreal Forest and the Mountain/Foothills environmental zones. Both the Kootenay and Peace River regions of British Columbia appear to have been occupied by Middle Plains culture with the Oxbow complex mainly in the north (Fladmark 1981: 131-135) and both the Oxbow and McKean complexes in the south (Choquette 1972; 1973). Any suggestion that Middle Plains culture had a focal economy based solely upon bison underestimates the culture's adaptive capabilities even though the heart of Middle Plains culture was in the Grasslands/Parklands region.
The Middle Plains culture stone tool kit is dominated by projectile points, end scrapers, random flake scrapers, and biface knives. Of interest is the single stone tubular pipe from a McKean complex level at the Cactus Flower site in Alberta that dated to 2,700 B.C. If this item actually functioned as a smoking pipe, it would represent the earliest evidence of smoking in Canada. A characteristic Middle Plains culture trait was the use of local stone for tool production although limited amounts of exotic lithics, such as Knife River chalcedony from North Dakota and obsidian from Wyoming, are often present. The bone tool technology appears to be quite rudimentary. What would have been dominant elements in the tool kit, such as objects manufactured from skin and sinew and wood and plant fibres, of course, have not survived in the archaeological record.
Of considerable significance is the probability that all three complexes of Middle Plains culture shared some kind of common belief system. This is suggested by projectile point offerings representative of the point styles of all three complexes in the Majorville Medicine Wheel ceremonial feature (Calder 1977). Current differences in the manner in which the Oxbow, McKean, and Pelican Lake complexes treated their dead may eventually prove to be more a product of limited evidence and precise component identification than being indicative of actual cultural differences.
Volume IVolume II
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Nile Delta
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The Nile Delta (Arabic: دلتا النيل Delta n-Nīl or simply الدلتا ed-Delta) is the delta formed in Northern Egypt (Lower Egypt) where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world's largest river deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east, it covers 240 kilometres (150 mi) of Mediterranean coastline—and is a rich agricultural region. From north to south the delta is approximately 160 kilometres (99 mi) in length. The Delta begins slightly down-river from Cairo.
Nile River and Delta
From north to south, the delta is approximately 160 kilometres (99 mi) in length. From west-to-east, it covers some 240 kilometres (150 mi) of coastline. The delta is sometimes divided into sections, with the Nile dividing into two main distributaries, the Damietta and the Rosetta, flowing into the Mediterranean at port cities with the same name. In the past, the delta had several distributaries, but these have been lost due to flood control, silting and changing relief. One such defunct distributary is Wadi Tumilat.
The Nile is considered to be an "arcuate" delta (arc-shaped), as it resembles a triangle or lotus flower when seen from above. The outer edges of the delta are eroding, and some coastal lagoons have seen increasing salinity levels as their connection to the Mediterranean Sea increases. Since the delta no longer receives an annual supply of nutrients and sediments from upstream due to the construction of the Aswan High Dam, the soils of the floodplains have become poorer, and large amounts of fertilizers are now used. Topsoil in the delta can be as much as 70 feet (21 m) in depth.
Ancient branches of the Nile[edit]
Ancient Nile delta.
• the Pelusiac,
• the Tanitic,
• the Mendesian,
• the Phatnitic (or Phatmetic),[1]
• the Sebennytic,
• the Bolbitine, and
• the Canopic (also called the Herakleotic[2] and the Agathodaemon[4])
There are now only two main branches, due to flood control, silting and changing relief: The Damietta (corresponding to the Phatnitic) to the east and the Rosetta (corresponding to the Bolbitine)[5] on the western part of the delta.
Population density
About 39 million people live in the Delta region. Outside of major cities, population density in the delta averages 1,000 persons/km² or more. Alexandria is the largest city in the delta with an estimated population of more than 4,5 million. Other large cities in the delta include Shubra al Khaymah, Port Said, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, El Mansura, Tanta, and Zagazig.[7]
During autumn, parts of the Nile River are red with lotus flowers. The Lower Nile (North) and the Upper Nile (South) have plants that grow in abundance. The Upper Nile plant is the Egyptian lotus, and the Lower Nile plant is the Cyperus papyrus (papyrus sedge), although it is not nearly as plentiful as it once was, and is becoming quite rare.
Sea level[edit]
Furthermore, Egypt’s Mediterranean coastline is being swallowed up by the sea because of global warming and the rise of the sea level, and the lack of sediments being deposited since the construction of the Aswan Dam, in some places as much as 100 yards a year.[8] As the polar ice caps melt, much of the northern delta, including the ancient port city of Alexandria, will disappear under the Mediterranean. A 30-centimeter rise in sea level is expected to occur by 2025, flooding approximately 200 square kilometers (77 sq mi).[9] The Nile Delta is turning into a salty wasteland by rising sea waters, forcing some farmers off their lands and others to import sand in a desperate bid to turn back the tide. Experts warn that global warming will have a major impact in the delta on agriculture resources, tourism and human migration besides shaking the region's fragile ecosystems. Environmental damage to the Nile Delta is not yet one of Egypt's priorities, but experts say if the situation continues to deteriorate, it will trigger massive food shortages which could turn seven million people into "climate refugees" by the end of the century if climate change is mitigated.[10]
Large cities located in the Nile Delta:
2. ^ e.g. at Callisthenes Alexander 1.31.
3. ^ 1
4. ^ e.g. in Ptolemy, Geography.[3]
8. ^ "Global Warming Threatens Egypt's Coastlines and the Nile Delta".
9. ^ "Egypt's Nile Delta falls prey to climate change".
10. ^ "Egypt fertile Nile Delta falls prey to climate change".
External links[edit]
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How do you build a hoverboard?
Quick Answer
It is likely impossible for most people to build their own hoverboard, as most of the technologies that would allow for the creation of such a device are extremely expensive. However, the Lexus division of the Toyota Motor Company has created a hoverboard known as the Slide that uses the principles of magnetic levitation to hover and move inches above certain specially magnetized surfaces.
Continue Reading
Full Answer
The Slide hoverboard consists of a bamboo and carbon-fiber deck and shell around a core of superconducting materials cooled with liquid nitrogen. When these superconducting materials are placed in proximity to a magnetic field, an effect known as the Meissner effect causes the Slide to repel from the magnetic field and effectively hover above the ground. However, this also means that the surface where the Slide is used must contain steel bars or other magnetic elements to successfully repel the board; for instance, Lexus demonstrated the device at a specially prepared concrete skate park.
The cost of the materials in the Slide is likely to be very high, since superconducting materials are very expensive as of 2015. Liquid nitrogen is also somewhat expensive to procure and store for most individuals. In addition, the need to construct a specialized surface for the Slide to function on is another major barrier to those seeking to build their own hoverboards.
Learn more about Motion & Mechanics
Related Questions
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Feral Pigeon, Colomba livia domestica,
Tavistock in front of St Eustachius church.
This species was used as carrier pigeons.
Artistic impression of carrier pigeons from trenches
in World War I with poppies and sphagnum moss
by Mo Goodall
A British army bus-mounted mobile pigeon loft on active service during the First World War © Smithsonian Magazine
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Wartime Avian Heroes
During the First World War (1914-1918) homing pigeons, Colombia livia, were often the only reliable means of communication for the troops to send messages back from the Western Front. The pigeons had been co-opted by the War Office, from civilian pigeon fanciers, to form the Army Pigeon Service. The war department produced information leaflets to help the military to train and care for their pigeons. King George V, a pigeon fancier, also donated his own racing pigeons from the royal lofts at Sandringham, so that he could be informed of progress of the war.
In 1915 there were 15 pigeon stations, each with four birds and a handler on the Western Front. By the end of the war there were 400 handlers and 22,000 pigeons in 150 mobile lofts. These mobile lofts were sometimes adapted from London buses, which could be relocated as the battle locations changed.
The carrier pigeons would be taken from their mobile lofts, in baskets or carriers, to the trenches with the soldiers, to be released if required as messengers. It is their homing instinct to return to their home loft, and their ability to fly at speeds of at least 60 mph which made them such efficient messengers. The birds could even find their way back home if the loft had been relocated. Pigeons were also carried in tanks, minesweeping boats, submarines and seaplanes. They could be released to carry a swift message home, often more efficiently than the unreliable telegraph systems. It is thought they relied on their excellent vision and other senses like smell and sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field to locate the home loft.
The birds carried the messages in metal canisters attached to their legs. They had to fly through enemy fire, poison gas, and avoid enemy trained hawks to get their messages home. When they returned to their lofts, behind the front line, they tripped a wire which sounded a bell to announce their return. Their messages were then passed on to military control. At least 100,000 pigeons are thought to have been killed during military service in WW1. German marksmen were employed to shoot them down or hawks trained to catch them, but they still had a 95% chance of getting back.
In the Second World War 250,000 carrier pigeons were used as messengers, although there were also more efficient telecommunications systems. RAF bomber crews often carried a pair of pigeons, so that they could be released with crash site details if the aircraft was shot down. Pigeons were also used in occupied Europe as messengers from resistance movements. Some of these messages saved many lives and the idea of the named pigeon as hero was conceived.
The Dicken medal was originated in 1943 by Maria Dicken, founder of the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals, the PDSA, to honour the work of animals in WW2. It was awarded to 54 animal heroes between 1943 and 1949, which included 32 pigeons. Those who received awards usually had names and were associated with particularly important military events. The first three awards were in December 1943 to pigeons called Winkie, White Vision and Tyke, serving with the RAF, who all contributed to the recovery of crew from ditched aircraft.
Royal Blue, originally from the royal lofts at Sandringham and owned by George VI was the first pigeon in 1940 to deliver a message from a force landed aircraft. He was awarded the Dicken medal for bravery in 1945.These pigeons were awarded the medals for 'bravery', but of course the avian heroes had no concept of 'heroism', and were just efficiently responding to their homing instincts.
World War II Dickin medal for carrier pigeon Royal Blue from George VI's Sandringham lofts
One Devonian recipient of the Dicken medal was a homing pigeon named 'Mary of Exeter'. A memorial plaque to her can be found in Exeter's Northernhay Gardens. Mary's owner was a cobbler and pigeon fancier called Charlie Brewer, who became a loft keeper and intelligence agent during WW2.
Mary was enlisted with the National Pigeon Service due to her rapid flying speed and she served for five years during WW2. She was wounded three times during her flying missions in enemy attacks, but recovered each time to continue service. Her loft in Exeter was also damaged during Luftwaffe bombing attacks in 1942, but Mary survived. Charlie Brewer made her a special leather collar after her neck muscles were damaged by shrapnel in her final flying mission, and she lived for another ten years in retirement. Her tiny grave at Ilford Animal Cemetery in London is marked by a simple headstone.
In 2004 a memorial to commemorate all the animals, including pigeons, which gave service in the wars was erected in Hyde Park. There are also memorials in Lille, and in Brussels to pigeons and their fanciers who died in WW1.
Not all the pigeons made it home and in 1982 the remains of a military carrier pigeon, heading for Bletchley Park, were found in the chimney of a house in Surrey. The coded message inside the carrying-canister was still intact, and there has been great debate on whether the code can be deciphered.
Feral pigeons are now unwelcome guests in town centres like Tavistock, where they are blamed for damage to civic buildings. However, think of the brave service their ancestors gave to the military effort and the lives they saved in both world wars.
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© Dr Ann Pulsford 2017
Footnote : As far as the Open Door team can ascertain the images shown on this page are in the Public Domain.
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Location And Expression Of Human And Plant Defensins Biology Essay
Published: Last Edited:
All organisms, including plants and humans, are vulnerable to infections by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Defensins are proteins of the innate immune system that defend hosts by direct contact and subsequent perforation of invading pathogen cells. Due to their direct effect on increasing chance of survival, these small positively charged anti-microbial peptides are present in all eukaryotes including plants and humans and have evolved multiple subtypes such as human alpha and beta defensins. Although both organisms are extremely different, striking similarities in the structure, function, location and expression of defensins exist and greatly outweigh their differences.
The structure of plant and human beta defensins are extremely similar, however human alpha defensins are not. The overall structure of plant defensins is a three stranded anti-parallel beta sheet with a superimposed alpha helix. Essential to the stabilization of this structure are eight cysteine residues. These cysteine residues stabilize the structure through formation of disulfide bonds between the alpha helix and beta sheets. This structure of plant defensins is very similar to human beta defensins which also consist of a three stranded anti-parallel beta sheet with a superimposed alpha helix. Human alpha defensin, on the other hand, are less similar as they lack the superimposed alpha helix. The human beta defensins unlike the plant defensins contains only six cysteine residues to form stabilizing disulfide bonds. The amino acid sequence although containing positive basic amino acids is also different between all mentioned defensins. Despite differences between the human beta defensins and the plant defensins, experiments of transgeinic Arabidopsis plants expressing human beta-2-defensin show fungal resistance that is proportional to the level of gene expression and exceeding that of non-transgenic plants. This experiment strongly suggests that due to strong similarity in structure between the human defensin and endogenous plant defensins, human defensins were able to adopt plant defensin anti-fungal roles. Thus although differences may be present in structure, they are insignificant and do not effect the proteins function.
Due to the fact that a proteins structure determines its function, it should not be surprising that both plant and human defensins possess anti-microbial action against both bacteria and fungi. It is important to note however that plant and human defensins disproportionately favor separate targets; majority of plant defensins target fungi while majority of human alpha and beta defensins target bacteria. These target preferences are hypothesized to be related to the fact that plants and humans are susceptible to different pathogens and thus their defensins are exposed to different selective pressures. For example, plants are much more susceptible to fungal infections and thus fungal pathogenicity would select for survivors with anti-fungal defensins. Similarly humans are much more susceptible to bacterial infections and thus bacterial pathogenicity would select for survivors with anti-bacterial defensins. Although both human and plant defensins have anti-microbial function, human defensins possess other functions that plant defensins do not. For example human defensins can act a chemotactic signals that attract immune cells, they can promote cell proliferation and can inhibit neoplasm formation.
Plant and human defensins due to their anti-microbial function are generally distributed in locations that contact or are close to the outside environment or entry sites of microorganisms. It makes sense to conserve this epithelial distribution among plants and animals as microorganisms entering the host will be confronted with innate immunity preventing further spread and internalization of the infection. Although general distribution of plant and human defensins are the same, specific locations of defensins are different due to the obvious difference in plant and human biology. Human alpha defensins such as human neutrophil peptides 1-4 are located in neutrophils and human defensin 5-6 are located in the panth cells of the gastrointestinal tract. Human beta defensins such as human beta-defensin-2 is located in the epithelial layer of the gastrointestinal tract, reproductive system, urinary tract, skin and lungs. Plants defensins are distributed in the peripheral layers of reproductive organs, leaves, stems, roots, seeds and stomata.
Expression of plant and human defensins in the above locations are stimulated by direct contact with invading pathogens and wounding. Although majority of plant defensins are anti-fungal, some plant defensins are anti-insect. When a plant senses damage from herbivorous insects, the expression of these anti-insect defensins occurs. Anti-insect defensins, by inhibiting the insect digestive enzyme alpha amylase, prevent further feeding and damage of the plant. Similarly, human skin when wounded increases the expression of human beta-2-defensin. Through the use of human beta-2 antibodies, the expression of human beta-2-defensin was visualized and indicated a significant increase in expression throughout wounded skin samples. Normal skin in contrast had minimal to undetectable levels of human beta-2-defensin expression. Human beta-2-defensin expression is also stimulated by inflammation. Inflammation is a sign of microorganism infection and a product of acquired immunity which plants lack.
Human defensin expression, unlike plants, does not have to be stimulated by anything. The panth cells of the gastrointestinal tract express some alpha defensins, such as human defensin 5-6, continuously. Although continual expression consumes energy and would be wasteful in a plant, humans unlike plants cannot make their own food and risk the ingestion of food contaminated with microorganisms. As humans are continuously taking in food, the gastrointestinal tract becomes a prime entry site for microorganisms and thus continual expression is very adaptive.
Innate immune defensin proteins, by directly killing microorganisms, defend the survival of two very different hosts, plants and humans. Despite organism differences, defensins due to their adaptive nature are extremely conserved with regards to their beta sheet with a super imposed alpha helix structure, anti-microbial function, external distribution and expression induced by both contact and wounding. Although slight differences in structure, anti-microbial targets, specific anatomical location and expression did exist, these differences proved to be a result of organism differences rather than differences in the protein itself. Defensins, the only innate immune protein conserved throughout the eukaryotic kingdom, will continue throughout evolution to enhance the fitness and survival of all host types.
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Vocabulary Word
Word: concave
Definition: hollow; curved inwards; OP. convex
Sentences Containing 'concave'
"Uintatherium" was a large browsing animal. Its most unusual feature was the skull, which is both large and strongly built, but simultaneously flat and concave: this feature is rare and not regularly characteristic of any other known mammal except in some brontotheres.
Additionally, Seeley' referral was based on a single character, "articular surface is very slightly concave, with a small round depression at the centre", a feature that is now known to be common in other pliosaurids as well.
Considered as the oldest example of concave mihrab, it dates in its present state to 862-863 AD.
Diorugoceras is very involute and smooth, with a compressed whorl section with broad, slightly convex flanks that converge toward a concave venter.
Finally, the lateral surface of the mandible dorsoventrally concave posteriorly, while other thalassophoneans show flat or weakly convex lateral surface of the postedentary bones.
In 1954 Edward Teller hosted a meeting exploring some of these issues, and noted that he felt plasmas would be inherently more stable if they were following convex lines of magnetic force, rather than concave. It was not clear at the time if this manifested itself in the real world, but over time the wisdom of these words become apparent.
In late temples these walls frequently had alternating concave and convex courses of bricks, so that the top of the wall undulated vertically.
In the next interstice they are concave and at last convex towards the basal liration.
It differs from all other "Theretra" species in the forewing shape, which is acute apically, concave below the apex on the outer margin and rounded at the tornus, giving a very broad-winged appearance.
Males are recognized from other two-clawed "Acanthogonatus" by the bulb with a lateral keel delimiting a concave area; females by the spermathecae with an almost conical basal mound and its duct arising from its tip (similar spermathecae occur in "A. franki").
One observer praised "the fine acoustics that have been achieved by the creation of irregularly surfaced concave walls."
Risk-seeking behavior can be observed in the negative domain formula_1 for prospect theory value functions, where the functions are convex for formula_1 but concave for formula_3.
The "posterior surface", convex from above downward, concave from side to side, is smooth, and forms part of the anterior wall of the pelvis.
The antennae are moderately long,terminating in an elongate, gradually-formed club, flattened on its upper surface.The thorax is not robust and it is as broad as the head and slightly hairy posteriorly.The wing characters are: fore-wings elongate, rather truncate; costa only slightly arched; apex not acute, but well marked ; hind-margin slightly convex and sinuated ; anal angle distinct ; inner-margin convex near base, slightly concave about middle.
The bold design has imposing proportions with long walls and concave sweeps in the moderne style.
The concave mirror, source light combination was replaced with a series of fresnel lenses.
The forewing inner margin is deeply concave before the tornus.
The last three types, called concave lenses, scatter parallel rays so that they do not come to a focus, but diverge widely after passage through the lens.
The latter, which its hemispherical cap is cut by 24 concave grooves radiating around the top, is based on ridged horns shaped shell and a drum pierced by eight circular windows which are inserted between sixteen niches grouped by two.
The leaves of "F. natalensis" are similar, though more rounded and never concave at the tip.
The lizard has a concave forehead, swollen cheeks and smooth, unequal upper head-scales.
The mirror landing aid was a gyroscopically-controlled concave mirror on the port side of the flight deck.
The Mosque has several domes, the largest being over the mihrab and the entrance to the prayer hall from the courtyard. The dome of the mihrab is based on an octagonal drum with slightly concave sides, raised on a square base, decorated on each of its three southern, Easter and western faces with five flat-bottomed niches surmounted by five semi-circular arches, the niche in the middle is cut by a lobed oculus enrolled in a circular frame.
The niches are covered with carved stone panels, finely adorned with characteristic geometric, vegetal and floral patterns of the Aghlabid decorative repertoire : shells, cusped arches, rosettes, vine-leaf, etc. From the outside, the dome of the mihrab is based on an octagonal drum with slightly concave sides, raised on a square base, decorated on each of its three southern, Easter and western faces with five flat-bottomed niches surmounted by five semi-circular arches, the niche in the middle is cut by a lobed oculus enrolled in a circular frame.
The oldest boards date back to the Aghlabid period (ninth century) and are decorated with scrolls and rosettes on a red background consists of squares with concave sides in which are inscribed four-petaled flowers in green and blue, and those performed by the Zirid Dynasty (eleventh century) are characterized by inscriptions in black kufic writing with gold rim and the uprights of the letters end with lobed florets, all on a brown background adorned with simple floral patterns.
The river's name comes from the Ojibwa word "waanabidebiing", or "concave-tooth water", which describes the shape of Lake Wanapitei.
The utility function whose expected value is maximized is convex for a risk-seeker, concave for a risk-averse agent, and linear for a risk-neutral agent.
Their dark, small leaves are obovate to blunt-tipped (reverse triangular) or even concave at the tip.
These massive pieces of marble consist of a concave segment with a large frontal peacock carved in the center, tail fanned out proud.
Through the larger part of the river works of contraction will not be required, but nearly all the banks on the concave side of the beds must be held against the wear of the stream, and much of the opposite banks defended at critical points.
While on the outside, the particles are being pushed inward, following a concave line.
More Vocab Words
::: nautical - pertaining to ships or navigation
::: adjacent - adjoining; neighboring; close by
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Cambrian problematica, now less enigmatic but no less controversial
Vetulicolians, extinct for some 500 million years, are the very embodiment of an ‘enigmatic taxon’, looking quite unlike any creature living today. Since the first fossils were discovered in China by Degan Shu and co-workers over a decade ago, vetulicolians have been suggested to be arthropods, lobopodians, kinorhynchs and deuterostomes (their discoverers preferring the latter interpretation). Which is to say, they could be the distant relative of anything from a crustacean to a sea urchin. Given the limited data available from the fossil record, this debate has made little progress in the decade since it began, leading some to suggest that vetulicolians are so unlike any extant taxa that attempts to fit them into the tree of life are doomed to failure.
In palaeontology, of course, it can take only the discovery of a new fossil to resolve such controversies. In a BMC Biology article published today, Degan Shu and colleagues present new fossil finds that allow a better understanding of the vetulicolian body plan. In particular, the structure of the distinctive series of openings along the side of the vetulicolian body is far clearer in these new fossils. The pattern revealed, of serially repeated openings into the body cavity, is very much like the arrangement of pharyngeal gill slits in deuterostomes. This then, is the best evidence yet that vetulicolians are indeed deuterostomes.
The end of the controversy then? Apparently not. Shu and colleagues go on to suggest that vetulicolians might be stem deuterostomes; that is, that the first deuterostomes looked somewhat like vetulicolians. Given that the split between protostomes and deuterostomes is one of the major events in the history of life, this would be a significant finding. However, in an accompanying BMC Biology commentary, Andrew Smith argues that important as they are, the new fossil finds will not be enough to silence the opposition to this view, and while vetulicolians do now seem likely to be deuterostomes, their exact placement within this group remains enigmatic.
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Industrial Design
from The New Book of Knowledge®
Every human-made object has a design. Throughout history, people have learned that the design or shape of an object has much to do with its usefulness. As people discover new materials and learn to produce things more skillfully, designs change and objects become easier to use.
When people made objects only by hand, designs changed slowly. But with the increased use of machines during the 1600's, changes in design began to occur more rapidly. By the 1830's machines of all kinds were in use, which also allowed identical products to be made quickly and by the thousands.
Early machine-made products were copies of handmade objects, but the machines of that time were unable to reproduce many of the beautiful details of what had been designed as a handmade product. As a result, many early manufactured goods were clumsy. Also, the person who operated a machine was not able to change a product's design. If a product needed a new shape, someone else had to design it. The machine would then have to be changed so it could make the redesigned product.
Today new product designs and design changes are created by industrial designers--people who are specially trained as planners and stylists of mass-produced, machine-made goods. In fact, the designs of almost all the manufactured objects we use, such as cars, bicycles, toasters, telephones, and pens, have been created by industrial designers.
What Determines Design?
Many things affect the design of objects. Among these are the way people live, the materials available for making objects, and the current technology.
A well-designed product suits the age in which it is created. In England in the 1700's, a silver coffeepot was carefully made by hand to fit the very formal life of the upper classes. The practical value of such a product was less important than how it looked. An intricately decorated coffeepot took a long time to make, but the cost of the labor of people to make it was cheap. The silver needed frequent cleaning, but the people who owned silver objects often had servants who kept them polished. Today, such labor is expensive and scarce. A coffeepot manufactured out of stainless steel, aluminum, or Pyrex glass is more suited to modern life. It can be made quickly and inexpensively, is easy to keep clean, and is free of extraneous decoration. Today life is more casual. Machine-made objects are designed as much for use as for decoration. They are made to be practical as well as good looking.
Science and New Materials
Science makes possible the use of new materials and new methods of producing objects. Materials developed in the 20th century, such as plastics and special metals, were undreamed of in earlier centuries. Today's mass-production techniques could not have been developed without modern technology.
New materials sometimes also lead to new forms for objects. For example, plastic made it possible to manufacture objects out of a single, continuous piece of material. Such molded plastic eliminates the need for joints and for the assembling of individual parts. It can be molded quickly as one piece, with little finishing work required. As a result, plastic has changed the form of many household products and furniture.
The Principles of Design
Ideas of what is good design change with the times. The modern industrial age has developed its own principles for design. One principle states that the design of a product must contribute to its use or function. Equally important, the materials used to make the product must be suitable. A third principle is that the method of production must be considered. The taste and skill of each industrial designer guides his or her use of each of these principles.
Functionalism. Functionalism means that the shape of an object is determined by its use. A drinking glass must be shaped so it can contain liquids, be held comfortably and securely, and be cleaned easily. A car must operate properly, and be comfortable and easy to drive. An airplane must be shaped a certain way or it will not rise and move through the air. The principle of functionalism was first summed up by Louis Sullivan (1856-1924), an American architect, who said that "form follows function." A center of modern functional style was the Bauhaus, an art school in Germany. Founded in 1919, the Bauhaus helped spread modern design principles all over the world.
Use of Materials. Industrial designers should be familiar with the physical properties of the materials they can use. For example, because plastic is lightweight and does not break as easily as glass, it is a good material for soft-drink or baby bottles. Plastic melts or burns when heated, however, so it does not make a good frying pan. Different products require materials of different weights and strengths.
Methods of Production. Designers also need to consider the technical problems involved in making a product. They must make sure that a machine is available or can be built that will produce the object correctly. Generally they must understand machine production and work closely with industrial engineers.
How a Designer Works
When industrial designers are hired by a manufacturer, they are told about the product to be designed or redesigned and are given information about its purpose and how and where it will be used. They try to determine the needs and tastes of potential buyers, and they study similar products made by competing companies. The designers talk to the manufacturer's engineers about materials and construction, and learn what equipment is available in the factory.
On the basis of this information, a design is created and drawings are made of the product. Many changes may be made in these drawings before a design is finished. Mock-ups, or full-sized models, of the product are often made out of wood, plaster, or cardboard. When the manufacturer approves the design, a final model is made. Today computers are frequently used in the design process, often replacing hand-drawn plans and small-scale models. This technique is known as computer-aided design, or CAD.
Large design firms have a staff of specialists--draftspeople, illustrators, engineers, market researchers, and modelmakers--working under the direction of industrial designers. Some firms offer many specialized services as well as a total design service--designing everything connected with a business from the buildings to the stationery. Industrial design firms may also serve as consultants or advisors to those companies that have their own design departments.
Industrial Design Since the Bauhaus
In the late 1920's and early 1930's, many mass-produced appliances were redesigned because the pioneers of American industrial design, Raymond F. Loewy (1893-1986), Henry Dreyfuss (1904-1972), and Walter Dorwin Teague (1883-1960), convinced manufacturers that well-designed products could sell better than products that were badly designed.
American designer Norman Bel Geddes (1893-1958) was among the first to use streamlining in design--the technique of designing objects so that they have long, curving lines with no sharp angles. Streamlining allows air or water to flow easily over an object, and it is well suited to objects designed for speed, such as airplanes, boats, trains, and cars. But streamlining became a fad and was applied to all kinds of products, such as toasters and teapots, that did not need to be designed that way. In these instances, styling went against the principle of functionalism and in fact sometimes even interfered with the usefulness of the product. More often than not, however, industrial designers improve objects so that they are more efficient and better looking.
In recent years the miniaturization of electronic parts has had an impact on the design of products. The internal components of many machines are now so small that they no longer need to influence the outer form of the machine. As a result, designers are free to consider other factors, such as ergonomics--the study of how things such as machines and work situations can be adapted and used more effectively by people.
Reviewed by Cara McCarty
The Museum of Modern Art
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Scientists have now levitated mice using magnetic fields.
A plastic cage was also designed by physicist Da-Ming Zhu at the University of Missouri, Kansas City, to keep the mice in during levitation. Its top remained open to let in air, food, water and video surveillance, and its bottom was filled with small holes to allow waste removal.
From time to time, mice would kick the walls of the cage, causing it to briefly drop off from the levitation zone before re-entering it and floating again.
Although the researchers could levitate mice with or without the cage, "it's easier to house a mouse in a cage when you bring it to the levitation zone," Liu explained. Also, if you want to run an experiment comparing mice living inside and outside the levitator, you want to set up exactly the same living conditions to match results up as best as possible.
"We're trying to see what kind of physiological impact is due to prolonged microgravity, and also what kind of countermeasures might work against it for astronauts," Liu said. "If we can contribute to the future human exploration of space, that would be very exciting." They are now applying for funding for such research with their levitator.
Liu, Zhu and their colleagues detailed their findings online Sept. 6 in the journal Advances in Space Research.
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Welding: Principles &. Practices (4th Edition) View more editions
Solutions for Chapter 28
• 1082 step-by-step solutions
• Solved by publishers, professors & experts
• iOS, Android, & web
May 2015 Survey of Chegg Study Users
Chapter: Problem:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.
Which of the following is both a joint and a weld? (Obj. 28-1)
a. V-groove
b. Double-fillet
c. Edge
d. Flange
Chapter: Problem:
• Step 1 of 1
An edge joint is a type of joint used in the fabrication process, and is also a type of weld made during fabrication.
Thus, the correct answer is, Edge.
A v-groove is a type of weld made on butt joints, so choice a is not correct.
A double-fillet is a weld made on t-joints, so choice b is incorrect.
A flange joint is a fillet weld made on the connection of a flange to a piece of pipe, so choice d is not correct.
Corresponding Textbook
Welding: Principles &. Practices 4th edition 9780073373713 0073373710
Welding: Principles &. Practices | 4th Edition
9780073373713ISBN-13: 0073373710ISBN: Raymond J. Sacks, Edward R. Bohnart, Edward Bohnart, Edward R BohnartAuthors:
Alternate ISBN: 9780077480646
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Previous Page Table of Contents Next Page
What are natural hazards?
1. How natural are natural hazards?
2. The environment, natural hazards, and sustainable development
A widely accepted definition characterizes natural hazards as "those elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and caused by forces extraneous to him."1/ More specifically, in this document, the term "natural hazard" refers to all atmospheric, hydrologic, geologic (especially seismic and volcanic), and wildfire phenomena that, because of their location, severity, and frequency, have the potential to affect humans, their structures, or their activities adversely. The qualifier "natural" eliminates such exclusively manmade phenomena as war, pollution, and chemical contamination. Hazards to human beings not necessarily related to the physical environment, such as infectious disease, are also excluded from consideration here. Figure 3 presents a simplified list of natural hazards, and the boxes on the following pages briefly summarize the nature of geologic hazards, flooding, tsunamis, hurricanes, and hazards in arid and semi-arid areas.
1/ Burton, I., Robert W. Kates and Gilbert F. White. The Environment as Hazard (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978).
1. How natural are natural hazards?
Notwithstanding the term "natural," a natural hazard has an element of human involvement. A physical event, such as a volcanic eruption, that does not affect human beings is a natural phenomenon but not a natural hazard. A natural phenomenon that occurs in a populated area is a hazardous event. A hazardous event that causes unacceptably large numbers of fatalities and/or overwhelming property damage is a natural disaster. In areas where there are no human interests, natural phenomena do not constitute hazards nor do they result in disasters. This definition is thus at odds with the perception of natural hazards as unavoidable havoc wreaked by the unrestrained forces of nature. It shifts the burden of cause from purely natural processes to the concurrent presence of human activities and natural events.
Although humans can do little or nothing to change the incidence or intensity of most natural phenomena, they have an important role to play in ensuring that natural events are not converted into disasters by their own actions. It is important to understand that human intervention can increase the frequency and severity of natural hazards. For example, when the toe of a landslide is removed to make room for a settlement, the earth can move again and bury the settlement. Human intervention may also cause natural hazards where none existed before. Volcanoes erupt periodically, but it is not until the rich soils formed on their ejecta are occupied by farms and human settlements that they are considered hazardous. Finally, human intervention reduces the mitigating effect of natural ecosystems. Destruction of coral reefs, which removes the shore's first line of defense against ocean currents and storm surges, is a clear example of an intervention that diminishes the ability of an ecosystem to protect itself. An extreme case of destructive human intervention into an ecosystem is desertification, which, by its very definition, is a human-induced "natural" hazard.
Tropical storms
Fault ruptures
Ground shaking
Lateral spreading
Debris avalanches
Expansive soils
Rock falls
Submarine slides
Coastal flooding
Erosion and sedimentation
River flooding
Storm surges
Tephra (ash, cinders, lapilli)
Lava flows
Projectiles and lateral blasts
Pyroclastic flows
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of slowly accumulated strain energy along a fault in the earth's crust. Earthquakes and volcanoes occur most commonly at the collision zone between tectonic plates. Earthquakes represent a particularly severe threat due to the irregular time intervals between events, lack of adequate forecasting, and the hazards associated with these:
- Ground shaking is a direct hazard to any structure located near the earthquake's center. Structural failure takes many human lives in densely populated areas.
- Liquefaction of gently sloping unconsolidated material can be triggered by ground shaking. Flows and lateral spreads (liquefaction phenomena) are among the most destructive geologic hazards.
Volcanoes are perforations in the earth's crust through which molten rock and gases escape to the surface. Volcanic hazards stem from two classes of eruptions:
- Explosive eruptions which originate in the rapid dissolution and expansion of gas from the molten rock as it nears the earth's surface. Explosions pose a risk by scattering rock blocks, fragments, and lava at varying distances from the source.
The term landslide includes slides, falls, and flows of unconsolidated materials. Landslides can be triggered by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, soil saturated by heavy rains or groundwater rise, and river undercutting. Earthquake shaking of saturated soils creates particularly dangerous conditions. Although landslides are highly localized, they can be particularly hazardous due to their frequency of occurrence. Classes of landslide include:
a. Coastal flooding
Most often, destruction by storm surge is attributable to:
- Hydrostatic/dynamic forces and the effects of water lifting and carrying objects. The most significant damage often results from the direct impact of waves on fixed structures. Indirect impacts include flooding and undermining of major infrastructure such as highways and railroads.
b. River flooding
Land-borne floods occur when the capacity of stream channels to conduct water is exceeded and water overflows banks. Floods are natural phenomena, and may be expected to occur at irregular intervals on all stream and rivers. Settlement of floodplain areas is a major cause of flood damage.
- Winds exceeding 64 knots (74 mi/hr or 119 km/hr), the definition of hurricane force. Damage results from the wind's direct impact on fixed structures and from wind-borne objects.
All this is the key to developing effective vulnerability reduction measures: if human activities can cause or aggravate the destructive effects of natural phenomena, they can also eliminate or reduce them.
2. The environment, natural hazards, and sustainable development
The work of the OAS/DRDE is focused upon helping countries plan spatial development and prepare compatible investment projects at a prefeasibility level. In a general sense, these tasks may be called "environmental planning"; they consist of diagnosing the needs of an area and identifying the resources available to it, then using this information to formulate an integrated development strategy composed of sectoral investment projects. This process uses methods of systems analysis and conflict management to arrive at an equitable distribution of costs and benefits, and in doing so it links the quality of human life to environmental quality. In the planning work, then, the environment-the structure and function of the ecosystems that surround and support human life-represents the conceptual framework. In the context of economic development, the environment is that composite of goods, services, and constraints offered by surrounding ecosystems. An ecosystem is a coherent set of interlocking relationships between and among living things and their environments. For example, a forest is an ecosystem that offers goods, including trees that provide lumber, fuel, and fruit. The forest may also provide services in the form of water storage and flood control, wildlife habitat, nutrient storage, and recreation. The forest, however, like any physical resource, also has its constraints. It requires a fixed period of time in which to reproduce itself, and it is vulnerable to wildfires and blights. These vulnerabilities, or natural hazards, constrain the development potential of the forest ecosystem.
Hazards in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas
a. Desertification
b. Erosion and Sedimentation
c. Salinization
Saline water is common in dry regions, and soils derived from chemically weathered marine deposits (such as shale) are often saline. Usually, however, saline soils have received salts transported by water from other locations. Salinization most often occurs on irrigated land as the result of poor water control, and the primary source of salts impacting soils is surface and/or ground water. Salts accumulate because of flooding of low-tying lands, evaporation from depressions having no outlets, and the rise of ground water close to soil surfaces. Salinization results in a decline in soil fertility or even a total loss of land for agricultural purposes. In certain instances, farm land abandoned because of salinity problems may be subjected to water and wind erosion and become desertified.
Inexpensive water usually results in over-watering. In dry regions, salt-bearing ground water is frequently the major water resource. The failure to properly price water from irrigation projects can create a great demand for Such projects and result in misuse of available water, causing waterlogging and salinization.
A survey of environmental constraints, whether focused on urban, rural, or wildland ecosystems, includes (1) the nature and severity of resource degradation; (2) the underlying causes of the degradation, which include the impact of both natural phenomena and human use; and (3) the range of feasible economic, social, institutional, policy, and financial interventions designed to retard or alleviate degradation. In this sense, too, natural hazards must be considered an integral aspect of the development planning process.
Recent development literature sometimes makes a distinction between "environmental projects" and "development projects." "Environmental projects" include objectives such as sanitation, reforestation, and flood control, while "development projects" may focus on potable water supplies, forestry, and irrigation. But the project-by-project approach is clearly an ineffective means of promoting socioeconomic well-being. Development projects, if they are to be sustainable, must incorporate sound environmental management. By definition, this means that they must be designed to improve the quality of life and to protect or restore environmental quality at the same time and must also ensure that resources will not be degraded and that the threat of natural hazards will not be exacerbated. In short, good natural hazard management is good development project management.
Indeed, in high-risk areas, sustainable development is only possible to the degree that development planning decisions, in both the public and private sectors, address the destructive potential of natural hazards. This approach is particularly relevant in post-disaster situations, when tremendous pressures are brought to bear on local, national, and international agencies to replace, frequently on the same site, destroyed facilities. It is at such times that the pressing need for natural hazard and risk assessment information and its incorporation into the development planning process become most evident.
To address hazard management, specific action must be incorporated into the various stages of the integrated development planning study: first, an assessment of the presence and effect of natural events on the goods and services provided by natural resources in the plan area; second, estimates of the potential impact of natural events on development activities, and third, the inclusion of measures to reduce vulnerability in the proposed development activities. Within this framework, "lifeline" networks should be identified: components or critical segments of production facilities, infrastructure, and support systems for human settlements, which should be as nearly invulnerable as possible and be recognized as priority elements for rehabilitation following a disaster.
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English version
From Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
Related topics: Military
reconnaissancere‧con‧nais‧sance /rɪˈkɒnəsəns $ rɪˈkɑː-/ noun [countable, uncountable] 🔊 🔊 PMthe military activity of sending soldiers and aircraft to find out about the enemy’s forces 🔊 reconnaissance aircraft 🔊 a reconnaissance mission 🔊 wartime roles such as observation and reconnaissance
Examples from the Corpus
reconnaissanceAt best the amphibious raiders might have panoramic shots from aerial reconnaissance, or be given a flight over the target beach.This lone air reconnaissance effort, however, would obviously not be enough.There was little doubt that tactical support and reconnaissance for the land battle would still need piloted machines.In a conflict these would be vital for military communications, reconnaissance and even guiding missiles to their targets.Later reconnaissance indicated that this had sunk.The visit to Tempe was in any case not a military reconnaissance.In reality, the Navy was undertaking only minimal reconnaissance, mainly because of a lack of airplanes.Infantry traditionally performed three roles: It held ground, took ground, and con-ducted precise reconnaissance when on patrol.
Pictures of the day
Do you know what each of these is called?
Click on the pictures to check.
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Friday, October 7, 2011
Pretty Curve with Mathematics: Cycloid
It was a dark night. Hedwig, the owl, was sitting up on the branch of a tree when he spotted a mouse on the ground. He swoops down silently to catch the mouse. Owls can be really silent when they just glide down. What path should he take to reach the mouse? Should it be a straight line? Or a curve? What curve?
It turns out, that Hedwig the owl should follow a curve called "Cycloid" to reach the mouse the fastest. Birds also tend to take this path when they glide short distances from branch to branch.
There is one more interesting property of a cycloid. If a smooth slide is made into the shape of a cycloid, no matter at what point you jump on to the slide, you'll take the same amount of time to reach the bottom. Isn't that interesting?
Cycloid is the path a point on circle takes when it rolls on a surface. It looks simple, but has many variations. When we roll the circle over another circle, instead of a straight line, we get a much cooler looking Epicycloid. And if the circle moves around the inner circumference, rather than the outer circumference, we get a Hypocycloid.
Requires Java permissions to run.
Play around with the sliders above. Can you get the cycloid to trace a straight line? It happens when the small circle is just half the radius of the large circle and is moving inside the large circle.
If you observe a point inside the circle, rather than one on the circumference, it appears to move slightly differently. That's called a Trochoid. So we can have Epitrochoids and Hypotrochoids from such points. Actually cycloids are a special type of trochoid where the point is right on the edge of the circle.
Cycloids are used today
• in designing gears and pumps
• in designing pistons that convert circular motion to uniform linear motion
• space craft and aircraft follow this curve when the climb up to minimize time and energy
Below is an application that you can play around with and create some interesting shapes using cycloids. It needs Java permissions to run. Your browser should be asking for it.
1. Very interesting Math Wizard.....keep finding more solutions.
2. Even someone like me in a permanent dread of Mathematics could follow it. Smart post.
3. @umashankar Thanks. Glad that you liked this! To tell the truth, even I dread maths. ;) So I decided to just enjoy and have fun with it, instead of trying to 'learn' it.
@sriramnivas Thanks for the encouragement!
Thank you. I'm all ears!
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We live in a greenhouse world; without such gases Earth would be too cold to sustain life as we know it. Water vapor, the principal molecule that keeps us warm, accounts for almost all (98 percent) of the natural heating of the world. Other gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), also contribute to a warmer world. Over the last three hundred years, as the world has industrialized and become more and more dependent on fossil fuels, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased by more than 30 percent while methane concentrations, mainly from agriculture, have increased by about 150 percent. Atmospheric scientists have predicted that increases in those greenhouse gases will lead to, or are already producing, a warmer world. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, a UN body tasked with the science of global warming) believes that if nothing is done to slow global warming, the amount of CO2 will have doubled by the year 2060, causing the world’s temperature to rise by about 2.5°C (4.5°F).
Interestingly, Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius, the first to predict global warming (1896), believed that it would be beneficial, especially for northern countries. In 1992, however, the fear of harm from global warming led most of the world’s national governments, including the U.S. government, to sign the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. These governments pledged to take voluntary steps to cap carbon emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. The U.S. Senate ratified that treaty later in 1992. International activity continued with a subsequent meeting in Berlin (1995), followed by the meeting in Kyoto (1997) that negotiated a protocol mandating emission reductions by the advanced countries of the world but exempting the rest of the globe. The Clinton administration signed the protocol, knowing that with large countries like China and India excluded, the Senate would be unlikely to ratify it. Indeed, President Clinton refused to send the protocol to the Senate for ratification, and the Senate voted 95–0 against any treaty that excluded some countries. Shortly after taking office, George W. Bush announced that the United States was withdrawing from the treaty on the grounds that the costs to the U.S. economy would be too high.
What are the likely consequences of global warming? Are they wholly bad, or are some bad effects offset by good results? Economists as well as scientists, it turns out, have a lot to contribute to this discussion.
The Pros and Cons of Global Warming
The media and many others have attributed to global warming every possible weather, from more to less climate variability, from more rainfall to more drought, and from more violent winter storms to fewer and weaker cold weather surges. But an examination of its likely effects suggests little basis for that gloomy view. According to the IPCC, global warming would warm winters more than summers, would produce more precipitation, and would lead to more of an increase in temperatures at higher latitudes—that is, in already cold regions—than at the equator.
How would climate affect economies? Climate affects principally agriculture, forestry, and fishing. For the United States, these three total less than 2 percent of the GDP. Manufacturing, most service industries, and nearly all extractive industries are immune to direct impacts from climate shifts. Factories can be built practically anywhere—in northern Sweden or in Canada, in Texas, Central America, or Mexico. Banking, insurance, medical services, retailing, education, and a wide variety of other services can prosper as well in warm climates (with air-conditioning) as in cold (with central heating). A warmer climate will lower transportation costs: less snow and ice will torment truckers and automobile drivers; fewer winter storms will disrupt air travel; bad weather in the summer has fewer disruptive effects and passes quickly; a lower incidence of storms and less fog will make shipping less risky. Higher temperatures will leave mining and the extractive industries largely unaffected; oil drilling in the northern seas and mining in the mountains might even benefit.
A few services, such as tourism, may be more susceptible to weather. A warmer climate would likely change the nature and location of pleasure trips. Many ski resorts, for example, might face less reliably cold weather and shorter seasons. Warmer conditions might also mean that fewer northerners would feel the need to vacation in Florida or the Caribbean. At the same time, new tourist opportunities might develop in Alaska, northern Canada, and other locales at higher latitudes or upper elevations. Shorter winters would benefit most outdoor recreation, such as golf, hiking, tennis, and picnicking.
In many parts of the world, warmer weather should mean longer growing seasons. If the world were to warm, the hotter climate would enhance evaporation from the seas and, in all probability, lead to more precipitation worldwide. Moreover, the enrichment of the atmosphere with CO2 would fertilize plants, making for more vigorous growth. The IPCC assessment of warming is that “a few degrees of projected warming will lead to general increases in temperate crop yields, with some regional variation” (IPCC 2001, p. 32). Bjørn Lomborg, a Danish environmentalist and statistician, reported that with moderate adaptation by farmers, warming would boost cereal production in richer countries by 4–14 percent, while cutting them in poorer countries by 6–7 percent (2001, p. 288). The U.S. Department of Agriculture, in a cautious report, reviewed the likely influence of global warming and concluded that the overall effect on world food production would be slightly positive and that, therefore, agricultural prices would probably decrease (Kane et al. 1991).
Global warming could melt glaciers and thus cause rising sea levels, which would flood low-lying regions, including a number of islands and delta areas. The high-end estimate by the IPCC of the rise in the sea level by the year 2100 is three feet. Economists such as William Cline, William Nordhaus, and Richard Morgenstern, starting with this three-foot assumption, have estimated the costs of building dikes and levees and of the loss of land for the United States at $7–$10.6 billion annually, or about 0.1 percent of America’s GDP. For some small low-lying island nations, the problems would be much more severe; in some cases they might even be completely submerged.
The Dollar Costs of Climate Change
William Cline and William Nordhaus, separately, have estimated the cost of warming of 2.5°C (4.5°F) to be about 1 percent of the U.S. GDP. Actually, though, Nordhaus calculated the cost at only 0.25 percent and then guessed, on the basis of unmeasured sectors, that the total might be as high as 1 or 2 percent. Interestingly, both Cline and Nordhaus explicitly ignored potential benefits from a warmer climate. Other economists agree that the benefits, at least to the United States and probably to most northern countries, outweigh the costs. Robert Mendelsohn of Yale University and his colleague James Neumann found that, on net, the United States would gain around 0.1–0.2 percent in GDP for the moderate warming (2.5°C) likely to occur by 2060. Even their numbers underestimate the benefits by failing to include the gain to people from enjoying warm-weather recreation.
The American public prefers warm weather to cold, a benefit generally overlooked. Thomas Moore (1998) measured Americans’ preferences for climate by examining wage rates in various U.S. cities. He also looked at how death rates and hospital visits varied with climate. He found not only that people prefer warmer climates, but also that death rates and health care costs are lower in warmer climates. Based on these estimates, he concluded that the net benefits to the United States of a warmer climate could be as high as 1 percent of the GDP.
Unfortunately, some of the rest of the world, especially poor agricultural regions and those subject to flooding from rising sea levels, will suffer more from global warming. Interestingly, though, virtually all published estimates based on careful research put the cost to the world of a doubling of CO2 at less than or equal to 1.5 percent of world income. The IPCC’s Working Group III in its report to policymakers quoted estimates of the total cost from a doubling of CO2 as “a few percent of world GDP.”
Although many agree that the cost of warming, after adjustment, may be small, some observers have worried that the speed of climate change will be unprecedented, making adjustment difficult and costly. Ice core researchers have shown, however, that climate has shifted in the past as rapidly as, or more rapidly than, is predicted over the next century. In addition, the IPCC has reduced the temperature increase forecast over the next century from 5.8°F in 1990 to 3.6°F in 1995, sharply slicing the rate of change of climate. In short, there is little to fear from global warming and possibly something to gain; even the need for a “no regrets policy”—a policy with little cost but some reduction in greenhouse gases—seems negligible.
The Cost of Kyoto and of Stopping Warming
As mentioned above, most of the participating nations’ governments signed the 1997 Kyoto protocol pledging that the major countries would reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases by 5 percent from their 1990 levels. Under this agreement, the United States would have had to cut its emissions by 7 percent from the 1990 levels, or about 30 percent of the emission likely by 2010, when those cuts were to be fully in place. While this treaty would have cost the United States around 3 percent of its GDP, or $300 billion, it would have had a negligible effect on slowing climate change.
Bert Bolin, former chairman of the IPCC, notes that if Kyoto were fully implemented, twenty-five years later the global temperature would be cut “by less than 0.1 degree C, which would not be detectable.” Lomborg estimates that the world climate will increase by 1.92°C by 2094 if nothing is done. If Kyoto is fully followed, it will take six more years to reach the same temperature. In other words, Kyoto will neither stop nor seriously slow climate change. We would need many times Kyoto to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
Thus, it would cost several times Kyoto, more than 10 percent of our GDP, to stop the buildup of CO2 while, at the outside, climate change would cost only about 1 percent of U.S. income and could be beneficial.
About the Author
Thomas Gale Moore is a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University. Between 1985 and 1989 he was a member of President Reagan’s Council of Economic Advisers.
Further Reading
Cline, William R. The Economics of Climate Change. Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1992.
IPCC Working Group II. Climate Change 2001, Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2001.
IPCC Working Group III. “Summary for Policymakers: The Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change.”1995.
Kane, Sally, John Reilly, and James Tobey. Climate Change: Economic Implications for World Agriculture. Agricultural Economics Report no. 647, Resources and Technology Division, Economic Research Service. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1991.
Lomborg, Bjørn. The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Mendelsohn, Robert, and James E. Neumann. The Impact of Climate Change on the United States Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Morgenstern, Richard. “Towards a Comprehensive Approach to Global Climate Change Mitigation.” American Economic Review 81 (May 1991): 140–145.
Moore, Thomas Gale. Climate of Fear: Why We Shouldnt Worry About Global Warming. Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute, 1998.
Moore, Thomas Gale. “Health and Amenity Effects of Global Warming.” Economic Inquiry 36 (July 1998): 471–488.
Nordhaus, William D. Managing the Global Commons. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994.
Nordhaus, William D. “To Slow or Not to Slow: The Economics of the Greenhouse Effect.” Economic Journal 101 (July 1991): 920–937.
Nordhaus, William D., and Joseph Boyer. Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000.
Schelling, Thomas. “Some Economics of Global Warming.” American Economic Review 82 (March 1992): 1–14.
Relevant Web Sites
http://www.enviroliteracy.org/. Provides excellent information and links to solid information on a variety of environmental areas, including climate change. Although intended for high school teachers, it provides material at various levels.
http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/index.html. The official Environmental Protection Agency site. It provides charts and thumbnail coverage of various aspects of climate change.
http://www.ipcc.ch/. The official Web site of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change with their reports.
http://www.globalwarming.org/. The site of the Cooler Heads Coalition, an industry-funded group that is skeptical about the significance of the issue.
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Researchers at MIT created a machine to bend and twist noodles to snap them in two equal halves. This machine was specially designed to twist and break noodles. (All photo via MIT)
MIT is usually at the forefront of groundbreaking science and technology. And they’ve done it again, but this time it involves spaghetti. Breaking spaghetti noodles in half is easier than it sounds. Sure, you’ll get two halves, but they never break off into clean pieces. This issue has stumped scientists for decades. Even famed physicist Richard Fenman spent a night breaking pasta to figure out why the sticks won’t snap in two. It puzzled scientists at MIT too, but they may have figured out the secret: twisting the noodles first.
When you bend a spaghetti noodle, it breaks in the middle but sends another wave back along each side; this known as “the snap-back effect.” To combat this, researchers found a way to break noodles into two, by bending and twisting the dry noodles. The team made a special machine for the experiment. Each end has a clamp that holds a stick of spaghetti in place. One clamp rotates and twists the dry noodle by different degrees, while the other clamp slides towards the twisting one to make the spaghetti bend. After various experiments, the team found the noodles have to be twisted at 270 degrees and slowly bent at the speed of 0.11 inch (3 millimeters) per second, it will snap into two equal pieces.
Whereas snap back creates a bending wave, which makes the stick wobble back and forth, the unwinding creates a twist wave where the stick corkscrews back and forth before it comes to rest. Twisting the noodle creates a wave that travels faster than the bending wave, which dissipates energy so that additional stress accumulations, which could cause fractures, don’t happen.
So, what’s the point of this experiment? Is it geared toward foodies and chefs? There’s more to it than that. The team believes their research can help scientists figure out how to control fractures in other spaghetti shaped materials, like “engineered nanotubes or microtubules in cells,” multi-fiber structures, or even microtubules found in your cells.
"It will be interesting to see whether and how twist could similarly be used to control the fracture dynamics of two-dimensional and three-dimensional materials," said co-author Jörn Dunkel in a statement. "In any case, this has been a fun interdisciplinary project started and carried out by two brilliant and persistent students — who probably don't want to see, break, or eat spaghetti for a while."
Their findings were recently published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and can be found here.
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Usage Notes
'Equivocate': What It Does and Doesn't Mean
'Equivocate' does not mean 'equate,' and 'equivocation' is not 'equivalence'
To equivocate is to say something in a way that can be understood multiple ways, especially so that people will think you mean one thing when you really mean another. It's choosing and arranging your words carefully so that you're not quite lying but so that your listener winds up deceived or misled.
"Did you finish the brownies?" asked Mabel the Cat.
"I make it a practice to never eat the last of anything shared," answered Harry the Dog.
"Then who ate the last brownie?" Mabel inquired.
Harry said nothing.
Harry the Dog is equivocating. He may make it a practice to never eat the last of anything shared, but that doesn't mean that he never breaks that practice. Harry did eat the last brownie, and he doesn't want to admit it. His statement is technically true, but it's deceptive.
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It's all a matter of interpretation.
Equivocate and its adjective and noun relations, equivocal and equivocation, come from Late Latin aequivocus, itself from aequi-, meaning "equal" or "equally," and voc- or vox, meaning "voice." "Equal voice" sounds like a nicely egalitarian kind of notion, but in this case it's conflicting interpretations that have equal voice, which makes knowing what to believe very tricky.
Equivocate and its pals get confused with other equi- words from time to time, like equate and equivalence (and the latter word's synonym, equivalency). For example:
"Brownies are basically a lazy person's chocolate cake, anyway," Mabel mused, wistfully attempting to tug on a whisker.
"Pshaw!" Harry retorted. "Brownies are a thing unto themselves! Equivocating brownies with cake is a crime against the very concept of repast."
"You mean 'equating brownies with cake,' Harry." Mabel was feeling impatient.
"I know what I'm talking about, Mabel. The equivocation of brownies with cake is an affront." Harry was indignant.
"But it's the wrong way to say it, Harry. It's the equating of brownies with cake that you think is an affront."
Mabel's certainty carried a certain weight. A sigh escaped Harry's clenched maw. "How about if I say that there is no equivalence between brownies and chocolate cake."
"You can say that," Mabel replied sadly, resigned to no dessert, "but it's not true."
And then there is the wholly unrecommendable phrase false equivocation. Since equivocation is about deception at worst and avoidance at best, false equivocation doesn't make sense. The established phrase is false equivalence. It refers to the identification of unequal things as equal in some important way, especially because of a shared characteristic—even if the degree to which they each possess that characteristic is dramatically different:
"It's true," Harry admitted, "that brownies and chocolate cake are both chocolatey baked confections, but …"
He went silent and no one said anything for a time.
Then, Mabel considered: "But actually, now that I think about it, you're right, Harry. The crumbly, cakey quality of cake is distinct from the moist chewiness of brownies. To say that all chocolatey baked confections are the same is a false equivalence."
"I'm glad you've seen the light, Mabel," Harry intoned, and resolved to make her a fresh batch of brownies for breakfast. "They're hardly the same at all."
Regardless of how you feel about brownies and cake, and regardless of your moral stance on eating the last bit of a shared office baked good (oh yeah, we forgot to mention Mabel and Harry were at work in this short play), do not waver on the use of equivocate: its meaning is solid, at least for now.
Love words? Need even more definitions?
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By Andrew Kaufman, Serafima Gettys, Nina Wieda
Using Russian for numbers and counting can be tricky if you need to work extensively with numbers, such as in mathematics and accounting. Each Russian number has six forms depending on how it’s used! The good news is that most of the time, you’ll only need to use the nominative case.
Since most people won’t find themselves needing to know all the different forms, we’ll focus on just the most commonly used form: the nominative case. You’ll probably use the numbers between zero and 9 the most.
0 to 9
nol’ nohl’ 0
odin ah-DEEN 1
dva dvah 2
tri tree 3
chyetyrye chee-TIH-r’eh 4
pyat’ p’aht’ 5
shyest’ shehst’ 6
syem’ s’ehm’ 7
vosyem’ VOH-s’ehm’ 8
dyevyat’ D’EH-v’uht’ 9
• The number one followed by a noun: This number changes depending on the gender of the following noun: if masculine, say odin followed by the noun as in odin chyelovyek (ah-DEEN chee-lahVEHK) (one man); if feminine, say odna and if the noun is neuter, say odno.
• The number two followed by a noun: Change noun to singular. For masculine or neuter nouns, say dva, for feminine nouns, say dvye, as in dva chyelovyeka (dvah chee-lah-VEH-kuh) (two men) and dvye dyevushki (dveh DEH-voosh-kee) (two girls).
• The numbers three and four followed by a noun: Change the noun to singular; however, these numbers don’t change according to gender.
• The numbers five through nine followed by a noun: Change the noun to plural, but do not change the noun according to gender, as in the phrase pyat’ dyevushyek (paht DEHvoo-shehk) (five girls).
Nouns following numerals 10 through 19 take the genitive plural:
10 to 19
dyesyat’ D’EH-s’uht’ 10
odinnadtsat’ ah-DEE-nuht-tsuht’ 11
dvyenadtsat’ dvee-NAHT-tsuht’ 12
trinadtsat’ tree-NAHT-tsuht’ 13
chyetyrnadtsat’ chee-TIHR-nuht-tsuht’ 14
pyatnadtsat’ peet-NAHT-tsuht’ 15
shyestnadtsat’ shees-NAHT-tsuht’ 16
syemnadtsat’ seem-NAHT-tsuht’ 17
vosyemnadtsyat’ vuh-seem-NAHT-tsuht’ 18
dyevyatnadtsat’ dee-veet-NAHT-tsuht’ 19
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The Nilgiris, forming a part of the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve in the Western Ghats is home to moist, dry, evergreen and montane (shola) tropical forests. The Western Ghats, and the Nilgiris in particular, harbour a wealth of flora and fauna; much of which is restricted to the region. e.g. the endagered lion tailed macaque and the Nilgiri tahr. The Nilgiris forest ecosystem is, however, under pressures, e.g. from tea and coffee plantations, illegal, logging and commercial tree plantations with exotics initiated by the Forest Department. It also has a significant tribal population, dependent on natural resources for their livelihood; including the only surviving hunter-gatherers of the Indian sub-continent the Sholanaikans in the New Amarambalam region of Nilgiris. Given its distinct character, the Nilgiris forms part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (declared under the Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO).
Diversity of Forests
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve includes all the important forest types that are to be found in South India as well as some that are just peculiar to the belt such as Tropical Thorn Forest, Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests, Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests, Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests, Sub Tropical Broad Leaved Forests, Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests, Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forests, Southern Montane Wet Grasslands and Subtropical Hill Savannas.
Forest Divisions
The NBR is spread over a large within three states and varied climatic zones. The forest divisions are as follows:
Coimbatore Division Nilgiri South Division
Nilgiri South Division Erode Division
Satyamangalam Division Nilambur Division
Mudumalai Sanctuary Wyanad Division
Palghat Division Chamrajnagar Division
Project Tiger Bandipur Mysore Division
Hunsur Division
Protected Areas
The large contiguous extent of forest has the highest density of protected areas in the entire nation for so small an area.
No. Name District
Area (ha)
Perceived Threats
1 Mudumalai WLS & NP Nilgiris 21776 27.01.1940 Exotics, anthropogenic pressures
2 Mukurthi NP Nilgiris 7846 15.10.1991 Introduction of exotics, poaching
3 Wyanad Wyanad 34444 03.05.1973 Degradation, Biotic pressures
4 Bandipur NP Mysore 87420 15.03.1985 Uncontrolled tourism
5 Nagarhole NP Mysore & Kodagu 64339 01.04.1983 Uncontrolled tourism
6 Silent Valley NP Palakkad 8952 15.11.1984 Extraction of medicinal plants, removal of timber & poaching
People of the NBR
The Biosphere has a large number of indigenous communities, most of them forest dwellers and hunter gatherers. These distinct ethnic groups have small populations and live in geographical concentrations. It forms home to several adivasi communities, including the only surviving hunter gatherers of the Indian Sub-continent – the Cholanaikans in the New Amarambalam area. Apart from the Todas – a well known pastoral group in the upper Nilgiris, other groups include the Paniyas, Irulas, Kurumbas, Kuruchiyans, Mullukurumbas, Adiyans and Alyars. Its richness in terms of people is incomparable – history goes back a long way!. Their unique cultural and social characteristics sets them apart.
Forest Types
The forests of NBR are spread over a vast area and cover various ecotypes. The following pages explain the difference in forest types and its relevance to the culture and ecology of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
The overall classification of the different forest types are as follows
1. Evergreen
2. Semi Evergreen
3. Moist Deciduous
4. Shola
5. Dry Deciduous
6. Dry Scrub Woodland
7. Grasslands
Evergreen Forest
These forests form a major portion of the western part of the reserve and are characterized by giant trees, multilayered species variation and luxuriant vegetation. The giant lofty trees can go upto a height of 150 feet or more and are oftern supported by huge buttresses. These trees offer refuge to a multitude of life forms including mosses, ferns, epiphytes, orchids, birds and often small animals. The annual rainfall is more than 200 mm with a maximum of 4 -5 dry months, and the mean temperature higher than 150 C throughout the year. The soil is loamy laterite. The main NTFPs are wild nutmeg (Myristica spp.), cinnamom (Cinnamonum spp.), cane (Calamus spp.), Piper longum, honey and other herbs. These forest are located in Silent Valley, Attapadi Reserve Forest, New Amarambalam, Nilambur Special Division and small pockets of Coimbatore Division in Tamil Nadu. Its ecology is that of the Cullenia-Mesua-Paaquim series.
Semi Evergreen
These forests are moist and occur as a transition zone between the Evergreen Forests and the Moist Deciduous Forests. The trees are slightly lower in height as compared to Evergreen Forests. They are usually found in the lower or more accessible regions of the Evergreen Forests. Buttressed trees are quite common, lianas are also abundant. There are 2 possible transition zones for these forests – either they secondary forests moving towards the evergreen climax or they are the degraded forms of the Evergreen Forests. In some degraded areas around habitations, bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) and sandalwood (Santanalis spp.) are also found. Lagerstroemia lanceolata is the predominant deciduous species. The otehr main species are Bischofia javanica, Calophylum polyanthum, Tetrameles nudiflora, Artocarpus gomezianus and Dalbergia sissoides.
Moist Deciduous
These forests are restricted to parts of Nilambur valley and even here they have been mostly converted to teak plantations. Wyanad plateau, the south western part of Nagarhole National Park, and western part of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary also contain remnants of this type. Rainfall is around 3000-4000 mm with a dry season of 3-4 months. The soil is generally red lateritic loam. They are also classified as moist deciduous teak type and under this, the TectonaDilleniaLagerstroemia lanceolataTerminalia paniculata series.
The undergrowth includes many evergreen shrubs and small trees. The trees reach a height of 25-30 m. Buttresses, lianas and dense undergrowth are common. Some species are common to the dry deciduous forest type also. The common trees include Tetrameles nudiflora, Steriospermum personatum, Dysoxylum binectariferum, Ficus nevosa, Ficus glomerata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Salmalia malabarica, Terminalia bellerica, Terminalia tomentosa.
Shola Montane
Sholas are found intensively in the Nilgiri South Division and adjacent areas of Kerala in the upper reaches of Silent Valley, Attapadi and New Amarambalam. They are also highly concentrated in the Western catchment area, forming part of the Mukurthi National Park. They are accompanied by grasslands and are frequently the origin of most of the rivers of the zone. The trees are short to medium height (7-20 m), have small dense leaves and make a thick canopy. There is a thick concentration of mosses and ferns. They have a high water retention capacity. They are also classified as the Shola Montane forest type due to their slow growth, high susceptibility and confined geographical area – they are referred to as `Living Fossils’. The average rainfall is around 1000-1200 m with a maximum dry season of not more than one month. The main trees in this forest are Michellia niligarica, Bischofia javanica, Calophyllum tomentosa, Cedrela toona, Eugenia spp., Ficus glomerata, Mallotus spp., Rhododendron spp., Machilus macarantha, Litea spp., etc.
Betta Kurumbas
The Betta Kurumbas live in northern parts of Gudalur, extending into the Mysore district in the north. These people live in large settlements of 60-80 households. Most have no land and depend on wage labour and NTFP collection for a large part of the year. With the rapid change to tea cultivation in Gudalur area, these adivasis have become daily wage workers. Many of them have found employment with the Forest Department as watchers and elephant mahouts. Some of them are skilled bamboo workers. Today, the Betta Kurumbas have access to government schemes and help from other agencies. During the season, they go into the forest to mainly collect shikakai (Acacia concinna), kodampuli (Garcinia gummigutta) and some medicinal plants. They are not good honey collectors and like the Irulas, cover a wide area and collect small volumes; the more specialized/skilled collection of herbs and honey is left for the Kattunaikans.
Jenu Kurumba
Living in the northern part of the reserve, they are named such due to their skill in honey collection – jenu means honey. These communities are concentrated in the Mysore and Kodagu districts in the Karnataka part of the NBR. Cultivable land has been given to these communities, though they are traditionally hunter-gatherers. Some of the people undertake seasonal agriculture or else depend on wage labour. They collect forest produce, mainly honey, during the season and travel sometimes across the forest to Kerala to sell it. They are socially organized into groups and sangams in different zones. There are approximately 40,000 Jenu Kurumbas in the NBR.
Anthropologists do not consider them original inhabitants of hills. They have moved up to the mountains either for wage labour or while doing slash and burn agriculture. Usually, the Irulas have very little link to the other adivasis in the region, except with the Kurumbas. They have a more plains-ward movement and associate with agricultural and trading communities in the adjacent plains around the hills. Hunting, food gathering and agriculture form a distinctive way of making a living, which they now carry out, mainly for commerce.
They usually go in groups into the forest and collect items for sale to traders. Till now, the hunting for small game and eating of roots from the forest is common. They collect honey from the Roch Bee from trees and from the combs of the smaller bee – Apis cerana. They have a more widespread foraging strategy, collecting more volume for trade by covering vast areas. They too have knowledge of various medicinal plants, which they use. However, they hold the Kurumbas in awe for their skill in sorcery and medicine.
Though very few in number, approximately 1500 people, this community is well known for their distinct features and traditions. They are scattered over 40 settlements in the Nilgiris. They are pastoralists, breeding buffaloes for both custom and livelihood. Their traditional huts, like igloos, are made of different products from the forest. Due to the nature of their activities, they traditionally commanded large stretches of land for grazing. These were mainly in the upper areas of the Nilgiris, with grasslands and shola vegetation. After the advent of the British and the introduction of exotic plantations of acacia and eucalyptus, their pastures are lost and many of their traditional landmarks become meaningless.
The Cholanaickans live in the Karulai Forest Range of Nilambur in Kerala, forming part of the western NBR. They are the most primitive indigenous community, still in the pre-agricultural level of development. The people live in temporary shelters alongside rivers and shift to caves in the monsoons. Their lives are closely linked to the semi evergreen and moist deciduous forests around that area. They collect NTFPs and sell them to the Co-operative Society of Nilambur. They collect honey, black dammer, mosses, nutmeg, shikakai from the forest and take back rice, tobacco, salt, oil and other necessities from the Society. Now, they number approximately 426 and continue their lifestyle, though slowly being drawn into modern market economies. Very few development programmes address this community and since they are so few in number, they also marry into other communities, especially the Padinaickens.
The Malasars are found both in the district of Coimbatore and in the adjoining parts of Kerala. These people are a forest community, living on marginal cultivation (slash & burn), and collection of NTFPs. A large part of their diet also consists of wild yam (Dioscorea spp.). The Malasars live in low elevations and almost down to the plains. Some of the villages have good access and infrastructure facilities. Most of the younger generation is getting educated and some are working on regular jobs. A vast difference is found in the economic status of the adivasis in different settlements. Some of the Malasars practice settled agriculture, whereas most earn their livelihood through daily wage jobs.
Mostly residing in the southern and eastern belts of the Nilgiris, this group was historically known for their sorcery powers and providing medicine from the forest. They were the `people of the jungle’ and lived in caves inside thick forests. Kurumbas collected myrobalans, barks and roots, both for personal use and exchange for grain and salt. They also practiced slash and burn cultivation with millet, chillies and pumpkin. Today, these Kurumbas are settled in villages, adjacent to forests, eking out their living, partly by working on their own lands, working for wages in nearby estates or from collections from the forest. These people are today becoming part of the world around them – e.g. the adivasis of Joghi Kombei have shifted from their remote village of Erukal Kombei. The homesteads are often unkept, close to large rocks which they use for various chores like drying, cleaning, washing sharpening tools, cutting firewood, etc. Some of the Kurumbas villages have house made by the government – in rows with flat drying yards in the front. The settlement size varies from 3-60 households, with an average of 14 households and a population of 40 people. These are usually dispersed settlements.
They live in the forested Wyanad region of the NBR. This is a matriarchal society and the women participate in agricultural operations, fishing, animal husbandry, fuel collection, etc. Most land is owned by lineages, wheras there are a few individual owners now. Traditionally, they were shifting cultivators and hunters but now they mostly farm or are farm labourers. Some Kuruchians are also in government jobs and in the defence. Government schemes and programmes have reached out to these communities.
The Kattunaicken get their name from the words `kadu'(forests) & nayakan (leader/chief) and live in parts of Gudalur. They live as a nuclear family and follow patriarchy. However, land ownership is not common. The primary occupation of this community is based on hunting and gathering, especially honey. The Kattunaikans, now live near or inside estates or are settled just outside the Mudumalai and Wynad Sanctuaries. Their settlement sizes are very small, with an average of 5-8 households; sometimes just 1-2 families can be found living together.
Some Naickens, especially those living inside the Mudumalai Sanctuary and in Wyanad, have special affiliations with the Mandan Chettis and Mappilas, working in their paddy fields and supplying with forest produce, including firewood. Till today, these Naickens live with very few assets in small bamboo huts and are extremely shy in meeting outsiders. Around their houses, they grow a little ginger, coffee, pepper, tapioca and yam – but are generally not cultivators. They collect NTFP during the season, but not in large quantities. Honey is the main collection item, other items being forest pepper, cinnamon and nutmeg. Like the Alu Kurumbas, they have a strategy of less volume, high value collection. They have demarcated boundaries within which they forage, often the husband and wife leaving together. Now, they also work in Coorg, where there is seasonal demand for labour in coffee estates.
Mullu Kurumbas
The Mullu Kurumbas are concentrated in the Wyanad region, including parts of Gudalur. Known more for their hunting and bird catching traditions, they now practise agriculture in the vyals of Wyanad. The women engage in fishing traditionally. Today, most people are educated and hold jobs. They take advantage of government schemes and their special status. A lot of the culture is now borrowed from the Nayars of Kerala, though they have an animistic form of worship.
The Kasavas live in the northern part of the Nilgiri District and have large settlements, averaging 80 households. Their houses are small and neat. Presently, they are mainly built with the support of the Panchayat or the Forest Department. Living close to a wildlife rich area, these adivasis are adept in the forest. They are good NTFP collectors and have a high economic dependence on this activity. Most of the adivasis have land, which is left barren due to lack of water facilities. Since the land is rocky, it is seasonally planted with millet and vegetables. Crop destruction from wild animals is also a constant threat to them. They too, like the Irulas, collect NTFP in bulk and sell it to traders. They collect honey from trees and small rocks. They also hunt small game. The Kasavas are also herdsmen, looking after herds of cows, owned by the Badaga community from whom they get wages. However, this has created an extensive overgrazing pressure in the area. The whole area in which the Kasavas live, is under consideration for being declared a protected area.
Small but significant populations of Chettis are found in the region. These are both Wynad Chettis and the Mandhadan Chettis. The latter live in the Gudalur region around the Mudumalai Sanctuary. They practice paddy cultivation and have links with other communities of the region.
This community is significant in the Wynad region. They number approximately 6000 and many of them were (are) bonded labourers to landlords in Wynad. They have now been rehabilitated but a large number do not have land and go back as labourers. In recent times, protests in the Muthanga area of Wyanad were related to access to land and included the Paniya community, amongst other adivasis. Access to land and work, living conditions are the major issues facing this community.
This community mainly lives in the Mysore district of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, just north of the area where most Betta Kurumbas are located. It is difficult to distinguish between the two communities as they are very similar in their lifestyle. However, detailed studies of kinship reveal different communities. These people also depend on different means of wage work, forest collection and mixed agriculture. They are good bamboo basket makers and are also skilled in forest labour work including the trapping of wild elephants. Their approximate population is 15,000.
These hunter-gatherers are mainly located in the Karnataka part of the NBR, bordering towards Biligiri Rangan Betta. This area is covered with forests, which is their largest resource base for livelihood and sustenance. They also practice shifting cultivation but are now settled in villages, where they undertake seasonal agriculture. They are good honey collectors from trees and undertake basket weaving.
The largest single ethno minority in the Nilgiri District of the NBR, this community numbers approximately 2,00,000. Principally tillers and herdsmen, now the community members are in all walks of life. They are supposed to have come to the Nilgiris, after the break up of the Vijaynagar Empire in 1565 and settled here. After the British came to Nilgiris, it was the Badagas who took to change and modernity. However, even today, they maintain their ethnic distinction which is reflected in language, settlements and costume. The Badagas play an important role in the cultural landscape of the area. They are not classified as `tribe’ by the government, but as `backward class’.
The Kotas are the artisanal adivasis of the Nilgiris. There are 7 Kota Villages in the hills. They are skilled as blacksmiths, silversmiths and carpenters. The women practice pottery. The Kotas also cultivated their own lands and were known to be good musicians. During earlier times, this community supplied tools, pots and other artisanal services mainly to Badagas and Todas. Now these occupations are not followed, as modern equipments have taken over. Some pottery is still done for ritualistic purposes. This community is now mostly educated and can be seen holding government jobs, owning tea gardens or running small businesses. They now number approximately 1900 people only.
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Discovery of the Mississippi
The gathering of the nations at the Sault Ste. Marie by St. Lusson, was followed by an event of the utmost importance to French interest in the west. This was the discovery, if such it can be called, of the Upper Mississippi. Now, for the first time, the upper half of that river was, to a certain extent, explored. For the first time white men beheld its vast tribute in this upper country, rolling onward toward the Mexican gulf. The discoverer was Louis Joliet. He had visited the upper lakes in previous years, knew well of the existence of the great river through Indian reports, was a man of close and intelligent observation, possessing considerable mathematical acquirement's. He was born at Quebec in 1645, and was educated by the Jesuits, resolving at first to be a priest but afterward turned fur trader. In 1673 he was a merchant, courageous, hardy, enterprising.
He was just the man for the French authorities to entrust with the proposed discovery and exploration of the Upper Mississippi. This was in 1672. Said the governor of Canada, on the 2d of November of that year: "It has been judged expedient to send Sieur Joliet to the Mascoutins (then located in what is now Green Lake county, Wisconsin), to discover the South Sea, and the great river they call the Mississippi, which is supposed to discharge itself into the Sea of California." He is a man," continued Frontenac, "of great experience in these sorts of discoveries, and has already been almost at the great river, the mouth of which he promises to see.
Upper Mississippi
Upper Mississippi River Basin
Joliet reached the mission of St. Ignatius, a point north of the Island of Mackinaw, in the spring of 1673, finding there Father James Marquette, missionary, whom he invited to join the expedition. The invitation was gladly accepted. On the 17th of May, Joliet, having with him Marquette and five other Frenchmen, left the mission on his voyage of exploration. He had two bark canoes. Every possible precaution was taken that, should the undertaking prove hazardous, it should not be foolhardy. So, whatever of information could not be gathered from the Indians who had frequented those parts,- was laid under contribution, as he paddled merrily up the waters of Green Bay. The first Indian nation met by him was the Menominee. He was dissuaded by these savages from venturing so far to the westward, assured that he would meet tribes which never spared strangers, but tomahawked them without provocation; that a war which had broken out among various nations on his route, exposed him and his men to another evident danger - that of being killed by war parties constantly in his path. He was told that the great river was very dangerous unless the different parts were known; that it was full of frightful monsters who swallowed men and canoes together; that there was even a demon there who could be heard from afar, who stopped the passage and engulfed all who dared approach; and lastly, that the heat was so excessive in those countries that it would infallibly cause their death. Nevertheless, Joliet determined to go forward.
Carl Zillier, Editor
Back to Sheboygan County History
Quote 06
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Harlem History
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Since New York City’s revival in the late 20th century, Harlem has been experiencing social and economic gentrification. However, Harlem still suffers from many social problems. Large portions of the population receive a form of income support from the government—with West, Central, and East Harlem respectively at 34.9%, 43.3%, and 46.5% of the population.
Harlem’s black population peaked in the 1950s, but the neighborhood is still predominantly black.
Map of Harlem; this map has excluded Morningside Heights as a part of Harlem
Harlem is located in Upper Manhattan—often referred to as Uptown by locals—and stretches from the East River west to the Hudson River between 155 Street, where it meets Washington Heights, to a ragged border along the south.
Central Harlem—Manhattan Community Board No. 10—is bounded by Fifth Avenue on the east, Central Park on the south, Morningside Park, Saint Nicholas and Edgecombe Avenues on the west and the Harlem River on the north. A chain of three large linear parks; Morningside, St. Nicholas and Jackie Robinson are situated on steeply rising banks and form most of the district’s western boundary. On the east, Fifth Avenue and Marcus Garvey Park, also known as Mount Morris Park, separate this area from East Harlem.
The West Harlem neighborhoods of Morningside Heights, Manhattanville and Hamilton Heights comprise Manhattan Community Board No. 9. The area is bounded by Cathedral Parkway (110th Street) on the South; 155th Street on the North; Manhattan/Morningside Ave/St. Nicholas/Bradhurst/Edgecome Avenues on the East; and the Hudson River on the west. Morningside Heights is located in the southern most section of West Harlem. Manhattanville begins at roughly 123rd Street and extends northward to 135th Street. The northern most section of West Harlem is Hamilton Heights.
East Harlem, within Manhattan Community Board 11, is bounded by East 96th Street on the south, East 142nd Street on the north, Fifth Avenue on the west and the Harlem River on the east.
Harlem is represented by New York’s 13th congressional district, the New York State Senate’s 30th district, the New York State Assembly’s 68th and 70th districts, and the New York City Council’s 7th, 8th, and 9th districts.
Founded in the 17th century as a Dutch military outpost named Nieuw Haarlem, Harlem became successively a farming village, a revolutionary battlefield, an industrial suburb, a commuter town, an American ghetto, and a world renowned center of African-American culture.
Black Harlem has always been religious. The area is home to over 400 churches. Major Christian denominations include Baptists, Pentecostals, Methodists (generally African Methodist Episcopalian, or “AME”), Episcopalians, and Roman Catholic. The Abyssinian Baptist Church has been a particularly potent organization, long influential because of its large congregation, and recently wealthy because its extensive real estate holdings. The Allah School in Mecca also lies in Harlem, which is the headquarter of the The Nation of Gods and Earths, better known as the Five Percenters. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints established a chapel at 128th Street in 2005.
Many of the area’s churches are “storefront churches”, which operate in an empty store, or a basement, or a converted brownstone townhouse. These congregations may have fewer than 30–50 members each, but there are hundreds of them. Others are old, large, and designated landmarks. Especially in the years before World War II, Harlem produced popular Christian charismatic “cult” leaders, including George Wilson Becton and Father Divine. Mosques in Harlem include the Malcolm Shabazz Mosque No. 7 (formerly Mosque No. 7 Nation of Islam, and the location of the 1972 Harlem Mosque incident), the Mosque of Islamic Brotherhood and Masjid Aqsa. Judaism, too, maintains a presence in Harlem through the Old Broadway Synagogue. A non-mainstream synagogue of black Jews known as Commandment Keepers, was based in a synagogue at 1 West 123rd Street until 2008.
Since 1965, the community has been home to the Harlem Boys Choir, a famous touring choir and education program for young boys, most of whom are black. The Girls Choir of Harlem was founded in 1989.
Manhattan’s contributions to hip-hop stems largely from artists with Harlem roots such as Kurtis Blow, Big L, Cam’ron, Immortal Technique, A$AP Rocky, Mase, and P. Diddy. Harlem is also the birthplace of popular hip-hop dances such as the Harlem shake, toe wop, and Chicken Noodle Soup.
Harlem suffers from unemployment rates higher than the New York average (generally more than twice as high)and high mortality rates as well. In both cases, the numbers for men have been consistently worse than the numbers for women. Unemployment and poverty in the neighborhood resisted private and governmental initiatives to ameliorate them. During the Great Depression, unemployment in Harlem went past twenty percent and people were being evicted from their homes.In the 1960s, uneducated blacks could find jobs more easily than educated ones could, confounding efforts to improve the lives of people who lived in the neighborhood through education. Land owners took advantage of the neighborhood and offered apartments to the lower class families for cheaper rent but in lower class conditions.As of 1999, 179,000 housing units were available for the citizens of Harlem.[29] Housing activists in Harlem state that, even after residents were given vouchers for the Section 8 housing that was being placed, many were not able to live there and had to find homes elsewhere or become homeless. Infant mortality was 124 per thousand in 1928 . By 1940, infant mortality in Harlem was 5% (one infant in 20 would die), and the death rate from disease generally was twice that of the rest of New York. Tuberculosis was the main killer, and four times as prevalent among Harlem citizens than among the rest of New York’s population.
A 1990 study reported that 15-year-old women in Harlem had a 65% chance of surviving to age 65, about the same as women in India. Men in Harlem, on the other hand, had a 37% chance of surviving to age 65, about the same as men in Angola. Infectious diseases and diseases of the circulatory system were to blame, with a variety of contributing factors, including consumption of the deep-fried foods traditional to the South, which may contribute to heart disease.
In the early 20th century, Harlem was a stronghold of the Italian Mafia. As the ethnic composition of the neighborhood changed, black criminals began to organize themselves similarly. However, rather than compete with the established mobs, gangs concentrated on the “policy racket,” also called the Numbers game, or bolita in Spanish Harlem. This was a gambling scheme similar to a lottery that could be played, illegally, from countless locations around Harlem. According to Francis Ianni, “By 1925 there were thirty black policy banks in Harlem, several of them large enough to collect bets in an area of twenty city blocks and across three or four avenues.”
The popularity of playing the numbers waned with the introduction of the state lottery, which has higher payouts and is legal. The practice continues on a smaller scale among those who prefer the numbers tradition or who prefer to trust their local numbers bank to the state.
Statistics from 1940 show about 100 murders per year in Harlem, “but rape is very rare.” By 1950, essentially all of the whites had left Harlem and by 1960, much of the black middle class had departed. At the same time, control of organized crime shifted from Jewish and Italian syndicates to local black, Puerto Rican, and Cuban groups that were somewhat less formally organized. At the time of the 1964 riots, the drug addiction rate in Harlem was ten times higher than the New York City average, and twelve times higher than the United States as a whole. Of the 30,000 drug addicts then estimated to live in New York City, 15,000 to 20,000 lived in Harlem. Property crime was pervasive, and the murder rate was six times higher than New York’s average. Half of the children in Harlem grew up with one parent, or none, and lack of supervision contributed to juvenile delinquency; between 1953 and 1962, the crime rate among young people increased throughout New York City, but was consistently 50% higher in Harlem than in New York City as a whole.
With the end of the “crack wars” in the mid-1990s and with the initiation of aggressive policing under mayor Rudolph Giuliani, crime in Harlem plummeted. In 1981, 6,500 robberies were reported in Harlem. The number dropped to 4,800 in 1990, perhaps due to an increase in the number of police assigned to the neighborhood. By 2000, only 1,700 robberies were reported. There have been similar changes in all categories of crimes tracked by the New York City Police Department.In the 32nd Precinct, which services Central Harlem above 127th Street, for example, between 1990 and 2008, the murder rate dropped 80%, the rape rate dropped 58%, the robbery rate dropped 73%, burglary dropped 86%, and the total number of crime complaints dropped 73%.
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Science Current Events | Science News |
Evolution of skull and mandible shape in cats
July 30, 2008
Modern cats appear to have quite different-looking skulls depending on their size, and small cats appear all to have rather abbreviated, tall and domed crania, whereas the skulls in large cats, such as lions, tigers, or leopards, are much more elongated and rectangular. Previously these criteria have been used to divide the modern cats into two distinct sub-groups, the small and large cats, which were inferred to differ in terms of evolutionary anatomy. However, no such sub-groups exist, and the actual shape of the skull shows a gradual transition from the smallest to the largest species.
The most powerful evolutionary selective driving factor behind skull shape in modern cats appears to have been the need to administer a powerful, precise killing-bite, irrespective of body size - this is a very important part of prey capture and killing in all cats. A cat's brain size decreases, relative to the size of its body, as the size of the cat increases and thus takes up less room in the back of the skull. Since a powerful killing bite entails large, powerful jaw muscles, this imposes strict limits on skull shape, suggesting that big cats simply need more elongated skulls with large muscle crests in order to maintain the ability to deliver a very powerful killing bite.
Sabertoothed cats were subjected to very different evolutionary driving forces. The most important factor governing their evolution seems to have been the need to administer a precise killing bite with a shearing action to the throat of large prey that will kill it very quickly. This led to a major re-organisation of the shape of the entire skull and mandible in the advanced species compared to all extant cats, and also to smaller, more primitive sabertoothed cats. The advanced sabertoothed cats had an entirely different skull and mandible shape from any modern cat, and they also differ a lot from more primitive sabertoothed cats, which have smaller upper canines. But this happened at the expense of powerful bite forces.
Primitive sabertoothed cats were capable of administering powerful killing bites, roughly of comparable force to modern cats of the same size, but derived species were only capable of much weaker killing bites. Such a killing style is probably very effective for killing large prey quickly, and this would be advantageous in ecosystems with high predator competition (which appears to have been the case in many extinct ecosystems).
However, this probably caused the derived sabertoothed cats to prey on only a limited variety of large prey species, putting them at risk of extinction if the ecosystems changed too much or too rapidly.
Interestingly, the modern clouded leopards are anatomically similar to the primitive sabertoothed cats, and Christiansen suggests that, in time, they may become more specialised and truly sabertoothed.
Public Library of Science
Related Sabertoothed Cats Current Events and Sabertoothed Cats News Articles
Male sabertoothed cats were pussycats compared to macho lions
Despite their fearsome fangs, male sabertoothed cats may have been less aggressive than many of their feline cousins, says a new study of male-female size differences in extinct big cats.
More Sabertoothed Cats Current Events and Sabertoothed Cats News Articles
Saber-Toothed Cat (Prehistoric Beasts)
Saber-Toothed Cat (Prehistoric Beasts)
by Marc Zabludoff (Author), Peter Bollinger (Illustrator)
Book by Zabludoff, Marc
Saber-Toothed Cats (On My Own Science)
Saber-Toothed Cats (On My Own Science)
by Susan E. Goodman (Author), Kerry Maguire (Illustrator)
Book by Goodman, Susan E.
14 Fun Facts About Saber-Toothed Cats (15-Minute Books Book 40)
You've seen them in museums. Large cats with giant teeth sticking out of their mouth! They are often called saber-toothed cats. Scientists often give them the name smilodon.
They are fantastic to look at, but how much do you know about these amazing prehistoric creatures? Here are some fun facts that scientists have discovered about saber-toothed cats.
Do you know:
How many kinds of saber-toothed cats were there?
How wide could a saber-toothed cat open their jaw?
Did the saber-toothed cat have retractable claws?
How big was the largest saber-toothed cat?
How did saber-toothed cats hunt?
Some saber-toothed cats are more closely related to what animal than they are to other cats?
Find out the answers to these questions and more and amaze...
Ancient Animals: Saber-toothed Cat
Ancient Animals: Saber-toothed Cat
by Sarah L. Thomson (Author), Andrew Plant (Illustrator)
The saber-toothed cat was a fearsome prehistoric predator. Written for beginning readers, clear and succinct text explains how we think saber-toothed cats lived, hunted, and became extinct. Back matter explores other large-toothed predators and provides additional print, visual, and web resources.
Saber-toothed Cats (Exploring Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Creatures)
Saber-toothed Cats (Exploring Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Creatures)
by Susan Heinrichs Gray (Author)
Book by Gray, Susan Heinrichs
Hunt for the Last Cat
Hunt for the Last Cat
by Denzel Justin (Author)
Ten-year-old Thorn feels conflicting loyalties when members of his clan blame his friend Fonn, a girl from a rival clan, for the marauding actions of a man-eating sabertooth cat.
by Patrick O'Brien (Author), Patrick O'Brien (Illustrator)
Long ago there lived big cats whose giant teeth make today’s cats look tame: sabertooth! Those teeth helped it compete with other predators for a meal of mammoth—or even a tasty human. Then, ten thousand years ago, every last sabertooth disappeared. With only ancient bones—and massive teeth—to guide them, scientists are learning amazing facts about these enormous prehistoric cats. Patrick O’Brien’s captivating illustrations, exciting facts, and kidfriendly, comics-inspired design will thrill young adventurers.
Starlight & Promises
Starlight & Promises
by Cat Lindler (Author)
In 1891, during a voyage to the uncharted isle in the Furneaux Islands near Tasmania, the sixth Earl of Stanbury discovers a saber-toothed tiger thought to have been extinct for more than 10,000 years—a find that will astonish the world and bring great acclaim if he is able to return to England. Learning of the earl’s suspicious disappearance, Lady Samantha enlists the assistance of professor Christian Badia—a noted zoologist and tracker specializing in wild cats who, unbeknownst to Lady Samantha, has a dark past—to join her in a dangerous expedition to rescue her uncle. Despite knowing his notorious reputation as a recluse, Lady Samantha finds herself drawn into a world of physical passion with the enigmatic man she becomes convinced is her soul mate. When the professor embarks...
Tigre dientes de sable / Sabertooth Cat (Dinosaurios Y Animales Prehistoricos/Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals series) (Multilingual Edition)
by Helen Frost (Author), Jon Hughes (Illustrator)
Simple text and illustrations present sabertooth cats, their body parts, and behaviorin both English and Spanish.
Ice Age Sabertooth: The Most Ferocious Cat That Ever Lived
Ice Age Sabertooth: The Most Ferocious Cat That Ever Lived
by Barbara Hehner (Author), Mark Hallett (Illustrator)
The Ice Age Sabertooth kept its most formidable weapon right in its mouth—a pair of enormous curved teeth with serrated edges like steak knives, as long and as sharp as the teeth of a Tyrannosaurus rex! It was one of the fiercest cats to ever live. And because so many sabertooth cats died in the asphalt pools of what is now known as Rancho La Brea in Los Angeles, scientists know more about them than any other prehistoric cat. Ice Age Sabertooth tells the story of these ferocious predators—how they lived, hunted, and killed their prey, and what they may have looked like.
In this second book in the Ice Age Animals series, stunning illustrations by acclaimed artist Mark Hallett, full-color photographs, fascinating maps, and informative diagrams bring the fierce sabertooth...
© 2014
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Delaware Bay
Delaware Bay
Delaware Bay: see Delaware, river.
Delaware Bay is a large estuary outlet of the Delaware River on the Northeast seaboard of the United States whose fresh water mixes for many miles with the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It is in area. The bay is bordered by the State of New Jersey and the State of Delaware. It was the first site classified in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network.
The pair of Delaware Capes that denote the outermost boundary of the Bay with the Atlantic are Cape Henlopen and Cape May. The Cape May-Lewes Ferry crosses the Delaware Bay from Cape May, New Jersey to Lewes, Delaware. Management of ports along the bay is the responsibility of the Delaware River and Bay Authority.
The shores of the bay are largely composed of salt marshes and mud flats, with only small communities inhabiting the shore of the lower bay. Besides the Delaware, it is fed by numerous smaller streams. The rivers on the Delaware side include (from north to south): the Christina River, the Appoquinimink River, the Leipsic River, the Smyrna River, the St. Jones River, and the Murderkill River. Rivers on the New Jersey side include the Salem River, Cohansey River, and the Maurice River. Several of the rivers hold protected status for the unique salt marsh wetlands along the shore of the bay. The bay serves as a breeding ground for many aquatic species, including horseshoe crabs. The bay is also a prime oystering ground.
At the time of the arrival of the Europeans in the 17th century, the area around the bay was inhabited by the Lenape. The Indian name for the bay was Poutaxat. The river they called Lenape Wihittuck, which means "the rapid stream of the Lenape". The first recorded European visit to the bay was by Henry Hudson in 1609. The bay, the river, and the Indian tribe were all renamed after Lord Delaware (Thomas West, 3rd (or 12th) Baron De La Warr), an Englishman who led the contingent which reinforced the Jamestown settlement in 1610. In the middle 17th century, an area of the bay was claimed by the Dutch as part of the New Netherland colony. It was also settled by the Swedish, as part of the New Sweden colony, resulting in conflicts with the Dutch, who eventually took control of the area. After the British took control of the area, the area of the present day states of Delaware and Pennsylvania was granted to William Penn, who also controlled the area of West Jersey on the north side of the river. The area was quickly settled, leading to the growth of Philadelphia upriver on the Delaware as the largest city in North America in the 18th century.
The strategic importance of the bay was noticed by the Marquis de Lafayette during the American Revolutionary War, who proposed the use of Pea Patch Island at the head of the bay for a defensive fortification to protect the important ports Philadelphia and New Castle, Delaware. Fort Delaware was later constructed on Pea Patch Island. During the American Civil War it was used as a Union prison camp.
In 1885, the United States government systematically undertook the formation of a channel wide from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay. The River and Harbor Act of 1899 provided for a channel wide from Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay. The bay today is one of the most important navigational channels in the United States, and is the second busiest waterway in the United States after the Mississippi River. Its lower course forms part of the Intracoastal Waterway. The need for direct navigation around the two capes into the ocean is circumvented by the Cape May Canal and the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal at the north and south capes respectively. The upper bay is also connected directly to the north end of Chesapeake Bay by the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. For boaters using the bay the bay it offers several challenges. first there is a significant current which can run up to three knots giving a boost or slowing you, second - it is for the most part shallow and the channel is often occupied with ocean going vessels. When wind is in opposition to the current it builds a very nasty chop quickly. Finally it does not offer many places where you can take shelter.
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Overview of Educational ActivitiesClinics and PerformancesAudio ResourcesVideo ResourcesArts and Education Affiliations
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The Joy of Singing - Warming Up
Because singing engages a variety of muscles, including the vocal folds, it is just as important for a singer to warm up before a rehearsal or performance as it is for a quarterback before a football game. Here are four warm-ups that will help get your voice going.
1. Gently hum. As you hum, gently separate the upper and lower jaw, creating a feeling of "tallness" inside the mouth. Start in the middle range and hum downward in pitch.
2. Open your mouth, continue on a "ah" vowel. This should sound like sighing. Keep your jaw relaxed and open.
Demonstrating the "ah" vowel Demonstrating the "ah" vowel
3. Sing a downward five-note scale (sol-fa-mi-re-do) on "mee."
Music example of a five note scale
4. Try other vowels like "may," "mah", "moh," and "moo."
Demonstrating the "may" vowel Demonstrating the "moo" vowel
IntroductionBody AlignmentEfficient BreathingRelaxation and FocusWarming UpInterpretation and DictionHealthy Habits for SingersEducational ResourcesResources
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Ukiyo-e, or ukiyo-ye (浮世絵; Japanese pronunciation: []; "pictures of the floating world"), is a genre of woodblock prints and paintings that flourished in Japan from the 17th through 19th centuries. Aimed at the prosperous merchant class in the urbanizing Edo period (1603–1867), depictions of beautiful women; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes from history and folk tales; travel scenes and landscapes; flora and fauna; and erotica were amongst the popular themes.
Since antiquity, Japanese art had found patrons in the aristocracy, military governments, and religious authorities.2 Until the 16th century, the lives of the common people had not been a main subject of painting, and even when they were included, the works were luxury items made for the ruling samurai and rich merchant classes.3 Later works appeared by and for townspeople, including inexpensive monochromatic paintings of beautiful women and scenes of the theatre and pleasure districts. The hand-produced nature of these shikomi-e limited the scale of their production, a limit that was soon overcome by genres that turned to mass-produced woodblock printing.4
During a prolonged period of civil war in the 16th century, a class of politically powerful merchants had developed. These machishūa were allied with the court and had power over local communities; they were also patrons of the arts, and their patronage encouraged a revivial in the classical arts in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.5 In the early 17th century Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) unified the country and was appointed Shogun with supreme power over Japan. He consolidated his government in the village of Edo (modern Tokyo),6 and required the territorial lords to assemble there in alternate years with their entourages. The demands of the growing capital drew many male laborers from the country, so that males came to make up nearly seventy percent of the population.7 The village grew during the Edo period (1603–1867) from a population of 1800 to in excess of a million in the 19th century.6
The centralized shogunate put an end to the power of the machishū and divided Japanese society into four social classes, with the ruling samurai class at the top and the merchant class at the bottom. While deprived of their political influence,5 those of this class most benefited from the rapidly expanding economy of the Edo period,8 and their improved lot allowed for leisure that many sought in the pleasure districts—in particular Yoshiwara in Edo6—and collecting artworks to decorate their homes, which in earlier times had been well beyond their financial means.9 The experience of the pleasure quarters was open to those of sufficient wealth, manners, and education.10
Painting of an mediaeval Asian man seated and dressed in splendour.
Woodblock printing in Japan traces back to the Hyakumantō Darani in 770 CE. Until the 17th century, such printing was reserved for Buddhist seals and images.11 Movable type appeared around 1600, but as the Japanese writing system required about 100,000 type pieces, hand-carving text onto woodblocks was found to be more efficient. In Saga Domain, calligrapher Honami Kōetsu and publisher Suminokura Soan (ja) combined printed text and images in an adaptation of The Tales of Ise (1608) and other works of literature.12 During the Kan'ei era (1624–1643), illustrated books of folk tales called tanrokubon, or "orange-green books", were the first books mass-produced using woodblock printing.11 Woodblock imagery continued to evolve as illustrations to the kanazōshi genre of tales of hedonistic urban life in the new capital.13 The rebuilding of Edo following the Great Fire of Meireki in 1657 occasioned a modernization of the city, and the publication of illustrated printed books flourished in the rapidly urbanizing environment.14
The term "ukiyo",b which can be translated as "floating world", was homophonous with an ancient Buddhist term signifying "this world of sorrow and grief".c The newer term at times was used to mean "erotic" or "stylish", among other meanings, and came to describe the hedonistic spirit of the time for the lower classes. This spirit was celebrated in the novel Ukiyo Monogatari ("Tales of the Floating World", c. 1661) by Asai Ryōi:15
The earliest ukiyo-e artists came from the world of Japanese painting.16 Yamato-e painting of the 17th century had developed a style of outlined forms which allowed inks to be dripped on a wet surface and spread out towards the outlines—this outlining of forms was to become the dominant style of ukiyo-e.17
Around 1661, painted hanging scrolls known as Portraits of Kanbun Beauties gained popularity. The paintings of the Kanbun era (1661–73), most of which are anonymous, marked the beginnings of ukiyo-e as an independent school.16 The paintings of Iwasa Matabei (1578–1650) have a great affinity with ukiyo-e paintings. Scholars diagree whether Matabei's work itself is ukiyo-e;18 assertions that he was the genre's founder are especially common amongst Japanese researchers.19 At times Matabei has been credited as the artist of the unsigned Hikone screen,20 a byōbu folding screen that may be one of the earliest surviving ukiyo-e works. The screen is in a refined Kanō style and depicts contemporary life, rather than the prescribed subjects of the painterly schools.21
Early woodblock print, Hishikawa Moronobu, late 1670s or early 1680s
In response to the increasing demand for ukiyo-e works, Hishikawa Moronobu (1618–1694) produced the first ukiyo-e woodblock prints.16 By 1672, Moronobu's success was such that he began to sign his work—the first of the book illustrators to do so. He was a prolific illustrator who worked in a wide variety of genres, and developed an influential style of portraying female beauties. Most significantly, he began to produce illustrations, not just for books, but as single-sheet images, which could stand alone or be used as part of a series. The Hishikawa school attracted a large number of followers,22 as well as imitators such as Sugimura Jihei,23 and signalled the beginning of the popularization of a new artform.24
Torii Kiyonobu I and Kaigetsudō Ando became prominent emulators of Moronobu's style following the master's death, though neither was a member of the Hishikawa school. Both discarded background detail in favour of focus on the human figure—kabuki actors in the yakusha-e of Kiyonobu and the Torii school that followed him,25 and courtesans in the bijin-ga of Ando and his Kaigetsudō school. Ando and his followers produced a stereotyped female image whose design and pose lent itself to effective mass production,26 and its popularity created a demand for paintings that other artists and schools took advantage of.27 The Kaigetsudō school and its popular "Kaigetsudō beauty" ended after Ando's exile over his role in the Ejima-Ikushima scandal of 1714.28
Kyoto native Nishikawa Sukenobu (1671–1750) painted technically refined pictures of courtesans.29 Considered a master of erotic portraits, he was the subject of a government ban in 1722, though it is believed he continued to create works that circulated under different names.30 Sukenobu spent most of his career in Edo, and his influence was considerable in both the Kantō and Kansai regions.29 The paintings of Miyagawa Chōshun (1683–1752) portrayed early 18th-century life in delicate colours. Chōshun made no prints.31 The Miyagawa school he founded in the early-18th century specialized in romantic paintings in a style more refined in line and colour than the Kaigetsudō school. Chōshun allowed greater expressive freedom in his adherents, a group that later included Hokusai.27
Colour prints (mid-18th century)
Even in the earliest monochromatic prints and books, colour was added by hand for special commissions. Demand for colour in the early-18th century was met with tan-ed prints hand-tinted with orange and sometimes green or yellow.33 These were followed in the 1720s with a vogue for pink-tinted beni-ee and later the lacquer-like ink of the urushi-e. In 1744, the benizuri-e were the first successes in colour printing, using multiple woodblocks—one for each colour, the earliest beni pink and vegetable green.34
Taking the Evening Cool by Ryōgoku Bridge, c. 1745
A great self-promoter, Okumura Masanobu (1686–1764) played a major role during the period of rapid technical development in printing from the late 17th to mid-18th centuries.34 He established a shop in 170735 and combined elements of the leading contemporary schools in a wide array of genres, though Masanobu himself belonged to no school. Among the innovations in his romantic, lyrical images were the introduction of geometrical perspective in the uki-e genre;f in the 1740s;39 the long, narrow hashira-e prints; and the combination of graphics and literature in prints that included self-penned haiku poetry.40
Ukiyo-e reached a peak in the late 17th century with the advent of full-colour prints, developed after Edo returned to prosperity under Tanuma Okitsugu following a long depression.41 These popular colour prints came to be called nishiki-e, or "brocade pictures", as their brilliant colours seemed to bear resemblance to imported Chinese Shuchiang brocades, known in Japanese as Shokkō nishiki.42 The first to emerge were expensive calendar prints, printed with multiple blocks on very fine paper with heavy, opaque inks. These prints had the number of days for each month hidden in the design, and were sent at the New Yearg as personalized greetings, bearing the name of the patron rather than the artist. The blocks for these prints were later re-used for commercial production, obliterating the patron's name and replacing it with that of the artist.43
The delicate, romantic prints of Suzuki Harunobu (1725–1770) were among the first to realize expressive and complex colour designs,44 printed with up to a dozen separate blocks to handle the different colours45 and half-tones.46 His restrained, graceful prints invoked the classicism of waka poetry and Yamato-e painting. The prolific Harunobu was the dominant ukiyo-e artist of his time.47 The success of Harunobu's colourful nishiki-e from 1765 on led to a steep decline in demand for the limited palettes of benizuri-e and urushi-e, as well as hand-coloured prints.45
A trend against the idealism of the prints of Harunobu and the Torii school grew following Harunobu's death in 1770. Katsukawa Shunshō (1726–1793) and his school produced portraits of kabuki actors with greater fidelity to the actors' actual features than had been the trend.48 Sometime-collaborators Koryūsai (1735–c. 1790) and Kitao Shigemasa (1739–1820) were prominent depictors of women who also moved ukiyo-e away from the dominance of Harunobu's idealism by focusing on contemporary urban fashions and celebrated real-world courtesans and geisha.49 Koryūsai was perhaps the most prolific ukiyo-e artist of the 17th century, and produced a larger number of paintings and print series than any predecessor.50 The Kitao school that Shigemasa founded was one of the dominant schools of the closing decades of the 18th century.51
Peak period (late 18th century)
Two Beauties with Bamboo
Utamaro, c. 1795
While the late 18th century saw hard economic times,52 ukiyo-e saw a peak in quantity and quality of works, particularly during the Kansei era (1789–1791).53 The ukiyo-e of the period of the Kansei Reforms brought about a focus on beauty and harmony51 that collapsed into decadence and disharmony in the next century as the reforms broke down and tensions rose, culminating in the Meiji Restoration of 1868.53
Especially in the 1780s, Torii Kiyonaga (1752–1815)51 of the Torii school53 depicted traditional ukiyo-e subjects like beauties and urban scenes, which he printed on large sheets of paper, often as multiprint horizontal diptychs or triptychs. His works dispensed with the poetic dreamscapes made by Harunobu, opting instead for realistic depictions of idealized female forms dressed in the latest fashions and posed in scenic locations.54 He also produced portraits of kabuki actors in a realistic style that included accompanying musicians and chorus.55
A law went into effect in 1790 requiring prints to bear a censor's seal of approval to be sold. Censorship increased in strictness over the following decades, and violators could receive harsh punishments. From 1799 even preliminary drafts required approval.56 A group of Utagawa-school offenders including Totokuni had their works repressed in 1801, and Utamaro was imprisoned in 1804 for making prints of 16th-century political and military leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi.57
Utamaro (c. 1753–1806) made his name in the 1790s with his bijin ōkubi-e ("large-headed pictures of beautiful women") portraits, focusing on the head and upper torso, a style others had previously employed in portraits of kabuki actors.58 Utamaro experimented with line, colour, and printing techniques to bring out subtle differences in the features, expressions, and backdrops of subjects from a wide variety of class and background. Utamaro's individuated beauties were in sharp contrast to the stereotyped, idealized images that had been the norm.59 By the end of the decade, especially following the death of his patron Tsutaya Jūzaburō in 1797, Utamaro's prodigious output declined in quality,60 and he died in 1806.61
Appearing suddenly in 1794 and disappearing just as suddenly ten months later, the prints of the enigmatic Sharaku are amongst ukiyo-e's best known. Sharaku produced striking portraits of kabuki actors, introducing a greater level of realism into his prints that emphasized the differences between the actor and the portrayed character.62 The expressive, contorted faces he depicted contrasted sharply with the serene, mask-like faces more common to artists such as Harunobu or Utamaro.46 Published by Tsutaya,61 Sharaku's work found resistance, and in 1795 his output ceased as mysteriously as it had appeared, and his real identity is still unknown.63 Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825) produced kabuki portraits in a style Edo townsfolk found more accessible, emphasizing dramatic postures and avoiding Sharaku's realism.62
A consistently high level of quality marked late-18th-century ukiyo-e, but the works of masters of the era are often overshadowed by those of Utamaro and Sharaku.61 One of Kiyonaga's followers,53 Chōbunsai Eishi (ja) (1756–1829), abandoned his position of painter for the Shogun Tokugawa Ieharu to take up ukiyo-e design. He brought a refined sense to his portraits of graceful, slender courtesans, and he left behind a number of notable students.61 With a fine line, Eishōsai Chōki (fl. 1786–1808) designed portraits of delicate courtesans. As this period drew to a close, the Utagawa school came to dominate ukiyo-e output in the late Edo period.64
Edo was the primary centre of ukiyo-e production throughout the Edo period. The Kamigata region, comprising the areas in and around Kyoto and Osaka, was another major centre of production. In contrast to the range of subjects in the Edo prints, those of Kamigata tended to be portraits of kabuki actors. The style of the Kamigata prints was little distinguished from those of Edo until the late 18th century, partly because artists often moved back and forth between the two areas.65 Colours tend to be softer and pigments thicker in Kamigata prints than in those of Edo.66 In the 19th century many of the prints were designed by kabuki fans and other amateurs.67
The self-proclaimed "mad painter" Hokusai (1760–1849) enjoyed a long, varied career. His work is marked by a lack of the sentimentality common to ukiyo-e, and a focus on formalism influenced by Western art. Among his accomplishments are his illustrations of Takizawa Bakin's novel Crescent Moon (ja), his series of sketchbooks, the Hokusai Manga, and his popularization of the landscape genre with Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji,71 which includes his best-known print, The Great Wave off Kanagawa.72 one of the most famous works of Japanese art.73 In contrast to the work of the older masters, Hokusai's colours were bold, flat, and abstract, and his subject was not the pleasure districts but the lives and environment of the common people at work.74 Established masters Eisen, Kuniyoshi, and Kunisada also followed Hokusai's steps into landscape prints in the 1830s, producing prints with bold compositions and striking effects.75
Though not often given the attention of their better-known forebears, the Utagawa school produced a few masters in this declining period. The prolific Kunisada (1786–1865) had few rivals in the tradition of making portrait prints of courtesans and actors.76 One of those rivals was Eisen (1790–1848), who was also adept at landscapes.77 Perhaps the last significant member of this late period, Kuniyoshi (1797–1861) tried his hand at a variety of themes and styles, much as Hokusai had. His historical scenes of warriors in violent combat were popular,78 especially his series of heroes from the Suikoden (1827–30) and Chūshingura (1847).79 He was adept at landscapes and satirical scenes—the latter an area rarely explored in the dictatorial atmosphere of the Edo era; that Kuniyoshia could dare tackle such subjects was a sign of the weakening of the Shogunate at the time.78
Hiroshige (1797–1858) is considered Hokusai's greatest rival in stature. He specialized in pictures of birds and flowers, and serene landscapes, and is best known for his travel series, such as The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō and The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō,80 the latter a cooperative effort with Eisen.77 His work was more realistic, subtly coloured, and atmospheric than Hokusai's; nature and the seasons were key elements: mist, rain, snow, and moonlight were prominent parts of his compositions.81 Hiroshige's followers, including adopted son Hiroshige II and son-in-law Hiroshige III, carried on their master's style of landscapes into the Meiji era.82
Decline (late 19th century)
Following the deaths of Hokusai and Hiroshige83 and the Meiji Restoration of 1868, ukiyo-e suffered a sharp decline in quantity and quality.84 The rapid Westernization of the Meiji period that followed saw woodblock printing turn its services to journalism, and face competition from photography. Practitioners of pure ukiyo-e became more rare, and tastes turned away from a genre seen as a remnant of an obsolescent era.83 Artists continued to produce occasional notable works, but by the 1890s the tradition was moribund.85
Synthetic pigments imported from Germany began to replace traditional organic ones in the mid-19th century. Many prints from this era made extensive use of a bright red, and were called aka-e ("red pictures").86 Artists such as Yoshitoshi (1839–1892) led a trend in the 1860s of gruesome scenes of murders and ghosts,87 monsters and supernatural beings, and legendary Japanese and Chinese heroes. His One Hundred Aspects of the Moon (1885–92) depicts a variety of fantastic and mundane themes with a moon motif.88 Kiyochika (1847–1915) is known for his prints documenting the rapid modernization of Tokyo, such as the introduction of railways, and his depictions of Japan's wars with China and with Russia.87 Earlier a painter of the Kanō school, in the 1870s Chikanobu (1838–1912) turned to prints, particularly of the imperial family and scenes of Western influence on Japanese life in the Meiji period.89
Introduction to the West
Aside from Dutch traders, who had had trading relations dating to the beginning of the Edo period,90 Westerners paid little notice to Japanese art before the mid-19th century, and when they did they rarely distinguished it from other art from the East.90 Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg spent a year in the Dutch trading settlement Dejima, near Nagasaki, and was one of the earliest Westerners to collect Japanese prints. The export of ukiyo-e thereafter slowly grew, and at the beginning of the 19th century Dutch merchant-trader Isaac Titsingh's collection drew the attention of connoisseurs of art in Paris.91
The Japanese Satsuma pavilion at the International Exhibition of 1867 in Paris
The arrival in Edo of American Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 led to the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854, which opened Japan to the outside world after over two centuries of seclusion. Ukiyo-e prints were amongst the items he brought back to the United States.92 Such prints had appeared in Paris from at least the 1830s, and by the 1850s were numerous;93 reception was mixed, and even when praised ukiyo-e was generally thought inferior to Western works which emphasized mastery of naturalistic perspective and anatomy.94 Japanese art drew notice at the International Exhibition of 1867 in Paris,90 and became fashionable in France and England in the 1870s and 1880s.90 The prints of Hokusai and Hiroshige played a prominent role in shaping Western perceptions of Japanese art.95 At the time of their introduction to the West, woodblock printing was the most common mass medium in Japan, and the Japanese considered it of little lasting value.96
Early Europeans promoters and scholars of ukiyo-e and Japanese art included writer Edmond de Goncourt and art critic Philippe Burty (fr),97 who coined the term "Japonism".98h Stores selling Japanese goods opened, including those of Édouard Desoye in 1862 and art dealer Siegfried Bing in 1875.99 From 1888 to 1891 Bing published the magazine Artistic Japan (fr)100 in English, French, and German editions,101 and curated an ukiyo-e exhibition at the École des Beaux-Arts in 1890 attended by artists such as Mary Cassatt.102
Cover of book of sheet music depicting a stylized wave
Japanese art, and particularly ukiyo-e prints, came to influence Western art from the time of the early Impressionists.106 Early painter-collectors incorporated Japanese themes and compositional techniques into their works as early as the 1860s:93 the patterned wallpapers and rugs in Manet's paintings were inspired by ukiyo-e's patterned kimonos, and Whistler focused his attention on ephemeral elements of nature as in ukiyo-e landscapes.107 Van Gogh was an avid collector, and painted copies in oil of prints by Hiroshige and Eisen.108 Degas and Cassatt depicted fleeting, everyday moments in Japanese-influenced compositions and perspectives.109 Ukiyo's flat perspective and unmodulated colours were a particular influence on graphic designers and poster makers.110 Toulouse-Lautrec's lithographs displayed his interest not only in ukiyo-e's flat colours and outlined forms, but also in their subject matter: performers and prostitutes.111 He signed much of this work with his initials in a circle, imitating the seals on Japanese prints.111 Other artists of the time who drew influence from ukiyo-e include Monet,106 Lafarge,112 Gauguin,113 and Les Nabis members such as Bonnard114 and Vuillard.115 French composer Claude Debussy drew inspiration for his music from the prints of Hokusai and Horoshige, most prominently in La mer (1905).116 Imagist poets such as Amy Lowell found inspiration in ukiyo-e prints; Lowell published a book of poetry called Pictures of the Floating World (1919) on oriental themes or in an oriental style.117
Daughter traditions (20th century)
Kanae Yamamoto (ja), 1904
The travel sketchbook became a popular genre beginning about 1905, as the Meiji government promoted travel within Japan to have citizens better know their country.118 In 1915, publisher Shōzaburō Watanabe introduced the term shin-hanga ("new prints") to describe a style of prints he published that featured traditional Japanese subject matter and were aimed at foreign and upscale Japanese audiences.119 Prominent artists included Goyō Hashiguchi, called the "Utamaro of the Taishō period" for his manner of depicting women; Shinsui Itō, who brought more modern sensibilities to images of women;120 and Hasui Kawase, who made modern landscapes.121 Watanabe also published works by non-Japanese artists, an early success of which was a set of Indian- and Japanese-themed prints in 1916 by the English Charles W. Bartlett (1860–1940). Other publishers followed Watanabe's success, and some shin-hanga artists such as Goyō and Hiroshi Yoshida set up studios to publish their own work.122
Artists of the sōsaku-hanga ("creative prints") movement took control of every aspect of the printmaking process—design, carving, and printing were by the same pair of hands.119 Kanae Yamamoto (ja) (1882–1946), then a student at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts, is credited with the birth of this approach. In 1904 he produced Fisherman using woodblock printing, a technique until then frowned upon by the Japanese art establishment as old-fashioned and for its association with commercial mass production.123 The foundation of the Japanese Woodcut Artists' Association in 1918 marks the beginning of this approach as a movement.124 The movement favoured individuality in its artists, and as such has no dominant themes or styles.125 Works ranged from the entirely abstract ones of Kōshirō Onchi (1891–1955) to the traditional figurative depictions of Japanese scenes of Un'ichi Hiratsuka (1895–1997).124 These artists produced prints not because they hoped to reach a mass audience, but as a creative end in itself, and did not restrict their print media to the woodblock of traditional ukiyo-e.126
A defining feature of most ukiyo-e prints is a well defined, bold, flat line.130 The earliest prints were monochromatic, and these lines were the only printed element; even with the advent of colour this characteristic line continued to dominate.131 Ukiyo-e composition is noted for the arrangement of forms in flat spaces.132 Figures in ukiyo-e compositions were typically arranged in a single plane of depth. Attention was drawn to vertical and horizontal relationships, as well as details such as lines, shapes, and patterns such as those on clothing.133 Compositions were often asymmetrical, and the viewpoint was often from unusual angles, such as from above. Elements of images were often cropped, giving the composition a spontaneous feel.134 In colour prints, contours of most colour areas are sharply defined, usually by the linework.135 The aesthetic of flat areas of colour contrasts with the modulated colours expected in Western traditions132 and with other prominent contemporary traditions in Japanese art patronized by the upper class, such as in the subtle monochrome ink brushstrokes of zenga brush painting or tonal colours of the Kanō school of painting.135
Wabi-sabi aesthetic in a 16th-century tea bowl
The colourful, ostentatious, and complex patterns; concern with changing fashions; and tense, dynamic poses and compositions in ukiyo-e works are in striking contrast to many concepts in traditional Japanese aesthetics. Prominent amongst these, wabi-sabi favours simplicity, asymmetry, and imperfection, with evidence of the passage of time;136 and shibui values subtlety, humility, and restraint.137 Ukiyo-e can be less at odds with aesthetic concepts such as the racy, urbane stylishness of iki.138
Themes and genres
Typical subjects were female beauties (bijin-ga), kabuki actors (yakusha-e), and landscapes. The women depicted were most often courtesans and geisha at leisure, and promoted the entertainments to be found in the pleasure districts.144 The detail with which artists depicted courtesans' fashions and hairstyles allows the prints to be dated with some reliability. Less attention was given to accuracy of the women's physical features, which followed the day's pictorial fashions—the faces stereotyped, the bodies tall and lanky in one generation and petite in another.145 Portraits of celebrities were much in demand, in particular those from the kabuki and sumo worlds, two of the most popular entertainments of the era.146 While the landscape has come to define ukiyo-e for many Westerners, the genre flourished relatively late in the form's history.69
Evening Snow on the Heater, Harunobu, mid-18th century
Ukiyo-e prints grew out of book illustration—many of Moronobu's earliest single-page prints were originally pages from books he had illustrated.12 E-hon books of illustrations were popular147 and continued be an important outlet for ukiyo-e artists. In the late period, Hokusai produced the three-volume One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji and the fifteen-volume Hokusai Manga, the latter a compendium of over 4000 sketches of a wide variety of realistic and fantastic subjects.148
Traditional Japanese religions do not consider sex or pornography a moral corruption in the Judaeo-Christian sense,149 and until the changing morals of the Meiji era led to its suppression, shunga erotic prints were a major genre.150 While the Tokugawa regime subjected Japan to strict censorship laws, pornography was not considered an important offense and generally met with the censors' approval.57 Many of these prints displayed a high level a draughtsmanship, and often humour, in their explicit depictions of bedroom scenes, voyeurs, and oversized anatomy.151 As with depictions of courtesans, these images were closely tied to entertainments of the pleasure quarters.152 Nearly every ukiyo-e master produced shunga at some point.153 Records of societal acceptance of shunga are absent, though Timon Screech posits that there were almost certainly some concerns over the matter, and that its level of acceptability has been exaggerated by later collectors, especially in the West.152
The Tenpō Reforms of the 1840s suppressed the depiction of actors and courtesans. Aside from landscapes and kachō-e, artists turned to depictions of historical scenes, such as of ancient warriors or of scenes from legend, literature, and religion. The 11th-century Tale of Genji155 and the 13th-century Tale of the Heike156 have been sources of artistic inspiration throughout Japanese history,155 including in ukiyo-e.155 Well-known warriors and swordsmen such as Miyamoto Musashi (1584–1645) were frequent subjects, as were depictions of monsters, the supernatural, and heroes of Japanese and Chinese mythology.157
From the 17th to 19th centuries Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world. Trade, primarily with the Dutch and Chinese, was restricted to the island of Dejima near Nagasaki. Outlandish pictures called Nagasaki-e were sold to tourists of the foreigners and their wares.92 In the mid-19th century, Yokohama became the primary foreign settlement after 1859, from which Western knowledge proliferated in Japan.158 Especially from 1858 to 1862 Yokohama-e prints documented, with various levels of fact and fancy, the growing community of world denizens with whom the Japanese were now coming in contact;159 triptychs of scenes of Westerners and their technology and technology were particularly popular.160
Specialized prints included surimono, deluxe, limited-edition prints aimed at connoisseurs, of which a five-line kyōka (ja) poem was usually part of the design;161 and uchiwa-e printed hand fans, which often suffer from having been handled.12
Ukiyo-e artists often made both prints and paintings; some specialized in one or the other.162 In contrast with previous traditions, ukiyo-e painters favoured bright, sharp colours,163 and often delineated contours with sumi ink, an effect similar to the linework in prints.164 Unrestricted by the technical limitations of printing, a wider range of techniques, pigments, and surfaces were available to the painter.165 Artists painted with pigments made from mineral or organic substances, such as safflower, ground shells, lead, and cinnabar,166 and later synthetic dyes imported from the West such as Paris Green and Prussian Blue.167 Silk or paper kakemono hanging scrolls, makimono handscrolls, or byōbu folding screens were the most common surfaces.162
Print production
Carved woodblock for printing
Key block for ukiyo-e print, Utagawa Yoshiiku, 1862
Ukiyo-e prints were the works of teams of artisans in several workshops;168 it was rare for designers to cut their own woodblocks.169 Labour was divided into four groups: the publisher, who commissioned, promoted, and distributed the prints; the artists, who provided the design image; the woodcarvers, who prepared the woodblocks for printing; and the printers, who made impressions of the woodblocks on paper.170 Normally only the names of the artist and publisher were credited on the finished print.171
Ukiyo-e prints were impressed on hand-made paper172 manually, rather than by mechanical press as in the West.173 The artist provided an ink drawing on thin paper, which was pasted174 to a block of cherry woodj and rubbed with oil until the upper layers of paper could be pulled away, leaving a translucent layer of paper that the block-cutter could use as a guide. The block-cutter cut away the non-black areas of the image, leaving raised areas that were inked to leave an impression.168 The original drawing was destroyed in the process.174
Prints were made with blocks face up so the printer could vary pressure for different effects, and watch as paper absorbed the water-based sumi ink,173 applied quickly in even horizontal strokes.177 Amongst the printer's tricks were embossing of the image, achieved by pressing an uninked woodblock on the paper to achieve effects, such as the textures of clothing patterns or fishing net.178 Other effects included burnishing179 by rubbing with agate to brighten colours;180 varnishing; overprinting; dusting with metal or mica; and sprays to imitate falling snow.179
The ukiyo-e print was a commercial art form, and the publisher played an important role.181 Publishing was highly competitive; over a thousand publishers are known from the whole period. The number peaked at around 250 in the 1840s and 1850s182—200 in Edo alone183—and slowly shrank following the opening of Japan until about 40 remained at the opening of the 20th century. The publishers owned the woodblocks and copyrights, and from the late 18th century enforced copyrights182 through the Picture Book and Print Publishers Guild.k184 Prints that went through several pressings were particularly profitable, as the publisher could reuse the woodblocks without further payment to the artist or woodblock cutter. The woodblocks were also traded or sold to other publishers or pawnshops.185 Publishers were usually also vendors, and commonly sold each other's wares in their shops.184 In addition to the artist's seal, publishers marked the prints with their own seals—some a simple logo, others quite elaborate, incorporating an address or other information.186
Print designers went through apprenticeship before being granted the right to produce prints of their own that they could sign with their own names.187 Young designers could be expected to cover part or all of the costs of cutting the woodblocks. As they gained fame publishers usually covered these costs, and artists could demand higher fees.188
In pre-modern Japan, people could go by numerous names throughout their lives, their childhood yōmyō personal name different from their zokumyō name as an adult. An artist's name consisted of a gasei artist surname followed by an azana personal art name. The gasei was most frequently taken from the school the artist belonged to, such as Utagawa or Torii,189 and the azana normally took a Chinese character from the master's art name—for example, many students of Toyokuni (豊国) took the "kuni" (国) from his name, including Kunisada (国貞) and Kuniyoshi (国芳).187 The names artists signed to their works can be a source of confusion as they sometimes changed names through their careers;190 Hokusai was an extreme case, using over a hundred names throughout his seventy-year career.191
The prints were mass-marketed.181 and by the mid-19th century, total circulation of a print could run into the thousands.192 They were promoted by retailers and travelling sellers at prices affordable to prosperous townspeople.193 In some cases the prints advertised kimono designs by the artist behind the print.181 From the second half of the 17th century, prints were frequently marketed as part of a series,186 each print stamped with the series name and the print's number in that series.194 This proved a successful marketing technique, as collectors bought each new print in the series to keep their collections complete.186 By the 19th century, series such as Hiroshige's Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō ran to dozens of prints.194
Colour print production
While colour printing in Japan dates to the 1640s, early ukiyo-e prints used only black ink. Colour was sometimes added by hand, using a red lead ink in tan-e prints, or later in a pink safflower ink in beni-e prints. Colour printing arrived in books in the 1720s, and in single-sheet prints in the 1740s, with a different block and printing for each colour. Early colours were limited to pink and green; techniques expanded over the following two decades to allow up to five colours.168 The mid-1760s brought full-colour nishiki-e prints168 made from ten or more woodblocks.195 To keep the blocks for each colour aligned correctly registration marks called kentō were placed on one corner and an adjacent side.168
Photo of a dish of deep blue powder
Prussian blue was a prominent synthetic dye in the 19th century.
Printers used natural colour dyes made from mineral or vegetable sources. The dyes had a translucent quality that allowed a variety of colours to be mixed from primary red, blue, and yellow pigments.196 In the 18th century, Prussian blue became popular, and was particularly prominent in the landscapes of Hokusai and Hiroshige,196 as was bokashi, where the printer produced gradations of colour or the blending of one colour into another.197 Cheaper and more consistent synthetic aniline dyes arrived from the West in 1864. The colours were harsher and brighter than traditional pigments, and the effects could be garish. The Meiji government promoted their use as part of broader policies of Westernization.198
Criticism and historiography
Black-and-white comic strip in Japanese
Manga histories often find an ancestor in the Hokusai Manga.
Rakuten Kitazawa, Tagosaku to Mokube no Tōkyō Kenbutsu,l 1902
Since the dawn of the 20th century historians of manga—Japanese comics and cartooning—have developed narratives connecting the artform to pre-20th-century Japanese art. Particular emphasis falls on the Hokusai Manga as a precursor, though Hokusai's book is not a narrative, nor does the term manga originate with him.213 In English and other languages the word manga is used in the restrictive sense of "Japanese comics" or "Japanese-style comics"214 while in Japanese it is used to indicate all forms of comics, cartooning,215 and caricature.216
Collection and preservation
The ruling classes strictly limited the space permitted for the homes of the lower social classes; the relatively small size of ukiyo-e works was ideal for hanging in these homes.217 Little record of the patrons of ukiyo-e paintings has survived. They sold for considerably higher prices than prints—up to many thousands of times more, and thus must have been purchased by the wealthy, likely merchants and perhaps some from the samurai class.10 Late-era prints are the most numerous extant examples, as they were produced in the greatest quantities in the 19th century, and the older a print is the less chance it had of surviving.218 Ukiyo-e was largely associated with Edo, and visitors to Edo often bought what they called azuma-em ("pictures of the Eastern capital") as souvenirs. Shops that sold them might specialize in products such as hand-held fans, or offer a diverse selection.184
Determining what their prices were is challenging, as records of hard figures are scanty and there was great variety in the production quality, size,221 supply and demand,222 and changing methods, such as the introduction of full-colour printing.223 How expensive prices can be considered is also difficult to determine as social and economic conditions were in flux throughout the period.224 In the 19th century, records survive of prints selling as low as 16 mon225 to 100 mon for deluxe editions.226 Jun'ichi Ōkubo suggests prices in the 20s and 30s of mon were likely common for standard prints.227 As a loose comparison, a bowl of soba noodles in the early 19th century typically sold for 16 mon.228
Utagawa Yoshitaki, 19th century
The paper and pigments in ukiyo-e paintings are sensitive to light and seasonal changes in humidity. Mounts must be flexible, as the sheets can tear under sharp changes in humidity. In the Edo era, the sheets were mounted on long-fibred paper and preserved scrolled up in plain paulownia boxes placed in another lacquer wooden box.230 In museum settings display times must be limited to prevent deterioration from exposure to light and environmental pollution. Scrolling causes concavities in the paper, and the unrolling and rerolling of the scrolls causes creasing.231 Ideal relative humidity for scrolls should be kept between 50% and 60%; brittleness results from too dry a level.232
Ukiyo-e often went through multiple editions, sometimes with changes made to the blocks in later editions. Editions made from recut woodblocks also circulate, such as legitimate later reproductions, as well as pirate editions and other fakes.236 Takamizawa Enji (1870–1927), a producer of ukiyo-e reproductions, developed a method of recutting woodblocks to print fresh colour over faded originals, over which he used tobacco ash to make the fresh ink seem aged. These refreshed prints he resold as original printings.237 Amongst the defrauded collectors was American architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who brought 1,500 Takamizawa prints with him from Japan to the US, some of which he had sold before the truth was revealed.238
Ukiyo-e artists are referred to in the Japanese style, the surname preceding the personal name, and well-known artists such as Utamaro and Hokusai by personal name alone.239 Dealers normally refer to ukiyo-e prints by the names of the standard sizes, most commonly the 34.5-by-22.5-centimetre (13.6 in × 8.9 in) aiban, the 22.5-by-19-centimetre (8.9 in × 7.5 in) chūban, and the 38-by-23-centimetre (15.0 in × 9.1 in) ōban197—precise sizes vary, and paper was often trimmed after printing.240
Many of the largest high-quality collections of ukiyo-e lie outside Japan.241 Examples entered the collection of the National Library of France in the first half of the 19th century. The British Museum began a collection in 1860242 that by the late 20th century numbered 70,000 items.243 The largest, surpassing 100,000 items, resides in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,241 begun when Ernest Fenollosa donated his collection in 1912.244 The first exhibition in Japan of ukiyo-e prints was likely one presented by Kōjirō Matsukata in 1925, who amassed his collection in Paris during World War I and later donated it to the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo.245 The largest collection of ukiyo-e in Japan is the 100,000 pieces in the Japan Ukiyo-e Museum in Nagano.246
See also
1. ^ machishū (町衆?)
5. ^ beni (?): a pigment produced from safflower petals.34
6. ^ Torii Kiyotada (ja) is said to have made the first uki-e;36 Masanobu advertised himself as its innovator.37
8. ^ Burty coined the term le Japonisme in French in 1872.98
10. ^ Traditional Japanese woodblocks were cut along the grain, as opposed to the blocks of Western wood engraving, which were cut across the grain. In both methods, the dimensions of the woodblock was limited by the girth of the tree.175 In the 20th century, plywood became the material of choice for Japanese woodcarvers, as it is cheaper, easier to carve, and less limited in size.176
1. ^ Lane 1962, pp. 8–9.
2. ^ a b Kobayashi 1997, p. 66.
3. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 66–67.
4. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 67–68.
7. ^ Marks 2012, p. 17.
8. ^ Singer 1986, p. 66.
9. ^ Penkoff 1964, p. 6.
10. ^ a b Bell 2004, p. 137.
11. ^ a b Kobayashi 1997, p. 68.
13. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 69.
14. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 69–70.
15. ^ Hickman 1978, pp. 5–6.
17. ^ a b Kita 2011, p. 155.
18. ^ Kita 1999, p. 39.
20. ^ Kita 1999, p. 44–45.
21. ^ Yashiro 1958, pp. 216, 218.
22. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 70–71.
23. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 71–72.
24. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 71.
25. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 72–73.
26. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 72–74.
28. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 74–75.
29. ^ a b Noma 1966, p. 188.
30. ^ Hibbett 2001, p. 69.
31. ^ Munsterberg 1957, p. 154.
32. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 76.
33. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 76–77.
35. ^ Penkoff 1964, p. 16.
36. ^ a b King 2010, p. 47.
37. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 78.
38. ^ Suwa 1998, pp. 64–68.
39. ^ Suwa 1998, p. 64.
40. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 77–79.
41. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 80–81.
42. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 82.
43. ^ Lane 1962, pp. 150, 152.
44. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 81.
45. ^ a b Michener 1959, p. 89.
46. ^ a b Munsterberg 1957, p. 155.
47. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 82–83.
48. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 83.
49. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 84–85.
50. ^ Hockley 2003, p. 3.
54. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 85–86.
55. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 87.
56. ^ Michener 1954, p. 231.
57. ^ a b Lane 1962, p. 224.
58. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 87–88.
59. ^ Kobayashi 1997, p. 88.
60. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 88–89.
63. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 89–91.
65. ^ Harris 2011, p. 38.
66. ^ Salter 2001, pp. 12–13.
67. ^ Winegrad 2007, pp. 18–19.
68. ^ a b Harris 2011, p. 132.
69. ^ a b Michener 1959, p. 175.
70. ^ Michener 1959, pp. 176–177.
71. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 92–93.
74. ^ Munsterberg 1957, p. 158.
75. ^ King 2010, pp. 84–85.
76. ^ Lane 1962, pp. 284–285.
77. ^ a b Lane 1962, p. 290.
78. ^ a b Lane 1962, p. 285.
79. ^ Harris 2011, pp. 153–154.
80. ^ Kobayashi 1997, pp. 94–95.
81. ^ Munsterberg 1957, pp. 158–159.
82. ^ King 2010, p. 116.
83. ^ a b Michener 1959, p. 200.
86. ^ Seton 2010, p. 71.
87. ^ a b Seton 2010, p. 69.
88. ^ Harris 2011, p. 153.
92. ^ a b Harris 2011, p. 163.
94. ^ Watanabe 1984, pp. 680–681.
95. ^ Watanabe 1984, p. 675.
96. ^ Salter 2001, p. 12.
98. ^ a b Weisberg 1975, p. 120.
99. ^ Jobling & Crowley 1996, p. 89.
100. ^ Meech-Pekarik 1982, p. 96.
102. ^ Jobling & Crowley 1996, p. 90.
105. ^ Merritt 1990, p. 15.
106. ^ a b Mansfield 2009, p. 134.
107. ^ Ives 1974, p. 17.
108. ^ Sullivan 1989, p. 230.
111. ^ a b Ives 1974, p. 80.
112. ^ Meech-Pekarik 1982, p. 99.
113. ^ Ives 1974, p. 96.
114. ^ Ives 1974, p. 56.
115. ^ Ives 1974, p. 67.
116. ^ Gerstle & Milner 1995, p. 70.
117. ^ Hughes 1960, p. 213.
118. ^ King 2010, pp. 119, 121.
119. ^ a b Seton 2010, p. 81.
122. ^ Brown 2006, p. 21.
123. ^ Merritt 1990, p. 109.
124. ^ a b Munsterberg 1957, p. 181.
125. ^ Statler 1959, p. 39.
126. ^ Statler 1959, pp. 35–38.
127. ^ Fiorillo 1999.
128. ^ Penkoff 1964, pp. 9–11.
129. ^ Lane 1962, p. 9.
131. ^ Michener 1959, pp. 11–12.
132. ^ a b Michener 1959, p. 90.
133. ^ Bell 2004, p. xvi.
134. ^ Sims 1998, p. 298.
135. ^ a b Bell 2004, p. 34.
136. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 50–52.
137. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 53–54.
138. ^ Bell 2004, p. 66.
139. ^ Suwa 1998, pp. 57–60.
140. ^ Suwa 1998, pp. 62–63.
141. ^ Suwa 1998, pp. 106–107.
142. ^ Suwa 1998, pp. 108–109.
143. ^ Suwa 1998, pp. 101–106.
144. ^ Harris 2011, p. 60.
145. ^ Hillier 1954, p. 20.
146. ^ Harris 2011, pp. 95, 98.
147. ^ Harris 2011, p. 41.
148. ^ Harris 2011, pp. 38, 41.
149. ^ Harris 2011, pp. 124.
151. ^ Seton 2010, p. 64.
152. ^ a b Screech 1999, p. 15.
153. ^ Harris 2011, pp. 128.
154. ^ Harris 2011, p. 134.
156. ^ Harris 2011, pp. 155–156.
157. ^ Harris 2011, pp. 148, 153.
158. ^ Harris 2011, p. 163–164.
159. ^ Harris 2011, p. 166–167.
160. ^ Harris 2011, p. 170.
161. ^ King 2010, p. 111.
162. ^ a b Fitzhugh 1979, p. 27.
163. ^ Bell 2004, p. xii.
164. ^ Bell 2004, p. 236.
165. ^ Bell 2004, p. 235–236.
166. ^ Fitzhugh 1979, pp. 29, 34.
167. ^ Fitzhugh 1979, pp. 35–36.
169. ^ Penkoff 1964, p. 21.
170. ^ Salter 2001, p. 11.
171. ^ Salter 2001, p. 61.
172. ^ Michener 1959, p. 11.
173. ^ a b Penkoff 1964, p. 1.
174. ^ a b Salter 2001, p. 64.
175. ^ Statler 1959, pp. 34–35.
177. ^ Bell 2004, p. 225.
178. ^ Bell 2004, p. 246.
179. ^ a b Bell 2004, p. 247.
180. ^ Frédéric 2002, p. 884.
182. ^ a b Marks 2012, p. 180.
183. ^ Salter 2006, p. 19.
185. ^ Marks 2012, p. 18.
187. ^ a b Marks 2012, p. 13.
188. ^ Marks 2012, pp. 13–14.
189. ^ Marks 2012, p. 22.
190. ^ Merritt 1990, pp. ix–x.
191. ^ Link & Takahashi 1977, p. 32.
192. ^ Ōkubo 2008, pp. 153—154.
196. ^ a b Harris 2011, p. 26.
197. ^ a b Harris 2011, p. 31.
198. ^ Bell 2004, p. 234.
199. ^ Takeuchi 2004, pp. 118, 120.
200. ^ Tanaka 1999, p. 190.
201. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 3–5.
202. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 8–10.
203. ^ Bell 2004, p. 12.
204. ^ Bell 2004, p. 20.
205. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 13–14.
206. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 14–15.
207. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 15–16.
208. ^ Hockley 2003, pp. 13–14.
209. ^ Hockley 2003, pp. 5–6.
210. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 17–18.
211. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 19–20.
212. ^ Yoshimoto 2003, p. 65–66.
213. ^ Stewart 2014, pp. 28–29.
214. ^ Stewart 2014, p. 30.
215. ^ Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 336.
216. ^ Morita 2010, p. 33.
217. ^ Bell 2004, pp. 140, 175.
218. ^ Kita 2011, p. 149.
219. ^ Bell 2004, p. 140.
220. ^ Hockley 2003, pp. 7–8.
221. ^ Kobayashi & Ōkubo 1994, p. 216.
222. ^ Ōkubo 2013, p. 31.
223. ^ Ōkubo 2013, p. 32.
225. ^ Ōkubo 2008, pp. 151—153.
226. ^ Kobayashi & Ōkubo 1994, p. 217.
227. ^ Ōkubo 2013, p. 43.
229. ^ Fiorillo 1999–2001.
230. ^ Fleming 1985, p. 61.
231. ^ Fleming 1985, p. 75.
232. ^ Toishi 1979, p. 25.
234. ^ Fiorillo 2001–2002a.
235. ^ AFP staff 2009.
236. ^ Fiorillo 1999–2005.
237. ^ Merritt 1990, p. 36.
238. ^ Fiorillo 2001–2002b.
239. ^ Lane 1962, p. 313.
240. ^ Faulkner & Robinson 1999, p. 40.
241. ^ a b Merritt 1990, p. 13.
242. ^ Bell 2004, p. 38.
243. ^ Merritt 1990, pp. 13–14.
244. ^ Bell 2004, p. 39.
245. ^ Checkland 2004, p. 107.
246. ^ Garson 2001, p. 14.
Works cited
Academic journals
Further reading
External links
Content from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
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Take the 2-minute tour ×
First of all,I'm not into web programming. I bumped into django and read a bit about models. I was intrigued by the following code ( from djangoproject.com ) :
class Person(models.Model):
first_name = models.CharField(max_length=50)
last_name = models.CharField(max_length=50)
def __str__(self):
# Note use of django.utils.encoding.smart_str() here because
# first_name and last_name will be unicode strings.
return smart_str('%s %s' % (self.first_name, self.last_name))
By my understanding of python , first_name and last_name are class variables , right ? How is that used in code ( because I guess that setting Person.first_name or Person.last_name will affect all Person instances ) ? Why is it used that way ?
share|improve this question
3 Answers 3
up vote 3 down vote accepted
Yes, first_name and last_name are class variables. They define fields that will be created in a database table. There is a Person table that has first_name and last_name columns, so it makes sense for them to be at Class level at this point.
For more on models, see: http://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/topics/db/models/
When it comes to accessing instances of a Person in code, you are typically doing this via Django's ORM, and at this point they essentially behave as instance variables.
For more on model instances, see: http://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/ref/models/instances/?from=olddocs
share|improve this answer
Danke schon Andy! – Tempus Feb 1 '09 at 13:00
Some good links here, but "at this point they essentially behave as instance variables" is a bit of hand-waving that isn't really accurate (or at least doesn't explain anything). – Carl Meyer Feb 1 '09 at 18:44
Fair enough... I'll hold my hands up to that one. +1 on your answer. :) – Andy Hume Feb 1 '09 at 21:05
The essence of your question is "how come these class variables (which I assign Field objects to) suddenly become instance variables (which I assign data to) in Django's ORM"? The answer to that is the magic of Python metaclasses.
A metaclass allows you to hook into and modify the process of creating a Python class (not the creation of an instance of that class, the creation of the class itself).
Django's Model object (and thus also your models, which are subclasses) has a ModelBase metaclass. It looks through all the class attributes of your model, and any that are instances of a Field subclass it moves into a fields list. That list is assigned as an attribute of the _meta object, which is a class attribute of the model. Thus you can always get to the actual Field objects via MyModel._meta.fields, or MyModel._meta.get_field('field_name').
The Model.__init__ method is then able to use the _meta.fields list to determine what instance attributes should be initialized when a model instance is created.
Don't be afraid to dive into the Django source code; it's a great source of education!
share|improve this answer
+1: This is cool voodoo. It's not something you should deeply understand. But you do need to see that it bends the obvious instance variable rules, adding another layer to the way objects are created. – S.Lott Feb 2 '09 at 12:01
Nice explanation. – Harold Mar 2 '09 at 2:32
Cool. I just wonder: Is the _meta attribute a part of the official model API? – pcv Jan 12 '11 at 15:53
@pcv No, technically it's not (it's not documented). Practically speaking, though, pieces of it (certainly the bits mentioned above) are so widely used that they are very unlikely to change. Cleaning up some of those APIs and documenting them is on the roadmap, I believe. – Carl Meyer Jan 13 '11 at 3:00
Not a real answer, but for enrichment:
won't work
p = Person.objects.get(pk=x)
will work. so an object instance of person has a first and last name, but static context Person does not.
Also note: Django has Model Managers which are allow "Person" to do static queryset operations. (https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/topics/db/managers/#managers).
so for example
peoples = Person.objects.all()
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Your Answer
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"url": "http://stackoverflow.com/questions/500650/django-model-question-newbie"
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Monday, March 12, 2012
Ms. Maria's Science Class
Unit 3 Investigation 3: Heat Conduction
Key question: How does heat energy get transferred by conduction?
Standards Covered
3.c Heat flows in solids by conduction (which involves no flow of matter) and in fluids by conduction and convection (which involves flow of matter).
3.d Heat energy is also transferred between objects by radiation (radiation can travel through space).
1. Students will be able to demonstrate, through the use of a model, conduction and convection
2. Students will be able to explain the different types of heat transfer--conduction, radiation, and convection.
3. Students will be able to illustrate data using different types of tables and charts.
Packet on Heat and Energy--Conduction due Thursday 3/15/2012.
Read and complete 1-13.
Choose three important elements and highlight, or underline, or circle.
Cornell Notes and Annotations due Wednesday 3/14/2012
Read passage and generate one question and one annotation for each paragraph.
Write a summary about what you learned.
Review and Reflect #1-7. Due Friday 3/16/2012.
Study for Quiz.
Quiz on Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.
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Camber Thrust
What is Camber Thrust?
Camber thrust is a term that is used to describe one part of the movement of a tire as it rolls. Camber thrust is the movement of a tire perpendicular to the direction it is rolling. In simple terms, camber thrust, or camber force, acts on a tire in the direction of a tire's sidewall. If a tire is mounted on a vehicle, camber thrust forces a tire left or right. Camber thrust can make a tire roll more or less efficiently, can make it better or worse for sport driving, and can positively or negatively affect the life of a tire among other things.
Different tires produce different amounts of camber thrust. Nearly every aspect of a tire affects its camber thrust. The design of the tire from its tread pattern to its height and width change the camber thrust. The materials a tire is made of, the inner workings of a tire, and the air pressure inside the tire also have an effect on camber thrust.
Quality tires like those recommended by have been built to maximize the good effects of camber thrust and to minimize the negative effects of it. Well-balanced tires-those that experience relatively low camber thrust-can roll more efficiently, resulting in low rolling resistance. They can also potentially last longer because they will wear evenly. Most importantly, tires with low camber thrust have a smaller likelihood of making a vehicle pull to the left or right, which can be very dangerous. On the other hand, tires can also take advantage of higher camber thrust
Positive and Negative Camber
Many drivers who desire or demand a certain amount of performance from their vehicles will customize, or set the camber of tires to offer a desired feel and performance. This is especially true for those who race their vehicles. In an effort to offer more lateral stability to a car or truck, the camber can be adjusted to a negative camber, which means that the top of the tires are angled inwards toward the center line of the vehicle. Such a camber is often incorporated in the world of rally racing, in an effort to maximize stability and traction.
The opposite scenario, where the tops of the wheels are angled outwards, is known as positive camber. This is also a technique used in professional racing. Both negative and positive camber can improve performance depending on the kind of racing and the racing surface.
How to Maintain Camber Thrust
It is important that the camber thrust on all four tires and wheels is equivalent on passenger vehicles. Having your tires aligned will ensure that the camber thrust of all of your tires is equal. Differing camber thrusts on your tires can negatively affect the quality of your ride, making it more difficult for your tires and for your vehicle to perform to the best of their abilities. To get your wheels aligned, take your vehicle to a qualified automotive technician at your local auto dealership. The technicians there have been certified by the manufacturer of your vehicle to work on the particular kind of vehicle that you drive. With that level of expertise and manufacturer-approved tools and replacement parts, you can rest assured that your tires will be perfectly aligned for maximum safety and performance.
Prices Include Installation
Every tire price includes expert installation at a local auto dealer.
Online Scheduling
Free 2-Day Delivery
Your tires arrive at the dealership before your
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"url": "https://www.rightturn.com/tire-guide/camber-thrust/"
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verb \ə-ˈgrē\
Definition of agree
1. transitive verb
2. 1a : to concur in (something, such as an opinion) : admit, concede They agreed that he was right.b : to consent to as a course of action She agreed to sell him the house.
3. 2 chiefly British : to settle on by common consent : arrange … I agreed rental terms with him … — Eric Bennett
4. intransitive verb
5. 1 : to accept or concede something (such as the views or wishes of another) agree to a plan
6. 2a : to achieve or be in harmony (as of opinion, feeling, or purpose) We agree in our taste in music.b : to get along togetherc : to come to terms agree on a fair division of profits
7. 3a : to be similar : correspond Both copies agree.b : to be consistent The story agrees with the facts.
8. 4 : to be fitting, pleasing, or healthful : suit This climate agrees with him.
Examples of agree in a sentence
7. The jurors were unable to agree a verdict.
8. The means of ending the dispute were finally agreed.
Origin and Etymology of agree
Middle English, from Anglo-French agreer, from a gre at will, from a (from Latin ad) + gre will, pleasure, from Latin gratum, neuter of gratus pleasing, agreeable — more at grace
First Known Use: 15th century
Synonym Discussion of agree
agree, concur, coincide mean to come into or be in harmony regarding a matter of opinion. agree implies complete accord usually attained by discussion and adjustment of differences. on some points we all can agree concur often implies approval of someone else's statement or decision. if my wife concurs, it's a deal coincide, used more often of opinions, judgments, wishes, or interests than of people, implies total agreement. their wishes coincide exactly with my desire
synonyms see in addition assent
AGREE Defined for English Language Learners
verb \ə-ˈgrē\
Definition of agree for English Language Learners
• : to have the same opinion
AGREE Defined for Kids
verb \ə-ˈgrē\
Definition of agree for Students
1. 1 : to give approval or permission agree to a plan
2. 2 : to have the same opinion We don't agree about everything.
3. 3 : admit 1 He finally agreed that I was right.
4. 4 : to be alike Their stories don't agree.
5. 5 : to come to an understanding They agreed on a price.
6. 6 : to be fitting or healthful The climate agrees with you.
Law Dictionary
Legal Definition of agree
1. transitive verb
2. : to share an opinion that agreed the terms were fair
3. intransitive verb
4. 1 : to share an opinion, understanding, or intent unable to agree on a verdict — New York Law Journal
5. 2 : to indicate willingness or acceptance : give assent or approval
Seen and Heard
to cast off or become cast off
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"fasttext_score": 0.021632671356201172,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9451455473899841,
"url": "https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/agree"
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inheritance definition
A document’s elements create a hierarchy with the root element located at the top and the remaining document parts sprawled out beneath it. Within an HTML document, the body and head elements are located beneath the html element. Ancestor elements are located higher in the tree-like structure and their descendents are located below them. CSS refers to the document structure to determine inheritance (refers to how a style is inherited by the descendents of an element). Inheritance can be overruled by a style rule that is immediately applied to an element. Values that are inherited do not possess specificity. It is important to realize that some elements are not inherited. A property will define if it is inherited; examples of elements that are not inherited include such elements such as background, margin, border and padding.
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"url": "http://www.creativeglossary.com/computer/inheritance.html"
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More and more research shows fats form part of a healthy diet, but are all fats created equal?
WHEN we hear the word ‘fat’ most of us immediately think weight gain, cellulite and cholesterol. Over the years, many of us have been indoctrinated into thinking that all fats are bad and should never be consumed. However, more and more research is showing that there are ‘good’ fats and ‘bad’ fats. In fact, your body actually needs some fats.
Why your body needs fats.
Fats are essential to our bodies for building cell walls, lubricating our joints, stabilizing our hormones, maintaining body warmth, and providing elasticity for blood vessels and skin. Fats are also needed by the body for the correct metabolism of carbohydrates and protein. The important point here is that you need to consume essential fats for your body to fully function.
What are ‘good fats’ and ‘bad fats’?
There are two kinds of fats that you can consume: good fats, and bad fats. Good fats are the ones essential for good health, and bad fats are those responsible for raising harmful blood cholesterol.
The bad fats are known as saturated fats and are the products of animals. These fats are the ones that are solids at room temperature. These fats are full of cholesterol and are more difficult for your body to digest. Butter, eggs, cheese, ice cream, and poultry skin are all examples of saturated fats.
Trans fats are also ‘bad’ fats. Examples of these are margarine, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil, and animal shortenings (like lard). Trans fats will increase the bad cholesterol in your blood, reduce the good, and also increase your triglycerides. These fats should be avoided at all costs and can also be found in chips and most fast foods.
The ‘good’ fats are known as unsaturated fats and are plant products, such as seeds, nuts and vegetables. Unsaturated fats break down into two categories: monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats.
Monounsaturated fats, or omega nine fatty acids, are not essential to good health, but when used moderately are a much better alternative than animal fats. The essential fatty acids are known as omega six and omega three. These essential fatty acids are only found in the polyunsaturated fats.
How much is a healthy amount?
To function correctly, your body requires the equivalent of one teaspoon of oil daily. A healthy amount to strive for is 25 per cent of your total energy needs from fats.
Many health authorities now recommend between 25-40 grams of fat daily as a healthy intake for the average adult.
While fats are essential, it is important to remember that they are extremely energy dense. One gram of fat contains nine calories. By contrast, one gram of protein or carbohydrate contains only four calories.
Always keep in mind that a little (good) fat goes a long way.
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"url": "http://www.stroudnewsandjournal.co.uk/news/11427735.Fitness_Tip_of_the_Week_with_Dave_Marsh__The_truth_about_fats_____the_good__bad__and_the_essential_/?ref=var_0"
}
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Fire Hose
The term fire hose refers to several different types of hose specifically designed for use in fighting fires. The most common one consists of one or more outer layers of woven fabric with an inner layer of rubber. It is usually manufactured in 50 ft (15.3 m) lengths with threaded metal connections on each end. Unlike other hoses, most fire hose is designed to be stored flat to minimize the space required. For example, the average fire pumper in the United States can carry 1,200 ft (366 m) of 2.5 in (64 mm) diameter fabric-covered, rubber-lined hose in a space about the size of a king-size bed.
The earliest recorded use of fire hose was in ancient Greece. According to the Greek author Apollodorus, one end of an ox's intestine was attached to a bladder filled with water. When the bladder was pressed, the water was forced through the long ox gut and was directed "to high places exposed to fiery darts."
The forerunner of the modern fire hose was invented in 1672 in Amsterdam, Netherlands, by Nicholas and Jan van der Heiden (Heides). Their discharge hose was made of leather with tightly sewn seams. Brass fittings were attached to each end to allow several sections to be coupled together. In 1698, they made a suction hose of heavy sailcloth coated with paint or cement to make it watertight. The hose was reinforced with internal metal rings to prevent it from collapsing under a vacuum.
Early leather hoses leaked badly, and their sewn seams were prone to rupture under pressure. The first riveted leather hose was developed in 1808 in Philadelphia by a group of volunteer firefighters. Their hose had seams held together by 20-30 metal rivets per foot (65-100 rivets per meter) to eliminate leaks. Two members of the group patented this design in 1817 and began manufacturing it. Although woven cotton and linen hoses were also introduced in the early 1800s, and rubber-coated hoses were introduced in 1827, none of these designs was developed enough to replace riveted leather hose until about the 1870s.
Modern fire hoses use a variety of natural and synthetic fabrics and elastomers in their construction. These materials allow the hoses to be stored wet without rotting and to resist the damaging effects of exposure to sunlight and chemicals. Modern hoses are also lighter weight than older designs, and this has helped reduce the physical strain on firefighters.
Types and Sizes of Fire Hose
There are several types of hose designed specifically for the fire service. Those designed to operate under positive pressure are called discharge hoses. They include attack hose, supply hose, relay hose, forestry hose, and booster hose. Those designed to operate under negative pressure are called suction hoses.
Attack hose is a fabric-covered, flexible hose used to bring water from the fire pumper to the nozzle. This hose ranges in nominal inside diameter from 1.5 in (38 mm) to 3.0 in (76 mm) and is designed to operate at pressures up to about 400 psi (2,760 kPa). The standard length is 50 ft (15.3 m).
Supply and relay hoses are large-diameter, fabric-covered, flexible hoses used to bring water from a distant hydrant to the fire pumper or to relay water from one pumper to another over a long distance. These hoses range in nominal inside diameter from 3.5 in (89 mm) to 5.0 in (127 mm). They are designed to operate at pressures up to about 300 psi (2,070 kPa) for the smaller diameters and up to 200 psi (1,380 kPa) for the larger diameters. The standard length is 100 ft (30.6 m).
Booster hose is a rubber-covered, thick-walled, flexible hose used to fight small fires. It retains its round cross-section when it is not under pressure and is usually carried on a reel on the fire pumper, rather than being stored flat. Booster hose comes in 0.75 in (19 mm) and 1.0 in (25 mm) nominal inside diameters and is designed to operate at pressures up to 800 psi (5,520 kPa). The standard length is 100 ft (30.6 m).
Suction hose, sometimes called hard suction, is usually a rubber-covered, semi-rigid hose with internal metal reinforcements. It is used to suck water out of unpressurized sources, such as ponds or rivers, by means of a vacuum. Suction hose ranges in nominal inside diameter from 2.5 in (64 mm) to 6.0 in (152 mm). The standard length is 10 ft (3.1 m).
Another suction hose, called a soft suction, is actually a short length of fabric-covered, flexible discharge hose used to connect the fire pumper suction inlet with a pressurized hydrant. It is not a true suction hose as it cannot withstand a negative pressure.
Raw Materials
In the past, cotton was the most common natural fiber used in fire hoses, but most modern hoses use a synthetic fiber like polyester or nylon filament. The synthetic fibers provide additional strength and better resistance to abrasion. The fiber yarns may be dyed various colors or may be left natural.
Coatings and liners include synthetic rubbers such as styrene butadiene, ethylene propylene, chloroprene, polyurethane, and nitrile butadiene. These compounds provide various degrees of resistance to chemicals, temperature, ozone, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, mold, mildew, and abrasion. Different coatings and liners are chosen for specific applications.
Hard suction hose consists of multiple layers of rubber and woven fabric encapsulating an internal helix of steel wire. Some very flexible hard suction hose uses a thin polyvinyl chloride cover with a polyvinyl chloride plastic helix.
Hose connections may be made from brass, although hardened aluminum connections are more frequently specified because of their lightweight.
A fabric-covered fire hose has one or more layers of woven fabric as a reinforcement material. A hose with one layer is called single jacket hose and is used where light-weight is important or where the hose is expected to have infrequent service. A forestry hose is single jacket for light-weight. An industrial fire hose is single jacket because it sees infrequent use. A hose with two layers is called a double jacket hose and is used where weight is not as critical and where the hose is expected to have frequent, sometimes harsh use, as in urban fire service.
A jacketed hose is usually lined with a thin-walled extruded tube of rubber or another elastomer material that is bonded to the inside of the hose. This prevents the water from seeping through the hose jacket. Some forestry hose is made with a perforated rubber liner to allow it to "weep" a little water through the jacket as a protection against embers that might otherwise burn the hose.
Another type of fabric hose construction is called through-the-weave extrusion. In this design a single fabric jacket is fed through a rubber extruder. The extruder coats both the
As the loom starts, the filler bobbins wind the filler yarn in a circle through the warp yarns. The inner and outer jackets are woven separately. If the outer jacket is to be coated, it is drawn through a dip tank filled with the coating material.
inside and outside of the fabric with a rubber compound to form both an inner liner and an outer coating at the same time. The extruder forces the rubber into and through the jacket weave to form an interlocking bond. This construction produces a lighter weight hose and is primarily used for larger-diameter supply hoses.
The Manufacturing
Fire hose is usually manufactured in a plant that specializes in providing hose products to municipal, industrial, and forestry fire departments. Here is a typical sequence of operations used to manufacture a double jacket, rubber-lined fire hose.
Preparing the yarn
Weaving the jackets
Extruding the liner
Forming the hose
Pressure testing the hose
Quality Control
In addition to the final pressure testing, each hose is subjected to a variety of inspections and tests at each stage of manufacturer. Some of these inspections and tests include visual inspections, ozone resistance tests, accelerated aging tests, adhesion tests of the bond between the liner and inner jacket, determination of the amount of hose twist under pressure, dimensional checks, and many more.
The Future
The trend in fire hose construction over the last 20 years has been to the use of lighter, stronger, lower maintenance materials. This trend is expected to continue in the future as new materials and manufacturing methods evolve.
One result of this trend has been the introduction of lightweight supply hoses in diameters never possible before. Hoses up to 12 in (30.5 cm) in diameter with pressure ratings up to 150 psi (1,035 kPa) are now available. These hoses are expected to find applications in large-scale industrial fire-fighting, as well as in disaster relief efforts and military operations.
Where to Learn More
NFPA 1961: Fire Hose. National Fire Protection Association, 1997.
NFPA 1963: Fire Hose Connections. National Fire Protection Association, 1993.
Goldwater, Sam and Robert F. Nelson. "Large-Diameter Super Aquaduct Flexible Pipeline Applications in the Fire Service." Fire Engineering (April 1997): 147-149.
Chris Cavette
Also read article about Fire Hose from Wikipedia
User Contributions:
Lynn Cook
Report this comment as inappropriate
Sep 28, 2009 @ 9:21 pm
If we have 1 3/4 hose and it has 1 1/2 couplings would you call it 1 1/2"? Just a questions we were talking about at the fire dept. thanks Lynn Cook
Adriaan Los
Report this comment as inappropriate
Jul 28, 2015 @ 3:03 am
What should we purchase as booster hose: 19mm or 25mm (3/4 or 1 inch) Where doe it make a difference?
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Describe Hawthorne's use of symbols in The Scarlet Letter by citing at least 4 symbols used in the novel & explain their meaning.
Asked on by cards25
1 Answer | Add Yours
missy575's profile pic
missy575 | High School Teacher | (Level 1) Educator Emeritus
Posted on
Hawthorne's use of symbols is so abundant that the only place you really have to search to find 4 is in the first chapter.
Look at the fact that this little prison is in a cemetery. Could you not argue that a term in prison is like a death sentence because you may no longer live freely in a society? Likewise, the door of this prison is made with the heaviest wood and iron, elements also used in the greatest executional instruments made throughout time.
The rosebush next to the door presents the beauty of a rose, the color of both love and blood, and the pain of a thorn. This rosebush represents Hester's life. In fact, the author identifies it as a symbol himself in the last sentence of the chapter:
The Scarlet Letter A should be your most obvious representative of a symbol because the red A means she's a sinner and an adulterer at that.
I think if you were to look further, you would take a look at Pearl, the Minister, or the Physician. Isn't it interesting how many times Hawthorne gives these characters labels instead of references to their names? Pearl strikes me because to become a pearl takes years of agitation by tiny little grains of sand. So for Pearl to become who she eventually comes seems to take much agitation. You could use most any uncomfortable situation she was in for each of these... including her first moments with her mother on display in the public meeting place.
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Battle of Benburb, 5 June 1646 (Ireland)
Battle during the Irish revolt (1641-1652) that played a key part in triggering the English Civil War, between the rebel Ulster army of Owen Roe O'Neill, and the Scottish Covenanter army in Ulster, commanded by Colonel Robert Monro. After a period of inactivity, O'Neill had been persuaded by Giovanni Rinuccini, the Papal Nuncio in Ireland, to resume activity. At the same time, Monro, whose army was very short of supplies, had decided to sortie from Belfast to raid for supplies. The two armies came together at Benburb, and Monro decided to fight. The battle started late in the afternoon, and for the first two hours, O'Neill, an experienced soldier, managed to hold his army together under severe Scottish fire. However, at sunset he ordered his infantry on to the attack, and the Scottish cavalry retreated. What started as an orderly retreat rapidly became a rout as the Scottish cavalry and infantry tangled in the increasing darkness, and the Scottish army fled the field, abandoning six cannons and almost all of their muskets, a godsend for the under-equipped Irish. While both the Nuncio and the Pope celebrated a victory that they expected to lead to the freeing of Catholic Ireland, Parliament and the Scots were reminded of the danger they faced from Ireland, and began to prepare for what became Cromwell's Irish campaign (1649-50)
cover cover cover
How to cite this article: Rickard, J. (9 April 2001), Benburb, battle of, 5 June 1646 (Ireland),
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Friday, Jun 23rd
Last update12:59:40 PM GMT
Merge Sort
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Merge SortMerge Sort is a comparison-based sorting algorithm, based on the popular Divide-&-Conquer approach of sorting algorithms, which involve the following steps:
1. Divide: Divide the array of the size N into two sequences of size N/2, unless N=1 since at that point array can’t be further divided.
2. Conquer: Sort the two sequences recursively, using the merge sort. Since at N=1, the further division is not possible, therefore we have just two sibling sequences each of size 1. And they don’t need to be sorted.
3. Combine: Combine the two sorted sequences to form another sorted sequence. While merging the two sequences, the sorted order needs to be maintained in the final result sequence. This is made sure, by comparing the top elements of both sequences (assuming that smallest element is placed on the top in a sequence). The smaller one is placed on the top of the resultant array, and the element is removed from the corresponding sequence (In terms of array, the sequence array top index is updated to next index).
Merge Sort Algorithm
function mergeSort(arr)
if length(arr) ≤ 1
return arr
var leftArr, rightArr, resultArr
mid = length(arr) / 2
for each x in arr up to mid
add x to leftArr
for each x in m after mid
add x to rightArr
leftArr = merge_sort(leftArr)
rightArr = merge_sort(rightArr)
resultArr = merge(leftArr, rightArr)
return resultArr
function merge(leftArr, rightArr)
var resultArr
while length(leftArr) > 0 or length(rightArr) > 0
if length(leftArr) > 0 and length(rightArr) > 0
if first(leftArr) ≤ first(rightArr)
append first(leftArr) to resultArr
leftArr = rest(leftArr)
append first(rightArr) to resultArr
rightArr = rest(rightArr)
else if length(leftArr) > 0
append leftArr to resultArr
else if length(rightArr) > 0
append rightArr to resultArr
end while
return resultArr
It can be easily seen that the sorting time represented as T(n) can be calculated as the sum of the above two methods time. For an array of size of N, the mergeSort has time as T(N) = 2T(N/2) + N, since the merge method has N iterations. And since we perform two merge sorts on half the size, therefore 2T(N/2). The merge sort has worst case and average performance as O(n log n) for the array of size n.
The most common implementation of the merge sort is not in place and therefore, it requires the memory size of the input allocated for storing the output. The in-place sorting implementation is possible but is very complicated, and hardly offers any performance gain in practise, even if the algorithm runs in O(n log n) time.
Comparison with other sort algorithms
As compared to quicksort, merge sort is much more efficient if the data to be sorted can only be efficiently accessed sequentially, and is thus popular in languages where sequentially accessed data structures are very common, like Lisp. Unlike some (inefficient) implementations of quicksort, merge sort is a stable sort as long as the merge operation is implemented properly.
Although heap sort has the same time bounds as merge sort, it requires only Ω(1) auxiliary space instead of merge sort's Ω(n), and is consequently often faster in practical implementations. Quicksort, however, is considered by many to be the fastest general-purpose sort algorithm in practice. Its average-case complexity is O(n log n), with a much smaller coefficient, in good implementations, than merge sort's, even though it is quadratic in the worst case. On the plus side, merge sort is a stable sort, parallelizes better, and is more efficient at handling slow-to-access sequential media. Merge sort is often the best choice for sorting a linked list: in this situation it is relatively easy to implement a merge sort in such a way that it does not require Ω(n) auxiliary space (instead only Ω(1)), and the slow random-access performance of a linked list makes some other algorithms (such as quick sort) perform poorly, and others (such as heapsort) completely impossible.
In Java, the Arrays.sort() methods use mergesort and a tuned quicksort depending on the datatypes.
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From Sciencemadness Wiki
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A shaker is a piece of laboratory equipment used to mix, blend, or to agitate substances, solutions or suspensions in flasks, separatory funnels or tubes by shaking them.
Shakers consist of an oscillating board, which contains various clamps designed for holding beakers, flasks, separatory funnels, tubes, etc., usually made of stainless steel. The oscillating board sits on a flat apparatus, which contains an on/off button and two dials, one for setting the speed and the other for setting the time. More advanced models may also have an electronic display and a temperature controller.
Incubator shaker
It consists of a shaker inside a closed small chamber, while also capable of maintaining a desired temperature. It is a good choice when doing various biochemical processes, such as microorganism incubating or DNA replications.
Orbital shaker
The orbital shaker creates mixing through a circular shaking motion, with a slow speed (25-500 rpm), which can be adjusted via dials. It is commonly used for general mixing, washing blots, microbiology, etc.
Platform shaker
The oscilating board of this shaker moves horizontally. It is the most common type.
Vortex shaker
Used to mix small vials of liquid.
Shakers can be bought from lab suppliers.
DIY shaker
Shakers can be relative easy to make, but given that spills tend to happen, you will have to use chemical resistant materials. Stainless steel is ideal, but this raises the cost of the shaker.
Paint can shakers can be used as base for your lab shaker.
• Mix liquids and suspensions
Relevant Sciencemadness threads
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Living conditions in the Eastern Front trenches
A German trench somewhere on the Eastern front.
A German trench somewhere on the Eastern front.
On the Eastern Front the Soviet Army had launched another offensive and were making good progress towards Poland. Yet other parts of the 1000 mile front remained static as the two sides faced each other from trenches. Most of the time the majority of men lived in bunkers dug into the earth, hidden under the snow. Only those on guard duty had to be out keeping observation, the remainder huddled together in the most cramped quarters. The typical Soviet bunker housed six or seven men with just enough room for them to lie down side by side, and not enough height to stand up in.
Petr Mikhin, a Red Army artillery officer, spent over three months of the winter of 1943/44 living in such conditions. Generally he felt that the Germans had better accommodation, making more effort to line their bunkers with wooden planking, whereas the Russians made do with straw and lived in very primitive conditions. Yet he felt that his men were better able to cope with such conditions:
Our men were less sensitive and more stoic. We were better adapted to hunger, cold, dirt, and physical and psychological stress. The Germans on defense had lice and boils on their bodies. If you would, our skin was a bit thicker.
If we picked up lice from a visit to a German dugout, a sergeant major and a medic would place a barrel above a camp fire at the battery position, pour a bucket of water into it, lay about five logs across the rim of the barrel, and drape all our uniforms and underwear across the logs. The steam processing lasted for over an hour and it would take care of all lice.
We took turns going to a bania [sauna]in the rear. When it was your turn to wash, you had to do it quickly, in order not to freeze in the frigid weather.
If a German soldier wasn’t in a bunker and had to sleep in a trench, he would lay his head on a knapsack, just like we used our rucksacks. But our rucksacks were no match to a German knapsack, which was sewn together from soft calfskin. The contents of their knapsacks were also richer than those of our bags.
If we had any of the so—called ‘untouchable rations’, it was dry bread, rarely a tin can of American Spam. Soldiers would often eat the untouchable rations just to make sure the food was not wasted if they were killed.
But what didn’t the Germans have in their knapsacks! Portable stoves and dry spirit tablets to warm up food, small lamps with paraffin and wicks, a combination fork and spoon, a knife, preserves, Portuguese sardines, French wines, crackers, articial honey, chocolate, cheese, smoked sausage, and personal hygiene items. Letters and photos were always present. Quite often they also carried a harmonica.
On the attack, when circumstances permitted it, our soldiers often stopped to hunt for German knapsacks. Once my signalman was chasing a fleeing German with a knapsack on his back; the German was running like a jack-rabbit. My soldier shouted at him, but the German didn’t stop. He shot the German in the back, but below the knapsack so he didn’t damage the contents!
The German fell at on his stomach. The signalman tore the knapsack from the German’s back and impatiently opened it to see what goodies might be inside. But the German wasn’t dead, only wounded, and as my man was investigating the contents of the knapsack, the German turned over and pointed his submachine—gun at him. It was a good thing that another of my men was nearby and fired first. Otherwise, the inquisitive signalman would have paid for his curiosity with his life.
See Petr Mikhin: Guns Against the Reich: Memoirs of an Artillery Officer on the Eastern Front
The evacuation of Soviet wounded by sledge.
The evacuation of Soviet wounded by sledge.
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Earlier in the war:
Later in the war:
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Rescuing Chesapeake Bay
Save the bay - that's been the battle cry in the mid-Atlantic region for two decades, as a unique alliance of federal, state, and local governments has tried to control pollution in the largest estuary in the US, the spectacular Chesapeake Bay.
But it turns out that progress in limiting key pollutants has been significantly overstated by the partnership leading the cleanup effort, the Chesapeake Bay Program.
Relying on a sophisticated computer model - not water samples - to estimate pollution reduction, the partnership reported a near 40 percent drop in major pollutants flowing into the waterway from 1985 to 2000.
Yet water-sample data obtained by The Washington Post from the US Geological Survey showed no decline of the two targeted pollutants - nitrogen and phosphorus - in most of the major rivers feeding the bay. Steep drops in the population of blue crabs and oysters - icons of bay life and the regional economy - also indicate a less rosy picture.
Measuring bay pollution is complicated. For instance, underwater grasses have doubled since the mid-80s - a good sign. And while the partnership does not include water samples in its computer model, it does use them to recalibrate its estimates.
Still, when the partnership revised its computer model in March, the new estimates - a 28 percent fall in phosphorus and 18 percent drop in nitrogen - were considerably lower than the 40 percent estimate of four years ago.
The partnership needs to come up with a more accurate reporting method. Much rides on its assessment, including the political will to curb the fertilizer, animal and human waste, and car pollution that end up in the bay. Bordering states have made serious clean-up efforts, but they have been offset by increased pollution from a rising human population. It looks like a complete rethinking of the bay program, and not just a computer adjustment, is necessary.
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NASA's Juno spacecraft loops into orbit around Jupiter
2016-07-05 13:49:44
CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. NASA's Juno spacecraft capped a five-year journey to Jupiter late Monday with a do-or-die engine burn to sling itself into orbit, setting the stage for a 20-month dance around the biggest planet in the solar system to learn how and where it formed.“We’re there. We’re in orbit. We conquered Jupiter,” lead mission scientist Scott Bolton, with the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, told reporters on Tuesday. “Now the fun begins.”Juno will spend the next three months getting into position to begin studying what lies beneath Jupiter’s thick clouds and mapping the planet’s gargantuan magnetic fields.Flying in egg-shaped orbits, each one lasting 14 days, Juno also will look for evidence that Jupiter has a dense inner core and measure how much water is in the atmosphere, a key yardstick for figuring out how far away from the sun the gas giant formed.Jupiter's origins, in turn, affected the development and position of the rest of the planets, including Earth and its fortuitous location conducive to the evolution of life.“The question I’ve had my whole life that I’m hoping we get an answer to is ‘How’d we get here?’ That’s really pretty fundamental to me,” Bolton said.Jupiter orbits five times farther from the sun than Earth, but it may have started out elsewhere and migrated, jostling its smaller sibling planets as it moved. Jupiter's immense gravity also diverts many asteroids and comets from potentially catastrophic collisions with Earth and the rest of the inner solar system.Launched from Florida nearly five years ago, Juno needed to be precisely positioned, ignite its main engine at exactly the right time and keep it firing for 35 minutes to become only the second spacecraft to orbit Jupiter.If anything had gone even slightly awry, Juno would have sailed helplessly past Jupiter, unable to complete a $1 billion mission. The risky maneuver began as planned at 11:18 p.m. EDT/0318 Tuesday GMT as Juno soared through the vacuum of space at more than 160,000 mph (257,500 kph).NASA expects Juno to be in position for its first close-up images of Jupiter on Aug. 27, the same day its science instruments are turned on for a test run.Only one other spacecraft, Galileo, has ever circled Jupiter, which is itself orbited by 67 known moons. Bolton said Juno is likely to discover even more.Seven other U.S. space probes have sailed past the gas giant on brief reconnaissance missions before heading elsewhere in the solar system. The risks to the spacecraft are not over. Juno will fly in highly elliptical orbits that will pass within 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of the tops of Jupiter's clouds and inside the planet's powerful radiation belts.Juno's computers and sensitive science instruments are housed in a 400-pound (180-kg) titanium vault for protection. But during its 37 orbits around Jupiter, Juno will be exposed to the equivalent of 100 million dental X-rays, said Bill McAlpine, radiation control manager for the mission.The spacecraft, built by Lockheed Martin, is expected to last for 20 months. On its final orbit, Juno will dive into Jupiter's atmosphere, where it will be crushed and vaporized.Like Galileo, which circled Jupiter for eight years before crashing into the planet in 2003, Juno's demise is designed to prevent any hitchhiking microbes from Earth from inadvertently contaminating Jupiter's ocean-bearing moon Europa, a target of future study for extraterrestrial life. (Editing by Kim Coghill and Andrew Heavens)
Google beats children's web privacy appeal, Viacom must face one claim
2016-06-27 19:24:29
A federal appeals court on Monday said Google and Viacom need not face a nationwide lawsuit claiming they illegally tracked the activity of children under the age of 13 who watched videos and played video games on the Nickelodeon website.The 3rd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Philadelphia largely upheld a January 2015 lower court ruling dismissing claims that Google, which is a unit of Alphabet Inc, and Viacom Inc violated the federal Video Privacy Protection Act by planting "cookies" on children's computers. But the appeals court also revived one privacy claim against Viacom, which alleged that the company promised not to collect personal information about children but did so anyway. (Reporting by Jonathan Stempel in New York; Editing by David Gregorio)
Democrat gun control sit-in sparks social media sensation
2016-06-24 04:22:03
A blackout of television cameras in the U.S. House Representatives during the Democrats' gun control sit-in may have spurred public interest in the protest as it forced the demonstrators to use social media to broadcast their message.Democrats leapt on Facebook Live (FB.O) and Twitter's (TWTR.N) Periscope after the cameras, controlled by the House, went dark Wednesday when presiding House officer and Republican Representative Ted Poe declared the chamber not in order during the protest.As Democrats took to alternative forms of video broadcasting, their message gained tremendous momentum from social media. On Twitter, the hashtags #NoBillNoBreak and #HoldTheFloor have been tweeted at least 1.4 million times.Of the roughly 20 members of Congress who remained at the sit-in overnight, 19 of them used Facebook Live for a total combined viewership of 3 million.“It really connected with people out there,” Congressman Scott Peters told Reuters. "This whole phenomenon with [live video] struck a nerve."Peters used the application Periscope, which is connected to the social media platform Twitter, to send out video. “Without that, think about it, it would have been a caucus meeting where we talk to ourselves," he added. In remarks Wednesday outside the Capitol, House Democratic Leader Nancy Pelosi praised how her party harnessed social media."Without you and without the technology of Periscope [the sit-in] would just be a debate in the Halls of Congress unrecorded because they turned off the microphones," Pelosi said. "But we raised our voices. They turned off the cameras and we went to Periscope." Congressman Mark Takano, who began posting live videos from the chamber to his Facebook page Wednesday afternoon and continued to throughout the night, said the social media video helped him connect with constituents."Once I got started with the live streaming I didn’t feel like I could let down the people who were following me,” said Takano. “It was a way to push out a message.”Even C-SPAN, which typically broadcasts footage recorded by the House cameras, picked up live video from four different members of Congress roughly two hours after the House cameras shut down, according to communications director Howard Mortman. It marked the first time the channel broadcast a live social media feed from the House floor. "Something interesting is happening with Facebook Live that's bringing more openness to the political process," said Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of Facebook, in a post to his social media profile Thursday."It's a way to share anything you want with the world using just your phone." (Reporting By Amy Tennery; additional reporting by Angela Moon in New York and Susan Cornwell in Washington; Editing by Andrew Hay)
Java, Java EE, Jython, Oracle, and More...: Help Move Java EE Forward
2016-06-16 19:27:05
In the lab: six innovations scientists hope will end malaria
2016-06-09 18:22:21
ARUSHA, Tanzania (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - After being abandoned as too ambitious in 1969, global plans to eliminate malaria are back on the agenda, with financial backing from the world's richest couple, Bill and Melinda Gates, and U.S. President Barack Obama.The Gateses aim to eradicate malaria by 2040 by doubling funding over the next decade to support the roll out of new products to tackle rising drug resistance against the disease.Their goal of permanently ending transmission of the disease between humans and mosquitoes is more ambitious than the Sustainable Development Goal of ending epidemic levels of malaria by 2030.They are also supporting a push to create the world's first vaccine against a parasite.Six innovations scientists are working on are:* New insecticides: Mosquitoes are becoming resistant to insecticides used to spray inside homes and in bed nets."There is no current insecticide that doesn't show insect-resistance at the moment," said Jed Stone, a spokesman for the UK-based Innovative Vector Control Consortium (IVCC).Indoor spraying of walls with insecticide -- which was used to wipe out malaria in the United States in the 1940s -- has fallen by 40 percent since 2012 due to resistance to older products and the high cost of newer ones. The IVCC is developing three new insecticides for use in indoor sprays and bed nets that kill insecticide-resistant mosquitoes. "The insecticides are virtually ready but it will take about five years to finally develop them," Stone said, adding that this largely involves registration with regulators. * A single-dose cure: A pill that would wipe out all parasites in the body could be available by 2019, the Gates Foundation says.Human trials of one candidate are planned following successful tests on mice, published in 2015. Existing drugs have to be taken for three days with the risk that people do not finish their medication, contributing to the development of drug-resistant malaria. They also only kill parasites at the asexual-stage where they cause fever but not at the sexual-stage where they are picked up by mosquitoes in blood.* Insecticide-treated wall liners: Scientists hope insecticide-treated wall liners, which look like wallpaper, will be more effective than spraying people's homes with insecticide every three to eight months. The wall liners kill mosquitoes that rest on them and can last for three years. Tanzania's National Institute for Medical Research is testing wall liners in 6,000 homes to see if they protect people from malaria. Results will be published in 2017.* Insecticide-embedded clothing: American soldiers have been wearing combat uniforms treated with permethrin, a synthetic insecticide, since 2010 to protect them against insect-borne diseases.The U.S. government's Walter Reed Army Institute of Research will test the effectiveness of treated combat uniforms and repellent creams in July on Tanzanian soldiers who often catch malaria when working at night as peacekeepers.* A vaccine: This is a big one, given vaccines success in eliminating smallpox, polio and measles in many countries. More than 30 malaria vaccines are under development. The Mosquirix vaccine, discovered in 1987, is a decade ahead of other candidates but, to date, it only halves the number of bouts of malaria young children suffer.The World Health Organization is seeking funding for a pilot program to administer Mosquirix to 400,000 to 800,000 African children. The results will be used to make a decision on whether to use the vaccine more widely. * GM mosquitoes: Scientists have genetically modified (GM) mosquitoes by adding genes that block the development of the malaria parasite inside the insect and prevent it from being transmitted to people.Scientists have also genetically modified mosquitoes to make them infertile, so that they die out. But many are cautious about the unforeseen consequences of this."When people imagine a malaria end game scenario, GM mosquito technology would be incredibly powerful because it doesn't rely on a robust health system in order to go in and disrupt transmission of the parasite," said Martin Edlund, chief executive of Malaria No More, referring to war-torn countries like South Sudan.The International Center for Journalists and Malaria No More provided a travel grant for this report (Reporting by Katy Migiro; Editing by Katie Nguyen; Please credit the Thomson Reuters Foundation, the charitable arm of Thomson Reuters, that covers humanitarian news, women’s rights, trafficking, property rights and climate change. Visit to see more stories.)
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Branson's Virgin Galactic unveils new passenger spaceship
Software maker VMware to cut 800 jobs, sees weak 2016
[Vidéo] La minute du JDG #2 : Retour vers le futur !
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The London Hammer
The London Hammer. Photo Credit:
In June 1936 (or 1934 by some accounts), Max Hahn (1897-1989) and his wife Emma were hiking along Red Creek near London, Texas. It was there that they discovered an artifact which seemed completely out of place. What they found was a unique piece of wood protruding from a rock concretion. When the rock was broken by their son in 1947, it revealed an iron hammer with a wooden handle. The artifact would gain the world’s attention when Carl Baugh, a Creationist, purchased the artifact in 1983. The London Hammer, or the London Artifact as some call it, was promoted by Baugh as a monumental ‘Pre-Flood’ discovery. Additional curiosity was generated when a 1985 report from the Creation Ex Nihile dated the rock formation encompassing the hammer as 400-500 million years old.
The Hammer is six inches (15.24cm) long with a diameter of one inch. The metal has been identified as consisting of 96.6% iron, 2.6% chlorine, and 0.74% sulfur. Believers point out that this hammer has not rusted since its discovery over sixty years ago. This is certainly a unique blend of metalurgy which some claim be a lost technology of ancient man.
So the mystery begins. What is a hammer doing embedded in such ancient rock and what does this mean about the age of mankind since man was not suppose to exist for a few hundred million years?
As with any mystery and grand claim, all the evidence needs to be presented before the truth can finally be revealed. The discovery of the London Hammer still leaves us with a lot of questions. And there are many inconsistencies that prevent the scientific community from confirming this find as the oldest known artifact created by man.
First of all, there are conflicting reports as to where the object was actually located in the surrounding rocks. And there is no photographic evidence of the object prior to being disturbed. One report states that the hammer was embedded in a rock formation dating from the Cretaceaus Period (65-135 million years ago). But other accounts state that Mr. Hahn found the hammer bearing nodule “near” these surrounding rocks.
Skeptics argue that minerals could have cemented the hammer around the Cretaceous rock after it was dropped or left behind. This could easily lead novice geologists to believe that the hammer and the rock formation are from the same time period.
The only true method of determining the age of the hammer is through Carbon 14 dating of the wooden handle, but Baugh has yet to authorize this procedure. The handle appears to be partially fossilized, so this certainly adds to the argument that this a very ancient tool. But fossilization can occur prematurely through various natural methods.
To skeptics, the hammer appears to be a tool that was abandoned or lost some 200 years ago, but to it’s supporters, this is a clear indication that man has been on this Earth much longer than previously thought.
The artifact is currently located at the “Creation Evidence Museum“.
The ‘London (Texas, USA) hammer’, Bad Archaeology
The London Hammer by Glen J. Kuban
Jim Heddlesten
Jim was born and raised in Naples, Italy. He created this website in December 2009 because of his fondness for historical mysteries. Since creating the website, Historic Mysteries has grown incredibly fast and almost 3,000 people visit this site daily. Thank you for stopping by and please bookmark this site.
If Mr. Baugh were sincere in his belief, surely he would clamor to have it carbon dated.
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Animal communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Animal communication is the transfer of information from one or a group of animals (sender or senders) to one or more other animals (receiver or receivers) which affects either the current or future behavior of the receivers. The transfer of information may be deliberate (e.g. a courtship display) or it may be unintentional (e.g. a prey animal detecting the scent of a predator). When animal communication involves multiple receivers, this may be referred to as an "audience". The study of animal communication is a rapidly growing area of study and plays an important part in the disciplines of animal behavior, sociobiology, neurobiology and animal cognition.[1] Even in the 21st century, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, learning and animal sexual behavior, long thought to be well understood, have been revolutionized.
When the information sent from the sender to receiver is either an act or a structure that manipulates the behavior of the receiver, it is referred to as a "signal". Signalling theory predicts that for the signal to be maintained in the population, the receiver should also receive some benefit from the interaction. Both the production of the signal from the sender and the perception and subsequent response from the receiver need to coevolve.[2] It is important to study both the sender and receiver of the interaction, since the maintenance and persistence of the signal is dependent on the ability to both produce and recognize the signal. In many taxa, signals involve multiple mechanisms, i.e. multimodal signaling.
A lamb investigates a rabbit, an example of interspecific communication using body posture and olfaction.
For information on the perception of visual signals, see Visual Perception
Gestures: The best known form of communication involves the display of distinctive body parts, or distinctive bodily movements; often these occur in combination, so a movement acts to reveal or emphasize a body part. See also body language. A notable example is the presentation of a parent Herring Gull’s bill to its chick signals feeding time. Like many gulls, the Herring Gull has a brightly coloured bill, yellow with a red spot on the lower mandible near the tip. When the parent returns to the nest with food, it stands over its chick and taps the bill on the ground in front of it; this elicits a begging response from a hungry chick (pecking at the red spot), which stimulates the parent to regurgitate food in front of it. The complete signal therefore involves a distinctive morphological feature (body part), the red-spotted bill, and a distinctive movement (tapping towards the ground)which makes the red spot highly visible to the chick. While all primates use some form of gesture,[3] Frans de Waal came to the conclusion that apes and humans are unique in that only they are able to use intentional gestures to communicate. He tested the hypothesis of gesture evolving into language by studying the gestures of bonobos and chimps.
Facial expression: Facial gestures play an important role in animal communication. It is a motor expression of one or multiple facial features in response to some event or a signal of intention for further actions. See emotion in animals for further information on possible signals of emotion. Dogs, for example, express anger through snarling and showing their teeth. In alarm their ears will perk up. When fearful, dogs will pull back their ears, expose their teeth slightly and squint their eyes. Jeffrey Mogil studied the facial expressions of mice during increments of increasing pain; there were five recognizable facial expressions; orbital tightening, nose and cheek bulge, and changes in ear and whisker carriage.[4]
Gaze following: Coordination among social animals is facilitated by monitoring of each other's head and eye orientation. Long recognized in human developmental studies as an important component of communication, there has recently begun to be much more attention on the abilities of animals to follow the gaze of those they interact with, whether members of their own species or humans. Studies have been conducted on apes, monkeys, dogs, birds, and tortoises, and have focused on two different tasks: "follow[ing] another’s gaze into distant space" and "follow[ing] another’s gaze geometrically around a visual barrier e.g. by repositioning themselves to follow a gaze cue when faced with a barrier blocking their view". The first ability has been found among a broad range of animals, while the second has been demonstrated only for apes, dogs (and wolves), and corvids (ravens), and attempts to demonstrate this "geometric gaze following" in marmoset and ibis gave negative results. Researchers do not yet have a clear picture of the cognitive basis of gaze following abilities, but developmental evidence indicates that "simple" gaze following and "geometric" gaze following are likely to rely on distinct cognitive foundations.[5]
Color change. Color change can be separated into morphological color change, in which changes occur in relation to stage of development, or physiological color change, in which color change is triggered by mood, social context, or abiotic factors such as temperature. Physiological color change is a versatile mode for communication across a diverse array of taxa. Some cephalopods, such as the octopus and the cuttlefish, have specialized skin cells (chromatophores) that can change the apparent colour, opacity, and reflectiveness of their skin.[6] In addition to being used for camouflage, rapid changes in skin colour are used while hunting and in courtship rituals.[7] The colour changes in cuttlefish can be especially intricate as they are able to communicate two entirely different signals simultaneously from opposite sides of their body. When a male cuttlefish courts a female in the presence of other males, he displays two different sides: a male pattern facing the female, and a female pattern facing away, to deceive other males.[8] Many animals communicate information about themselves without necessarily changing their behaviour. For example, sexual dimorphism in size or pelage communicates which sex the animal is. Other passive signals can be cyclical in nature. For example, in olive baboons, the beginning of the female's ovulation is a signal to the males that she is ready to mate. During ovulation, the skin of the female's anogenital area swells and turns a bright red/pink.[9]
Bioluminescent communication. Communication by the production of light occurs commonly in vertebrates and invertebrates in the oceans, particularly at depths (e.g. angler fish). Two well known forms of land bioluminescence are fireflies and glow worms. Other insects, insect larvae, annelids, arachnids and even species of fungi possess bioluminescent abilities. Some bioluminescent animals produce the light themselves whereas others have a symbiotic relationship with bioluminescent bacteria. (See also: List of bioluminescent organisms)
Many animals communicate through vocalization. Vocal communication is essential for many tasks, including mating rituals, warning calls, conveying location of food sources, and social learning. In a number of species, males perform calls during mating rituals as a form of competition against other males and to signal females, including hammer-headed bats, red deer, humpback whales, elephant seals, and songbirds.[10] For more information on bird song, see bird vocalization. In various species, whale vocalizations have been found to have different dialects based on region.[11] Other instances of vocal communication include the alarm calls of the Campbell monkey,[12] the territorial calls of gibbons, and the use of frequency in greater spear-nosed bats to distinguish between groups.[13] Another example of an animal that gives alarm calls is the Vervet monkey. The Vervet monkey gives a distinct alarm call for each of its four different predators. The other monkeys will react in a specific way, depending on which alarm call is issued by an individual. For example, the alarm calls for pythons and eagles are different because the response to each predator must be different. If an alarm call is given for a python, the monkeys must climb into the trees to avoid the python. In contrast, if an alarm call is given for an eagle, the monkeys must get low to the ground and seek a hiding place. It is important for these alarm calls to be distinguishable, so that the monkeys can recognize the threat and respond appropriately. Prairie dogs also have very complex communication when it comes to predator detection. According to Con Slobodchikoff and others, prairie dog calls contain specific information as to what type of predator is present, how big it is and how fast it is approaching.
Not all animals use vocalization as a means of auditory communication. Many arthropods rub specialized body parts together to produce sound. This is known as stridulation. Crickets and grasshoppers are well known for this, but many others use stridulation as well, including crustaceans, spiders, scorpions, wasps, ants, beetles, butterflies, moths, millipedes, and centipedes. Another means of auditory communication is the vibration of swim bladders in bony fish. The structure of swim bladders and the attached sonic muscles varies greatly across bony fish families, resulting in a wide range of sound production. Striking body parts together can also produce auditory signals. A popular example of this is the tail tip vibration of rattlesnakes as a warning signal. Other examples include bill clacking in birds, wing clapping in manakin courtship displays, and chest beating in gorillas.[14]
Main article: Olfaction
Despite being the oldest method of communication, chemical communication is one of the least understood forms due to the “noisy” nature and sheer abundance of chemicals in our environment, and the difficulty of detecting and measuring all chemical species within a sample.[14] The primary function of chemical reception is to detect resources (i.e., food) and this function was an adaptive trait (Adaptation) first derived in single-celled organisms (Bacteria), living in the oceans, during the early days of life on Earth.[14] Over evolutionary time, this function became more refined, allowing some organisms to differentiate between chemical compounds emanating from resources, conspecifics (same species; i.e., mates and kin), and heterospecifics (different species; i.e., competitors and predators).[14] The ability to detect chemicals present within the environment allowed organisms to associate advantageous or adaptive behaviors with the information provided by the chemicals. For instance, a small minnow species may do well to avoid habitat with a detectable concentration of chemical cue associated with a predator species such as Northern Pike.[15] Minnows with the ability to perceive the presence of predators before they are close enough to be seen and then respond with adaptive behavior (such as hiding) are more likely to survive and reproduce, as will their offspring due to the nature of inheritance (Heredity).
Main article: Electrocommunication
A rare form of animal communication is electrocommunication. It is seen primarily in aquatic animals, though some land mammals, notably the platypus and echidnas are capable of electroreception and thus theoretically of electrocommunication.[16]
Weakly electric fishes are an example of electrocommunication tied with an active sensory modality for electrolocation. These fish communicate by generating an electric field using what is known as an electric organ. This field, and any changes of it, is detected by electroreceptors. Differences in waveforms and frequencies convey information on species, sex, and individuals. Differences and changes in waveforms can be in response to hormones, circadian rhythms, and interactions with other fish. Some predators, such as sharks and rays, are able to eavesdrop on these electrogenic fish through passive electroreception.
For more on the mechanism for touch, see Somatosensory system and Mechanoreceptors
Touch can be an important factor in social interactions, for example in fights or in a mating context. In both occasions, the use of touch will increase as an interaction escalates. In a fight, touch can be used to challenge an opponent, to coordinate movements during the escalation of the fight, and it can be used by the loser to perform submissive actions afterwards. Mammals will initiate mating by grooming, stroking or rubbing against each other. This provides the opportunity to assess chemical signals of the potential mate, or apply additional chemical signals. Touch is also used to announce the intention of the male to mount the female, such as a male kangaroo grabbing the tail of a female. During mating, touch stimuli are important for pair positioning, coordination and genital stimulation. In social integration, touch is a widely used communication system. The most widespread behaviour involving touch is allogrooming, the grooming of one animal by another. This has several functions; it removes parasites and debris from the body of the groomed animal, reaffirms the affiliative bond or hierarchical relationship between the animals involved, and gives the groomer an opportunity to examine olfactory cues on the groomed individual, perhaps adding additional ones. This behaviour has been observed in social insects, birds and mammals.
Another mechanism for social integration is prolonged physical contact or huddling. This can be used to transfer olfactory or tactile information, or for heat exchange. Some organisms live in constant contact in a colony, for example colonial corals. Because of the tight linkages between individuals, the entire colony can react on the aversive or alarm movements made by only a few individuals. In several herbivorous insect nymphs and larvae, aggregations where there is prolonged contact play a major role in group coordination. This may take the form of a procession or a rosette. The behaviour to form a rosette is called cycloalexy. Touch can also be a way to inform conspecifics about the environment. Some ant species recruit fellow workers to new food finds by first tapping them with their antennae and forelegs, then leading them to the food source while keeping physical contact. Another example of this is the waggle dance of honey bees.[17]
Main article: Seismic communication
Seismic communication is the exchange of information using self-generated vibrational signals transmitted via a substrate such as the soil, water, spider webs, plant stems, or a blade of grass among others. This communication holds many advantages such as being able to be sent regardless of light and noise levels, and having short ranges and short persistence with little danger of detection of predators. There are animals that use seismic communication from a large number of taxa. Some of these include, but are not limited to, frogs, kangaroo rats, mole rats, bees, and nematode worms. Tetrapods for the most part use a body part to drum against the ground to create seismic waves, which in turn are received through the sacculus. The sacculus is an organ in the inner ear containing a membranous sac that is used for balance aid, but in animals that use this communication can detect seismic waves. Vibrations and other communication channels are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but can be used in multi-modal communication.[18]
Autocommunication is a type of communication system in which the sender and receiver are the same individual. The sender emits a signal that is altered by the environment and eventually is received by the same individual. Certain alterations code for specific conditions which provide information about the environment that can be used to indicate food, predators or conspecifics. Because the sender and receiver are the same animal, selection pressure maximizes signal efficacy, i.e. “the degree to which an emitted signal is correctly identified by a receiver despite propagation distortion and noise.” Autocommunication can be divided in two main systems. The first is active electrolocation found in the electric fish Gymnotiformes (Knifefishes) and Mormyridae (Elephantfish) and also in the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus). The second form of autocommunication is echolocation, found in bats and Odontoceti.
Main article: Infrared sensing in snakes
The ability to sense infrared thermal radiation evolved independently in various families of snakes. Essentially, it allows these reptiles to “see” radiant heat at wavelengths between 5 and 30 μm to a degree of accuracy such that a blind rattlesnake can target vulnerable body parts of the prey at which it strikes.[19] It was previously thought that the organs evolved primarily as prey detectors, but it is now believed that it may also be used in thermoregulatory decision making.[20] The facial pit underwent parallel evolution in pitvipers and some boas and pythons, having evolved once in pitvipers and multiple times in boas and pythons.[21] The electrophysiology of the structure is similar between the two lineages, but they differ in gross structural anatomy. Most superficially, pitvipers possess one large pit organ on either side of the head, between the eye and the nostril (Loreal pit), while boas and pythons have three or more comparatively smaller pits lining the upper and sometimes the lower lip, in or between the scales. Those of the pitvipers are the more advanced, having a suspended sensory membrane as opposed to a simple pit structure. Within the family Viperidae, the pit organ is seen only in the subfamily Crotalinae: the pitvipers. The organ is used extensively to detect and target endothermic prey such as rodents and birds, and it was previously assumed that the organ evolved specifically for that purpose. However, recent evidence shows that the pit organ may also be used for thermoregulation. According to Krochmal et al., pitvipers can use their pits for thermoregulatory decision making while true vipers (vipers who do not contain heat-sensing pits) cannot.
In spite of its detection of IR light, the pits’ IR detection mechanism is not similar to photoreceptors - while photoreceptors detect light via photochemical reactions, the protein in the pits of snakes is in fact a temperature sensitive ion channel. It senses infrared signals through a mechanism involving warming of the pit organ, rather than chemical reaction to light.[22] This is consistent with the thin pit membrane, which allows incoming IR radiation to quickly and precisely warm a given ion channel and trigger a nerve impulse, as well as vascularize the pit membrane in order to rapidly cool the ion channel back to its original “resting” or “inactive” temperature.[22]
There are many functions of animal communication. However, some have been studied in more detail than others. This includes:
• Communication during contests: Animal communication plays a vital role in determining the winner of contest over a resource. Many species have distinct signals that signal aggression or willingness to attack or signals to convey retreat during competitions over food, territories, or mates.
• Mating rituals: Animals produce signals to attract the attention of a possible mate or to solidify pair bonds. These signals frequently involve the display of body parts or postures. For example, a gazelle will assume characteristic poses to initiate mating. Mating signals can also include the use of olfactory signals or calls unique to a species. Animals that form lasting pair bonds often have symmetrical displays that they make to each other. Famous examples are the mutual presentation of reeds by Great Crested Grebes studied by Julian Huxley, the triumph displays shown by many species of geese and penguins on their nest sites, and the spectacular courtship displays by birds of paradise.
• Ownership/territorial: Signals used to claim or defend a territory, food, or a mate.
• Food-related signals: Many animals make "food calls" to attract a mate, offspring, or other members of a social group to a food source. Perhaps the most elaborate food-related signal is the Waggle dance of honeybees studied by Karl von Frisch. One well known example of begging of offspring in a clutch or litter is altricial songbirds. Young ravens signal will signal to older ravens when they encounter new or untested food. Rhesus macaques will send food calls to inform other monkeys of a food source to avoid punishment. Pheromones are released by many social insects to lead the other members of the society to the food source. For example, ants leave a pheromone trail on the ground that can be followed by other ants to lead them to the food source.
• Alarm calls: Alarm calls communicate the threat of a predator. This allows all members of a social group (and sometimes other species) to respond accordingly. This may include running for cover, becoming immobile, or gathering into a group to reduce the risk of attack. Alarm signals are not always vocalizations. Crushed ants will release an alarm pheromone to attract more ants and send them into an attack state.
• Meta-communication: Signals that will modify the meaning of subsequent signals. One example is the 'play face' in dogs which signals that a subsequent aggressive signal is part of a play fight rather than a serious aggressive episode.
Interpretation of animal behavior[edit]
Animal behavior is sometimes very hard to interpret. It is not so hard to describe, but to give the right meaning to behavior is much harder. Psychological interpretations of animal behavior are often anthropomorphized, leading to wrong conclusions. On the other hand, the similarities between human behavior and certain animal behavior cannot be ignored. Anthropomorphizing behavior is most often applied to domesticated animals, like cats and dogs, and with apes, because of the close phylogenetic relationship to humans. An experiment on chimpanzees shows that a small “dose of anthropomorphizing” often gives better scientific results than when researchers try to describe all behavior objectively, but skepticism remains for this concept. Interpreting animal behavior is vital when considering the context in which the signal is produced. This context is important for the recipient, humans or otherwise, to get the intended meaning of a signal. Research about the right interpretation of animal behavior has been going on for decades. In 1955, Cherry said “meaning is... like the beauty of a complexion; it lies altogether in the eye of the beholder”. Although his research was mainly on human behavior, he also used it for animal behavior. The difficulty in studying the meaning of signals lies in the range of possible responses. The same gesture may have multiple meanings, depending on context and other associated behaviors. Because of this, generalizations such as "X means Y" are often, but not always, accurate. Combining the information from context and the signal itself, will provide a more thorough meaning of communication. For example, a domestic dog's simple tail wag may be used in subtly different ways to convey many meanings as illustrated in Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals published in 1872.
Combined with other body language, in a specific context, many gestures e.g. yawns, direction of vision, all convey meaning. Thus statements that a particular action "means" something, should always be interpreted as "often means". As with human beings, who may smile or hug or stand a particular way for multiple reasons, many animals also re-use gestures. The right interpretation of animal behavior can be critical, such as clinical research with laboratory animals. Certain behaviors indicates pain levels, which is important to perfect medical procedures, or ensure animal’s welfare and minimize pain. When animals are in pain, they often behave differently. When given pain relief, their behavior returns to normal.
A European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) singing.
Much animal communication occurs between members of the species and this is the context in which it has been most intensively studied. Most of the forms and functions of communication described above are relevant to intraspecific communication.
Many examples of communication take place between members of different species. Animals communicate to other animals with various signs: visual, sound, echolocation, vibrations, body language, and smell.
Prey to predator[edit]
If a prey animal moves, makes a noise or vibrations, or emits a smell in such a way that a predator can detect it, this is consistent with the definition of "communication" given above. This type of communication is known as interceptive eavesdropping, where a predator intercepts the message being conveyed to conspecifics.
This Chihuahua is baring his teeth to signify an attack is imminent if the photographer comes closer to take his bone.
There are however, some actions of prey species that are clearly communications to actual or potential predators. A good example is warning colouration: species such as wasps that are capable of harming potential predators are often brightly coloured, and this modifies the behaviour of the predator, who either instinctively or as the result of experience will avoid attacking such an animal. Some forms of mimicry fall in the same category: for example hoverflies are coloured in the same way as wasps, and although they are unable to sting, the strong avoidance of wasps by predators gives the hoverfly some protection. There are also behavioural changes that act in a similar way to warning colouration. For example, canines such as wolves and coyotes may adopt an aggressive posture, such as growling with their teeth bared, to indicate they will fight if necessary, and rattlesnakes use their well-known rattle to warn potential predators of their venomous bite. Sometimes, a behavioural change and warning colouration will be combined, as in certain species of amphibians which have most of their body coloured to blend with their surroundings, except for a brightly coloured belly. When confronted with a potential threat, they show their belly, indicating that they are poisonous in some way.
Another example of prey to predator communication is the pursuit-deterrent signal. Pursuit-deterrent signals occur when prey indicates to a predator that pursuit would be unprofitable because the signaler is prepared to escape. Pursuit-deterrent signals provide a benefit to both the signaler and receiver; they prevent the sender from wasting time and energy fleeing, and they prevent the receiver from investing in a costly pursuit that is unlikely to result in capture. Such signals can advertise prey’s ability to escape, and reflect phenotypic condition (quality advertisement), or can advertise that the prey has detected the predator (perception advertisement). Pursuit-deterrent signals have been reported for a wide variety of taxa, including fish (Godin and Davis, 1995), lizards (Cooper et al., 2004), ungulates (Caro, 1995), rabbits (Holley 1993), primates (Zuberbuhler et al. 1997), rodents (Shelley and Blumstein 2005, Clark, 2005), and birds (Alvarez, 1993, Murphy, 2006, 2007). A familiar example of quality advertisement pursuit-deterrent signal is stotting (sometimes called pronking), a pronounced combination of stiff-legged running while simultaneously jumping shown by some antelopes such as Thomson's gazelle in the presence of a predator. At least 11 hypotheses for stotting have been proposed. A leading theory today is that it alerts predators that the element of surprise has been lost. Predators like cheetahs rely on surprise attacks, proven by the fact that chases are rarely successful when antelope stot. Predators do not waste energy on a chase that will likely be unsuccessful (optimal foraging behaviour). Quality advertisement can be communicated by modes other than visual. The banner-tailed kangaroo rat produces several complex foot-drumming patterns in a number of different contexts, one of which is when it encounters a snake. The foot-drumming may alert nearby offspring but most likely conveys vibrations through the ground that the rat is too alert for a successful attack, thus preventing the snake's predatory pursuit.[23]
Predator to prey[edit]
Humpback anglerfish
Typically, predators attempt to reduce communication to prey as this will generally reduce the effectiveness of their hunting. However, some forms of predator to prey communication occur in ways that change the behaviour of the prey and make their capture easier, i.e. deception by the predator. A well-known example is the angler fish, which has a fleshy bioluminescent growth protruding from its forehead and dangling in front of its jaws; smaller fish attempt to take the lure and by doing so, place themselves in a better position for the angler fish to catch them. Another example of deceptive communication is observed in the genus of jumping spiders (Myrmarachne). These spiders are commonly referred to as “antmimicking spiders” because of the way they wave their front legs in the air to simulate antennae.
Various ways in which humans interpret the behaviour of domestic animals, or give commands to them, are consistent with the definition of interspecies communication. Depending on the context, they might be considered to be predator to prey communication, or to reflect forms of commensalism. The recent experiments on animal language are perhaps the most sophisticated attempt yet to establish human/animal communication, though their relation to natural animal communication is uncertain. Lacking in the study of human-animal communication is a focus on expressive communication from animal to human specifically. Horses are taught not to communicate (for safety).[citation needed] Dogs and horses are generally not encouraged to communicate expressively, but are encouraged to develop receptive language (understanding). Since the late 1990s, one scientist, Sean Senechal, has been developing, studying, and using the learned visible, expressive language in dogs and horses. By teaching these animals a gestural (human made) American Sign Language-like language, the animals have been found to use the new signs on their own to get what they need.[24]
Other aspects[edit]
A male peacock displaying the eye-spots on his tail
The importance of communication is evident from the highly elaborate morphology, behaviour and physiology that some animals have evolved to facilitate this. These include some of the most striking structures in the animal kingdom, such as the peacock's tail, the antlers of a stag and the frill of the frill-necked lizard, but also include even the modest red spot on a European Herring Gull's bill. Highly elaborate behaviours have evolved for communication such as the dancing of cranes, the pattern changes of cuttlefish, and the gathering and arranging of materials by bowerbirds. Other evidence for the importance of communication in animals is the prioritisation of physiological features to this function, for example, birdsong appears to have brain structures entirely devoted to its production. All these adaptations require evolutionary explanation.
There are two aspects to the required explanation:
• identifying a route by which an animal that lacked the relevant feature or behaviour could acquire it;
• identifying the selective pressure that makes it adaptive for animals to develop structures that facilitate communication, emit communications, and respond to them.
Significant contributions to the first of these problems were made by Konrad Lorenz and other early ethologists. By comparing related species within groups, they showed that movements and body parts that in the primitive forms had no communicative function could be "captured" in a context where communication would be functional for one or both partners, and could evolve into a more elaborate, specialised form. For example, Desmond Morris showed in a study of grass finches[citation needed] that a beak-wiping response occurred in a range of species, serving a preening function, but that in some species this had been elaborated into a courtship signal.
The second problem has been more controversial. The early ethologists assumed that communication occurred for the good of the species as a whole, but this would require a process of group selection which is believed to be mathematically impossible in the evolution of sexually reproducing animals. Altruism towards an unrelated group is not widely accepted in the scientific community, but rather can be seen as reciprocal altruism, expecting the same behaviour from others, a benefit of living in a group. Sociobiologists argued that behaviours that benefited a whole group of animals might emerge as a result of selection pressures acting solely on the individual. A gene-centered view of evolution proposes that behaviours that enabled a gene to become wider established within a population would become positively selected for, even if their effect on individuals or the species as a whole was detrimental;[25]
In the case of communication, an important discussion by John Krebs and Richard Dawkins established hypotheses for the evolution of such apparently altruistic or mutualistic communications as alarm calls and courtship signals to emerge under individual selection. This led to the realization that communication might not always be "honest" (indeed, there are some obvious examples where it is not, as in mimicry). The possibility of evolutionarily stable dishonest communication has been the subject of much controversy, with Amotz Zahavi in particular arguing that it cannot exist in the long term. Sociobiologists have also been concerned with the evolution of apparently excessive signaling structures such as the peacock's tail; it is widely thought that these can only emerge as a result of sexual selection, which can create a positive feedback process that leads to the rapid exaggeration of a characteristic that confers an advantage in a competitive mate-selection situation.
One theory to explain the evolution of traits like a peacock's tail is 'runaway selection'. This requires two traits - a trait that exists, like the bright tail, and a prexisting bias in the female to select for that trait. Females prefer the more elaborate tails, and thus those males are able to mate successfully. Exploiting the psychology of the female, a positive feedback loop is enacted and the tail becomes bigger and brighter. Eventually, the evolution will level off because the survival costs to the male do not allow for the trait to be elaborated any further. Two theories exist to explain runaway selection. The first is the good genes hypothesis. This theory states that an elaborate display is an honest signal of fitness and truly is a better mate. The second is the handicap hypothesis. This explains that the peacock's tail is a handicap, requiring energy to keep and makes it more visible to predators. Thus, the signal is costly to maintain, and remains an honest indicator of the signaler's condition. Another assumption is that the signal is more costly for low quality males to product than for higher quality males to produce. This is simply because the higher quality males have more energy reserves available to allocate to costly signaling.[2]
Cognitive aspects[edit]
Ethologists and sociobiologists have characteristically analysed animal communication in terms of more or less automatic responses to stimuli, without raising the question of whether the animals concerned understand the meaning of the signals they emit and receive. That is a key question in animal cognition. There are some signalling systems that seem to demand a more advanced understanding. A much discussed example is the use of alarm calls by vervet monkeys. Robert Seyfarth and Dorothy Cheney showed that these animals emit different alarm calls in the presence of different predators (leopards, eagles, and snakes), and the monkeys that hear the calls respond appropriately - but that this ability develops over time, and also takes into account the experience of the individual emitting the call. Metacommunication, discussed above, also seems to require a more sophisticated cognitive process.
It has been reported [26] that bottlenose dolphins can recognize identity information from whistles even when otherwise stripped of the characteristics of the whistle; making dolphins the only animals other than humans that have been shown to transmit identity information independent of the caller’s voice or location. The paper concludes that:
The fact that signature whistle shape carries identity information independent from voice features presents the possibility to use these whistles as referential signals, either addressing individuals or referring to them, similar to the use of names in humans. Given the cognitive abilities of bottlenose dolphins, their vocal learning and copying skills, and their fission–fusion social structure, this possibility is an intriguing one that demands further investigation.
—V. M. Janik, et al. [26]
Animal communication and human behaviour[edit]
Another controversial issue is the extent to which human behaviours resemble animal communication, or whether all such communication has disappeared as a result of our linguistic capacity. Some of our bodily features - eyebrows, beards and moustaches, deep adult male voices, perhaps female breasts - strongly resemble adaptations to producing signals. Ethologists such as Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt have argued that facial gestures such as smiling, grimacing, and the eyebrow flash on greeting are universal human communicative signals that can be related to corresponding signals in other primates. Given how recently spoken language has emerged, it is very likely that human body language does include some more or less involuntary responses that have a similar origin to the communication we see in other animals.
Humans also often seek to mimic animals' communicative signals in order to interact with them. For example, cats have a mild affiliative response of slowly closing their eyes; humans often mimic this signal towards a pet cat to establish a tolerant relationship. Stroking, petting and rubbing pet animals are all actions that probably work through their natural patterns of interspecific communication.
Dogs have shown an ability to understand human communication. In object choice tasks, dogs utilize human communicative gestures such as pointing and direction of gaze in order to locate hidden food and toys.[27] It has also been shown that dogs exhibit a left gaze bias when looking at human faces, indicating that they are capable of reading human emotions.[28] It is interesting to note that dogs do not make use of direction of gaze or exhibit left gaze bias with other dogs.
A new approach in the 21st century in the field of animal communication uses applied behavioral analysis (ABA), specifically Functional Communication Training (FCT). This FCT previously has been used in schools and clinics with humans with special needs, such as children with autism, to help them develop language. Sean Senechal, at the AnimalSign Center has been using an approach similar to this FCT with domesticated animals, such as dogs (since 2004) and horses (since 2000) with encouraging results and benefits to the animals and people. Functional communication training for animals, Senechal calls "AnimalSign Language". This includes teaching communication through gestures (like simplified American sign language), Picture Exchange Communication System, tapping, and vocalisation. The process for animals includes simplified and modified techniques.
Animal communication and linguistics[edit]
Main article: Animal language
For linguistics, the interest of animal communication systems lies in their similarities to and differences from human language:
1. Human languages are characterized for having a double articulation (in the characterization of French linguist André Martinet). It means that complex linguistic expressions can be broken down in meaningful elements (such as morphemes and words), which in turn are composed of smallest phonetic elements that affect meaning, called phonemes. Animal signals, however, do not exhibit this dual structure.
2. In general, animal utterances are responses to external stimuli, and do not refer to matters removed in time and space. Matters of relevance at a distance, such as distant food sources, tend to be indicated to other individuals by body language instead, for example wolf activity before a hunt, or the information conveyed in honeybee dance language.It is therefore unclear to what extent utterances are automatic responses and to what extent deliberate intent plays a part.
3. In contrast to human language, animal communication systems are usually not able to express conceptual generalizations. (Cetaceans and some primates may be notable exceptions).
4. Human languages combine elements to produce new messages (a property known as creativity). One factor in this is that much human language growth is based upon conceptual ideas and hypothetical structures, both being far greater capabilities in humans than animals. This appears far less common in animal communication systems, although current research into animal culture is still an ongoing process with many new discoveries.
A recent and interesting area of development is the discovery that the use of syntax in language, and the ability to produce "sentences", is not limited to humans either. The first good evidence of syntax in non-humans, reported[29] in 2006, is from the greater spot-nosed monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans) of Nigeria. This is the first evidence that some animals can take discrete units of communication, and build them up into a sequence which then carries a different meaning from the individual "words":
The greater spot-nosed monkeys have two main alarm sounds. A sound known onomatopoeiacally as the "pyow" warns against a lurking leopard, and a coughing sound that scientists call a "hack" is used when an eagle is flying nearby.
"Observationally and experimentally we have demonstrated that this sequence [of up to three 'pyows' followed by up to four 'hacks'] serves to elicit group movement... the 'pyow-hack' sequence means something like 'let's go!' [a command telling others to move]... The implications are that primates at least may be able to ignore the usual relationship between an individual alarm call, and the meaning it might convey under certain circumstances... To our knowledge this is the first good evidence of a syntax-like natural communication system in a non-human species."
Similar results have also recently been reported in the Campbell's Mona Monkey.[30]
See also[edit]
1. ^ Witzany, G., ed. (2014). Biocommunication of Animals. Dortrecht: SpringerISBN=978-94-007-7413-1.
2. ^ a b Maynard-Smith and Harper, 2003
3. ^ de Waal
4. ^ Langford, D.J. et al., (2010). Coding of facial expressions of pain in the laboratory mouse. Nature Methods, May 9th. pp. 1-3. doi:10.1038/nmeth.1455
5. ^ Range F. and Virányi, Z. (2011). Development of gaze following abilities in wolves (Canis Lupus). PLoS ONE 6(2): e16888. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016888
6. ^ Cloney, R.A. & E. Florey 1968. Ultrastructure of cephalopod chromatophore organs. Z. Zellforsch Mikrosk. Anat. 89: 250-280. PMID 5700268
7. ^ Hanlon, R.T.; Messenger, J.B. (1996). Cephalopod Behaviour. Cambridge University Press. p. 121. ISBN 0-521-64583-2.
8. ^ Williams, Sarah (2012). "Two-faced fish tricks competitors". Science Now. Retrieved March 16, 2013.
9. ^ Motluk, Alison (2001). "Big Bottom". New Scientist 19 (7).
10. ^ Slabbekoorn, Hans, Smith, Thomas B. "Bird song, ecology and speciation." Philosophical Transactions: Biology Sciences 357.1420 (2002). 493-503.
11. ^ Carey, Bjorn. Whales Found to Speak in Dialects. Live Science. 3 Jan. 2006.
12. ^ Zuberbühler, Klause. "Predator-specific alarm calls in Campbell's monkeys, Cercopithecus campbelli." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 50.5 (2001). 414-442
13. ^ Boughman, Janette W. "Vocal learning by greater spear-nosed bats." Proceedings: Biological Sciences 265.1392 (1998). 227-233
14. ^ a b c d Bradbury, J.W., and S.L. Vehrencamp. Principles of Animal Communication. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates Inc., 2011. Print.
15. ^ Brown, G.E., D.P. Chivers, and R.J.F. Smith. 1995. Localized defecation by pike: A response to labelling by cyprinid alarm pheromone?. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 36.2: 105-110.
16. ^ "Electrocommunication". Davidson College. Retrieved 2011-03-03.
18. ^ Narins, Peter M. "Seismic Communication in Anuran Amphibians." BioScience40.4 (1990): 268. Print.
19. ^ (Kardong & Mackessy 1991)
20. ^ (Krochmal et al. 2004)
21. ^ (Pough et al. 1992)
22. ^ a b (Gracheva et al. 2010)
23. ^ "Web of Life:Vibrational communication in animals". Retrieved 8 December 2012.
24. ^ Sean Senechal: Dogs can sign, too. A breakthrough method of teaching your dog to communicate to you, 2009, Random House/Crown/TenSpeed Press
25. ^ discussed at length by Richard Dawkins under the subject of his book The Selfish Gene
26. ^ a b V. M. Janik, L. S. Sayigh, and R. S. Wells: "Signature whistle shape conveys identity information to bottlenose dolphins", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 103 no 21, May 23, 2006
27. ^ Hare, B., Call, J. & Tomasello, M.: "Communication of food location between human and dog (Canis familiaris).", Evolution of Communication, 2, 137–159, 1998.
28. ^ K. Guo, K. Meints, C. Hall, S. Hall & D. Mills: "Left gaze bias in humans, rhesus monkeys and rhesus domestic dogs." "Animal Cognition", vol. 12, 2009
29. ^ The Times May 18, 2006, p.3
30. ^ Brandon Kiem. "Rudiments of Language Discovered in Monkeys". Wiredscience. Retrieved 2013-03-15.
External links[edit]
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First graders can gain capitalization practice by helping Kimiko! She has written a short paragraph about herself, but the capitals got all messed up! Your first grader can fix them by reading the passage, making corrections, and then re-writing the passage.
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Carry over cooking
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Carry over cooking refers to the phenomenon that food retains heat and continues to cook even after being removed from the source of heat.[1] The larger and denser the object being heated the greater the amount of carry over cooking. After being removed from the heat source (oven, barbecue grill, etc.) the internal temperature can continue to increase. This means that when cooking large roasts or turkeys, for instance, the roast meat should be rested before serving to allow heat to distribute from the warmer outside to the cooler middle, also allowing juices to distribute throughout the meat.[2]
As mentioned above, the larger and denser the object being cooked, the greater the degree of carry over cooking. In more scientific terms, larger objects have a lower surface area to volume ratio and thus retain heat better. Denser foods typically have more water content. Water has a higher heat capacity and thus there is more energy in the food object to continue the cooking.
2. ^ "Carryover Cooking Or Resting". RecipeTips.Com. Tecstra Systems. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
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Life in the Water
life in the water
Platypus diving ability
In captivity, a platypus has been observed to remain underwater for up to 14 minutes while resting quietly under a log. When searching actively for food, a platypus will usually remain submerged for less than a minute before returning to the surface to breathe.
Like most diving mammals, the platypus has blood that is very rich in oxygen-carrying haemoglobin and red cells. The platypus can also reduce its need for oxygen when diving by lowering its heart rate dramatically, from more than two hundred beats per minute to less than ten beats per minute.
Platypus fur
Platypus fur is extremely fine and even denser than that of polar bears and river otters, with 600-900 hairs covering each square millimetre of skin! Platypus fur also has two layers - a woolly undercoat and longer, shiny guard hairs - which work together to trap a layer of air next to the skin, keeping most of the animal's body dry even when diving.
For the platypus to stay warm while in the water, its fur must remain completely clean and waterproof, and not be fouled by oil or other pollutants.
Body temperature
A healthy platypus normally maintains its body temperature at close to 32 oC, about 5 oC less than that of humans. This reduces the rate at which a platypus loses heat to the water, helping to ensure that the animals don't become chilled even when swimming all night in near-freezing conditions.
The combination of a naturally low body temperature and thick fur coat also means that the platypus overheats rapidly if exposed to warm conditions on land.
Electroreception system
The platypus hunts underwater and, predominantly, at night. In such conditions, hearing and eye-sight are of little use in detecting prey. Accordingly, the platypus closes both its eyes and ears (which are located in a groove behind the eyes) and relies on its "sixth sense" - an electro-receptor system, located in the bill which helps it detect the small flickers of electricity produced by the aquatic creatures that it feeds on. The bill also contains various pressure sensors which, together with the electro-receptors, probably assist navigation while submerged.
The platypus was once commonly known as a "duckbill". In fact, its bill is rubbery and flexible, not hard like that of a duck. Although the bill is quite tough, to enable the platypus to search for food amongst rocks and gravel, it is covered with skin. Sometimes platypus are found with scars on their bill, suggesting that they have cut themselves on sharp objects in the water, such as broken glass and wire, or have been snagged on fishing hooks.
The platypus swims using only its front limbs for propulsion. The front feet are equipped with large webs of skin that serve as highly effective paddles. The webs are folded under the foot when the platypus is out of the water, making it easier for the animal to walk and use its strong claws for digging burrows. Unfortunately, these highly specialised front feet are not adept at removing objects that become caught around the head or body. As a result, platypus can die after becoming ensnared in litter such as loops of nylon fishing line or plastic six-pack holders.
The hind legs of the platypus help to steer and stabilise the animal when it is swimming. The back feet end in a series of sharp, curved claws that are used like a comb to keep the animal's fur tidy and waterproof.
Both the front and back legs extend out horizontally from the body, providing a powerful swimming and digging action. However, it also forces the platypus to shuffle like a lizard when walking on land or crossing shallow areas of water, making them vulnerable to predators such as foxes and dogs.
The tail
Some early reports suggested that the platypus slapped the water with its tail to make warning sounds, similar in behaviour to beavers. In fact, there is no evidence for this, although when startled platypus will sometimes make a "splash-dive" - a rapid dive in which they seem to use the tail to thrust themselves downwards quickly. This can produce quite a loud noise, and perhaps this was the origin of the tail-slapping myth.
The main function of the tail is to store up to 50% of the animal's body fat, providing an energy reserve if food is scarce. Researchers rate the general physical condition of a platypus on a five-point scale by applying a "squeeze test" to the tail in order to assess the amount of fat stored there.
A female platypus can also use her tail to collect leaves to make a nest in the breeding chamber. She then uses her curled up tail to hold eggs against her stomach during incubation.
The platypus tail is broad and paddle-like, quite unlike the tail of the Australian water-rat (the animal most likely to be confused with a platypus by observers) which is thin and also has a distinctive white tip.
Unlike the soft fur on the body of a platypus, the hair on the upper side of the tail is quite hard and bristle-like, reflecting the fact that the tail is used to push loose earth out of the way when a platypus is digging a burrow.
Australian Platypus Conservancy Phone: (03) 5157 5568 Email platypus.apc@westnet.com.au
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Pia mater
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Pia mater
Diagrammatic transverse section of the medulla spinalis and its membranes. (At border, dura mater is black line, arachnoid mater is blue line, and pia mater is red line.)
The medulla spinalis and its membranes.
Gray's p.878
MeSH A08.186.566.731
TA A14.1.01.301
FMA 9590
Anatomical terminology
Pia mater (/ˈp.ə ˈmtər/ or /ˈp.ə ˈmɑːtər/[1]) often referred to as simply the pia, is the delicate innermost layer of the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Pia mater is medieval Latin meaning "tender mother." The other two meningeal membranes are the dura mater and the arachnoid mater. Pia mater is a thin fibrous tissue that is impermeable to fluid. This allows the pia mater to enclose cerebrospinal fluid. By containing this fluid the pia mater works with the other meningeal layers to protect and cushion the brain. The pia mater allows blood vessels to pass through and nourish the brain. The perivascular space created between blood vessels and pia mater functions as a lymphatic system for the brain. When the pia mater becomes irritated and inflamed the result is meningitis.[2]
Pia mater is the thin, translucent, mesh-like meningeal envelope, spanning nearly the entire surface of the brain. It is absent only at the natural openings between the ventricles, the foramen of Majendie, and the foramina of Luschka. The pia firmly adheres to the surface of the brain and loosely connects to the arachnoid layer.[3] Because of this continuum, the layers are often referred to as the pia arachnoid or leptomeninges. A subarachnoid space exists between the arachnoid layer and the pia, into which the choroid plexus releases and maintains the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The subarachnoid space contains trabeculae, or fibrous filaments, that connect and bring stability to the two layers, allowing for the appropriate protection from and movement of the proteins, electrolytes, ions, and glucose contained within the CSF.[4]
Cranial pia mater[edit]
Spinal pia mater[edit]
The spinal pia mater closely follows the curves of the spinal cord. It encloses the surface of the medulla spinalis, or spinal cord, and is attached to it through a connection to the anterior fissure. The pia mater attaches to the dura mater through 21 pairs of denticulate ligaments that pass through the arachnoid mater and dura mater of the spinal cord. These denticular ligaments help to anchor the spinal cord and prevent side to side movement, providing stability.[7] The membrane in this area is much thicker than the cranial pia mater, due to the two-layer composition of the pia membrane. The outer layer, which is made up of mostly connective tissue, is responsible for this thickness. Between the two layers are spaces which exchange information with the subarachnoid cavity as well as blood vessels. At the point where the pia mater reaches the conus medullaris or medullary cone at the end of the spinal cord, the membrane extends as a thin filament called the filum terminale or terminal filum, contained within the lumbar cistern. This filament eventually blends with the dura mater and extends as far as the coccyx, or tailbone. It then fuses with the periosteum, a membrane found at the surface of all bones, and forms the coccygeal ligament. Here it is called the central ligament and assists with movements of the trunk of the body.[6]
The pia mater is a neural crest derivative.
CSF production and circulation[edit]
Perivascular spaces[edit]
A function of the pia mater is that of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), which keeps the CSF and brain fluid separate from the blood, allowing limited sodium, chlorine, and potassium through, and absolutely no plasma proteins nor organic molecules. Nearby, the ventricles are lined with the ependyma membrane. The CSF is only kept separate through the pia mater. Due to the ependyma and pia mater’s high permeability, nearly anything entering the CSF is able to enter the brain interstitial fluid.[9] However, regulation of this permeability is achieved through the abundant amount of astrocyte foot processes which are responsible for connecting the capillaries and the pia mater in a way that helps limit the amount of free diffusion going into the CNS.[10] The permeability of the pia then serves to closely connect the interstitial brain fluid and the CSF and allow them to remain nearly homogenous in terms of composition.[9]
The function of the pia mater is more simply visualized through these ordinary occurrences. This last property is evident in cases of head injury. When the head comes into contact with another object, the brain is protected from the skull due to the similarity in density between these two fluids so that the brain does not simply smash through into the skull, but rather its movement is slowed and stopped by the viscous ability of this fluid. The contrast in permeability between the BBB and pia mater mentioned before is also useful in the application of medicine. Drugs that enter the blood stream can not penetrate and function in the brain, but instead must be administered into the cerebrospinal fluid.[9]
Spinal cord compression[edit]
Research directions[edit]
Research involving the pia mater is ongoing. A group of hospitals in Madrid, Spain published an article in 2004 based on the ultrastructural findings in human spinal pia mater in relation to subarachnoid anesthesia. The group was researching whether or not fenestrations were present in the pia mater membrane, and the effect they have on the transfer of local anesthetics across the membrane. Based on their research, fenestrations were found at the thoracic-lumbar junction, the conus medullaris, and nerve root levels. Although proving the presence of fenestrations in certain regions involving the pia mater, the group concluded that they could not determine the significance behind these fenestrations. They speculated the fenestrations at the lumbar spinal level may in fact facilitate the movement of local anesthetics across the pia mater membrane, which could in turn affect the onset time and latency of a subarachnoid block. Although no conclusion was officially made, research is still being done to prove their speculation.[16]
1. ^ Entry "pia mater" in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, retrieved 2012-07-28.
2. ^ Parsons, Thomas. "Meninges". McGraw-Hill Companies 2008. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
3. ^ http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/meninges.aspx#1-1G2:3435200219-full
5. ^ Polzin, Scott. "Meninges." Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. 20 Feb. 2011<http://www.encyclopedia.com>. l
6. ^ a b c Gray, Henry (1918). Susan Standring, ed. Anatomy of the Human Body (40 ed.). Lea and Febiger.
9. ^ a b c d e Guyton, Arthur (2011). Textbook of Medical Physiology. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier.
11. ^ Ozawa, Hiroshi (July 2004). "Mechanical properties and function of the spinal pia mater". Journal of Neurosurgery 1 (1).
12. ^ Remahl, Sten; Angeria (25 October 2010). "Observations at the CNS–PNS Border of Ventral Roots Connected to a Neuroma". Frontiers in Neurology 1 (136). doi:10.3389/fneur.2010.00136. PMC 3008941. PMID 21188264.
13. ^ Encyclopaedia Britannica, additional text.
14. ^ Hoffman, Olaf; Weber (November 2009). "Pathophysiology and Treatment of Bacterial Meningitis". Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders 2 (6): 1–7. doi:10.1177/1756285609337975. PMC 3002609. PMID 21180625.
16. ^ http://www.neurorgs.net/investigacion/neuroanestesia/spinal-pia-mater-in-subarachnoid-anesthesia/
Further reading[edit]
• Ozawa, Hiroshi (2004). "Mechanical properties and function of the spinal pia mater". Journal of Neurosurgery 1 (1).
• Tubbs R, Salter G, Grabb P, Oakes W (2001). "The denticulate ligament: anatomy and functional significance.". J Neurosurg 94 (2 Suppl): 271–5. doi:10.3171/spi.2001.94.2.0271. PMID 11302630.
• Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Moore, Keith and Arthur F. Dalley. Philadelphia, Lipincott, Williams and Williams 2006.
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Tuesday, September 29, 2015
Getting back to basics here . . . S.L.
The will to survive is defined as the desire to live despite seemingly insurmountable mental and(or) physical obstacles. The tools for survival are furnished by the military, the individual, and the environment. The training for survival comes from survival training publications, instruction, and the individuals own efforts. But tools and training are not enough without a will to survive. In fact, the records prove that "will" alone has been the deciding factor in many survival cases. While these accounts are not classic examples of "how to survive," they illustrate that a single-minded survivor with a powerful will to survive can overcome most hardships. There are cases where people have eaten their belts for nourishment, boiled water in their boots to drink as broth, or have eaten human flesh - though this certainly wasn't their cultural instinct.
One incident where the will to survive was the deciding factor between life and death involved a man stranded in the Arizona desert for 8 days without food and water. He traveled more than 150 miles during searing daytime temperatures, losing 25 percent of his body weight due to the lack of water (usually 10 percent loss causes death). His blood became so thick that the lacerations he received could not bleed until he had been rescued and received large quantities of water. When he started on that journey, something must have clicked in his mind telling him to live, regardless of any obstacles which might confront him. And live he did - on guts and will alone!
Let's flip a coin and check the other side of "will." Our location is the Canadian wilderness. A pilot ran into engine trouble and chose to deadstick his plane onto a frozen lake rather than punch out. He did a beautiful job and slid to a stop in the middle of the lake. he left the aircraft and examined if for damage. After surveying the area, he noticed a wooded shoreline only 200 yards away where food and shelter could be provided - he decided to go there. Approximately halfway there, he changed his mind and returned to the cockpit of his aircraft where he smoked a cigar, took out his pistol, and blew his brains out. less than 24 hours later a rescue team found him. Why did he give up? Why was he unable to survive? Why did he take his own life? On the other hand, why do people eat their belts or drink broth from their boots? No one really knows, but it’s all related to the will to survive.
from Air Force Regulation 64-4 Search & Rescue SURVIVAL TRAINING Vol 1
1. I won't judge anybody who chooses to smoke a cigar the moment they become stranded.
2. You may have never heard the story but look up Hugh Glass, a fur trapper in the 1800's. He is a perfect example of will to survive. A quick summary: he was mauled by a bear and left to die by his companions. He had to crawl and eventually walk 200 miles before reaching any help.
3. As a former USAF survival instructor, I concur with what you have posted.
Paul L. Quandt
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Today, we generally think of flies as more of a nuisance than a health hazard. But in the early 20th century, flies spreading typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis and other diseases was a true public safety concern.
In 1912, government officials encouraged farmers to keep stables clean, use screens in doors and windows and fly-catching devices to protect against flies carrying typhoid, according to The Frederick Post.
“The educational propaganda against the fly is only begun. When people generally — all the people — come to realize that flies are more dangerous than rattlesnakes, that, in short, the common housefly is the most deadly dangerous insect that lives, the fight for extermination will grow in ferocity and it will be never ceasing,” according to the Baltimore American via The News.
Fly catching contests were popular in many Maryland towns and cities, including Baltimore, Hagerstown, Cumberland, Frederick and Westminster. They were a way of engaging the public and getting rid of the pests, with organizations and clubs paying participants for the amount of flies they caught (by the pint or quart typically) or by hosting contests to see who could catch the most flies.
For example, in 1912 in Westminster (Carroll County), 99 children collected 158,153 flies in one month, with the top girl collecting 13,010 flies and the top boy collecting 29,092. The paper went as far as to list the name of each child who participated and the amount of flies he or she caught on its front page (Elizabeth Wampler and Charles Grumbine were the top girl and boy collector, in case you were curious).
The Times estimated that a total of 200,000 flies were exterminated that May after learning “nearly every housewife in the town has been killing all the flies possible” in addition to the ones the children had collected.
“Allowing for the normal increase,” the paper surmised, “this means that we will have two hundred million less flies in our midst in August as one fly in May means a million in August.”
The transformation of the fly’s role in society was pondered by The News in 1911.
“Years ago the fly was looked upon as a friend to mankind, eating up filth and generally cleansing properties,” the paper reflected. “Time has since changed and now the pest is not considered a help but a nuisance and a danger to public health.”
Sources: Denton Journal, August 4, 1917; The Frederick Post, August 2, 1911; The News, July 24, 1911, July 29, 1911, August 26, 1912; The Times, June 7, 1912
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New federal guidelines aim to help schools reshape recess
Feb 2, 2017
The benefits and necessity of school recess have been widely debated over the past decade. But growing research shows recess helps improve academic achievement, prevents bullying, and develops emotional and communication skills.
For example, a 2009 study of more than 10,000 American kids found improved behavior when they got at least one recess period of 15 minutes or longer.
But how should effective recess be structured? How long should it be? What should children do during that time? There seems to be little guidance on what makes "good" recess.
A new set of guidelines aims to help schools figure that out. The guidelines come from researchers at the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The set of 19 evidence-based strategies for a good recess policy includes involving students in planning and leading recess, designating spaces for outdoor and indoor recess, and teaching conflict resolution. Michelle Carter is senior program manager at SHAPE and helped develop the guidelines. She told NPR:
There's a lot that has to be squeezed into that time a student is in class. I don't think there's a value placed in recess and physical activity.
A concern at some schools is whether kids are getting enough recess, or if they have recess at all. Sometimes teachers withhold recess to punish bad behavior, although it is a practice that has been eliminated more and more in recent years. According to Education Week:
Schools around the country have implemented policies that limit or eliminate teachers' ability to take away recess time, their efforts bolstered by district policies and state laws that place renewed emphasis on physical activity and by increased public involvement in the creation of district wellness policies.
And many schools have cut back or eliminated recess to increase instruction time. But this can be especially detrimental in schools serving largely low-income students, who may not have opportunities for physical activity outside of school. According to The Atlantic:
For poor children, in cities in particular, the problems are a lack of safe places to play, parents who are busy trying to pay for housing and other basics and schools that are cutting out recess and physical education to make more time for academics. Schools nationwide have been reducing time for recess and phys ed. But those in poor areas, in particular, are feeling pressure to narrow disparities in student performance. In close to one-third of schools with the highest poverty rates, recess has been completely eliminated.
The CDC and SHAPE America recommend giving elementary school students at least 20 minutes of recess daily and providing middle and high school students with a period of daily physical activity in addition to physical education and classroom physical activity, according to the guidelines.
Schools have the potential to develop an infrastructure that creates daily opportunities for students at all grade levels to experience physical activity or play at school and create balance in the school day.
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How Did the Pursuit of Leisure Reflect Class Differences in the Late Colonial Period?
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How did the pursuit of leisure reflect class differences in the late colonial period?
The pursuit of leisure was very reflective of class differences in Australia, although at times the lines between middle-class leisure and working-class leisure were blurred. In this essay I plan to evaluate the types of leisure activities participated in by each of the social classes, including looking at the differences between female and male leisure activities, and also which leisure activities led to intermingling between the different classes. I also plan to illustrate how the changes implemented by the Labour Movement in the 1850s led to an increase in leisure time for both classes and how this changed the activities participated in.
Leisure is subjective. It means different things to different people. Leisure can be defined as ‘unobligated time, as discretionary time to use in relatively freely chosen ways, when the obligations of work and sustenance have been met,’ this definition applies to an industrialised society where work is the centre of peoples lives (Haywood, 1989, p.3). Leisure can also be defined as ‘a range of activities in which people choose to participate during their free time’ (Haywood, 1989, p. 4). These activities that people choose to participate in are wide ranging for example, sport, dancing, gambling, drinking and shopping and depend on the person’s interests and personal preferences with regards to relaxation. People’s attitude towards leisure and the activities participated in have changed over time due to a large amount of factors. The introduction of the eight hour work day in 1856 and the implementation of the Saturday half-holiday in Australia increased the amount of leisure time available. Advances in technology also changed the activities participated in, such as, the cinema.
Class can be defined in terms that are entirely social and dependant on a particular set of characteristics: prestige, power, wealth, income, location in the labour market and location in a city (Connell, 1992, p.2). Class structure in Australia was never as strong or defined as in Britain and Europe, but it was still noticeable. Australia in the late nineteenth century had two major social classes, the working-class and the middle-class. Due to the fact that Australia in the late nineteenth century had only been populated by Europeans for around a hundred years and the vast majority of these people were convicts, there was a noticeable lack of a ‘leisure-class’ or aristocracy.
In Australia in the early nineteenth century leisure time was variable. This was due to the fact that the colony had only being populated by Europeans for a short amount of time and meant that building up industry was of the greatest importance. Most of the leisure activities enjoyed by the early settlers were primarily British in origin, such as horse racing and gambling, although horse racing did not become a form of mass entertainment until later in the century (Rickard, 1988, p. 99).
In the later half of the nineteenth century with most of the major colonies flourishing leisure time became more available. One major factor that increased the amount of leisure time for all Australians was the implementation of the half-holiday on Saturday’s. Sunday had always being reserved as a day of rest, but it was the introduction of the half-holiday on Saturday that increased leisure time, most notably for the working class. The half-holiday led to a demand for spectator sports, such as horse-racing, cricket matches and football games. As previously stated horse-racing was popular in the early decades of the nineteenth century but in the 1860s became a mass spectator sport, which is largely due to the first running of the Melbourne Cup in 1861 (Rickard, 1988, p. 99). The Melbourne Cup quickly became nationally popular and by 1870, 30,000 people attended (Rickard, 1988, p. 99). Saturday’s quickly became the most popular time to participate in...
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Othello by William Shakespeare
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Presentation on theme: "Othello by William Shakespeare"— Presentation transcript:
1 Othello by William Shakespeare
Intro to what term I was assigned How Militarism Affected the Characters and the Plot of the Story By Peter Canteros
2 What is Militarism? Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests Militarism is also in association with fascism Reference: Wikipedia
3 Why is Militarism in Othello?
Shakespeare, living from 1564 until 1616, saw his share of national conflict around the world The setting of Othello is during times of colonialism and conquest – specifically the Turks Between 1572 and 1668, around twenty-eight bloody uprisings took place in Cyprus Shakespeare's tragedies traditionally have militaristic backgrounds such as Romeo and Juliet The Ottoman Empire existed when Shakespeare was alive. It wasn’t until World War I when its reign ended. The uprisings in Cyprus occurred when the Turks tried taxing the people. In Romeo and Juliet, you had the Montagues and Capulets. They were rival families.
4 The Beginning of Militarism in Othello
The story’s protagonist is Othello but Iago creates the reason for Othello’s actions Othello holds a significant title in the army Iago is aiming to rise in power from a mere ensign to lieutenant Iago said “In personal suit to make me his lieutenant, off-capped to him; and, by the faith of a man, I know my price, I am worth no worse a place.” (7)
5 The Growth of Militarism Throughout the Play
Iago’s quest for lieutenancy Iago is unsatisfied with Othello’s actions European ships are headed towards Cyprus to engage in battle The approaching war brings all the characters to the island of Cyprus including General Othello and Lieutenant Cassio Iago wants to get lieutenancy from Othello but Othello has given it to Cassio. Filled with hatred, he seeks revenge against Othello’s “poor” decision. First he tries to present how unworthy Cassio is of the lieutenancy. Then he tries using Desdemona against Othello. Iago had a lot of experience in the military (he was at Rhodes, Cyprus, and on other grounds – Pg.9) “Something from Cyprus, as I may divine. It is a business of some heat” (23) The invading Turks die at sea due to a storm
6 Cyprus
7 Militarism Cont’d With all the characters on the island of Cyprus, Iago stirs up trouble and causes Othello to make some rash decisions Othello does not give Iago the lieutenancy until both vow to kill Desdemona and Cassio After receiving lieutenancy from Othello, Iago furthers his revenge against Othello Every character suffers from Iago’s plans Othello takes away Cassio’s lieutenancy and sends him away He hits Desdemona and calls her a whore in the presence of other officials Finally believing that Desdemona is unfaithful, Othello vows to kill Desdemona. Meanwhile, Iago vows to kill Cassio for “loving Desdemona”. When Othello kills Desdemona, he is told by Emilia about the hankerchief story. Othello tries killing Iago but it is no use. Othello kills Desdemona and himself. Iago kills Roderigo and Emilia. Iago is then sent to be tortured and killed.
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Chimps > Humans
At the Kyoto University Primate Research Institute an economist designed a contest based upon game theory and had chimpanzees and humans play it (separately). As best I can understand, two players each had their own computer screen and could choose either of two squares, right or left, blind to the other’s choice. One player won when he or she matched the other and the other won when he or she mismatched the other. An optimum performance is evidently found in the Nash equilibrium (Nash of the Nobel prize and the movie A Beautiful Mind). In some trials the roles were switched or conditions changed. The players played for a small reward and the experiment was repeated in another country where the humans received a greater reward. In all the trials the chimpanzees figured out the game more quickly and came closer to the Nash equilibrium than the humans. Go Chimps.
Why so? The researchers conjectured about several possible explanations but could not answer the question at this stage. Chimps have excellent short term memories and they are very competitive. Humans are more cooperative and rely on language to do so, so they may not be so immediately engaged in the task but thought/felt too much about it as they tried to figure it out. The chimps were more familiar with the computer set up and the task, though the humans were assuredly competent here as well.
Perhaps if the researchers tried this with bonobos, who are very cooperative and less aggressive, maybe the bonobos would perform closer to the humans. Stay tuned:
Here is a bonobo volunteer.
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John Lennon
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• Published : November 8, 2005
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Imagine the world without John Lennon; it's almost inconceivable. I low can one envision a world without the melodies and lyrics of the Man who transformed the way people feel about popular music? John Lennon did not set out to leave an indelible impact on the world. His beginnings were no different from those of thousands of other teenage hopefuls who went from club to club in pursuit of a recording contract. After much hard work, John Lennon and the other members of the Beatles became world famous. But at the pinnacle of his success, Lennon had the courage and vision to move beyond contemporary rock n' roll. He broke away from the most popular group of all time and ultimately emerged as his generation's most influential voice. More than any other contemporary artist, Lennon spoke in a universal language that transcended generational lines, combined musical forums, arid crossed geographical borders. Lennon's inspirational music and his persona provided a vehicle for transcending generational divisions that existed while he was alive and still exist today. During the 1960s and 1970s, when Lennon was an act musician, people of all ages admired and responded to his music. So why so many members of the 90s generation heavily influenced by a 60s musician? Perhaps it is because Lennon speaks to the inner voice in each of us that questions the status quo and strives for a better world. Today Lennon's music still links his generation to many others. John Lennon was also a unique artist because of his ability to combine musical forms. Not only did he explore new directions in music, but he embraced them, reinventing himself over and over again, despite offending the millions of fans who mourned the breakup of the Beatles. As he matured as a musician, Lennon incorporated classical music into rock n' roll songs. He also added some of the Hindu sound into his corn- positions. Lennon's music expresses the full range of human emotion, from the introspective mood of...
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Mill's Inductive Reasoning
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Mill's Inductive reasoning
Method of Agreement
Mill's method of agreement identifies a cause of an event in terms of its sufficient condition. When using this method, one searches for a single factor that is common to multiple situations in which the same event occurred. Mill says that, when two or more occurrences of the event under investigation have only one condition in common, then that condition is the cause of the event. (Mill, 2002) More simply stated, Mill's method of agreement eliminates all but one common precursor. Mill's method of agreement requires that in all cases where a consequence has occurred, the antecedent condition must be present. This method isolates the supposed origin by listing all of the possible factors that can be considered possible causes, then discovering the one factor common to all cases, (Mill, 2002). For example: Suppose that after work four people go to the local deli. After eating lunch, everyone becomes very sick. As they return to work, these people discuss what could have caused everyone to get so ill and everyone itemizes the items that were eaten: one had the fish special, drank water, hush puppies and coleslaw, and for desert, cherry pie. Another one had a hamburger, French fries, coleslaw and a diet pepsi, and again, cherry pie for dessert. The third person only had the coleslaw and a diet pepsi. The last one had a hamburger, coleslaw, diet pepsi and cherry pie.
From this one could generate a chart showing what everyone had to eat and determine the probable causes. Using Mill's method of agreement one sees that the only food everyone had in common was coleslaw. One could then, conclude that the illness was caused by the coleslaw. There is one common precursor, and the following hypothesis could be stated, "The coleslaw at the local deli will make you sick if you eat it." This hypothesis would be even stronger if more people became ill after eating the coleslaw. However there is a certain weakness to the Method of Agreement since there may possibly be other conditions that were common with all that got sick. For example, everyone used silverware that had been washed in the same machine. Perhaps there was a malfunction in the deli air conditioning: everyone breathed the same air. Everyone was waited on by the same waitress, or waiter. Other factors may remain undetected. The principle that can be used to judge the dependability of the induction is: The greater the differences between the events in which the effect has occurred the greater the reliability of the conclusion, (Kemerling, 2001).
Method of Difference
According to Mill, if an occurrence in which the event being investigated occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every condition in common except one, then that one circumstance in which alone the two instances differ is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause, of the occurrence. The method of difference necessitates a comparison of at least one case in which the occurrence appeared and at least one in which it did not, (Kemerling, 2001).
Simply stated, Mill's method of difference is the exclusion of all differences between the cases being studied except one between instances in which the effect occurred and those in which it did not. For example, in the case above: Suppose our four co-workers all ordered the same meal - Hamburger, Fries and a Diet Pepsi. However, one decided to add a slice of cherry pie. It would be reasonable for that one person to say, "I shouldn't have had the pie. It made me sick." The pie may have been spoiled or perhaps the sickness was from over eating - we're not sure. However, it would be reasonable to conclude that we have isolated the pie as a factor that caused that one person's nausea, (Kemerling, 2001).
The major difference between the indirect method of difference and the method of agreement is that the indirect method uses negative cases to strengthen conclusions drawn...
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
İspençe was a tax in the Ottoman Empire.[1][2]
İspençe was a land-tax on non-Muslims in parts of the Ottoman empire; its counterpart, for Muslim taxpayers, was the resm-i çift - which was set at slightly lower rate.[3] The treasury was well aware of the difference in tax takes, and the incentive to convert; the legal reforms of Bayezid II halved some criminal penalties on nonmuslim taxpayers "so that the taxpayers shall not vanish";[4] this rule was reconfimed, a century later, in 1587. In other cases, local taxes were imposed on nonmuslims specifically to encourage conversion.[3]
İspençe had existed in the Balkans before the Ottoman conquest; the Ottoman empire typically adapted local taxes and institutions in each conquered area, leading to a patchwork of different taxes and rates. The concept of İspençe, theoretically a payment in lieu of corvee labour, was derived from the Byzantine "zeugaratikion", a land tax based on the zeugarion - the area of farmland which could be ploughed by a pair of oxen. The zeugarion itself was taken up as the Ottoman "çift", a word meaning "pair".[3]
Despite taxes being set centrally, by the Porte, there was some local variance; around 1718. the kadı of Janjevo complained to Istanbul that the local lord set ispençe at 80 akçes per year rather than official rate of 32.[3]
As with other Ottoman taxes, there were various exemptions and loopholes; royal hunters, who provided birds-of-prey to the court, had an exemption from ispençe (and other taxes); they could pass on their job, and the tax exemption, to their sons.[5] There were also some exemptions for those unable to work their land through disability, although it was expected that the elderly would have children able to work and therefore to pay ispençe.
The tax was paid by adult male heads of households; in the Morea it increased to 25 akces (from 20) between 1480 and 1512, and stayed at a similar level after that, (for most), confirmed by the tahrir of 1583; but widows may have paid a reduced rate, and Jews may have paid 125 akces.[2]
2. ^ a b A historical and economic geography of Ottoman Greece: the southwestern Morea in the 18th century. ASCSA. 2005. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-87661-534-8.
3. ^ a b c d Malcolm, Noel (1999). Kosovo: A Short History. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-097775-7.
4. ^ Heyd, Uriel (1973). Studies in old Ottoman criminal law. Clarendon Press. pp. p156, p287.
5. ^ Acun, Fatma (2002). "The Other Side of the Coin: Tax Exemptions within the Context of Ottoman Taxation History". Bulgarian Historical Review.
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Webopedia on Google+Webopedia on TwitterWebopedia on FacebookTech Bytes Blog
Main » TERM » W »
(1) In word processing, the last line of a paragraph that appears as the first line of a page. Widows are considered bad form in page layout, so many word processors allow you to avoid them. When the word processor detects a widow, it can end the page one or more lines early so that at least the last two lines from the paragraph start the next page. Some word processors avoid widows by moving all the lines on the page closer together so that the last line can fit on the same page.
The converse of a widow is an orphan, the first line of a paragraph appearing as the last line of a page.
(2) The last line of a paragraph that is much shorter than all the other lines in the paragraph.
The Great Data Storage Debate: Is Tape Dead?
Apple Pay Promises to Strengthen Payment Security
Internet of Things Shaping IT's Future
Computer Architecture Study Guide
Webopedia Polls
How to Create a Desktop Shortcut to a Website
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Free for educational use
World War 1 and the Conscription Referenda
Year of production - 1916-17
Duration - 2min 9sec
Tags - Australian History, conscription, defence, war, see all tags
World War 1 and the Conscription Referenda
How to Download the Video Clip
download clip icon Premium MP4 conscription_pr.mp4 (15.9MB).
Additional help.
buy iconYou can buy this clip on a compilation DVD.
About the Video Clip
Curriculum Focus
Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to develop and justify a detailed interpretation of a selected text.
Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to draw on ideas and arguments suggested by a chosen Context to create written texts for a specified audience and purpose; and to discuss and analyse in writing the decisions about form, purpose, language, audience and context.
Background Information
The referendum was very narrowly defeated.
Classroom Activities
1. Describe your image of Australian troops in the war known as ‘The Great War’ and their involvement in the battles fought on the Western Front (the border area between France and Belgium) between 1916 and 1918?
1. List the texts that you have seen and heard that may have contributed to this image.
2. Describe the image this video clip portrays as an image of World War 1.
3. Write an analysis of the video clip discussing how the filmmaker has used cinematic techniques including camera shots, voice-over narration, music and editing to portray the image of World War 1 that it does.
2. Conscription (compulsory enlistment of men for military service) was a very passionate and divisive issue in Australian society in 1916 and again in 1917.
1. How does the video clip present the issue?
2. Is the video clip pro-conscription, anti-conscription or neutral? Give reasons for your answer.
1. Do you think that the video clip is a similar representation of war, one that has ‘sanitised’ the experience? Give reasons for your answer.
2. Look at an ANZAC Day commemoration in your community. What is the image of war that ANZAC Day presents? What is stressed and what is minimised or excluded?
3. The Western Front has been presented in poetry by Wilfred Owen and other World War1 poets. Create and present an oral presentation comparing some of the poetry with the image of war presented in this video clip.
4. Write a brief reflection on your oral presentation that includes your messages, audience and purpose.
Further Resources
John Silkin, The Penguin Book of World War 1 Poetry, Penguin, Australia, 1997
The Australian War Memorial
Television Program
John Hughes (director), The Art of War, Film Australia & SBS, 2005
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frontier-n; 3 Senses
Sense Number 1: a wilderness area, unsettled, undeveloped region
Commentary: FRONTIER[+location][+geographical][+region][+wilderness]
The railroad opened up the frontier of the west during the nineteenth century.
The frontier offered the pioneers new crop land when the old had become depleted.
Is space the final frontier?
WordNet 3.0 Sense Numbers: 1
Sense Number 2: the boundary region between two nations
Commentary: FRONTIER[+location][+geographical][+boundary][+international]
They have closed the frontier between the countries because of war.
He was picked up crossing the frontier between Greece and Turkey with no papers.
The dean dislikes the frontiers separating the sciences from the humanities. (figurative)
WordNet 3.0 Sense Numbers: 2
Sense Number 3: a conceptual boundary, at the limits of knowledge
Commentary: FRONTIER[+location][+conceptual][+boundary][+limit][+knowledge]
She is working on the frontiers of cosmology.
They are pushing the frontiers of our understanding of brain chemistry.
The students didn't know what the frontier of computer technology was twenty years ago.
WordNet 3.0 Sense Numbers: 3
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Tda 2.1
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• Published : August 15, 2011
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Task 1
Check your knowledge of child development with this quiz! You have 10 minutes to answer as many questions as you can. You must not look at your textbooks or your work. Choose your answers from the following age ranges:
0–3 months3–6 months6–9 months9–12 months12–18 months 18–24 months2–3 years3–7 years7–12 years12–19 years
Physical development
1When does walking commonly begin? 12-18month
2When are babies able to hold their heads up and steady for a few seconds? 3-6 month 3When do babies start to roll from front to back? 3-6m
4When do children begin to feed themselves with a spoon? 12-18m 5When do babies often start to crawl? 6-9m
Communication, language and literacy development
1At what age do children enjoy jokes? 7-12yrs
2What is a common age for asking ‘why?’ and other questions? 2-3y 3At what age can children understand ‘no’+? 6-9m
4When does babbling begin? 6-9m
5When can children begin to put two words together? 2-3y
Knowledge and understanding of the world / Problem solving, reasoning and numeracy 1When can children understand concepts of weight and size? 7-12yrs 2When does academic knowledge grow through following exam curriculum?3-7yrs 3When is an interest in reading and writing shown? 3-7 yrs
4When will children solve a simple puzzle? 2-3yrs
5At what age is sorting objects enjoyed? 12-18m
Personal, social, and emotional development
1When is a strong desire to fit in with peers commonly shown? 7-12yrs 2When do children find it difficult to share? 2-3yrs
3At what age are tantrums common? 2-3yrs
4When is distress at separation first shown? 3-7yrs
5When do children begin to like their privacy to be respected? 7-12yrs
Task 2
Complete the spider diagram below with influences on children’s development, and examples of each one.
Influences on Children’s Development
Parental influence
Do the parents nurture and encourage the child?
If children pick the sort of friends then the...
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Fish, Tanks and Ponds
Fish, Tanks and Ponds
A comprehensive guide to fish
Fishes Fins
The physiology or anatomy of a fish enables it to do all the things which are needed in order to thrive in its natural environment. Fish have evolved over millennia and are still evolving in order to meet the demands of their dynamic environment. Their fins help them with stability and locomotion within their environment. Many different species of fish have specialized fins which enable them to live in environments that other species of fish would not be able to inhabit.
Fins of a fish
The ray counts in the fins are one of the first identifying factors when classifying a fish. Learning to spot the differences between the spines and soft rays and being able to count them accurately will help narrow down the possibilities for identifying different species. When used for classification, the number of spines are indicated using Roman numerals, while the soft rays are indicated using Arabic numbers.
For example the Rock Goby, Gobius paganellus, has the following ray count:
D1 VI; D2 I + 13-14 (12-15); A I + 11-12 (10-13); P 21-22 (18-23).
D1 - The first dorsal fin consists of 6 spines
D2 - The second dorsal fin normally consists of 1 spine and 13-14 rays, but can range between 12-15
A - The anal fin normally consists of 1 spine and 11-12 rays, but can range between 10-13
P (P1)- The pectoral fins normally consists of 21-22 rays, but can range between 18-23 rays
V (P2)- Ventral (Pelvic) fins have not been stated in this count
C - Caudal fins have not been stated in this count
Fin Composition for Ray Finned Fish
Fish fins are composed of hard spines and/or soft rays covered with a translucent membrane. If both spines and rays are present in the fin, the spines are always at the anterior of the fin followed by the softer, more flexible rays.
Rigid and soft rays of a fishes fin
Rigid and soft rays of a Perciformes dorsal fin
Spines, sometimes called hard rays, are composed of a single shaft and are generally sharp and ridged but can be flexible in some species. Some species of fish have modifications that allow their spines to preform secondary functions such as members of the Triggerfish family can lock their spines up making it very difficult to remove them from any crevices they use for protection.
Soft rays are generally flexible and segmented and may even be branched.
Fin Composition for Lobe Finned Fish
The fins in Lobe-finned fish are structured very differently than the fins found in other fish. They have bones that extend into the fins as well as rays which are covered in a fleshy material rather than a translucent membrane.
Single fins
Soft rayed dorsal fin
Dorsal fin
Dorsal fin - There can be up to three separate dorsal fins composing of only hard rays, only soft rays or a combination of both hard and soft rays. The dorsal fins are generally used to help keep the fish balanced upright, similar to the keel of a ship, and to assist in sudden stops or turns. Many fish have modified dorsal fins for more specialized uses.
Three modified dorsal fins
Modified dorsal fins for a Triggerfish, Anglerfish, Remora, and Lionfish.
• Members of the marine sunfish family, Molidae, use their dorsal fin for swimming.
• The large dorsal fin in sailfish, Istiophorus spp., have large blood vessels that may be used for heating and cooling allowing the fish to swim faster and longer.
• Trigerfish, Balistidae, have a small but very strong first dorsal fin that can lock upright, securing it into tight crevasses for protection.
• Anglerfish, from the order Lophiiformes, have a highly specialized first dorsal that they use as a lure called an esca or illicium.
• The dorsal fins on the remora, family Echeneidae, have modified dorsal fins that look and act like suckers so they can hitch a ride on other fish.
• Lionfish and other scorpionfish have hollow venomous spines used for self defence.
• Some fresh water catfish also have venomous spines.
• Some fish do not even have any dorsal fins such as many members of the Gymnotiformes, Knifefishes, family.
Adipose fin
Adipose fin
Adipose fin - Not present on all fish, is a soft fin located behind the dorsal fins and in front of the caudal fin. It is mainly present on Salmonidae, Characins and catfishes. Currently the function of this fin is not completely known or understood. Some places cut of this fin to differentiate captive reared fish from wild stock, however this practice is currently under revision as more information is coming to light. Recent studies have noticed that fish with the adipose fin removed beat their tails approximately 8% more than fish with the fin intact. It is also thought that this fin contains a network of nervous tissue, cells and fibers, possibly allowing it to navigate in rough waters.
Anal fin -
Gonopodium (modified anal fin).
Caudal fin - Located at the end of the caudal peduncle and is used mainly for locomotion.
• Heterocercal - found on some species of sharks, where the vertebrae extend into the caudal fin making the top part of the tail longer. (can also be reversed making the bottom of the caudal fin longer)
• Protocercal - where the vertebrae extend to the end of the tail and the caudal fin is symetrical on either side of the vertebrae
• Homocercal - most common type of caudal fin in modern fish. The fin appears symetrical, however the vertebrae extends for a very short distance into the fin.
• Rounded
• truncated
• forked
• lunate
• emarginate
• Diphycercal - The vertebrae extends to the tip of the tail and the caudal fin appears symetrical and extended.
Finlets -
Paired Fins
Pectoral fin -
• The Pectoral fins of the Sea Robins can open into sails used to glide around in the currents.
• Fresh water butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholzi, use their pelvic fins for gliding.
• Flying fish, from the family Exocoetidae, propel themselves out of water, open up their pelvic fins and glide through the air on average of about 50m to escape from predators. Some fish have been recorded to use updrafts from the leading edges of waves to glide more than 400m and have been recorded as high as 6m above the waters surface.
Pelvic fin -
• Gouramis can taste with their modified pelvic fins.
• Gobies have fused pelvic fins
• Sea Robin have pelvic fins that can be used for "walking" along the substrate.
Anterior - The part closest to the nose of the fish.
Posterior - Closest to the tail end of the fish.
Soft Ray - A segmented, generally flexible and sometimes branched structure to provide support for a fin.
Spine - A single single-shafted structure to provide support for a fin
Wikipedia - Fish fins
Wikipedia - Molidae
Wikipedia - Flying Fish
Marine Species Identification Portal - Rock Goby (Gobius paganellus)
Fin Fish by Dr. V. Ramaiyan* and Dr. M. Kalaiselvam
Clipping Adipose fins on salmon might hurt fish's ability to swim in rough waters, study finds. by Mihir Zaveri, The Oregonian
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Learn more about Britain
Jump to: navigation, search
For an explanation of terms such as Great Britain, British, United Kingdom, England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, see British Isles (terminology).
The word Britain is an informal term used (for brevity or convenience) when referring to;
The word British generally means belonging to or associated with Britain in one of the first two senses above (i.e. the United Kingdom or the island of Great Britain). However, the term has a range of related usages, as described in this article.
[edit] Earliest attested references
[edit] Etymology
[edit] Britain
The etymology of the name Britain is thought to derive from a Celtic word, Pritani, "painted people/men", a reference to the island's inhabitants'<ref>Pytheas c.330BC: "Isles of the Prettanike"; Diodorus Siculus c.50BC: "those of the Pretani who inhabit the country called Iris (Ireland)"; Later Romanised as "Brittania"</ref> use of body paint and tattoos. If this is true, there is an interesting parallel with the name Pict, from the Latin word of the same meaning. The modern Welsh name for Britain and the Picts is Prydain. The Goidelic form was Cruithin, showing that the Common Celtic singular form was *qruitanos. The root is presumably that of modern Welsh pryd "shape, form" and Irish cruth. In 325 BC the Greek explorer Pytheas of Massalia visited a group of islands which he called Prettaniké, the principal ones being Albionon (Albion) and Ierne (Erin). The records of this visit date from much more recent times, so there is room for these details to be disputed, but it does seem to attest pre-Roman use of the name by Celtic-speaking inhabitants of the islands.
In keeping with the mediaeval penchant for etymologising country names in terms of eponymous heroes, British historians of the late mediaeval and early modern periods charted the history of the nation from Brutus, a descendant of Aeneas, a hero of the Trojan war, who founded Britain just as Aeneas' descendant Romulus founded Rome, Frankus France, and so forth. The life of Brutus, anglicised as Brute, was recorded in the literary tradition of the Prose Brute. This was accepted as the etymology of Britain well into modern times.
[edit] Great Britain
The original reference seems to have been to the territory in which the Brythonic languages were spoken, which more or less coincided with the Roman province of Britannia, an area equivalent to modern England, Wales and, for a short period, southern Scotland. In the Early Middle Ages speakers of a Brythonic language which later evolved into Breton migrated from Cornwall to Armorica, Western France, possibly because of pressure from Saxon invasions. This is why different forms of the same name apply to insular Britain and continental Brittany. In French the similarity is even more obvious: Bretagne and Grande-Bretagne.
Geoffrey of Monmouth used the names Britannia minor to refer to the Armorican region and Britannia major for the island. The element great in the term Great Britain thus simply means large, to make the distinction from Brittany.
[edit] Historical evolution
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, the queen's astrologer and alchemist, John Dee, wrote mystical volumes predicting a British Empire and using the terms Great Britain and Britannia. After Elizabeth's death in 1603 the kingdoms shared one King, James VI of Scotland and I of England. On 20 October 1604 he proclaimed himself "King of Great Brittaine" (thus including Wales and also avoiding the cumbersome title "King of England and Scotland"). This title was eventually adopted formally in 1707 when the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed.
Politically then, British has been used to describe someone or something from Great Britain since the formation of that state in 1707. British was also used to describe members of nations that formed part of the British Empire. This use now, however, could be seen as justifying the colonial era, even if only applied historically. The Kingdom of Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland 1801, which was already ruled by the British monarchy — to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
[edit] Modern use
Britain is commonly used to refer to the modern United Kingdom. This is not strictly accurate, because the United Kingdom only makes up part of the British Isles and is split across islands other than Great Britain. For example, this page [2] on the 10 Downing Street website refers to 'Britain's' 51 Prime Ministers; this BBC news article [3] refers to 'Britain's' chances in the 2012 Olympics.
The modern use of the term 'British' is as an adjective to describe someone or something from the United Kingdom. It is officially used as the term to describe the citizenship of the United Kingdom. Such a person is a Briton. Nationalists across the island(s) may reject the term in favour of their national description.
It is also frequently used to describe residents of the United Kingdom's current colonies. By the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 all residents of the United Kingdom's remaining colonies have been eligible for British citizenship, making the term particularly apt.
British occurs in the legal term British Islands. This was coined to describe all of the islands of the British Isles, excluding those that form part of the Republic of Ireland, when they act together as a political whole.
Historians and political commentators normally use "Britain" as the short form of the legal term "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", preferring it to "United Kingdom." Thus "the British government", "British cinema" or "British literature" (but "English literature" where the reference is to the English language or literature of England). The term "United Kingdom" may be used to indicate geography, as "a road map of the UK" or "the coal mines of the UK."
Geographically, the term can be used in various ways:
• To describe someone from the island of Great Britain.
• In the term British Isles (see supra), the traditional term for the entire archipelago of islands that lie off the north west coast of France, of which Great Britain and Ireland are the two biggest.
• The term has historically been used to describe someone or something from the British Isles. Because of the above mentioned potential for offence, this rarely happens today. For example the British Lions a rugby team which draws players from the United Kingdom and Ireland has been renamed the British and Irish Lions.
• Sometimes British applies to an area or territory currently or formerly governed by or a dependent territory of the United Kingdom, for example the British Virgin Islands, the British Indian Ocean Territory, or British Columbia which is now a province of Canada.
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
[edit] Sources and further reading
[edit] External links
cs:Británie de:Britannien fa:بریتانیا ga:An Bhreatain kw:Breten la:Britannia nl:Brittanië pl:Brytania simple:Britain tl:Britain
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Biology (11th Edition)
Published by McGraw-Hill Education
ISBN 10: 1-25918-813-2
ISBN 13: 978-1-25918-813-8
Chapter 2 - The Nature of Molecules and the Properties of Water - Review Questions - Synthesize: 1
Based on the position of these elements which form cations, other examples would include Mg, Fe, Co, Ni, Rb, Li.
Work Step by Step
Note that the cation-forming elements listed in the question are on the left side of the periodic table, so elements on that side in the same columns should also form cations (e.g. Li, Rb, Mg). Also, the metals in the center of the table, such as Fe, are also prone to form cations.
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10 Days That Shaped America (History Channel) Summary
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Yannic Tschaitschian
January 11, 2008
Mrs. Shelton
4th Block Honors History
Ten Days That Shaped America
1) May 26, 1637-The Mystic Massacre of the Pequot War
On May 26, 1637, English settlers under Captain John Mason, and Narragansett and Mohegan allies set fire to a Pequot fort near the Mystic River. The fort only had two entrances, and anybody that tried to flee the fort was shot by awaiting enemies. The only Pequots that survived were those who had followed their sachem Sassacus in a raiding party outside the village. This attack on the fort almost entirely wiped out the Pequot population and resulted in them eventually losing the war. As a result of this the 1638 treaty of Hartford was signed, stating that all remaining Pequots were to be slaves, for the English and other tribes. This could have been the Start of slavery in the united states, and it could have also been an event that led to the enslaving of hundreds of thousands of Africans. This affected the United States greatly because, without this one battle, this country might not be as culturally diverse as it is today.
2) January 25, 1787-Shays’ Rebellion
Shays’ Rebellion took place in 1787, when Daniel Shays led a rebellion to seize Federal arsenal to protest debtor’s prisons. Daniel Shays proposed a battle to Luke Day of West Springfield Massachusetts, for a battle on January 5th 1787. Day sent a message to Shays that he would not have his army ready by then, and that the battle should take place January 6th instead. The message never reached Shays, and therefore, he and his army attacked the unarmed, and unorganized army of Day on the 5th. The rebellion shocked and baffled, many U.S. leaders at the time, and eventually led to a few changes to the nations government. It would now become a stronger central government, which was the true basis for what our government is today.
3) January 24, 1848-The beginning of the California Gold Rush.
On January 24, 1848, Gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill In Coloma California. This discovery, immediately spread around the globe. People from all different parts of the world came to California. People called it the place for a new beginning. California quickly became the most popular state in the United States. Even immigrants from Asia and Europe were coming to California just to get their hands on this precious gold. This also greatly affected the United States as we know it today. Without it, just like the Mystic Massacre, the United States would not be as culturally diverse as it is today.
4) September 17, 1862-The Battle of Antietam
The Battle of Antietam was the bloodiest day in the history of America. More people died on this day, than on D-Day or 9/11.It was also considered the turning point in the war, because although it was actually a draw, it was considered a victory for the Union because it ended General Robert E. Lee’s strategic campaign, and it allowed President Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. The Emancipation Proclamation was a legal document stating that all slaves in the confederate states were now free. This affects us today, because it was the first major step in abolishing slavery, which now does not exist anymore in our society.
5) July 6th 1892-The Homestead Strike
On July 6, 1892, the union working at Carnegie Steel Company went on strike because of large pay cuts, and minimum working wages. Before the strike, Andrew Carnegie went on a trip to Scotland, and left the company in the hands of his manager, Henry Clay Frick, who was well-known to be very anti-union. Frick brought in replacement workers and used Pinkerton agents to safeguard their arrival. When the workers attempted to go to work, the strikers and the Pinkerton agents got into a gunfight. Ten people died. Two brigades of Pennsylvania state militia were called out to restore peace. Anarchist Alexander Berkman tried to murder Frick, but he was unsuccessful, and ended up turning public...
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The Haitian Revolution
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In 1789 Europe witnessed a revolution that would rock the continent of Europe and have a great impact on the colonies in the Caribbean especially St. Domingue. At the time of the French Revolution St. Domingue (the name of Haiti at the time) was the richest colony in the Caribbean and was known as "The Pearl of the Indies". It was the richest french colony but had the worst slave conditions.
Social Structure
There were three social groups white, mulattoes and blacks. The whites were at the top of the social pyramid and did not socialize with the other social groups. The whites were divided into three groups Metropolitan white, Grand Blancs and Petit Blancs. The Metropolitan whites were those that were born in France. The Grande Blancs were the rich whites, civil workers and owners of businesses. The Petit Blancs were the poor whites and were treated badly. They could not own land and did not have the right to trade due to a law passed called 'The Exclusive" or even participate in political matters. Being white was their only badge of honour. Both the Grand Blancs and the Petit Blancs were envious and inferior to the Metropolitan whites because they were locally born while the Metropolitan whites were born in France. Hence they were looked down on by the Metropolitan whites and were called Creoles (locally born whites).
At the middle of the social pyramid were the Mulattoes. These were the offspring of white plantation owners and black slave women. They were not black and they were not white so they were referred to as Coloured. The mulattoes were restricted from a number of things: they could not wear shoes in some places, they could not play European games, they were even restricted from the titles Mister or Madame at one point.
At the bottom of the social pyramid were the blacks, these were the slaves. They contributed to most of the population of St. Domingue (about 80%). They were treated the worst of all the social groups. They hated the white...
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Bison antiquus
Temporal range: 0.24–0.009
A life restoration of Bison antiquus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Bovinae
Tribe: Bovini
Genus: Bison
Species: B. antiquus
Binomial name
Bison antiquus
Leidy, 1852
Bison antiquus, sometimes called the "ancient bison", was the most common large bison of the North American continent for over 10,000 years, and is a direct ancestor of the living American bison.
During the later Pleistocene epoch, between 240,000 and 220,000 years ago, steppe wisent (B. priscus) migrated from Siberia into Alaska. This species inhabited parts of northern North America throughout the remainder of the Pleistocene. In midcontinent North America, however, B. priscus was replaced by the long-horned bison, B. latifrons, and somewhat later by Bison antiquus. The larger Bison latifrons appears to have died out by about 20,000 years ago. In contrast, B. antiquus became increasingly abundant in parts of midcontinent North America from 18,000 ya until about 10,000 ya, after which the species appears to have given rise to the living species, Bison bison. B. antiquus is the most commonly recovered large mammalian herbivore from the La Brea tar pits.
B. antiquus was taller, had larger bones and horns, and was 15-25% larger overall than modern bison. It reached up to 2.27 m (7.5 ft) tall, 4.6 m (15 ft) long, and a weight of 1,588 kg (3500 lb). From tip to tip, the horns of Bison antiquus measured about 3 ft (nearly 1 m).
One of the best educational sites to view in situ semifossilized skeletons of over 500 individuals of B. antiquus is the Hudson-Meng archeological site operated by the U.S. Forest Service, 18 miles (29 km) northwest of Crawford, Nebraska. A number of paleo-Indian spear and projectile points have been recovered in conjunction with the animal skeletons at the site, which is dated around 9,700 to 10,000 years ago. The reason for the "die-off" of so many animals in one compact location is still in conjecture; some professionals argue it was the result of a very successful paleo-Indian hunt, while others feel the herd died as a result of some dramatic natural event, to be later scavenged by humans. Individuals of Bison antiquus of both sexes and a typical range of ages have been found at the site.
According to internationally renowned archaeologist George Carr Frison, Bison occidentalis and Bison antiquus, an extinct subspecies of the smaller present-day bison, survived the Late Pleistocene period, between about 12,000 and 11,000 years ago, dominated by glaciation (the Wisconsin glaciation in North America), when many other megafauna became extinct.[11] Plains and Rocky Mountain First Nations peoples depended on these bison as their major food source. Frison noted that the "oldest, well-documented bison kills by pedestrian human hunters in North America date to about 11,000 years ago."
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Six animals teaching scientists about limb regeneration
Wouldn't it be amazing if a person who lost a limb could simply grow it back? It happens all the time in the animal kingdom. Sea Cucumbers, for instance, don't need to die when they lose internal organs. They simply grow new ones in a process called regeneration. We use regeneration to grow new toenails and small parts of our liver and brain. But why can't we regrow other important body parts, like legs or lungs? Scientists are studying an array of animals and insects in order to understand regeneration and how it can further help us.
Because of how violently sharks eat, sharks break and lose teeth all the time. But you don't have to worry about being gummed to death. Sharks lose as many as 30,000 teeth over their lifetime and regenerate new teeth in as little as a week. The new teeth rotate forward from a groove located behind the front row of teeth.
One of the most popular animals for scientists to study, the axolotl salamander, regenerates missing limbs, its tail and parts of its brain, heart and lower jaw. Mexican axolotls can recover leg functions after being paralyzed. They make new connections and neurons that allow them to use their legs again.
After a fall and winter of battling and showing off their antlers, deer shed them and regenerate a brand new set before the next autumn. It's one of nature's most amazing examples of regeneration. The average deer's antlers weigh between 59 and 66 pounds.
African Spiny Mouse
The African Spiny Mouse is able to release its skin tissue when attacked, and then completely repair it. It also has the ability to heal holes in its ears. It quickly closes holes with new skin, regenerates hairs, fat cells and cartilage, without scar tissue. Like salamanders and lizards, when a tail is lost, these mice grow a new one.
Starfish, sea star
The starfish is an echinoderm, a cousin to the spiny sea urchin, sand dollar and sea cucumber. These five-limbed creatures have the ability to regenerate their arms and sometimes, their whole bodies. When a starfish is down to one arm, as long as it has its central nerve ring intact, it can grow into an entirely new five-legged starfish.
Sea cucumber
Sea cucumbers are echinoderms, like starfish and sea urchins. Sea cucumbers are ocean dwellers, though some inhabit the shallows and others live in the deep ocean, on or near the ocean floor, sometimes partially buried beneath it. Seasonally, or when threatened, sea cucumbers will contract their muscles and jettison some of their internal organs out of their anus. The missing body parts are quickly regenerated, sometimes in a week.
Sources: National Geographic, Journal of Anatomy, Scientific American
Six animals teaching scientists about limb regeneration 09/01/16 [Last modified: Friday, September 2, 2016 11:09am]
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1. Rays acquire slick-fielding shortstop Adeiny Hechavarria from Marlins
The Heater
2. Lightning journal: Forward Yanni Gourde agrees to two-year deal
Lightning Strikes
3. Fennelly: About time Dave Andreychuk makes Hockey Hall of Fame
Lightning Strikes
It's Andy's time.
And it's about time.
4. British government says 75 out of 75 buildings failed fire safety tests
LONDON — Britain on Monday confronted a rapidly growing fire safety crisis after tests of the exterior cladding on dozens of public housing towers revealed a 100 percent failure rate, raising fears that this month's deadly inferno in London could be repeated elsewhere.
Spanish surrealist painter Salvador Dali, presents his first Chrono-Hologram in Paris, France, in 1973. A Spanish judge on Monday June 26, 2017, has ordered the remains of artist Salvador Dali to be exhumed following a paternity suit by a woman named by Europa Press agency as Pilar Abel, 61 from the nearby city of Girona. Dali, considered one of the fathers of surrealism in art, died in 1989 and is buried in his museum in the northeastern town of Figueres. [Associated Press]
5. Man convicted of second-degree murder in killing of Baby Doe, his girlfriend's daughter
BOSTON — A man was convicted Monday of murder in the death of a 2-year-old girl who became known as Baby Doe after her remains washed up on the shore of a Boston Harbor island.
Michael McCarthy’s friend Michael Sprinsky, far left, gets a hug from sister Laura Sprinsky after McCarthy is found guilty of second-degree murder in the death of Bella Bond, who became known as Baby Doe.
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May 28, 2012
Memorial Day 1
Memorial Day Order
Discuss: Memorial Day, originally called Decoration Day, is a day of remembrance for those who have died in our nation's service. It is celebrated on the last Monday in May.
Read: Memorial Day by Trudi Strains Trueit and the Order for recognizing Memorial Day as a national holiday.
Comprehension Questions:
1. Why do we celebrate Memorial Day? Because we are remembering and honoring the people who serve in our military. They work to keep us safe and give us our freedom.
2. Write the word Memorial on the front board. See how the word memorial is like the word memory. On Memorial Day, we remember and thank the people in our military.
All About Memorial Day
We used the All About Memorial Day handout to learn more.
Army Men Math
• Army Men
• Hoola Hoops
1. First count them to see how many there are. You can put them in piles of 10 and then count by 10's.
2. Sort and arrange into patterns by color first then by the soldier's position. Try and AB pattern first then try something harder like AABCC.
3. Create a Venn diagram with hoola hoops. Compare standing soldiers to laying soldiers, with kneeling soldiers in the middle.
4. Remove any extra pieces so that you have a number divisible by 10 (say they were injured and went to the hospital).
Set up 10 men as generals, how many soldiers could each general command, if all the men were divided equally among the 10 generals?
Army Men Math
How many army men do you have? (count by tens)______________
How many of each color do you have?
Light Green?_________________
Dark Green?_________________
How many in each position?
Remove any extra pieces so that you have a number divisible by 10 (say they were injured and went to the hospital). If 10 were generals how many could each general command?_____________________
Drawing Army Men
Discuss: Show the children how to make the army man body after examining a few different army men together. Observe how the arms and legs bend because of knees and elbows. Here is a step by step guide for the child. Look at all the details of their little man.
• Army Men
• Pencil
• Green Marker
• Water Colors
1. Use the diagram above to draw an outline of your army man with a green marker,
2. paint the army man with green water colors,
3. for the back ground draw camouflage or an American flag.
American Casualty Locations
Discuss: Many American soldiers have died protecting our countries freedom. Here is a list of all the wars that Americans have fought in. It also tells how many American's died in each war. We are so thankful for each and every soldier for giving their life for our freedom.
Directions: Study the list and display a large world map, and ask students to point out the places where Americans have fought and died.
Memorial Day Poppy
Discuss: On Memorial Day you will often see veterans selling poppies in memory of those people who died for our country.
• Red tissue paper
• White paper
• Green pipe cleaner
• Glue
• Green seed beads
• Aluminum foil
• Scissors
• Ruler
• Pen
1. Cut a 3 inch square of aluminum foil and red tissue paper.
2. Glue the red tissue square over the aluminum foil square, and let it dry.
3. Cut a 2 inch circle from the tissue covered foil to make the poppy.
4. Poke a 6 inch piece of green pipe cleaner through the center of the poppy for the stem. Bend the end of the stem to one side and glue it to the center of the flower.
5. Cover the center of the poppy with glue and sprinkle the glue with green seed beads for the center of the poppy.
6. Cut a thin 4 inch strip from the white paper. Fold the strip of paper in half and glue it around the stem of the poppy.
7. Use a pen to write “Memorial Day” and the date on the paper strip.\
8. Stick the stem of the poppy through a buttonhole on your shirt to wear it on Memorial Day.
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Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni)
With the alias of Longhorn Antelope, Tibetan Antelope belongs to the Bovidae family of Artiodactyla order. Its scientific name is Pantholops hodgsoni (Latin), or Tibetan Antelope.
Its body length is about 135 centimeters, with a shoulder height of about 80 centimeters. Weighing up to 45 to 60 kilograms, it has a sturdy body, with wide and long head and stout mouth. Its nasal part is wide and slightly ridgy. Its tail is short, and the four limbs are sturdy and symmetrical. Except for the cheek, underparts of the four limbs and tail, it is covered with bushy, soft and dense hair, making the body wholly hazel. It holds its head high when walking. Male antelope has a long, straight and shiny fuliginous horn, commonly 60 centimeters in length. The female antelope is hornless.
It usually inhabits on tablelands at an elevation of 3,400 to 5,500 meters, mostly moving on grasslands near water sources in the morning and dusk. Male and female antelopes usually live in different groups of 2 to 6, or even tens or hundreds. It is born coward but alert, with sensitive hearing and vision ability, and usually appears in remote and unapproachable places. It migrates for long distances seasonally, feeding mainly on grass plants and sedge plants. The oestrous period is in late winter and early spring, when male antelopes fight fiercely for females. A family is usually composed of one male antelope and several female ones. It usually delivers from June to August, only one baby per propagation.
Endemic to China, it is mainly distributed in Sichuan, Qinghai Provinces, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and Tibet Autonomous Region. It has been listed in Appendix I of International Trade Convention on Endangered Wild Animal and Plant Species.
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Malik Price 8
Unit 3 Romantic and Victorian Poetry
Elizabeth Barrett Browning is best known for her sonnets. True or False
The Victorian Age of England is named after the queen who ruled from 1837 to 1901. True or False
Most Victorian writers looked to the past, hoping to cure society's problems through history. True or False
Victorian conduct was based on the virtues of self-reliance, industriousness, temperance, piety, propriety, and moral simplicity. True or False
The Lyrical Ballads were first published in _____. (1776, 1798, 1880, 1832)
In "It Is A Beauteous Evening, Calm and Free," Wordsworth speaks to his son, whom he teasingly called "Childe Harold." True or False
The author of Lyrical Ballads is _____. (William Wordsworth, Samuel Coleridge, both men, neither man)
both men
Tennyson juxtaposes cold, gray stones, which symbolize grief or sadness, and the fisherman's children playing, which symbolizes carefree happiness, in "Crossing the Bar." (True or False)
"Tintern Abbey" was written by _____. (Wordsworth, Coolridge, Shelley, Ruskins)
Which of the following traits belong to the Byronic hero? Select all that apply (proud, emotional, socially isolated, simple, highly rational, restrained)
proud and socially isolated
Which of the following was Percy Shelley's inspiration for "Ode to the West Wind"? (a thunderstorm, a hurricane, a blizzard, none of these)
a thunderstorm
Elzabeth Barrett Browning's fame as a poet came only after she married Robert Browning. (True or False)
"Beauty is eternal truth" _____.( is the theme of "Ode to a Grecian Urn", is a theme for all of the Romantics, is Wordsworth's philosophy, none of these)
is Wordsworth's philosophy
To which of the following does Shelley compare the clouds in the sky in "Ode to the West Wind"? (a sheep's wool, paint splattered all over the canvas, the hair of a mad woman, none of these)
the hair of a mad woman
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#Onthisday in history the Treaty of Novgorod which was signed in a groovy way on 3rd June 1326 A.D. in Novgorod, which marked the major decades of Norwegian-Novgorodian border lines where skirmishes in the north regions of Finnmark began. But in terms there was a armistice for 40 years. Which a few years earlier, before this event, Republic of Novgorod which had been settled with Sweden in the Treaty of Noteborg.
This is the treaty that would Delineate which the border rather be stipulated which part of the Sami people would pay tribute Norway. Which related the king of buffer zones between countries. This treaty is remained effect the 19 century, which was never cemented by any of the powers.
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Argentavis Magnificens
Argentavis Magnificens – Photo by Wangyonglee (CC license)
The Argentavis is one of the largest birds to ever roam the skies. Its scientific name, Argentavis magnificens literally means “magnificent Argentine bird” and it is named like this because it used to live in today’s Argentina.
Argentavis is a member of the extinct bird family Teratornithidae, a predatory group of birds related to storks and vultures.
About the size of a small glider, a perched specimen stood over 1.5 metres tall, weighed up to 70 kilograms, and stretched 3.35 metres from the tip of its bill to the end of its tail. Its fossil remains were discovered in Argentina in 1979 and indicated that this colossal bird seldom engaged in flapping flight, instead preferring to soar with the help of constant winds in the open grassland region where it lived.
They weren’t the largest birds, though. That honor goes to the Pelagornis sandersi, a bird that had a wingspan of 6.1 – 7.5 meters.
But the Argentavis was nonetheless magnificent! For a bird of its size, flying was not an easy feat, especially taking off could have proved difficult.
Reconstruction of Argentavis Magnificens
Reconstruction of Argentavis Magnificens – Image by Radomil (CC license)
Reproduction and lifespan
Although there is no certain data about this aspect, but it is believed that the argentavis lived a long life, mainly due to its large size and the lack of a predator. It is believed they could have reached between 50 and 100 years.
Its reproduction habits seem to support the idea that it lived a long life. The argentavis laid one or two eggs weighing about 1 kg each every two years. The young argentavis was independent after about 16 months but fully mature only about 12 years.
Although it is uncertain what exactly did the argentavis feed on, it was certainly a carnivore. However, due to its enormous size, it is believed that it was not an active predator.
Paleontologists reconstructing the bird’s ecology speculate that, among other culinary habits, Argentavis magnificens may have been a scavenger. Due to its sheer size, it could have driven away most other mammals from their food and scavenging would have required less energy expenditure than active hunting.
But the argentavis was capable of hunting for its prey as well. When it localized a prey, it would dive from above and grab it without landing. Its body structure suggests that it swallowed prey without tearing apart their flesh.
It is uncertain why exactly did the argentavis go extinct, but it is believed that it is correlated with the extinction of some of the mammals it fed on. It went extinct around 6 million years ago.
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