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Main content
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1942 Tide turning in World War II in Europe
APUSH: KC‑7.3.III.D (KC), Unit 7: Learning Objective M, WOR (Theme)
Video transcript
As we saw in the last video, in 1942 we start to see the tide turn in the Pacific. Just as reminder - In December of 1941, you have the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor which brings the United States into World War II. And as we get into 1942, you have the Doolittle Raid on the mainland of Japan which is a psychological victory for America and the allies. Then you have the Battle of Coral Sea and then Midway. Midway in particular was a huge -- I shouldn´t put red there, I should leave it blue -- was a huge success for the American Navy, followed by Guadalcanal after which the U.S. is able to go on the offensive against the Japanese. We see a significant turning of the tide in 1942 in the Pacific. And it also turns out to be the case in Europe that we see a turning of the tide in 1942. Just as Guadalcanal is occuring, you might remember that in 1941 Hitler and the Nazis decided they want to attack the Soviet Union, probably not a good idea, they going to stretch themselves thin, but they do so anyway. The Siege of Leningrad starts in 1941, and then in 1942 by August, they are able to reach Stalingrad, which is right about here. And Stalingrad, it´s now called Volgograd, is right about there if the map extended over there. This is a major series of battles in World War II. Movies are made about Stalingrad, incredibly bloody. Incredibly -- if you look at the pictures of the city of Stalingrad after the battles there, the city is essentially in ruins. But the battles in Stalingrad start in August of 1942 and they continue for several months, going up to February of 1943. But this marks the turning point for Hitler. He´s getting bogged down in Leningrad, he´s getting bogged down in Stalingrad, eventually gets defeated in Stalingrad in early 1943. And his armies are really spread thin. Stalingrad is a hugely important event or series of events in World War II. And let´s just be clear where we are right now. Stalingrad commences in August of 1942. And just to frame it in your mind - relativ to the Pacific Theater, this is right around - plus or minus a few weeks - of when Guadalcanal was going on, conflict between the Japanese and the American navies. You have these incredibly bloody series of battles at Stalingrad. Then in October, we´ve been talking about this back and forth, in North Africa and some people are: "Why are they even worried about North Africa?" And I should have mentioned this earlier, but we have to remember that there is somewhat strategic here called the Suez Canal. Why is the Suez Canal strategic? It connects the Mediterranean with the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. You don`t have to go all the way around Africa to go from Europe to the Indian Ocean. It`s an incredibly strategic passage or way to travel by sea between -- I guess for the world -- but especially between Europe and Asia. You can imagine, the British were very keen on protecting the Suez Canal and the axies would have loved to get control of the Suez Canal. Let me write this here. This right over here is the Suez Canal. And as we go into October, this is Stalingrad commences right over here. And as we go into October, the British are able to defeat or start to deafeat the axies and then push them back. This eventually leads to the British being able to go all the way to Tunisia. This is the final back- and-forth-blow that starts to secure victory for the allies in North Africa. And at the same time that this is commencing in October, you have other allied forces, starting to arrive in Morroco and Algeria. Forces from the U.S. are arriving in Morroco, and forces from the U.K., from Great Britain, are arriving in Algeria. This is going to give the allies control of North Africa, from which they can now mount assaults onto the European mainland, which we will see in the next series of videos. Definitely the tide is turning, and the allies are starting to be able to go on the offensive both in the Pacific and the European Theater.
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Early Approaches to Interantional Relations
2122 WordsFeb 19, 20188 Pages
Early approaches to international relations can be found in the works of the Greeks and Romans. Plato and Aristotle, who wrote on the concept of war and the defense of the city-state. Partially as a result of the decline of the Greek city-states, the idealist concept of cosmopolitanism and world citizenship took hold. Roman scholars later developed the law of nations, which consisted of a body of legal principles and practices common to those societies associated with Rome. French writers, particularly those during the Enlightenment Era, focused on the roles of diplomacy, arbitration, and adjudication in the achievement of perpetual peace, and tended to prefer to achieve policies goals through trade and commerce rather than war (Dougherty and Pfaltzgraff, Jr. 2001). In the 1500s, Jean Bodin (1992) wrote about the principle of sovereignty, which held that a monarch was supreme internally, but equal to other rulers externally. English political philosophers, including Hobbes, Spinoza, and Locke, agreed with the French writers on the concept of sovereignty but not on the prospects for international government. The period of European history from the end of the Thirty Years War in 1648 to the beginning of World War I in 1914 was known as the Golden Age of Diplomacy, and scholarly writings from this time focused on the balance of power, alliances, and international law in a state system characterized by numerous wars (Dougherty and Pfalztgraff, Jr. 2001). The Inter-War Period
More about Early Approaches to Interantional Relations
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Telomere Biology
Telomeres make up the physical ends of chromosomes and ensure that they are not mistakenly recognized as DNA damage. Each time a cell divides the telomeres shorten. Short telomeres drive replicatively “old” cells into a non-proliferative state referred to as replicative senescence. Accelerated telomere shortening leads to the premature accumulation of senescent cells, a scenario seen in the degenerative disease dyskeratosis congenita.
Recent findings demonstrate that telomeres are transcribed into a long non-coding RNA, dubbed TERRA (Telomeric repeat-containing RNA). We employ genetic, biochemical, molecular and proteomic -based approaches to understand how TERRA regulates telomere length in yeast and human cells.
Research website
Positions held
Since 2017: Adjunct Director, Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz
Professor, Faculty of Biology, Johannes Gutenberg University (JGU), Mainz
2014-2017: Group Leader, Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz
2009-2014: Group Leader, ZMBH, Universität Heidelberg
2005-2009: Postdoc, EPFL Lausanne
2005: Postdoctoral Fellow, Biochemistry, ETH Zürich
2005: PhD ETH, Zurich
1999: Bachelor of Science, Biology, Queen’s University, Canada
Selected publications by Brian Luke
Niehrs C* and Luke B* (2020) Regulatory R-loops as facilitators of gene expression and genome stabilityNat Rev Mol Cell Biol, doi: 10.1038/s41580-019-0206-3 (*indicates joint contribution) Link
Pérez-Martínez L, Öztürk M, Butter F# and Luke B# (2020) Npl3 stabilizes R-loops at telomeres to prevent accelerated replicative senescenceEMBO Rep, doi: 10.15252/embr.201949087 (#indicates joint correspondance) Link
Kellner V# and Luke B# (2019) Molecular and physiological consequences of faulty eukaryotic ribonucleotide excision repairEMBO J, Dec 12:e102309 (#indicates joint correspondence) Link
Graf M*, Bonetti D*, Lockhart A*, Serhal K, Kellner V, Maicher A, Jolivet P, Teixeira MT and Luke B (2017) Telomere length determines TERRA and R-loop regulation through the cell cycleCell, 170:72–85 (*indicates joint contribution) Link
Rippe K# and Luke B# (2015) TERRA and the state of the telomereNat Struct Mol Biol, 22:853–858 (#indicates joint correspondence) Link
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Excerpt coming from Term Newspaper:
Chinese language History
Place an order for research paper!
Talk about the features of the dynasty in decline and explain for what reason the Sung Dynasty avoided the standard issues that plagued other dynasties after and before
The standard profile of a Oriental dynasty in decline, as exemplified initial in the Five Dynasties that ruled China and tiawan following the separation of the Tang Empire in 907 and also the dynasties that existed after the Sung surrendered to Mogol rule, was obviously a state of internal then of exterior dissolution. A dynasty in decline was often susceptible to an onslaught of outdoor foreign attacks, which caused its immediate termination. Yet this foreign attack was only effective after monetary, internal mold had took place between the strong landowning classes and their enraged yet see disenfranchised and ignored renter peasants. At the court and city, a dynasty in decline was often designated by aristocratic rather than merit-based administration.
But the Sung Empire that ended the chaotic period of the Five Dynasties of the Liang, Tang, Han, Chin, and Chou but not marked simply by these qualities. To take 1 specific example of a previous dynastic decline, Han dealings with barbarian friends and neighbors were carried out within an unfair tribute program. Under this product China awarded diplomatic reputation and trading privileges simply to those declares and lenders acknowledging it is superiority, symbolized by the payment of tribute. Despite the technical superiority, the end of the Han happened after effective landlords was adamant on switching too much terrain from the taxes rolls. This kind of created a heightened burden in poorer farmers. The newly powerful farmers also designed there was even more intense political wrangling on the imperial court. The resulting economic challenges and government disintegration generated massive peasant rebellion plus the dissolution with the empire, because the tribute paying lenders revolted, benefiting from the fragile state with the Han dynastic empire.
The Sung Dynasty had a even more cultural and moderating cultural influence after the Chinese people and upon the land. The Sung Confucian social service system of exam acted as a socially progressing influence and ended aristocratic domination won only by simply birth, since landholders of education and revered influence arrived at political electricity at the court docket. Thus the Sung effect can even be identified as democratizing to China, even though conservative thoughts of sucursal authority drew China nearer together like a land, isolated it via Western and neighboring effect, and deflated some of the nascent power of ladies and social and economic benefits of tenant peasants. However , even this second option temporary denaturing of the peasants as a politics force show that a level of internal tranquility was conceivable, longer than had ever transpired in China before or community, afterwards.
The dominance the Sung Disposition came to an end together with the conquest from the Mongols in 1279, after a campaign of several years. Again, even after Mogol influence abated, foreign effect upon China was constantly one of the speediest sources of dynastic decline. Afterwards, the source of conflict between China as well as the West became trade rather than tribute obligations. The Ching Dynasty, for instance , attempted to conduct diplomatic and commercial contact with the European powers within the traditional construction of the tribute system and to confine international trade to the single interface of Emplazamiento in the southern region. But the United kingdom, the most energetic European dealers, were also among the most active in smuggling opium into the nation, demanded larger access to China.
Once again, in house, China was both destabilized in terms of the class warfare between peasants and maqui berry farmers, urbanites and rural dwellers, and focused by a weakened and unimpressive emperor who had been overly reliant upon the system’s pilier system. China became exposed to the Opium Wars, therefore, and dropped into drop once again, reproducing the familiar dynastic patterns of the earlier.
Works Contacted
Chang, Joshua. “China. inch China Record Website. Previous updated 2004.
Evaluating details through the story of “Genghis Khan” and Everyday life in Cina by
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Aquila (Roman)
From Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core
Jump to: navigation, search
A modern reconstruction of an aquila
Under the later emperors the eagle was carried, as it had been for many centuries, with the legion, a legion being on that account sometimes called aquila (Hirt. Bell. Hisp. 30). Each cohort had for its own ensign the serpent or dragon, which was woven on a square piece of cloth textilis anguis,[5] elevated on a gilt staff, to which a cross-bar was adapted for the purpose,[6] and carried by the draconarius.[7]
Another figure used in the standards was a ball (orb), supposed to have been emblematic of the dominion of Rome over the world;[8] and for the same reason a bronze figure of Victoria was sometimes fixed at the top of the staff, as we see it sculptured, together with small statues of Mars, on the Column of Trajan and the Arch of Constantine.[9] Under the eagle or other emblem was often placed a head of the reigning emperor, which was to the army an object of worship or veneration.[10] The name of the emperor, or of him who was acknowledged as emperor, was sometimes inscribed in the same situation.[11] The pole used to carry the eagle had at its lower extremity an iron point (cuspis) to fix it in the ground, and to enable the aquilifer in case of need to repel an attack.[12]
The central breastplate relief on the statue of Augustus of Prima Porta shows the return of the Aquilae lost to the Parthians. The return of the eagles was one of Augustus's notable diplomatic achievements.
Since the movements of a body of troops and of every portion of it were regulated by the standards, all the evolutions, acts, and incidents of the Roman army were expressed by phrases derived from this circumstance. Thus signa inferre meant to advance,[16] referre to retreat, and convertere to face about; efferre, or castris vellere, to march out of the camp;[17] ad signa convenire, to re-assemble.[18] Notwithstanding some obscurity in the use of terms, it appears that, whilst the standard of the legion was properly called aquila, those of the cohorts were in a special sense of the term called signa, their bearers being signiferi, and that those of the manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort were denominated vexilla, their bearers being vexillarii. Also, those who fought in the first ranks of the legion before the standards of the legion and cohorts were called antesignani.[19]
In military stratagems it was sometimes necessary to conceal the standards.[20] Although the Romans commonly considered it a point of honour to preserve their standards, in some cases of extreme danger the leader himself threw them among the ranks of the enemy in order to divert their attention or to animate his own soldiers.[21] A wounded or dying standard-bearer delivered it, if possible, into the hands of his general,[22] from whom he had received it signis acceptis.[23]
Lost Aquilae
Modern imagery
1. Roman eagle found by archaeologists in City of London
2. The ox is sometimes confusingly described as a Minotaur. See Festus, s.v. Minotaur.
3. Theodore Mommsen, History of Rome, vol. 3, p. 459.
4. Flor. iv.12
5. Sidon. Apoll. Carm. v.409
7. Veget. de Re Mil. ii.13; compare Tac. Ann. i.18
8. Isid. Orig. xviii.3
9. see Causeus de Sig. in Graevii Thes. vol. x p2529
11. Sueton. Vespas. 6
12. Suet. July 62
13. Veget. l.c.
14. Bartoli, Arc. Triumph.
15. Prudentius cont. Symm. i.466, 488; Niceph. H.E. vii.37
16. Caesar, B. G. i.25, ii.25
17. Virg. Georg. i.108
18. Caesar, B. G. vi.37
19. Caesar, B. C. i.43, 44, 56
20. Caesar, B. G. vii.45
21. Florus, i.11
22. Florus, iv.4
23. Tac. Ann. i.42
Further reading
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Linear Algebra in nature
From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia.
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For those without comedic tastes, the so-called experts at Wikipedia think they have an article about Linear algebra.
To show some of the uses of linear algebra, we will apply it to a vector space over a field of rabbits. We shall call this space Rabbit Space.
We will start with one rabbit, the unit vector of rabbit space.
Rabbits can be multiplied by constants to stretch or shrink them for example two sevenths of a rabbit:
this, along with standard addition, insures that rabbit space is a proper vector space.
Rabbit Multiplication[edit]
This operation allows us to combine two different rabbits to produce one hundred thousand new, bigger stronger and more inbred rabbits. An interesting case here is the identity rabbit, any rabbit multiplied (front side or back side) by the identity rabbit will produce a hundred thousand clones identical to the original rabbit.
The Transpose of a rabbit[edit]
This is the simple operation of turning a rabbit on its side. It may not appear to be very useful, but is crucial for some more advanced techniques in rabbit space. (Historical note: a similar operation on bovine space lead to the invention of the infamous rural pastime of cow tipping.)
The inverse of a rabbit.[edit]
Failed to parse (unknown function "\begin{bmatrix}"): {\displaystyle A^{-1} =\begin{bmatrix} &º&º&º&º&º \\ (&S&P&L&A&T&) \\ &˘&˘&˘&˘&˘& \end{bmatrix} }
We suggest putting some plastic down before attempting to invert a rabbit. Strangely enough multiplying a rabbit by its own inverse produces the identity rabbit.
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Cervus canadensis
elk in winter
Elk once outnumbered bison in Iowa, but were hunted so heavily that they disappeared from the state by 1870. Although they are common in other parts of the country, free-roaming elk are not found in Iowa.
Elk are more active when it is cooler, so you are more likely to see them in late fall, winter, and early spring, when temperatures are lower. During hot summer days, they can sometimes be seen in the early morning or late evening hours. From September through November, you may be lucky enough to hear the bugling of bull elk as they court females. A dominant bull will guard his harem from other bulls, and bulls fight sometimes to the death in an attempt to pass on their genes. Non-breeding elk bulls will hang out in small groups for most of the year, similarly to bison. Calves usually arrive from May to August, but are rarely seen while they are small. Typically, there are two to five elk calves born each year at Neal Smith NWR, with twins being common.
The antlers of the bulls (cows do not have antlers) will shed starting around the beginning of April. The new antlers begin to grown in spring, covered with velvet, which provides blood to the growing antlers. Antlers can grow one inch a day in the summer. By the time the rut begins again, the velvet will have shed and the antlers will be hard and strong, made of solid bone.
Management of elk
The refuge limits the elk population to 15 to 20 in order to protect the prairie from overgrazing. We treat the elk as wildlife as much as possible, rather than like livestock. There are limitations to this, since the elk are confined within the fence and have no natural predators here. The herd is monitored for health issues through observation and tissue sampling of dead animals.
Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) is a contagious neurological disease that affects ungulates including deer and elk. It is spreading throughout the country and has recently been found in northeastern Iowa. Because this disease is a serious concern and is transmitted through contact with infected animals, elk are not moved into or out of the enclosure.
Why do we need elk on the prairie?
Like the bison, the elk are here to help restore the tallgrass prairie ecosystem. The elk at Neal Smith NWR share the same fenced 800-acre area with the bison. Elk, like bison, eat mostly grass, along with small amounts of forbs (wildflowers). Elk also browse on trees and shrubs, although not to the extent that deer do. Their grazing and browsing behaviors help to promote the growth of prairie plants and control the growth of trees and shrubs.
Facts About Elk
Average Lifespan
15 years
Cow (female) 500 lbs. 4'6" tall at shoulder, 6'6" long nose to tail
Bull (male) 700 lbs. 5' tall at shoulder, 8' long nose to tail
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Over 6 trillion cigarettes are produced each year globally, resulting in 1.2 million tons of toxic waste dumped into the environment. RMIT University researchers have previously shown fired-clay bricks with 1% recycled cigarette butt content are as strong as normal bricks and use less energy to produce. Their analysis showed if just 2.5% of global annual brick production incorporated 1% cigarette butts, this would offset total cigarette production each year. The research team has now developed a detailed plan for bringing the brickmaking and waste management industries together, to implement cigarette butt recycling into bricks at mass scale.
Lead researcher Associate Professor Abbas Mohajerani said cigarette butts were saturated with toxic chemicals, including over 60 known to cause cancer. “Firing butts into bricks is a reliable and practical way to deal with this terrible environmental problem, while at the same time cutting brickmaking production costs,” Mohajerani said. “We need to do far more to stop cigarette butts from polluting our streets, rivers and oceans, and prevent them leaching harmful toxins into our environment.
“Our ultimate goal is a world free of cigarette butt pollution: our industry implementation plan outlines the practical steps needed to bring this vision to reality.”
To read the full story, visit https://phys.org/news/2020-09-cigarette-butts-recycled-bricks-step-by-step.html.
Author: RMIT University, Phys.org
RMIT University
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Single and Two-phase Flow in a Packed Bed Reactor
Single and Two-phase Flow in a Packed Bed Reactor
Packed bed reactors are one of the most common types of reactor used in the chemical industry, due to their high conversion rates. Packed bed reactors are typically tubular reactors filled with solid catalyst particles. The reaction occurs on the surface of the solid particle. Thus, small particles enable a high surface to volume ratio and therefore high conversion. Ideally, fluid flows through the reactor in a plug fashion, thus, these reactors are sometimes called plug flow reactors. However, maldistribution of flow or channeling can occur, where flow no longer keeps the even plug-like distribution. This causes the pressure drop in the reactor to decrease and affects the reaction conversion rate. In this video, we will discuss the basics of a packed bed reactor and demonstrate how to measure the pressure drop and flow distribution of one-phase and two-phase flow in the packed bed.
In single-phase packed bed systems, the fluid can be either a gas or liquid. In two-phase reactors, both liquid and gas flow over the solid particles in either co-current or counter-current beds. In both one-phase and two-phase systems, the reactor can be oriented either horizontally or vertically. This solid phase is packed in two ways. Dumped packing is randomly oriented, while structured packing consists of defined geometric networks. The more homogenous the packing, the lower the pressure drop across the bed. An ideal packed bed reactor with single-phase flow can be described by the Ergun equation, which describes the pressure drop across the bed and how it is related to particle size, bed length, void space or porosity, fluid velocity, and viscosity. However, real reactor performance and deviations from ideal must be analyzed experimentally via the tracer method. In the tracer method, a tracer dye, which is assumed to behave similarly to the reactant molecules, is injected into the column. The dye is monitored as it flows through the column, and its concentration upon exit measured as a function of time. In ideal plug flow, the tracer should exit at one instant and the distribution appears as a spike. In a typical column, however, the concentration function takes the form of a Gaussian distribution. This function is then used to calculate the residence time distribution. To quantify the deviation from plug flow, the mean residence time, or the probability that a molecule will exit the column at time T, is calculated as shown. For packed beds, residence time is related to the void volume, which is the product of total bed volume and porosity, divided by the volumetric flow rate, Q. When describing two-phase flow in a packed bed, two simple models are applied. The homogenous model assumes that the gas, liquid, and averaged, or two-phase velocities, are equal. Then the two-phase density is mass velocity, G, divided by the two-phase velocity, UTP. The average two-phase viscosity is defined as shown, where X is the weight fraction of vapor, and mu L and mu G are the viscosities of the respective liquid and gas phases. In the stratified flow model, delta P for each phase is equal to each other. Thus, the Ergun equation for each phase is equal to each other. The pressure drop and both flow rates must be known, while the porosity is computed from the equation. Then the mass balance relates the gas and liquid velocities to the two-phase velocity. Now that you are familiar with the tracer test, let's learn how to carry out the experiment.
Before you start, familiarize yourself with the apparatus, which is operated using a graphical interface. The control system is used to regulate the valves, flows, and various other parameters. Bed number four, which is packed with glass beads and blast sand, is used for the single-phase, while bed number five, packed with glass, is used for the two-phase flow experiment. Start with opening the inlet and exit valve, as well as the water supply solenoid, to bed number four to determine the water flow. Using the flow controller, raise the water flow gradually through the bed and monitor the flow using the differential pressure. Make sure to vary the flow rate to cover the whole range of the DP transmitter. Next, turn on the UV/vis spectrometer and ensure communication with the control console. Using standards of the fluorescent dye, calibrate the spectrometer.
For the test, choose a single average flow rate and a 50 PPM fluorescent dye in deionized water as the tracer. First, insert the spectrometer probe into the probe sample point. Then, using the control system, change the injection valve's status from running to charging. Inject the tracer into the sample valve using the syringe and change the valve status back to running. Monitor the spectrometer absorbance as the tracer passes the bed. To clean the injection chamber for the next experiment, change the status to charging and inject 100 milliliters of water with a clean syringe into the valve. When the absorbance returns to baseline, change the valve to running and purge it with water for 10 to 15 minutes at high flow before the next tracer injection.
Ensure that the water valves to the beds are closed. Check that the inlet and exit valves to bed number five and the drain valve are open. Furthermore, make sure that the manual valve for the air to the beds is closed. Slowly open the air regulator to establish an air flow, Then, open the manual valve for the air to the beds. Next, using the water flow controller, set the flow to 700 milliliters per minute and open the manual valve. Using the valves, route the water and air flow to the gas/liquid separator. Confirm that the water is exiting to drain. To achieve a better separation of air and water, close the valve to the drain temporarily, which will lead to the buildup of a liquid head in the gas/liquid separator. Use the pressure regulator and the dry test meter on the gas exit line to adjust the air flow. Close the drain valve briefly and use the wet test meter to read the gas flow. At a single liquid flow rate, manually vary the air flow at the regulator to cover the range of the DP transmitter and collect the pressure drop data for two-phase flow experiments at bed number five.
Now, let's examine the real flow behavior. For single-phase flow, obtain the residence time distribution. Use the residence time distribution to calculate mean residence time, average porosity, and tracer mass. Compare the calculated tracer mass with the actual value. Next, use the Ergun equation to predict delta P for the water flow experiments. Compare the calculated pressure drops using the calculated porosities to the measured value. For example, in this figure, the minimum porosity for closed pack spheres is 0.36. For bed three and four, the calculated porosity values determined from the residence time distributions are low, leading to the predicted delta Ps being higher than the measured values. This could indicate channeling along the walls of the bed. For the two-phase flows, determine the predicted pressure drop using the homogenous and stratified flow theories and compare it to the measured value. As seen from this table, the pressure drop's calculated using homogenous flow theory, proved to be better than those using stratified flow theory. The high-measured pressure drops suggest severe channeling in the horizontal bed, meaning the liquid was confined to a small portion of the cross-sectional area.
Packed bed reactors are widely used in many areas of industry and research. For example, packed bed reactors are used to convert ground lignocellulosic biomass to hydrocarbon fuel. The first step involves the pyrolysis of biomass to produce bio-oil using a fluidized bed reactor. Like a packed bed reactor, a fluidized bed reactor utilizes solid catalyst particles to facilitate a reaction, but they are suspended in the fluid, rather than packed in a bed. The second step in the process uses a packed bed reactor to convert the bio-oils to fuel. Here, the catalyst particles are ruthenium supported on carbon in the first stage of the reactor, and cobalt molybdenum on alumina in the second stage. The final result is a fuel range hydrocarbon mixture. Packed bed reactors can also be used for enzymatic conversion, such as the digestion of a protein prior to analysis by mass spectrometry. In this example, the reaction takes place on C18 silica particles, packed into a microfluidic reactor. Here, the protein being digested is bound to the particle, while the enzyme flows through the reactor in the fluid. The use of a packed bed reactor for protein digestions, like the example shown here, can improve yield and greatly reduce digestion time and costs.
You've just watched Jove's introduction to single- and two-phase flow in packed beds. You should now understand the basics of a packed bed reactor and how to analyze flow using a tracer test. Thanks for watching!
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Posted in For Project 1 Examples
Example 1 Research, Part 2: Fandango and Bolero
Fandango, like many other Spanish dances, is a true mystery. Different sources cite different time of fandango’s emergence. Some say it appeared as as late as the 18th century (Apel, 1969: 307), some also mention 17th (Ruiz, 2007: 93), and some go as early as the 16th century (Martinez, 2003: 71). The exact birthplace is not known either. Although it is considered one of the oldest fundamentally traditional Spanish folk forms, there is a lot of research that points out the sub-Saharan African origin.
Blasis (1830: 28) mentions that a dance called chica, migrated to Spain from Central Africa where “every tribe dances it, particularly the Congoes.” It was from the Moors that “Spain received that dance now so peculiar to it, the Fandango, which is nothing else than the Chica, under a more decent form…” (1830:29)
Some sources cite more direct influences by the African slaves. Martinez (2003: 62) points out that in the 16th Century, Seville had the second largest population of African slaves in Europe. The slaves would often perform their music and dance, and their movements became so popular that the theater and dance groups adopted them. (2003: 63) The ending ‘ngo’ is also believed to have the African origin; hence zorongo and tango could have originated from the dances of these Black slaves. (2003: 33) For example, Tango’s precursor is said to be tangano, another African dance imported with the slaves. (Andrews, 1979: 75)
Fandango’s position was very close to that, as Ochoa points out, Rolando A. Perez Fernandez established the “Bantu, African linguistic and cultural origins of the fandango and its association with chaos.” (Cuevas and Jackson, 2004: 41) Beside the meaning chaos, the word connotes an invitation to a party as well. Similarly, Antonio Garcia de Leon says that fandango is derived from the bantu word fanda meaning ‘fiesta’. Martinez (2003: 63) mentions that:
“As early as 1464 the term fandangueros was used in Jerez to describe the noisy, animated gatherings Black and white slaves used to organize.”
Finally, Ochoa describes fandango as a black bailongo (a gathering to ear, drink and dance) adopted by whites and descoloridos (bleached out or mixed people), and by its expropriation in the high spheres of the Spanish population, “fandango acquired a very particular twist in the Iberian Peninsula in the plays and music – ballet-pantomime, comedy, spinets, sonatas – and became recognized as typically Iberian, with this [false] copyright traveled parts of Europe and North America,” during the colonial epoch. (Cuevas and Jackson, 2004: 41)
The popular folkloric fandangos of Andalucía gradually assimilated into flamenco, best known of these are fandangos de Huelva, which consists of 33 different styles with 10 regional variations, fandangos de Alosno, which include 16 variations, and the verdiales – the free vocal styles grouped under the heading De Levante (the East) that are derived from regional fandangos: Maleguenas are flamenco fandangos from Malaga, tarantas are the flamenco fandangos from Almeria. Cordoba produced other famous and distinct local forms like fandangos de Lucena. (Martinez, 71)
Just looking at those above, it’s easily seen that there are a lot of flamenco palos (styles) that originated from fandango’s folk forms. But, instead of looking through these, I to economize my research by being interested in another version which was used in art music – the courtly fandango dance.
Some of the early examples are notated in 6/8 time, but soon the standard notation in ¾ took over. Composers mostly used the court dance version of fandango with the instrumental tradition. As with the minuets afandangados, composers of classical music appropriated the fandango and other popular dances into more acceptable cultural forms and milieus and the appropriations of Spanish dance led to keyboard fandangos by Antonio Solar and others, among them Scarlatti.
Scarlatti spent nearly half of his life in Italy composing opera and half of his life writing keyboard works on the Iberian Peninsula, so that the Spaniards have placed him within a long lineage of Spanish composers and performers. Besides that his sonatas contain features reminiscent of Spanish vernacular music: the lively triple meters, the guitaristic pedal points and strumming patterns; argues that the Spanish dances could have also led to innovations in harpsichord technique which were pioneered by Scarlatti. Virtuoso episodes from Scarlatti’s sonatas engage the entire body in a new approach to the keyboard that differed significantly from a general focus on finger technique common in his time. For example, in a passage from Sonata K. 21, right and left hand verge towards each other with arpeggios in contrary motion to cross hands (m 22-28). This dance between hands replicates the intricate partnering of the fandango, in which dancers intertwine but never touch.
Rameau in his introduced Les Trois Mains – a fandango as a dance in his suite. In his opera Le Nozze di Figaro, Mozart closes the third act with fandango for its finale. Another beautiful example is Boccherini’s fandango found in his Quintet G448. This example contains the castanets, which would often accompany the dance.
I was very curious as to why Ravel’s composition was renamed and how much of its musical elements affected this, but I couldn’t find much material regarding this subject.
Just that “His first working title was Fandango, but realizing that the increase in speed and the sudden stops characteristic of that dance were contrary to his idea for the new piece, he retitled the piece Boléro.” However, I wanted to really compare both dances and find more musical explanations as to why the change in title was logical.
Fandango is a lively dance with rapid movement, while bolero is more noble, modest and restrained. (Blasis) Esses (1992:633) cites the description given in the early 19th century by Cairon, that fandango’s steps “drag on the ground with its hurried and swift tempo”, and how this doesn’t give dancers the opportunity “to be able to perform in expanded and majestic steps, as in Bolero.” Bolero is credited to Sebastian Cerezo around the mid- 1700s. The etymology of bolero might be the word volero from the verb volar – to fly, since the movement of the Spanish bolero had some jumping that looked like the dancer was flying. It is in part an imitation of folk dances, as it borrowed and combined brilliant, intricate and the most outstanding steps and changed them from seguidilla, polos and trianas, and of course – fandango. (Bonald, 1959: 32) It’s inevitable that the tempo of bolero eventually slowed down, because of the increasingly complex, showy choreography that worked against the musical momentum, slowing the beat down as the decorative gestures multiplied.
With its slow, elegant tempo, Bolero is also the most balletic of all Spanish dances that uses demanding and virtuosic steps, and it’s no surprise that “bolero soon made its way into ballrooms and onto stages as a truly Spanish dance that could compete with the popular French imports such as minuets, contradanses, and ballet.”
The popularity of bolero took, a different path than fandango, which came under the flamenco umbrella. In early 19th century, it led to the genre known as escuela bolera, a theatrical form of dance that combined the bolero, and other Spanish dances, with elements of ballet into a codified system of Spanish classical dance with much freer and more exotic movements in the torso and arms, livelier and earthier footwork and often loud stomps instead of delicate pointe work of classical ballet.
Musically, Fandango, has a characteristic harmonic progression. As Le Guin describes:
“Traditionally, sections of the dance alternated between major-mode tonality and the modal cadencia andaluza, based on the descending tetrachord la-sol-fa-mi.” (2006:100)
“The final cadencia is mi, and tonal ear will hear this as a dominant” and “will be encouraged to do so by the tonal section of the dance, but such resolution is not to be.” The tension builds up over this repeated subversion of the most basic relationship of tonality. Manuel (313) explains that Am-G-F-E should not be defined in Western terms as i-VII-VI-V, but as iv-III-II-I, with a minor being a temporary resting point and remains subsidiary to the E chord, which functions as tonic and finalis.
Guitarists would use the la-mi ostinato with many variations, and the keyboard fandangos by Soler and others retain this loose, improvisatory character. Soler uses the A-Dm ostinato in fast tempo, with occasional digression into a relative major key, and then conclude on the dominant A-major chord. The later fandango by Mozart and Boccherini adhere to this general scheme, however they conclude on the tonic of the minor key.
Instead of a courtly fandango, Lopez’s keyboard fandango, on the other hand, reminds a bit of the other form. While it is based on the Dm-A ostinato, there are copla-like passage with I-IV-V harmonic scheme, another distinctive pattern, which is primarily used in Andalusian, flamenco fandango.
Just like in dance, that borrowed and added in more elements, the music of bolero is also a lot more varied (Blasis, 34), borrowing from other dances, like fandango. There are also interesting forms. In Arcas’s Bolero for example, we see the changes in tone and temperament, with opening and the interludes having the fandango character, while the other parts are calmer (meno mosso) with different harmonies.
Bolero offers the richer harmonies and more freedom, that allowed the French who viewed the Spanish music as something exotic, especially in mid-19th century Paris, to explore it, since it was something that could reliably convey everything that they considered Spanish. (Bellman, 138) Parisian bolero can be heard in Listz’s song ‘Gastibelza’, in Berlioz’s song ‘Zaide’ (which even has optional castanets) and Lefebure-Wely’s Bolero de concert for organ.
Chopin’s Bolero, op. 19, for piano is an interesting example with cross-national elements. It is often regarded as a polonaise in disguise, on the grounds that the two dances share the same rhythm. But there are features in the composition that belong specifically to the bolero tradition – the strumming of one chord in the characteristic rhythm, the use of that strumming on its own, as well as melodic features more Spanish than Polish. It also has two completely different introductions – one instrumental and the other more self-contained and vocal. The music then slips out of its bolero act into the utterly different rhythm, character and even tempo of a nocturne, and is gradually lured back into it bolero steps.
Russians also exoticized Spain and played with its musical forms, like Glinka in his Bolero, and Moszkowski in his Bolero from the Spanish dances, in Op. 12 no. 5.
Rhythmic figures in both bolero and fandango are quite similar. I looked through various videos to see the folk performances of both dances, and the rhythm castanets beat out for bolero is similar to Ravel’s rhythm (Fig.a), unlike the one they beat for fandango (Fig.b). But for me, there is something even more important than the harmonic progression, the tempo and rhythm that defines Ravel’s composition as a bolero rather than a fandango.
Ravel, just like Debussy, heard both the exoticized Spain of the earlier musicians, even though they’ve seen the direct import: Gypsy musicians from Granada performing flamenco music and dance. Debussy’s Spain is amazingly focused, an obsession with a single image, a Spanish locale – Alhambra, both in Soiree dans Grenade and Iberia, he showed it adrift in time, as a place where pasts and present float in and out of each other, yet a place that he never visited. Ravel’s Spain on the other hand is encyclopedic, embracing the whole range of that century-long tradition of exoticism and adding an important new theme to it: “The sense of a bygone time that is not only definite, but is the entire point of music.”
It’s true that the complex counter-rhythms and cross-accentuations Ravel used occur in flamenco and the folk dances it emerged from, but instead of fandango, the way he explored the Spanish exoticism in this composition, took us back to the Parisian bolero, the earliest genre of Spanish mania in France. In other words, Ravel coupled the mechanical nature or “the extreme objectivity”, not with flamenco, but the “the cultural otherness”. In this Ravel goes so far as to make the issue of Spanish exoticism without it being about Spain at all. While the early minutes actually have room for movements of the Spanish dancing, by the end any trace of exoticism is overwhelmed by the repetition, volume and machine-like coordination.
In Bolero’s final moments, “the friction between melody and mechanism finally causes ignition, the tonality lifts off from C major to E major and, as it falls back, the edifice collapses”. The composition “ruptures in the destruction of both the inhuman mechanism, and death of the human dance.
As Bellman writes, what Ravel had actually done is sacrifice the tradition of Spanish exoticism to his own consciousness of conditions of modernity. Ravel took us back to the Parisian bolero, as if to end it. In this sense, he certainly couldn’t have composed a fandango, but a bolero-to-end-all-boleros.
List of illustrations:
Apel, Willi (1969) Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard: Harvard University Press
Ruiz, Luis Lopez (2007) Guia del flamenco. Madrid: Ediciones AKAL
Martinez, Emma (2003) Flamenco: –all You Wanted to Know. Mel Bay
Blasis, Carlo (1830) The Code of Terpsichore. The Art of Dancing. London: Edward Bull
Andrews, S. (1979) “Take Your Partners”, Melbourne: Hyland House
Cuevas, Marco Polo Hernandez/Jackson, Richard L. (2004) African Mexicans and the Discourse on Modern Nation. Lanham: University Press of America
Esses, Maurice (1992) Dance and Instrumental Diferencias in Spain During the 17th and Early 18th Centuries. New York: Pendragon Press
Le Guin, Elisabeth (2006) Boccherini’s Body: An Essay in Carnal Musicology. Berkeley and Los Angeles/London: University of California Press, Ltd.
Manuel, Peter (1989) ‘Modal Harmony in Andalusian, Eastern European, and Turkish
Syncretic Musics’. Yearbook for Traditional Music 21: 70–94.
Bellman, Jonathon(1998) The Exotic in Western Music. Northeastern University Press
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By Clay Carrington
Special to the Daily Herald
The monarch butterfly's distinctive black and orange wings make it one of the most easily recognized butterflies in the sky. To potential predators, that same regal pattern signals the dangerous presence of milkweed, a poisonous plant on which monarch caterpillars feed.
Native to the Americas, the monarch has colonized such far-flung locales as western Europe and Australia. North America's two main populations of monarchs were believed to be divided by the Rocky Mountains, however, recent studies suggest the two populations may commingle extensively.
The lives of monarch butterflies are marked by yearly migrations that take three to four generations to complete. North America's western population migrates to California, while the eastern population – which can range as far north as Canada – migrates south, funneling through Texas and hugging the Gulf Coast down into Mexico.
At the terminus of the southern migration in central Mexico, tens of millions of butterflies overwinter at less than 20 sites, gathering in roosts 20 to 30 million strong. They begin to disperse in late February and early March, mating and then flying north, usually making it to Texas before laying their eggs on milkweed plants. The next generation continues the migration, leapfrogging north until the third or fourth generation arrives as far north as Canada in May and June. This final generation migrates up to 2,200 miles back to Mexico, arriving in early November. They begin migrating individually, and then slowly gather into flocks as they converge upon roosting sites.
Although monarch butterflies aren't known for their speed, they are able to travel great distances quickly. One tagging program recorded a male monarch flying 265 miles in a single day. As they head south, the butterflies may ride thermals to reach altitudes of 4,000 feet, averaging a stately 12 miles per hour.
Intermediary generations have an adult lifespan of only four to five weeks, but the final annual generation lives up to seven times longer, making the long migration and then surviving to overwinter, mate and return north.
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Land of winds. Digital magazine on Andean music. Header picture
Andean geography Andean music
Land of winds > The land > Geography | Issue 06. Jul.-Ago.2011
By Edgardo Civallero | Sara Plaza
The Colombian Andes
The Colombian Andes
The section of the Andean Cordillera that runs north and south through the western half of Colombia is part of the Northern Andes range (Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador). This region belongs to the ecological area known as “Tropical Andes”, whose natural richness becomes rapidly evident when one appreciates its very high biological diversity. The Tropical Andes is home to 45,000 flora species (20,000 plants found nowhere else at least) and over 6,000 species of animals (15,000 occur nowhere else). It is identified as a hotspot and called “the world centre of biodiversity” by Dr. Norman Myers.
Colombia, in Wikipedia.
Andean Region of Colombia, in Wikipedia.
Cartografiando la riqueza de los Andes tropicales, en IPS/Diversidad [es].
Picture 01. The Colombian Andes (Nevado del Huila).
Picture 02. The Colombian Andes (Sierra Nevada del Cocuy).
Picture 03. The Colombian Andes (Laguna Verde).
Picture 04. The Colombian Andes (temperate rainforest).
Picture 05. The Colombian Andes (Espeletia, commonly known as frailejon).
Video 01. The Andean Region of Colombia [es].
The Colombian Andes
In Colombia the Andes form three distinct ranges: the Cordilleras Oriental, Central, and Occidental. The Andes Mountains divide at the Nudo de los Pastos (Pasto Knot) or Macizo de Huaca (Huaca Massif, a mountainous enclave located between northern Ecuador and the department of Nariño, to the south of Colombia) into two ranges: the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central, separated by a geological fault stretching around 400 km in width, occupied by the Patía River to the south and the Cauca River to the north. Further north, the massive Cordillera Oriental begins at the Nudo de Almaguer, from where it splits from the Cordillera Central.
The Cordillera Occidental extends from the Nudo de los Pastos to the Nudo de Paramillo (Antioquía and Córdoba departments), where it branches into several ridges (Serranías Ayapel, San Jerónimo, Abibe). Rivers flowing into the Pacific Ocean, such as the San Juan River, are fed by numerous streams descending from the Cordillera’s western flank. Small rivers and streams run down the eastern flank of the range into the the Cauca River, while several more on the Atlantic slope feed the Atrato and Sinú Rivers.
The highest peak in this section is the glacier-capped Cumbal volcano, the southernmost historically active volcano of Colombia (4764 m). Other summits worth mentioning are Chiles (a volcano on the border of Colombia and Chile, 4748 m), Farallones de Cali (a mountain, 4100 m), Cerro Tamaná (a mountain, 4200 m) and the Frontino Paramo (at 4080 m). The Cordillera Occidental is home to several National Parks, such as Las Orquídeas (warm forest, Antioquía department), Munchique (mountain forest, Cauca department), Paramillo (paramo and forests, Antioquía and Córdoba departments) and Tatamá (paramo, Chocó, Cauca and Risaralda departments).
Nudo de los Pastos, in Wikipedia [es].
Cordillera Occidental (Colombia), in Wikipedia.
Nudo de Paramillo, in Wikipedia [es].
Serranía de Abibe, in Wikipedia [es].
Patía River, in Wikipedia.
San Juan River (Colombia), in Wikipedia.
Cauca River, in Wikipedia.
Atrato River, in Wikipedia.
Sinú River, in Wikipedia.
Cumbal Volcano, in Wikipedia.
Chiles (volcano), in Wikipedia.
Farallones de Cali, in Wikipedia.
Frontino Paramo, in Wikipedia [es].
Las Orquídeas National Natural Park, in Wikipedia [es].
Munchique National Natural Park, in Wikipedia.
Paramillo National Natural Park, in Wikipedia [es].
Tatamá National Natural Park, in Wikipedia [es].
Picture 06. Nudo de los Pastos.
Picture 07. Serranía de Abibe.
Picture 08. Cordillera Occidental.
Picture 09. Patía River.
Picture 10. Cauca River.
Picture 11. Atrato River.
Picture 12. Cumbal Volcano.
Picture 13. Farallones de Cali.
Video 02. Cumbal, walks of ice and sulfur (trailer) [es].
Video 03. Expedition to the Paramillo National Natural Park (trailer) [es].
The Colombian Andes
The Cordillera Central extends northward from the Nudo de los Pastos to the Serranía de San Lucas (Bolívar department). The Cauca River lies between the Cordillera Occidental and the Central, while the Magdalena River rises at the bifurcation of the Cordilleras Central and Oriental receiving the San Jorge, César, and Cauca rivers in the swampy floodplain of the northern lowlands. Among its highest peaks we find the sadly famous Nevado del Ruiz (5321 m), Nevado del Huila (5750 m), Nevado del Tolima (5216 m) and Nevado del Quindío (5.150 m). The region has remarkable landscapes enshrined in National Parks such as Selva de Florencia (warm forest, Caldas department), Los Nevados (paramo and Andean forest) and Las Hermosas (paramo and Andean forest, Cauca and Tolima departments).
Cordillera Central (Colombia), in Wikipedia.
Serranía de San Lucas, in Wikipedia.
Magdalena River, in Wikipedia.
Nevado del Huila, in Wikipedia.
Nevado del Ruiz, in Wikipedia.
Nevado del Tolima, in Wikipedia.
Nevado Quindío, in Wikipedia.
Selva de Florencia National Natural Park, in Wikipedia [es].
Los Nevados National Natural Park, in Wikipedia.
Las Hermosas National Natural Park, in Wikipedia.
Picture 14. Serranía de San Lucas.
Picture 15. Magdalena River.
Picture 16. Nevado del Huila 01.
Picture 17. Nevado del Huila 02.
Picture 18. Nevado del Ruiz.
Picture 19. Nevado del Tolima.
The Colombian Andes
The Cordillera Oriental extends from southeast to northeast from the Nudo de Almaguer or Colombian Massif (Cauca department), to the Perijá Mountains in La Guajira. The western part belongs to the Magdalena River basin, while the eastern part forms the western limits of the rainforest including the river basins of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Catatumbo Rivers. At its northernmost extent (Norte de Santander department), the range splits into two branches near the Colombian-Venezuelan border: the Serranía de Perijá to the north and the Cordillera de Mérida (Venezuela) to the northeast. The former reaches the Guajira Peninsula while the latter is separated from the Colombian Andes by the low Táchira depression.
Within the Cordillera Oriental there is a set of highlands known as the Sierra Nevada del Cocuy, containing several high peaks covered with snow. Another set of highlands is located between Cundinamarca and Boyacá departments: the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, corresponding to the ancient territory of the Muisca people. Its altitude is about 2600 m.a.s.l and comprises three distinctive flat regions, the Bogotá Savannah, the valleys of Ubaté and Chiquinquirá, and the valleys of Duitama and Sogamoso. The Sumapaz Paramo (meaning “uttlerly peaceful moorland”) extends on the Altiplano between the Orinoco and the Magdalena River basins, and is considered the largest paramo ecosystem in the world. Other moorlands in the region are the Chingaza Paramo (of importance as it forms the main natural drinking water source for Santa Fe de Bogotá), the Pisba Paramo and the Choachí Paramo.
Cordillera Oriental (Colombia), in Wikipedia.
Colombian Massif, in Wikipedia.
Altiplano cundiboyacense, in Wikipedia.
Sierra Nevada del Cocuy, in Wikipedia.
Sumapaz Paramo, in Wikipedia.
Pisba Paramo, in Wikipedia [es].
Picture 20. Nudo de Almaguer.
Picture 21. Sierra Nevada del Cocuy.
Picture 22. Sumapaz Paramo.
Besides cradling remarkable landscapes, unique ecological niches and places of unbelievable beauty, the Colombian Andes surround the most important cities of the country: Bogotá, Santiago de Cali (Valle del Cauca department), Medellín (Antioquía department), Neiva (Huila Department), Bucaramanga (Santander department), Popayán (Cauca department), Ibaqué (Tolima department) and San Juan de Pasto (Nariño department).
Bogotá, in Wikipedia.
Cali, in Wikipedia.
Medellín, in Wikipedia.
Neiva, in Wikipedia.
Bucaramanga, in Wikipedia.
Popayán, in Wikipedia.
Ibagué, in Wikipedia.
San Juan de Pasto, in Wikipedia.
Picture 23. Bogotá (cathedral).
Picture 24. Bogotá (panoramic view).
Picture 25. Cali (view from the statue of Cristo Rey).
Picture 26. Medellín (panoramic view).
Picture 27. Neiva.
Picture 28. Bucaramanga.
Picture 29. Popayán.
Picture 30. San Juan de Pasto (cathedral).
Although, on occasions, the Colombian Andes are not included in travel agencies packages or geographical guides with a focus on the Andes Mountains, they are an important and imposing part of the range, which offers visitors a warm welcome and provides them with a rich learning experience and some memorable surprises. Called the backbone of the continent, the Andes Mountains stretch along the Pacific coast from the Caribbean Sea to the Tierra del Fuego Island, and it is here, at its northernmost extent, where their slopes hide in their folds the echoes of tamboras and maracas.
Disclaimer of Land of windsEditorial staff of Land of winds
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Credit portal
What contributions did brahe and kepler make to astronomy
what contributions did brahe and kepler make to astronomy
Summary of Brahe's Contributions
Among the important contributions of Brahe:
• He made observations of a supernova (literally: nova= "new star") in 1572 (we now know that a supernova is an exploding star, not a new star). This was a "star" that appeared suddenly where none had been seen before, and was visible for about 18 months before fading from view. Since this clearly represented a change in the sky, prevailing opinion held that the supernova was not really a star but some local phenomenon in the atmosphere (remember: the heavens were supposed to be unchanging in the Aristotelian view). Brahe's meticulous observations showed that the supernova did not change positions with respect to the other stars (no parallax). Therefore, it was a real star, not a local object. This was early evidence against the immutable nature of the heavens, although Brahe did not interpret the absence of parallax for stars correctly, as we discuss below.
• Brahe made careful observations of a comet in 1577. By measuring the parallax for the comet, he was able to show that the comet was further away than the Moon. This contradicted the
teachings of Aristotle, who had held that comets were atmospheric phenomena ("gases burning in the atmosphere" was a common explanation among Aristotelians). As for the case of the supernova, comets represented an obvious change in a celestial sphere that was supposed to be unchanging; furthermore, it was very difficult to ascribe uniform circular motion to a comet.
• He made the best measurements that had yet been made in the search for stellar parallax. Upon finding no parallax for the stars, he (correctly) concluded that either
• the earth was motionless at the center of the Universe, or
• the stars were so far away that their parallax was too small to measure.
• Not for the only time in human thought, a great thinker formulated a pivotal question correctly, but then made the wrong choice of possible answers: Brahe did not believe that the stars could possibly be so far away and so concluded that the Earth was the center of the Universe and that Copernicus was wrong.
• Brahe proposed a model of the Solar System that was intermediate between the Ptolemaic and Copernican models (it had the Earth at the center). It proved to be incorrect, but was the most widely accepted model of the Solar System for a time.
• Thus, Brahe's ideas about his data were not always correct, but the quality of the observations themselves was central to the development of modern astronomy.
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The Full Wiki
Striker: Wikis
(Redirected to Forward (association football) article)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The forward (in red) is past the defence (in white) and is about to take a shot at the goal. The goalkeeper will attempt to stop the striker from scoring a goal by preventing the ball from passing over the goal line beneath the crossbar.
Forwards, also known as attackers and strikers, are the players on a team in association football who play nearest to the opposing team's goal, and are therefore principally responsible for scoring goals. This very advanced position and its limited defensive responsibilities mean forwards normally score more goals than other players; accordingly, they are often among the best-known and most expensive players in their teams. This is one of the most demanding positions, and it is usually associated with the most injuries.
Modern team formations usually include one to three forwards; two is most common. Coaches typically field one striker who plays in an advanced position (the centre forward), and another attacking forward who plays somewhat deeper and assists in making goals as well as scoring (the second striker). Common forwards' numbers include 9, 10, and 11.
Centre forward
The centre forward is often a tall player, typically known as a target man, who is used to win long balls or receive passes and "hold up" the ball as team-mates advance, to help teammates score by providing a pass ('through ball' into the box), or to score himself; the latter variation usually requiring quicker pace. Some forwards operate on the wings of the field and work their way goalward. A centre forward usually must be strong, to win key headers and 'outmuscle' defenders.
The term centre forward is taken from the early football playing formation in which there were five forward players: two Outside forwards, two inside forwards, and one centre forward. When numbers were introduced in the 1933 English FA Cup final, one of the two centre forwards that day wore the number nine and the number would then become synonymous with the centre forward position (only one that day because one team was numbered 1-11 whilst the other was numbered 12-22). The modern era has different formations and has squad numbers rather than numbers 1-11, but some positions still retain their original numbers and a traditional centre forward or target man is often found wearing the number nine.
Alan Shearer is a 'classic' example of a centre-forward, while Chelsea's Didier Drogba is widely regarded as one of the best centre-forwards currently active.
The striker however varies greatly from the centre-forward. Strikers are more known for their ability to peel off defenders and to run into space via the blind side of the defender and to receive the ball in a good goalscoring position. They are typically fast players with decent ball control and dribbling abilities. A good striker should be able to shoot confidently with both feet, possess great power and accuracy, and have the ability to slot the ball under pressure in breakaway situations.
Noted examples include former Manchester United player Ole Gunnar Solskjær and Brazilian legend Ronaldo.
Second striker
A striker scoring a goal (Lionel Messi)
The second striker position is a loosely-defined and often misapplied one somewhere between the out-and-out striker, whether he is a target-man or more of a poacher, and the Number 10 or Trequartista, while possibly showing some of the characteristics of both. In fact, a coined term, the "nine-and-a-half", has been an attempt to define the position. Conceivably, a Number 10 can alternate as a second-striker provided that he is also a prolific goalscorer, otherwise a striker who can both score and create opportunities for a less versatile centre forward is more suited. This has been true of a natural trequartista like Raúl González or Roberto Baggio who seldom played in a team formation which permitted him the creative license to play as a number 10 and so he adapted himself to the second-striker role. Second or support strikers do not tend to get as involved in the orchestration of attacks, nor bring as many other players into play, as the Number 10 since they do not have the range of vision, nor the burden of responsibility that the latter, around whom the team's attack is built, possess.[1]
Combined attacking play
While the wing specialist position receives less emphasis in contemporary football, attacks from the flanks are a potent part of any offense. Germany's final goal of the 1974 World Cup was set up by a midfielder, Bonhof, who was set in motion by one of the last of the 'classic' international wingers - Jürgen Grabowski.
In British and other northern European styles of football, the wide-midfielder is expected to track back all the way to his own corner flag should his full-back require help, and also to track back his marker, as well as tucking into the midfield when the more central players are trying to pressure the opposition for the ball, a huge responsibility for attack-oriented players, and particularly those like Joaquín (winger/wide midfielder) or Lionel Messi (winger/second-striker) who lack the physical attributes of a wing-back or of a more orthodox midfield player. As these players grow older and lose their natural pace, they are frequently redeployed as Number 10s between the midfield and the forward line, where their innate ball control and improved reading of the game in the final third can serve to improve their teams' attacking options in tight spaces. An example is Internazionale use of veteran Luís Figo behind one or two other attackers.[2]
In recent years there has been a trend of playing 'unorthodox' wingers - wide men stationed on the 'wrong' side of the pitch, in order to enable them to cut inside and shoot on their stronger foot and sometimes provide in-swinging crosses. One example of this is the tactical use of Robin van Persie by Netherlands coach Marco van Basten at the 2006 World Cup; the Netherlands played with a front three of Arjen Robben wide left, target-man Ruud van Nistelrooy in the middle and the left-footed van Persie wide right. Such deployment usually leads to players being referred to as playing 'from the right' rather than 'on the right'. Similarly, ex-Celtic manager Gordon Strachan favoured Shunsuke Nakamura on the right hand with Aiden McGeady on the left which allows them to cut inside onto their good foot and shoot or pass, whilst at Manchester United it was common for right-footed Cristiano Ronaldo and left-footed Ryan Giggs to switch sides continually throughout a match
Strike teams and combinations
Holland's Johan Cruijff was often part of an effective strike combination
A strike team is two or more strikers that work well together to a devastating effect. The history of football has been filled with many effective combinations. Two-player partnerships such as Dwight Yorke and Andy Cole of the 1999 Manchester United treble winning squad, are well known, but also important to any attack are bigger groups of players who form distinct strike packages. Three-man teams often operate in "triangles", giving a wealth of attacking options. Four-man packages expand options even more.
Strikers at work showing rotation between first, second and third attacker roles
See also
Simple English
Robbie Keane, an Irish striker, who currently plays for Tottenham Hotspur.
A striker or attacker in football is a player who usually plays near the goals of the opposing team. The strikers are usually the players who try to score.
The midfielders are normally the last part of the formation numbers, for example:
• 4-3-3 is the formation. This formation shows that there are four defenders, three midfielders and three attackers.
• 4-4-2 is the formation. This formation shows that there are four defenders, four midfielders and two attackers.
• 3-4-3 is the formation. This formation shows that there are three defenders, four midfielders and three attackers.
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Animal Behavior
Welcome to the Animal Behavior Section
Welcome to the Animal Behavior Section
Settings: Oceanaria
The concept of an oceanarium where people could come to see trained animals and learn about marine mammals was born in St. Augustine, Florida in the 1930's. Florida's Marine Studios, later renamed "Marineland," was a project started by W. Douglas Burden (great-great-grandson of Cornelius Vanderbilt), Burden's cousin Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, Count Ilia Tolstoy (grandson of the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy) and Sherman Pratt, who was a descendant of a founder of Standard Oil.
What these founders of the world's first oceanarium had in common was a love of adventure and the outdoors, a desire to make films, and the money to do it. They wanted to have an indoor ocean where filmmakers could make underwater films and scientists, writers, and artists could come to study sea life.
For decades, Marineland was Florida's premier tourist attraction. There were two main tanks, a circular tank with a diameter of 75 feet, and a rectangular tank that was 100 feet long and 40 feet wide. Considered an engineering feat that had never been accomplished before, these early tanks were the ancient ancestors of today's giant aquariums. The modern, open air aquarium at the Atlantis Resort (Paradise Island, Bahamas) is an 11-million gallon marvel that covers 34 acres, and the Georgia Aquarium, claiming to be the world's largest, houses more than 100,000 marine animals in 8-million gallons.
When marine mammal shows first began, the lives of captive dolphins were a sad existence. Marine Studios advertised "The Educated Porpoise" and while there were some demonstrations of basic training, the same shows were done year after year with little regard for the animal's living conditions or need for space.
Following the work done by the Brelands in the 1960's (see History section), Karen Pryor found herself charged with developing the animal training demonstrations for the marine mammals at Sea Life Park in Hawaii. With input from B.F. Skinner, Pryor developed a program that used state-of-the-art behavioral procedures. Pryor's work (described in her book Lads Before the Wind: Diary of a Dolphin Trainer) led the way to the more sophisticated training we see in aquariums today.
Today's marine mammal trainers are educated in the use behavioral procedures. They concern themselves with enriching the animal's environment through both stimuli (e.g., toys) and play sessions and ensuring that living spaces are large enough to provide adequate room for exercise and stimulation. Further, trainers at aquariums now use reinforcement in a manner that keeps animals motivated. This involves understanding schedules of reinforcement, how to cue behaviors, how to use "bridges" and conditioned reinforcers, how to introduce novelty to sessions, how to use the animal's trained skills to manage health and daily needs, and how to implement programs that teach the animal to make choices regarding preferred reinforcers (via a reinforcement menu).
Sophisticated training techniques based on the principles of applied behavior analysis combined with what we now know about the importance of enrichment result in a more humane lifestyle for animals who live in aquariums and other captive settings.• Jumping on People
Settings: Zoos
As far back as Ancient Egypt, people have been fascinated by wild animals. Egyptians gave wild animals to the pharaohs and the Romans entertained themselves by staging fights between lions, tigers and bears.
In the 13th century, Britain's King Henry I created the first wild animal menagerie and Henry III brought the first elephant into Britain in the 13th century. In the beginning, wild animals in captivity were mostly private collections, but in the 19th century, wild animals became accessible to the public when zoological collections were opened in London, Paris, and several other major cities. The purpose of these early "zoos" was to simply exhibit animals from around the world. Animals lived in small cages that were very unlike their natural habitats and only basic needs (such as feeding and cleaning cages) were met.
The 1950's were a time of a "zoo boom" where zoos (still with small enclosures) were built as a source of revenue and the public was encouraged to come and see the animals.
In the 1970's, as public opinion began to change and the culture became more sensitive about the welfare of animals, the appearance of zoos began to change. Outside areas were provided for animals and by the 1980's, many zoos were renovating the cages and living spaces for animals. Another major advancement for zoo animals came in the 1980's when Hal Markowitz introduced the concepts of environmental engineering and environmental enrichment for captive animals.
Since the 1980's, zoos have developed mission statements that emphasize public education, conservation, the reproduction of endangered species, and animal welfare.
Many modern day zoos have trainers on staff who are trained in operant conditioning, applied behavior analysis and animal behavior. Zoo trainers work to:
• teach staff how to handle animals. Trainers also develop handling techniques and protocols for the animals (e.g., how do you get an elephant to come inside when you want it to?)
• teach animals functional skills for their health and care (e.g., such as an elephant lifting its foot on cue to receive foot care, having animals stand for injections or blood checks)
• enrichment activities (e.g., placing food so that the animal has to forage for it as it would in the natural setting, such as walruses hunting for clams as they would on the sea bottom or polar bears removing fish from blocks of ice).
• study the relationship between captive animals and their physical and social environments (e.g., does this animal do better with other animals, does the animal do better with more space and free access to outdoors)
• study behavioral techniques for specific animals-reinforcement schedules, what procedures can be used to manage problem behavior (Time-out is often used to extinguish behavior).
• reduce animal stress (often through training, play, toys and enrichment activities)
• provide high quality diets and feeding plans that prevent diet related behavior problems
• conduct Functional Analyses to determine the most suitable living situations for animals (e.g., does this gorilla do better living with one other gorilla or a group?)
Behavior analysis skills can clearly help zoo caretakers and improve the lives of the animals in their care.
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7.02 Clippers
A clipper ship was an extremely fast ship with three masts and a square rig which admittedly sailed all over the world. The name “clipper” (C/K+L+F/P+R) acronymically speaking equates to “Cull Four” or “Kill Four” (the letter “F” and the letter “P” are interchangeable within the Roman-English language). Therefore, the term “clipper” is a reference to the ship’s mission (i.e., killing), and a tribute to the four-pronged red cross of the Roman Empire which adorned the ship’s white sails. Clipper ships were outfitted with Roman cannons which essentially guaranteed them victory in any confrontation at sea. This is likely where the term “clipper”, meaning to cut, was originally derived from as enemies of the Roman Empire would be routinely be cut down in battle. Consequently, Roman clippers ships are depicted within the official coat of arms of many nations, most of which are islands (e.g., the Bahamas, Belize, Benin, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominica, Ecuador, Fiji, Gabon, Kuwait, Liberia, Mauritius, Marshall Islands, New Zealand, Qatar, Seychelles, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia and Suriname). Roman clipper ships are also depicted on the flag of 8 U.S. states (i.e., Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, and Pennsylvania), in the official seal of 8 U.S. states (i.e., Alaska, California, Delaware, Florida, Georgia (reverse), New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania), in the official seal of 2 U.S. territories, (i.e., Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands), and in the official coat of arms of 4 U.S. states (i.e., Alabama, Delaware, New York, and Pennsylvania). While historians may attribute the aforementioned clipper ship heraldry and vexillology to former European naval powers (e.g., England, Spain, Portugal, etc.), the Roman Empire and her so-called Vikings were admittedly the first to discover Markland (i.e., North America). Therefore, it stands to reason that the Roman Empire was also the first to discover the other continents, islands and territories as well. Roman clipper ships are openly celebrated today in popular culture by Columbus Clippers, a minor league baseball franchise, and the Los Angeles Clippers, a professional basketball team of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Aside from the clipper ship found within the logo of the Columbus Clippers, the three distinct sails of a clipper ship are depicted within the original logo of the then San Diego Clippers (1978-1984). Aside from the Los Angeles Clippers, the notion that Roman clipper ships traveled to California is substantiated by the fact that that Roman clipper ships along with a Roman centurion are depicted in the State Seal of California. A Roman clipper ship is also depicted in the logo of Manchester United F.C., arguably the best and most popular football (soccer) club in the world. Lastly, a Roman clipper ship is also depicted in the logo of Cutty Sark whiskey, furthering the notion that “clipper” and “cutting” are synonymous in meaning.
Roman Slave Trade
Prior to the invention of the steam engine, Greco-Roman ships were powered around the
Mediterranean Sea by large sails and hundreds of oaring slaves. Although modern historical accounts differentiate between clipper ships and slave ships, the reality is that a combination of slave and sail power have been used in sailing since the birth of the Greco-Roman Empire. Because speed is a vital aspect in both commerce and war, ships could not rely solely on one form of power. A ship with no wind or sick slaves would become a sitting duck on the high seas, something no business or military could afford. Although sails were employed when favorable winds blew, rowing was vital, especially in battle were ships were required to make sharp turns when attacking enemy ships (i.e., tacking). As the Greco-Roman Empire outgrew the Mediterranean, slaves were used to power various explorations around the globe. Consequently, slave stables were built at strategic port locations in Africa, Asia, North America and South America. After the first leg of a given journey, exhausted slaves would be traded in for fresh slaves, hence the term “slave trade”. The new slaves would then be used until the next port where the process was once again repeated. Over time, the African slave populations at key Roman ports overtook the indigenous populations (e.g., Brazil, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, etc.).
Clipper Ship Tributes
Tributes to the Roman clipper ship are found throughout the modern world, including but not limited to:
Aircraft: American Aviation AA-1 Yankee Clipper, a light aircraft; Boeing 314 Clipper, a flying boat; Pan Am Clipper, the call sign for Pan American World Airways; Piper PA-16 Clipper, a small aircraft; Raj Hamsa Clipper, an Indian ultralight aircraft design; and Worldwide Ultralite Clipper, an ultralight aircraft; Automobiles: Clipper, a steam automobile built in Michigan, USA in 1902; Clipper, an American automobile make (1956 model year); Nissan Clipper, two ranges of commercial vehicle; Packard Clipper, an American automobile model (1941-1947; 1953-1955; 1957); and Trident Clipper, a British sports car (1966-1974); Business: Clipper Windpower, a wind turbine manufacturer; and “Yankee Clipper”, a restaurant occupying the 170-176 John Street Building in New York, New York; Computing: Clipper, a programming language for dBase III; Clipper, an electronic device that restricts the output of an alternating current circuit; Clipper architecture, a microprocessor instruction set architecture; Clipper chip, a chipset for data encryption; and Yankee Clipper”, a clipboard stack computer software product; Film: The Yankee Clipper” (1927), an American adventure film; Literature:New York Clipper” (1853 to 1924), a defunct American newspaper; Military:Operation Clipper”, a World War II Allied offensive in western Germany; Music:Fruits Clipper” (2006), an album by Japanese electro music group Capsule; Rail: Clipper card, smart card for paying transit fares in the San Francisco Bay Area; and Yankee Clipper”, a passenger train service between New York City and Boston, Massachusetts; Retail: Clipper (lighter), a brand of butane lighter; Nail clipper, used to cut fingernails; and Hair clipper, used to cut hair; Science: Alberta clipper, a storm system common to North America; Clipper butterflies, the genus “Parthenos” and in particular the species “Parthenos Sylvia”; Kliper (sometimes Clipper), a space vehicle developed by the Russian Roskosmos in cooperation with the ESA; “Yankee Clipper”, a nickname for the 1938 New England Hurricane that struck Long Island, New York and New England, Massachusetts; Space: Delta Clipper, a reusable space vehicle; and “Yankee Clipper”, the name of the Apollo 12 command module; Shipping: Clipper Navigation, a ferry operator the Seattle, Washington and Vancouver, British Columbia area; Milwaukee Clipper, a retired steel hulled auto and train ferry between Milwaukee and Muskegon in Wisconsin, USA; Yankee Clipper, a waterway harbor cruise in New York City; and “Yankee Clipper”, a sea scout sailing vessel (Gaff Headed Ketch) in Seattle, Washington, USA; Sport: Columbus Clippers, a minor league baseball franchise; Los Angeles Clippers, a professional NBA basketball team; The Clipper Round the World Yacht Race, a yacht race crewed by paying amateur sailors; “The Yankee Clipper”, a reference to Mark Wahlberg's character in the 2011 film The Other Guys for shooting baseball player Derek Jeter; and “Yankee Clipper”, the nickname of Joe DiMaggio, a Major League Baseball player.
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Leadership Communication - Presentations
How George Washington Saved the Nation With a Speech–and a Prop
One of the most dramatic and important moments in American history was marked by what did not happen rather than by what did happen, and it’s all because of the masterful persuasive power of George Washington.
On March 15, 1783, General Washington attended a meeting of mutinous officers who were angry about not being paid by the Continental Congress and who were agitating for a march on Philadelphia to take over the government. If this happened, the ideals for which they had fought in order to earn their independence from Great Britain would probably have died. The revolution would have thrown away its high-minded legitimacy and the United States as we know it would probably never have come into existence.
Washington was there to prevent this from happening, and how he did it is one of the most dramatic stories of persuasion that most people have not heard of. We’ll see what happened, but first it’s important to set the stage by describing some of the persuasion lessons that Washington had already learned and taught by his example in the preceding years, that allowed this moment to play out the way it did.
When Americans think of George Washington today, most of us see the marble demi-god, and not the real man behind the myth. It’s easy to think that he accomplished everything he did through his position and authority as the commander in chief who could summon up his armies to back up his will. In fact, Washington had very little real power to get things done. Partly this was because he did not want it: he was acutely conscious of the need for civilian control, even when this meant that things would not get done, taxes would not be collected, and his army would not be fed. Washington bent over backwards to influence rather than to coerce.
He jealously guarded his image—wanting to be seen as strong and above it all. He never let a sign of weakness or pettiness leak out of the confines of his tent. Much of this was out of personal vanity, but it was also strategic: he saw the need to stand as an irreproachable symbol of the United States. He knew that it was critical to win the public relations battle in Europe and get France involved in the war on the side of the Americans, and his image was a valuable asset in that campaign.
Because his image was so pure, ethos[i] was his strongest persuasive asset. He had earned it through leading from the front in spite of severe personal danger often being at the front in battle after battle; he refused a salary during the war, even though his treasured Mount Vernon was being mismanaged and run into debt. He gradually became less aristocratic in his attitudes and grew to love the common men in his army through familiarity and shared sacrifice.
So, by the time Washington appeared in front of his officers, he had earned their trust, respect and veneration. But they had heard many empty promises and so were suspicious even of him.
And his speech was well-crafted and masterfully delivered. Although in most instances in speaking to a hostile audience, it’s best to start with some area of common ground and build from there, Washington began by scolding the anonymous authors for their actions, then softened his tone and reminded the officers that he had been with them from the beginning, suffering the same sacrifices and exulting in their common triumphs. He next appealed to their patriotism and then closed with a vision of the glorious example they could set for all mankind.
Yet in spite of this his speech did not go well. As he concluded, he noticed they still seemed uncertain, not sure how to react. Quite possibly, the fate of the young republic was balanced on a knife edge.
Washington’s heroic stature had brought him this far, but it was a small gesture of vulnerability that tipped the balance. From his pocket, he pulled a letter from Congressman Joseph Jones of Virginia, to show the officers that Congress meant to act on their concerns. He looked at the letter but did not speak. The men wondered what was wrong. Then, he took a pair of reading glasses from his pocket, which he had never worn in public. Putting them on, he said, “Gentlemen, you must pardon me. I have grown gray in your service and now find myself growing blind.”
These words electrified his audience. Witnesses said many were in tears as they listened. Finishing the letter, Washington did not say another word, but turned and left the hall. The officers unanimously approved a resolution affirming their appreciation for their commander in chief and pledging their loyalty to Congress, and the nascent republic was saved.
Ironically, Washington’s spent his life as a model of strength and fortitude, yet his one public moment of weakness led to his greatest oratorical triumph.
If you’re tempted to try this, keep in mind that vulnerability will backfire if you’re not already perceived in a strong light—that is, when your ethos is already strong.
[i] Ethos, as you will recall, is Aristotle’s name for the personal qualities of the speaker that make him or her persuasive.
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1 Comment
• More interesting stuff, Jack!
I think that, amongst other things, this story speaks to the power of genuine vulnerability. Unfortunately, this often gets mistaken for “weakness,” which I think is incredibly inaccurate du to the fact that it often takes great strength and courage to express oneself in a truly vulnerable way to others.
Once again, another thought-provoking article – thanks for your continued commitment to a great blog, Jack!
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Surface-Active Agents
The basic cleaning agents in soaps and detergents are called surface-active agents, or surfactants. When added to a liquid, they reduce its surface tension (the affinity that the surface molecules have for each other), thereby increasing the liquid’s spreading and wetting properties. Part of the surface-active molecule must be hydrophilic, or “water-loving,” and part must be hydrophobic, or water-repellent. Surface-active molecules concentrate at the interfaces, or areas of contact, between water and oil. One end…
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The Moon is Down by John Steinbeck
Teacher Guide by Kristy Littlehale
The Moon is Down Lesson Plans
Student Activities for The Moon is Down Include:
For those who are familiar with John Steinbeck’s most famous works, including The Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men, it may come as a surprise that Steinbeck spent a good amount of time funneling his talents into writing propaganda for the Allied forces during World War II. This novel, which won the Nobel Prize for literature, is helpful in generating English class extension lessons on propaganda, resistance movements, and World War II.
The Moon is Down Lesson Plans, Student Activities and Graphic Organizers
Plot Diagram | The Moon is Down Summary
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A common use for Storyboard That is to help students create a plot diagram of the events from a story. Not only is this a great way to teach the parts of the plot, but it reinforces major events and help students develop greater understanding of literary structures.
Students can create a storyboard capturing the narrative arc in a work with a six-cell storyboard containing the major parts of the plot diagram. For each cell, have students create a scene that follows the story in sequence using: Exposition, Conflict, Rising Action, Climax, Falling Action, and Resolution.
Example The Moon is Down Plot Diagram
A small town in northern Europe is invaded by a nameless occupying force. George Corell arranged it, and now the townsmen are being forced to mine the coal mine for the occupiers. Colonel Lanser wants this occupation to go as smoothly as possible, but Mayor Orden knows that his people don’t like being conquered.
Colonel Lanser’s men are facing increasing hostility from the townspeople. Captain Bentick is killed, and after the execution of Alex Morden, the silent revenge of the people seeps out as they sabotage the mining efforts. Lanser seeks to bring them under his control with Orden’s help, but Orden refuses to cooperate.
Rising Action
As the hostility increases, so do the soldiers’ paranoia about the town they are occupying. Men are escaping from the town and fleeing to England. Mayor Orden tells the Anders boys to tell the English to drop dynamite so they can fight back, and they do a few weeks later. Lanser knows he has to bring this spirit of rebellion under control, especially since the townspeople are killing his soldiers at any chance they get.
After the parachutes with the dynamite drop, Corell, who survived a kidnapping and murder attempt by the Anders boys, arrives and tells Lanser that he has received authority from the Capital. He informs Lanser of Orden’s cooperation with subversive actions in the town, and Lanser concludes he needs to arrest Orden and Doctor Winter, the local historian and physician.
Falling Action
After their arrest, Lanser pleads with Mayor Orden to tell his people to stand down. He hopes that the threat of the execution of the town’s two leaders will deter any more violence. However, while Orden is slightly anxious about his own death, he begins to recite from Socrates’ Apology, and takes heart in the fact that while he may die, other leaders will emerge. The Mayor is an office, and it will continue even if he is not present.
An explosion goes off, and Lanser knows he must follow through with executing Orden and Winter as punishment. Orden finishes his recitation of Apology, with resolve that the debt of his death will be paid by the people as they continue to fight their oppressors.
Student Instructions
Create a visual plot diagram of The Moon is Down.
1. Separate the story into the Exposition, Conflict, Rising Action, Climax, Falling Action, and Resolution.
2. Create an image that represents an important moment or set of events for each of the story components.
3. Write a description of each of the steps in the plot diagram.
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The Moon is Down Character Map Graphic Organizer
As students read, a storyboard can serve as a helpful character reference log. This log (also called a character map) allows students to recall relevant information about important characters. When reading a novel, small attributes and details frequently become important as the plot progresses. With character mapping, students will record this information, helping them follow along and catch the subtleties which make reading more enjoyable!
Example The Moon is Down. Characters
Mayor Orden
• Physical Traits: Large, white mustache; thick white eyebrows; wears the chain of his office around his neck; thick white hair
• Character Traits: Man of the people; confused at first, but abides by their will; believes that the spirit of man can never be broken; refuses to follow the facade of civility that Lanser is trying to create; tenacious; brave; confident
• Quote: "My people don’t like to have others think for them. Maybe they are different from your people. I am confused, but that I am sure of."
Other characters included in this map are: Doctor Winter, Colonel Lanser, Molly Morden, Lieutenant Tonder, and George Corell.
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The Moon is Down Literary Conflict Graphic Organizer
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Storyboarding is an excellent way to focus on types of literary conflict. Have your students choose an example of each literary conflict and depict them using the Storyboard Creator. In the storyboard, an example of each conflict should be visually represented, along with an explanation of the scene, and how it fits the particular category of conflict.
Examples of Literary Conflict from The Moon is Down
Colonel Lanser wants Mayor Orden’s cooperation so that the occupation will go smoothly; however, Mayor Orden knows that his people would not want that and so he refuses. He also refuses to condemn Alex Morden for murdering Captain Bentick, since no crime was committed against the townspeople.
Molly hates the occupiers because they murdered her husband; however, when Lieutenant Tonder comes to visit her, she falters for a second because she is confused and lonely. She also recognizes the humanity in Tonder, and knows that in different circumstances, maybe she could like him and connect with him. In the end though, she murders him.
George Corell’s treachery goes against the very basic ideals of freedom that the townspeople ascribe to. His plan to rid the town of all defenses, leaving it vulnerable to the occupiers and then his collaboration with them leads Mayor Orden to decide it is best to get rid of him; it is best for the people to no longer see him in the streets. The Anders boys try to kidnap him and kill him, but fail; Corell survives, and is granted more authority by the leadership in the Capital.
Student Instructions
Create a storyboard that shows at least three forms of literary conflict in The Moon is Down.
1. Identify conflicts in The Moon is Down.
2. Categorize each conflict as Character vs. Character, Character vs. Self, Character vs. Society, Character vs. Nature, or Character vs. Technology.
3. Illustrate conflicts in the cells, using characters from the story.
4. Write a short description of the conflict below the cell.
5. Save and submit the assignment.
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The Moon is Down Themes, Motifs, and Symbols Activity
Themes, symbols, and motifs come alive when you use a storyboard. In this activity, students will identify themes and symbols from the novel, and support their choices with details from the text.
Themes to Look For and Discuss
The Power and Importance of Resistance
The novel as a whole highlights what must be done in the face of an oppressor trying to take away the workings of a free democracy. Steinbeck wrote this novel as a way to encourage and support the various resistances around Europe under the Nazi occupations. In the novel, the defiance of the people of this tiny town cause Lanser to plead with Mayor Orden to cooperate and to calm his people down; however, Mayor Orden knows that they cannot calm down; their freedom has been violated. They continue to resist in the face of death, starvation, and the executions of their beloved leaders. Freedom and democracy are much bigger than fear for these people.
The Complexities of the Human Character
One aspect of this novel that Steinbeck faced widespread criticism for was his depiction of the occupying soldiers as complex human beings, with feelings, dreams, and fears of their own. While America at the time wanted to view these enemies as a sort of drone-like being, Steinbeck was actually capturing the truth about what was happening in these occupied countries: many soldiers were afraid, were paranoid, wanted to fall in love, thought they were doing what was right, etc. The average German soldier often fought because he had to, and because of his patriotism. Many women in these occupied countries were confused about their feelings for these soldiers, much like Molly who recognizes that under different circumstances, she might have wanted to reciprocate Lieutenant Tonder’s proposition. Tonder himself begins to question their Leader’s sanity, and then begins to lose much of his own. Even Lanser, a seasoned veteran of World War I who has no illusions about the brutality of war, is somewhat tired of it all, and tired of continuing to have to make more enemies every time they execute someone. A person is not defined in black-or-white terms; Steinbeck explores the gray areas of being human in an evil regime throughout the novel.
The Strength of the Human Spirit
In the discussion between Lanser and Orden about Alex Morden’s trial, Lanser realizes that Mayor Orden will not cooperate with him in creating a mirage of civility by participating in Alex Morden’s sentencing. Lanser realizes that maybe he will have to install Corell as mayor after all. Lanser looks at Orden and remarks, "We have taken on a job, haven’t we?" The Mayor replies, "Yes, the one impossible job in the world, the one thing that can’t be done. To break man’s spirit permanently." This is reflected in the continuing resistance of the people of the town, even in the face of threats of death. People light up the mine at night to guide the English bombers to it; they regularly sabotage the coal mining system; they rebel in cold silence, freezing out the soldiers from any sort of human contact; and finally, they furtively locate the dynamite and begin their attacks. Meanwhile, the soldiers are rounding up people daily, executing them, and threatening to withhold food from their families. This does nothing to deter or diminish the strength of the human spirit. They know they are being oppressed, and they know they must fight back. Even Orden and Winter, in the face of their own deaths, recite from Socrates’ Apology, "A man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought only to consider whether he is doing right or wrong." The townspeople’s willingness to die for their beliefs endures beyond their physical deaths; therefore, the occupying forces cannot break their collective spirit of rebelling against injustice.
Motifs, Imagery, and Symbols
The troops invade this small country as winter is moving in. Winter provides a sense of cold strength for the town, and a sense of beauty and wonder for the arriving troops. In the face of chaos, the Mayor often finds comfort in the consistency of the snow; he loves the smell, the sound, and the feel of the snow falling. For the townspeople later, it provides them a place to hide their secrets, including the soldier’s bodies that they are able to pick off when the soldiers let their guards down.
The Mine
The coal mine was an important resource before the invasion, and now it is one that the townspeople want destroyed. They figure that if they get rid of the reason for the occupation, the soldiers will leave.They arrange to light it up with lanterns when the English bombers fly over, they routinely try to sabotage the routes, and since the men are forced to work in it, they detest its existence. It gives them a way to resist.
The Dynamite
The dynamite provides hope and another way to finally fight back against the occupiers. The dynamite floats down with detailed instructions for ways to utilize it to destroy or cripple the occupier’s transportation systems, and for Colonel Lanser, the dynamite means an escalation of violent resistance. For the people, it provides them with a jubilant sense of rebellion.
Flies on Flypaper
Lieutenant Tonder utters this phrase in the middle of his emotional breakdown. He echoes the ideas of what many other soldiers were thinking: there’s no point. The more they conquer, the more problems they arise, and so this war will never be over. Tonder’s phrase soon becomes a rallying cry throughout the country; however, it also reflects the complexities of the soldier’s emotions as they are ordered to conquer, but are often in doubt of those orders.
Mayoral Chain of Office
The Mayoral Chain of Office represents the enduring ideals of democracy and freedom. Mayor Orden wears it proudly each day, but he knows that it’s not as much about him as it is the trust that the people put into a position which they freely elect. While Mayor Orden is threatened with death, he takes comfort in the fact that the office cannot be arrested or killed; it is an entity separate from him, created and maintained by free people.
Colonel Lanser’s Staff
Colonel Lanser’s staff represents the complexities of the human character. Major Hunter sees this mission as an engineering one, not one of war; Captain Bentick lacks ambition and actually enjoys everything English, the same people who are their supposed enemy; Captain Loft is ambitious and a military man; Lieutenants Tonder and Prackle are emotional and want to fall in love with the right girl. These are not cold-blooded drones; they are men, too.
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Rhetorical Strategies in The Moon is Down
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In high school, the ELA Common Core Standards require students to develop formal writing skills, creating essays and arguments that are well-thought-out, and syntactically varied. They also require students to effectively use persuasive writing strategies to defend a claim or point of view.
A key to strong persuasive writing the ability to dissect and validate, or debunk, other arguments. This requires a basic working knowledge of rhetoric. A great way to enhance students' understanding of effective arguments is to teach the Aristotelian concepts of Ethos, Pathos, and Logos. Students can then identify and analyze the effectiveness of these strategies in a work of literature, a speech, or a letter.
The Moon is Down was written to encourage the resistances of occupied countries to rise up and fight against the Nazi forces during World War II. It is a noble cause, and an honorable effort, according to most Americans. However, to look at the novel from an historical standpoint, it actually was a piece of pro-Democracy propaganda, and it was a very successful one. The novel’s ability to sway its readers emotionally, ethically, and logically is what gave it so much power then, and why it’s endured as a popular piece for the enduring ideals of freedom and democracy for so long. Have students examine the text and come up with quotes from throughout the novel of Ethos, Logos, and Pathos rhetoric. Have students illustrate these examples in a storyboard.
Examples of Rhetorical Strategies in The Moon is Down
Ethos (Ethics/Credibility)
Example 1
– Mayor Orden
Example 2
"In all the world, yours is the only government and people with a record of defeat after defeat for centuries and every time because you did not understand people."
– Mayor Orden
Logos (Logic)
Example 1
– Mayor Orden
Example 2
– Doctor Winter
Pathos (Emotions)
Example 1
– Mayor Orden
Example 2
– Mayor Orden
Student Instructions
Create a storyboard that shows examples of ethos, pathos, and logos from the text.
1. Identify two examples for each rhetorical strategy: ethos, pathos, and logos.
2. Type the example into the description box under the cell.
3. Illustrate the examples using any combination of scenes, characters, and items.
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The Moon is Down Vocabulary Activities
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Another great way to engage your students is through the creation of storyboards that use vocabulary from A Separate Peace. Here is a list of a few vocabulary words commonly taught with the novel, and an example of a visual vocabulary board.
Example Vocabulary Words from The Moon is Down
• detest
• battalion
• billeted
• drawing-room
• treachery
• exultation
• culprit
• furtive
• intricate
• culvert
• jubilant
• docile
• belligerent
• jeopardize
• deter
Student Instructions
Demonstrate your understanding of the vocabulary words in The Moon is Down by creating visualizations.
2. Find the definition in a print or online dictionary.
3. Write a sentence that uses the vocabulary word.
5. Save and submit your storyboard.
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A Synopsis of The Moon is Down (Contains Spoilers)
It was an easy takeover of a small town. Mr. George Corell seems to be behind it all: he took the policeman out fishing, and arranged to have the town’s 12 soldiers six miles away at a shooting competition. The soldiers came back and fired on the occupiers, but they were easily defeated. In a few short hours, the battalion was installed in Mr. Corell’s warehouse and Colonel Lanser was requesting an audience with Mayor Orden. Mayor Orden is the people’s mayor, and while he repeats many times that he is confused, he nonetheless is determined to abide by the will of the people. Colonel Lanser wants the Mayor’s cooperation, and he wants his palace for his staff. The five men working under Colonel Lanser’s command are not like the Colonel: most do not understand the brutality of war, because they have never seen it before. Lanser was a soldier during World War I, so he expects the worst, and he knows things can always get worse. Major Hunter sees his missions as engineering operations, rather than acts of war. Captain Bentick is too old to not have advanced to the next rank, but he lacks ambition. Captain Loft, on the other hand, is too young to be a captain. He lives and breathes the military, procedure, and rules, and is very ambitious. Lieutenants Prackle and Tonder are emotional young men who believe fully in the Leader’s system, never questioning it. Prackle is sentimental and loyal about his family; Tonder is a poet who longs to die heroically in battle.
George Corell comes to see Colonel Lanser at the Mayor’s house, wanting to be given the Mayor’s position. However, Lanser knows from experience that the townspeople will never cooperate if Corell is installed as Mayor because he is a traitor. Captain Bentick is killed when he intervenes in an attack against Captain Loft by a miner who shouts something about being a free man. Colonel Lanser knows the drill: execute the miner and create more enemies.
The man who killed Captain Bentick is Alexander Morden, Molly Morden’s husband. Joseph, Orden’s servant, also reveals that people are planning to kill Corell for his treachery. Molly comes to see the Mayor because she’s been told that he will sentence Alex, but Mayor Orden says that he will not do that because Alex has not committed a crime against their people. Lanser arrives to talk to Orden about holding a trial for Alex Morden, since it will help to maintain an air of civility in the town. However, the Mayor tells Lanser that he has no right to pass a sentence of death any more than Lanser does. Orden knows this is war, and that the occupiers don’t care about laws or civility. He and his people will not fall for these façades, and he insists that he will only condemn Morden if Lanser kills the twenty soldiers who killed six of his soldiers.
At Morden’s trial, Mayor Orden tells Alex that his sacrifice is as a martyr for the cause of freedom. Alex says that Captain Loft ordered him to work in the mine, but he is a free man, an alderman. As he is led away to the square to be shot, Lieutenant Prackle is shot in the shoulder through the window, and Colonel Lanser knows that the revolt is beginning. As the weeks wear on, a cold disobedience settles over the town. They must pretend to obey in order to receive food; however, sometimes machinery would break and not get fixed; sometimes avalanches would block the railroad tracks for the coal trains; sometimes the men made mistakes that delayed production. The men of the battalion become increasingly isolated and paranoid, because if they let their guard down for even a moment, they disappear. The initial love the battalion had had for the small, picturesque town has quickly faded, and they begin to detest and fear the people who surround them. The English step up their night bombing raids of the mine and the townspeople are all too happy to light up the mine for the bombers to target.
After more trouble, Captain Loft believes he’s come up with a solution: either the men do their jobs and mine, or their families will not eat. They’ll force the men to eat at the mine so that they will keep their strength up, but be unable to share portions with their families. All the while, Lieutenants Tonder and Prackle continue to wonder if they’ve won the war yet; all they want to do is go home. Some of the soldiers have already been sent home for going insane and are met with "mercy deaths." Tonder, near hysterics, tells Hunter, Loft, and Prackle that he had a dream where the Leader was crazy, and says that they are simply flies who have conquered the flypaper. Later on, this is turned into a song that people sing across the countryside in defiance of the occupiers.
Tonder, who has been eyeing the women around town, goes to visit Molly Morden just "to talk." Tonder wants some kind of human connection with a woman after so long, but Molly is cold to him because of Alex’s murder. She tells Tonder that she will sleep with him for the price of two sausages because she is hungry, and Tonder is horrified that she will not emotionally connect with him. He finally leaves, and Orden, Doctor Winter, and the Anders boys arrive. They are planning to kidnap Corell, steal his boat, and throw him overboard on their way to England. Orden asks the Anders boys to ask England to drop stashes of dynamite with their bombs. The townspeople will hide them, and use them on the enemy when they least expect it. During their meeting, Lieutenant Tonder comes back to Molly’s house. Molly picks up her knitting scissors and hides them in her dress before she goes to open the door. Later, it is revealed that she murders Tonder.
A few weeks later, the English drop packages of dynamite and chocolate for the townspeople. It turns into a giant Easter egg-like hunt, with men, women, and children furtively searching for the packages and then running off to hide them. Corell arrives and begins to recite his list of suspicions and evidence against Mayor Orden’s hand in helping people escape, including Tonder’s murderer, Molly. It seems that he escaped the Anders’ boys plans to kill him, and he has received some level of official authority from the Capital. Lanser places Mayor Orden and Doctor Winter under arrest, the two leaders of the town, in hopes of depleting the air of rebellion sweeping through the people with the arrival of the dynamite. He declares that any violence committed after 11 o’clock will result in their execution.
Mayor Orden and Doctor Winter discuss their arrest at the palace. Orden takes hope in Winter’s conclusion that even if the soldiers kill them, these are a free people – other leaders will emerge in their absence. Mayor Orden is a little nervous about his own death, though, he admits to Winter. The Mayor begins to recite from Socrates’ Apology, which emphasizes the idea that after the Mayor and Winter are killed, the enemy will face worse violence than they have inflicted. Lanser tries to appeal to the Mayor, to stem the violence that he knows will be inevitable if they kill the Mayor. Orden replies that, "The Mayor is an idea conceived by free men. It will escape arrest." At this, there is an explosion, which violates Lanser’s order. Orden finishes his recitation of Socrates’ Apology to Doctor Winter with the line, "Crito, I owe a cock to Asclepius. Will you remember to pay the debt?" Winter replies, "The debt shall be paid", continuing the idea that the fight against the occupiers for freedom will continue, and will be harsher than before.
Historical Context and Writer’s Purpose
After visiting Latin America in 1940, Steinbeck became increasingly concerned about the Nazi propaganda machine’s predominance in the world. A fierce patriot to his country, Steinbeck volunteered with governmental organizations, one of them a precursor to the CIA called the Office of Coordinator of Information (the COI). Intrigued by stories from refugees that Steinbeck met through his work with the COI, he decided he was going to write a propaganda novel that centered on underground resistance in a town in an ambiguous country that sounds a lot like Norway. In the end, the occupying force threatens to break the spirit of the townspeople, but the principles of democracy endure anyway. The title comes from a line in Macbeth, and reflects Steinbeck’s belief that the Nazis brought a darkness with them as they continued their territorial expansion across Europe. The novel won the Nobel Prize for literature, and became the most popular piece of banned propaganda in Axis-occupied Europe. At home in America, it generated a lot of controversy because it portrayed the occupying soldiers as human beings, rather than simple killing machines. However, John Steinbeck did not write the piece for Americans; he wrote it for the occupied, who would recognize the complexities of their oppressors in his depictions of the nameless force.
Essential Questions for The Moon is Down
1. Why is it important to resist oppression?
2. How important is the role of propaganda in fighting or promoting wartime ideas?
3. What is the impact of characterizing occupying forces as humans with feelings, fears, and goals?
4. Why is freedom more powerful than fear?
5. When has civil resistance defeated evil laws and occupying forces?
6. Why is breaking man’s spirit the one thing that can never be done?
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• (English) The Moon is Down • (Español) La Luna Está Abajo • (Français) La Lune est en Panne • (Deutsch) Der Mond ist Unten • (Italiana) La Luna è giù • (Nederlands) The Moon Is Down • (Português) A lua Está Para Baixo • (עברית) הירח הוא למטה • (العَرَبِيَّة) القمر هو أسفل • (हिन्दी) चंद्रमा नीचे है • (ру́сский язы́к) Луна в Небе • (Dansk) Månen er Down • (Svenska) Månen är Down • (Suomi) Kuu on Down • (Norsk) Månen er Nede • (Türkçe) Ay Aşağı • (Polski) Księżyc Jest w dół • (Româna) Luna Este în jos • (Ceština) Měsíc je Dole • (Slovenský) Mesiac je Dole • (Magyar) A Hold Down • (Hrvatski) Mjesec je Spušten • (български) Луната е Надолу • (Lietuvos) Mėnulis yra Žemyn • (Slovenščina) Luna je dol • (Latvijas) Mēness ir Down • (eesti) Kuu on Down
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Document Type
Publication Date
Publication Title
The Cistercian order, which had its origins in the late eleventh century, transformed the spiritual landscape of western Europe. The order's insistence on a return to the austerity and simplicity that had originally informed Benedictine life reenergized monasticism, spawning hundreds of new abbeys within decades. By the beginning of the thirteenth century, the Cistercians dominated monastic life, surpassing their black-robed predecessors in terms of popularity and replacing them among patrons as favored recipients of donations. Yet, while a sizable body of historiography exists concerning the ability of men's houses to translate this appeal into spiritual and material success, questions remain regarding the order's female members. In particular, some scholars have constructed a narrative of financial difficulties and eventual decline for Cistercian nunneries, one that began in the thirteenth century and accelerated throughout the late Middle Ages. According to this narrative, such difficulties, by-products of the secondary status of religious women, manifested themselves in small monastic complexes and limited patrimonies. In her work on English Cistercians, Sally Thompson argues that religious women were dependent upon men because of their inferior position in medieval society and generally lacked a true religious vocation, characteristics that led to smaller, impoverished houses. Cistercian nunneries are portrayed in monastic histories as constantly struggling and are often “lumped together as being poor, scandalous, passive institutions which were eschewed by medieval patrons.” The majority of their houses are characterized by modern historians as enjoying a perilous existence at best, permanently poised on the brink of extinction and beset by a host of financial and spiritual difficulties.
Original Publication Citation
Jordan, E. L. (2012). Gender concerns: Monks, nuns, and patronage of the Cistercian Order in thirteenth-century Flanders and Hainaut. Speculum, 87(1), 62-94. doi:10.1017/S0038713411003861
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What are some of the lasting effects of the French revolution?
Expert Answers
kcoleman2016 eNotes educator| Certified Educator
One cool and rarely discussed effect of the French Revolution is the architecture of Paris and other major French cities.
During the French Revolution, rebels would create barricades in the streets to prevent the army from getting through to attack rebels, resupply, or generally get anywhere. Following the revolution, the decimated cities were rebuilt with very wide streets primary designed to prevent future barricades!
The French Revolution also resulted in some of the greatest philosophers of the modern age, whose works continue to influence modern democracy and policy: Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot, to name just a few. One of the most important ideas that continues to prevail today is the idea of checks and balances in power between different groups so that one demographic, such as the uber-wealthy, does not control everything in a country.
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The folding of an Origami crane
Origami (折り紙, from ori meaning "folding", and kami meaning "paper" (kami changes to gami due to "rendaku)) is the "art of paper folding, which is often associated with Japanese culture. In modern usage, the word "origami" is used as an inclusive term for all folding practices, regardless of their culture of origin. The goal is to transform a flat square sheet of paper into a finished sculpture through folding and sculpting techniques. Modern origami practitioners generally discourage the use of cuts, glue, or markings on the paper. Origami folders often use the Japanese word "kirigami to refer to designs which use cuts, although cutting is more characteristic of Chinese papercrafts.[1]
The small number of basic "origami folds can be combined in a variety of ways to make intricate designs. The best-known origami model is the Japanese "paper crane. In general, these designs begin with a "square sheet of paper whose sides may be of different colors, prints, or patterns. Traditional Japanese origami, which has been practiced since the "Edo period (1603–1867), has often been less strict about these conventions, sometimes cutting the paper or using nonsquare shapes to start with. The principles of origami are also used in "stents, "packaging and other engineering applications.[2]
A group of Japanese schoolchildren dedicate their contribution of "Thousand origami cranes at the "Sadako Sasaki memorial in "Hiroshima.
In China, traditional funerals often include the burning of folded paper, most often representations of gold nuggets ("yuanbao). The practice of burning paper representations instead of full-scale wood or clay replicas dates from the Sung Dynasty (905–1125 CE), though it's not clear how much folding was involved.[3]
In Japan, the earliest unambiguous reference to a paper model is in a short poem by "Ihara Saikaku in 1680 which mentions a traditional butterfly design used during Shinto weddings.[4] Folding filled some ceremonial functions in "Edo period Japanese culture; "noshi were attached to gifts, much like "greeting cards are used today. This developed into a form of entertainment; the first two instructional books published in Japan are clearly recreational.
In the early 1900s, "Akira Yoshizawa, "Kosho Uchiyama, and others began creating and recording original origami works. Akira Yoshizawa in particular was responsible for a number of innovations, such as "wet-folding and the "Yoshizawa–Randlett diagramming system, and his work inspired a renaissance of the art form.[7] During the 1980s a number of folders started systematically studying the mathematical properties of folded forms, which led to a rapid increase in the complexity of origami models.[8]
Techniques and materials[edit]
A list of nine basic Origami folds: the valley (or mountain), the pleat, the rabbit ear, the outside reverse, the inside reverse, the crimp, the squash, the sink and the petal
Many origami books begin with a description of basic "origami techniques which are used to construct the models. This includes simple diagrams of basic folds like valley and mountain folds, pleats, reverse folds, squash folds, and sinks. There are also standard named bases which are used in a wide variety of models, for instance the bird base is an intermediate stage in the construction of the flapping bird.[9] Additional bases are the preliminary base (square base), fish base, waterbomb base, and the frog base.[10]
Origami paper[edit]
A "crane and papers of the same size used to fold it
Normal copy paper with weights of 70–90 "g/m2 can be used for simple folds, such as the "crane and waterbomb. Heavier weight papers of (19–24&nb 100 g/m2 (approx. 25 lb) or more can be "wet-folded. This technique allows for a more rounded sculpting of the model, which becomes rigid and sturdy when it is dry.
"Washi (和紙) is the traditional origami paper used in Japan. Washi is generally tougher than ordinary paper made from wood pulp, and is used in many traditional arts. Washi is commonly made using fibres from the bark of the gampi tree, the mitsumata shrub (Edgeworthia papyrifera), or the "paper mulberry but can also be made using "bamboo, "hemp, rice, and wheat.
Artisan papers such as unryu, lokta, hanji["citation needed], gampi, kozo, saa, and abaca have long fibers and are often extremely strong. As these papers are floppy to start with, they are often "backcoated or "resized with "methylcellulose or wheat paste before folding. Also, these papers are extremely thin and compressible, allowing for thin, narrowed limbs as in the case of insect models.
Bone folders
It is common to fold using a flat surface, but some folders like doing it in the air with no tools, especially when displaying the folding.["citation needed] Many folders believe that no tool should be used when folding.["citation needed] However a couple of tools can help especially with the more complex models. For instance a "bone folder allows sharp creases to be made in the paper easily, "paper clips can act as extra pairs of fingers, and "tweezers can be used to make small folds. When making complex models from origami "crease patterns, it can help to use a "ruler and ballpoint "embosser to score the creases. Completed models can be sprayed so they keep their shape better, and a spray is needed when wet folding.
Action origami[edit]
Origami not only covers still-life, there are also moving objects; Origami can move in clever ways. Action origami includes origami that flies, requires inflation to complete, or, when complete, uses the "kinetic energy of a person's hands, applied at a certain region on the model, to move another flap or limb. Some argue that, strictly speaking, only the latter is really "recognized" as action origami. Action origami, first appearing with the traditional Japanese flapping bird, is quite common. One example is "Robert Lang's instrumentalists; when the figures' heads are pulled away from their bodies, their hands will move, resembling the playing of music.
Modular origami[edit]
A "stellated "icosahedron made from custom papers
Modular origami consists of putting a number of identical pieces together to form a complete model. Normally the individual pieces are simple but the final assembly may be tricky. Many of the modular origami models are decorative balls like "kusudama, the technique differs though in that kusudama allows the pieces to be put together using thread or glue.
"Chinese paper folding includes a style called Golden Venture Folding where large numbers of pieces are put together to make elaborate models. It is most commonly known as "3D origami", however, that name did not appear until Joie Staff published a series of books titled "3D Origami", "More 3D Origami", and "More and More 3D Origami". Sometimes paper money is used for the modules. This style originated from some Chinese refugees while they were detained in America and is also called "Golden Venture folding from the ship they came on.
Pureland origami[edit]
Origami tessellations[edit]
Origami tessellation is a branch that has grown in popularity after 2000. A "tessellation is a collection of figures filling a plane with no gaps or overlaps. In origami tessellations, pleats are used to connect molecules such as twist folds together in a repeating fashion. During the 1960s, Shuzo Fujimoto was the first to explore twist fold tessellations in any systematic way, coming up with dozens of patterns and establishing the genre in the origami mainstream. Around the same time period, "Ron Resch patented some tessellation patterns as part of his explorations into kinetic sculpture and developable surfaces, although his work was not known by the origami community until the 1980s. Chris Palmer is an artist who has extensively explored tessellations after seeing the "Zilij patterns in the "Alhambra, and has found ways to create detailed origami tessellations out of silk. "Robert Lang and Alex Bateman are two designers who use computer programs to create origami tessellations. The first international convention devoted to origami tessellations was hosted in Brasília (Brazil) in 2006,[11] and the first instruction book on tessellation folding patterns was published by Eric Gjerde in 2008.[12] Since then, the field has grown very quickly. Tessellation artists include Polly Verity (Scotland); Joel Cooper, Christine Edison, Ray Schamp and Goran Konjevod from the USA; Roberto Gretter (Italy); Christiane Bettens (Switzerland); Carlos Natan López (Mexico); and Jorge C. Lucero (Brazil).
Mathematics and technical origami[edit]
Mathematics and practical applications[edit]
"Spring Into Action, designed by Jeff Beynon, made from a single rectangular piece of paper.[14]
The practice and study of origami encapsulates several subjects of "mathematical interest. For instance, the problem of "flat-foldability (whether a crease pattern can be folded into a 2-dimensional model) has been a topic of considerable mathematical study.
A number of technological advances have come from insights obtained through paper folding. For example, techniques have been developed for the deployment of car "airbags and "stent implants from a folded position.[15]
The problem of "rigid origami ("if we replaced the paper with sheet metal and had hinges in place of the crease lines, could we still fold the model?") has great practical importance. For example, the "Miura map fold is a rigid fold that has been used to deploy large solar panel arrays for space "satellites.
Origami can be used to construct various geometrical designs not possible with "compass and straightedge constructions. For instance paper folding may be used for "angle trisection and "doubling the cube.
Technical origami[edit]
Technical origami, known in Japanese as origami sekkei (折り紙設計), is an origami design approach in which the model is conceived as an engineered "crease pattern, rather than developed through "trial-and-error. With advances in origami mathematics, the basic structure of a new origami model can be theoretically plotted out on paper before any actual folding even occurs. This method of origami design was developed by "Robert Lang, Meguro Toshiyuki and others, and allows for the creation of extremely complex multi-limbed models such as many-legged centipedes, human figures with a full complement of fingers and toes, and the like.
Origami-related computer programs[edit]
A number of computer aids to origami such as TreeMaker and Oripa, have been devised.[17] Treemaker allows new origami bases to be designed for special purposes[18] and Oripa tries to calculate the folded shape from the crease pattern.[19]
Ethics and copyright[edit]
Copyright in origami designs and the use of models has become an increasingly important issue in the origami community, as the internet has made the sale and distribution of pirated designs very easy.[20] It is considered good ettiquette to always credit the original artist and the folder when displaying origami models. It has been claimed that all commercial rights to designs and models are typically reserved by origami artists; however, the degree to which this can be enforced has been disputed. Under such a view, a person who folds a model using a legally obtained design could publicly display the model unless such rights were specifically reserved, whereas folding a design for money or commercial use of a photo for instance would require consent.[21] The Origami Authors and Creators group was set up to represent the copyright interests of origami artists and facilitate permissions requests.
These pictures show examples of various types of origami.
In popular culture[edit]
See also[edit]
2. ^ Merali, Zeeya (June 17, 2011), "Origami Engineer Flexes to Create Stronger, More Agile Materials", Science, 332 (6036): 1376–1377, "doi:10.1126/science.332.6036.1376, "PMID 21680824 .
3. ^ Laing, Ellen Johnston (2004). Up In Flames. Stanford University Press. "ISBN "978-0-8047-3455-4.
9. ^ Rick Beech (2009). The Practical Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Origami. Lorenz Books. "ISBN "978-0-7548-1982-0.
10. ^ Jeremy Shafer (2001). Origami to Astonish and Amuse. St. Martin's Griffin. "ISBN "0-312-25404-0.
12. ^ Gjerde, Eric (2008). Origami Tessellations. Taylor & Francis. "ISBN "9781568814513.
13. ^ Lang, Robert J. (2003). Origami Design Secrets. A K Peters. "ISBN "1-56881-194-2.
14. ^ The World of Geometric Toy, Origami Spring, August, 2007.
16. ^ "TreeMaker".
17. ^ Patsy Wang-Iverson; Robert James Lang; Mark Yim, eds. (2010). Origami 5: Fifth International Meeting of Origami Science, Mathematics, and Education. CRC Press. pp. 335–370. "ISBN "978-1-56881-714-9.
18. ^ Lang, Robert. "TreeMaker". Retrieved April 9, 2013.
20. ^ Robinson, Nick (2008). Origami Kit for Dummies. Wiley. pp. 36–38. "ISBN "978-0-470-75857-1.
21. ^ "Origami Copyright Analysis+FAQ" (PDF). "OrigamiUSA. 2008. p. 9.
22. ^ "Japanese Origami Artist Loses Copyright Battle With Japanese Television Station". Keissen Associates. Retrieved 3 Sep 2015.
23. ^ "What Does Copyright Protect?". United States Copyright Office. Retrieved 4 Sep 2015.
24. ^ "House of Cards: Chapter 6". AV Club.
25. ^ "House of Cards: Chapter 7". AV Club.
26. ^ Greenwald, Ted. "Q&A: Ridley Scott Has Finally Created the Blade Runner He Always Imagined". Wired. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
27. ^ Molly Brown, "King Arthur and the Knights of the Postmodern Fable"; in: The Middle Ages in Popular Culture: Medievalism and Genre - Student Edition, 2015, p. 163
28. ^ "Interview: Yoon Ha Lee, Author of Conservation of Shadows, on Writing and Her Attraction to Space Opera"". SF Signal. 30 May 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
) )
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Informational Site NetworkInformational Site Network
From: How to Use Your Mind
A very large part of the mental life of a student consists in the
manipulation of images. By images we mean the revivals of things that
have been impressed upon the senses. Call to mind for the moment your
house-number as it appears upon the door of your home. In so doing you
mentally reinstate something which has been impressed upon your senses
many times; and you see it almost as clearly as if it were actually
before you. The mental thing thus revived is called an image.
The word image is somewhat ill-chosen; for it usually signifies
something connected with the eye, and implies that the stuff of mental
images is entirely visual. The true fact of the matter is, we can image
practically anything that we can sense. We may have tactual images of
things touched; auditory images of things heard; gustatory images of
things tasted; olfactory images of things smelled. How these behave in
general and how they interact in study will engage our attention in
this chapter.
The most highly dramatic use of images is in connection with that
mental process known as Imagination. As we study the writings of Jack
London, Poe, Defoe, Bunyan, we move in a realm almost wholly imaginary.
And as we take a cross-section of our minds when thus engaged, we find
them filled with images. Furthermore, they are of great variety--images
of colors, sounds, tastes, smells, touches, even of sensations from our
own internal organs, such as the palpitations of the heart that
accompany feelings of pride, indignation, remorse, exaltation. A
further characteristic is that they are sharp, clean-cut, vivid.
Note in the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet, the number, variety
and vividness of the images:
"But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks?
It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.
Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,
Who is already sick and pale with grief
Be not her maid, since she is envious;
Her vestal livery is but sick and green....
Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven,
Having some business, do entreat her eyes
To twinkle in their spheres till they return.
What if her eyes were there, they in her head?
The brightness in her cheek would shame those stars,
As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven
Would through the airy regions stream so bright
That birds would sing and think it were not night.
See, how she leans her cheek upon her hand!
O, that I were a glove upon that hand,
That I might touch that cheek!"
We may conclude, then, that three of the desirable attributes of great
works of the imagination are _number, variety_ and _vividness_ of
mental images.
One question that frequently arises concerning works of the imagination
is, What is their source? Superficial thinkers have loosely answered,
"Inspiration," implying, (according to the literal meaning of the word,
"to breathe in"), that some mysterious external force (called by the
ancients, "A Muse") enters into the mind of the author with a special
Psychological analysis of these imaginative works shows that this
explanation is untrue. That the bizarre and apparently novel products
arise from the experiences of the author, revived in imagination and
combined in new ways. The horrendous incidents depicted in Dante's
"Divine Comedy" never occurred within the lifetime experience of the
author as such. Their separate elements did, however, and furnished the
basis for Dante's clever combinations. The oft-heard saying that there
is nothing new under the sun is psychologically true.
In the light of this brief analysis of products of the imagination we
are ready to develop a program which we may follow in cultivating an
active imagination.
Recognizing that images have their source in sensory experience, we see
that the first step to take is to seek a multitude of experiences. Make
intimate acquaintance with the objects of your environment. Handle
them, tear them apart, put them together, place them next to other
objects, noting the likenesses and differences. Thus you will acquire
the stuff out of which images are made and will stock your mind with a
number of images. Then when you wish to convey your ideas you will have
a number of terms in which to do it--one of the characteristics of a
free-flowing imagination.
The second characteristic we found to be variety. To secure this, seek
a variety of sensational experiences. Perceive the objects of your
experience through several senses--touch, smell, sight, hearing,
taste. By means of this variety in sensations you will secure
corresponding variety in your images.
To revive them easily sometimes requires practice. For it has been
discovered that all people do not naturally call up images related to
the various senses with equal ease. Most people use visual and auditory
images more freely than they do other kinds. In order to develop skill
in evoking the others, practise recalling them. Sit down for an hour of
practice, as you would sit down for an hour of piano practice. Try to
recall the taste of raisins, English walnuts; the smell of hyacinths,
of witch-hazel; the rough touch of an orange-skin. Though you may at
first have difficulty you will develop, with practice, a gratifying
facility in recalling all varieties of images.
The third characteristic which we observed in works of the imagination
is vividness. To achieve this, pay close attention to the details of
your sensory experiences. Observe sharply the minute but characteristic
items--the accent mark on _apres_; the coarse stubby beard of the
typical alley tough. Stock your mind with a wealth of such detailed
impressions. Keep them alive by the kind of practice recommended in the
preceding paragraph. Then describe the objects of your experience in
terms of these significant details.
We discovered, in discussing the source of imaginative works, that the
men whom we are accustomed to call imaginative geniuses do not have
unique communication with heaven or with any external reservoir of
ideas. Instead, we found their wonder-evoking creations to be merely
new combinations of old images. The true secret of their success is
their industrious utilization of past experiences according to the
program outlined above. They select certain elements from their
experiences and combine them in novel ways. This is the explanation of
their strange, beautiful and bizarre productions. This is what Carlyle
meant when he characterized genius as "the transcendent capacity for
taking trouble" This is what Hogarth meant when he said, "Genius is
nothing but labor and diligence." For concrete exemplification of this
truth we need only turn to the autobiographies of great writers. In
this passage from "John Barleycorn," Jack London describes his methods:
"Early and late I was at it--writing, typing, studying grammar,
studying writing and all forms of writing, and studying the writers who
nineteen waking hours left to me."
By saying that the novel effects of imagination come by way of
industry, we do not mean to imply that one should strain after novelty
and eccentricity. Unusual and happy combinations will come of
themselves and naturally if one only makes a sufficient number.
There are laws of combination, known as the psychological laws of
association, by which images will unite naturally. The number of
possible combinations is infinite. By industriously making a large
number, you will by the very laws of chance, stumble upon some that are
especially happy and striking.
In summarizing this discussion, we may conclude that an active fertile
imagination comes from crowding into one's life a large number of
varied and vivid experiences; storing them up in the mind in the form
of images; and industriously recalling and combining them in novel
relationships. Mental images occur in other mental processes besides
Imagination. They bulk importantly in memorizing, as we shall see in
chapters VI and VII; and in reasoning, as we shall see in chapter IX.
Throughout the book we shall find that as we develop ability to
manipulate mental images, we shall increase the adaptability of all the
mental processes.
Reading: Dearborn (2) chapter III.
Exercise 1. Call up in imagination the sound of your French
instructor's voice as he says _etudiant_. Call up the appearance on the
page of the conjugation of _etre_, present tense.
Exercise 2. Choose some word which you have had difficulty in learning.
Look at it attentively, securing a perfectly clear impression of it;
then practise calling up the visual image of it, until you secure
perfect reproduction.
Exercise 3. List the different images called up by the passage from
_Romeo and Juliet_.
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The Ultimate Mine-Disarming Dolphins Quiz
by Staff
Who would have thought that dolphins might be an important part of a war effort? Dolphins have natural abilities that allow them to detect underwater mines, potentially saving many lives and millions of dollars of marine equipment. Take this quiz to learn more about the dolphin's role in disarming mines.
What is the most common cause of ship damage?
• crashing into rocks
• mines
• active enemy attacks
Since when have dolphins been used to find underwater mines?
• 1960s
• 1970s
• 1980s
How are the dolphins trained?
• They are shown what a mine looks like.
• They are rewarded when they find a suspicious object.
• They are exposed to a scary sound when they approach a mine during training.
How do the dolphins indicate to humans that they have spotted a mine?
• They touch a certain sign with their nose.
• They make a certain noise.
• They swim around excitedly.
How is the location of the mine marked?
• The Navy notes the location on their navigation system.
• A special device is left in the area.
• The dolphin is left in the area to warn approaching ships.
Why are dolphins such useful mine detectors?
• Dolphins can distinguish man-made objects.
• Dolphins can diffuse mines.
• Dolphins can identify the type of mine.
What does sonar refer to?
• a program that compiles music
• sound navigation and ranging technology
• a device that creates sounds under water
Why is sound good for detecting things under water?
• It is difficult to shine lights under water.
• It is easy to hear under water.
• It is difficult to see under water.
Dolphins use sonar technology to find objects. How does sonar work?
• The dolphin interprets a sound bouncing back to it.
• The dolphin listens to sounds around it.
• The dolphin creates high pitch noises.
What is the type of sonar used by dolphins called?
• passive sonar
• echolocation
• subsonar
From how far away can dolphins determine the difference between a BB gun pellet and a corn kernel?
• 10 feet
• 30 feet
• 50 feet
Which part of the dolphin's body absorbs the echo?
• the jaw
• the forehead
• the inner ear
Why do dolphins make different clicking sounds?
• Different clicks are used for different purposes.
• Different clicks are different frequencies.
• They cannot maintain a signal tone.
Why are dolphins prone to getting caught in nets?
• The nets reflect a confusing signal.
• The nets do not reflect a signal.
• The nets reflects the same signal as food.
How are dolphins prevented from getting caught in nets?
• Nets come with beacons.
• Nets are not allowed in dolphin areas.
• Dolphins have been trained to look out for nets.
How does the navy defend its use of dolphins for mine-disarming to animal rights groups?
• Dolphins are well trained.
• Dolphins are trained to detect mines from a distance.
• Dolphins enjoy the human interaction.
What sort of object can detonate a mine?
• a heavy ship
• a whale
• an octopus
What is a potential hazard of transporting dolphins to potentially mine-infested waters?
• air sickness
• weakening the immune system
• discomfort
What happens to dolphins when they are transported to mine-infested waters?
• Their immune system is weakened.
• Their skin dries out.
• They become malnourished.
What is a concern for dolphins when transferring them to different waters?
• The waters are too cold.
• The dolphins will get lost.
• Both of the above.
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The Facts Not Fiction About Achilles Tendon RuptureS
The Achilles tendon is a strong bands of fibrous connective tissue that attaches the calf muscle to the heel bone. When the muscle contracts, the tendon transmits the power of this contraction to the heel bone, producing movement. The Achilles tendon ruptures because the load applied to it is greater than the tendon’s ability to withstand that load. This usually occurs as a result of a sudden, quick movement where there is a forceful stretch of the tendon or a contraction of the muscles eg: jumping, sprinting, or pushing off to serve in tennis. This occurs most often in sports that require a lot of stopping and starting (acceleration-deceleration sports) such as tennis, basketball, netball and squash. The Achilles tendon is on average 15cm in length. Most ruptures occur 2-6cm above where the tendon inserts into the heel bone. This is the narrowest portion of the Achilles tendon and is also the area with the poorest blood supply. achilles tendon rupture is most common when the muscles and tendon have not been adequately stretched and warmed up prior to exercise, or when the muscles are fatigued. the Achilles tendon has a poor blood supply, which makes it susceptible to injury and slow to heal after injury. During exercise the amount of blood able to travel to the tendon is decreased, further increasing the risk of rupture. Most experts agree that there are no warning signs of an impending rupture. However, frequent episodes of Achilles tendonitis (tendon inflammation) can weaken the tendon and make it more susceptible to rupture.
Non Surgical Treatment
Surgical Treatment
Patiko (0)
Rodyk draugams
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What is a gharial?
The truly bizarre gharial is one of the world’s biggest crocodilians at over six metres (21 feet). It has an incredibly narrow snout, which provides little resistance so it helps the animal turn quickly in water. Gharials can be found in Indian rivers and its legs are too weak to lift its body off the ground, so it simply drags itself short distances up riverbanks to bask. To help lose excess heat the gharial opens its mouth wide, even if the rest of its body is submerged in water.
Along with their odd appearance, gharials attract mates in extremely weird ways. Males slap their jaws on the water’s surface, maze hissing and buzzing noises and blow bubbles with the bulbous tip of their snouts to impress surrounding females.
Pregnant females lay up to 60 large eggs (roughly the size of a human fist) in burrows on riverbanks where they incubate for 60 to 70 days. When the eggs are ready to hatch, the baby gharials call to their mother from inside the egg to let her know it’s time to dig the eggs up.
Get in touch with the animal kingdom every month with World of Animals for only £3.99, or get a great deal by subscribing or becoming a digital reader today.
Image from www.flickr.com/photos/adam_jones
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Ratio and Proportion
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Lesson Guide for Chapter 7: Ratio and Proportion
Write a proportion problem. Design the problem so that the solution is “Leslie would need 16 gal ofgasoline in order to travel 368 mi.” -Leslie drove from her house to the grocery store last monday the grocery store is 2.875 miles away from her house. She used 1/4 gallon of gas driving to the grocery and back home. At this rate how many gallons of gas would she use to drive to her parents house who lives 368 miles away? --I am not sure that I understand the question fully but I am going to give it a try:Leslie is planning on visiting her sister who lives 368 miles away. The car that Leslie is planning on driving to visit her sister tank only holds 16 gallon of gas. Leslie’s car gets 23 miles per gallon. How many times will Leslie need to stop to fill up? Crystal
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two ways in which learning occurs in some animals, including humans. Provide one example of each type of conditioning from your own life. Explain step-by-step how the conditioning occurred. What would it take to unlearn this behavior? Top of Form Question 1
You are a pronounced behaviorist. Which statement most closely aligns with your beliefs? -------------------------------------------------
| | Latent learning occurs without any direct reinforcement.| | | Operant conditioning uses consequences that the organism thinks are annoying or satisfying.| | | Learning includes not only changes in behavior, but also changes in thoughts and expectations.| | | Observable events and acts are the focus of psychological research.| 20 points
You are seeking to perform an experiment very similar to that of Pavlov. You begin by placing some drops of milk onto a cat's tongue, and you notice that she begins to salivate. After several trips to the lab, the cat begins to salivate after...
tracking img
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They are digital computers used to control mechanical automation in industries by monitoring outputs and inputs. They make logic-based commands for electro-mechanical processes and industries. They are made in a special way to survive unfriendly conditions such as moisture, dust cold, and heat. How a PLC is developed? Inside the PLC, there is a programmed
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CBSE NCERT Class IX (9th) | Social Studies | History
Q.1. Why is most of the knowledge about clothes inferential?
Ans.1 Most of the knowledge about clothes is inferential because clothes do not reveal anything directly.2 Clothes indirectly reveal the attitude, personality and socio-economic status of the wearer.3 Moreover, we can only draw inference about attitudes, styles, personality andSocio-economic conditions of the people who wore various kinds of clothes in the past.
Q.2. In what way do clothes give a message? Ans.
1. Clothes do give a message, as the clothes of Sans Culottes did. They were men without knee breeches different from the aristocrats who wore knee length breeches.
2. Their clothing, loose and comfortable along with colour of France — blue, white and red – was a sign of patriotic citizens.
3. Gandhi made homespun khadi a symbol of national sentiment and his dress code of short dhoti was his way of identifying with the poorest Indian. Khadi became a symbol of purity, simplicity and poverty.
Q.3. What did a patriotic French citizen wear in France after the French Revolution?
Ans1. French patriotic citizens in France started wearing clothing that was loose and comfortable. The colours of France blue, white and red became popular as they were a sign of the patriotic citizen
2. Other political symbols too became a part of dress : the red cap of liberty, long trousers and the revolutionary cockade pinned on to a hat.
3. 3 The simplicity of clothing was meant to express the idea of equality.
Q.4. Explain how European dress codes were different from Indian dress codes. Ans.
1. In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey contrary meanings.
2. 2 This creates misunderstanding and conflicts. Consider the case of the : turban and the hat. These two headgears not only look different but also signify different things.
3. The turban in India is not just for protection from heat but is a sign of respectability and cannot be removed at will. In the western tradition, this has to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect.
Q.5. Discuss the witty answer of Mahatma Gandhi about his dress. What did it signify? Ans.
1. Gandhi wore a short dhoti without a shirt when he went to England for the Round Table Conference in 1931.
2. He refused to compromise and wore it even before King George V at Buckingham Palace.
3. 3 When he was asked by journalists whether he was wearing enough clothes to go before the King, he joked that ‘‘the King has enough on for both of us.’’ This was the reason for Gandhi’s witty remark about his dress.
Q.6. How did styles of clothing during Victorian Age in England emphasise differences between men and women?
1. Women during this time were groomed from childhood to be docile, dutiful, submissive and obedient. Men were supposed to be strong, serious, aggressive and independent.2.
2. These ideals were visible in the way they dressed. Girls were dressed in stays and were tightly laced up.
3. They also wore tight fitting corsets.
4. These clothes restricted their growth and kept their mould small and frail. Slim and small waisted women were admired. This was not so in the case of boys and men.
Q.7. How did the French Revolution end all distinctions imposed by the Sumptuary laws? Ans
1. After the French Revolution, it was income and not class which decided a person’s clothing. Men and women began to wear loose and comfortable clothing.
2. The colours of France became popular as they were considered a sign of the patriotic citizen.
3. 3 The red cap of liberty, long trousers and the revolutionary cockade pinned on a hat became fashion these were political symbols. Simplicity of clothing was meant to express the idea of equality.
Q.8. With the help of an example show how cultural difference in dress can create misunderstanding. Ans
1. Let us take the example of headgears — a turban and a hat. Both although headgears signify different things. Turbans are not only for protection from the sun but also worn as a mark of respectability.
2. It cannot be removed at will. The hat is for protection and is removed in front of seniors and superiors. This difference created misunderstanding between the turban wearers, i.e. the Indians and the hat wearers, i.e. the British.
3. When the Indians walked into English company they did not remove their turbans as they wanted to assert their national and regional identity. This at times offended the British.
Q.9. What changes came in women clothing as a result of the two world wars? Ans.
1. Many European women stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes. As upper-class women mixed with other classes, social barriers were encoded and dresses of women became similar.
2. Clothes got shorter during the First World War out of practical necessity. About 7 lakh women who were employed in ammunition factories wore a working uniform of blouse and trousers with scarves, which was gradually replaced by khaki overalls and caps. Bright colours faded from sight. Clothes became plainer and simpler. Skirts became shorter and trousers became a vital part of women's dress. Women also took to cutting their hair short.
3. A plain and austere style came to reflect seriousness and professionalism. WhenGymnastics and games entered school curriculum, women had to wear clothes which did not hamper movement.
Q.10. Describe Mahatma Gandhi's experiment with clothing during his lifetime. Ans
1. As a boy he usually wore a shirt with a dhoti or pyjama, and sometimes a coat. When he went to London to study law as a boy of 19 in 1888, he cut off the tuft on his head and dressed in a western suit.
2. On his return, he continued to wear western suits with a turban. As a lawyer in South Africa in the 1890s, he still wore western clothes.
3. In Durban in 1913, Gandhi first appeared in a lungi and kurta with a shaved head as a sign of mourning to protest against the shooting of Indian coal miners.
4. On his return to India in 1915, he decided to dress like a kathiawadi peasant. In 1921, during the non-cooperation movement, he adopted the short dhoti or loin cloth with a chaddar. This dress he continued to wear until his death.
Q.1. What were sumptuary laws? How did these laws affect society in France? Ans.
1. Sumptuary laws were those laws which imposed upon members of different layers of society through specified details the codes of behaviour.
2. These laws tried to control behaviour of those considered social inferiors, preventing them from wearing certain clothes, consuming certain foods and beverages (usually alcohol) and hunting game in certain areas.
3. In France, during the medieval period the item of clothing a person could purchase per year was regulated not only by income but also by social rank.
4. The material to be purchased for clothing was also legally prescribed.
5. Only royalty could wear expensive materials like ermine, fur, silk, velvet and brocade. Other classes were debarred from clothing themselves with materials that were associated with the aristocracy.
Q.2. What was the Suffrage Movement? How did it bring about a reform in dress?
1. Women’s Suffrage Movement was a woman’s movement agitating for the right to vote in political elections and democratic rights.
2. 2As suffrage movement developed, people beganCampaigning for dress reform.
3. Women’s magazines described how light dress and corsets caused deformities and illness among young girls. Such clothing restricted body growth and Hampered blood circulation.
4. Muscles remained underdeveloped and the spines got bent.Doctors reported that many women were regularly complaining of acute weakness, felt languid and fainted regularly.
5. By the end of the nineteenth century, change was clearly in the air – the argument was simplify dress, shorten skirts, abandon corsets.
Q.3. With an example, discuss how clothing can convey different meanings in different cultures and how these interpretations can lead to misunderstanding.
1. In different cultures, specific items of clothing often convey central meaning. This frequently leads to misunderstandings and conflicts.
2. The case of the Turban and Hat is one. Turban and hat are two headgears that not only lookDifferent
3. They also signify different things. The turban in India was not just for protectionfrom the heat but was also a sign of respectability and could not be removed at will
4. In the western tradition, the hat had to be removed before social superiors as a sign of respect
5. This cultural difference created misunderstanding. The British were often offended if Indians did not take off their turban when they met colonial officials.
Q.4. How did Mahatma Gandhi's dream of clothing the nation in Khadi appeal only to some sections of the Indian?
1. Mahatma Gandhi’s dream was to clothe the whole nation in khadi. He felt khadi would be a means of erasing differences between religions and classes; etc. But it wasn’t easy for others to follow in his footsteps. Just as the people could not take to the single peasant loin cloth as Gandhi had done. The people, in fact, did not want to do so.
2. Nationalists such as Motilal Nehru, a successful barrister from Allahabad, gave up hisexpensive western style suits and adopted the Indian dhoti and kurta. But these were not made of coarse cloth – khadi. Those who had been deprived by caste norms for centuries were attracted to western dress styles.
3. Therefore unlike Mahatma Gandhi, other nationalists such as Baba Saheb Ambedkar never gave up the western style suit.
4. Many Dalits began in the early 1910s to wear three-piece suits, shoes and socks on all public occasions, as a political statement of self-respect. A woman wrote to Gandhiji, ‘‘I heard you speaking on the extreme necessity of wearing khadi, but khadi is very costly and we are poor people.’’
5. Other women, like Sarojini Naidu and Kamla Nehru, wore coloured saris with designs, instead of coarse, white homespun khadi.
Q.5. In India caste system played the role similar to Sumptuary Laws of Europe? Justify it. Ans
1. India has no formal sumptuary laws but it has a very strict social code of food and dress. It is the caste system which defines what each caste should wear, eat, give, take, etc
2. These codes are very rigid and are almost as forceful as laws. If there were any changes in these specified codes then reactions were often violent and disturbing.
3. The case of the Shanar caste is an example. The Shanars are a community from Travancore.They migrated to this area to work under the landlords who were the Nairs. The Shanars tapped toddy. They belonged to a ‘subordinate caste’ and as per the traditions had to follow certain specified norms
4. They were not allowed to wear slippers, use umbrellas and cover the upper portion of their body with clothing.
5. When the Christian missionaries came, they converted the Shanars to Christians. Under their
Q.1. How were clothes of the 18th century all over the world different from clothes of the 19th century?
1. In France, in the 18th century sumptuary laws controlled the clothing style. After the French Revolution, it was the income, the difference between the rich and poor which decided what people were to wear
2. In England and America and other European countries, women from childhood, as young girls were tightly laced and dressed in stays. As women they had to wear tight fitting corsets and flowing gowns sweeping the ground.
3. The nineteenth century simplified dresses, shortened them and banned the corsets. Clothes got lighter, shorter and simpler. The two world wars brought in trousers and blouses for women giving them greater freedom of movement
4. Skirts became shorter, frills disappeared. Women now went for short hair as it was convenient and easy to maintain.
5. In India, the western style clothing came in the 19th century. The wealthy Parsis were the first to adopt it. It was also attractive to Dalit. The dress code in India was much under theinfluence of strict codes of caste system. The Swadeshi movement and national feelings alsoset the dress code of Indians.
Q.2. Discuss how society and clothes are linked.
Ans.3. The history of clothing is linked to the larger history of society. Clothing is defined bydominant cultural attitude and ideal of beauty.
2These notions change with time. Change inclothing has come due to changes within technology and economy and pressures of changing times.Changes in women’s clothing came as a result of the two world wars.
3. Women stopped wearing jewellery and luxurious clothes. Now women of all sections of society began to look similar. Because of practical necessity clothes became shorter and without frills.
4. Women began to be employed in ammunition factories. This forced them to wear a uniform of blouse and trousers with scarves. Thus, uniform of blouse and trousers was replaced by Khaki overalls and caps. Sober colours were preferred as the war was on.
5. Clothes became simpler and more practical. Trousers became a common garment worn by women.
Garments became austere and professional.
Q.3. How was the Swadeshi Movement linked to the politics of clothing? Explain.
Ans1. The Swadeshi movement was centrally linked to the politics of clothing. In 1905, LordCurzon decided to partition Bengal to control the growing opposition to British rule.
2. The Swadeshi movement developed in reaction to this measure.
3. People were urged to boycott the British goods of all kinds and start their own industries for the manufacture of goods such as match boxes and cigarettes.
4. Mass protests followed with people viewing to cleanse themselves of colonial rule.
5. The use of khadi was made a patriotic duty. Women were urged to throw away their silk andglass bangles and wear simple shell bangles. Rough homespun was glorified in songs andPoems to popularise it.
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Topographic Map Symbols MCQs Quiz and Answers Tests pdf Download
Practice topographic map symbols MCQs in earth-science quiz for test prep. Earth models and maps quiz questions has multiple choice questions (MCQ) with topographic map symbols test, answers as to represent earth's features, topographic maps use, answer key with choices as solid lines, dotted lines, colors and shades for exam preparation worksheets. Earth-science revision notes to learn topographic map symbols quiz with MCQs to find questions answers based online tests.
MCQs on Topographic Map Symbols Quiz pdf Download
MCQ. To represent Earth's features, topographic maps use
1. solid lines
2. dotted lines
3. colors
4. shades
MCQ. Towns and Housing Societies are represented in
1. green
2. blue
3. pink
4. white
MCQ. Areas under water are indicated with
1. green color
2. blue color
3. white color
4. grey color
MCQ. Spacing of contour lines depend on
1. steepness
2. altitude
3. area
4. elevation
MCQ. Contour lines that cross a valley or stream are
1. dotted
2. solid
3. V-shaped
4. U-shaped
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Image: Engraving of a flying fish
John Ray and Francis Willughby’, 1686, courtesy the Royal Society
An engraving of a flying fish from the 1686 book "Historia Piscium."
By LiveScience Senior Writer
updated 4/18/2012 8:37:28 PM ET 2012-04-19T00:37:28
An intricate image of a flying fish is one of hundreds of images now searchable online courtesy of the Royal Society, the United Kingdom's national academy of science.
This striking wood engraving appeared in the 1686 text "Historia Piscium" or "The History of Fishes" by John Ray and Francis Willughby. Now mostly forgotten, the book was groundbreaking for its time. Unfortunately, "The History of Fishes" almost prevented another groundbreaking work from being published: Isaac Newton's "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy").
The lavish engravings in "The History of Fishes" were so expensive to publish that they nearly bankrupted the young Royal Society, at that time only 26 years old. Short of cash, the Society had to rescind its promise to help pay for the production of Newton's masterpiece.
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Fortunately for Newton (and for science), his "Principia" caught astronomer Edmond Halley's eye. Halley would be remembered mainly for computing the orbit of the comet that bears his name, but at the time he was a young Royal Society clerk.
Halley took on the "Principia" as a personal project, raising funds (many from his own pocket) to get the work published in 1687. Newton's book included his three laws of motion, which along with his law of universal gravitation, was able to explain the orbits of planets. In fact, his book is still widely considered to be one of the most important scientific works of all time, covering physics and mathematics. [ 6 Weird Facts About Gravity ]
It might seem strange that the Royal Society nearly passed up Newton's work for a book about fish, but the scientific revolution was young, said Jonathan Ashmore, the chair of the Royal Society's library committee.
"Although the 'Principia'may have gone on to achieve lasting fame and glory, we hope that visitors to our new online picture resource will be able to appreciate why early Fellows of the Royal Society were so impressed by Willughby's stunning illustrations of piscine natural history," Ashmore said in a statement.
The new picture library is the first time the Royal Society's image collections have been available online.
The picture library also includes Robert Hooke's 17th-century engravings of microscopic organisms, some of the first images drawn directly from a microscope. There are astronomical illustrations of Captain James Cook's voyages to Tahiti, portraits of various Royal Society scientists and even historical political cartoons satirizing science figures.
© 2012 All rights reserved.
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Russian History
The Khrushchev Era
The end of the Stalin era brought immediate liberalization in several aspects of Soviet life. Party leader Nikita S. Khrushchev denounced Stalin's tyrannical reign in 1956, signaling a sharp break with the past. Because Khrushchev lacked the all-encompassing power of Stalin, his time in office was marked by continuous maneuvering against political enemies much more real than Stalin's had been. Party control of cultural activity became much less restrictive with the onset of the first "thaw" in the mid-1950s. Khrushchev attempted reforms in both domestic and foreign policy, with mixed results. During his tenure (1953-64), world politics became much more complex as the insecurities of the Cold War persisted; Khrushchev ultimately was undone by a combination of failed policy innovations in agriculture, party politics, and industry.
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British English is the form of English used in the United Kingdom. It includes all English dialects used in the UK;
American English is the form of English used in the United States. It includes all English dialects used in the US.
Between the various differences there are lexical differences: sometimes there are words that means the same concept, sometimes, instead, there are words that means different things, for example:
British English
American English
Autumn Fall Autunno
Ground Floor First Floor Pianterreno
Holiday Vacation Vacanza
Lift Elevator Ascensore
There are cases when the British English requieres the use of present perfect but American English use past simple:
BrE: He’s just gone home;
AmE: He just went home.
“Have got” (BrE) vs. “Have” (AmE)
To indicate have/possession English people use “have got”, while in American English it’s more frequent “have”:
BrE: Have you got a laptop?;
AmE: Do you have a laptop?
Got” (BrE) vs. “gotten” (AmE)
In American English the past participle of “get” becomes “gotten”, while in British English is “got”:
BrE: I’ve never really got to know him;
AmE: I’ve never really gotten to know him.
The use of subjunctive is more common in American English:
BrE: It’s essential that they should be warned;
AmE: It’s essential that they be warned.
In American English the letter -L in unstressed syllable followed by ending, don’t doubles:
AmE: traveler, leveling;
BrE: traveller, levelling.
Some words that in British English finish in -tre, -our, -ogue, -ise, in American English finish in -ter, -or, -og, -ize:
BrE: centre, colour, catalogue, realise;
AmE: center, color, catalog, realize.
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"It had long been suspected that the egg came first, but now we have the scientific proof that shows that in fact the chicken came first," says Dr. Colin Freeman, from Sheffield University. Here's the explanation. Updated.
When scientists from Sheffield University and Warwick University used a supercomputer called HECToR to take a close look at egg shells, they discovered that a protein "called ovocledidin-17 (OC-17) acts as a catalyst to speed up the development of the shell." They realized that this protein is crucial to actually forming an egg shell. They also realized that this protein is found in a chicken's ovaries. Based on this, these scientists decided that the chicken must have come before the egg.
They just fail to explain where the chicken came from in the first place. [Metro via CBS News]
Update: Not so fast, says a biologist writing for ScienceBlogs:
Photo by Thomas Pix
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One of the ways of finding the flow patterns, velocities and pressures about streamlined shapes moving through an inviscid fluid is to apply a conformal mapping to the potential flow solution for a circular cylinder. The cylinder can be mapped to a variety of shapes including aerofoil shapes. By knowing the derivative of the transformation used to perform the geometry mapping, along with the original velocities around the cylinder, the velocities in the mapped flow field can be found.
A simple mapping which produces a family of elliptical shapes and streamlined aerofoils s the Joukowski mapping. The 2-D cylinder (z1 flow field) is mapped to a streamlined shape (z2 flow field) using the mapping.
The mapping is done in complex arithmetic with (z1 and z2) representing the complete coordinate space of each flow field, ( z1 = x1 + i.y1 ) and ( z2 = x2 + i.y2 ), and are mapped by,
z_2 = z_1 + { k^2 over z_1}
The transformation constant (k) is used to control the stretching of the flow field. A small (k) value will produce a near cylindrical shape with large thickness to chord ratio. A large (k) value approaching the radius of the cylinder (a) will produce a very thin streamlined shape. A value of k=a will produce a flat plate. Values of (k) greater than the radius of the cylinder produce mappings that are NOT conformal and hence do not represent valid flows.
By adjusting the centre of the cylinder relative to the origin of flow field (z1) the mapped object can be made streamlined and curved, thus producing a cambered Joukowski aerofoil section. To guarantee a valid aerofoil shape the transformation constant must be adjusted to match the circle flow geometry.
left ( k+e right )^2 = a^2 - f^2
As the far-field is undisturbed by the mapping, the stream velocity (V) can be determined by the derivative of the transformation function , ( dz2/dz1 ) such that,
left | {V_2} right | = frac{ left | V_1 right |}{left | dz_2/dz_1 right |}
substituting for the transform function leads to
left | {V_2} right | = frac{ left | V_1 right |}{left | 1 - frac{k^2}{z_1^2} right |}
where |V1| is the magnitude of the velocity at a point in flow field (z1) and |V2| (or V) is the magnitude of the velocity at the mapped point in the aerofoil flow field ( z2 ).
Pressure coefficients on the surface of the streamlined shape in flow field (z2) can then be found by applying Bernoulli's equation for inviscid incompressible flow.
C_{P2} = 1 - frac {V^2_2}{V_{infty}^2}
For streamline shapes with sharp trailing edges, such as Joukowski aerofoil sections, circulation must be added to the flow to obtain the correct lifting solution. The value of circulation applied to the cylinder in flow field (z1) should be specified so that a stagnation point is produced at the point of intersection of the rear of the cylinder and the x-axis.
This trailing edge (z1) point maps to the trailing edge of the aerofoil and when the correct amount of circulation is applied, the Kutta condition will be satisfied at the trailing edge of the aerofoil in flow field (z2), (ie. vorticity = 0 at trailing edge.).
This means the required amount of circulation is
Gamma = 4 pi a V_{infty} sin( alpha)
where (a) is the radius of the original circle and (α) is the stream angle of attack.
Having obtained the correct flow pattern, the lift can be calculated as a function of the amount of circulation applied.
text {Lift } = rho V_{infty} Gamma
The flat plate aerofoil.
If the transformation constant is set to be equal to the radius of the circle ( k = a ) and no center shift is used the circle maps to a flat plate aerofoil. By applying the velocity mapping and Bernoulli relationships, the pressure field on the plate can be predicted and hence the lift, drag and moment can be calculated.
Anaylsis of a Joukowski transformation to a flat plate aerofoil leads to the following standard results.
C_L = 2 pi alpha text{ , }C_{M1/4c} = 0 text{ , }C_D = 0
To see the details of this mapping and the calculation of lift and moment download the document on flat plate lift.
General Joukowski Aerofoil solutions.
While Joukowski aerofoils are relatively simple to create and analyse, they are relatively crude in terms of performance. The geometric properties of this family can be described by the following approximations.
Maximum thickness , t_{max} approx frac{3 sqrt 3}{4} left ( frac {e}{a} right )
and maximum camber height, h_{max} approx frac{f}{2k}
The location of maximum thickness is always at the 30% chord location and the location of the maximum camber point is always 50% chord. This arrangement promotes early boundary layer transition and hence moderate drag. The cusped trailing edge is extremely thin and impractical for real construction purposes.
The performance due to camber is modified such that,
C_L = 2 pi left( alpha - alpha_0 right) = 2 pi alpha + C_{Lo} text { and } C_{M1/4c} = 0
Exact values for these lift and pitching moment constants can be predicted for a specific geometry from the program supplied below. More appropriate aerofoil sections with much improved L/D ratios (measure of efficiency) will be discussed in the following sections.
Software :
The following software application is available to construct and display flow patterns, pressures and list coordinate data for these transformed aerofoil sections.
Joukowski Aerofoil Generator and Flow Analyser.
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Fourth-Grade Student and Teacher: Classroom Management Skill
Adam is a student in Mr. Potter's fourth-grade class. He is the youngest of 6 children in a blended family. His mother and step-father both work long hours to support their family. His father moved to another state recently. Adam is a bright child, but is not always well behaved. He enjoys entertaining his classmates by making jokes, often at Mr. Potter's expense.
Mr. Potter views Adam's disruptive behavior as a cry for attention. He doubts that Adam gets much attention at home due to having so many siblings and because his parents are rarely home. He tries to ignore Adam's behavior because he does not want to reinforce it.
One day during language arts, Adam began talking very loudly to the other students in his area. He was also laughing and telling jokes. Mr. Potter chose to ignore Adam's behavior, hoping that he would stop on his own. Adam didn't stop. Instead, his behavior became more raucous. Still Mr. Potter ignored it. Soon Adam was making enough noise that Mr. Potter was afraid that students in the neighboring classrooms would be disturbed. He verbally reprimanded Adam.
Adam was a bit quieter for the next few minutes. After that, however, he once again became loud and disruptive. Again Mr. Potter verbally reprimanded him. This time he also told Adam that if he continued with his disruptive behavior, he would have to go to the office. Adam's behavior became even more disruptive. Mr. Potter sent him to the office.
When Adam arrived at the office it was full of people-teachers getting their mail and making copies, volunteers signing in, students who were ill, students sent on errands, and other students who had been sent for disciplinary reasons. The school secretary told Adam to have a seat, which he did. He conversed with every person who entered the office as well as those who were there when he arrived. Half an hour after his arrival, he was sent back to class. He behaved quite well for the rest of the day, to Mr. Potter's relief.
The next day, when students were assigned to write a paragraph, Adam once again became disruptive. He loudly told jokes to his classmates, laughed until tears were streaming down his face, and threw a paper airplane across the room. Mr. Potter reprimanded him and asked him to stop. When Adam didn't comply, Mr. Potter sent him to the office, which was once again bustling with activity.
Over the course of the next two weeks, Adam was sent to the office for disrupting class each day, always during a writing assignment. Mr. Potter was perplexed. Even more perplexing was that within three school days other children were becoming disruptive as well, requiring that they too be sent to the office.
a. Explain completely how you would characterize Mr. Potter's classroom management techniques. Why did Adam's behavior persist in spite of the fact that Mr. Potter's attempts not to reinforce it with attention? What should Mr. Potter try in the future to prevent Adam from being disruptive?
Solution Preview
I would have to suggest that Mr. Potter's classroom management techniques were typical, but not effective because they did not address the purpose for Adam's behavior. Mr. Potter responded to a negative behavior with a standard response: the trip to the office. He made his major mistake in continuing to use this response even when it became clear that Adam's behavior was increasing, not decreasing.
Mr. Potter did recognize that Adam's behavior was attention-seeking, and I agree with that assessment. However,
his ignoring the behavior was not sufficient to eliminate it because Adam's attention-seeking was not directed at the teacher, but at his peers. The scenario doesn't say so, but I would assume from Adam's behavior that his peers were responding to the attention-seeking behavior, and were reinforcing it by laughing at his jokes or otherwise encouraging him. If the teacher is not able to stop peers from reinforcing the behavior, the student will ...
Solution Summary
Sometimes a teacher can quickly manage a behavior problem with the right classroom management techniques. Sometimes, especially if the teacher does not understand the purpose of the behavior, poor classroom management decisions can make things much worse.
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Benzene Exposure Attorneys
Hazardous Chemical
One hazardous chemical to which many workers are exposed is benzene, a clear, colorless, highly flammable liquid with a sweet odor. It has also been referred to as benzol, cyclohexatriene, phenyl hydride, and coal tar naphtha. The Department of Health and Human Resources lists benzene as a known human carcinogen.
What is Benzene?
Benzene is used primarily to make other chemicals that are in turn used to make plastics, resins, and nylon and synthetic fibers. Benzene is also an important ingredient in some rubbers, lubricants, dyes, detergents, pesticides, and petroleum.
It also is used, though with decreasing frequency, in paints, solvents, thinners, inks, and adhesives. Although benzene’s use in paints and solvents is becoming less common, traces of it may still be present as a contaminant.
Who might be exposed to Benzene?
Persons most likely exposed to benzene include workers who work in plants that manufacture benzene, workers who work in plants that use benzene, workers who work in industries that produce or utilize materials containing benzene, and people who live near plants or factories that produce or use benzene.
Some examples include: solvent producers, paint and varnish producers, laboratory technicians, chemical workers, painters, and those engaged in degreasing operations.
If you or your loved one has been exposed to these environments and has developed aplastic anemia or leukemia as a result, consult a benzene exposure lawyer at Wallace & Graham to learn about the possible compensation.
How might someone be exposed to Benzene?
Exposure to benzene occurs in several ways. It can be inhaled, ingested through contaminated food or water, or absorbed through the skin.
In the workplace, the most likely sources of exposure are inhalation of vapors or by contact with the skin. When working with benzene or products containing benzene, workers should use personal protection equipment such as safety glasses and gloves and work in well-ventilated areas.
What are the health risks associated with over-exposure to Benzene?
Breathing benzene at high levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, and unconsciousness.
Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene can cause more serious illnesses, such as aplastic anemia, a rare blood disorder marked by a reduction in white blood cells, myelofibrosis, a disorder that affects that body’s ability to form healthy blood cells, and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), a cancer of the blood forming organs resulting in the body’s failure to produce enough blood cells.
In many cases, it is recommended that you file a personal injury lawsuit. Depending on the particular state, your personal injury lawyer might have to file this suit very soon to comply with the state’s statutes of limitations. However, a personal injury lawsuit is not always necessary as sometimes sizeable compensation can be secured without the need for a lawsuit.
Please call Wallace & Graham at (800) 849-5291, for more information regarding the possibility of obtaining compensation for your injuries.
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31 Aralık 2010 Cuma
Enkidu as Alter-Ego of Gilgamesh
There is no denying that the epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest and most important stories of the world which has been able to survive until our modern age. The epic is said to be around four thousand years old and is accepted as a cornerstone in world history and literature. Gilgamesh was the king of Sumerian Uruk city, a historical town which was established by Sumerians on the lands of today’s Iraq, between rivers Euphrates and Tigris (Mesopotamia). Although Mesopotamian civilizations are mostly known with Babylon king Hammurabi and his code of law which is the first written code of law of the world and based on the principle of “eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth”, the epic of Gilgamesh constitutes a huge place in Sumerian, Babylon and in general Mesopotamian civilizations. The epic of Gilgamesh consists of 12 tablets (of which 11 tablets are readable) and has a poetic, laconic style. In this assignment, I am going to analyze whether the relation between Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the epic can be explained by Freudian concept of alter-ego. I will argue that alter-ego conception would be very beneficial for us to understand the epic. I am going to support my argument by giving examples, justifications from the epic. In order to reach this point, I will start by a short summary of the epic. I am going to concentrate especially on the parts where the relation between Enkidu and Gilgamesh is the dominant topic. Later, I am going to explain alter-ego conception from a Freudian perspective. Thirdly, I will apply alter-ego conception to the relation of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. I will also try to show how this perspective might be useful for historians to understand the epic in a different way. At the final part, I am going to manifest my own views.
Now, I am going to begin with a short summary of the epic. Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, is a creature of two-thirds God and one-third human. Gilgamesh is a hero and a strong king in the eyes of his people but he does not hesitate to oppress his people. In order to get rid of Gilgamesh’s despotism, people complain about his behaviors to God Anu, the chief god of the city, to help them. In response, Anu creates a wild creature called Enkidu who has the power of dozens of animals. Although Enkidu is very powerful, he lacks humane qualities. People who saw Enkidu running naked with animals in the forest make a plan to save him. They decide to send a beautiful woman to seduce and weaken Enkidu. A beautiful woman Shamhat seduces Enkidu and Enkidu gains knowledge and understanding at the expense of losing some power. Shamhat convinces him to come to city with her. Meanwhile, Gilgamesh talks about his dreams to his mother and his mother analyzes his dreams in such a way that a man of really huge power would come soon and help Gilgamesh in doing great things.
Shepherds teach Enkidu how to eat, how to speak and how to wear clothes properly. Enkidu enters to city during a festival when Gilgamesh was about to use his first-night right to have sexual intercourse with new brides on the first day. Enkidu opposes to Gilgamesh and they start to fight in a very violent way. Finally, Gilgamesh was able to beat Enkidu. They embrace each other after the fight and become good friends that respect each other. Later, Gilgamesh proposes Enkidu a great adventure to go to Cedar Forest and to kill “Humbaba the Terrible”, the guardian of the Cedar Forest. Enkidu tries to convince Gilgamesh not to go since he knows the power of Humbaba from his wild days in the forest. However, Gilgamesh rejects Enkidu’s idea and seems confident of success. His mother and all people of Uruk pray Gods to protect their adventurous king from Humbaba.
Enkidu and Gilgamesh continue their way towards the Cedar Forest by cutting the trees. They finally find Humbaba and begin to fight. Humbaba cleverly tries to destroy the friendship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu by asking Gilgamesh why he listen the words of nobody like Enkidu as the king of Uruk. However, Gilgamesh is not affected from Humbaba’s propaganda. They continue to fight with him but Gilgamesh terrifies from Humbaba’s power and escapes. Later, Enkidu shouts at him and inspires him with courage. They continue to fight and finally beat Humbaba. Humbaba begs for his life but Gilgamesh kills him. Before dying, Humbaba curses Enkidu. Gilgamesh and Enkidu return to their village with success and huge reputation. Gilgamesh’s widespread fame attracts the sexual attention of goddess Ishtar. She asks Gilgamesh to become her lover. However, Gilgamesh refuses this proposal by insulting her and listing her human lovers. Ishtar goes to his father, Anu and begs him to let her have the Bull of Heaven in order take revenge from Gilgamesh. Anu accepts her daughter’s wish and the Bull of Heaven is sent down in Uruk which begins to kill people. Enkidu and Gilgamesh by fighting together again kill the Bull and save the city. Enkidu begins to insult Ishtar and threatens her with death. He even throws one of thighs of the Bull to her face.
After all these insults and violence, Gods decide to punish someone. They chose Enkidu as the scapegoat and order his death. A great demon is sent to kill Enkidu. After suffering 12 days, Enkidu at last dies in pain. Gilgamesh becomes so sad after Enkidu’s death, he orders all Uruk citizens not to become silent and mourn after Enkidu’s death. Gilgamesh in pain begins to think of death. He now knows that he would die one day too and the idea makes him panicking. He decides to find Utnapishtim, the only immortal human in the world who was a king before the Flood, in order to learn the secret of immortality. After a long journey Gilgamesh finds Utnapishtim and they start to talk. Utnapishtim talks him about the Flood and how he managed to escape from it. Later, Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that he can become an immortal if he achieves to stay awake for six days and seven nights. Gilgamesh accepts this and he sits on the shore. However, he falls asleep and he loses his chance to become an immortal. Utnapishtim by pitying him tells him about a magic plant but Gilgamesh fails again keeping this magic plant that would make Gilgamesh young again. At the end of the epic, Gilgamesh returns to his city.
In this paragraph, I want to talk little bit about alter-ego conception. Alter-ego by dictionary definition means “another side of oneself; a second self”[1]. According to Sigmund Freud, Austrian physician and founder of psychoanalysis, there are basically three dimensions that determine people’s behaviors and attitudes: ego, id and superego. Id is the animal part of human beings which is full of desires, appetites and away from reason. Id can be very dangerous for people who cannot satisfy their desires because id is also a place where emotions are located and in addition to love, pity, humans have feelings like hatred, anger etc. Ego is the center of the self which tries to balance id in Freud’s view. Ego is the place of rationality and helps people in acting reasonably to satisfy their desires. Superego on the other hand, is the place of ethics in people’s minds. Superego similar to ego tries to suppress uncontrolled and wild desires of id and orientates individuals to act flawlessly. Superego tries to direct ego to act on the basis of ethics more than rationality in Freudian thought. Turning back to alter-ego, we can say that alter-ego is something different from id, ego and superego, it symbolizes the complementary and opposite part of a person.
When we analyze Gilgamesh from a Freudian perspective, we can first underline his aspect that he is a creature half-human and half-God. Enkidu on the other hand, is a creature created by Gods as half-animal[2] and half-human. We can clearly notice that Enkidu is the other self of the Gilgamesh which balances him and make him a human being. Without Enkidu, Gilgamesh is a living above humans so, he acts cruelly to other people, forces women to sleep with him and makes many cruelties to his people who are inferior to him. However, with the addition of Enkidu who is inferior from humans and close to animals, Gilgamesh finds himself equal with other humans. They together make heroic things; Gilgamesh does not continue to act cruelly to the people of his city Uruk. Enkidu is not civilized and rational unlike Gilgamesh although they both have strong ids to be satisfied. Enkidu can be easily deceived like he was deceived in the forest by Shamhat, the prostitute. In this respect, Gilgamesh completes Enkidu’s lack of rationality and civilization. There is also a kind of homo-erotic relationship between Enkidu and Gilgamesh which can be explained as the strong attraction and the need to become complete of both sides namely, Enkidu and Gilgamesh. “I loved it and embraced it as a wife. I laid it down at your feet, and you made it compete with me” (The Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 11). Gilgamesh also represents the group of elites (elitism) contrary to Enkidu who is more of a ordinary person. That is why Enkidu attacks Gilgamesh in the name of people whose wives are forced to make love by Gilgamesh on the first day of their weddings. That is why they begin to fight. However, they end up kissing each other and making peace. This is like an uprising of the people against their rulers but finally the restoration of order by a kind of agreement between people and ruler. They know that both sides need and complement each other (alter-ego – ego relationship) and that is why peace is consolidated with the wishes of both sides. “They kissed each other and became friends” (The Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 18).
After unifying their power, instead of terrorizing people, Gilgamesh begins thinking about making good to people. “Enlil assigned him as a terror to human beings” (The Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 19). Although Gilgamesh is very willingly to make this journey to kill Humbaba, Enkidu seems involuntary. However, again they complement each other because Gilgamesh inspires Enkidu courage and Enkidu helps him finding Humbaba in the forest. When they meet Humbaba, this time Enkidu gives courage to Gilgamesh and Gilgamesh kills Humbaba. Moreover, when Humbaba tries to spoil their friendship, Enkidu warns Gilgamesh and Gilgamesh is not affected from Humbaba’s tricks. However, the death of Enkidu later again makes Gilgamesh to lose his balance and to seek immortality to become a God. “I am going to die! Am I not like Enkidu?” (The Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 75). His godlike nature appears again after the loss of his animalistic alter-ego (Enkidu). Gilgamesh becomes little bit cruel again and he forces people to mourn after Enkidu without stopping. When the perfect balance is gone with the death of Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s success do not continue. He fails at staying awake for immortality and also loses the magic plant of mouth.
Applying this Freudian alter-ego perspective to the myth of Gilgamesh would provide us many advantages in my view. First of all, Gilgamesh’s early cruelty and successes after being friend with Enkidu gain deeper meanings from this perspective. Although the epic of Gilgamesh, is a story about many things (about friendship, the struggle between Gods and humans, about a journey), it is basically about a self-discovery story of a man, namely Gilgamesh. In other words, this is the story of a man who completes deficiencies in his character with the help of his alter-ego and becomes a big hero. However, his success starts to decrease after the death of his alter-ego. This can be said to be a story of life itself with rise and falls. Moreover, applying Freudian method of alter-ego can help us to see the differences easily because since we assume two personalities as two opposite poles (two ideals), we will notice differences without problems. These ideal types are also used in social sciences by Max Weber in order to differentiate concepts from each other.
Finally, in my opinion the epic of Gilgamesh is a very precious historical document and an art piece that should be read and carefully analyzed. Freudian perspective of alter-ego would help us a lot to explain the relationship between Enkidu and Gilgamesh and we will have more facts to solve this puzzle. Gilgamesh can be the starting point of alter-ego stories which become important genre in literature and cinema now. The novel and the movie Fight Club can be a good example for this in my opinion. The epic of Gilgamesh is also significant in touching some events such as the Flood that are also mentioned in holy books. The character of Utnapishtim can be identified as the prophet Noah and the flood as similar to Noah’s Flood. It is also very exciting to see that although it was written approximately four thousand years ago, humans have same feelings, same problems with today’s individuals. We still make terrible things to each other, we still search for our real personalities, we still find friends and lose them. Lastly, as far as I am concerned the epic of Gilgamesh will stay as an important and exciting document as long as the humanity will exist.
- “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, 1989, California: Stanford University Press
- Dictionary.com, http://www.dictionary.com
[1] Definition taken from http://www.dictionary.com
[2] “Then he, Enkidu, offspring of the mountains, who eats grasses with the gazelles, came to drink at the watering hole with the animals…” (The Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 8).
Ozan Örmeci
2 yorum:
Araborigine dedi ki...
Ozan, very well written. With your permission, I'm going to use excerpts of your article in my classroom? I teach at Zayed University in Dubai.
Ozan Örmeci Makaleleri (Ozan Örmeci Articles) dedi ki...
Thank you bro, for sure you can use anything you want. See you.
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Sunday, 30 March 2014
Investigating new wonder questions! Life cycle and natural habitat of hermit crabs!
While reading some of our "I see, I think, I wonder", post-it-notes, P.I. asked a very good wonder question!
"Where do hermit crabs come from? How are they made?"
Everyone was pondering. This was a question that had yet to be explored. Thinking critically, the students expressed some of their thoughts both verbally and through writing.
"Maybe they have babies?" "I think they lay eggs." B.S.
"I think they (babies) grow in their tummy, because babies come out of mommy's tummy." M.P.
"They can also come out of eggs. If it has three, then they come out of mommy's tummy. But if they have one, then they come out of an egg." E.S.
"I think the hermit crab comes out of its shell and has a baby and then they try and find a new shell." K.W.
"It's like a cycle. It starts with an egg, then it hatches, then it grows into a big hermit crab, then it finds a shell and does it all over again!" C.M.
"Yea, it gets another baby. It's a cycle!" E.H.
"Maybe the baby comes out from the shell when they're breaking their exoskeleton?" G.B.
"How do hermit crabs first start out as a baby?" W.E.
To support our learning, we will read some non-fiction books, view videos of hermit crabs, and use our own theories to help answer our questions!
We learned that hermit crabs use salt water to bathe in and fresh water to drink.
Dote climbing in the fresh water dish
While reading more post-it-notes, A.M. had another great wonder question for us to explore!
"How do hermit crabs get fresh water when they're on the beach?"
The students had lots of great theories!
"Maybe they dig a tunnel and get fresh water then come back out." A.P.
"I think they dig a hole near a tree and get fresh water from the roots." D.S.
"Yes, inside the ground it's watery!" A.P.
"I think the water travels through the holes in the ground, it goes to the roots, and the hermit crab digs a hole and gets fresh water from the roots of trees." D.S.
"Maybe they find a pool near the beach and they drink from there?" W.E.
"But there's chlorine in the pool and they can't drink that!" E.H.
"When it rains the hermit crabs can get fresh water. They open their pincers and drink it. It's true! This is how they get fresh water because when I was in Cuba it rained and I saw a hermit crab!" E.H.
"Maybe people leave short cups of fresh water on the sand for the hermit crabs." C.M.
"I'm going to go to the Dominican and find hermit crabs and see if they go out of the beach to find fresh water." A.P.
Stay tuned as we explore this wonder question further!
Saturday, 29 March 2014
Earth Hour!
We had a wonderful time taking part in Earth Hour at school this past Friday! The official Earth Hour is today between 8:30 and 9:30 pm. If you take part, please email me photos! We love making connections beyond the classroom. We have been discussing electricity, what it is, how it's made, and how it relates to helping the earth? I am in the process of transcribing a 20 min whole group video discussion! It was fascinating to hear the students' theories and wonders pertaining to electricity! Stay tuned for a follow-up blog post.
Students creating in the dark for Earth Hour. They absolutely loved this experience!
Students creating a city and now adding hydro wires for the electricity!
Student theory on how electricity is made!
Wednesday, 26 March 2014
Make your thoughts and wonders heard!
Beside our bulb and seed inquiry documentation display, we have placed post-it-notes and pencils for family, staff, and students to write down any thoughts or wonders they may have about bulbs, seeds, plants, etc. We already had some parent and staff wonders!
We're excited to read them all and try our best to investigate them further!
Building structures with 3 dimensional figures!
Building structures has been an ongoing exploration for students since the beginning of school. But over time, the structures and language used to describe their creations is becoming more sophisticated as we continue to explore shapes and 3 dimensional figures.
Addition using the abacus!
A few students noticed the abacus on the shelf and asked if they could play with it. As they explored the beads by moving them back and forth on the row, they naturally stared counting them! I asked them to grab some paper and markers and draw and write what they were doing.
They were very proud when they shared their work with the class. They demonstrated counting the beads to get the total number.
I wonder what new ways of adding with develop?!
Monday, 24 March 2014
Bulb and Seed Inquiry documentation board display!
Creating with sticks!
During our morning outdoor time, a few students started creating structures using sticks!
"We made a square based pyramid!" P.I.
Exploring shadows!
New explorations immersed at the overhead projector!
A.M. and M.P. started tracing their shadows which were depictions of a bird and dog. During their talk, they noticed that their shadows became smaller when they went closer to the blackboard,and larger when they moved away. They wondered why?
Other creations were also developed!
Sunday, 23 March 2014
Creating with 3 Dimensional shapes
We recently started learning the names and different attributes of 3 dimensional shapes from the many creations and structures done by the students during their free flow time.
We also read the book called, "Circles of Round" by: Signe Sturup.
Using the book to further extend knowledge, various strips of paper and twist ties were placed at a table with the caption, "What shape can you create?"
The students created some amazing things!
W.E. and E.E. experimented with their newly created circles!
More to come!
Explorations using the overhead projector!
In order to encourage new explorations, we removed the light table and placed an overhead projector in it's place. When the students entered the room that morning, they immediately started asking questions, drawn to the light being projected on the wall. Below are some of the many investigations and creations taking place!
"How will I remember it without taking a picture?" B.S.
"I'm not sure? What do you think you can do?" Mrs. Ralph
After some time passed, I noticed B.S. was tracing his creation with chalk.
"What a great idea! How did you figure this out?" Mrs. Ralph
"I saw the chalk and noticed the picture on the blackboard and it gave me the idea to trace it!" B.S.
Further collaborative thinking between A.P. and B.S. led to them asking to use paper to trace their creation which they felt would be more permanent than using chalk which can be erased.
A.M. was observing what A.P. and B.S. were working on and wondered, why the picture on the blackboard was bigger than the creation on the overhead projector screen?
Sunday, 16 March 2014
"But how are seeds made?!"
“What makes you say that E?” Mrs. Ralph
“Does anyone have anything to add?” Mrs. Ralph
During lunch, B.S. had the following wonder question:
“I think the seeds are really small.” C.D.
“What about the onion and radish?” A.M.
The students also didn’t see seeds inside the carrot.
“Maybe it’s magic how we get seeds?” H.S.
Lastly, we cut open the onion.
“It’s like the bulb plant inside!” M.P.
“There’s lines inside.” C.D.
“Maybe the worms made the seeds.” A.P.
Students' theories on how seeds are made.
“It sleeps before it sprouts.” M.P.
“How do they grow?” K.W.
“What are pods?” Mrs. Ralph
“A pod is what protects the seed.” O.S.
“They have pods because they need protection.” A.P.
Investigating different seeds using clay.
“Trees make seeds.” N.S.
“There is a seed inside a pit!” E.H.
“A pod is like a shell!” E.E.
Stay tuned as our wonderings grow and our knowledge blossoms!
Wednesday, 5 March 2014
Spontaneous snow fun!
"Most children are naturally curious about their surroundings. They have an interest in exploring and investigating to see how things work and why things happen. Children have an innate sense of wonder and awe and a real desire for inquiry." Ontario Ministry of Education. The-Full Day Early Learning-Kindergarten Program. Draft Version. Pg. 14
"What were you doing outside at lunch?" Mrs. Ralph
"I was putting snow in the bag so I can make it heavy! If you put a lot of snow in a bag, it will be heavy. There's 100 snowflakes in there!" R.W.
We decided to bring the bag full of snow inside our class and see what happens. The bag was passed around and the students noted how heavy it was! Then we decided to put some snow in a large container, and some in a small container to see what would happen? The students had lots of theories!
"The lights are not that bright so it's not melting." D.S.
"Maybe there's a lot of snow in the bag and the snow is making the bag cold, so the snow is not melting." K.W.
"When I felt the bag, it was wet, so the snow was melting inside." O.S.
"Maybe the bag was outside and the bag was on the snow and it was cold outside." N.S.
"The bag is cold and the lights are not very much on." E.E.
"It was cold outside and the snow freezed and then we put it all in the plastic bag and was so, so cold so it froze. Now it's melting!" H.S.
"It was just a little it of time here and we have to wait longer and it will start to melt." E.H.
"The snow had ice and the ice is keeping it cold." I.R.
"Maybe the small one will melt faster because it's smaller and inside it's warm." M.P.
"I think the small one and big one will stay because they both have lots of snow! C.M.
"Maybe the big one has more snow because it's bigger than the other and it will be heavier." N.S.
"I think the big one will melt first because the opening of the little one won't have much hot air to go in. The big one has a bigger opening at the top so it will melt faster. A.P.
"I think half of both containers will melt because there's so much snow in it that the warm air will only melt half of it." E.S.
The students enjoyed feeling the snow and observing the changes over the time it was in our room. Among their talk, they accounted for the temperature of the snow, as well as noticing that the snow didn't change to water immediately.
What a fun spontaneous learning moment!
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Friday, 2 March 2012
Original lesson 12: Skateboarding through a Lesson on Perpendicular and Parallel Lines
To teach perpendicular and parallel lines, I first started from the more simple, fundamental concepts of horizontal, vertical and sloped lines. I drew up a table of these the on the whiteboard and we wrote down examples from the world around us, eg under horizontal there was the table, ceiling, floor, etc.
I then took the class outside to our 'break out' area and we formed a circle. In the centre of the circle, I placed down two skateboards. I asked if anyone could make perpendicular lines out of the skateboards, allowed a few students to do so and then explained that perpendicular means that two skateboarders have crashed, so long as one was travelling on a horizontal line and one on a vertical.
ALL the children understood this and volunteered to move the skateboards around in other examples of perpendicular angles. Best of all, there was absolute silence because everyone was SO ENGAGED by being allowed to step onto the skateboards and move them around.
I did the same for parallel, explaining that it means you are travelling in the same direction as your friend. The boards have to be facing exactly the same direction, I explained, otherwise one of you will end up at the ice-cream shop and one at the candy shop if they are slightly apart or slightly facing one another.
Then, I threw up a challenge for volunteers to stump the circle by placing the boards in any configuration and asking us to figure out whether it was perpendicular, parallel or neither. One child placed the boards in a parallel direction but one a bit behind the other. We debated this. Another child placed one board on top of the other. Again, AN ENGAGING DEBATE!
When we went inside and worked in the exercise books classifying actual lines, most children finished so quickly that I had to write up more advanced lines on the board (ones that even challenged me conceptually).
All in all, this worked as a fantastic way to teach what would have otherwise been quite an abstract and meaningless concept.
Stay tuned for part two: angles using skateboards, rulers and string.
How do you use your students' interest to create engaging lessons in your classroom?
Anonymous said...
Hey Anna,
That is fantastic! I wish I had thought of that because my students always seem to struggle with angles when I jump straight to using the protractor on lines in exercise books. I don't own skateboards but I'm going to use my skis instead.
Anna Kapnoullas said...
Hi Tom,
Thanks so much and that's great, skis and/or a snowboard would work just as well.
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Leaf-eating Bats
A number of frugivorous bats are known to consume leaves on occasion (Kunz and Ingalls, 1994). Among these folivorous frugivores are several species in the genus Artibeus. Two Brazilian researchers report that another species Artibeus lituratus (Figure 1) also feed on leaves.
Figure 1. A small group of Artibeus lituratus roosting inside a palm frond. (from Flickr/Brian Gratwicke)
Their research shows that
A. lituratus begins foraging for fruit, but may switch to leaf eating around 21:00, presumably after they have already consumed a fruit meal. Why the switch?
Scientists know that fruits are high in carbohydrates, but poor in protein. In contrast, leaves tend to be high in protein and certain minerals. One hypothesis is that leaves may provide a supplementary source of protein or calcium. In the study by Bobrowiec, and Cunha (2010), the bats consumed leaves each night during the dry season. Interestingly, the bats did not consume the cellular components of the leaf, and instead chewed the leaf fragments to extract the juices. The bats spit out the undigested parts as a pellet. This behavior makes sense because most frugivorous bats lack the intestinal microbes to digest plant material efficiently (Kunz and Ingalls, 1994).
Scientists have now documented leaf consumption in a number of frugivorous bat species. Yet the motivation for this behavior remains unclear. Do the leaves provide vitamins, minerals, or other nutritional components not found in a diet of fruit? Do the leaves contain medicinal compounds that aid digestion or health? How do the bats deal with the plant secondary compounds in these leaves? These and other important questions await an enterprising young mammalogist willing to take up the challenge of analyzing the liquid component of the leaves.
Bobrowiec, P.E.D., and R.M. Cunha. 2010. Leaf-consuming behavior in the big fruit-eating bat,
Artibeus lituratus (Olfers, 1818) (Chiroptera: Phyllostomidae), in an urban area of Southeastern Brazil. Chiroptera Neotropical 16(1):595-599.
Kunz T.H. and K.A. Ingalls. 1994. Folivory in bats: an adaptation derived from frugivory.
Functional Ecology 8: 665-668.
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Site Navigation: Home | Clan History | Contact Grierson.net | Links | Member Login
Scotland and her islands; referred to officially (until 1603) as 'Scotland and her Empire.'
The earliest recorded evidence of man in Scotland is dated to 8,500BC. By 2,000 BC, Neolithic men from Spain and France, makers of fire and herders of sheep and cattle had made their way to northern Britain. A wild Boar can be very aggresive and frightening.
A wild boar.
In very early Scotland, man lived in and around the coasts of the mainland and on the many Isles, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides, Orkneys, Shetlands, and Faroes. To go inland meant forests, mountains, and swamps, and many wild animals. Early colonists would rather face the familiar demons of the sea than tackle unknown wild beasts in the forests.
It is known that early settlers seldom ventured inland for fear of a number of creatures: Wolves, snakes, aurochs (wild cattle), boars, bears and large cats were just some of the animal life of ancient Scotland. Even the giant sabretoothed cats, legend has it were still alive early in the first century A.D. This is where the name of the town of Caithness, (place of the great cat) in the far north of Scotland got its name.
Note: It is now realized that Woolly Mammoths actually hung on in the periphery islands of Svalbard (north of Norway) until 5,000 BC, much longer than anywhere else, and then it is thought they were eliminated by the hand of man. Sabre-toothed Cats have been officially designated as being extinct at the end of the paleothic period, which ended 11,000 years ago.
A Sabre-toothed tiger who may have existed in the region up to 100 AD.
However, it is entirely possible that a sub-species of sabre-toothed cats could have existed in the relatively safe peripheral lands of northern Scotland for another 8,900 years until man, their only superior, eventually made contact with them.
Stone age men built great circular Cairns to honour their dead. These circular stone monoliths are found in several places - in the Orkneys in the extreme north (See picture to right). The "Beaker people ,"who came from northern Europe around 3,300BC, were a different sort than the earlier Iberian stock. Their heads were much broader and round. They were relatively tall, pale skinned and some had red hair.
Evidence of contact between these new people and their continental ancestors have been discovered and seem to indicate a flourishing trade between ancient Scotland and Europe.
It is thought by many scholars that a union between these two peoples resulted in the creation of the pre-Celtic stock eventually loosely called "Picti" by the Romans and "Cruithne" by the Celts.
The Orkney Islands became a stone fortress with its many stone settlements, which gave their name to this culture. By the time Rome became a world empire, the Orcadians were recognized by Rome as a sea power. Excavations have determined these people were a slim, swarthy Caucasian race, with long, narrow heads.
The link these early inhabitants to their Iberian ancestors can be found in the many spiral pattern grooves cut into the rocks and boulders of this northern land and which can also be seen in Spain.
Farming arrived in Scotland about 4,000 BC and replaced the nomadic way of life.
A hunting society required constant movement to ensure an adequate food supply.
The Greeks sailed out in to the Atlantic and hugged the European coast. They discovered new lands and peoples. They sailed around Britain and called the people in the north "Albiones." The Greek translation means "White people." When the Romans invaded Britain, they called the northern aristocrats who led their "Briton" infantry;"Caledonii."
The first historical reference to the Picts was in 297AD, when they were mentioned as enemies of Rome. Many historians assumed that the Picts were simply another Celtic tribe. Although it is quite probable there was considerable Celtic stock in some of the southern tribes in the loose federation of tribes which eventually made up the Pictish Empire, it is the opinion of many historians that the Picts north of the Firth of Forth were made up mostly from the earlier, pre-Celtic people of northern Britain.
However, when a Roman fleet drove deep into the "Caledonian" homeland in 208 AD, they encountered "Orcadians" who voluntarily allied themselves with Rome against the Caledonii. This local reaction is evidence there was a hierarchical society there where some people considered themselves to be subjugated by the Picts.
The Picts had a tradition that they were descended from Scythians who fled before the Sarmatian onslaught which brought about their destruction as an Empire. The Scythian Empire began about 700BC reached its zenith at 400BC and vanished around 300 BC. The Picts and Scythians had many similarities, so there must have been considerable contact, if not intermingling, between their societies .
The Picts were of short stature and dark complexion. They colonized central and northern Scotland, at about 1000 BC, and entered northern Ireland about 200 AD. They were a fierce disciplined race with formidable military skills.
These were the northern warriors who the Romans fought and called 'Caledonians.' They fought so savagely that the Romans eventually built "Hadrian's Wall" to keep them out, then the Antonnine Wall further north. Eventually the Picts harassed the Romans to the point where they left Britain in 453 AD.
No one knows when the Picts arrived in Scotland, or whether they were there all the time. Some historians claim they arrived in Scotland about 1000 BC, others about 500 BC, which would have been near the peak of Scythian power. It is acknowledged that the Celts flourished in what is now Austria while the Scythians were still forming their Empire on the eastern Steppes, and were greatly influenced by their eastern neighbours.
History records that St. Columba had to use an interpreter to speak to the powerful Pict King Bridei IV (554-584AD), clear evidence that the Picts did not speak the language of the Irish Celts.
A settled existence brought with it immense cultural changes.
They left ornate symbol stones and advanced practices of art and culture as well as a formidable military. A cultured people, there can be no doubt, and it is acknowledged they were an older race than either the Irish or the Scots. Unfortunately, their form of the Gaelic language was much different from that of the Scots, Irish, or Welsh, and with no written history, little else is known.
The Saxons in northern England at first kept clear of them, but as they began to drift northwards, the Saxons encountered these northern people and were defeated by them in a major battle in 685 AD. Had the Picts lost, there would be no Scotland today.
Some Scottish Highland clans claim direct descendency from the Picts. The Gregor clan is universally recognized as the senior member of this group.
The term 'Celt' is a generic term encompassing many 'sub races' i.e.: The Celts in France were called Gauls by the Romans; There also were the Veneti of southern Brittany; the Atrebates, the Helvetii from Switzerland and many others. The Celts, ( the word is derived from the Greek word "Keltoi") the name given to these people by the Greeks, were dominant in northern and western Europe during the rise of the Roman Empire.
They were the first race to use the long sword and small shield in Europe. In Scotland, they developed a language with two distinct variants, in the north and in the south, with the firth of Lorne dividing the two.
At about 500 BC, Celtic people first came to Britain from Europe; (mainly form western Germany and northern France). A nomadic people whose culture spread from Eastern Europe to Iberia (Spain). As a warrior culture, it was a Celtic army which nearly destroyed Rome in her early days and thus forever made themselves an unforgivable enemy of Rome.
There were also a race of Celts in Ireland who the Romans called Hibernii. The Romans never invaded "Hibernia" or "Ireland" as they considered the risk of fighting off these ferocious Celts was not worth it. Therefore, they were free to develop and raid Roman provinces in southern Britain. The various Celtic tribes were bound together by common speech, customs, and religion, rather than by any well defined central governments. The absence of political unity contributed substantially to the extinction of their way of life, making them vulnerable to their enemies. They were being pressured in the east by the Teutonic races who were themselves being pressured by others. The Celts first fought the disciplined Roman legions, then the ruthless Teutonic tribesmen called "Angles, Belgae, Saxons, Jutes, Franks, Chatti, the Cherusci, the Chauci, and lastly, the giant seafaring Vikings, who raided and plundered northern Europe and Britain. Their economy was pastoral and agricultural, and they had no real urban way of life. Each tribe was headed by a King, and was divided into classes: priests, warrior nobles, and commoners. Hundreds of years before Christ, the Celts built hill forts all over Britain as tribal warfare became a way of life. They also built artificial islands called Crannogs for shelter against wild animals and invaders. These were small circular huts, built on wood pilings over a pond or other body of water for protection. They needed the protection as sea raiders (not Vikings yet) raided the coasts in search for slaves for the Roman Empire a century before Christ. To better protect themselves, the Celts built fortified towers called Brochs. Celtic mythology, which included earth gods, various woodland spirits, and sun deities, was particularly rich in elfin demons and tutelaries,beings that still pervade the folklore of peoples of Celtic ancestry.
These 'Gaels' originally came from Spain, and were ambitious, quarrelsome, and cunning, even more so than the Picts. They crossed the narrow channels into Britain, at first in raiding parties known to the Romans as 'Scotti'. When the Romans left in about 453 AD, the Scots formed small communities in Cornwall, North Wales and south-west Scotland.The Scots raided the costs of Britain and finally settled in south-west Scotland around 500AD. Scots entered Scotland in large numbers via Ireland about 500 AD. Dal Riata was the ancient Kingdom of the Scots and stretched from east Ireland through the Western Isles to Argyll, in western Scotland. Northern Ireland was in fact called "Scotia" by the Romans.
A Scot in traditional clothing.
The Celtic Gaels of the north of Ireland were of the race of Niall (O'Neil). These Gaelic Scots migrated to the Argyll area of south-western Scotland in small numbers around 410 AD. These Gaels gave Scotland its Gaelic language, and many of its older clans claim pure Gaelic descent from the original clan O'Neil. Some Scottish Highland clans claim descent from the original O'Neil rulers of Dalriada, and the servants of Saint Columba, among them, the powerful Clan Chattan confederacy.
The Scots were ambitious, quarrelsome, and fierce fighters. Their association with the Picts was a love-hate relationship; at times they would cooperate to beat off common enemies, at other times they would be at each others' throats.
In 843, Kenneth MacAlpin, 34th king of Dalriada, asserted himself through his mother's line as the first Scottish King of the Picts and Scots. Kenneth united the domains of the two rival races, although he managed to effectively replaced Pictic with Irish Gaelic. He also instituted the use of surnames, further eroding Pictic culture. His conquest was not merely a combination of the Picts and Scots, it was in fact a take-over by the Scots, and Scottish culture became paramount.
The reach of Scotic/Pictic kings at that time did not include the western or northern Islands nor some areas along the western and northern coasts. Those were still in the realm of the Kings of Norway until later in the 12th century, when Norwegian sea power finally began to decline.
Through it all, there was considerable intermarriage, more often than not, resulting in the disappearance of the Pictic family lines. The Picts used the matrilineal family lines to establish succession. The Scots used the paternal line. When they meshed, the family took the name of the male line due to the subordinate role of women of the day. Regardless, for many years after the Scots attained the unified Scot/Pict throne, the matrilinear line was utilized for the succession of Royalty.
The Gaelic Britons of Strathclyde would eventually dominate the west of lower Scotland, Wales, and some areas of England. In Scotland, their lands stretched throughout Strathclyde, which includes the present city of Glasgow. They were the ancestors of many Clans, including that of William Wallace (Welshman), Drummond, . Their stronghold rock fortress at Dumbarton was impregnable for hundreds of years. They eventually settled into a partnership with Scotland with control over local affairs. Their language slowly crumbled and disappeared, similar to the fate of the Pictic language.
Note: Similar to the extinct Mammoths and Sabre-toothed cats before them, the Celts melted away under the predation of superior numbers and technology, although the Celts on the periphery in Ireland and northern Britain flourished and outlasted them all.
The teutonic Anglo-Saxons over-whelmed the Celts and established their own nation states in Britain and Europe.A Teutonic race from Germany,
they arrived in southeast Scotland through England. They imparted their name to England (Angle-land). Warlike, arrogant, ruthless, and very aggressive, they drove out the Britons living near them, and carved out their own 'Lothian' kingdom.
The Anglo-Saxons were the only non-Celtic race of the four main early settler races of Scotland. This would prove to be a major problem for the Celts later on, as they considered the Celtic races inferior and fair game. As a block, they yearned for a union of England and Scotland to 'put the majority Gaels in their place.'
They frequently intermarried with the Norman aristocrats that David I brought into Scotland; their progeny would be called 'Anglo-Norman' and would soon dominate Scotland to the detriment of all the Gaels to the north.
After they usurped the Scottish throne, their Kings never took the trouble to learn Gaelic, although it was the language of the majority in Scotland until the 'Clearances.' They would play a role out of proportion to their numbers. Highlanders derisively referred to these lowlanders as 'Saxons,' and strongly felt they were intruders in Scottish affairs.
In the 8th century (793), the Norse Vikings, or plunderers from Norway, were attracted by the wealth of the Monasteries and the easy treasures to be found within. Silver, gold and precious manuscripts were sources of great booty. The Norse Viking raided the coasts of Britain and Western Europe, burning and pillaging at will for 300 years.
A viking in front of a burning long boat. Possibly a funeral pyre.
Islands like Iona were frequent targets. In 806, the entire Iona community was murdered and plundered.
The Monks of St. Ninian's Island, Shetland, were also attacked, and the monks, pre-warned, quickly buried all that was of value. The Monks hidden hoard, (from the Vikings), of 8th century gold and silver wasn't discovered until 1958. It is a dazzling display of gold and silver relics in remarkably good condition that is as impressive today, as it must have been to the treasure hungry sea raiders in the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries.
By the end of the 9th century the Vikings came to Scotland to raid and settle. In general none of the natives were able in any significant way, to stop the Northmen whatsoever. They appeared unbeatable, even when outnumbered.
However, the Scots seemed to have something in common with the Viking and after a while intermarriages, both common and noble, with established clans took place in north Scotland (Caithness and Sutherland) and extensively throughout the Western Isles of Scotland, called the Inner and Outer Hebrides. Indeed, until the 12th century AD, these areas owed allegiance not to the Scottish King, but to the Norwegian monarch. These clans, the largest of which was Clan MacDonald (Lords of the Isles), were known as 'Norse-Scots.'
The most likely reason for the massive numbers of Scandinavians looking for new lands was overpopulation in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, but the truth is we really don't know why the Vikings struck out. Perhaps it was simply their adventurous spirit.
It is well known that they travelled all over Europe, up the Volga deep into Russia, and down through the Mediterranean and out into the Atlantic as far as Newfoundland; feats which would not be duplicated for nearly a thousand years..
The Norwegian or 'Norse' Vikings are the specific ethnic Vikings that plundered, then settled in Scotland and parts of Ireland. In about 800 AD., they settled Jarlshof on the Shetland Islands; also Lewis, in the Hebrides, where over one hundred villages still have Norse names. They were derisively referred to by Picts and Scots as 'heathen Norse' because they were not Christianised yet, while the Picts and Scots were.
Rurik, Viking founder of Russia From the Scottish Western Isles the Norse-Scots settled large areas of Ireland; Iceland; The Isle of Skye, (next to the Scottish mainland); The Isles of Lewis and Harris (lands the Clan MacLeod of Lewis and Harris respectively that they eventually settled), and many other islands in and around Scotland, Ireland, and England.
Their Longships gave them mastery of the seas. Their fearless style of combat, and pagan belief in glory from death in battle, and their large size for their day, made them nearly invincible foes. Every Viking warrior knew the surest route to Valhalla was to die in battle, so if there was a choice - a Viking would fight every time. Simply put, in a brutal time, they were the most brutish.
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Sacred Texts Native American Southwest Index Previous Next
In the beginning when animals were created and named, the carnivorous animals and birds fasted for their prey. For four days they fasted from food and drink. The third day Coyote got very hungry. He took sacred meal and went into the outer room and threw it into the water and drank it. That same day Wildcat said to Coyote, "You are getting thirsty." "No; I am not. Sister, if you want to drink, take sacred meal and go into the outer room and drink. That's what I did, and that's why I am not thirsty." So Wildcat went into the outer room and took sacred meal and put it in water and drank. She came back into the inner room.
On the fifth day those who had fasted were allotted the animals that were to be their prey. Coyote and Wildcat were told that they could get their living with hardship and great labor (because they had broken the fast), but the others would never fail. So Mountain Lion was chief of all the animals for he had completed all the observances of the fast.
p. 9
8:9 Informant 1. Notes, p. 206.
Next: Heluta and Nyenyega Contest for a Wife
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Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Diagram of an RTG used on the Cassini probe
A radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG, RITEG) is an electrical generator that uses an array of thermocouples to convert the heat released by the decay of a suitable radioactive material into electricity by the Seebeck effect. This generator has no moving parts.
RTGs have been used as power sources in satellites, space probes, and unmanned remote facilities such as a series of lighthouses built by the former Soviet Union inside the Arctic Circle. RTGs are usually the most desirable power source for unmaintained situations that need a few hundred watts (or less) of power for durations too long for fuel cells, batteries, or generators to provide economically, and in places where solar cells are not practical. Safe use of RTGs requires containment of the radioisotopes long after the productive life of the unit.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: History
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
A pellet of PuO2 as used in the RTG for the Cassini and Galileo missions. This photo was taken after insulating the pellet under a graphite blanket for several minutes and then removing the blanket. The pellet is glowing red hot because of the heat generated by radioactive decay (primarily α). The initial output is 62 watts.
The RTG was invented in 1954 by Mound Laboratories scientists Ken Jordan and John Birden. They were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2013. Jordan & Birden worked on an Army Signal Corps contract (R-65-8- 998 11-SC-03-91) beginning on January 1, 1957, to conduct research on radioactive materials and thermocouples suitable for the direct conversion of heat to electrical energy using Polonium-210 as the heat source. RTGs were developed in the US during the late 1950s by Mound Laboratories in Miamisburg, Ohio under contract with the United States Atomic Energy Commission. The project was led by Dr. Bertram C. Blanke.
The first RTG launched into space by the United States was SNAP 3B in 1961 powered by 96 grams of plutonium-238 metal, aboard the Navy Transit 4A spacecraft. One of the first terrestrial uses of RTGs was in 1966 by the US Navy at uninhabited Fairway Rock in Alaska. RTGs were used at that site until 1995.
A common RTG application is spacecraft power supply. Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP) units were used for probes that traveled far from the Sun rendering solar panels impractical. As such, they were used with Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Galileo, Ulysses, Cassini, New Horizons and the Mars Science Laboratory. RTGs were used to power the two Viking landers and for the scientific experiments left on the Moon by the crews of Apollo 12 through 17 (SNAP 27s). Because the Apollo 13 moon landing was aborted, its RTG rests in the South Pacific Ocean, in the vicinity of the Tonga Trench. RTGs were also used for the Nimbus, Transit and LES satellites. By comparison, only a few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A.
In addition to spacecraft, the Soviet Union constructed many unmanned lighthouses and navigation beacons powered by RTGs. Powered by strontium-90 (Sr) (a material with potential use in a "dirty bomb") they are very reliable and provide a steady source of power. Most are unprotected, for example by fences or warning signs, and the locations of some of these lighthouses are no longer known due to poor record keeping. In one instance, the radioactive compartments were opened by a thief. In another case, three woodsmen in Tsalendzhikha Region, Georgia came across two ceramic RTG heat sources that had been stripped of their shielding. Two of the three were later hospitalized with severe radiation burns after carrying the sources on their backs. The units were eventually recovered and isolated.
There are approximately 1,000 such RTGs in Russia. All of them have long exhausted their 10-year engineered life spans. They are likely no longer functional, and may be in need of dismantling. Some of them have become the prey of metal hunters, who strip the RTGs' metal casings, regardless of the risk of radioactive contamination.
The United States Air Force uses RTGs to power remote sensing stations for Top-ROCC and SEEK IGLOO radar systems predominantly located in Alaska.
In the past, small "plutonium cells" (very small Pu-powered RTGs) were used in implanted heart pacemakers to ensure a very long "battery life". As of 2004, about 90 were still in use. The Mound Laboratory Cardiac Pacemaker program began on June 1, 1966, in conjunction with NUMEC. [4] When it was recognized that the heat source would not remain intact through cremation, the program was cancelled in 1972 because 100% assurance could not be guaranteed that a cremation event would not occur.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Design
The design of an RTG is simple by the standards of nuclear technology: the main component is a sturdy container of a radioactive material (the fuel). Thermocouples are placed in the walls of the container, with the outer end of each thermocouple connected to a heat sink. Radioactive decay of the fuel produces heat. It is the temperature difference between the fuel and the heat sink that allows the thermocouples to generate electricity.
A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that can convert thermal energy directly into electrical energy, using the Seebeck effect. It is made of two kinds of metal (or semiconductors) that can both conduct electricity. They are connected to each other in a closed loop. If the two junctions are at different temperatures, an electric current will flow in the loop.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Fuels
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Criteria for selection of isotopes
The radioactive material used in RTGs must have several characteristics:
1. Its half-life must be long enough so that it will release energy at a relatively constant rate for a reasonable amount of time. The amount of energy released per time (power) of a given quantity is inversely proportional to half-life. An isotope with twice the half-life and the same energy per decay will release power at half the rate per mole. Typical half-lives for radioisotopes used in RTGs are therefore several decades, although isotopes with shorter half-lives could be used for specialized applications.
2. For spaceflight use, the fuel must produce a large amount of power per mass and volume (density). Density and weight are not as important for terrestrial use, unless there are size restrictions. The decay energy can be calculated if the energy of radioactive radiation or the mass loss before and after radioactive decay is known. Energy release per decay is proportional to power production per mole. Alpha decays in general release about 10 times as much energy as the beta decay of strontium-90 or caesium-137.
3. Radiation must be of a type easily absorbed and transformed into thermal radiation, preferably alpha radiation. Beta radiation can emit considerable gamma/X-ray radiation through bremsstrahlung secondary radiation production and therefore requires heavy shielding. Isotopes must not produce significant amounts of gamma, neutron radiation or penetrating radiation in general through other decay modes or decay chain products.
The first two criteria limit the number of possible fuels to fewer than 30 atomic isotopes within the entire table of nuclides.
Plutonium-238, curium-244 and strontium-90 are the most often cited candidate isotopes, but other isotopes such as polonium-210, promethium-147, caesium-137, cerium-144, ruthenium-106, cobalt-60, curium-242, americium-241 and thulium isotopes have also been studied.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Pu
Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 87.7 years, reasonable power density of 0.54 watts per gram, and exceptionally low gamma and neutron radiation levels. Pu has the lowest shielding requirements; Only three candidate isotopes meet the last criterion (not all are listed above) and need less than 25 mm of lead shielding to block the radiation. Pu (the best of these three) needs less than 2.5 mm, and in many cases, no shielding is needed in a Pu RTG, as the casing itself is adequate. Pu has become the most widely used fuel for RTGs, in the form of plutonium(IV) oxide (PuO2). However plutonium dioxide containing a natural abundance of oxygen emits ~23x10 n/sec/g of plutonium-238. This emission rate is relatively high compared to the neutron emission rate of plutonium-238 metal. The metal containing no light element impurities emits ~2.8x10 n/sec/g of plutonium-238. These neutrons are produced by the spontaneous fission of plutonium-238. The difference in the emission rates of the metal and the oxide is due mainly to the alpha, neutron reaction with the oxygen-18 and oxygen-17 present in the oxide. The normal amount of oxygen-18 present in the natural form is 0.204% while that of oxygen-17 is 0.037%. The reduction of the oxygen-17 and oxygen-18 present in plutonium dioxide will result in a much lower neutron emission rate for the oxide; this can be accomplished by a gas phase O2 exchange method. Regular production batches of PuO2 particles precipitated as a hydroxide were used to show that large production batches could be effectively O2-exchanged on a routine basis. High-fired PuO2 microspheres were successfully O2-exchanged showing that an exchange will take place regardless of the previous heat treatment history of the PuO2. [Neutron Emission Rate Reduction in PuO2 by Oxygen Exchange, C. B. Chadwell and T. C. Elswick, Mound Laboratory Document MLM-1844, 9/24/1971 ] This lowering of the neutron emission rate of PuO2 containing normal oxygen by a factor of 5 was discovered during the Cardiac Pacemaker research at Mound in 1966, due in part to Mound's experience with production of stable isotopes beginning in 1960. For production of the large heat sources the shielding required would have been prohibitive without this process. See the Pu-238 heat sources fabricated at Mound: revised table from "RTG: A Source of Power; A History of the Radioisotopic Thermoelectric Generators Fueled at Mound" by Carol Craig, MLM-MU-82-72-0006. [5]
Unlike the latter RTG fuels, Pu must be specifically synthesized and is not abundant as a nuclear waste product. At present only Russia has maintained consistent Pu production, while the United States restarted production at circa 1.5 kg a year in 2013 after a c. 25-year hiatus.
At present these are the only countries with declared production of Pu in quantities useful for RTGs. Pu is produced at typically 85% purity and its purity decreases over time.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Sr
Strontium-90 has been used by the Soviet Union in terrestrial RTGs. Sr decays by β emission, with minor γ emission. While its half life of 28.8 years is much shorter than that of Pu, it also has a lower decay energy with a power density of 0.46 watts per gram. Because the energy output is lower it reaches lower temperatures than Pu, which results in lower RTG efficiency. Sr is a high yield waste product of nuclear fission and is available in large quantities at a low price.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Po
Some prototype RTGs, first built in 1958 by the US Atomic Energy Commission, have used polonium-210. This isotope provides phenomenal power density (pure Po emits 140 W/g) because of its high decay rate, but has limited use because of its very short half-life of 138 days. A half-gram sample of Po reaches temperatures of over 500 °C (900 °F).
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Am
Americium-241 is a potential candidate isotope with a longer half-life than Pu: Am has a half-life of 432 years and could hypothetically power a device for centuries. However, the power density of Am is only 1/4 that of Pu, and Am produces more penetrating radiation through decay chain products than Pu and needs more shielding. Even so, its shielding requirements in an RTG are the second lowest of all possible isotopes: only Pu requires less. With a current global shortage of Pu, Am is being studied as RTG fuel by ESA. An advantage over Pu is that it is produced as nuclear waste and is nearly isotopically pure. Prototype designs of Am RTGs expect 2-2.2 We/kg for 5-50 We RTGs design, putting Am RTGs at parity with Pu RTGs within that power range.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Life span
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Sr-powered Soviet RTGs in dilapidated condition.
Most RTGs use Pu, which decays with a half-life of 87.7 years. RTGs using this material will therefore diminish in power output by a factor of 1−0.5, or 0.787%, per year.
One example is the RTG used by the Voyager probes. In the year 2000, 23 years after production, the radioactive material inside the RTG had decreased in power by 16.6%, i.e. providing 83.4% of its initial output; starting with a capacity of 470 W, after this length of time it would have a capacity of only 392 W. A related loss of power in the Voyager RTGs is the degrading properties of the bi-metallic thermocouples used to convert thermal energy into electrical energy; the RTGs were working at about 67% of their total original capacity instead of the expected 83.4%. By the beginning of 2001, the power generated by the Voyager RTGs had dropped to 315 W for Voyager 1 and to 319 W for Voyager 2.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
NASA is developing a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator in which the thermocouples would be made of skutterudite, which can function with a smaller temperature difference than the current tellurium designs. This would mean that an otherwise similar RTG would generate 25% more power at the beginning of a mission and at least 50% more after seventeen years. NASA hopes to use the design on the next New Frontiers mission.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Efficiency
RTGs use thermocouples to convert heat from the radioactive material into electricity. Thermocouples, though very reliable and long-lasting, are very inefficient; efficiencies above 10% have never been achieved and most RTGs have efficiencies between 3–7%. Thermoelectric materials in space missions to date have included silicon–germanium alloys, lead telluride and tellurides of antimony, germanium and silver (TAGS). Studies have been done on improving efficiency by using other technologies to generate electricity from heat. Achieving higher efficiency would mean less radioactive fuel is needed to produce the same amount of power, and therefore a lighter overall weight for the generator. This is a critically important factor in spaceflight launch cost considerations.
Thermoelectric effect
Thermoelectric Seebeck power module.jpg
A thermionic converter-an energy conversion device which relies on the principle of thermionic emission-can achieve efficiencies between 10–20%, but requires higher temperatures than those at which standard RTGs run. Some prototype Po RTGs have used thermionics, and potentially other extremely radioactive isotopes could also provide power by this means, but short half-lives make these unfeasible. Several space-bound nuclear reactors have used thermionics, but nuclear reactors are usually too heavy to use on most space probes.
Thermophotovoltaic cells work by the same principles as a photovoltaic cell, except that they convert infrared light emitted by a hot surface rather than visible light into electricity. Thermophotovoltaic cells have an efficiency slightly higher than thermocouples and can be overlaid on top of thermocouples, potentially doubling efficiency. Systems with radioisotope generators simulated by electric heaters have demonstrated efficiencies of 20%, but have not yet been tested with radioisotopes. Some theoretical thermophotovoltaic cell designs have efficiencies up to 30%, but these have yet to be built or confirmed. Thermophotovoltaic cells and silicon thermocouples degrade faster than metal thermocouples, especially in the presence of ionizing radiation.
Dynamic generators can provide power at more than 4 times the conversion efficiency of RTGs. NASA and DOE have been developing a next-generation radioisotope-fueled power source called the Stirling Radioisotope Generator (SRG) that uses free-piston Stirling engines coupled to linear alternators to convert heat to electricity. SRG prototypes demonstrated an average efficiency of 23%. Greater efficiency can be achieved by increasing the temperature ratio between the hot and cold ends of the generator. The use of non-contacting moving parts, non-degrading flexural bearings, and a lubrication-free and hermetically sealed environment have, in test units, demonstrated no appreciable degradation over years of operation. Experimental results demonstrate that an SRG could continue running for decades without maintenance. Vibration can be eliminated as a concern by implementation of dynamic balancing or use of dual-opposed piston movement. Potential applications of a Stirling radioisotope power system include exploration and science missions to deep-space, Mars, and the Moon.
The increased efficiency of the SRG may be demonstrated by a theoretical comparison of thermodynamic properties, as follows. These calculations are simplified and do not account for the decay of thermal power input due to the long half-life of the radioisotopes used in these generators. The assumptions for this analysis include that both systems are operating at steady state under the conditions observed in experimental procedures (see table below for values used). Both generators can be simplified to heat engines to be able to compare their current efficiencies to their corresponding Carnot efficiencies. The system is assumed to be the components, apart from the heat source and heat sink.
The thermal efficiency, denoted ηth, is given by:
Where primes ( ' ) denote the time derivative.
From a general form of the First Law of Thermodynamics, in rate form:
Assuming the system is operating at steady state and ,
ηth, then, can be calculated to be 110 W / 2000 W = 5.5% (or 140 W / 500 W = 28% for the SRG). Additionally, the Second Law efficiency, denoted ηII, is given by:
Where ηth,rev is the Carnot efficiency, given by:
In which Theat sink is the external temperature (which has been measured to be 510 K for the MMRTG (Multi-Mission RTG) and 363 K for the SRG) and Theat source is the temperature of the MMRTG, assumed 823 K (1123 K for the SRG). This yields a Second Law efficiency of 14.46% for the MMRTG (or 41.37% for the SRG).
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Safety
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Diagram of a stack of general purpose heat source modules as used in RTGs
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Radioactive contamination
RTGs pose a risk of radioactive contamination: if the container holding the fuel leaks, the radioactive material may contaminate the environment.
For spacecraft, the main concern is that if an accident were to occur during launch or a subsequent passage of a spacecraft close to Earth, harmful material could be released into the atmosphere; therefore their use in spacecraft and elsewhere has attracted controversy.
However, this event is not considered likely with current RTG cask designs. For instance, the environmental impact study for the Cassini–Huygens probe launched in 1997 estimated the probability of contamination accidents at various stages in the mission. The probability of an accident occurring which caused radioactive release from one or more of its 3 RTGs (or from its 129 radioisotope heater units) during the first 3.5 minutes following launch was estimated at 1 in 1,400; the chances of a release later in the ascent into orbit were 1 in 476; after that the likelihood of an accidental release fell off sharply to less than 1 in a million. If an accident which had the potential to cause contamination occurred during the launch phases (such as the spacecraft failing to reach orbit), the probability of contamination actually being caused by the RTGs was estimated at about 1 in 10. The launch was successful and Cassini–Huygens reached Saturn.
The plutonium-238 used in these RTGs has a half-life of 87.74 years, in contrast to the 24,110 year half-life of plutonium-239 used in nuclear weapons and reactors. A consequence of the shorter half-life is that plutonium-238 is about 275 times more radioactive than plutonium-239 (i.e. 17.3 curies (640 GBq)/g compared to 0.063 curies (2.3 GBq)/g). For instance, 3.6 kg of plutonium-238 undergoes the same number of radioactive decays per second as 1 tonne of plutonium-239. Since the morbidity of the two isotopes in terms of absorbed radioactivity is almost exactly the same, plutonium-238 is around 275 times more toxic by weight than plutonium-239.
The alpha radiation emitted by either isotope will not penetrate the skin, but it can irradiate internal organs if plutonium is inhaled or ingested. Particularly at risk is the skeleton, the surface of which is likely to absorb the isotope, and the liver, where the isotope will collect and become concentrated.
There have been several known accidents involving RTG-powered spacecraft:
1. The first one was a launch failure on 21 April 1964 in which the U.S. Transit-5BN-3 navigation satellite failed to achieve orbit and burned up on re-entry north of Madagascar. The 17,000 Ci (630 TBq) plutonium metal fuel in its SNAP-9a RTG was injected into the atmosphere over the Southern Hemisphere where it burned up, and traces of plutonium-238 were detected in the area a few months later. This incident resulted in the NASA Safety Committee requiring intact reentry in future RTG launches, which in turn impacted the design of RTGs in the pipeline. One innovative change was to transport the SNAP-27 heat source in a graphite cask on the moon lander leg and have an astronaut use a tool to remove it and insert it into the generator assembly. Alan Bean did this first on Apollo 12 with some difficulty when he didn't wait for the assembly to temperature-stabilize after removing the cask cover and the resulting friction between the SNAP-27 flange and the edge of the cask cavity prevented removal at first.
2. The second was the Nimbus B-1 weather satellite whose launch vehicle was deliberately destroyed shortly after launch on 21 May 1968 because of erratic trajectory. Launched from the Vandenberg Air Force Base, its SNAP-19 RTG containing relatively inert plutonium dioxide was recovered intact from the seabed in the Santa Barbara Channel five months later and no environmental contamination was detected.
3. In 1969 the launch of the first Lunokhod lunar rover mission failed, spreading polonium 210 over a large area of Russia
4. The failure of the Apollo 13 mission in April 1970 meant that the Lunar Module reentered the atmosphere carrying an RTG and burned up over Fiji. It carried a SNAP-27 RTG containing 44,500 Ci (1,650 TBq) of plutonium dioxide in a graphite cask on the lander leg which survived reentry into the Earth's atmosphere intact, as it was designed to do, the trajectory being arranged so that it would plunge into 6–9 kilometers of water in the Tonga trench in the Pacific Ocean. The absence of plutonium-238 contamination in atmospheric and seawater sampling confirmed the assumption that the cask is intact on the seabed. The cask is expected to contain the fuel for at least 10 half-lives (i.e. 870 years). The US Department of Energy has conducted seawater tests and determined that the graphite casing, which was designed to withstand reentry, is stable and no release of plutonium should occur. Subsequent investigations have found no increase in the natural background radiation in the area. The Apollo 13 accident represents an extreme scenario because of the high re-entry velocities of the craft returning from cis-lunar space (the region between Earth's atmosphere and the Moon). This accident has served to validate the design of later-generation RTGs as highly safe.
5. Mars 96 launched by Russia in 1996, but failed to leave Earth orbit, and re-entered the atmosphere a few hours later. The two RTGs onboard carried in total 200 g of plutonium and are assumed to have survived reentry as they were designed to do. They are thought to now lie somewhere in a northeast-southwest running oval 320 km long by 80 km wide which is centred 32 km east of Iquique, Chile.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
A SNAP-27 RTG deployed by the astronauts of Apollo 14 identical to the one lost in the reentry of Apollo 13
One RTG, the SNAP-19C, was lost near the top of Nanda Devi mountain in India in 1965 when it was stored in a rock formation near the top of the mountain in the face of a snowstorm before it could be installed to power a CIA remote automated station collecting telemetry from the Chinese rocket testing facility. The seven capsules were carried down the mountain onto a glacier by an avalanche and never recovered. It is most likely that they melted through the glacier and were pulverized, whereupon the plutonium zirconium alloy fuel oxidized soil particles that are moving in a plume under the glacier. This book describes the adventure: [Spies in the Himalayas, M. S. Kohli & Kenneth Conboy, Univ. Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66049]
To minimize the risk of the radioactive material being released, the fuel is stored in individual modular units with their own heat shielding. They are surrounded by a layer of iridium metal and encased in high-strength graphite blocks. These two materials are corrosion- and heat-resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire assembly against the heat of reentering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also stored in a ceramic form that is heat-resistant, minimising the risk of vaporization and aerosolization. The ceramic is also highly insoluble.
The SNAP-27 heat source traveled to the moon in a graphite cask attached to the lander leg from which an astronaut removed it with a handling tool after a successful landing and placed it in the RTG.
Many Beta-M RTGs produced by the Soviet Union to power lighthouses and beacons have become orphaned sources of radiation. Several of these units have been illegally dismantled for scrap metal (resulting in the complete exposure of the Sr-90 source), fallen into the ocean, or have defective shielding due to poor design or physical damage. The US Department of Defense cooperative threat reduction program has expressed concern that material from the Beta-M RTGs can be used by terrorists to construct a dirty bomb.
28 U.S. space missions have safely flown radioisotope energy sources since 1961.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Nuclear fission
RTGs and nuclear power reactors use very different nuclear reactions. Nuclear power reactors use controlled nuclear fission in a chain reaction. The rate of the reaction can be controlled with neutron absorbers, so power can be varied with demand or shut off entirely for maintenance. However, care is needed to avoid uncontrolled operation at dangerously high power levels.
Chain reactions do not occur in RTGs, so heat is produced at an unchangeable, though steadily decreasing rate that depends only on the amount of fuel isotope and its half-life. An accidental power excursion is impossible. However, if a launch or re-entry accident occurs and the fuel is dispersed, the combined power output of the radionuclides now set free does not drop. In an RTG, heat generation cannot be varied with demand or shut off when not needed. Therefore, auxiliary power supplies (such as rechargeable batteries) may be needed to meet peak demand, and adequate cooling must be provided at all times including the pre-launch and early flight phases of a space mission.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Subcritical multiplicator RTG
Because of the shortage of plutonium-238, a new kind of RTG assisted by subcritical reactions has been proposed. In this kind of RTG, the alpha decay from the radioisotope is also used in alpha-neutron reactions with a suitable element such as beryllium. This way a long-lived neutron source is produced. Because the system is working with a criticality close to but less than 1, i.e. Keff < 1, a subcritical multiplication is achieved which increases the neutron background and produces energy from fission reactions. Although the number of fissions produced in the RTG is very small (making their gamma radiation negligible), because each fission reaction releases almost 30 times more energy than each alpha decay (200 MeV compared to 6 MeV), up to a 10% energy gain is attainable, which translates into a reduction of the Pu needed per mission. The idea was proposed to NASA in 2012 for the yearly NASA NSPIRE competition, which translated to Idaho National Laboratory at the Center for Space Nuclear Research (CSNR) in 2013 for studies of feasibility.. However the essentials are unmodified.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: RTG for interstellar probes
RTG have been proposed for use on realistic interstellar precursor missions and interstellar probes. An example of this is the Innovative Interstellar Explorer (2003–current) proposal from NASA. An RTG using Am was proposed for this type of mission in 2002. This could support mission extensions up to 1000 years on the interstellar probe, because the power output would be more stable in the long term than plutonium. Other isotopes for RTG were also examined in the study, looking at traits such as watt/gram, half-life, and decay products. An interstellar probe proposal from 1999 suggested using three advanced radioisotope power sources (ARPS).
The RTG electricity can be used for powering scientific instruments and communication to Earth on the probes. One mission proposed using the electricity to power ion engines, calling this method radioisotope electric propulsion (REP).
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Electrostatic-boosted radioisotope heat sources
A power enhancement for radioisotope heat sources based on a self-induced electrostatic field has been proposed. According to the authors, enhancements of up to 10% could be attainable using beta sources.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Models
A typical RTG is powered by radioactive decay and features electricity from thermoelectric conversion, but for the sake of knowledge, some systems with some variations on that concept are included here:
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Space
Name and model Used on (# of RTGs per user) Maximum output Radio-
Max fuel
used (kg)
Mass (kg) Power/mass (W/kg)
Electrical (W) Heat (W)
ASRG* prototype design (not launched), Discovery Program c. 140 (2x70) c. 500 Pu 1 34 4.1
MMRTG MSL/Curiosity rover c. 110 c. 2000 Pu c. 4 <45 2.4
GPHS-RTG Cassini (3), New Horizons (1), Galileo (2), Ulysses (1) 300 4400 Pu 7.8 55.9–57.8 5.2-5.4
MHW-RTG LES-8/9, Voyager 1 (3), Voyager 2 (3) 160 2400 Pu c. 4.5 37.7 4.2
SNAP-3B Transit-4A (1) 2.7 52.5 Pu ? 2.1 1.3
SNAP-9A Transit 5BN1/2 (1) 25 525 Pu c. 1 12.3 2.0
SNAP-19 Nimbus-3 (2), Pioneer 10 (4), Pioneer 11 (4) 40.3 525 Pu c. 1 13.6 2.9
modified SNAP-19 Viking 1 (2), Viking 2 (2) 42.7 525 Pu c. 1 15.2 2.8
SNAP-27 Apollo 12–17 ALSEP (1) 73 1,480 Pu 3.8 20 3.65
Buk (BES-5)** US-As (1) 3000 100,000 U 30 1000 3.0
SNAP-10A*** SNAP-10A (1) 600 30,000 Enriched uranium 431 1.4
* The ASRG is not really an RTG: it uses a Stirling power device that runs on radioisotope (see Stirling radioisotope generator).
** The BES-5 Buk (БЭС-5) reactor was a fast breeder reactor which used thermocouples based on semiconductors to convert heat directly into electricity.
*** The SNAP-10A used enriched uranium fuel, zirconium hydride as a moderator, liquid sodium potassium alloy coolant, and was activated or deactivated with beryllium reflectors. Reactor heat fed a thermoelectric conversion system for electrical production.
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Terrestrial
Name and model Use Maximum output Radioisotope Max fuel used
Mass (kg)
Electrical (W) Heat (W)
Beta-M Obsolete Soviet unmanned
lighthouses and beacons
10 230 Sr 0.26 560
Efir-MA 30 720 ? ? 1250
IEU-1 80 2200 ? ? 2500
IEU-2 14 580 ? ? 600
Gong 18 315 ? ? 600
Gorn 60 1100 Sr ? 1050
IEU-2M 20 690 ? ? 600
IEU-1M 120 (180) 2200 (3300) ? ? 2(3) × 1050
Sentinel 25 Remote U.S. arctic monitoring sites 9–20 SrTiO3 0.54 907–1814
Sentinel 100F 53 Sr2TiO4 1.77 1234
RIPPLE X Buoys, Lighthouses 33 SrTiO3 1500
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Nuclear power systems in space
Known spacecraft/nuclear power systems and their fate. Systems face a variety of fates, for example, Apollo's SNAP-27 were left on the Moon. Some other spacecraft also have small radioisotope heaters, for example each of the Mars Exploration Rovers have a 1 watt radioisotope heater. Spacecraft use different amounts of material, for example MSL Curiosity has 4.8 kg of plutonium-238 dioxide, while the Cassini spacecraft has 32.7 kg.
Name and/or model Launched Fate/location
MSL/Curiosity rover MMRTG (1) 2011 Mars surface
Apollo 12 SNAP-27 ALSEP 1969 Lunar surface (Ocean of Storms)
Apollo 13 SNAP-27 ALSEP 1970 Earth re-entry (over Pacific near Fiji)
Apollo 14 SNAP-27 ALSEP 1971 Lunar surface (Fra Mauro)
Apollo 15 SNAP-27 ALSEP 1971 Lunar surface (Hadley–Apennine)
Apollo 16 SNAP-27 ALSEP 1972 Lunar surface (Descartes Highlands)
Apollo 17 SNAP-27 ALSEP 1972 Lunar surface (Taurus–Littrow)
Transit-4A SNAP-3B (1) 1961 Earth orbit
Transit 5A3 SNAP-3 (1) 1963 Earth orbit
Transit 5BN-1 SNAP-3 (1) 1963 Earth orbit
Transit 5BN-2 SNAP-9A (1) 1963 Earth orbit
Transit 9 1964 Earth orbit
Transit 5B4 1964 Earth orbit
Transit 5B6 1965 Earth orbit
Transit 5B7 1965 Earth orbit
Transit 5BN-3 SNAP-9A (1) 1964 Failed to reach orbit
Nimbus-B SNAP-19 (2) 1968 Recovered after crash
Nimbus-3 SNAP-19 (2) 1969 Earth re-entry 1972
Pioneer 10 SNAP-19 (4) 1972 Ejected from Solar System
Pioneer 11 SNAP-19 (4) 1973 Ejected from Solar System
Viking 1 lander modified SNAP-19 1976 Mars surface (Chryse Planitia)
Viking 2 lander modified SNAP-19 1976 Mars surface (Utopia Planitia)
Cassini GPHS-RTG (3) 1997 Orbiting Saturn
New Horizons GPHS-RTG (1) 2006 Pluto and beyond
Galileo GPHS-RTG (2), 1989 Jupiter atmospheric entry
Ulysses GPHS-RTG (1) 1990 Heliocentric orbit
LES-8 MHW-RTG 1976 Near geostationary orbit
LES-9 MHW-RTG 1976 Near geostationary orbit
Voyager 1 MHW-RTG(3) 1977 Ejected from Solar System
Voyager 2 MHW-RTG(3) 1977 Ejected from Solar System
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: See also
• Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator
• Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter
• Atomic battery
• Betavoltaics
• Optoelectric nuclear battery
• Radioisotope heater units
• Radioactive isotope
• Thermionic converter
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: References
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54. "Transit". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 2013-05-07.
• Safety discussion of the RTGs used on the Cassini-Huygens mission.
• Nuclear Power in Space (PDF)
• Detailed report on Cassini RTG (PDF)
• Detailed lecture on RTG fuels (PDF)
• Detailed chart of all radioisotopes
• Stirling Thermoelectic Generator
• Toxicity profile for plutonium, Agency for Toxic substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, December 1990
• Environmental Impact of Cassini-Huygens Mission.
• Expanding Frontiers with Radioisotope Power Systems (PDF)
• [6]
• NASA Radioisotope Power Systems website – RTG page
• NASA JPL briefing, Expanding Frontiers with Radioisotope Power Systems – gives RTG information and a link to a longer presentation
• SpaceViews: The Cassini RTG Debate
• Stirling Radioisotope Generator
• DOE contributions – good links
• Idaho National Laboratory – Producer of RTGs
• Idaho National Laboratory MMRTG page with photo-based "virtual tour"
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator: Information in other languages
العربية بطارية نظائر مشعة
Български Термогенератор
Català Generador termoelèctric per radioisòtops
Čeština Radioizotopový termoelektrický generátor
Dansk Radioisotopgenerator
Deutsch Radionuklidbatterie
Eesti Radioisotoopgeneraator
Español Generador termoeléctrico de radioisótopos
Esperanto Radioizotopa termoelektra generatoro
فارسی مولد گرما-الکتریکی ایزوتوپی
Français Générateur thermoélectrique à radioisotope
Gaeilge Gineadóir teirmileictreach raidiseatóip
한국어 방사성동위원소 열전기 발전기
Հայերեն Իզոտոպային գեներատոր
Hrvatski Termoelektrični generator
Bahasa Indonesia Generator termoelektrik radioisotop
Italiano Generatore termoelettrico a radioisotopi
עברית גנרטור רדיואיזוטופי תרמואלקטרי
Қазақша Термоэлектрлік генератор
Latviešu Radioizotopiskais termoelektroģenerators
Lietuvių Radioizotopinis termoelektrinis generatorius
Magyar Radioizotópos termoelektromos generátor
Монгол Радиоизотоп цөмийн цахилгаан үүсгүүр
Nederlands Thermo-elektrische radio-isotopengenerator
日本語 放射性同位体熱電気転換器
Norsk bokmål Radioisotopgenerator
Norsk nynorsk Termoelektrisk generator
پښتو د راديوايزوټوپونو ترموبريښنایی جنريټر
Polski Radioizotopowy generator termoelektryczny
Português Gerador termoelétrico de radioisótopos
Русский Радиоизотопный термоэлектрический генератор
Simple English Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Slovenčina Rádioizotopový termoelektrický generátor
Српски / srpski Радиоизотопни термоелектрични генератор
Suomi Radioisotooppinen termosähkögeneraattori
Svenska Radioisotopgenerator
Türkçe Radyoizotop termoelektrik üreteci
Українська Радіоізотопний термоелектричний генератор
中文 放射性同位素熱電機
Source of information: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. We're not responsible for the content of this article and your use of this information. Disclaimer
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Abkhazia: Gagra, Gudauta, Lake Ritsa, New Athos, Ochamchire, Pitsunda, Sukhumi, Tsandryphsh, etc.
Afghanistan: Herat, Jalalabad, Kabul, Kandahar, Kunduz, Mazar-i-Sharif, Taloqan, etc.
Albania: Berat, Butrint, Dhërmi, Durrës, Gjirokastër, Himarë, Korçë, Pogradec, Qeparo, Sarandë, Shkodër, Tirana, Velipojë, Vlorë, etc.
Algeria: Algiers, Oran, etc.
American Virgin Islands: Charlotte Amalie, etc.
Andorra: Andorra la Vella, Arinsal, El Pas de la Casa, Encamp, Grandvalira, Ordino, Pal, Soldeu, Vallnord, etc.
Angola: Benguela, Luanda, etc.
Anguilla: The Valley, West End, etc.
Antigua and Barbuda: Saint John’s, etc.
Argentina: Buenos Aires, Colón, Córdoba, El Calafate, La Plata, Los Glaciares, Mar del Plata, Mendoza, Pinamar, Puerto Iguazú, Puerto Madryn, Rosario, Salta, San Carlos de Bariloche, San Martín de los Andes, San Miguel de Tucumán, San Rafael, Tandil, Tierra del Fuego, Ushuaia, Villa Carlos Paz, Villa Gesell, Villa La Angostura, Villa de Merlo, etc.
Armenia: Dilijan, Etchmiadzin, Goris, Gyumri, Jermuk, Sevan, Stepanavan, Tsaghkadzor, Vagharshapat, Vanadzor, Yeghegnadzor, Yerevan, etc.
Aruba: Oranjestad, etc.
Australia: Adelaide, Brisbane, Byron Bay, Cairns, Canberra, Darwin, Gold Coast, Great Barrier Reef, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, Sydney, Tasmania, etc.
Austria: Abtenau, Alpbach, Austrian Alps, Bad Gastein, Bad Hofgastein, Bad Kleinkirchheim, Dürnstein, Flachau, Fugen, Graz, Innsbruck, Ischgl, Kaprun, Kitzbühel, Klagenfurt, Kufstein, Lech, Leogang, Lienz, Linz, Maria Alm, Mayrhofen, Neustift im Stubaital, Obergurgl, Saalbach-Hinterglemm, Saalfelden, Salzburg, Schladming, Seefeld, Serfaus, St. Anton, St. Johann im Pongau, Sölden, Tux, Tyrol, Vienna, Villach, Wachau, Wagrain, Zell am See, etc.
Azerbaijan: Baku, Ganja, Lankaran, Quba, Qusar, Shahdag, Sheki, Stepanakert, etc.
Bahamas: Andros, Eleuthera, Exuma, Freeport, Grand Bahama, Nassau, New Providence, Paradise Island, etc.
Bahrain: Manama, etc.
Bangladesh: Chittagong, Cox's Bazar, Dhaka, Khulna, Narayanganj, Rajshahi, Sylhet, etc.
Barbados: Bridgetown, etc.
Belarus: Babruysk, Białowieża Forest, Brest Belarus, Gomel, Grodno, Lahoysk, Maladzyechna, Minsk, Mogilev, Nesvizh, Pinsk, Silichi, Vitebsk, etc.
Belgium: Antwerp, Ardennes, Blankenberge, Bouillon, Bruges, Brussels, Charleroi, De Haan, De Panne, Durbuy, Flanders, Ghent, Hasselt, Kortrijk, Leuven, Liège, Namur, Nieuwpoort, Ostend, Spa, Ypres, Zeebrugge, etc.
Belize: Ambergris Caye, Belize City, Caye Caulker, Placencia, San Pedro, etc.
Benin: Cotonou, etc.
Bermuda: Hamilton, etc.
Bhutan: Paro, Thimphu, etc.
Bolivia: Cochabamba, El Alto, La Paz, Oruro, Quillacollo, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Sucre, Uyuni, etc.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Banja Luka, Bihać, Jahorina, Medjugorje, Mostar, Neum, Sarajevo, Travnik, Trebinje, etc.
Botswana: Gaborone, Maun, etc.
Brazil: Amazon River, Amazonia, Angra dos Reis, Arraial do Cabo, Atlantic Forest, Balneário Camboriú, Belo Horizonte, Belém, Bombinhas, Brasília, Búzios, Cabo Frio, Camaçari, Campinas, Campos do Jordão, Caraguatatuba, Copacabana, Costa do Sauípe, Curitiba, Duque de Caxias, Fernando de Noronha, Florianópolis, Fortaleza, Foz do Iguaçu, Goiânia, Gramado, Guarujá, Guarulhos, Iguazu Falls, Ilha Grande, Ilhabela, Ilhéus, Ipanema, Itacaré, Maceió, Manaus, Morro de São Paulo, Natal, Niterói, Osasco, Ouro Preto, Paraty, Petrópolis, Porto Alegre, Porto Seguro, Praia do Forte, Recife, Ribeirão Preto, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Santos, São Gonçalo, São José dos Campos, São Luís, São Paulo, São Sebastião, Trancoso, Ubatuba, Vila do Abraão, etc.
British Virgin Islands: Tortola, etc.
Brunei: Bandar Seri Begawan, etc.
Bulgaria: Albena, Apriltsi, Arbanasi, Balchik, Bansko, Blagoevgrad, Borovets, Burgas, Byala, Chepelare, Chernomorets, Dobrinishte, Gabrovo, Golden Sands, Hisarya, Kavarna, Kazanlak, Kiten, Koprivshtitsa, Kranevo, Lovech, Lozenets, Nesebar, Obzor, Pamporovo, Pazardzhik, Pirin, Pleven, Plovdiv, Pomorie, Primorsko, Ravda, Razlog, Rila, Ruse, Saints Constantine and Helena, Samokov, Sandanski, Sapareva Banya, Shumen, Smolyan, Sofia, Sozopol, Stara Zagora, Sunny Beach, Sveti Vlas, Tryavna, Tsarevo, Varna, Veliko Tarnovo, Velingrad, etc.
Burkina Faso: Bobo-Dioulasso, Ouagadougou, etc.
Burundi: Bujumbura, etc.
Cambodia: Angkor, Battambang, Kampot, Kep, Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, Sihanoukville, etc.
Cameroon: Bafoussam, Bamenda, Douala, Garoua, Kribi, Limbe, Maroua, Yaoundé, etc.
Canada: Alberta, Banff, Brampton, British Columbia, Burnaby, Calgary, Charlottetown, Edmonton, Fort McMurray, Gatineau, Halifax, Hamilton, Jasper, Kamloops, Kelowna, Kingston, Kitchener, Laval, London, Longueuil, Manitoba, Markham, Mississauga, Moncton, Mont-Tremblant, Montreal, Nanaimo, New Brunswick, Niagara Falls, Niagara on the Lake, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Ottawa, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Regina, Richmond, Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Surrey, Toronto, Vancouver, Vaughan, Victoria, Whistler, Whitehorse, Windsor, Winnipeg, Yukon, etc.
Cape Verde: Boa Vista Cape Verde, Sal, etc.
Caribbean Netherlands:, etc.
Cayman Islands: George Town, Grand Cayman, West Bay, etc.
Chad: N'Djamena, etc.
Chile: Antofagasta, Arica, Atacama, Coquimbo, Easter Island, Hanga Roa, Iquique, La Serena, Patagonia, Pucón, Puerto Montt, Puerto Natales, Puerto Varas, Punta Arenas, San Pedro de Atacama, Santiago, Torres del Paine, Valdivia, Valparaíso, Villarrica, Viña del Mar, etc.
China: Anshun, Baishan, Baoding, Baoshan, Baotou, Beihai, Beijing, Binzhou, Changchun, Changsha, Changzhi, Chengdu, Chongqing, Dali, Dalian, Datong, Dengfeng, Diqing, Dongguan, Emeishan, Foshan, Great Wall of China, Guangdong, Guangzhou, Guilin, Guiyang, Hainan, Hangzhou, Harbin, Honghe, Huashan, Huizhou, Jiangmen, Jiangxi, Jiaxing, Jilin, Jinan, Jincheng, Jingdezhen, Jinzhong, Jiujiang, Jiuzhaigou, Kunming, Langfang, Lanzhou, Laoshan, Leshan, Lhasa, Lianyungang, Lijiang, Linfen, Linyi, Liuzhou, Luoyang, Lushan, Lüliang, Mianyang, Nanchang, Nanchong, Nanjing, Nanning, Nantong, Ngawa, Ningbo, Qiandongnan, Qingdao, Qingyuan, Qinhuangdao, Qufu, Qujing, Rizhao, Sanya, Shanghai, Shangri-La, Shantou, Shanxi, Shaoguan, Shaolin, Shaoxing, Shenyang, Shenzhen, Shigatse, Shijiazhuang, Sichuan, Suzhou, Tai'an, Taiyuan, Taizhou Jiangsu, Tangshan, Tianjin, Tibet, Weifang, Weihai, Wuhan, Wulingyuan, Wutai, Wuxi, Xi'an, Xiamen, Xinzhou, Xishuangbanna, Ya'an, Yanbian, Yangtze, Yangzhou, Yantai, Yellow River, Yibin, Yinchuan, Yiwu, Yuncheng, Yunnan, Zhangjiajie, Zhanjiang, Zhejiang, Zhengzhou, Zhongshan, Zhongwei, Zhoushan, Zhuhai, Zunyi, etc.
Colombia: Barranquilla, Bogotá, Bucaramanga, Cali, Cartagena, Medellín, Pereira, San Andrés, Santa Marta, Villa de Leyva, Villavicencio, etc.
Comoros: Moroni, etc.
Costa Rica: Alajuela, Jacó, La Fortuna, Manuel Antonio, Monteverde, Puerto Viejo de Talamanca, Puntarenas, Quepos, San José, Santa Teresa, Tamarindo, Tortuguero, etc.
Croatia: Baška Voda, Baška, Bibinje, Biograd na Moru, Bol, Brač, Brela, Cavtat, Cres, Dalmatia, Fažana, Hvar, Istria, Ičići, Korčula, Krk, Lopud, Lovran, Lošinj, Makarska, Mali Lošinj, Malinska, Medulin, Mlini, Nin, Novi Vinodolski, Novigrad, Omiš, Opatija, Orebić, Pag, Podstrana, Poreč, Pula, Rab, Rabac, Rijeka, Rovinj, Split, Stari Grad, Sukošan, Supetar, Trogir, Tučepi, Umag, Vrsar, Zadar, Zagreb, Čiovo, Šibenik, etc.
Cuba: Baracoa, Camagüey, Cayo Coco, Cayo Largo, Cayo Santa María, Cienfuegos, Guantánamo, Havana, Holguín, Pinar del Río, Remedios Cuba, Sancti Spíritus, Santa Clara Cuba, Santiago de Cuba, Trinidad, Varadero, Viñales, etc.
Curaçao: Sint Michiel, Westpunt, Willemstad, etc.
Cyprus: Ayia Napa, Coral Bay Cyprus, Famagusta, Kouklia, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol, Nicosia, Paphos, Paralimni, Peyia, Pissouri, Polis, Protaras, etc.
Czech Republic: Bohemia, Brno, Děčín, Frymburk, Frýdek-Místek, Harrachov, Hradec Králové, Jihlava, Karlovy Vary, Kladno, Krkonoše, Kutná Hora, Liberec, Marienbad, Mikulov, Mladá Boleslav, Mělník, Olomouc, Ostrava, Pardubice, Plzeň, Poděbrady, Prague, Teplice, Třeboň, Zlín, Znojmo, Ústí nad Labem, České Budějovice, Český Krumlov, Špindlerův Mlýn, etc.
Democratic Republic of the Congo: Kinshasa, etc.
Denmark: Aalborg, Aarhus, Billund, Copenhagen, Ebeltoft, Esbjerg, Frederikshavn, Greenland, Helsingør, Herning, Hirtshals, Hjørring, Holstebro, Jutland, Odense, Silkeborg, Skagen, Skive, Sønderborg, Vejle, Viborg, etc.
Djibouti: Djibouti City, etc.
Dominican Republic: Boca Chica, Bávaro, Cabarete, La Romana, Las Terrenas, Puerto Plata, Punta Cana, Santiago de los Caballeros, Santo Domingo, Sosúa, etc.
East Timor: Dili, etc.
Ecuador: Baños, Cuenca, Galápagos Islands, Guayaquil, Manta, Otavalo, Puerto Ayora, Puerto López, Quito, Salinas, etc.
Egypt: Abu Simbel, Al Qusair, Alexandria, Aswan, Cairo, Dahab, El Alamein, El Gouna, El Hadaba, Faiyum, Giza, Hurghada, Luxor, Marsa Alam, Mersa Matruh, Naama Bay, Nabq Bay, Nile, Nuweiba, Port Said, Red Sea, Safaga, Sahl Hasheesh, Scharm asch-Schaich, Sharks Bay, Sinai, Suez, Taba, Valley of the Kings, etc.
El Salvador: La Libertad, San Salvador, etc.
Equatorial Guinea: Malabo, etc.
Eritrea: Asmara, etc.
Estonia: Haapsalu, Kuressaare, Narva, Pärnu, Saaremaa, Tallinn, Tartu, etc.
Ethiopia: Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, Gondar, etc.
Falkland Islands: Stanley, etc.
Faroe Islands: Sørvágur, Tórshavn, etc.
Fiji: Nadi, Suva, Viti Levu Island, etc.
Finland: Espoo, Helsinki, Imatra, Joensuu, Jyväskylä, Jämsä, Kotka, Kuopio, Kuusamo, Lahti, Lapland, Lappeenranta, Levi, Mariehamn, Mikkeli, Moomin World, Naantali, Nilsiä, Oulu, Pori, Porvoo, Pyhätunturi, Rovaniemi, Rukatunturi, Saariselkä, Saimaa, Tampere, Turku, Vaasa, Vantaa, Vuokatti, Åland Islands, etc.
France: Aix-en-Provence, Ajaccio, Alsace, Annecy, Antibes, Aquitaine, Arles, Avignon, Avoriaz, Bayonne, Beaune, Besançon, Biarritz, Bonifacio, Bordeaux, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Briançon, Brittany, Burgundy, Cabourg, Cagnes-sur-Mer, Calais, Calvi, Canet-en-Roussillon, Cannes, Carcassonne, Cassis, Cavalaire-sur-Mer, Chambéry, Chamonix, Colmar, Corsica, Courchevel, Deauville, Dijon, Dunkirk, French Alps, French Riviera, Fréjus, Grenoble, Grimaud, Honfleur, Hyères, La Ciotat, La Plagne, La Rochelle, Le Grau-du-Roi, Le Havre, Le Lavandou, Les Arcs, Les Gets, Les Issambres, Les Menuires, Lille, Limoges, Lourdes, Lyon, Mandelieu-la-Napoule, Marseille, Megève, Menton, Montpellier, Morzine, Méribel, Nantes, Narbonne, Nice, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Normandy, Nîmes, Paradiski, Paris, Pas-de-Calais, Perpignan, Portes du Soleil, Porto-Vecchio, Provence, Périgueux, Reims, Rhône-Alpes, Rouen, Saint-Gervais-les-Bains, Saint-Malo, Saint-Martin-de-Belleville, Saint-Raphaël, Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, Saint-Tropez, Sainte-Maxime, Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, Strasbourg, The Three Valleys, Tignes, Toulon, Toulouse, Trouville-sur-Mer, Val Thorens, Val-d'Isère, Versailles, Étretat, Île-de-France, etc.
French Guiana: Cayenne, Kourou, etc.
French Polynesia: Bora Bora, Mo'orea, Papeete, Tahiti, etc.
Gabon: Libreville, etc.
Gambia: Banjul, Serekunda, etc.
Georgia: Bakuriani, Batumi, Borjomi, Gori, Gudauri, Kobuleti, Kutaisi, Mestia, Mtskheta, Poti, Sighnaghi, Stepantsminda, Tbilisi, Telavi, Zugdidi, etc.
Germany: Aachen, Augsburg, Bad Birnbach, Bad Driburg, Bad Ems, Bad Füssing, Bad Godesberg, Bad Harzburg, Bad Homburg, Bad Kissingen, Bad Kreuznach, Bad Mergentheim, Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler, Bad Reichenhall, Bad Salzuflen, Bad Schandau, Baden-Baden, Baden-Württemberg, Bamberg, Bavaria, Berchtesgaden, Bergen auf Rügen, Berlin, Bernkastel-Kues, Bielefeld, Binz, Bochum, Bonn, Bottrop, Brandenburg, Braunlage, Braunschweig, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Brilon, Chemnitz, Cochem, Cologne, Cuxhaven, Dortmund, Dresden, Duisburg, Düsseldorf, Eisenach, Erfurt, Erlangen, Essen, Europa-Park, Flensburg, Frankfurt, Freiburg, Friedrichshafen, Fürth, Füssen, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Gelsenkirchen, Glowe, Goslar, Görlitz, Göttingen, Hamburg, Hanover, Heidelberg, Heiligendamm, Heligoland, Hesse, Ingolstadt, Inzell, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Koblenz, Krefeld, Lake Constance, Leipzig, Lindau, Lower Saxony, Lübeck, Magdeburg, Mainz, Mannheim, Marburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Medebach, Monschau, Munich, Mönchengladbach, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Münster, Neuschwanstein Castle, Neuss, Norddeich, Norden, Norderney, North Rhine-Westphalia, Nuremberg, Oberhausen, Oberstdorf, Oldenburg, Olsberg, Osnabrück, Paderborn, Potsdam, Putbus, Quedlinburg, Rathen, Regensburg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Rostock, Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Ruhpolding, Rust, Rügen, Saarbrücken, Saarland, Sassnitz, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, Schmallenberg, Schwerin, Schönau am Königsee, Sindelfingen, Solingen, Speyer, Stralsund, Stuttgart, Sylt, Thuringia, Travemünde, Trier, Ulm, Warnemünde, Weimar, Wernigerode, Westerland, Wiesbaden, Winterberg, Wolfsburg, Wuppertal, Würzburg, Xanten, Zingst, etc.
Ghana: Accra, Kumasi, etc.
Gibraltar:, etc.
Greece: Acharavi, Aegina, Afantou, Afytos, Agios Gordios, Andros, Arkadia, Athens, Cephalonia, Chania, Chaniotis, Chios, Corfu, Corinth, Crete, Cyclades, Dassia, Delphi, Dodecanese, Faliraki, Halkidiki, Heraklion, Hersonissos, Hydra, Ialysos, Ionian Islands, Kalamata, Kalavryta, Kalymnos, Kardamaina, Karpathos, Kassandra, Kastoria, Katerini, Kavos, Kefalos, Kokkari, Kos, Kriopigi, Laganas, Lefkada, Lemnos, Lesbos, Lindos, Loutraki, Marathokampos, Meteora, Mithymna, Monemvasia, Mount Athos, Mykonos, Mytilene, Nafplio, Naxos, Neos Marmaras, Paleokastritsa, Parga, Patmos, Patras, Pefkochori, Pefkos, Peloponnese, Polychrono, Poros, Pythagoreio, Rethymno, Rhodes, Samos, Samothrace, Santorini, Sidari, Sithonia, Sparta, Spetses, Sporades, Syros, Thasos, Thessaloniki, Tingaki, Zakynthos, etc.
Guadeloupe: Saint-François, etc.
Guam: Tamuning, Tumon, etc.
Guatemala: Antigua Guatemala, etc.
Guinea: Conakry, etc.
Guinea-Bissau: Bissau, etc.
Guyana: Georgetown, etc.
Haiti: Cap-Haitien, Port-au-Prince, etc.
Honduras: Roatán, Tegucigalpa, etc.
Hong Kong: Causeway Bay, Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, Mong Kok, New Territories, Repulse Bay, Tsim Sha Tsui, Wan Chai, etc.
Hungary: Balatonfüred, Budapest, Eger, Gyula, Hajdúszoboszló, Hévíz, Keszthely, Lake Balaton, Pécs, Siófok, Szeged, Székesfehérvár, Zalakaros, etc.
Iceland: Akureyri, Blue Lagoon, Borgarnes, Egilsstaðir, Garðabær, Hafnarfjörður, Hveragerði, Höfn, Keflavík, Kópavogur, Reykjavik, Selfoss, Vík í Mýrdal, Ísafjörður, etc.
India: Agra, Ahmedabad, Ajmer, Allahabad, Amritsar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Aurangabad, Ayodhya, Bangalore, Bhopal, Bikaner, Chandigarh, Chennai, Chhattisgarh, Darjeeling, Dehradun, Delhi, Dharamshala, Fatehpur Sikri, Gangtok, Goa, Gujarat, Gurgaon, Guwahati, Gwalior, Haridwar, Himachal Pradesh, Howrah, Hyderabad, Indore, Jabalpur, Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Jalandhar, Jammu and Kashmir, Jammu, Jodhpur, Kanpur, Karnataka, Katra, Kerala, Khajuraho, Kochi, Kolhapur, Kolkata, Ladakh, Leh, Lucknow, Ludhiana, Madhya Pradesh, Madikeri, Madurai, Maharashtra, Manali, Mangalore, Manipur, Mathura, Mount Abu, Mumbai, Munnar, Mussoorie, Mysore, Nagpur, Nainital, Nashik, Navi Mumbai, New Delhi, Noida, Ooty, Pachmarhi, Pahalgam, Palakkad, Pune, Punjab, Pushkar, Raipur, Rajasthan, Ramnagar, Rishikesh, Sawai Madhopur, Shimla, Sikkim, Siliguri, Srinagar, Tamil Nadu, Thane, Thiruvananthapuram, Tirupati, Udaipur, Ujjain, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Varanasi, Varkala, Vijayawada, Visakhapatnam, West Bengal, etc.
Indonesia: Bali, Balikpapan, Bandung, Batu, Bintan, Bogor, Borobudur, Denpasar, Jakarta, Java, Jimbaran, Kalimantan, Kuta, Lombok, Makassar, Malang, Mataram, Medan, Nusa Dua, Padang, Palembang, Pekanbaru, Sanur, Semarang, Seminyak, Sumatra, Surabaya, Surakarta, Ubud, Yogyakarta, etc.
Iran: Isfahan, Mashhad, Shiraz, Tehran, etc.
Iraq: Baghdad, Basra, Duhok, Erbil, Karbala, Sulaymaniyah, etc.
Ireland: Achill Island, Bray, Bundoran, Carlow, Clifden, Connemara, Cork, Dingle, Donegal, Doolin, Drogheda, Dublin, Dundalk, Ennis, Galway, Glendalough, Kenmare, Kilkenny, Killarney, Letterkenny, Limerick, Navan, Shannon, Swords, Tralee, Waterford, Westport, etc.
Isle of Man: Douglas, etc.
Israel: Acre, Amirim, Arad, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Bat Yam, Beersheba, Caesarea, Dead Sea, Eilat, Ein Bokek, Galilee, Golan Heights, Gush Dan, Haifa, Hermon, Herzliya, Jaffa, Jerusalem, Katzrin, Metula, Mitzpe Ramon, Nahariya, Nazareth, Netanya, Petah Tikva, Ramat Gan, Ramot, Rishon LeZion, Rosh Pinna, Safed, Sea of Galilee, Tel Aviv, Tiberias, Zikhron Ya'akov, etc.
Italy: Abano Terme, Abruzzo, Agrigento, Alassio, Alberobello, Alghero, Amalfi Coast, Aosta Valley, Apulia, Arezzo, Arona, Arzachena, Asciano, Ascoli Piceno, Assisi, Asti, Bardolino, Bari, Basilicata, Baveno, Bellagio, Bellaria-Igea Marina, Benevento, Bergamo, Bologna, Bolzano, Bordighera, Bormio, Bracciano, Brescia, Breuil-Cervinia, Brindisi, Cagliari, Calabria, Campania, Canazei, Caorle, Capri, Carrara, Castelnuovo Berardenga, Castiglion Fiorentino, Castiglione d'Orcia, Castiglione del Lago, Castiglione della Pescaia, Catania, Cefalù, Cervia, Cesenatico, Chianciano Terme, Chieti, Chioggia, Cinque Terre, Città della Pieve, Civitavecchia, Cortina d'Ampezzo, Cortona, Costa Smeralda, Courmayeur, Desenzano del Garda, Dolomites, Elba, Emilia-Romagna, Ercolano, Fabriano, Fasano, Fassa Valley, Ferrara, Finale Ligure, Fiumicino, Florence, Forte dei Marmi, Gaeta, Gallipoli, Genoa, Golfo Aranci, Greve in Chianti, Grosseto, Gubbio, Herculaneum, Imperia, Ischia, Italian Alps, Jesolo, L'Aquila, La Spezia, Lake Como, Lake Garda, Lake Maggiore, Lampedusa, Lazio, Lazise, Lecco, Lerici, Lido di Jesolo, Lignano Sabbiadoro, Liguria, Livigno, Livorno, Lombardy, Lucca, Madonna di Campiglio, Malcesine, Manarola, Mantua, Maratea, Massa, Matera, Menaggio, Merano, Messina, Mestre, Milan, Milazzo, Monopoli, Montalcino, Montecatini Terme, Montepulciano, Monterosso al Mare, Monza, Naples, Nardò, Novara, Olbia, Ortisei, Ostuni, Otranto, Padua, Palermo, Parma, Perugia, Pescara, Peschici, Peschiera del Garda, Piacenza, Piedmont, Pienza, Pisa, Pistoia, Pitigliano, Polignano a Mare, Pompeii, Pordenone, Porto Cervo, Porto Cesareo, Portoferraio, Portofino, Positano, Prato, Ragusa, Rapallo, Rapolano Terme, Ravenna, Riccione, Rimini, Riomaggiore, Riva del Garda, Rome, Salerno, San Casciano dei Bagni, San Gimignano, Sanremo, Sardinia, Savona, Sestriere, Sicily, Siena, Sinalunga, Siracusa, Sirmione, Sorrento, Sottomarina, Sperlonga, Stresa, Sëlva, Taormina, Taranto, Terracina, Tivoli, Torrita di Siena, Trani, Trapani, Trentino-Alto Adige, Trento, Treviso, Trieste, Tropea, Turin, Tuscany, Umbria, Urbino, Val Gardena, Veneto, Venice, Ventimiglia, Verbania, Vernazza, Verona, Vesuvius, Viareggio, Vicenza, Vieste, Viterbo, etc.
Ivory Coast: Abidjan, Assinie-Mafia, Bouaké, San-Pédro, Yamoussoukro, etc.
Jamaica: Kingston, Montego Bay, Negril, Ocho Rios, Port Antonio, Runaway Bay, etc.
Japan: Atami, Chiba, Fujisawa, Fukuoka, Furano, Hakodate, Hakone, Hakuba, Hamamatsu, Hiroshima, Hokkaido, Ishigaki, Itō, Kagoshima, Kanagawa, Kanazawa, Karuizawa, Kawasaki, Kitakyushu, Kobe, Kutchan, Kyoto, Lake Suwa, Matsumoto, Miyakojima, Nagasaki, Nagoya, Naha, Nanjō, Nikkō, Okinawa, Onna, Osaka, Sapporo, Sendai, Shizuoka, Takayama, Tokyo, Yokohama, etc.
Jordan: Amman, Aqaba, Irbid, Jerash, Madaba, Petra, Sweimeh, Wadi Musa, Wadi Rum, Zarqa, etc.
Kazakhstan: Aktau, Aktobe, Almaty, Astana, Atyrau, Burabay, Karagandy, Kokshetau, Kostanay, Lake Balkhash, Oskemen, Pavlodar, Semey, Shymbulak, Shymkent, Taraz, etc.
Kenya: Kisumu, Lake Victoria, Masai Mara, Mombasa, Nairobi, Ukunda, etc.
Kiribati: South Tarawa, etc.
Kongo: Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire, etc.
Kosovo: Pristina, Prizren, etc.
Kuwait: Hawally, Kuwait City, Salmiya, etc.
Kyrgyzstan: Bishkek, Bosteri, Cholpon-Ata, Issyk Kul, Karakol, Osh, etc.
Laos: Luang Prabang, Vang Vieng, Vientiane, etc.
Latvia: Cēsis, Daugavpils, Jelgava, Jūrmala, Liepāja, Riga, Rēzekne, Sigulda, Ventspils, etc.
Lebanon: Baalbeck, Beirut, Byblos, Faraya, Jounieh, Mzaar Kfardebian, Tripoli, etc.
Lesotho: Maseru, etc.
Liberia: Monrovia, etc.
Libya: Benghazi, Tripoli, etc.
Liechtenstein: Schaan, Vaduz, etc.
Lithuania: Druskininkai, Kaunas, Klaipėda, Nida, Palanga, Panevėžys, Trakai, Vilnius, Šiauliai, Šventoji, etc.
Luxembourg: Differdange, Dudelange, Echternach, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg City, Vianden, etc.
Macau:, etc.
Macedonia: Bitola, Mavrovo, Ohrid, Skopje, etc.
Madagascar: Antananarivo, etc.
Malawi: Blantyre, Lilongwe, etc.
Malaysia: Borneo, George Town, Ipoh, Johor Bahru, Johor, Kedah, Kota Bharu, Kota Kinabalu, Kuah, Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Terengganu, Kuantan, Kuching, Langkawi, Malacca, Penang, Putrajaya, Sabah, Sarawak, Selangor, Shah Alam, etc.
Maldives: Kaafu Atoll, Malé, etc.
Mali: Bamako, etc.
Malta: Birżebbuġa, Buġibba, Gozo, Gżira, Mellieħa, Paceville, Pembroke, Qawra, Sliema, St. Julian's, St. Paul's Bay, Valletta, etc.
Martinique: Fort-de-France, Les Trois-Îlets, Sainte-Luce, etc.
Mauritania: Mérida, Nouakchott, Puerto Escondido, Puerto Peñasco, etc.
Mauritius: Port Louis, etc.
Mexico: Acapulco, Akumal, Cabo San Lucas, Cancún, Chetumal, Chichen Itza, Chihuahua, Ciudad Juárez, Cozumel, Cuernavaca, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Isla Mujeres, Los Cabos, Manzanillo, Mazatlán, Monterrey, Oaxaca, Playa del Carmen, Puebla, Puerto Aventuras, Puerto Morelos, Puerto Vallarta, Querétaro, Riviera Maya, San Cristóbal de las Casas, San Miguel de Allende, San Miguel de Cozumel, Tijuana, Tulum, etc.
Micronesia:, etc.
Moldova: Bălți, Chișinău, Tiraspol, etc.
Monaco: Monte Carlo, etc.
Mongolia: Darkhan, Erdenet, Ulaanbaatar, etc.
Montenegro: Bar, Bečići, Bijela, Budva, Cetinje, Dobra Voda, Dobrota, Herceg Novi, Igalo, Kolašin, Kotor, Miločer, Nikšić, Perast, Petrovac, Podgorica, Prčanj, Sutomore, Sveti Stefan, Tivat, Ulcinj, Žabljak, etc.
Montserrat: Plymouth, etc.
Morocco: Agadir, Asilah, Casablanca, Chefchaouen, El Jadida, Essaouira, Fez, Marrakesh, Meknes, Merzouga, Mohammedia, Nador, Ouarzazate, Rabat, Tangier, Taroudant, Tinghir, Tétouan, etc.
Mozambique: Maputo, etc.
Myanmar: Mandalay, Naypyidaw, Nyaung Shwe, Yangon, etc.
Namibia: Rundu, Swakopmund, Walvis Bay, Windhoek, etc.
Nepal: Chitwan, Himalayas, Kathmandu, Lukla, Lumbini, Mount Everest, Nagarkot, Namche Bazaar, Patan, Pokhara, Tengboche, etc.
Netherlands: 's-Hertogenbosch, Alkmaar, Amersfoort, Amsterdam, Arnhem, Breda, Delft, Domburg, Dordrecht, Eindhoven, Groningen, Haarlem, Leiden, Maastricht, Nijmegen, Noordwijk, Rotterdam, Texel, The Hague, Utrecht, Valkenburg aan de Geul, Wijk aan Zee, Zandvoort, etc.
New Zealand: Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Gisborne, Hamilton, Hastings, Invercargill, Kaikoura, Lower Hutt, Napier, Nelson, New Plymouth, North Island, Palmerston North, Porirua, Queenstown, Rotorua, South Island, Taupo, Tauranga, Waiheke Island, Wanaka, Wellington, Whangarei, etc.
Nicaragua: Granada, Managua, etc.
Nigeria: Abuja, Benin City, Calabar, Enugu, Ibadan, Ilorin, Jos, Kaduna, Lagos, Owerri, Port Harcourt, Uyo, etc.
North Korea: Pyongyang, etc.
Northern Mariana Islands: Saipan, etc.
Norway: Beitostølen, Bergen, Bodø, Gardermoen, Geilo, Geirangerfjord, Hardangerfjord, Hemsedal, Kirkenes, Kristiansand, Larvik, Lillehammer, Lofoten, Narvik, Nordland, Oslo, Sognefjord, Stavanger, Stryn, Svalbard, Tromsø, Trondheim, Ålesund, etc.
Oman: Muscat, Nizwa, Salalah, Seeb, etc.
Pakistan: Bhurban, Faisalabad, Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, etc.
Palau: Koror, Peleliu, etc.
Palestine: Beit Sahour, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jenin, Jericho, Nablus, Ramallah, etc.
Panama: Bocas del Toro, etc.
Papua New Guinea: Port Moresby, etc.
Paraguay: Asunción, Ciudad Del Este, Encarnación, Panama City, etc.
Peru: Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Chiclayo, Cusco, Huancayo, Huanchaco, Huaraz, Ica, Iquitos, Lima, Machu Picchu, Máncora, Nazca, Ollantaytambo, Paracas, Pisco, Piura, Puerto Maldonado, Puno, Tacna, Tarapoto, Trujillo, Urubamba, etc.
Philippines: Angeles City, Antipolo, Bacolod, Bacoor, Baguio, Batangas, Bohol, Boracay, Cagayan de Oro, Calamba, Caloocan, Cebu, Coron, Dasmariñas, Davao, Dumaguete, El Nido, General Santos, Iloilo City, Kalibo, Lapu-Lapu City, Las Piñas, Luzon, Mactan, Makati, Mandaue, Manila, Marikina, Mindanao, Muntinlupa, Olongapo, Palawan, Panglao, Parañaque, Pasay, Pasig, Puerto Galera, Puerto Princesa, Quezon City, Tagaytay, Tagbilaran, Taguig, Valenzuela, Visayas, Zamboanga, etc.
Poland: Augustów, Białka Tatrzańska, Białowieża Forest, Białystok, Bielsko-Biała, Bukowina Tatrzańska, Bydgoszcz, Ciechocinek, Częstochowa, Darłowo, Elbląg, Gdańsk, Gdynia, Giżycko, Gorzów Wielkopolski, Jastarnia, Jastrzębia Góra, Kalisz, Katowice, Kielce, Koszalin, Kołobrzeg, Kraków, Krynica Morska, Krynica-Zdrój, Lublin, Malbork, Mikołajki, Międzyzdroje, Mrągowo, Olsztyn, Opole, Oświęcim, Poznań, Puck, Płock, Radom, Rzeszów, Sopot, Szczawnica, Szczecin, Szczyrk, Słubice, Tarnów, Toruń, Tricity, Ustka, Ustroń, Warsaw, Wisła, Wrocław, Władysławowo, Zakopane, Zielona Góra, Łeba, Łódź, Świnoujście, etc.
Portugal: Albufeira, Algarve, Aljezur, Almancil, Armação de Pêra, Azores, Braga, Cabanas de Tavira, Carvoeiro, Cascais, Castro Marim, Coimbra, Estoril, Faro, Figueira da Foz, Funchal, Fátima, Guimarães, Lagoa, Lagos, Lisbon, Loulé, Madeira, Monte Gordo, Nazaré, Olhão, Ponta Delgada, Portimão, Porto, Praia da Luz, Quarteira, Sesimbra, Silves, Sintra, Tavira, Vila Real de Santo António, Vila do Bispo, Vilamoura, Évora, etc.
Puerto Rico: Bayamón, Caguas, Carolina, Mayagüez, Ponce, San Juan, Vieques, etc.
Qatar: Doha, etc.
Romania: Bran, Brașov, Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Constanța, Poiana Brașov, Sibiu, Sighișoara, Timișoara, Transylvania, etc.
Russia: Abakan, Abrau-Dyurso, Abzakovo, Adler, Altai Republic, Alupka, Alushta, Anadyr, Anapa, Angarsk, Arkhangelsk, Arkhipo Osipovka, Arkhyz, Armavir, Astrakhan, Bakhchysarai, Balaklava, Balakovo, Balashikha, Baltic Sea, Barnaul, Belgorod, Belokurikha, Biysk, Black Sea, Blagoveshchensk, Bolshoy Utrish, Bratsk, Bryansk, Caucasian Mineral Waters, Cheboksary, Chelyabinsk, Cherepovets, Cherkessk, Chita, Chornomorske, Crimea, Curonian Spit, Dagomys, Divnomorskoye, Dombay, Domodedovo, Dzerzhinsk, Dzhankhot, Dzhemete, Dzhubga, Elektrostal, Elista, Engels, Estosadok, Feodosia, Foros, Gaspra, Gatchina, Gelendzhik, Golden Ring, Golubitskaya, Gorky Gorod, Gornaya Karusel, Gorno-Altaysk, Goryachy Klyuch, Grozny, Gurzuf, Irkutsk, Ivanovo, Izhevsk, Kabardinka, Kaliningrad, Kaluga, Kamchatka, Kamensk-Uralsky, Karelia, Kazan, Kemerovo, Kerch, Khabarovsk, Khanty-Mansiysk, Khibiny, Khimki, Khosta, Kirov, Kirovsk, Kislovodsk, Kizhi, Koktebel, Kolomna, Komsomolsk on Amur, Konakovo, Koreiz, Korolev, Kostroma, Krasnaya Polyana, Krasnodar Krai, Krasnodar, Krasnogorsk, Krasnoyarsk, Kudepsta, Kurgan, Kursk, Kyzyl, Lake Baikal, Lake Seliger, Lazarevskoye, Lipetsk, Listvyanka, Loo, Lyubertsy, Magadan, Magnitogorsk, Makhachkala, Massandra, Matsesta, Maykop, Miass, Mineralnye Vody, Moscow, Mount Elbrus, Murmansk, Murom, Mytishchi, Naberezhnye Chelny, Nakhodka, Nalchik, Naryan-Mar, Nebug, Nizhnekamsk, Nizhnevartovsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Tagil, Norilsk, Novokuznetsk, Novorossiysk, Novosibirsk, Novyi Svit, Novyy Urengoy, Obninsk, Odintsovo, Olginka, Omsk, Orenburg, Orsk, Oryol, Partenit, Penza, Pereslavl Zalessky, Perm, Pervouralsk, Petergof, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Petrozavodsk, Plyos, Podolsk, Popovka, Primorsko-Akhtarsk, Pskov, Pulkovo, Pushkin, Pushkino, Pyatigorsk, Repino, Rosa Khutor, Rostov-on-Don, Ryazan, Rybachye, Rybinsk, Saint Petersburg, Sakhalin, Saky, Salekhard, Samara, Saransk, Saratov, Sea of Azov, Sergiyev Posad, Serpukhov, Sestroretsk, Sevastopol, Shakhty, Sheregesh, Sheremetyevo, Siberia, Simeiz, Simferopol, Smolensk, Sochi, Solovetsky Islands, Sortavala, Stary Oskol, Stavropol, Sterlitamak, Sudak, Sukko, Surgut, Suzdal, Svetlogorsk, Syktyvkar, Syzran, Taganrog, Taman, Tambov, Tarusa, Temryuk, Terskol, Tobolsk, Tolyatti, Tomsk, Torzhok, Tuapse, Tula, Tver, Tyumen, Ufa, Uglich, Ukhta, Ulan-Ude, Ulyanovsk, Usinsk, Ussuriysk, Utes, Valaam, Valday, Vardane, Velikiye Luki, Veliky Novgorod, Veliky Ustyug, Vityazevo, Vladikavkaz, Vladimir, Vladivostok, Vnukovo International Airport, Volga, Volgograd, Vologda, Volzhskiy, Vorkuta, Voronezh, Vyborg, Yakhroma, Yakornaya Shchel, Yakutsk, Yalta, Yaroslavl, Yekaterinburg, Yelets, Yenisei, Yessentuki, Yevpatoria, Yeysk, Yoshkar-Ola, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Zavidovo, Zelenogradsk, Zheleznovodsk, Zhukovsky, Zvenigorod, etc.
Rwanda: Butare, Gisenyi, Kibuye, Kigali, etc.
Réunion: Saint-Denis, etc.
Saint Barthélemy: Gustavia, etc.
Saint Kitts and Nevis: Basseterre, etc.
Saint Lucia: Anse La Raye, Castries, Gros Islet, Soufrière, etc.
Saint Martin:, etc.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: Kingstown, etc.
Samoa: Apia, etc.
San Marino: City of San Marino, etc.
Saudi Arabia: Abha, Al Khobar, Buraydah, Dammam, Jeddah, Jizan, Jubail, Mecca, Medina, Riyadh, Ta'if, Tabuk, Yanbu, etc.
Senegal: Dakar, etc.
Serbia: Belgrade, Kopaonik, Niš, Novi Sad, Palić, Stara Planina, Subotica, Zlatibor, etc.
Seychelles: La Digue, Mahé, Praslin, etc.
Sierra Leone: Freetown, etc.
Singapore: Changi, Sentosa, etc.
Sint Maarten:, etc.
Slovakia: Bratislava, Jasná, Liptov, Tatranská Lomnica, Vysoké Tatry, Štrbské Pleso, etc.
Slovenia: Bled, Bohinj, Bovec, Kranjska Gora, Ljubljana, Maribor, Piran, Portorož, Rogaška Slatina, etc.
Solomon Islands: Honiara, etc.
Somalia: Mogadishu, etc.
Somaliland: Hargeisa, etc.
South Africa: Ballito, Benoni, Bloemfontein, Boksburg, Cape Town, Drakensberg, Durban, East London, George, Johannesburg, Kempton Park, Kimberley, Knysna, Kruger National Park, Marloth Park, Mossel Bay, Nelspruit, Pietermaritzburg, Plettenberg Bay, Polokwane, Port Elizabeth, Potchefstroom, Pretoria, Rustenburg, Sandton, Stellenbosch, Umhlanga, etc.
South Korea: Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, Gangneung, Gapyeong, Gwangju, Gwangyang, Gyeongju, Incheon, Jejudo, Jeonju, Pyeongchang, Seogwipo, Seoul, Sokcho, Suwon, Ulsan, Yangyang, Yeosu, etc.
Spain: A Coruña, Alcúdia, Algeciras, Alicante, Almería, Altea, Andalusia, Antequera, Aragon, Asturias, Ayamonte, Baiona, Balearic Islands, Barbate, Barcelona, Basque Country, Benalmádena, Benidorm, Benissa, Besalú, Bilbao, Blanes, Buñol, Cadaqués, Cala d'Or, Calella, Calonge, Calp, Calvià, Cambados, Cambrils, Canary Islands, Cangas de Onís, Cantabria, Cartagena, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Chiclana de la Frontera, Costa Blanca, Costa Brava, Costa Dorada, Costa del Maresme, Costa del Sol, Cádiz, Córdoba, Dénia, El Puerto de Santa María, Empuriabrava, Estepona, Figueres, Formentera, Fuerteventura, Galicia, Gijón, Girona, Gran Canaria, Granada, Ibiza, Jerez de la Frontera, L'Escala, L'Estartit, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, La Pineda, Lanzarote, Llançà, Lleida, Lloret de Mar, Madrid, Magaluf, Malgrat de Mar, Mallorca, Marbella, Maspalomas, Menorca, Mijas, Mojácar, Moraira, Murcia, Málaga, Navarre, Nerja, O Grove, Ourense, Oviedo, Palma Nova, Palma, Pals, Poio, Pollença, Pontevedra, PortAventura, Portonovo, Ronda, Roquetas de Mar, Roses, Salamanca, Salou, San Sebastian, Sant Antoni de Portmany, Santander, Santiago de Compostela, Santillana del Mar, Sanxenxo, Seville, Sidges, Sierra Nevada, Tarifa, Tarragona, Tenerife, Toledo, Torremolinos, Torrevieja, Torroella de Montgrí, Tossa de Mar, Valencia, Vigo, Vélez-Málaga, Xàbia, Zaragoza, etc.
Sri Lanka: Anuradhapura, Bentota, Beruwala, Colombo, Dambulla, Galle, Hikkaduwa, Jaffna, Kandy, Mirissa, Negombo, Nuwara Eliya, Sigiriya, Tangalle, Trincomalee, Unawatuna, Weligama, etc.
Sudan: Khartoum, Port Sudan, etc.
Suriname: Lelydorp, Nieuw Nickerie, Paramaribo, etc.
Swaziland: Lobamba, Mbabane, etc.
Sweden: Bohuslän, Borgholm, Borlänge, Dalarna, Falkenberg, Falun, Gothenburg, Gotland, Halmstad, Helsingborg, Jönköping, Kalmar, Karlshamn, Karlskrona, Karlstad, Kiruna, Kristianstad, Linköping, Lund, Malmö, Norrköping, Solna, Stockholm, Umeå, Uppsala, Vimmerby, Visby, Västerås, Växjö, Ystad, Ängelholm, Åre, Öland, Örebro, Östersund, etc.
Switzerland: Adelboden, Andermatt, Anzère, Arosa, Ascona, Basel, Bellinzona, Bern, Crans-Montana, Davos, Engelberg, Fribourg, Geneva, Grindelwald, Grächen, Gstaad, Haute-Nendaz, Interlaken, Jungfrau, Klosters, Lake Maggiore, Lausanne, Lauterbrunnen, Leukerbad, Locarno, Lucerne, Lugano, Matterhorn, Montreux, Nendaz, Neuchâtel, Pontresina, Portes du Soleil, Saanen, Saas-Fee, Sierre, Silvaplana, Sion, St. Gallen, St. Moritz, Swiss Alps, Ticino, Valais, Verbier, Vevey, Veysonnaz, Wengen, Zermatt, Zug, Zürich, etc.
Syria: Aleppo, Damascus, Deir ez-Zor, Latakia, Palmyra, Tartus, etc.
Taiwan: Hsinchu, Kaohsiung, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei, etc.
Tajikistan: Dushanbe, Isfara, Khujand, etc.
Tanzania: Dar es Salaam, Mount Kilimanjaro, Serengeti, Zanzibar, etc.
Thailand: Ayutthaya, Bangkok, Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Chonburi, Hua Hin, Kanchanaburi, Karon, Khao Sok, Ko Chang, Ko Lanta, Ko Phangan, Ko Samui, Krabi, Pai, Patong, Pattaya, Phi Phi Islands, Phuket, Prachuap Khiri Khan, Ranong, River Kwai, Udon Thani, etc.
Togo: Lomé, etc.
Tonga: Nukuʻalofa, Tunis, etc.
Trinidad and Tobago: Port of Spain, etc.
Tunisia: Djerba, Hammamet, Midoun, Monastir, Port El Kantaoui, Sousse, etc.
Turkey: Adana, Afyonkarahisar, Akyaka, Alacati, Alanya, Ankara, Antakya, Antalya, Assos, Ayvalık, Beldibi, Belek, Bodrum, Bozcaada, Bursa, Büyükada, Cappadocia, Dalyan, Datça, Denizli, Didim, Edirne, Ephesus, Erzincan, Erzurum, Eskişehir, Fethiye, Gaziantep, Gebze, Göcek, Göreme, Göynük, Hierapolis, Istanbul, Kalkan, Kayseri, Kaş, Kemer, Konakli, Konya, Kuşadası, Kütahya, Lara, Mahmutlar, Manavgat, Marmaris, Mersin, Muğla, Olympos, Palandöken, Pamukkale, Prince Islands, Samsun, Sapanca, Sarigerme, Sarıkamış, Selimiye, Selçuk, Side, Tarsus, Tekirova, Trabzon, Troy, Turgutreis, Turkish Riviera, Uludağ, Van, Yalıkavak, Çamyuva, Çanakkale, Çeşme, Çıralı, Ölüdeniz, Ürgüp, İskenderun, İzmir, İzmit, İçmeler, Şanlıurfa, etc.
Turkmenistan: Ashgabat, Avaza, etc.
Turks and Caicos Islands: Cockburn Town, North Caicos, Pine Cay, Providenciales, etc.
Uganda: Kampala, etc.
Ukraine: Berdiansk, Bila Tserkva, Boryspil, Bukovel, Cherkasy, Chernihiv, Chernivtsi, Dnipropetrovsk, Donetsk, Ivano-Frankivsk, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Kharkiv, Kherson, Kiev, Koblevo, Kremenchuk, Kryvyi Rih, Luhansk, Lviv, Mariupol, Melitopol, Mykolaiv, Odessa, Poltava, Rivne, Slavske, Sumy, Truskavets, Uzhgorod, Vinnytsia, Yaremche, Yasinya, Zaporizhia, Zatoka, Zhytomyr, etc.
United Arab Emirates: Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Persian Gulf, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah, etc.
United Kingdom: Aberdeen, Bath, Belfast, Blackpool, Bournemouth, Bradford, Brighton, Bristol, Cambridge, Canterbury, Cardiff, Channel Tunnel, Cheltenham, Chester, Cornwall, Coventry, Cumbria, Derry, Devon, Dorset, Dover, Eastbourne, Edinburgh, England, English Channel, Exeter, Folkestone, Fort William, Glasgow, Hampshire, Harrogate, Inverness, Isle of Wight, Kent, Lancashire, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, Llandudno, London, Manchester, Mansfield, Milton Keynes, Newcastle, Newquay, Northern Ireland, Norwich, Nottingham, Oban, Oxford, Paignton, Plymouth, Portmeirion, Portsmouth, Reading, Sandown, Scarborough, Scotland, Shanklin, Sheffield, Somerset, Southampton, St Albans, Stonehenge, Sussex, Swansea, Torquay, Wales, Whitby, Windsor, York, etc.
United States: Akron, Alabama, Alaska, Albuquerque, Amarillo, Anaheim, Anchorage, Ann Arbor, Arizona, Arkansas, Arlington, Aspen, Atlanta, Aurora, Austin, Bakersfield, Baltimore, Baton Rouge, Beaver Creek, Berkeley, Big Bear Lake, Billings, Biloxi, Birmingham, Boca Raton, Boise, Boston, Breckenridge, Brooklyn, Buffalo, California, Carlsbad, Carmel-by-the-Sea, Chandler, Charlotte, Chesapeake, Cheyenne, Chicago, Chula Vista, Cincinnati, Clearwater, Cleveland, Colorado Springs, Colorado, Columbus Georgia, Columbus, Connecticut, Corpus Christi, Costa Mesa, Cupertino, Dallas, Dana Point, Daytona Beach, Death Valley, Delaware, Delray Beach, Denver, Des Moines, Destin, Detroit, Durham, El Paso, Estes Park, Fargo, Fayetteville, Florida, Fontana, Fort Lauderdale, Fort Myers, Fort Walton Beach, Fort Wayne, Fort Worth, Fremont, Fresno, Galveston, Garland, Georgia, Gilbert, Glendale, Grand Canyon, Grand Rapids, Grand Teton, Great Smoky Mountains, Greensboro, Gulfport, Hawaii, Henderson, Hialeah, Hollywood, Honolulu, Hot Springs, Houston, Huntington Beach, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Indianapolis, Iowa, Irving, Jackson Mississippi, Jackson Wyoming, Jacksonville, Jersey City, Juneau, Kansas City, Kansas, Kentucky, Key Largo, Key West, La Jolla, Laguna Beach, Lahaina, Lake Tahoe, Laredo, Las Vegas, Lexington, Lincoln, Little Rock, Long Beach, Los Angeles, Louisiana, Louisville, Lubbock, Madison, Maine, Malibu, Mammoth Lakes, Manhattan, Marathon, Maryland, Massachusetts, Memphis, Menlo Park, Mesa, Mexico City, Miami Beach, Miami, Michigan, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Moab, Modesto, Montana, Monterey, Montgomery, Moreno Valley, Mountain View, Myrtle Beach, Napa, Naples, Nashville, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New Orleans, New York City, New York, Newark, Newport Beach, Newport, Norfolk, North Carolina, North Dakota, North Las Vegas, Oakland, Ocean City, Oceanside, Ohio, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Omaha, Oregon, Orlando, Oxnard, Palm Coast, Palm Desert, Palm Springs, Palo Alto, Panama City Beach, Park City, Pasadena, Pennsylvania, Pensacola, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Pittsburgh, Plano, Pompano Beach, Portland, Portland, Providence, Raleigh, Redwood City, Reno, Rhode Island, Richmond, Riverside, Rochester, Rocky Mountains, Sacramento, Saint Paul, Salt Lake City, San Antonio, San Bernardino, San Diego, San Francisco, San Jose, San Mateo, Sanibel, Santa Ana, Santa Barbara, Santa Cruz, Santa Fe, Santa Monica, Santa Rosa, Sarasota, Savannah, Scottsdale, Seattle, Shreveport, Silicon Valley, South Carolina, South Dakota, South Lake Tahoe, Spokane, Springfield, Squaw Valley, St. Augustine, St. Louis, St. Petersburg, Steamboat Springs, Stockton, Sunny Isles Beach, Sunnyvale, Tacoma, Tallahassee, Tampa, Telluride, Tennessee, Texas, Thousand Oaks, Toledo, Tucson, Tulsa, Utah, Vail, Vermont, Virginia Beach, Virginia, Waikiki, Washington D.C., Washington, West Palm Beach, West Virginia, Wichita, Winston-Salem, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Yellowstone, Yonkers, Yosemite, Zion, etc.
Uruguay: Montevideo, Punta del Este, etc.
Uzbekistan: Bukhara, Fergana, Khiva, Kokand, Navoiy, Samarkand, Tashkent, Urgench, etc.
Vanuatu: Port Vila, etc.
Vatican:, etc.
Venezuela: Caracas, Isla Margarita, Maracaibo, Porlamar, etc.
Vietnam: Cần Thơ, Da Lat, Da Nang, Haiphong, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Huế, Hạ Long, Hội An, Long Hải, Mỹ Tho, Nha Trang, Ninh Bình, Phan Thiết, Phú Quốc, Qui Nhơn, Rạch Giá, Sa Pa, Vũng Tàu, Đồng Hới, etc.
Yemen: Aden, Sana'a, etc.
Zambia: Livingstone, Lusaka, etc.
Zimbabwe: Bulawayo, Harare, Mutare, Victoria Falls, etc.
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California Driver Handbook - Traffic Controls
Pedestrian Signal Lights
Pedestrian signals show words or pictures similar to the following examples:
walk"Walk" or "Walking Person" signal light means it is legal to cross the street.
don't walk"Don’t Walk" or "Raised Hand" signal light means you may not start crossing the street.
Flashing "Don’t Walk" or Flashing "Raised Hand" signal light means do not start crossing the street because the traffic signal is about to change. If the signal light starts flashing after you have already started to cross, finish crossing the street as quickly as possible.
Countdown signals indicate how many seconds remain for crossing. These signals allow pedestrians the flexibility to speed up if the crossing phase is about to expire.
Some signals may provide a beeping or chirping sound or a verbal message. These signals are designed to help blind or visually impaired pedestrians cross the street.
At many traffic signals, you need to push the pedestrian push button to activate the "Walk" or "Walking Person" signal light. If there are no pedestrian signals, obey the traffic signal lights
Various types of traffic signs.
Various traffic warning signs.
Traffic Signs
The shape and color of a sign gives you a clue about the information contained on the sign. Here are the common shapes used:
yield SignA three-sided red YIELD sign indicates that you must slow down and be ready to stop, if necessary, to let any vehicle, bicyclist, or pedestrian pass before you proceed.
do not enterwrong way signA square red and white regulatory sign indicates that you must follow the sign’s instruction. For example, the DO NOT ENTER sign means: do not enter a road or off ramp where the sign is posted (usually on a freeway off ramp). The WRONG WAY sign may or may not be posted with the DO NOT ENTER sign. If you see one or both of these signs, drive to the side of the road and stop. You are going against traffic. When safe, back out or turn around and return to the road you were on. At night if you are going the wrong way, the road reflectors will shine red in your headlights.
no u turn signIf a sign has a red circle with a red line through it, it always indicates “NO.” The picture inside the circle shows what you cannot do. The sign may be shown with or without words.
approaching railroad grade crossingA yellow and black circular sign means you are approaching a railroad crossing.
image of an X shaped rail road crossing signX-shaped signs with a white background that state RAILROAD CROSSING indicate that you must look, listen, slow down, and prepare to stop, if necessary. Let any trains pass before you proceed.
Approaching school zone sign.Five-sided signs mean you are near a school. Stop if children are in the crosswalk.
A four-sided diamond-shaped sign warns you of specific road conditions and dangers ahead. Many warning signs are diamond-shaped.
A white rectangular sign means you must obey important rules.
Some warning signs have a fluorescent yellow-green background. These signs warn of conditions related to pedestrians, bicyclists, schools, playgrounds, school buses, and school passenger loading zones. Obey all warning signs regardless of their shape (See above for examples of traffic signs).
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Caribbean National Forest
Puerto Rican Parrot
"Higuaca" is the name given by the Taino Indians to the native parrot. Its scientific name is Amazona vittata but in Puerto Rico it is best known as the Puerto Rican Parrot. The wild Puerto Rican parrot sometimes can be seen in groups of two or more flying or foraging in the upper part of the Luquillo Mountains within the Caribbean National Forest. The parrots are usually heard before they are seen, as they emit a loud repetitive bugle-like call when they fly.
The Puerto Rican parrot is the only endemic or native parrot in Puerto Rico. One of the rarest birds in the world, this parrot and its habitat are strictly protected by Federal and Puerto Rican laws as an endangered species. It is illegal to possess, buy or sell the parrot or any part of it (including feathers, eggs and nests).
The Puerto Rican parrot is a small amazon parrot, about 11 inches (29 cm) in length and weighing about 10 ounces (270 g). Its tail is short and squared-off, as opposed to the long, pointed tail of a parakeet. The overall color of the Puerto Rican parrot is green. The wing tips are blue and usually are visible only when the bird is in flight. It has a white ring around the eyes and a red blaze above its beak.
Originally, this parrot occurred throughout the entire island of Puerto Rico. Today, it is confined to the Palo Colorado, Palma de Sierra and Tabonuco forest types of the upper zones of the Luquillo Mountains within the Caribbean National Forest.
It is estimated that before the Spanish colonization of the island the population was about a million birds. By the nineteenth century a large population decline occurred and by the 1950's the population declined to approximately 200 birds. In 1971 the total population was as it lowest point: Only 16 parrots were known to exist in the wild and 3 were in captivity. By 1989 there were approximately 99 birds—about 47 in the wild and 52 in a captive flock, which is maintained at an aviary within the Caribbean National Forest. After Hurricane Hugo the wild population was reduced by about half to an estimated total of 25 birds.
Several factors have caused the decline. Habitat loss is the major cause. Most Puerto Rican forests were cut over for agriculture and urban development during the late 1800's and early 1900's. By this time almost 90 percent of the Island was deforested. Large and mature trees, which served as nests, were selectively removed for charcoal production from many forests that were formerly used by parrots.
Direct impacts on the bird have also contributed to the decline. Chicks were robbed from the nests for pets, and adults were hunted to avoid crop damage. Once the population was low, the parrot became particularly vulnerable to some naturally occurring effects, including three major hurricanes (1928, 1932, 1989), parasitic flies, competition from honey bees for nest sites, and predation by thrashers, rats, snakes and birds of prey.
The Puerto Rican parrot feeds primarily on the fruits of the Sierra Palm, Tabonuco and Cupeillo trees.
Although they are essentially fruit eaters, they are known to also eat young leaves, seeds and flowers. In captivity, the parrots are fed with a mixture of corn, rice, beans and oat as well as fruits and vegetables. They are also given a special formulated dry, pellet supplement. During the breeding season captive parrots are also given sierra palm fruit.
The parrot mates for life. If one of the pair is lost, the other will usually find another mate by the next breeding season. Breeding is done during the dry season, from February to June. For its nest, parrots select a large, deep tree cavity, usually in a Palo Colorado tree. This parrot does not build its own nest but parrot recovery biologists do build artificial cavities, which are generally accepted by them.
The female lays a clutch of 3 to 4 eggs and does all the incubating. The male brings food, which it regurgitates for the female. Chicks hatch after 26 days of incubation and both parents feed the chicks. The young leave the nest when they are about two months old, although they remain dependent upon the adults for food and survival skills for several months more. The family group stays together until the beginning of the next breeding season.
Conservation Efforts
Protection of the Puerto Rican parrots began in the late 1940's with a ban on hunting in parrot habitat. In 1968 intensive cooperative efforts to recover the species from near extinction were initiated by the US Forest Service, by the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources, the US Fish and Wildlife Service and The World Wildlife Fund.
The goal of the recovery program is to increase the parrot population to a point where it is no longer in danger of extinction. This is done by means of laws and protection of current and potential habitats, improving nesting sites, controlling parrot enemies, establishing captive flocks to propagate more birds, and conducting further research to provide better ways to increase parrot numbers.
Actual and potential nests sites are maintained yearly by program biologists. The nests and birds are protected from competitors such as thrashers and honeybees; predators such as rats and the Red-tailed Hawk, and parasites such as the botfly and the soldier fly larva.
All active nests are guarded and closely monitored throughout each breeding season to prevent egg and chick mortality. Parrot population counts and movement patterns are conducted regularly to help determine population status and habitat preferences.
Intensive management and research is being done to increase the number and productivity of breeding pairs in the wild and captive flocks. In 1989 five breeding pairs were active in the wild, and four captive pairs were active in the aviary. Some of the young that are produced in captivity are used to prevent nesting failures in the wild population or to add different genes to the wild population. The others are used in the establishment of a second population in the Rio Abajo Forest in Utuado.
Published: 29 Apr 2002 | Last Updated: 15 Sep 2010
Details mentioned in this article were accurate at the time of publication
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Expansion of Indonesia’s Territory
The territory of Indonesia at independence embraced the former area of Dutch East Indies based on provision in Territoriale Zee En Mariteme Kringen Ordonantie in 1939 about Indonesian Territorial Sea Boundaries. It defined that the territorial sea boundaries as far as 3 miles from shore when the beach at low tide with the principle of island by island separately. So it means, if the distance between one island to another more than 6 miles so that will be high seas and this certainly not suitable with the importance of Indonesian safety and security.
indonesia-map image
In December 13rd 1957 released Juanda Declaration as a replacement for the ordinance in 1939 with these purposes:
1. The realization of the whole territory of Indonesia.
2. The decisions of national borders correspond with the archipelagic state principles.
3. Shipping traffic regulation which more guarantee Indonesian safety and security.
Since Juanda Declaration released, there’s a amendment of national territory, wide of the territorial sea measured as far as 12 miles from the outermost islands which is interrelated. Thus, Indonesian territory nowadays is one whole territory where all the seas between the archipelago’s island became Indonesian’s territorial sea. Then, the area of Indonesian territorial for the beginning just like 2 millions kilo meters, but now it expands to more than 5 millions kilo meters.
In February 17th 1969 released Declaration of Indonesian Continental Shelf which is the political concept based on territorial concept. This declaration as an effort to validate the archipelago insight and also as an effort to realize the Article 33 Paragraph 3 in constitution which contains ‘Earth, water, and all the natural richness contained inside of it controlled by the state and used as much as possible for the prosperity. The consequence is that all the natural richness inside of the Indonesian continent is officially belong to Indonesia. So Indonesia has the right to develop and explore all the natural richness to increase the Indonesian people prosperity.
The continental shelf of a country according to the United Nation’s convention about sea law in 1982 or United Nation Convention on The Law of The Sea embraced seabed and subsoil which located in outside of the territorial sea is a natural continuation of its land area. The distance is 200 miles from sea baseline or it could be more than 200 miles but less than 350 miles or can’t be more than 100 miles from the depth of seabed boundary in 2500 meters.
In March 21st 1980 released Declaration of Exclusive Economic Zone. The reasons why the government released the declaration because of the fish stock is diminishing, related to the need of national development in Indonesia because in that time the government declared the five year development plans, beside that Exclusive Economic Zone also has an international law power so it could help the safety and security of the territorial seas in Indonesia. After it, the constitution defined the regulation about Exclusive Economic Zone, nowadays the Exclusive Economic Zone boundary is width of 200 miles which is counted from the sea baseline of Indonesian sea territory.
Note: The picture is taken from www.google.com
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Parkinsons syndrome, parkinson's syndrome, parkinsons, parkinson's
Parkinsons Syndrome
Parkinsons syndrome (Parkinson's Syndrome), Defined: Parkinson's syndrome is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system characterized by tremor and impaired muscular coordination.
Symptoms of Parkinson's Syndrome include:
* tremor or trembling of the arms, jaw, legs, and face
* stiffness or rigidity of the limbs and trunk
* bradykinesia -- slowness of movement
* postural instability, or impaired balance and coordination
Parkinson's Syndrome is also known by, or diagnosed as:
* paralysis agitans
* Parkinson's
* Parkinson's disease
* Parkinsonism
* shaking palsy
Several conditions at first sight look very much like Parkinson's disease but are indeed separate conditions incorporated under the term Parkinson's Syndrome.
Other degenerative conditions of the nervous system, which may have Parkinsonian features, include:
* Progressive supranuclear palsy (Steel Richardson's)
* Corticobascal degeneration
* Creutzfeld-Jacob disease
* Primary pallidal atrophy
* Idiopathic dystonia-parkinsonism
* Hemiatrophy-hemiparkinsonism
* Parkinsonism-ALS-dementia complex of Gaum
* Atherosclerotic or senile Parkinsonism
* Alzheimer's and Pick's diseases
Parkinson's Syndrome?
Parkinson syndrome from Welding Rods
(c) Copyright 2004 Monheit Law: Manganism Section
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The ethics of resurrecting extinct species
Thu, 04/11/2013 - 1:54pm
Twenty years after the release of Jurassic Park, the dream of bringing back the dinosaurs remains science fiction. But scientists predict that within 15 years they will be able to revive some more recently extinct species, such as the dodo or the passenger pigeon, raising the question of whether or not they should– just because they can.
In "What If Extinction Is Not Forever?" Greely laid out potential benefits of de-extinction, from creating new scientific knowledge to restoring lost ecosystems. But the biggest benefit, Greely believes, is the "wonder" factor.
"If we bring the passenger pigeon back, there's no reason to believe it will act the same way as it did in 1850," said co-author Jacob Sherkow, a fellow at the Stanford Center for Law and the Biosciences. "Many traits are culturally learned. Migration patterns change when not taught from generation to generation."
"It's a little odd to consider these things 'alien' species because they were here before we were," he said. "But the 'here' they were in is very different than it is now. They could turn out to be pests in this new environment."
When asked whether government policies are keeping up with the new threat, Greeley answered "no." "But that's neither surprising nor particularly concerning," he said. "It will be a while before any revised species is going to be present and able to be released into the environment."
Greeley and Sherkow recommend that the government leave de-extinction research to private companies and focus on drafting new regulations. Sherkow said the biggest legal and ethical challenge of de-extinction concerns our own long-lost ancestors.
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1,082,573 Pages
They came by ship via the Atlantic Ocean. The first permanent English settlement in the United States was Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Contrary to pop culture, the Pilgrims were not the first as they did not arrive until the 1620's.
Ad blocker interference detected!
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The Biafran War
Like most African nations, Nigeria consists of many different groups forced to co-exist within artificial boundaries drawn by the European power that had formerly controlled the region.
Nigeria escaped British colonialism by declaring independence from Great Britain on October 1, 1960 and eventually became a republic in 1963. After World War II, weary Britain regarded Nigeria as a costly empire and thus, agreed to granting the colonial governments more political and economic power. Britain devised a new constitution in 1950 which provided for a federal system with powers shared between central authorities and three regional legislatures. Such government reorganization spurred the formation of three major political parties. The National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), led by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, dominated the Eastern Region. The Action Group (AG), led by Yoruba Chief Obafemi Awolowo, comprised the political entity in the Western Region. The Nigerian Peoples Congress (NPC), controlled by the Sardauna of Sokoto, Ahmadu Bello, led the Muslim areas in the Northern Region. The deputy leader of the NPC, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, became prime minister while Azikiwe, after aligning his party with the NPC, assumed the larger role of governor-general. The AG emerged as the opposition party.
Political antagonisms and increasing corruption characterized the first government of independent Nigeria. The establishment of the Midwest Region irritated many Yoruba of the Western Region, including Soyinka. Disagreements between Awolowo of the AG and regional Premier Samuel Akintola paralyzed the Western Region where central authorities assumed control for ten months. Representatives of the federal government charged Awolowo and other Yoruba leaders with treason in 1962 and sentenced them to fifteen years in prison. A crisis occurred in 1964 when electoral boycotts took place during the first general elections. Then in 1965 disorders broke out after the ruling political party rigged elections in the Western (Ibo) region. On January 14, 1966, the federal government proclaimed martial law as a solution to Nigeria's problems. The overthrow of the federal government resulted in the mass violence including the murders of Prime Minister Balewa, Akintola, and the Sardauna of Sokoto as part of a coup led by army officers belonging to the Ibo tribe who overthrew the civil government. A military government led by Maj. Gen. Johnson T. U. Aguiyi-Ironsi then ruled Nigeria, until another coup led by the officers of the Hausa tribe of the northern region. The murder of Ibos living in the north led to a mass migration of Ibos to their native eastern region. Hausas were also killed in the Eastern Region.
The four regions attempted to negotiate a return to a civilian government from September to November 1966 but failed to produce an agreement, in part because the representatives of the Eastern Region failed to appear after the first conference. Although more negotiations took place in 1967, the situation quickly deteriorated, and on May 27, Lieut. Col. C. O. Ojukwu, empowered by the Eastern Region's Consultative Assembly, declared the Eastern Region a sovereign and independent republic. The federal government declared a state emergency and divided Nigeria into 12 states.
On May 30, Ojukwu proclaimed the secession of the Eastern Region and the formation of the Republic of Biafra. Soon, fighting broke out between the federal and the Biafran forces. Although the Biafran forces at first did well, by early October the federal forces had captured Enugu, their capital. Despite attempts by the Organization of African Unity to end the civil war, hostilities continued until 1970 at which point the federal forces had starved the Biafran population into submission. Ojukwu fled the country on January 11, and a delegation to Lagos formally surrendered on January 15, 1970, thus ending the existence of the Republic of Biafra.
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Blastocystis hominis is a microscopic organism that may be found in the stools of healthy people who aren't having any digestive symptoms. Blastocystis hominis is also sometimes found in the stools of people who have diarrhea, abdominal pain or other gastrointestinal problems.
Researchers don't yet fully understand the role that Blastocystis hominis plays, if any, in causing an infection. Certain forms of Blastocystis hominis may be more likely to be linked to an infection with symptoms. Sometimes, blastocystis simply lives in a person's digestive tract without causing harm.
A Blastocystis hominis infection usually clears up on its own. There are no proven treatments for these infections. But, if your symptoms don't get better, your doctor may recommend trying certain medications.
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Research Papers on Candide by Voltaire
Research papers on Candide by Voltaire often require students to examine how irony is used to convey the fact that the world is imperfect. Candide, by Voltaire, involves a young German man indoctrinated into the belief that "Private misfortunes contribute to the general good, so that the more private misfortunes there are, the more we find that all is well". Through exaggerated irony, Candide research papers point out that the story presents the theme of eternal optimism in light of an innately evil and imperfect world.
Candide is the main character and approaches every situation with naïve hope that his optimism will flourish against the odds of the world’s misfortunes. Candide by VoltaireCandide’s repeated challenges and failures teach a brilliantly displayed message of the world’s imperfection. In the stark contrast of Eldorado, Voltaire’s version of paradise, the three great ills of the world are missing: want, idleness, and vice. It is these ills that Candide professes to be the downfall of man’s ability to truly discern what is evil and good.
Themes in Candide
Voltaire uses irony to convey the themes of Candide. Upon early instruction, Candide is taught that everything that happens in the world happens for the general good. As Candide grows up, he is taught by Pangloss that all misfortunes that happen to him have a positive side to them.
Eldorado serves as the contrast to illustrate what society could be like without evil.
• In Eldorado, communal work and routine save the inhabitants from want, idleness, or vice.
• The children play with gold and jewels as if they were marbles.
• The townspeople laugh at Candide when he attempts to pay for things with gems, for they have no need or regard for monetary measurements.
• Their needs are completely fulfilled with the beauty and compatibility of each member of society’s contribution.
The portions of society that Voltaire criticizes such as religion and politics exist only in a minimal form in Eldorado. There is a King but he is wise, fair, and kind. There is no formal religion in Eldorado under the guise that religion caters to the rich and powerful. Religion is a means of manipulation of the masses; therefore it is logical that Eldorado would not contain a recognized religion. Instead, all its inhabitants are “priests”. We can witness Voltaire’s view of religion in Candide's conversation with Friar Giroflee in chapter 24. The Friar claims that he leads a life of misery, as all monks should, and is full of rage and jealousy at the unnatural life that monks are forced to live. Clarence Darrow points out that the time in which Voltaire was born into “there was really but one church which, of course, was ignorant, tyrannical and barbarous in the extreme”. Thus Voltaire is making note that attempting to follow justice and righteousness, in as an exact state as possible, leads only to misery. The only rule that the people of Eldorado must follow is never to leave. Therefore there can be no strict religion or political governance in Eldorado.
The challenges to this theory are many and ironically humorous when listed outside the context of the story, just as Voltaire had intended. Candide begins his first lesson in optimism as a soldier cast into “heroic butchery” and inhumane treatment to his fellow man, yet “in accordance with the rules of international law”. To escape the savagery of war, Candide flees to Holland where Syphilis abounds as a gift of “love”, a gift that was given to Pangloss. While on board a ship to Lisbon, Candide is shipwrecked with his port in sight but survives only to be injured in an earthquake. Injured and facing death as a heretic, Candide narrowly escapes being sacrificed in a “slow fire” to calm the Gods and keep them from shaking the earth. Just as Candide’s luck would have it, he happens to kill the Grand Inquisitor and is forced to flee to America. In his trip from Buenos Aires and South America back to Europe he witnesses a Negro slave that has had his leg and hand cut off for “this price that you eat sugar in Europe”. Candide learns that not all the world shares his optimism in the following conversation.
-Oh Pangloss, cried Candide, you have no notion of these abominations! I'm through, I must give up your optimism after all. -What's optimism? said Cacambo.-Alas, said Candide, it is a mania for saying things are well when one is in hell.
As Candide moves on to England, the admiral of a fleet is executed to encourage others to fight harder. The most pathetic evil of the world is revealed in Venice, where boredom turns deadly because people have everything they desire.
Candide - Irony
Candide is a masterpiece of irony. The humor of the story is the tragedy that teaches us the reality of life. Voltaire makes the assertion that the world stripped of evil and without the selfish desires of personal gain, would result in Eldorado. But the possibility of this is beyond human likelihood and rests in the shattering of all basic foundations in which the masses of the world have put their faith. Faith in politics, religion, and capitalism has diminished the optimism of humanity and the capabilities of man to create a utopia such as Eldorado.Candide learns the definition of optimism is "The passion for maintaining that all is right when all goes wrong".
The lesson of Eldorado is lost on Candide since he wishes to leave and find Cunégonde. Along with finding her, his desire is to take back gold and diamonds to Europe so that Candide and Cacambo can be rulers of their own country. While Candide does progress in his awareness that the reality of the world does not breed optimism, he still clings to optimistic naivety in leaving Eldorado and believing he could create a world of such splendor. His emergence from the story is also made up of contrasts. On one hand he believes that “Pangloss cruelly deceived when he told that all is for the best in this world”. Yet Candide clings to his optimism as a form of survival from the world that he has witnessed and has come to better understand through his journey.
Related Research Paper Topics
Age of Reason - Voltaire was the first Enlightenment thinker in France.
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Brief historical survey
Text samples
Music and lyrics
Social aspects
The Minstrel Show
6. Evaluation
The minstrel show in its final form was a huge entertainment product shaped for the needs of the audience. It consisted of different layers which had different functions. The Negro topics, which were closely connected to song and dance, supplied the people with stereotyped images of blacks and kept them from having to take blacks seriously. The comical routines were pure entertainment to make fun of everything just for the sake of being funny. By lampooning contemporary fads, current plays or classical drama they also gave the people a chance to laugh about themselves. Especially in the later years there was a lot of social commentary , and minstrels, shifting away from Negro topics, took a closer and more critical look at life in the Northern states. All these elements together made up the minstrel show with all its aspects, and only by regarding all these ingredients can one begin to understand the huge success of the minstrel show.
©2000 by Jochen Scheytt
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As more European-American settlers migrated west, tensions rose with the indigenous people. There were wars throughout the second half of the 19th century. The Northern Shoshone, led by Chief Pocatello, fought during the 1860s with settlers in Idaho (where a city was named for him). As more settlers encroached on Shoshone hunting territory, the natives raided farms and ranches for food, and attacked migrants. The warfare resulted in the Bear River Massacre (1863), when US forces trapped and murdered an estimated 350–500 Northwestern Shoshone, including women and children, who were at their winter encampment. This was the highest number of deaths which the Shoshone suffered by the forces of the United States. Allied with the Bannock, to whom they were related, the Shoshone fought against the United States in the Snake War from 1864–1868. They fought US forces together in 1878 in the Bannock War. In 1876, by contrast, the Shoshone fought alongside the U.S. Army in the Battle of the Rosebud, as it was against their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Cheyenne.
In 1879 a band of approximately 300 Western Shoshones (known as "Sheepeaters") was involved in the Sheepeater Indian War. It was the last Indian war fought in the Pacific Northwest region of the present-day United States.
In 1911 a small group of Bannock under a leader named Mike Daggett, also known as "Shoshone Mike" killed four ranchers in Washoe County, Nevada. The settlers formed a Posse and went out after the Native Americans. They caught up with the band on February 26, 1911 and killed eight. They lost one man of the posse, Ed Hogle. The posse captured three children and a woman. The partial remains of three adult males, two adult females, two adolescent males, and three children, believed to be Shoshone Mike and his family, according to contemporary accounts, were donated by a rancher to the Smithsonian Institution for study. In 1994, the institution repatriated the remains to the Fort Hall Idaho Shoshone-Bannock Tribe.
Shoshone Mike
Shoshone MikeShoshone Mike, also known as Mike Dagget was either a Shoshone or Bannock American Indian. Shoshone Mike, his wife and children lived on an Indian reservation in Idaho up until 1890. Then, the Indians were forced off of the land by settlers who claimed that they had purchased the land. In 1910, in a revenge slaying for one of his sons, Shoshone Mike and his other sons reportedly killed a man named Frank Dopp, although it was never proven.
During the severe winter of January 1911, Mike Shoshone and his family took shelter on a ridge in the Little High Rock Canyon area. Around that same time, word was received in Surprise Valley that cattle and sheep were missing in that area.
Shoshone MikeAt some point, shots rang out and four men were killed. According to one of the survivors, Mike Shoshone and his band of Indians, heard the shots and went to investigate. Seeking warmth against the bitter cold, the Indians stripped the corpses of their clothes, weapons and horses.
It was almost a month before the cowboy’s frozen stripped down bodies were found. The men had been mutilated – Indian style, according to the news reports of the day.
A posse was formed and set out in search of the Indians on February 16, 1911. In the meanwhile, the Indians set out for the Duck Valley Indian reservation not knowing that they were being pursued.
Shoshone MikeA three hour gun battle then erupted. The posse fired 500 shots compared to the estimated 150 rounds fired by the Indians. Indian women and children armed with bows and arrows, fought next to the men. According to the posse, they tried to avoid shooting the children, but in the end, three children were killed.
When the last Indian massacre was over, 55 year old Mike Shoshone and seven other Indians lay dead. Posse member Ed Hogel was killed and four Indians were taken into custody. Was it really the last massacre of whites by Indians? We may never know.
Read Marilyn Newton’s full story at the link below:
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In Brief
16 November 2016
Bunnies eat toxic leaves to conquer Australia's snowy peaks
AFTER rampaging through Australia’s low-lying regions, European rabbits are muscling into its mountainous areas.
In 2011, Ken Green at the National Parks and Wildlife Service noticed rabbits living above the winter snow line in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales. Faecal pellets show that the rabbits feed on the leaves of alpine eucalyptus trees, also known as snow gums, when the grass is buried by snow in winter.
This is surprising because gum leaves are hard to digest and contain toxins like tannins and phenolics. Native animals that eat them, such as koalas, have special adaptations. How the rabbits manage it is not clear (Australian Mammalogy,
This article appeared in print under the headline “Bunnies eat toxic diet to scale peaks”
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"url": "https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23231003-500-bunnies-eat-toxic-leaves-to-conquer-australias-snowy-peaks/"
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Satellite radar system used to help preserve Angkor Wat temple
Monument collapsing in Angkor due to decay. Credit: F.Chen from the Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences
(Tech Xplore)—A team of researchers from several institutions in China and one in Cambodia has used a new type of satellite radar system to assess the likelihood of damage to the iconic Angkor Wat temple from higher amounts of water being extracted from the ground in the area. In their paper published in the journal Science Advances, the team describes the new technology, how it was used and offers opinions on how best to protect the ancient stone structure and those around it.
The Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia (built during the Khmer Empire between the 9th and 15th centuries) and other ancient stone buildings around it have been designated as a World Heritage site by Unesco—unfortunately, the buildings are all suffering from varying amounts of decay causing officials to worry that some are close to collapsing. Adding to the fears are worries that increased water extraction from the ground from nearby areas in recent years might be causing the ground beneath the buildings to shift more, causing even more problems. To find out if this is the case, the researchers turned to a new type of system called synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR).
With InSAR, two satellites are used to make very precise measurements of the same ground location over time using advanced radar techniques. The spacing of the satellites allows for tracking ground movement—in this new effort, measurements were made over the period 2011 through 2013. The researchers calculated that the ground around the Angkor monuments shifted less than 3 millimeters—which they suggest indicates that it is unlikely that increased has sped up the decay of the stone buildings. Instead, they note, the steady decline of the structures is due almost entirely to erosion, temperature fluctuations and seasonal changes to the water table due to cyclical dry and wet seasons. They suggest officials instead focus their efforts on mitigating damage due to climate change as some models have suggested the area might experience longer dry periods as the planet heats up.
Annual deformation rates (millimeters per year) on the Angkor Wat Temple. The pink arrows mark vulnerable monuments. Credit: Chen et al. Sci. Adv. 2017;3:e1601284
The researchers note that InSAR could be used to help understand conditions around other important ancient structures, offering those charged with protecting them a new tool as well.
Cracks and countermeasures on the second gallery of the Angkor Wat Temple. Credit: F.Chen from the Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Explore further: Finding the lost art of Angkor Wat
More information: Fulong Chen et al. Radar interferometry offers new insights into threats to the Angkor site, Science Advances (2017). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1601284
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Project icon
Rubha Port an t-Seilich
12,000 years ago the first known footsteps were made on Islay at Rubha Port an t-Seilich by ice age hunter-gatherers who camped here whilst making the first known exploration of the west coast of Scotland.
After the Ice Age came to an end approximately 11,600 years ago, woodland spread across what had been tundra landscapes, and people settled on the islands and mainland. They continued to live as mobile hunter-gatherers, using Rubha Port an t-Seilich as a camping site during what we call the Mesolithic period.
In 2010, Rubha Port an t-Seilich was identified as the location of a Mesolithic settlement, and was explored with a small trial excavation in 2013, by the kind permission of the Dunlossit Estate and with funding support from the University of Reading.
The trial excavation showed Rubha Port an t-Seilich to be one of the best preserved Mesolithic sites in Scotland, with a diverse range of stone tools, animal bones, plant remains, a fireplace, pits and postholes. The site also produced traces of Neolithic activity. However the most exciting discovery was made towards the end of the 2013 excavation, when traces of the ice age campsite were found, buried beneath the Mesolithic deposits. Despite only a tiny part of the ice age sediment being exposed, it was enough to provide a number of distinctive ice age stone tools, which were dated at 12,000 years old, 3000 years older than any previous discovery on Islay. Their age and distinctive style means they had been made by people of the Ahrensburgian culture, which flourished in mainland Europe towards the end of the last ice age.
This is a hugely important project for understanding the prehistory of Islay and Scotland; further excavation at Rubha Port an t-Seilich will enable more artefacts to be recovered and provide the first ever insights into an ice age campsite in Scotland.
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"url": "http://islayheritage.org/rubha-port-t-seilich/"
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Size of Universe Videos
The universe is 13.7 bln years old, however in every direction we look we see objects 47 bln light years away, that is, light should have needed 47 bln years to reach us. So you might ask how could light travel 47 bln light years in just 13.7 bln years? Well this is just a consequence of the expansion of the universe: Light gets dragged away from us.
A fun way to investigate the size of the Universe; from galaxies to insects, stars to atoms... Scalable photos and 3-D renderings:
To experience the above interactive infographic:
Step 1: For full screen click the “Full Screen” button in the top right corner of the infographic.
Step 2: Choose one of nine starting points by moving your mouse over and clicking one of the 9 images (atoms, animals, buildings, mountains, planets, stars, nebulae, galaxies and the observable universe).
Step 3: On the bottom of the infographic drag the blue circle left and right to change scale.
Step 4: To relocate to one of the nine entry points simply click the corresponding yellow dot on the scroller at the bottom of the page.
(3 videos / 20 min)
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"url": "http://speed-light.info/video_universe_size.htm"
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AskDefine | Define disintegrate
Dictionary Definition
1 break into parts or components or lose cohesion or unity; "The material disintegrated"; "the group disintegrated after the leader died" [ant: integrate]
2 cause to undergo fission or lose particles
3 lose a stored charge, magnetic flux, or current; "the particles disintegrated during the nuclear fission process" [syn: decay, decompose]
User Contributed Dictionary
From dis- + integrate.
1. (to cause) to break up into parts (often when reacting with a liquid)
Derived terms
Extensive Definition
Disintegration is the process by which an object breaks down or loses cohesion. Disintegration or Disintegrate may also refer to:
Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words
ablate, abrade, atomize, beat, bite the dust, blow to pieces, blow up, brain, bray, break, break down, break open, break to pieces, break up, brecciate, bring down, burn to death, burst, canker, carry away, cave in, cleave, collapse, come apart, come off, come to dust, come undone, come unstuck, comminute, conk out, consume, contriturate, corrode, corrupt, crack, crack up, crumb, crumble, crumble into dust, crumble to dust, crush, cut down, cut to pieces, deactivate, deal a deathblow, debrief, decay, decline, decompose, degenerate, deliquesce, demob, demobilize, demolish, descend, detach, disassemble, disband, discharge, disimprove, disjoin, dismantle, dismiss, disorganize, disperse, dissipate, dissolve, dissolve into chaos, droop, drop, effloresce, erode, fade, fail, faint, fall, fall into decay, fall off, fall to dust, fall to pieces, fell, fester, fission, fissure, fizzle out, flag, flour, fly apart, fracture, frag, fragment, gangrene, get loose, give away, give out, give the quietus, give way, go bad, go downhill, go separate ways, go soft, go to pieces, grain, granulate, granulize, grate, grind, grind to powder, gun down, hit the skids, incinerate, jugulate, languish, lapidate, lay low, let go, levigate, make mincemeat of, mash, mildew, mill, mold, molder, mortify, moulder, muster out, necrose, part, part company, peel off, peg out, pestle, peter out, pick to pieces, pine, pistol, poleax, poop out, pound, powder, pull in pieces, pull to pieces, pulverize, putrefy, putresce, rankle, reduce to powder, reduce to rubble, release, rend, retrograde, riddle, rot, rupture, scatter, scrunch, separate, shard, shatter, shoot, shoot down, shoot to death, shotgun, shred, silence, sink, slacken, smash, snap, sphacelate, split, split up, spoil, spring a leak, spring apart, squash, stab to death, start, stone, stone to death, strike dead, sunder, suppurate, taint, take apart, tear apart, tear to pieces, tear to shreds, tear to tatters, topple, total, triturate, tumble, turn, unbuild, undo, unmake, unravel, untune, vaporize, waste away, weaken, wear away, wear thin, wilt, worsen, wrack up, wreck, yield
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Example: Storytelling Techniques Applied in Learning
This is an example of how storytelling techniques can be applied in learning, in this case Anti-Money Laundering (AML) training.
First, a quick primer on Money Laundering…
Training Goal:
The goal of this training is to present common money laundering techniques e.g the “red flags” that bank employees must be aware of concerning money laundering.
What is Money-laundering?
Money laundering involves obtaining money through illegal methods (drugs, crime, etc.) and then concealing the origin of the money. Typically, “dirty” money is moved through the financial system so that when it is eventually removed, it appears to be from legitimate sources. The challenge that money launderers face is how to “cleanse” copious amounts of money – who knew so much money could be a problem, right? And, so various money laundering techniques are deployed to introduce large amounts of cash into the financial system, without raising alarm.
The Training Approach:
Note: An alternate image has been used in this example in order to protect the client’s confidentiality.
Money Laundering Criminal
The story is told from the perspective of the money launderer. It begins in jail where one convict asks another; “What are you here for?”. There begins the account of the grandiose life of the money launderer and the various techniques (red flags) the criminal used to support his lavish lifestyle. The story is visual, animated with movement e.g. cartoon-like, and punctuated with humour.
It is a two-part story; each part is less than 7 minutes.
Part 2 begins where Part 1 ends – it answers the question (again asked by the convict’s cellmate): “How’d you get caught?”
Although told from the convict’s perspective, it includes the specific flags that caused the bank to become suspicious; in this case, the inconsistent information and contradictions surrounding a fabricated business, while maintaining a friendly relationship with the bank.
Now isn’t that more compelling than a laundry list (pardon the pun) of red flags? Employees thought so; they personified the character, affectionately naming him. Most importantly, it got them talking about learning. When does that happen? The net of it… a memorable story, makes for memorable learning.
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"url": "http://subjectmatters.ca/storytelling-example/"
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Frits Zernike was a pioneer in forensic science; his invention of the phase-contrast microscope enabled scientists to study living tissue samples under magnification for the first time. Zernike won the 1953 Nobel Prize in physics for his invention. Born on July 16, 1888, in Amsterdam, Zernike was the son of two mathematicians, Carl Frederick August Zernike and Antje Dieperink Zernike. Early in life he was recognized for his mathematical abilities. He received both his B.S. and his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Amsterdam, and he worked at an astronomy laboratory while pursuing his graduate studies. His doctoral thesis, "Critical Opalescence, Theoretical and Experimental," quickly established him as a leader in his field. In 1915 he was appointed lecturer in theoretical physics at the University of Groningen. In 1920, he was promoted to professor, where he remained for the rest of his career. Zernike's background in statistical mathematics and thermodynamics was responsible for his groundbreaking discovery. A conventional microscope utilizes ordinary light, and under these instruments living tissues, particularly transparent ones, are not visible unless stained. Yet staining usually kills the specimen or produces artifacts that are impossible to differentiate from the specimen. The phase-contrast technique can reveal variations in opacity as well as variations in the thickness of transparent objects. Although the practical applications of Zernike's findings seem obvious now, it was some years before he could find a manufacturer for a phase-contrast microscope. He first approached the German company, Carl Zeiss, in 1932. Finally, in 1941, Carl Zeiss agreed to produce the instrument. But it was not until American troops arrived in Germany in 1945 and discovered photomicrographs taken by a phase-contrast microscope that Zernike's instrument received worldwide attention. When he won the Nobel Prize in 1953, the phase-contrast microscope was cited as being a key to insights into cancer research. Though the phase-contrast microscope is considered his crowning achievement, Zernike is also known for other work. Early in his career he invented the Zernike galvanometer, an instrument used to detect and measure small electrical currents. The Zernike polynomials are a method he developed regarding the wave theory of light, and are widely used by mathematicians. He also made many improvements in infrared and ultraviolet spectroscopy, as well as in the construction of the electromagnet. Although Zernike stayed at his alma mater for his entire career, he was a visiting professor of physics at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore in 1948. In 1950 he was elected to the Royal Microscopical Society of London, and he was presented with the Rumford Medal of the British Royal Society in 1952. Frits Zernike Frits Zernike Nobel Prize Winner 1953 Dutch Physicist Born 16 July 1888 Died 3 October 1966
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In 1660 Frederick William of Brandenburg ended all Polish control over East Prussia. In 1701 Frederick William’s son crowned himself as the first Prussian king, Frederick I.
Frederick I’s grandson was Frederick II, who is known as Frederick the Great. He took West Prussia back from Poland in 1772. Under his rule, Prussia became a major power.
In 1848 some Prussians tried to start a revolution against King Frederick William IV. They wanted the people…
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Introduction to supersyllabograms in Linear B – what is a supersyllabogram?
In brief, a supersyllabogram is the first syllabogram, i.e. the first syllable of any Linear B word (or phrase) used in conjunction with any one of scores of Linear B ideograms. In a sense, almost all supersyllabograms are dependent on the ideogram which they modify, hence they are called dependent supersyllabograms. However, it is not as simple as that. In actual fact, it is the supersyllabogram which modifies the meaning of the ideogram, sometimes drastically.
Additionally, in the field of agriculture, all supersyllabograms without exception are said to be associative, which is to say that they are associated by happenstance with the ideograms they modify as indicators of geographic location, land tenure, land disposition, sheep raising and husbandry, as dictated by each supersyllabogram. The tablet shown here clearly illustrates the disposition of an associative supersyllabogram, in this case O = Linear onaton = “a usufruct lease field” or more simply “a lease field”, which as you can see is an entire phrase in English, even though it is only one word in Mycenaean Linear B. Here is how the supersyllabogram O = onaton in particular functions. Where the ideograms alone (accompanied by no supersyllabogram) signifying rams and ewes appear on any Linear B tablet, as on the first line of KN 1371 E j 921, they simply mean what they are, rams and ewes, which is why the first line of this tablet simply translates as 80 rams and 8 ewes. Period. Nothing more, nothing less. Simple.
Linar B tablet KN 1371 E j 921 O supersyllabogram = onaton = lease field
The supersyllabogram O, the first of 36:
The first supersyllabogam in Mycenaean Linear B = O = onaton = lease field
However, as soon as the scribe places a supersyllabogram, in this case O, which as we have just noted above is the first syllabogram, i.e. the first syllable of a certain Linear B word, the meaning changes, often dramatically. The problem is, what does O mean? Upon consulting Chris Tselentis’ excellent Linear B Lexicon, we discover (not much to our surprise) that there is one word and one word only which fits the context and that word is of course onato. Every other entry under the vowel syllabogram O in his Lexicon comes up cold. They are dead ends. This leaves us with only one alternative. The vowel syllabogram O must mean onato = “a lease field”, and absolutely nothing else. So the second line on this tablet can only mean one thing, “12 rams on a (usufruct) lease field”. Nothing else. Period. However, take away the ideogram, in this case for “rams”, and leave the O all by itself on the tablet, it means absolutely nothing. It is just the vowel syllabogram O, and there is no Mycenaean Linear B word with the single vowel “O”. This is precisely why the supersyllabogram O (and all other supersyllabograms in the agricultural sector of the Minoan-Mycenaean economy are tagged as associative (because they just so happen to be associated with the ideograms they modify) and dependent on the ideogram they modify (because once they are associated with a particular ideogram, they distinctly modify its meaning). This phenomenon takes some getting used to, because it does not exist in any other language or script, ancient or modern... which is astounding when you think of it.
Unfortunately, not all supersyllabograms are that easy to crack. In fact, the majority of them are not. But we can leave that prickly problem to later, much later. In case you are wondering , out of 61 syllabograms + 1 homophone (AI) in Mycenaean Linear B, no fewer than 36 (!) or 59 % are supersyllabograms. That is a huge investment on the part of Mycenaean Linear B scribes. But why, I hear you asking, would they even bother doing this? The answer stares us in the face... to save precious space on what are after all tiny tablets. Linear B tablets are rarely more than 15 cm. wide, with only a few being 30 cm. So rather than spell out onato in full, in this case onato = a lease field, they simply placed the supersyllabogram O in front of the ideogram for any of sheep or rams or ewes, and left it at that. And what goes for the supersyllabogram O goes for every last one of the 36 supersyllabograms.
This phenomenon may seem a little weird to you all at first sight. But you will rapidly become accustomed to it as I post more and more supersyllabograms (a.k.a. SSYLs) pursuant to this post.
Note that until I myself deciphered all 36 supersyllabograms in Mycenaean Linear B between 2014 & 2016, no one in the field of linguistic research into Linear B had ever deciphered any more than a scattered few or them, let alone isolated, identified and classified all 36. In fact, no researcher to date has ever even understood what the phenomenon of the supersyllabogram is. Not until I cracked them wide open.
This is the most significant breakthrough in the decipherment of Mycenaean Linear B in the 64 years since its initial decipherment by Michael Ventris in 1952. In 2017, I will be publishing the definitive article on The Theory and Application of Supersyllabograms in Linear B, but in which publication and precisely when remains a closely guarded secret never to be whispered until it meets the light of day.
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Answers in Genesis states this in their article on Pakicetus:
"The ‘whale’ status of Pakicetus received another potentially fatal blow. This came from a recent study of the semicircular canal systems in both living and fossil cetaceans (whales and dolphins).1 The semicircular canal system is a set of tubes connected to the inner ear that provides information on head (and therefore also body) movements. The tubes are filled with small, solid particles suspended in liquid. The inner surfaces of the tubes are covered with sensors that show which way the contents are flowing. This organ gives us our sense of balance.
To the surprise of the international team of scientists, the cetaceans, both living and fossil, all had the same ‘unique’ small canal size—about three times smaller than all other mammals, when corrected for body size.1 The researchers suggested that the canal system had to be small to reduce the sensitivity, thus preventing information overload as the animals rolled around.1 They concluded that the early whales had semicircular canals unlike those of any non-cetacean mammal. This, they said, shows that even the ‘earliest’ whales had unique behaviour, suited to aquatic life.
But while the paper defended whale evolution, the detailed analysis demonstrated a sharp gap in relative sizes between whales and non-whales, including the pakicetid Ichthyolestes (creationists would probably group it into the same created kind as Pakicetus). There were no examples of slow and gradual shrinking of the canals—they were either one relative size or the other.2 In fact, the paper affirms that the alleged change in canal structure happened ‘instantaneously’ and produced a ‘unique’ apparatus."
So the shrinking of the semicircular canals happened "instantaneously"; and it of course follows from this that evolution is wrong. Right? Uh-Uh. You see, the fact that the evolution of the canals happened rapidly while the evolution of the rest of the body happened more slowly is not evidence against evolution. These canals are used for maintaining balance. Movement in the water, and balance in the water, would be very different from movement and balance on land. These canals would be a very important step in evolution, and therefore this adaption would spread much quicker than other adaptions might. The Science Blog Afarensis has a good article on this.
The same type of claims about semicircular canals have been made before, except with Apes and humans instead of whales. The man that AiG references, Fred Spoor, has admitted that "Any link between the characteristic dimensions of the human canals and locomotion will be more complex than a simple association with the broad categories of quadrupedal vs. bipedal behavior." So the inner ears are just not enough to draw any simple conclusions from.
One last thing: AiG claims that Pakicetus is a fully terrestrial mammal, and not aquatic. The Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine has a different story to tell:
"The skulls of pakicetids have an ear region that is highly unusual in shape, and only resembles that of modern and fossil whales. These features are diagnostic for cetaceans, they are found in all cetaceans, and in no other animals. These features are main why pakicetids are considered whales. In many other features, pakicetids are also similar to some whales, but those features are not shared by all whales. An example of the latter is the dentition. Pakiceid teeth look a lot like those of fossil whales, but are unlike those of modern whales. Pakicetids did not live in the sea. The rocks in which their fossils are preserved indicate that the bones were buried in a shallow stream, and that the climate was hot and dry. It is likely that pakicetids waded in these streams. Their bones are unusually thick, possibly an adaptation to make the animal heavier counteracting the buoyancy of the water."
So there are many indications that they are ancestors of whales, and that they were semi aquatic.
It's sad that AiG does absolutely no research to back up their claims. They make blind and bold assertions that simply have no basis in science. This is such a very clear cut case of evolution, too. Pakicetus was found in the early Eocene strata, Ambulocetus was found in the early to middle Eocene, and Rodhocetus was found in the mid to late Eocene. It's very sequential.
For more, see Ed Babinski's article on the evolution of whales.
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If you are in deep space and need an emergency surgery you currently have to rely on the medical expertise of one of your crew members. But in the not too distant future, astronauts on long missions may be able to count on a mini-robot that can actually perform surgery from inside the human body.
The mini-surgeon is able to slip into the body through a small incision in the navel. The abdominal cavity is filled with gas to give the robot room to work. Once the bot is in the abdominal cavity, it can repair a perforated gastric ulcer, removed pieces from a diseased colon or remove a ruptured appendix.
Created by Virtual Incision in Lincoln, Nebraska, the fist-sized robot is due to make its zero-gravity debut in the coming months. It will perform a series of exercises to demonstrate its dexterity by manipulating different objects.
One of the main advantages of the bot is its ability to perform surgery from inside the body. Surgery in space is extremely dangerous. In a zero-gravity environment blood and other bodily fluids can easily float free and contaminate the vessel.
“Everything that we take for granted, even something as simple as putting a Band Aid down on a table, is difficult in space,” says Dmitry Oleynikov at the University of Nebraska Medical Center. “That difficulty increases logarithmically when you’re trying to do complex procedures such as an operation.”
Virtual Incision’s prototype robots have performed numerous medical procedures in pigs. The next stage is to test its expertise on human cadavers, then eventually move on to living humans here on earth. Once the surgeon bot is primed to go, Virtual Incision plan to train astronauts to perform procedures on each other using joysticks to remotely operate the bot.
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Female characters in "The Kite Runner", "Hamlet" and the short story "A Lot to Learn".
Extracts from this document...
The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini is a novel published in 2003 which tells the story of Amir, a young Afghan boy with a traumatic past, a guilty conscience, a war-stricken homeland and a broken future. The Kite Runner explores many different issues throughout the novel; one such issue is the representation of females. Females can be seen as ?material goods?, and are often shown as marginalized, weak, demeaned, and subject to many double standards in todays society, and throughout earlier history. The Kite Runner shows the idea of female representation through the development and construction of make and female characters, combined with the setting and culture in the novel. The idea of marginalized female representation is also shown in other texts such as A Lot to Learn, and Hamlet, all of which used character construction to portray these ideas. The Kite Runner portrays the idea of females as being marginalized in many different cases. There are only two females that have any backstory or focus in the book The Kite RunnerAmir?s wife Soraya, and Soraya?s mother. Hassan?s wife is also mentioned briefly. ...read more.
To keep the state functioning as a whole, Gertrude realized she would need a new king to rule. Gertrude also may have realized how easy it would be for another man to take advantage; if they controlled Gertrude, they could control the state. Her marriage to Claudius at least guaranteed that the state was run by someone she trusted and could see as a ruler. None of these ideas were explicitly stated, because Gertrude was never really given a chance to defend herself and her actions, due to Hamlet being the focus of the story. ?Frailty, thy name is woman?, Hamlet says, referring to poor Gertrude. He refers to the way that Gertrude was moulded so quickly to another?s will, the way her confidence faltered so soon, and how weak Gertrude really was. Hamlet is a character that has no respect for women. He holds a grudge against his mother, and as the play progresses, these dark feelings that he feels towards his mother grow stronger. Hamlet starts to feel so strongly to his mother ?betraying? him, that he starts to apply this idea to all women, even weak Ophelia. ...read more.
Ned comes across a slight hitch, however, when he mutters the word ?girl?. In our society today, the word ?girl? often refers to woman, not literally a girl or child. Its a misconception, just a word in our culture that has developed to mean something else from the original meaning. Ned obviously does not want the small, innocent child that appears in the machine, as he curses ?Hell!?. Referring to a woman as ?girl? is almost demeaning in a way. The fact that Ned wishes for a girl as well is slightly disturbing. Upon reading it, most people would immediately assume that Ned wants this girl for nefarious purposes, to fulfil a fantasy or something of that drift. This is another symbol of the female representation being marginalized, shoved aside as the weaker gender. All of these different characters from these three stories easily show the idea of females being marginalized and disenfranchised. Characters such as Ned Quinn, Hamlet, and General Sahib are constructed to be dominant over the female characters. The settings and culture, when combined with these strong male characters, show the many double-standards that exist between females and males, and also show the idea of females being represented as trophy objects. ...read more.
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AskDefine | Define rhetoric
Dictionary Definition
1 using language effectively to please or persuade
2 high flown style; excessive use of verbal ornamentation [syn: grandiosity, magniloquence, grandiloquence]
3 loud and confused and empty talk; "mere rhetoric" [syn: palaver, hot air, empty words, empty talk]
4 study of the technique and rules for using language effectively (especially in public speaking)
User Contributed Dictionary
From Latin rhētorica < (rētorikē), feminine form of (rētorikos) "concerning public speech" < (rētōr) "public speaker"
1. The art of using language, especially public speaking, as a means to persuade.
2. Meaningless language with an exaggerated style intended to impress.
It's only so much rhetoric.
art of using language for persuasion
• Croatian: retorika, govorništvo
• Czech: řečnictví, rétorika
• Dutch: redekunde, retorica
• German: Rhetorik
• Russian: реторика (ryetórika)
• Spanish: retórica
• Ukrainian: реторика (retóryka)
Extensive Definition
Rhetoric is the art of harnessing reason, emotions and authority, through language, with a view to persuade an audience and, by persuading, to convince this audience to act, to pass judgement or to identify with given values. The word derives from Greek ρητορική (rhetorike), fem. of ρητορικός (rhetorikós), "oratorical, skilled in speaking" and that from ρήτωρ (rhetōr), "orator" .
In Greece, rhetoric originated in a school of pre-Socratic philosophers known as Sophists c.600 BC. It was later taught, in the Roman Empire, and during the Middle Ages, as one of the three original liberal arts or trivium (along with logic and grammar).
In Ancient and Medieval eras of European history, rhetoric concerned itself with persuasion in public and political settings such as assemblies and courts of law. As such, rhetoric is said to flourish in open and democratic societies with rights of free speech, free assembly, and political enfranchisement for some portion of the population. However, celebratory (or epideictic) rhetoric, alongside deliberative rhetoric, is just as important an element of tyrannical regimes or dogmatic (religious and otherwise) public entities that are not open to debate on an equal footing.
In contraposition to scientific debates , rhetorical arguments, as in politics or even justice, do not make use of demonstrable or tested truths, but resort to fallible opinions, popular perceptions, transient beliefs, chosen evidence or evidence at hand (like statistics), which are all properly called commonplaces as they help establish a commonality of understanding between the orator or rhetor and his/her audience.
Contemporary studies of rhetoric have a more diverse range of practices and meanings than was the case in ancient times. The concept of rhetoric has thus shifted widely during its 3300-year history. Rhetoricians have recently argued that the classical understanding of rhetoric is limited because persuasion depends on communication, which in turn depends on meaning. Thus the scope of rhetoric is understood to include much more than simply public--legal and political--discourse. This emphasis on meaning and how it is constructed and conveyed draws on a large body of critical and social theory (see literary theory and Critical Theory), philosophy (see Post-structuralism and Hermeneutics), and problems in social science methodology (see Reflexivity). So while rhetoric has traditionally been thought of as being involved in such arenas as politics, law, public relations, lobbying, marketing and advertising, the study of rhetoric has recently entered into diverse fields such as humanities, religion, social sciences, law, science, journalism, history, literature and even cartography and architecture. Every aspect of human life and thought that depends on the articulation and communication of meaning can be said to involve elements of the rhetorical. "In the last ten years, many scholars have investigated exactly how rhetoric works within a particular field".
History of Classical Rhetoric
Ancient Israel
Rhetorical skills were first required, and found wanting in no lesser personage than Moses as mentioned in Torah, the Hebrew Bible traditionally dated to 1313 BCE, where Moses argued with God that he should not be the one to deliver the message to the people by saying "Please, my Lord, I am not a man of words..." (Exodus 4:10). To this God responded "Is there not Aaron, your brother, the Levite?" (Exodus 4:14). Levites were the priestly tribe of Israelites that were occupied primarily with teaching, at that time, in public, therefore Aaron was expected to be such a "man of words".
Ancient Greece
The Sophists
Isocrates (436-338 BC), (not to be confused with the philosopher Socrates) like the sophists, taught public speaking as a means of human improvement, but he worked to distinguish himself from the Sophists, whom he saw as claiming far more than they could deliver. He suggested that while an art of virtue or excellence did exist, it was only one piece, and the least, in a process of self-improvement that relied much more heavily on native talent and desire, constant practice, and the imitation of good models. Isocrates believed that practice in speaking publicly about noble themes and important questions would function to improve the character of both speaker and audience while also offering the best service to a state. He thus wrote his speeches as "models" for his students to imitate in the same way that poets might imitate Homer or Hesiod. His was the first permanent school in Athens and it is likely that Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were founded in part as a response to Isocrates. Though he left no handbooks, his speeches ("Antidosis" and "Against the Sophists" are most relevant to students of rhetoric) became models of oratory (he was one of the canonical "Ten Attic Orators") and he had a marked influence on Cicero and Quintilian, and through them, on the entire educational system of the west.
Plato (427-347 BC) famously outlined the differences between true and false rhetoric in a number of dialogues, but especially the Gorgias and the Phaedrus. Both dialogues are complex and difficult, but in both Plato disputes the Sophistic notion that an art of persuasion, the art of the Sophists which he calls "rhetoric" (after the public speaker or rhêtôr), can exist independent of the art of dialectic. Plato claims that since Sophists appeal only to what seems likely or probable, rather than to what is true, they are not at all making their students and audiences "better," but simply flattering them with what they want to hear. While Plato's condemnation of rhetoric is clear in the Gorgias, in the Phaedrus he seems to suggest the possibility of a true art of rhetoric based upon the knowledge produced by dialectic, and he relies on such a dialectically informed rhetoric to appeal to the main character, Phaedrus, to take up philosophy. It is possible that in developing his own theory of knowledge, Plato coined the term "rhetoric" both to denounce what he saw as the false wisdom of the sophists, and to advance his own views on knowledge and method. Plato's animosity against the Sophists derives not only from their inflated claims to teach virtue and their reliance on appearances, but from the fact that his teacher, Socrates, was accused of being a sophist and ultimately sentenced to death for his teaching. In his dialogues, Plato attempts to distinguish the rhetoric common to Socratic questioning from Sophistry.
Plato's student Aristotle (384-322 BC) famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today.
Aristotle's treatise on rhetoric is an attempt to systematically describe civic rhetoric as a human art or skill (techne). His definition of rhetoric as a mode of discovery seems to limit the art to the inventional process, and Aristotle heavily emphasizes the logical aspect of this process. But the treatise in fact also discusses not only elements of style and (briefly) delivery, but also emotional appeals (pathos) and characterological appeals (ethos). He thus identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric--invention, arrangement, and style--and three different types of rhetorical proof:
• This could be any position in which the speaker--from being a college professor of the subject, to being an acquaintance of person who experienced the matter in question--knows about the topic.
• For instance, when a magazine claims that, A MIT professor predicts that the robotic era is coming in 2050, the use of big name "MIT" (a world-renown college for advanced research in math, science, and technology) establishes the strong credibility.
• pathos: the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment.
• This can be done through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience.
• Logos appeals include appeals to statistics, math, logic, and objectivity. For instance, when advertisements claim that their product is 37% more effective than the competition, they are making a logical appeal.
• Inductive reasoning uses examples (historical, mythical, or hypothetical) to draw conclusions.
• Deductive or "enthymematic" reasoning uses generally accepted propositions to derive specific conclusions. The term logic evolved from logos. Aristotle emphasized enthymematic reasoning as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it.
Aristotle also identifies three different types or genres of civic rhetoric: forensic (also known as judicial, was concerned with determining truth or falsity of events that took place in the past, issues of guilt), deliberative (also known as political, was concerned with determining whether or not particular actions should or should not be taken in the future), and epideictic (also known as ceremonial, was concerned with praise and blame, values, right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the present).
Roman rhetoricians
The Romans, for whom oration also became an important part of public life, saw much value in Greek rhetoric, hiring Greek rhetoricians to teach in their schools and as private tutors, and imitating and adapting Greek rhetorical works in Latin and with Roman examples. Roman rhetoric thus largely extends upon and develops its Greek roots, though it tends to prefer practical advice to the theoretical speculations of Greek rhetoricians. Cicero (106-43 BC) and Quintilian (35-100 AD) were chief among Roman rhetoricians, and their work is an extension of sophistic, Isocratean, Platonic and Aristotelian rhetorical theory.
Whether or not he wrote the Rhetorica ad Herennium, Cicero, along with Quintilian (the most influential Roman teacher of rhetoric), is considered one of the most important Roman rhetoricians. His works include the early and very influential De Inventione (On Invention, often read alongside the Ad Herennium as the two basic texts of rhetorical theory throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance), De Oratore (a fuller statement of rhetorical principles in dialague form), Topics (a rhetorical treatment of common topics, highly influential through the Renaissance), Brutus (a discussion of famous orators) and Orator (a defense of Cicero's style). Cicero also left a large body of speeches and letters which would establish the outlines of Latin eloquence and style for generations to come. It was the rediscovery of Cicero's speeches (such as the defence of Archias) and letters (to Atticus) by Italians like Petrarch that, in part, ignited the cultural innovations that we know as the Renaissance.
• Actio (delivery) is the final step as the speech is presented in a gracious and pleasing way to the audience - the Grand Style.
Quintilian's work attempts to describe not just the art of rhetoric, but the formation of the perfect orator as a politically active, virtuous, publicly minded citizen. His emphasis on the real life application of rhetorical training was in part nostalgia for the days when rhetoric was an important political tool, and in part a reaction against the growing tendency in Roman schools toward standardization of themes and techniques and increasing separation between school exercises and actual legal practice, a tendency equally powerful today in public schools and law schools alike. At the same time that rhetoric was becoming divorced from political decision making, rhetoric rose as a culturally vibrant and important mode of entertainment and cultural criticism in a movement known as the "second sophistic," a development which gave rise to the charge (made by Quintilian and others) that teachers were emphasizing ornamentation over substance in rhetoric. Quintilian's masterful work was not enough to curb this movement, but his dismayed response cemented the scholarly opinion that 2nd century C.E. rhetoric fell into decadence and political irrelevance, despite its wide popularity and cultural importance.
Rhetoric from the Medieval period to the Enlightenment
Rhetoric would not regain its classical heights until the renaissance, but new writings did advance rhetorical thought. Boethius (480?-524), in his brief Overview of the Structure of Rhetoric, continues Aristotle's taxonomy by placing rhetoric in subordination to philosophical argument or dialectic. One positive consequence of the Crusades was the introduction of Arab scholarship and renewed interest in Aristotle, leading to what some historians call the twelfth century renaissance. A number of medieval grammars and studies of poetry and rhetoric appeared.
Late medieval rhetorical writings include those of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225?-1294), Matthew of Vendome (Ars Versificatoria, 1175?), and Geoffrey of Vinsauf (Poetria Nova, 1200-1216). Pre-modern female rhetoricians, outside of Socrates' friend Aspasia, are rare; but medieval rhetoric produced by women either in religious orders, such as Julian of Norwich (d. 1415), or the very well-connected Christine de Pizan (1364?-1430?), did occur if not always recorded in writing.
Sixteenth century
One influential figure in the rebirth of interest in classical rhetoric was Erasmus (c.1466-1536). His 1512 work, De Duplici Copia Verborum et Rerum (also known as Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style), was widely published (it went through more than 150 editions throughout Europe) and became one of the basic school texts on the subject. Its treatment of rhetoric is less comprehensive than the classic works of antiquity, but provides a traditional treatment of res-verba (matter and form): its first book treats the subject of elocutio, showing the student how to use schemes and tropes; the second book covers inventio. Much of the emphasis is on abundance of variation (copia means "plenty" or "abundance", as in copious or cornucopia), so both books focus on ways to introduce the maximum amount of variety into discourse. For instance, in one section of the De Copia, Erasmus presents two hundred variations of the sentence "Semper, dum vivam, tui meminero". Another of his works, the extremely popular The Praise of Folly, also had considerable influence on the teaching of rhetoric in the later sixteenth century. Its orations in favour of qualities such as madness spawned a type of exercise popular in Elizabethan grammar schools, later called adoxography, which required pupils to compose passages in praise of useless things.
The English Tradition in the Seventeenth Century
Modern Rhetoric
Modern rhetoric in North America
McLuhan's famous dictum "the medium is the message" can be paraphrased with terminology from Lonergan. At the empirical level of consciousness, the medium is the message, whereas at the intelligent and rational levels of consciousness, the content is the message. McLuhan is thus ordering us to pay attention to the empirical level of consciousness.
Contemporary Study of Rhetoric
Rhetorical theory today is as much influenced by the research results and research methods of the behavioral sciences and by theories of literary criticism as by ancient rhetorical theory. Early rhetorical theorists attempted to turn the study of rhetoric into a social science that allowed predictive analyses of human behavior. Interdisciplinary scholars of symbol systems, such as Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945), Hugh Duncan, and most notably Kenneth Burke (1897-1993), influenced a new generation of rhetorical scholars who drew from various disciplines to more fully comprehend the phenomenon of human communication in all its aspects. Contemporary rhetorical theory, in fact, flourishes within a strong humanistic tradition, while social scientific studies tend to include mass media and focus on communication theory. The work of modern rhetorical scholars such as Roderick Hart, Richard E. Vatz, Barry Brummett, and Sonja Foss demonstrate how rhetoric's involvement with the public forum and persuasion make it a singularly useful way to study all modes of communication from oral and written to various modes of entertainment and other public discourse. While ancient rhetorical scholarship had focused primarily on rhetoric as speech, contemporary rhetorical theorists are interested in the panoply of human symbolic behavior—both the spoken and written word as well as music, film, radio, television, etc. Thus Kenneth Burke, who defined the human being as the "symbol-using animal," defined rhetoric as "the use of symbols to induce cooperation in those who by nature respond to symbols." Current rhetorical theory also draws heavily from cultural studies, performance studies, and design studies. Topics of interest to contemporary scholars include the relationships between rhetoric and gender, studies of non-traditional or alternative rhetorics, and rhetorics of science, technology, and new media.
Because the history of modern and contemporary rhetoric is closely tied to modern language theory and philosophy, some North American scholars (like Thomas B. Farrell) have found inspiration in post-structuralist French thinkers like Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Francois Lyotard. All that can be safely said, as a start and in strict relation to rhetoric, is the following: Derrida wrote on voice; Foucault was aware of Stoic rhetoric; Lyotard had a post-Heideggerian concept of rhetoric as being-in-the-world.
French Rhetoric in the Modern and Contemporary Periods
Rhetoric was part of the curriculum in Jesuit and, to a lesser extent, Oratorian colleges until the French Revolution. For Jesuits, right from the foundation, in France, of the Society, rhetoric was an integral part of the training of young men toward taking up leadership positions in the Church and in State institutions, as Marc Fumaroli has shown it in his foundational Age de l’éloquence (1980). The Oratorians, by contrast, reserved it a lesser place, in part due to the stress they placed on modern languages acquisition and a more sensualist philosophy (Bernard Lamy’s Rhetoric is an excellent example of their approach).Nonetheless, in the 18th Century, rhetoric was the armature and crowning of college education, with works such as Rollin’s Treatise of Studies achieving a wide and enduring fame across the Continent.
The French Revolution, however, turned this around. Philosophers like Condorcet, who drafted the French revolutionary chart for a people’s education under the rule of reason, dismissed rhetoric as an instrument of oppression in the hands of clerics in particular. The Revolution went as far as suppressing the Bar, arguing that forensic rhetoric did disservice to a rational system of justice, by allowing fallacies and emotions to come into play. Nonetheless, as later historians of the 19th century were keen to explain, the Revolution was a high moment of eloquence and rhetorical prowess, yet, against a background of rejection of rhetoric.
Under the First Empire and its wide ranging educational reforms, imposed on or imitated across the Continent, rhetoric regained little ground. In fact instructions to the newly founded Polytechnic School, tasked with training the scientific and technical elites, made it clear that written reporting was to supersede oral reporting. Rhetoric re-entered the college curriculum in fits and starts, but never regained the prominence it enjoyed under the ancien régime, although the penultimate year of college education was known as the Class of Rhetoric. When manuals were redrafted in the mid-century, in particular after the 1848 Revolution, care was taken by writers in charge of formulating a national curriculum to distance their approach to rhetoric from that of the Church seen as an agent of conservatism and reactionary politics. By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: philosophy, of the rationalist or eclectic kind, by and large Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true terminal stage in secondary education, (the so-called Class of Philosophy bridged college and university education). Rhetoric was then relegated to the study of literary figures of speech, a discipline later on taught as Stylistics within the French literature curriculum. More decisively, in 1890 a new standard written exercise superseded the rhetorical exercises of speech writing, letter writing and narration. The new genre, called dissertation, had been invented, in 1866, for the purpose of rational argument in the philosophy class. Typically, in a dissertation, a question is asked, such as: “Is history a sign of humanity’s freedom?” The structure of a dissertation consists in an introduction that elucidates the basic definitions involved in the question as set, followed by an argument or thesis, a counter-argument or antithesis, and a resolving argument or synthesis that is not a compromise between the former but the production of a new argument, ending with a conclusion that does not sum up the points but opens onto a new problem. The dissertation design was influenced by Hegelianism. It remains today the standard of writing in the humanities.
By the beginning of the 20th century rhetoric was fast losing the remains of its former importance, to be taken out of the school curriculum altogether at the time of the Separation of State and Churches (1905) – part of the argument was indeed that rhetoric remained the last element of irrationality, driven by religious arguments, in what was perceived as inimical to Republican education. The move initiated in 1789 found its resolution in 1902 when rhetoric is expunged from all curricula. However, it must be noted that, at the same time, Aristotelian rhetoric, owing to a revival of Thomistic philosophy initiated by Rome, regained ground in what was left of Catholic education in France, in particular at the prestigious Faculty of Theology of Paris, now a private entity. Yet, for all intents and purposes, rhetoric vanished from the French scene, educational or intellectual, for some 60 years.
In the early 1960s a change began to take place, as the word rhetoric, let alone the body of knowledge it covers, started to be used again, in a modest and near confidential way. The new linguistic turn, through the rise of semiotics as well as structural linguistics, brought to the fore a new interest in figures of speech as signs, the metaphor in particular (in the works of Roman Jakobson, Michel Charles, Gérard Genette) while famed Structuralist Roland Barthes, a classicist by training, perceived how some basic elements of rhetoric could be of use in the study of narratives, fashion and ideology. Knowledge of rhetoric was so dim in the early 1970s, that his short memoir on rhetoric was seen as highly innovative. Basic as it was, it did help rhetoric regain some currency in avant-garde circles. Psycho-analyst Jacques Lacan, his contemporary, makes references to rhetoric, in particular to the Pre-Socratics. Philosopher Jacques Derrida wrote on Voice.
However, at the same time, more profound work was taking place that, eventually, gave rise to the French school of rhetoric as it exists today.
This rhetorical revival took place on two fronts. Firstly, in the area of 17th century French studies, the mainstay of French literary education, awareness grew that rhetoric was necessary to push further the limits of knowledge, and also provide an antidote to Structuralism and its denial of historicism in culture. This was the pioneering work of Marc Fumaroli who, building on the work of classicist and Neo-Latinist Alain Michel and French scholars such as Roger Zuber, published his famed Age de l’Eloquence (1980), was one of the founders of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric and was eventually elevated to a chair in rhetoric at the prestigious College de France. He is the editor in chief of a monumental History of Rhetoric in Modern Europe. His disciples form the second generation, with rhetoricians such as Françoise Waquet, Delphine Denis both of the Sorbonne, or Philippe-Joseph Salazar until recently at Derrida's College international de philosophie. Secondly, in the area of Classical studies, Latin scholars, in the wake of Alain Michel, fostered a renewal in Cicero studies, breaking away from a pure literary reading of his orations, in an attempt to embed Cicero in European ethics, while, among Greek scholars literary historian and philologist Jacques Bompaire, philologist and philosopher E. Dupréel and, somewhat later and in a more popular fashion, historian of literature Jacqueline de Romilly pioneered new studies in the Sophists and the Second Sophistic. The second generation of Classicists, often trained in philosophy as well (following Heidegger and Derrida, mainly), built on their work, with authors such as Marcel Detienne(now at Johns Hopkins), Nicole Loraux (d. in 2006), Medievalist and logician Alain De Libera (Geneva), Ciceronian scholar Carlos Lévy (Sorbonne, Paris) and Barbara Cassin (Collége international de philosophie, Paris). Sociologist of science Bruno Latour and economist Romain Laufer may also be considered part of, or close to this group. Links between the two strands, the literary and the philosophical, of the French school of rhetoric are strong and collaborative and bear witness to the revival of rhetoric in France.
The Profession and Teaching of Rhetoric in (mostly) North America
Other notable 20th- and 21st-century authors in the study of the history, theory, and criticism of rhetoric include Kenneth Burke, Wayne C. Booth, Cleanth Brooks, Edward P.J. Corbett, Marcel Detienne, Robert Ivie, Paul de Man, Marc Fumaroli, Ernesto Laclau, Richard A. Lanham, John Lucaites, Michael Calvin McGee, Chaim Perelman, I.A. Richards, Stephen Toulmin, Victor J. Vitanza, Robert Penn Warren, Walter Ong, Eric Havelock, Richard M. Weaver, and Deirdre McCloskey, as well as others.
Rhetoric in the North American Academy
Contemporary scholars in rhetoric come from diverse academic backgrounds, and are often housed in departments of English, Communication Studies, Rhetoric, Education, or Speech Communication. Rhetorical scholars meet at conferences such as the Conference on College Composition and Communication, the National Communication Association conference, and the Rhetoric Society of America conference. In Canada, The Canadian Society for the Study of Rhetoric is a small but thriving scholarly community with a yearly conference and an on-line journal, Rhetor. They publish research in journals including the Quarterly Journal of Speech, College Composition and Communication, the Rhetoric Society Quarterly, Rhetoric Review, Rhetoric and Public Affairs, Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, and Philosophy and Rhetoric.
Canadian Schools with departments dedicated to Rhetoric
• Ron and Jane Graham Centre for the Study of Communication at The University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK,
(Note, the Graham Centre currently offers Special Case and Interdisciplinary Graduate programmes at the Masters and PhD level. An undergraduate communication option is being developed, and a Masters Of Professional Communication is planned for the summer of 2009).
• Department of English - Rhetoric and Professional Writing at The University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON
US Schools with departments dedicated to Rhetoric
US Schools with hybrid departments of Rhetoric and another discipline
US Schools with an English Department offering an emphasis in Rhetoric
US Schools with a Communications Department offering an emphasis in Rhetoric
US Schools with an emphasis in Rhetoric offered through a joint English and Communications Department program
Discourse analysis
Rhetoric is not only a method for training effective communicators (rhetors); as a discipline for advanced study, it is a method for understanding on a theoretical as well as a practical level how humans use language ("discourse") to alter or shape our understanding of reality. Every text -- be it advertisement, lecture, speech, letter, blog, or chat -- inhabits a given discourse environment, hence the term discourse analysis. Rather than providing a particular method, discourse analysis is a way of approaching and thinking about a problem; neither a qualitative nor a quantitative research method, but rather a questioning of the basic assumptions of quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Discourse analysis does not provide a tangible answer to problems based on scientific research, but it reveals the ontological and epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a method of research, or - to provide an example from the field of Library and Information Science - a system of classification. Discourse analysis thus reveals the hidden motivations behind a text or behind the choice of a particular method of research to interpret that text, enabling a more critical assessment of that text in light of the implicit assumptions that shaped it. By making these assumptions explicit, discourse analysis allows us to view the "problem" from varying perpsectives and to gain a comprehensive view of the "problem" and ourselves in relation to that "problem." In short, discourse analysis provides awareness of the hidden motivations in others and ourselves and, therefore, helps us solve concrete problems not by providing unequivocal answers, but by making us ask ontological and epistemological questions.
Examples of rhetoric
Primary texts
The locus classicus for Greek and Latin primary texts on rhetoric is the Loeb Classical Library of the Harvard University Press, published with an English translation on the facing page. For other translations, see the references in each author's Wikipedia entry.
Rhetoric in the visual arts
External links
rhetoric in Azerbaijani: Ritorika
rhetoric in Bulgarian: Реторика
rhetoric in Catalan: Retòrica
rhetoric in Czech: Rétorika
rhetoric in Danish: Retorik
rhetoric in German: Rhetorik
rhetoric in Modern Greek (1453-): Ρητορική
rhetoric in Spanish: Retórica
rhetoric in Esperanto: Retoriko
rhetoric in French: Rhétorique
rhetoric in Galician: Retórica
rhetoric in Korean: 수사학
rhetoric in Ido: Retoriko
rhetoric in Indonesian: Retorika
rhetoric in Icelandic: Mælskufræði
rhetoric in Italian: Retorica
rhetoric in Hebrew: רטוריקה
rhetoric in Georgian: რიტორიკა
rhetoric in Latin: Ars rhetorica
rhetoric in Lithuanian: Retorika
rhetoric in Limburgan: Retorica
rhetoric in Hungarian: Retorika
rhetoric in Macedonian: Реторика
rhetoric in Malay (macrolanguage): Retorik
rhetoric in Dutch: Retorica
rhetoric in Japanese: 修辞学
rhetoric in Norwegian: Retorikk
rhetoric in Norwegian Nynorsk: Retorikk
rhetoric in Occitan (post 1500): Retorica
rhetoric in Polish: Retoryka
rhetoric in Portuguese: Retórica
rhetoric in Russian: Риторика
rhetoric in Albanian: Gojëtaria
rhetoric in Simple English: Rhetoric
rhetoric in Slovak: Rétorika
rhetoric in Slovenian: retorika
rhetoric in Finnish: Retoriikka
rhetoric in Swedish: Retorik
rhetoric in Turkish: Retorik
rhetoric in Ukrainian: Риторика
rhetoric in Chinese: 修辞学
Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words
Barnumism, affectation, articulateness, bedizenment, big talk, bluster, bombast, choice of words, command of language, command of words, composition, convolution, debating, declamation, demagogism, dialect, diction, effective style, elocution, eloquence, eloquent tongue, exaggeration, expression, expression of ideas, expressiveness, facundity, fashion, feeling for words, felicitousness, felicity, flashiness, flatulence, flatulency, forensics, form of speech, formulation, fulsomeness, fustian, garishness, gasconade, gaudiness, gift of expression, gift of gab, glibness, grace of expression, grammar, grandiloquence, grandioseness, grandiosity, graphicness, high-flown diction, highfalutin, homiletics, hot air, idiom, inflatedness, inflation, language, lecturing, lexiphanicism, literary style, locution, loftiness, long-windedness, luridness, magniloquence, manner, manner of speaking, mannerism, meaningfulness, mere rhetoric, meretriciousness, mode, mode of expression, oratory, orotundity, ostentation, ostentatious complexity, parlance, peculiarity, personal style, phrase, phraseology, phrasing, platform oratory, platitudinous ponderosity, polysyllabic profundity, pomposity, pompous prolixity, pompousness, pontification, pretension, pretentiousness, prolixity, prose run mad, public speaking, puffery, pyrotechnics, rabble-rousing, rant, rhapsody, rhetoricalness, rodomontade, sensationalism, sense of language, sententiousness, sesquipedality, showiness, silver tongue, slickness, smoothness, speaking, speech, speechcraft, speechification, speeching, speechmaking, stiltedness, strain, stump speaking, style, stylistic analysis, stylistics, swelling utterance, swollen phrase, swollenness, talk, tall talk, the grand style, the plain style, the sublime, tortuosity, tortuousness, trick, tumidity, tumidness, turgescence, turgidity, usage, use of words, usus loquendi, vein, verbiage, verbosity, vividness, way, windiness, wordage, wordcraft, wordiness, wording
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Brief Summary
Read full entry
Manihot esculenta, cassava, is a perennial woody shrub in the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family) native to South America but now grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas worldwide for the edible starchy roots (tubers), which are an major food source in the developing world, in equatorial regions including Africa, South America, and Oceania. Also known as yuca (although not related to the genus Yucca), manioc, and tapioca, the dried root is the source of tapioca (used in the U.S. to make pudding).
The cassava shrub may grow to 2.75 meters (9 feet) tall, with leaves deeply divided into 3–7 lobes. The shrub is often grown as an annual, and propagated from stem cuttings after tubers have been harvested. The fruit is small, roughly 1 cm (1/2 inch) in diameter, but root tubers in cultivated varieties (which require 9–18 months to grow to harvestable size) can be 5–10 cm in diameter and 15–30 cm long. Fresh roots and leaves contain cyanide compounds including linamarin (cyanogenic glucoside) and hydrocyanic acid at levels that may be toxic, but properly treated (in a labor-intensive process that may include roasting, soaking, or fermentation, as shown in this YouTube clip, An Introduction to Cassava), the cyanide content is neglible. “Bitter” varieties contain more of these compounds than “sweet” varieties—although flavor is an imperfect indicator—but are often preferred by farmers for their pest-repellent properties.
Cassava, which may be the most widely grown root crop in the world, originated in western and southern Mexico and tropical South America (likely Brazil). Archaeological evidence suggests that it was cultivated in Peru 4,000 years ago, and in Mexico by 2,000 years ago. It was introduced to West Africa in the 16th century, and became a major food crop there and in Asia. Total 2010 global production was 228 million metric tons, harvested from 18.4 million hectares, with Nigeria, Thailand, and Brazil producing the largest amounts. In optimal conditions, cassava may yield up to 68 tons per hectare in a year, but typical yields are 10 tons/hectare. In addition, cassava is often intercropped with maize, vegetables, legumes, cocoa, and coffee.
Cassava tubers are prepared in various forms as a food (see ”culinary uses” in detailed entry), and are an important source of carbohydrates; they also contain significant amounts of phosphorus and iron, and are relatively rich in vitamin C. The leaves, which must also be treated to remove cyanide compounds before eating, contain 20–30% protein and are used as vegetable. Cassava is also used as a livestock feed in Latin America, the Caribbean, and Europe, and is increasingly cultivated for use as a biofuel (in China, for example).
(Bailey 1976, FAOSTAT 2012, Sadik 1988, Wikipedia 2011)
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Parity Checkers and Generators Information
Show all Parity Checkers and Generators Manufacturers
Parity checkers and generators detect errors in binary data streams. Parity-checking devices combine a generator and checker into an integrated circuit (IC) package.
parity checkers and generators selection guide
Parity is one of the simplest error-detection methods for checking binary data streams. Parity checkers contain transmission and receiving ends. They divide binary streams into sections of 7 or 8 bits and generate a parity bit at the transmission end. A second parity bit is then generated at the receiving end; if the transmission bit and receiving bit match, the data is verified as accurate.
Even/Odd Parity
Parity essentially measures the sum of the one bits (as opposed to zero, the other binary value) contained in the data and is classified as even or odd depending on these sums. In even parity, the sum of the ones plus the parity bit must be even, while in odd parity the sum must be odd. For example, if a device checks the data stream 0111000 for even parity, the parity bit must be 1 if the data is accurate; in this case the sum of the ones and parity bit is four, an even number.
The table below illustrates using parity bits to adjust data streams depending on whether parity is even or odd.
parity checkers and generators selection guide
Image credit: University of London Birkbeck
Parity is a limited and somewhat simplistic method for checking binary data. It is prone to errors and shortcomings due to its status as a "pass-fail" sum-based method for error detection. For example, if a digit is switched during transmission parity can flag the data stream as "bad" but is unable to identify which bit caused the error.
Additionally, if two bits are switched, a parity checker would judge the data stream to be accurate because it can only gage whether the stream's sum of one digits is even or odd. Because adding two digits to any integer renders its parity identical, parity checkers are not reliable if two or four digits are switched in the same stream.
Applying Parity
Parity checkers are common in binary communications systems. They are also integrated into networked systems and in PCs, where they are used to test memory storage devices in real-time.
Errors and Causes
Parity errors may have "hard" or "soft" causes. Most errors are classified as soft errors, meaning they are caused by environmental factors such as electrostatic discharge (ESD) or electromagnetic interference (EMI). These conditions can unexpectedly change a memory cell's electrical state or interfere with its read/write functions. Soft errors typically occur only once and can be caused by nearby power cables, generators, lighting systems, and radiation issuing from solar flares or nuclear power systems.
Hard parity errors are caused by physical malfunctions in memory devices. A malformed memory cell may be unable to hold a charge or be more vulnerable to soft errors. Hard errors may also occur outside of healthy memory cells in the read/write circuity, causing a parity error in transmission. Because hard errors are due to physical anomalies, they recur each time the device is used. This error type is often caused by extreme temperatures, poor installation practices, ungrounded power surges, ESD, manufacturing errors, and component incompatibility.
parity checkers and generators selection guide
Design and operation of a parity checker, showing the interaction between generation and check functions.
Image credit: T4planet
Logic Families
A parity checker's logic family technology is one of its more important specifications. Some examples include:
• Emitter coupled logic (ECL) uses transistors to steer current through gates that compute logical functions.
Other logic families for parity checkers and generators include cross-bar switch technology (CBT), gallium arsenide (GaAs), integrated injection logic (I2L), silicon on sapphire (SOS), and gunning with transceiver logic (GTL).
Parity checkers may be designed and manufactured according to various published standards, including:
• SMD 5962-87543—Digital bipolar parity checker
• IETF RFC 5170—Low density parity check (LDPC) staircase and triangle forward error correction (FEC) schemes
Other parity-related standards can be found on IHS Engineering360's standards page.
The Math Forum—Parity Checking
Image credit:
Texas Instruments
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The early Iron Age in northern Italy is termed Villanovan after a site found near Bologna in the 19th century. The Villanovan period was preceded in the 10th and 9th centuries B.C. by a proto-Villanovan phase, which was a time of transition from the Apennine Bronze Age culture related to the Urnfield cultures north of the Alps. This early phase used geometric designs and figural representations that persisted as components of later Etruscan and Italic art. The usual ornamentation includes incised zigzags, triangles, concentric circles, swastikas, and figures of humans and animals, such as water-birds and horses. Developing further between the 9th and 8th centuries B.C., and contemporary with Greek Geometric art, the artistic production of the Villanovan Iron Age contributed to the development of early Etruscan art, particularly at Villanovan sites where Etruscans would later flourish. Villanovan art is noted for its bronze and iron metal work, particularly its large bronze vessels adorned with figurines, as well as simply decorated pottery, which was well-made in spite of being produced without use of the potter’s wheel. Although primarily from burial contexts, the art of the Villanovans focused on the form and decoration of objects for the house, such as terracotta and bronze vases of various shapes, or for ceremonial use, such as wide bronze belt plaques, protective armor and swords, and fibulae to fasten clothing.
Villanovan Bronze Figurine
Villanovan Bronze Fibula with Birds
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A Quote by Freeman Dyson on animals, cities, civilization, climate, consequences, darkness, dependence, good, greatness, history, horses, ideas, inventions, life, motives, needs, power, simplicity, technology, and theory
The technologies which have had the most profound effects on human life are usually simple. A good example of a simple technology with profound historical consequences is hay. Nobody knows who invented hay, the idea of cutting grass in the autumn and storing it in large enough quantities to keep horses and cows alive through the winter. All we know is that the technology of hay was unknown to the Roman Empire but was known to every village of medieval Europe. Like many other crucially important technologies, hay emerged anonymously during the so-called Dark Ages. According to the Hay Theory of History, the invention of hay was the decisive event which moved the center of gravity of urban civilization from the Mediterranean basin to Northern and Western Europe. The Roman Empire did not need hay because in a Mediterranean climate the grass grows well enough in winter for animals to graze. North of the Alps, great cities dependent on horses and oxen for motive power could not exist without hay. So it was hay that allowed populations to grow and civilizations to flourish among the forests of Northern Europe. Hay moved the greatness of Rome to Paris and London, and later to Berlin and Moscow and New York.
Freeman Dyson
Source: Freeman Dyson Infinite in All Directions, Harper and Row, New York, 1988, p 135.
Contributed by: Zaady
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King Richard III Test | Mid-Book Test - Medium
Buy the King Richard III Lesson Plans
Name: _________________________ Period: ___________________
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Who does Clarence tell of his bad dream?
(a) His cell mate.
(b) Richard.
(c) Elizabeth.
(d) Prison-keeper.
2. What is the given name of the Duke of Clarence?
(a) Geoffrey.
(b) George.
(c) Gavin.
(d) Gaylord.
3. Who does Hastings believe is responsible for his earlier imprisonment?
(a) Richard and Rivers.
(b) Grey and Rivers.
(c) Elizabeth and Edward.
(d) Grey and Richard.
4. What is the name of Hastings' mistress that Richard claims caused his deformation?
(a) Shore.
(b) Rivers.
(c) Bay.
(d) Shady.
5. Who is Queen in Act I, scene iii?
(a) Jane.
(b) Mary.
(c) Elizabeth.
(d) Anne.
Short Answer Questions
2. Which king was killed in the same location Grey, Rivers and Vaughan are?
3. What do Dorset and Rivers advise the queen to do?
4. Who orders the arrest of Grey and his companion?
5. What is the name of King Henry IV's queen?
Short Essay Questions
1. What does Richmond's speech to his soldiers show he is interested in?
2. Why does York say that he does not want to grow quickly, and what is the Duchess' response?
3. Why is Anne regretting having married Richard?
4. How does the third citizen describe the queen's brothers?
5. What does the scrivener think about the people who do not see what Richard is doing?
6. How do the king's actions show that he knows the destructiveness of in fighting?
7. Why is Richard worried that the Mayor will not meet with him a second time?
8. How does Richard deflect the attention from his misdeeds when he enters the King's room?
9. How does Richard get Anne to not be furious with him?
10. Why does Hastings tell Stanley that there is nothing to fear from the councils?
(see the answer keys)
This section contains 666 words
(approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page)
Buy the King Richard III Lesson Plans
King Richard III from BookRags. (c)2016 BookRags, Inc. All rights reserved.
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During the Renaissance
The pastoral eclogue enjoyed a revival during the Renaissance. Vergil's Bucolics was translated in the 15th cent. in Italy, and pastoral eclogues were written by Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The most elaborate pastoral romance was the Arcadia by Jacopo Sannazaro, written partly in prose and partly in verse. Poliziano's Orfeo (c.1471) is one of the earliest pastoral dramas. In France the pastourelle —a short poem in dialogue in which a minstrel courts a shepherdess—appeared as early as the 14th cent. and is exemplified in Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion, a play by Adam de La Halle.
In English literature the pastoral is a familiar feature of Renaissance poetry. Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia (1590) is an epic story in pastoral dress, and in The Shepheardes Calender (1579) Edmund Spenser used the pastoral as a vehicle for political and religious discussion. Many of the love lyrics of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and Michael Drayton have a pastoral setting. Christopher Marlowe's "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" is one of the most famous pastoral lyrics, and Milton's philosophical and deeply felt "Lycidas" is a great pastoral elegy. In drama well-known examples of the pastoral are Shakespeare's As You Like It, the shearers' feast in A Winter's Tale, and Milton's masque Comus.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Literature: General
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The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics by Lucas N.H. Bunt | 9780486139685 | NOOK Book (eBook) | Barnes & Noble
The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics
The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics
by Lucas N. H. Bunt, Phillip S. Jones, Jack D. Bedient
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The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics
By Lucas N. H. Bunt, Phillip S. Jones, Jack D. Bedient
Dover Publications, Inc.
Copyright © 1988 Harry Bunt, Lidy E. M. Van Welzenis, Phillip S. Jones and Jack D. Bedient
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-486-13968-5
The earliest written mathematics in existence today is engraved on the stone head of the ceremonial mace of the Egyptian king Menes, the founder of the first Pharaonic dynasty. He lived in about 3000 B.C. The hieroglyphics on the mace record the result of some of Menes' conquests. The inscriptions record a plunder of 400,000 oxen, 1,422,000 goats, and 120,000 prisoners. These numbers appear in Figure 1-1, together with the pictures of the ox, the goat, and the prisoner with his hands behind his back. Whether Menes exaggerated his conquests is interesting historically but does not matter mathematically. The point is that even at this early date, man was recording very large numbers. This suggests that some mathematics was used in the centuries before 3000 B.C., that is, before the invention of writing (the prehistoric period).
There are two ways of learning about the mind and culture of prehistoric humans. We have learned about them through the discovery of ancient artifacts, which were found and interpreted by archaeologists. We have also learned about prehistoric civilization by observing primitive cultures in the modern world and by making inferences as to how prehistoric thought and customs developed. In our study of the development of ideas and understandings, both approaches are useful.
One of the most exciting archaeological discoveries was reported in 1937 by Karl Absolom as a result of excavations in central Czechoslovakia. Absolom found a prehistoric wolf bone dating back 30,000 years. Several views are shown in Figure 1-2. Fifty-five notches, in groups of five, are cut into the bone. The first 25 are separated from the remaining notches by one of double length. Although we do not know how this bone was notched, the most plausible explanation is that some prehistoric man deliberately cut it. Perhaps he was recording the number of a collection, possibly of skins, of relatives, or of days since an event. It is reasonable to assume that he made a notch for each object in the collection that he was counting. If this interpretation is correct, then we can recognize in this prehistoric record rudimentary versions of two important mathematical concepts. One is the idea of a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of two different sets of objects, in this case between the set of notches on the bone and the set of whatever the prehistoric man was counting. The other is the idea of a base for a system of numeration. The arrangement of the notches in groups of 5 and of 25 indicates a rudimentary understanding of a base 5 system of numeration.
Anthropological studies reinforce our belief in the existence of prehistoric number ideas. A study of the western tribes of the Torres Straits, reported by A. C. Haddon in 1889, describes a tribe that had no written language which counted as follows: 1, urapun; 2, okosa; 3, okosaurapun; 4, okosa-okosa; 5, okosa-okosa-urapun; 6, okosaokosa-okosa. Everything greater than 6 they called ras. A student of modern mathematics would recognize in this system of counting the beginnings of a base 2 numeration system. If a Torres Strait native had recognized this idea, however, he would have used a different word for 4 and would not have said ras for numbers greater than 6.
A. Seidenberg has recently published a theory of the origin of counting (see reference 12 at the end of the chapter). He believes that counting was invented for use in early religious rituals. Many studies of primitive tribes as well as early Babylonian religious writings are cited which indicate that participants in religious rituals were called into the ritual in a definite order and that counting developed in connection with specifying this order. In his studies, Seidenberg found 2-counting to be the earliest counting that he could detect. This seems to indicate that the counting of the Torres Straits natives is consistent with a method of counting that was in use thousands of years earlier.
These two types of prehistoric number ideas, matching and counting, correspond to two different approaches to number which are common both in modern life and in modern education. One of these is the approach through the ideas of set and one-to-one correspondence between sets that have developed since the work of Georg Cantor (1845-1914) in the latter part of the nineteenth century. This treatment is sometimes referred to as a cardinal approach to number. At about the time that Cantor was developing the beginnings of modern set theory, Giuseppe Peano (1858-1932) was attempting to axiomatize the natural numbers and their arithmetic. To do this, he stated a set of five axioms. One of these axioms is that every natural number has a successor. Such a treatment is called an ordinal approach to number. It emphasizes the counting idea, in contrast to the matching idea stressed in the cardinal approach to number. These two approaches can be shown to be equivalent to each other, but our purpose here is merely to point out the antiquity of the underlying ideas which have recently been organized into important modern mathematical systems.
Evidences of other prehistoric mathematical ideas are not hard to find. One can read into primitive cave paintings some ideas of proportion and symmetry as skilled artists produced remarkably realistic drawings of animals and hunters. Ideas of number and one-to-one correspondence appear in connection with stickmen and four-legged animals. Elaborate geometric designs can be found on prehistoric pottery. Prehistoric drawings showing different views of a wagon and horses have been found in Europe. Sketches from the time of ancient Babylonia that might be plans of a building, perhaps a temple, have been unearthed. What appears to be a decimally divided ruler has been unearthed at Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan. Interesting as these archeological findings are, from a mathematical point of view we shall find a study of the historic period to be more profitable. Let us therefore turn our attention to the earliest written mathematics, that of the Egyptians and the Babylonians.
Although monuments, inscriptions, and Menes' mace record the earliest written numbers, most of our knowledge of Egyptian mathematics comes from writings on papyrus. Papyrus is a paperlike substance made from the papyrus plant, which grows along the Nile River. From these writings we learn that mathematics was studied in Egypt as early as 2000 years before Christ. Why in Egypt?
Herodotus (about 450 B.C.) observed that the Egyptians were forced to reset the boundary markers of their fields after the spring flooding of the Nile destroyed them. For that purpose surveyors were needed with some practical knowledge of simple arithmetic and geometry. Many of their computations remain. However, it is typical of Egyptian mathematics that arithmetic processes and geometric relations are described without mention of the underlying general principles. Thus, we know how the Egyptians performed computations, but we can only guess at how they developed their methods. We look for the reasoning behind their methods by deciphering and studying the detailed solutions of many examples.
The Greek mathematician Democritus (about 460-370 B.C.) appreciated the mathematical knowledge of the Egyptians as highly as his own achievements in this field. He writes: "In the construction of lines with proofs I am surpassed by nobody, not even the so-called rope stretchers of Egypt." By rope stretchers he probably meant surveyors, whose main instrument was the stretched rope. Figure 1-3 shows a statue of a rope stretcher with his coil of rope.
The oldest known Egyptian mathematical texts contain mostly problems of a practical nature, such as computing the capacity of a granary, the number of bricks needed for the building of a store, or the stock of grain necessary for the preparation of a certain amount of bread or beer.
The Rhind papyrus is our best source of information about Egyptian arithmetic. It is named after an Englishman, A. Henry Rhind, who bought the text in Luxor in 1858 and sold it to the British Museum, where it is displayed. This papyrus, copied by a scribe, Ahmes, and sometimes called by his name, dates from about 1650 B.C., although, according to the writer, it had been taken from an older treatise written between 2000 and 1800 B.C. The text contains about 80 problems. Besides including solutions for many practical questions, some of which include geometric concepts, it contains a number of problems that are of no practical importance. We get the impression that the author posed himself problems and solved them for the fun of it.
There are four other, smaller Egyptian mathematical writings of some importance: the Moscow papyrus, the Kahun papyrus, the Berlin papyrus, and the leather roll. There are many small fragments and commercial papyri scattered around the world, but they furnish only slight information about Egyptian mathematics.
No definite place of discovery is known for the Moscow papyrus. It is named after the city where it is kept. A start was made on deciphering it in 1920. The complete document was published in 1930. The papyrus contains about 30 worked-out problems. Figure 1-9 (see page 38) contains a picture of a part of the papyrus.
About 1900 an Englishman discovered a papyrus in Kahun, hence its name. This papyrus contains applications of the arithmetic methods described in the Rhind papyrus, but it contains little more of importance.
Since in the course of years the leather roll had completely dried up and become hardened, it was extremely difficult to unfold it without destroying the text. Modern chemical processes have made it possible to soften and preserve it. The leather roll, which is displayed in the British Museum, will be discussed and shown in Section 1-9.
Egyptian numerical notation was very simple. It used symbols for 1, 10, 100, ..., 1,000,000. In hieroglyphics these symbols were:
The symbol for 1000 was a lotus flower, for 104 a finger with a bent tip, for 105 a tadpole, and for 106 a man with his arms uplifted. Look back at Menes' mace in Figure 1-1 for examples of these symbols.
The numbers 2 through 9 were represented by two, three, ..., nine vertical dashes, as follows:
Tens, hundreds, and so on, were treated likewise. For example,
These symbols were often combined to represent other numbers. For instance,
Here the hundreds are represented first, then the tens, and finally the units, just as in modern notation. Hieroglyphics were also written from right to left, in which case the symbols themselves were reversed. For example, 324 could also be written as
We further observe the following:
1. A symbol for zero was lacking. For instance, when writing 305, which we could not do without the zero, the Egyptian wrote
2. The numerals were written in base ten. One symbol replaced 10 symbols of the next smaller denomination.
1. See Figure 1-1. Determine the number of oxen, goats, and prisoners claimed by Menes on his mace. Compare your answers with those given in Section 1-1.
2. Write these numbers in hieroglyphics:
a. 53
b. 407
c. 2136
3. What numbers are represented by the following:
4. How many different types of symbols are needed to write the numbers 1 through 1,000,000 in hieroglyphics? How many in our own numeration system?
5. Add, in hieroglyphics,
How many number combinations did an Egyptian student need to memorize to be able to add? How many does a modern student need to memorize?
6. Multiply
Can you suggest a simple rule for multiplying by 10 using Egyptian numerals?
In hieroglyphic notation, addition did not cause any difficulty. It was even simpler than in our system. There were no combinations such as 7 + 5 = 12 to memorize. Since the Egyptians knew that 10 unit strokes could be replaced by [intersection], 10 symbols [intersection] by [??], and so on, they could proceed by counting symbols in the two numbers to be added. Thus, they would write the sum of
directly as
Having counted 10 vertical strokes, they wrote [intersection] and then marked down the remaining two strokes without having to know that 7 plus 5 is 12 and without having to think: "I'll write the 2 and carry 1 (or 10) in my mind." And so on.
Subtraction was performed as shown by the following example. If Egyptians wanted to compute 12 - 5, they thought: What will be needed to complete 5 to make 12? Such a completion was called skm (pronounced: saykam). We use a modern equivalent of this process in making change today. For instance, when $5.83 is paid with a $10 bill, the clerk counts the change from $5.83 up to $10.00; thus: $5.83 + $0.02 = $5.85; $5.85 +$0.05 = $5.90; $5.90 + $0.10 = $6.00; $6.00 + $4.00 = $10.00. The clerk does not say all of this as he counts the change into your hand, nor does he go back and add all the underscored numbers — 0.02, 0.05, 0.10, 4.00 — to find the total amount of your change and hence the difference between $10.00 and $5.83. This completion process is mathematically sound. In ordinary algebra, and even in more advanced mathematical systems, as well as in arithmetic, subtraction is always the inverse of addition. Every subtraction problem, such as 12 - 5 = ?, really gives the result (sum) of an addition and one of the addends and asks for the other addend. Thus, 12 - 5 = ? really means 12 = 5 + ?. Mathematically, addition is a fundamental operation. Subtraction is defined in terms of addition and cannot exist without it. This fact is recognized when children are taught to check subtraction by addition, and when the subtraction facts are taught along with the addition facts.
The Egyptian method of multiplication was quite different from ours. The Egyptians used two operations to multiply: doubling and adding. To compute 6 X 8, for instance, they reasoned as follows:
2 · 8 = 16
4 · 8 = 2 · (2 · 8) = 32.
Addition on the left gives: (2 + 4) • 8, or 6 X 8, and on the right: 16 + 32 = 48. Hence, 6 X 8 = 48.
Problem 32 of the Rhind papyrus shows the actual procedure used by the Egyptians to compute 12 X 12. It goes as follows (reading from right to left):
It corresponds to the following (reading from left to right):
From top to bottom we see the results of 1 X 12, 2 X 12, 4 X 12, and 8 X 12, which have been obtained by doubling. The sloping strokes next to the third and the fourth line indicate that only these lines are to be added to get the desired product. The symbol [??] in the bottom line of the calculation in hieroglyphics represents a papyrus roll and means "the result is the following."
By way of an exception, the Egyptian sometimes multiplied a number directly by 10 instead of adding twice the number and eight times the number. This was easily done in his notation; he just substituted [intersection] for I, [??] for [intersection], and so on.
Excerpted from The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics by Lucas N. H. Bunt, Phillip S. Jones, Jack D. Bedient. Copyright © 1988 Harry Bunt, Lidy E. M. Van Welzenis, Phillip S. Jones and Jack D. Bedient. Excerpted by permission of Dover Publications, Inc..
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Pythagorean Theorem Calculator
Find the hypotenuse of a right triangle with this pythagorean theorem hypotenuse calculator.
Right Triangle and Hypotenuse
Leg A:
Leg B:
Fill in the lengths of both of the legs of a right triangle
to determine the hypotenuse.
What is the Hypotenuse?
The hypotenuse is the longest side of a triangle.
What is the Pythagorean Theorem?
Also known as Pythagoras' Theorem, the Pythagorean Theorem is an
equation that solves for the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle.
To calculate the hypotenuse, use the pythagorean theorem as follows:
A2 + B2 = C2
A and B are the lengths of the legs of the triangle. C is the hypotenuse.
Example: A right triangle with a length of Leg A as 50 inches and a
length of Leg B as 50 inches has a hypotenuse of:
502 + 502 = C2
C2 = 5000
C = 70.7107 inches
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Physics 2000 The Atomic Lab Bose Einstein Condensation
Using the Doppler Shift
I see how I can stop the atoms, but in a real sample of gas atoms, I have atoms going all different speeds. If the laser was set to slow the fast ones, wouldn't it just blast the slow ones in the other direction, and so leave them faster and hotter?
You are exactly right! The hardest part to laser cooling was to figure out how to avoid hitting the slow atoms with light while hitting the fast ones to slow them down. Some very clever physicists figured out how to do this by using the idea that the color or the light is Doppler shifted by the atoms' motion.
I remember about the Doppler effect. It says that if an atom is going towards the laser light, it sees the light shifted to a bluer color, and if it is going away from the laser, it sees the light as redder than it really is. And the amount of the shift depends on the speed.
Right you are. So if the laser is just the right color, the Doppler shift of a fast atom will make the light look the right color for exciting it, and so photons will bounce off and slow it down. But if the atom is moving slowly, or in the wrong direction, the Doppler shift will be different, and the laser light will be the wrong color to excite the electron. In that case, the laser light just goes right by the atom.
Now it is even harder! I have to keep adjusting the color as the atom cools down.
> 335608th
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How Do Pearl Divers Adapt Their Bodies to the Ocean?
Before the 20th century, pearl divers had to adapt their bodies to the ocean because of the extremes they had to go to in order to retrieve the pearls. Divers had to dive to extreme depths (up to 100 feet) and possessed little equipment to aide them. They would grease their bodies to maintain heat, use a nose plug, place greased cotton balls in their ears, use rocks or other heavy immersible objects to help them reach depths faster, and carry something to put the oysters in. Still, divers were subject to dangers such as sharks, waves, drowning, or losing consciousness upon resurfacing (another risk for drowning).
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• nuclear reactors
TITLE: nuclear reactor: Fissile and fertile materials
SECTION: Fissile and fertile materials
If desired, plutonium-241 may be generated directly through neutron capture in plutonium-240, following the formula 240Pu + 1n = 241Pu.
• nuclear weapons
TITLE: nuclear weapon: Selecting a weapon design
SECTION: Selecting a weapon design
...A problem developed with applying the gun method to plutonium, however. In manufacturing plutonium-239 from uranium-238 in a reactor, some of the plutonium-239 absorbed a neutron and became plutonium-240. This material underwent spontaneous fission, producing neutrons. Some neutrons would always be present in a plutonium assembly and would cause it to begin multiplying as soon as it...
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• The Mexican Revolution or Mexican Civil War was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz, and lasted for the better part of a decade until around 1920. Over time the revolution changed from a revolt against the established order to a multi-sided civil war with frequently shifting power struggles. This armed conflict is often categorized as the most important sociopolitical event in Mexico and one of the greatest upheavals of the 20th century; it resulted in an important experimentation and reformation in social organization. After prolonged struggles, its representatives produced the Mexican Constitution of 1917 during Venustiano Carranza's term. The revolution is generally considered to have lasted until 1920, although the country continued to have sporadic, but comparatively minor, outbreaks of warfare well into the 1920s. The Cristero War of 1926 to 1929 was the most significant relapse into bloodshed. The revolution led to the creation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario in 1929; it was renamed the Partido Revolucionario Institucional in 1946.
Freebase Commons Military /military
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As next supercontinent forms, Arctic Ocean, Caribbean will vanish first
Continental mapGeologists at Yale University have proposed a new theory to describe the formation of supercontinents, the epic process by which Earth’s major continental blocks combine into a single vast landmass. The new model radically challenges the dominant theories of how supercontinents might take shape.
In a paper published Feb. 9 in the journal Nature, Yale researchers introduce a process called orthoversion, in which each succeeding supercontinent forms 90 degrees from the geographic center of its ancient predecessor. Under the theory, the present-day Arctic Ocean and Caribbean Sea will vanish as North and South America fuse during a mutual northward migration that leads to a collision with Europe and Asia.
“After those water bodies close, we’re on our way to the next supercontinent,” said Ross N. Mitchell, the Yale doctoral student who is the paper’s first author. “You’d have the Americas meeting Eurasia practically at the North Pole.”
“This kind of analysis gives us a way to arrange continents in both latitude and longitude, providing a better understanding in patterns of biological dispersal and the dynamics of Earth's deep interior,” said Yale doctoral student Taylor M. Kilian, the study’s second author.
“Such speculations far into the future cannot be tested by waiting around 100 million years, of course,” Evans said, “but we can use the patterns gleaned from ancient supercontinents to think deeply about humanity’s current existence in time and space within the grand tectonic dance of the Earth.”
The National Science Foundation supported the research.
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Complete Tracheal Rings
What Are Tracheal Rings?
The trachea (windpipe) is made up of cartilage, which is also called tracheal rings. Normally, tracheal rings are “C” shaped. Complete tracheal rings are “O” shaped. The “O”-shaped rings are always smaller than the normal “C” shape.
Complete tracheal rings are a rare condition present at birth. It is usually associated with other vascular (blood vessel), heart, or lung abnormalities.
Children with complete tracheal rings have noisy breathing which gets worse over time. Typically, their breathing sounds like a “washing machine” because of the noise made when they breathe in and out.
Some children may have to work harder to breathe, causing a sucking in around their ribs and chest (called retractions). Some children may also have trouble with feeding. Colds or respiratory illness can also make breathing worse.
Complete tracheal rings are diagnosed with a microlaryngoscopy and bronchoscopy. Sometimes the child may need other X-rays or tests to evaluate for other vascular (blood vessel), heart, or lung abnormalities.
Some children, who have few symptoms, do not need surgery. These children are watched regularly for airway growth or any changes in their symptoms. Most children will develop symptoms as the body grows, but the airway stays the same size. They will need to have surgery to make their airway bigger. This surgery is called a slide tracheoplasty
Call your doctor if your child is having any breathing difficulty.
Last Updated 09/2014
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uploaded image
Image text transcribed for accessibility: Briefly discuss the difference between derivative operators d and . If the derivative u/x appear in an equation, what does this imply about variable u? What does the word kinematics mean? Explain what the study of fluid kinematics involves. Consider steady flow of water through an ax symmetric garden hose nozzle (Fig. P4-3). Along the center line of the nozzle, the water speed increases from u entrance to u exit as sketched. Measurements reveal that the centerline water speed increases parabolically through the nozzle. Write an equation for centerline speed u(x), based on the paramaters given here, from x = 0 to x = L.
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A Separate Peace Lesson Plan - Lesson Plan
eNotes Lesson Plan
Introductory Lecture and Objectives
A Separate Peace eNotes Lesson Plan content
Introductory Lecture
Like the classic architecture of the Devon School, the setting of A Separate Peace, this narrative is timeless, at once completely of its moment and still resonant with young readers today. First published in England in 1959 and in the United States a year later, A Separate Peace went on to win the Rosenthal Award of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, as well as the William Faulkner Foundation Award. Like J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, A Separate Peace continues to captivate new generations. Through exquisite language, it captures and chronicles the fear, confusion, isolation, and loneliness of growing up in a hostile world. Set against the backdrop of World War II, a time when America was bound up by duty and sacrifice, A Separate Peace tells the story of two friends—Gene, the insecure intellectual, and Phineas (Finny), Devon’s magnetic star; a single moment in the summer of 1942 and its emotional aftermath drive the narrative. More broadly, A Separate Peace speaks eloquently to the universal themes of guilt, fear, and the loss of innocence.
Author John Knowles wrote from his own experience in penning A Separate Peace, which first appeared in short-story form as “Phineas.” As a boy, Knowles attended the prestigious Exeter Academy (now Phillips Exeter) during the time period of the story. The rarified prep school environs of Exeter, Knowles’ friends and classmates, and some of the author’s specific school experiences are reflected in the novel, contributing to its verisimilitude. Knowles’ detailed images of Devon, flanked by “those most Republican, bankerish of trees, New England elms,” often mirror the buildings and grounds of the Exeter campus he knew.
While Knowles’s personal history undoubtedly gave him a wellspring of events, details, and characters from which to draw, it is the complexity and the artistry of the novel that have made it an enduring classic in modern American literature. The language soars, at once dramatic and evocative, and the plot is developed in elegant increments as the gathering forces of world war rush toward the boys of Devon. Fear and dread permeate the novel, but Knowles allows his characters, and his readers, to experience brief and beautiful moments of separate peace as Gene and Finny struggle to maintain their individual illusions in the face of cruel, relentless reality. They fail. A Separate Peace most essentially is a story of innocence lost.
These boys, their unique characters developed by Knowles with depth and insight, linger with the reader. As the novel’s first-person narrator, Gene Forrester takes a retrospective view, remembering the events at Devon fifteen years earlier that nearly destroyed him but led to a profound understanding of himself and the human heart. Gene’s suffering is memorable, as is Finny’s. A gifted, graceful athlete with an impish personality and an exuberant spirit, Phineas remains an unforgettable literary portrait of joyful irresponsibility, of freedom only enjoyed by the young. When Finny’s spirit, like his body, is shattered, the novel becomes a tragedy. Brinker Hadley, a puffed-up school politician who parrots his father’s words, and Leper Lepellier, a sensitive social misfit at home only in the natural world, leave lasting impressions, as well, as their individual stories are woven deftly into the narrative. Like the ocean wave observed during Gene and Finny’s forbidden trip to the beach, a wave that “hesitated, balanced there, and then hissed back toward the deep water,” readers of A Separate Peace are momentarily suspended in time and then pulled into the deep where the complexities of the human condition await.
1. Explain the fundamental tension between Phineas and Gene and the events that affect their friendship.
2. Describe the backdrop and the atmosphere of WWII that permeate the novel.
3. Describe Gene’s narrative style and the novel’s imagery; discuss how each helps set the tone.
4. Compare and contrast what Phineas and Gene each represent.
5. Compare World War II with Gene’s personal war.
6. Discuss how A Separate Peace develops as a coming-of-age novel.
7. Identify symbols present throughout the novel, and explain the significance of each.
Instructional Focus: Teaching With an eNotes Lesson Plan
This eNotes lesson plan for A Separate Peace is designed so that it may be used in numerous ways to accommodate all students in your classroom.
Student Study Guide
Discussion Questions
The discussion questions vary in degree of difficulty.
Multiple-Choice/Essay Test
Test questions also vary in degree of difficulty.
Teaching the Literary Elements
Before students read through the book, explain that themes are universal ideas developed in literature. Point out that these themes will be developed in the novel; discuss these themes with students as they read and/or after they finish reading:
• Coming of age
• Battle (internal conflict/struggle; rivalry/competition; war)
• Guilt vs. innocence; experience vs. innocence
• Atonement
Talk with your students about how a motif is a recurring pattern or a repeated action, element, or idea in a book. As they read, have them look for the following motifs:
• Architecture
• Authority
• The natural world
• World War II
• Duty
• Danger
• Juxtaposition (summer vs. winter, innocence vs. experience)
• Brinker
• Leper
• Phineas
• Pink shirt
• Devon School tie
• The tree
• Devon School
• Rivers
• The Devon School woods
Essay and Discussion Questions
1. The mood of A Separate Peace is largely defined by the looming war—the scarcity of luxuries and pleasure, omnipresent fear, and the draft. How does your situation as a student in modern America compare to the situation Phineas, Gene, and their friends find themselves in? How does the threat or existence of war affect your daily life?
2. Do your feelings toward Phineas and Gene shift as the novel unfolds? Why or why not? Do you identify more closely with Phineas, the roguish rule-breaker, or with Gene, the more introverted intellectual? Explain your choice.
3. Interpret this passage from the novel’s conclusion: “I did not cry even when I stood watching [Finny] being lowered into his family’s straight-laced burial ground outside of Boston. I could not escape a feeling that this was my own funeral, and you do not cry in that case.” Why would Gene feel that Finny’s funeral was his own?
4. What is the “separate peace” referenced in the book’s title? In how many different ways does it relate to the characters and the events in the story?
5. The boys who attend Devon come from white, upper-class families and lead economically privileged lives. What role does class play in the novel? How do you think the story might be different if the characters were poor or went to public school?
6. Why do you think Knowles has Gene tell the story from the viewpoint of an adult, fifteen years after the events that make up much of the story? How would the novel differ if the first-person retrospective point of view were not employed?
7. A Separate Peace is told in first person, from the viewpoint of Gene Forrester. What is gained by Gene’s acting as the narrator? How would the story differ if it were told from Phineas’s point of view? Brinker’s? Leper’s?
8. Is Gene a reliable narrator as a young man? Cite examples from the...
(The entire section is 769 words.)
Chapter 1
artillery: weapons, arms
baffled: perplexed
consternation: worry, dismay
contentious: argumentative, belligerent
cupola: a dome-shaped roof or a dome-shaped structure on a roof featuring glass
deigning: condescending to do something
demotion: a reduction in rank or standing
dismal: bleak
dispute: disagreement, argument
draft-bait: slang those nearing eighteen years of age, the age they become eligible to be drafted into military service
droll: dryly funny or witty
ell: a wing of a building that extends at a right angle to the main structure
extrasensory: beyond ordinary perception
forbidding: dangerously powerful, ominous
formidable: tough, daunting, difficult to overcome
grandeur: splendor, magnificence
groveling: sniveling, begging
irate: furious, angry
loafing: lazing about, dallying
matriarchal: characteristic of a system in which women are in charge; motherly
perpendicular: at right angles to another line or plane
prodigious: exceptional, extraordinary
reverberant: having a far-reaching or long-lasting quality
seigneurs: feudal lords or powerful landowners of good standing
shrilly: piercingly
tacit: implicitly understood
unhinged: coming apart
Study Questions
1. To what does the narrator compare the Devon School? What is meant by the comparison?
The narrator says the school was a museum to him, what he “did not want it to be.” He wanted to believe that the school existed only while he was there and “then blinked out like a candle” the day he left. The narrator does not want whatever happened there preserved.
2. What are the two “fearful sites” the narrator wants to visit upon his return to school? How does he feel when he sees them again?
He wants to look at a flight of white marble stairs in the First Academy Building and a tree by the Devon River. Each, in his memory, was forbidding and terrifying. Revisiting them, he discovers their power...
(The entire section is 911 words.)
Chapter 2
clamoring: insisting, calling out for
commendable: admirable, worthy of praise
compliance: obedience
conniver: a swindler, a liar
eloquence: articulate expression
fantastic: beyond belief, imaginary
gassy: slang verbose, overly talkatative
guillotine: a mechanical device used to decapitate people
inane: ridiculous
indignant: outraged
indulgent: permissive, generous
infer: to conclude, to deduce
modifying: adapting, changing, shifting
plastered: coated, covered
plunging: sinking quickly, dropping fast
resonant: resounding, reverberating
(The entire section is 1153 words.)
Chapter 3
abide: to follow; to tolerate
abstractedly: in a loose or undefined way
agitated: upset, angry, stirred up
anarchy: lawlessness, chaos
anguish: great pain, sorrow
blitzkrieg: German literally “lightning war”; a bombardment, especially the systematic application of armed force to overwhelm the enemy
calisthenics: exercises, aerobic training
catacombed: marked by underground tunnels
cordial: friendly, pleasant
dazed: confused, stricken
despairing: miserable, hopeless
dictates: commands, orders
encroaching: intruding, invading
entrenched: dug in, unchangeable
(The entire section is 918 words.)
Chapter 4
burlap: a rough, loosely woven fabric
effulgence: a radiance, a brilliance
enmity: hostility, hatred
exuberantly: with enthusiasm, vigorously
fanfare: an elaborate celebration; a flourish
gaunt: extremely thin
intoxicant: something that causes inebriation or a feeling of inebriation or giddiness
jounced: bounced, jostled
loitering: lingering without purpose
lurking: lying in wait, waiting in secrecy
obliterated: completely destroyed
paganism: the polytheistic religious practices of early cultures, sometimes associated with hedonism or the rejection of all religion
undulation: a wavelike movement or...
(The entire section is 1011 words.)
Chapter 5
amiably: kindly
decalogue: a set of binding, authoritative rules
delirious: hallucinating, confused
detonate: to set off, to explode
erratic: unpredictable, irregular
grandee: a highly influential person or person of standing
halted: stopped
invalid: a chronically ill and housebound person
irresolutely: hesitantly, uncertainly
ludicrous: absurd, ridiculous
nave: the main body of a church
reverie: a daydream, a trance
1. Does anyone talk to Gene about his role in Finny’s accident?
No. People talk to Gene about Finny, but “no one suspected” his role. Also, Gene says that...
(The entire section is 504 words.)
Chapter 6
apse: a semicircular projection from the back of a church which usually contains the altar
automaton: a robot; a human who behaves like a machine
bantam: a small person
catapulted: launched, hurled
clammily: moistly
dispensations: special allowances or privileges
exaltation: adoration
goaded: persuaded through force
idiosyncratic: eccentric, peculiar
infinitesimal: miniscule, microscopic
maimed: disfigured, injured badly
pre-empted: prevented; replaced with something of greater priority
saline: salty
sinecure: a paid position that requires little or no effort or work
squall: a...
(The entire section is 690 words.)
Chapter 7
arsenic: a deadly poison
commandeered: taken by force
contretemps: French an unfortunate or inopportune occurrence
derision: disrespect, mockery
dexterity: a deftness, a nimbleness
dispiritedly: morosely, without enthusiasm
feebly: weakly
fratricide: the act of killing one’s brother
funereal: funeral-like, related to a funeral; somber
galvanized: strengthened
half-cocked: wild, angry
implausibility: the state of being unbelievable
puttee: a strip of cloth or a piece of leather wound around or worn on the lower leg
rankest: worst, most extreme
salient: pertinent,...
(The entire section is 756 words.)
Chapter 8
bric-à-brac: a collection of small, ornamental objects
buoyed: raised, floated
catastrophic: disastrous
clapboard: long, thin boards laid in overlapping horizontal rows to cover buildings
clipped: curt
discernible: perceptible, noticeable
dispelled: proved false
exhorted: urged, prodded
gaits: patterns of movement
gangling: lanky, gawky
gibe: a taunt
gullible: easily tricked or swindled
insinuations: subtle hints or suggestions
liniment: an ointment, a salve
opulent: luxurious, lavish
poignance: a deep, piercing emotion tinged with sadness or pain
(The entire section is 612 words.)
Chapter 9
brooding: sulking angrily, fixating negatively
cacophony: a dissonance
choreography: an arrangement of steps or moves
cinders: ashes
conceding: surrendering, giving up
dowager: a rich older woman, a wealthy widow
enfeebled: weakened
garrison: a fort, a stronghold
indivisible: undividable
invulnerability: an immunity, an impenetrable strength
lisping: speaking imperfectly with a speech impediment
manipulated: controlled, directed
multifariously: in the manner of having varied parts
scurvy: a disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C
surmised: inferred, guessed
(The entire section is 371 words.)
Chapter 10
austerity: severity; sterness or coldness in manner
draughty: drafty
frigid: extremely cold
furlough: a (military) leave
imperceptibly: in a manner in which perception is difficult or subtle
monotonous: boring, dull
presaged: foretold
querulous: argumentative
rejoinder: a retort, a response
ricochet: to bounce off a surface, to rebound
Study Questions
1. What are Gene’s chief war memories? Why?
Visits to unknown American locations are Gene’s “war” memories, such as going to Vermont to see Leper at his “Christmas location.” Gene says it had been assumed most of...
(The entire section is 452 words.)
Chapter 11
absolute: unwavering, final
balustrade: a railing, a banister
bane: a nuisance, an annoyance
culminating: ending
deluded: tricked, misled
engulfed: surrounded, taken over
ensuing: resulting, consequent
eunuch: a castrated man
fortitude: strength
guileful: crafty, cunning
incarnate: in the flesh, embodied
infantile: childish
inveigled: enticed, convinced
latent: dormant, buried
minced: pranced
prevailing: widespread
primevally: primitively
relative: qualified
truce: a mutual agreement to cease fighting
tumult: an uproar, a commotion
(The entire section is 590 words.)
Chapter 12
amiss: wrong, out of place
bleak: without hope
formulate: to invent or make up
grating: harsh
impervious: immune
incomprehensible: unimaginable
innately: inherently, instinctively
irreconcilably: in a manner without solution or compromise
languid: relaxed, lazy
pontiff: a bishop; a high priest
pungent: strong, powerful
rites: formal ceremonies, such as funeral services
stricken: suffering
1. Why does Gene allow others to help Phineas after his fall instead of doing it himself?
He is worried Finny would begin to curse him, that he “might lose his head completely,” and...
(The entire section is 636 words.)
Chapter 13
assimilate: to absorb
bellicose-looking: hostile in appearance
benefactress: a woman who supports someone financially
exertion: an effort
forlornly: sadly, morosely
gyration-prone: moveable, changeable
Maginot Lines: defenses against invasions that cannot be crossed; historically, the Maginot Line
refers to a fortified defensive barrier meant to protect France from Germany
morale: confidence, spirits
musterings: screenings for the military
Pullman car: a sleeping car on a train
quadrangle: a four-sided courtyard surrounded by buildings
qualms: reservations, worries
quenched: satisfied
(The entire section is 912 words.)
Multiple-Choice Test and Answer Key
1. Which literary device is employed when Knowles describes the tree as “weary from age, enfeebled, dry”?
A. metaphor
B. irony
C. onomatopoeia
D. flashback
E. personification
2. Which of these represents innocence?
A. Brinker
B. Devon River
C. Gene
D. the marble stairs
E. the Assembly Hall
3. Which of these does Phineas NOT do?
A. He mocks the Devon School tie.
B. He wears an American flag.
C. He misses dinner.
(The entire section is 832 words.)
Essay Exam Questions With Answers
1. Explain, citing examples from the novel, the following quote that describes Gene’s participation in World War II. In particular, identify what the narrator means by “his war.” What “enemy” has he killed, and how?
As the narrator of the novel, Gene Forrester explains that he has compartmentalized his time at Devon School and that those years were traumatic for him. He returns to his school as an adult and finds it “like a museum,” in which...
(The entire section is 3238 words.)
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North American Pueblo Indian people living in west-central New Mexico, U.S. They are believed to have descended from the prehistoric Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi) culture. When they first encountered 16th-century Spanish conquistadors, the Zuni were living in seven separate towns thought by the explorers to be the fabled Seven Cities of Cíbola. Zuni society is organized through kinship and includes a complex religious system centring on spirit-beings called kachinas (katsinas). Most Zunis farm, and many are engaged in making high-quality silver and turquoise jewelry, baskets, beadwork, animal fetishes, or pottery. Many Zuni people prefer to maintain their own cultural traditions, eschewing much of the dominant American culture. Early 21st-century population estimates indicated some 10,000 Zuni descendants.
Variants of ZUNI
Zuni also spelled Zuñi
This entry comes from Encyclopædia Britannica Concise.
For the full entry on Zuni, visit Britannica.com.
Seen & Heard
What made you look up Zuni? Please tell us what you were reading, watching or discussing that led you here.
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The InquisitionThis is a featured page
SEE ALSO Borgias Home | History of the Vatican | The Renaissance Popes
History of the Vatican
Holy See Flourish
The Inquisition
Characters - The Borgias Fan Wiki
The Inquisition - THE BORGIAS wiki
The Spanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition, was a tribunal established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. The Inquisition was not new - Aragon already had an inquisition - and It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the medieval inquisition which was under papal control. The Inquisition worked in large part to ensure the orthodoxy of recent converts, especially those Jews, Muslims and others coerced on pain of death to adopt the Christian religion. Various motives have been proposed for the monarchs' decision to fund the Inquisition, such as increasing political authority, weakening opposition, suppressing conversos, and profiting from confiscation of the property of convicted heretics. The new body was under the direct control of the Spanish.
The Trial
The Inquisition - THE BORGIAS wikiAlthough the Inquisition was technically forbidden from permanently harming or drawing blood, this still allowed for methods of torture. The methods most used were garrucha, toca and the potro. The application of the garrucha, also known as the strappado, consisted of suspending the victim from the ceiling by the wrists, which are tied behind the back. Sometimes weights were tied to the ankles, with a series of lifts and drops, during which the arms and legs suffered violent pulls and were sometimes dislocated. The toca, also called interrogatorio mejorado del agua, consisted of introducing a cloth into the mouth of the victim, and forcing them to ingest water spilled from a jar so that they had the impression of drowning (see: waterboarding). The potro, the rack, was the instrument of torture used most frequently.
The assertion that "confessionem esse veram, non factam vi tormentorum" (literally: ((a person's)) confession is truth, not made by way of torture.) sometimes follows a description of how, after torture had ended, the subject freely confessed to the offenses.Thus, all confession acquired by means of torture were considered completely valid as they were supposedly made of the confessor's own free will.
Within the context of the times,, the Spanish Inquisition was neither especially cruel nor oppressive. The vast majority of those accused were fined or penanced rather than executed. The total number of those executed during the first thirty years of the Inquisition has been estimated at 3.000 -a figure dwarted by the execution of witches in Germany in the sixteenth century (over 100.000). The existence of the Inquisition was used by Spain's opponents to justify rebellion - this is known as the 'black legend'.
The Roman Inquisition
The Inquisition in Malta (1561 to 1798) is generally considered to have been gentler than the Spanish Inquisition. [Italian historian Andrea Del Col estimates that out of 62,000 cases judged by Inquisition in Italy after 1542 around 2% (ca. 1250) ended with death sentence.
The last notable action of the Roman Inquisition occurred in 1858, in Bologna, when Inquisition agents kidnapped a 6-year-old Jewish boy, Egardo Mortara, separating him from his family. The local inquisitor had learned that the boy was secretly baptised by his nursemaid. Pope Pious IX raised the boy as a Catholic in Rome. The boy's father, Momolo Mortara, spent years seeking help in all quarters, including internationally, to try to reclaim his son. The case received international attention and fueled the anti-papal sentiments that helped the Italian Nationalism movement.
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Measuring skull pressure without the headache
December 20th, 2012 in Medical research /
Astronauts rely on their body's pressure control system to regulate fluid build-up in orbit, so space agencies are keen to understand how it works and adapts to .
Monitoring 'intracranial pressure' is not straightforward – there are many techniques but they are cumbersome, invasive and require professional operation.
Parabolic flight experiment.
Paul was working on this system to measure intracranial pressure when France's CNES asked to use it on a parabolic aircraft flight during 22 seconds of weightlessness.
Measuring intracranial pressure.
"ESA was instrumental in helping to improve the system and make it smaller," says Paul.
The result is a computer about the size of a portable hard disk that produces and analyses the sound and can be used even in such as a hospital emergency ward.
Just like astronauts in space, crews living in Concordia suffer from headaches due to the and lack of sleep. Studying intracranial pressure will give clues on how to combat the pain and ultimately help people in more habitable regions on Earth suffering from headaches.
Paul concludes, "If it works in Concordia, it will work anywhere."
Provided by European Space Agency
"Measuring skull pressure without the headache." December 20th, 2012. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2012-12-skull-pressure-headache.html
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. Earth Science News .
DNA 'Sat Nav' directs you to your ancestor's home
by Staff Writers
Sheffield, UK (SPX) May 02, 2014
Watch a video on the research here.
Tracing where your DNA was formed over 1,000 years ago is now possible due to a revolutionary technique developed by a team of international scientists led by experts from the University of Sheffield.
The ground breaking Geographic Population Structure (GPS) tool, created by Dr Eran Elhaik from the University of Sheffield's Department of Animal and Plant Sciences and Dr Tatiana Tatarinova from the University of Southern California, works similarly to a satellite navigation system as it helps you to find your way home, but not the one you currently live in - but rather your actual ancestor's home from 1,000 years ago.
Previously, scientists have only been able to locate where your DNA was formed to within 700kms, which in Europe could be two countries away; however this pioneering technique has been 98 per cent successful in locating worldwide populations to their right geographic regions, and down to their village and island of origin.
Dr Eran Elhaik said: "If we think of our world as being made up of different colours of soup - representing different populations - it is easy to visualise how genetic admixture occurs. If a population from the blue soup region mixes with a population from the red soup region their off-springs would appear as a purple soup.
"The more genetic admixture that takes place, the more different colours of soup are introduced which makes it increasingly difficult to locate your DNA's ancestry using traditional tools like Spatial Ancestry analysis (SPA) which has an accuracy level of less than two per cent."
He added: "What we have discovered here at the University of Sheffield is a way to find not where you were born - as you have that information on your passport - but where your DNA was formed up to 1,000 years ago by modelling these admixture processes.
"What is remarkable is that, we can do this so accurately that we can locate the village where your ancestors lived hundreds and hundreds of years ago - until now this has never been possible."
To demonstrate how accurate GPS predictions are, Dr Elhaik and his colleagues analysed data from 10 villages in Sardinia and over 20 islands in Oceania. The research published in the journal Nature Communications shows that Dr Elhaik and his team were able to place a quarter of the residents in Sardinia directly to their home village and most of the remaining residents within 50km of their village. The results for Oceania were no less impressive with almost 90 per cent success of tracing islanders exactly to their island.
"This is a significant improvement compared to the alternative SPA tool that placed Oceanians in India," said Elhaik.
"In his third book, children's author L. Frank Baum revealed that Oz resided around Australia. It always troubled me that if I ever met anyone claiming to be from the wonderful world of Oz, I would like to be able to verify their origins and now we can!
"This technique also means that we can no longer easily classify people's ethnic identities with one single label. It is impossible for any of us to tick one box on a form such as White British or African as we are much complex models with our own unique identities. The notion of races is simply not plausible."
Tracing our ancestry is now a major social trend and genealogy is the number one hobby in America. An estimated one million people in the USA have already had their DNA genotyped. People can explore their DNA by simply taking a swab from inside their mouth and sending it to a company such as 23andme or for costs ranging from $99-$200.
Dr Elhaik's co-author, Dr Tatiana Tatarinova, developed a website making GPS accessible to the public.
"To help people find their roots, I developed a website that allows anyone who has had their DNA genotyped to upload their results and use GPS to find their ancestral home," said Dr Tatarinova, who is also an Associate Professor of Research Paediatrics at the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California. "We were surprised by the simplicity and precision of this method. People in a given geographical area are more likely to have similar genetics. When they also have genetic traits typically found in other, distant regions, the geographical origin of those traits is generally the closest location where those traits can be found."
According to the researchers, in ethnically-diverse regions like the UK or US, where many people know only a few generations of their descendants, this kind of screening has huge, important medical implications.
Discovery of a certain genotype might indicate the potential for a genetic disease and suggest that diagnostic testing be done. Also, as scientists learn more about personalized medicine, there is evidence that specific genotypes respond differently to medications-making this information potentially useful when selecting the most effective therapy and appropriate dosage. The investigators are currently designing a study to correlate pharmacokinetics - the time course of drug metabolism - with genotype.
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Brain Does Not Work The Way A Computer Does Recognizing Speech
Boston MA (SPX) May 02, 2014
How does the brain decide whether or not something is correct? When it comes to the processing of spoken language - particularly whether or not certain sound combinations are allowed in a language - the common theory has been that the brain applies a set of rules to determine whether combinations are permissible. Now the work of a Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) investigator and his t ... read more
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Brain Does Not Work The Way A Computer Does Recognizing Speech
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The Elements of Setting,Mood and Tone in Novels
Viewing the Text from a Different Perspective
Many times in novels the elements of setting, mood and tone are used to extend beyond the words in a text and elaborate the reader's mind into imagining the actual events taking place. In the classic novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding utilizes the setting, mood and tone in great detail to reflect how the characters think, act and feel.
Upon a desolate tropical island, a group of boys of different characteristics get marooned when their plane crashes. Golding describes the island in a way that appeals to the reader as paradise,
"The palms that stood made a green roof, covered on the underside with a quivering tangle of reflections from the lagoon...It was clear to the bottom and bright with the efflorescence of tropical weed and coral. A school of tiny, glittering fish flicked hither and thither." (p.12)
The island itself suggests a place of wonder and relaxation. Providing the reader with the impression of an utopia society, an impression that will soon be contradicted as the novel progresses.
After a signal fire is ignited by Ralph's orders, two young twins, Sam and Eric stand guard in maintaining the fire. While on duty, an eerie figure drifts down from the sky and lands in the forest several yards away from Sam and Eric.
"There was a sudden bright explosion and corkscrew trail across the sky...There was a speck above the island, a figure dropping swiftly beneath a parachute, a figure that hung with dangling limbs. The changing winds of various altitudes took the figure where they would. Then three miles up, the wind steadied and bore it in a descending curve round the sky and swept it in a great slant across the reef and the lagoon toward the mountain." (p.95)
The dead parachutist, also known as the beast, is used to foreshadow the death of Simon, a small although intellectual boy. The parachutist shows the idea of one man slaughtering another as...
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Sixth Grade (Grade 6) Figurative Language Questions
Create printable tests and worksheets from Grade 6 Figurative Language questions. Select questions to add to a test using the checkbox above each question. Remember to click the add selected questions to a test button before moving to another page.
Show Figurative Language questions in All Grades.
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Grade 6 :: Figurative Language by phillipjreese
"Simple Sally sold singular silvers" is an example of:
1. a metaphor
2. alliteration
3. onomatopoeia
4. haiku
Grade 6 :: Poetic Devices by skyebomb
'Once by the Pacific' by Robert Frost
The shattered water made a misty din.
Great waves looked over others coming in.
The figurative language in line 2 of this poem...
1. makes the waves seem human
2. compares the waves to one another
3. exaggerates the size of the waves
4. makes the reader hear the waves
Grade 6 :: Figurative Language by stacyp
Grade 6 :: Figurative Language by stacyp
Grade 6 :: Figurative Language by dawntre40
Read the sentence below.
The over-cooked hot dogs were sticks of coal.
The metaphor in this sentence means which of the following?
1. The hot dogs were made of charcoal.
2. The hot dogs were burnt.
3. The pieces of charcoal were shaped like hot dogs.
4. The sticks of coal were burning.
1 2 3 4 ... 8
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Two straight rods of length a are set up as shown in the diagram.The horizontal rod has a uniform positive linear charge densityλ. The vertical rod has the opposite charge density,-λ.
a) Determine the direction of the electric field at (x = a/2, y =a/2). Express the direction in terms of i,j,k unit vectors. Explainyour reasoning.
b) Find the electric potential at (x = a/2, y = a/2).
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Place:Alsace, France
Alt namesElsasssource: Wikipedia
Elzassource: Engels Woordenboek (1987) II, 211
Coordinates48.183°N 7.5°E
Located inFrance
Contained Places
General region
source: Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names
source: Family History Library Catalog
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
Alsace ( ; Alsatian: ’s Elsass ; German: Elsass, pre-1996 also: Elsaß ; ) is the fifth-smallest of the 27 regions of France in land area (8,280.2 km2), and the smallest in metropolitan France. It is also the seventh-most densely populated region in France and third most densely populated region in metropolitan France, with ca. 224 inhabitants per km2 (total population in 2006: 1,815,488; 1 January 2011 estimate: 1,852,325).
Alsace is located on France's eastern border and on the west bank of the upper Rhine adjacent to Germany and Switzerland. The political status of Alsace has been heavily influenced by historical decisions, wars, and strategic politics. The political, economic and cultural capital as well as largest city of Alsace is Strasbourg. The city is the seat of dozens of international organizations and bodies.
The historical language of Alsace is Alsatian, a Germanic (mainly Alemannic) dialect also spoken in part of Lorraine and across the Rhine, but today most Alsatians primarily speak French, the official language of France. 43% of the adult population, and 3% of those 3–17 years old, stated in 2012 that they speak Alsatian. The place names used in this article are in French; for the German place names, see German place names (Alsace).
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
Roman Alsace
In prehistoric times, Alsace was inhabited by nomadic hunters, but by 1500 BC, Celts began to settle in Alsace, clearing and cultivating the land. By 58 BC, the Romans had invaded and established Alsace as a center of viticulture. To protect this highly valued industry, the Romans built fortifications and military camps that evolved into various communities which have been inhabited continuously to the present day. While part of the Roman Empire, Alsace was part of Germania Superior.
Frankish Alsace
Alsace within the Holy Roman Empire
Incorporation into France
This situation prevailed until 1639, when most of Alsace was conquered by France so as to keep it out of the hands of the Spanish Habsburgs, who wanted a clear road to their valuable and rebellious possessions in the Spanish Netherlands. The French in the context of the Thirty Years' War (1618–48). Beset by enemies and seeking to gain a free hand in Hungary, the Habsburgs sold their Sundgau territory (mostly in Upper Alsace) to France in 1646, which had occupied it, for the sum of 1.2 million Thalers. When hostilities were concluded in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia, most of Alsace was recognized as part of France, although some towns remained independent. The treaty stipulations regarding Alsace were complex; although the French king gained sovereignty, existing rights and customs of the inhabitants were largely preserved. France continued to maintain it customs boundary along the Vosges mountains where it had been, leaving Alsace more economically oriented to neighbouring German-speaking lands. The German language remained in use in local administration, in schools, and at the (Lutheran) University of Strasbourg, which continued to draw students from other German-speaking lands. The 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau, by which the French king ordered the suppression of French Protestantism, was not applied in Alsace. France did endeavour to promote Catholicism; Strasbourg Cathedral, for example, which had been Lutheran from 1524 to 1681, was returned to the Catholic Church. However, compared to the rest of France, Alsace enjoyed a climate of religious tolerance.
The warfare that had partially depopulated the region created opportunities for a stream of immigrants from Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Lorraine, Savoy and other lands that continued until the mid-18th century. Between 1671 and 1711 Anabaptist refugees came from Switzerland, notably from Bern. Strasbourg became a main centre of the early Anabaptist movement.
French Revolution
In response to the restoration of Napoleon I of France in 1815, Alsace along with other frontier provinces of France was occupied by foreign forces from 1815 to 1818, including over 280,000 soldiers and 90,000 horses in Bas-Rhin alone. This had grave effects on trade and the economy of the region since former overland trade routes were switched to newly opened Mediterranean and Atlantic seaports.
By 1790, the Jewish population of Alsace was approximately 22,500, about 3% of the provincial population. They were highly segregated and subject to long-standing anti-Jewish regulations. They maintained their own customs, Yiddish language, and historic traditions within the tightly-knit ghettos; they adhered to Talmudic law enforced by their rabbis. Jews were barred from most cities and instead lived in villages. They concentrated in trade, services, and especially in money lending. They financed about a third of the mortgages in Alsace. Official tolerance grew during the French Revolution, with full emancipation in 1791. However, local antisemitism also increased and Napoleon turned hostile in 1806, imposing a one-year moratorium on all debts owed to Jews. In the 1830-1870 era most Jews moved to the cities, where they made enormous progress toward integration and acculturation, as antisemitism sharply declined. By 1831, the state began paying salaries to official rabbis, and in 1846 a special legal oath for Jews was discontinued. Antisemitic local riots occasionally occurred, especially during the Revolution of 1848. Merger of Alsace into Germany in 1871-1918 lessened antisemitic violence.
Between France and Germany
Heinrich von Treitschke, German nationalist historian and politician, 1871
France started the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), and was defeated by the Kingdom of Prussia and other German states. The end of the war led to the unification of Germany. Otto von Bismarck annexed Alsace and northern Lorraine to the new German Empire in 1871; unlike other members states of the German federation, which had governments of their own, the new Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine was under the sole authority of the Kaiser, administered directly by the imperial government in Berlin. Between 100,000 and 130,000 Alsatians (of a total population of about a million and a half) chose to remain French citizens and leave Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen, many of them resettling in French Algeria as Pied-Noirs. Only in 1911 was Alsace-Lorraine granted some measure of autonomy, which was manifested also in a flag and an anthem (Elsässisches Fahnenlied). In 1913, however, the Saverne Affair (German: Zabern-Affäre) showed the limits of this new tolerance of the Alsatian identity.
During World War I, to avoid ground fights between brothers, many Alsatians served as sailors in the Kaiserliche Marine and took part in the Naval mutinies that led to the abdication of the Kaiser in November 1918, which left Alsace-Lorraine without a nominal head of state. The sailors returned home and tried to found a republic. While Jacques Peirotes, at this time deputy at the Landrat Elsass-Lothringen and just elected mayor of Strasbourg, proclaimed the forfeiture of the German Empire and the advent of the French Republic, a self-proclaimed government of Alsace-Lorraine declared independence as the "Republic of Alsace-Lorraine". French troops entered Alsace less than two weeks later to quash the worker strikes and remove the newly established soviets and revolutionaries from power. At the arrival of the French soldiers, many Alsatians and local Prussian/German administrators and bureaucrats cheered the re-establishment of order (which can be seen and is described in detail in the reference video below). Although U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had insisted that the région was self-ruling by legal status, as its constitution had stated it was bound to the sole authority of the Kaiser and not to the German state, France tolerated no plebiscite, as granted by the League of Nations to some eastern German territories at this time, because Alsatians were considered by the French public as fellow Frenchmen liberated from German rule. Germany ceded the region to France under the Treaty of Versailles.
Policies forbidding the use of German and requiring that of French were introduced. However, in order not to antagonize the Alsatians, the region was not subjected to some legal changes that had occurred in the rest of France between 1871 and 1919, such as the 1905 French Law of Separation of Church and State.
Alsace-Lorraine was occupied by Germany in 1940 during World War II. Although Germany never formally annexed Alsace-Lorraine, it was incorporated into the Greater German Reich, which had been restructured into Reichsgaue. Alsace was merged with Baden, and Lorraine with the Saarland, to become part of a planned Westmark. During the war, 130,000 young men from Alsace and Lorraine were inducted into the German army and in some cases, the Waffen SS. Some of the latter were involved in war crimes such as the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre.
Today the territory is in certain areas subject to laws that are significantly different from the rest of France – this is known as the local law.
Year(s) Event Ruled by Official or common language
5400–4500 BC Bandkeramiker/Linear Pottery culturesUnknown
2300–750 BC Bell Beaker culturesProto-Celtic spoken
750–450 BC Halstatt early Iron Age culture (early Celts)None; Old Celtic spoken
58 / 44 BC–
AD 260
around 300 Beginning of Germanic migrations to the Roman Empire Roman Empire
531–614 Upper Alsace conquered by the Franks Frankish Realm
614–795 Totality of Alsace to the Frankish Kingdom Frankish Realm
814 Death of Charlemagne Carolingian Empire Old Frankish, Old High German
(Alsatian and German tolerated)
1871–1918 Franco-Prussian war causes French cession of Alsace to German Empire German Empire German
1940–1944 Nazi Germany conquers Alsace Nazi Germany German
1945–present French control France French
Research Tips
This page uses content from the English Wikipedia. The original content was at Alsace. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with WeRelate, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License.
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Protected Areas, by Ecological Region
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EcozonesFootnote [1] are regions with distinct or characteristic ecological features, such as climate and vegetation. Three ecozones, the Tundra Cordillera, the Pacific Maritime and the Arctic Cordillera have more than 20% of their area protected, while less than 1% of the area of five ecozones is protected.
Terrestrial ecozones with a high proportion of area protected tend to be remote or have high recreation value. This is in contrast to regions with high levels of urbanization and development, which tend to have small proportions of area protected. For example, ecozones in the western mountain ranges have 17% or more of their area protected, but the Mixedwood Plains, in southern Ontario and along the St. Lawrence River, has only 1.8% of its area protected.
While marine areas have not benefited from as long a tradition of protection, 7.0% of the Northern Shelf off the coast of British Columbia is protected. In the other marine ecozones, much smaller proportions, ranging from 0.02% to 4.7%, are protected. Thirteen percent (13%) of the Canadian area of the Great Lakes is protected.
Percentage of ecozones protected, Canada, 2015
Long description
The map shows the percentage of each ecozone that is protected. The Pacific Maritime, the Arctic Cordillera and the Tundra Cordillera ecological regions have the largest proportion of protected area. Less than 1% of the Arctic Basin, the Arctic Archipelago, the Hudson Bay Complex, the Newfoundland and Labrador Shelves, and the Scotian Shelf marine regions are protected.
Data for this map
Percentage of ecozones protected, Canada, 2015
Map labelEcozone nameEcozone area
Area protected
Percentage of region protected
L01Arctic Cordillera233 61853 69923.0
L02Northern Arctic1 481 480106 2917.2
L03Southern Arctic957 139150 76015.8
L04Taiga Plains554 01438 1606.9
L05Taiga Shield1 322 786105 7638.0
L06Boreal Shield1 897 362183 7669.7
L07Atlantic Maritime110 59077127.0
L08Mixedwood Plains116 20620921.8
L09Boreal Plains779 47158 0457.4
L10Prairies465 99027 2465.8
L11Montane Cordillera437 76180 00618.3
L12Pacific Maritime216 94252 44924.2
L13Boreal Cordillera557 93797 31117.4
L14Taiga Cordillera231 16119 3028.4
L15Hudson Plains350 69343 77412.5
L16Tundra Cordillera28 980715924.7
L17Atlantic Highlands93 01735523.8
L18Semi-Arid Plateaux56 43452639.3
W01Strait of Georgia89694254.7
W02Southern Shelf28 1587832.8
W03Offshore Pacific315 72462002.0
W04Northern Shelf101 66371417.0
W05Arctic Basin752 0531650.02
W06Western Arctic539 80796971.8
W07Arctic Archipelago268 79222670.84
W08Eastern Arctic782 63686561.1
W09Hudson Bay Complex1 244 67088570.7
W10Newfoundland-Labrador Shelves1 054 2402150.02
W11Scotian Shelf416 29623990.6
W12Gulf of Saint Lawrence246 64846881.9
W13Great Lakes88 25011 67213.2
Download data file (Excel/CSV; 1.95 KB)
How this indicator was calculated
Note: Ecozones are elements of a framework delineating broad areas with distinctive biophysical characteristics and similar sets of species. Ecozones are numbered and coded with an "L" for terrestrial regions and "W" for aquatic regions.
Source: Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (2016) Conservation Areas Reporting and Tracking System (CARTS). Data are current as of December 31, 2015. For Ecozones, Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (2014) Canada Ecozones V5b.
Each ecozone is unique and protection involves the inclusion of areas that are representative of different parts of the ecozone and sites of special value. Challenges to establishing protected areas include competition from other uses, such as agriculture, fishing, industry or living space, and may be limited by the extent of ecologically intact areas within the ecozone.
Related information
Access PDF (794 KB)
Date modified:
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Camisards were Huguenots (French Protestants) of the rugged and isolated Cévennes region of south-central France, who raised an insurrection against the persecutions which followed the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685. The revolt by the Camisards broke out in 1702, with the worst of the fighting through 1704, then scattered fighting until 1710 and a final peace by 1715.
The name camisard in the Occitan language is variously attributed to a type of linen smock or shirt known as a camisa that peasants wear in lieu of any sort of uniform; camisada, in the sense of "night attack", is derived from a feature of their tactics.
Eventually the name Black Camisard came to refer to Protestants, while White Camisards (also known as "Cadets of the Cross") were Catholics organized to check the blacks. Both groups were known for committing atrocities.
The revolt of the Protestants followed about twenty years of persecutions. Protestant peasants of the region, led by a number of teachers known as "prophets", rebelled against the officially sanctioned dragonnades (conversions enforced by dragoons, labeled "missionaries in boots") that followed the Edict of Fontainebleau, in which soldiers were billeted in the homes of Protestants to make them convert or emigrate. Clandestine prophets and their armed followers were hidden in houses and caves in the mountains; Protestants were arrested, deported to America or turned into galley slaves; entire villages were massacred and burnt to the ground in a series of stunning atrocities.[1] Several leading prophets were tortured and executed and many more were exiled, leaving the abandoned congregations to the leadership of less educated and more mystically-oriented preachers known as "prophets", such as the wool-comber Abraham Mazel.[2]
"Dragoons", missionaries in boots.
Open hostilities began on 24 July 1702, with the assassination at le Pont-de-Montvert of a local embodiment of royal oppression, François Langlade, the Abbé of Chaila, who had recently arrested and tortured a group of Protestants accused of attempting to flee France.[3] The abbé was quickly lionized in print as a martyr of his faith. Led by the young Jean Cavalier and Roland Laporte, the Camisards met the ravages of the royal army with irregular warfare methods and withstood superior forces in several pitched battles.[4]
Other Protestants, like those of Fraissinet-de-Lozère, under the influence of village elites, chose a loyalist attitude and fought the Camisards. They were nevertheless equally victims of the destruction of their houses during the "Great Burning of the Cévennes" ordered in late 1703.[5]
White Camisards, also known as "Cadets of the Cross" ("Cadets de la Croix", from a small white cross which they wore on their coats), were Catholics from neighboring communities such as St. Florent, Senechas and Rousson who, on seeing their old enemies on the run, organized into companies to hunt the rebels down. They committed atrocities, such as killing 52 people at the village of Brenoux, including pregnant women and children.
In 1704, Claude Louis Hector de Villars, the royal commander, offered Cavalier vague concessions to the Protestants and the promise of a command in the royal army. Cavalier's acceptance of the offer broke the revolt, although others, including Laporte, refused to submit unless the Edict of Nantes was restored. Scattered fighting went on until 1710, but the true end of the uprising was the arrival in the Cévennes of the Protestant minister Antoine Court and the reestablishment of a small Protestant community that was largely left in peace, especially after the death of Louis XIV in 1715.
Role in the survival of Protestantism in France[edit]
It is clearly established that, after the main active camisard groups had been subdued in various ways, the French authorities were keen not to re-ignite the revolt and took a much moderate approach to anti-protestant repression. Many former camisards came back to a more peaceful approach and from 1715 onwards helped reestablish a still illegal but now much better organised Protestantism under the leadership of Antoine Court and of the numerous travelling pastors who could then reenter the country.[6]
"The Camisards' legend"[edit]
In his book with this title[7] history professor Philippe Joutard registered the very lively oral tradition about the camisards which has prevailed to this day in the Cévennes region. He also observed the "attraction power" of this very striking period of history as many unrelated episodes are now integrated in this oral tradition. Because this oral transmission is mainly done through the families it often highlights more of their own ancestors who were faithful to their convictions than the heroic leaders of the revolt. In so doing it valorizes beyond the original religious question a general attitude of resistance and non-conformity which determines a whole philosophical, political and human culture and way of life.[8] Philippe Joutard also noted that even the arch-minority of Catholics living in this protestant part of the country tend to reconstruct their history in the same way as their former religious opponents. The footprint of the camisards in Cévennes is thus particularly deep and lasting.
First Guerrilla War[edit]
It can be argued that the Cévennes uprising of 1702-1704 constitutes one the very first example of guerrilla warfare, of which there will be many more examples only at the end of the 18th century (like the Chouans revolt against the French Revolution) and beyond.
Notes and references[edit]
2. ^ fr:Abraham Mazel#Le début de la guerre des Camisards
7. ^ Philippe Joutard, La Légende des Camisards, NRF Gallimard, 1977
8. ^ Philippe Joutard, La Légende des Camisards, NRF Gallimard, 1977, p. 355
Further reading[edit]
Although most of the sources are in French and remain untranslated there are a number of excellent sources available in English:
External links[edit]
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health care
What causes pheochromocytoma?
Paragangliomas are masses that occur in sympathetic neural tissues. The masses consist of chromaffin cells and generally result in elevated serum levels of catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline, epinephrine, dopamine). This can lead to episodic or systemic hypertension, tachycardia, diaphoresis, and/or headache. Initial tests for these masses include the measurement of catecholamine metabolites (VMA and metanephrines) in urine. The majority of paragangliomas (90%) occur in the adrenal medulla, and are called pheochromocytomas. In fact, in common usage, the term 'paraganglioma' is applied only to extra-adrenal masses; pheochromocytoma is the more common term. Extra-adrenal masses can occur in any sympathetic neural tissue, but arise most often in the organs of Zuckerkandl (confluence of sympathetic tissue just below the aortic bifurcation), the sympathetic trunk, and the bladder.
More information on pheochromocytoma
Endocrine disorders Mainpage
Topics in endocrine disorders
Adrenal insufficiency
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Tensors and Ellipsoids
The ellipsoid as a visualization aid for rank-2 symmetric Euclidean tensors, with examples in mechanics, elasticity and optics
1. Tensors and Ellipsoids
2. The Inertia Tensor and Rigid Body Motion
3. The Strain and Stress Tensors and Elastic Constants
4. The Dielectric Tensor and Crystal Optics
5. Exercises
6. References
Tensors and Ellipsoids
An ellipsoid is a quadric surface described in canonical form by the equation ax2 + by2 + cz2 = 1. The lengths of the semiaxes of the ellipsoid are 1/a1/2, 1/b1/2 and 1/c1/2 along the x, y and z axes, respectively. If b = c, the ellipsoid degenerates into a spheroid, and if a = b = c, into a sphere. The center of the ellipsoid is at the origin.
If the axes are rotated to a general position, then the equation for the ellipsoid can be written ax2 + by2 + cz2 + dyz + ezx + fxy = 1, where a,b and c are new constants, as well as d, e, f. The absence of linear terms means that we keep the origin at the center of the ellipse, since displacing the center of the ellipsoid will not add anything essential. There are six constants in this expression, and they specify the shape and size of the ellipse and the directions of the axes, which remain orthogonal. Any section of an ellipsoid by a plane is an ellipse, notably the principal sections that contain its axes.
A rank-2 symmetrical tensor Φij has six components, three diagonal and three off-diagonal, which occur in symmetric pairs. The equation xiΦijxj = 1 is the equation of an ellipsoid associated with the tensor. We are using index notation, which is explained in Euclidean Tensors. A radius vector x is expressed as its components xi, i = 1, 2, 3 instead of x, y, z.
It is possible to find the rotation that transforms a symmetric rank-2 tensor into the diagonal form Φij = a(i)δij. This will also transform the ellipsoid into canonical form and give the lengths of the semiaxes. To do this, let ni be a unit vector (the components are direction cosines) and form the equation Φijnj = λnj, where λ is some constant, which we may have to determine. This expresses the condition that the vector resulting when the tensor Φ "operates" on ni gives a vector in the same direction, but of possibly different magnitude. It is the fundamental duty of rank-2 tensors to operate in this way on one vector (by this is meant multiplication followed by contraction) to give another vector. The expression is really three simultaneous equations for the three direction cosines ni.
Therefore, we have the three equations (Φij - λδij)nj = 0 for the three values of i. These are homogeneous equations, and only have the solutions ni = 0, unless the determinant of the coefficients vanishes. If it does, we can solve for the ratios of two of the direction cosines to the remaining one, and then determine them all by the condition that the sum of their squares must be unity. The constant λ must be chosen so that the determinant of the coefficients vanishes, |Φij - λδij| = 0. Since this equation is of third order, there are three roots for λ. If the three roots are equal, then the tensor is already diagonal, and is the constant tensor λδij. The corresponding ellipsoid is just a sphere. If two roots are equal, then the remaining root gives the direction of an axis of symmetry, and the orientation of the axes perpendicular to this axis can be chosen any way one likes. The ellipsoid is then a spheroid, and Φ11 = λ(1), Φ22 = Φ33 = λ(2) = λ(3). Finally, in the general case all three roots are unequal, and we have an ellipsoid with unequal axes, and the diagonal elements of Φ are the three values of λ.
If the three values of λ are unequal, the resulting principal axes will all be orthogonal, that is, at right angles to each other. If two values are equal, then the axis will be orthogonal to the plane of the other two axes. The values of λ are called eigenvalues ("own values") and the unit vectors belonging to them are called eigenvectors. Working with principal axes simplifies the algebra greatly, and we usually assume that any symmetrical rank-2 tensor has been diagonalized in the way we have discussed. All of these matters are discussed at length in texts on linear algebra.
We now have enough theoretical background to consider the most important rank-2 tensors met with in classical physics. We'll discuss the inertia tensor, the dielectric tensor, the strain tensor, and the stress tensor in this article. Not in detail, of course, but enough to show how the tensors are defined and used, making their application easier. See the Examples for exercises in tensor diagonalization. There are good numerical methods for the diagonalization of matrices, and the basic theorems are proved in any quantum mechanics text.
The Inertia Tensor and Rigid Body Motion
The inertia tensor in the dynamics of rigid bodies is an excellent example of a rank-2 tensor where the associated ellipsoid aids in the visualization of the motion. We shall start from first principles, using index notation, and find the motion of a free rigid body--that is, a body under the action of no external forces. Any rigid body can be considered as an assembly of mass elements m with fixed positions xi relative to an orgin O, in a system of coordinates fixed in the body. The origin O can be a fixed point in space and the body, or the center of mass of the body. In either case, the motion separates into translational and rotational parts. We are not concerned with the translational parts here, and will consider only the rotation. The most general motion of the body is then a rotation with angular velocity ωi. The direction of the vector specifies the direction of the axis of rotation. The angular velocity may change in magnitude and direction with time, in a quite general manner. The body coordinates rotate in the same way, and so do not form an inertial system.
The rate of change of any vector quantity vi in a fixed coordinate system with origin O is [dvi/dt]fix = [dvi/dt]rot + εijkxjvk. This is merely the relation that in vector notation is [dv/dt]fix = [dv/dt]rot + r x v, which is illustrated in the diagram, which applies to any vector, not just a radius vector. Accordingly, the velocity of an element of mass m in the inertial system is vi = εijkωjxk, since it is fixed in the rotating system. Summing over all mass elements, the angular momentum Hi = Σm εijkxj εklmωlxm. Using the value of the contraction of two antisymmetric tensor densities, we find that Hi = [Σm(xkxkδij - xixj] ωj, The rank-2 symmetric tensor multiplying ωj is the inertia tensor Iij of the body. The diagonal elements are called moments of inertia, and the off-diagonal elements products of inertia. For a continuous body, they may be found by integration, of course. We note that the angular momentum is not necessarily in the direction of the angular velocity.
Now we find the kinetic energy T of the body by adding up the kinetic energies of each element of mass: 2T = Σvkvk. Using the expression for the space velocity, we again get a contraction of two antisymmetric tensor densities. In fact, 2T = Σm εijkωjrk εirsωrrs = Ijrωjωr. This work is a good example of how much easier it is to use the index notation than vector notation in these things.
Newton's Second Law can be applied in the fixed system to each of the elements of mass, and we find that the net torque Li = ΣεijkxjFk is the rate of change of angular momentum Hi in the fixed system. From the above equations, we have Li = Iij(dωj/dt) + Iklεijkωjωk. These are three differential equations for the components of the angular velocity of the body relative to the body axes.
It is always possible to diagonalize the inertia tensor by a suitable choice of the orientation of the body axes. Let us assume this has been done, and the principal moments of inertia are A(i). The index is in parentheses because it is not a tensor index, merely an identifying label. For ease of writing, we may also represent these quantities by A, B and C. Then, Iij = A(i)δij, and the equations of motion of the preceding paragraph become Li = A(i)(dωi/dt) + εijkA(k)ωjωk. These equations are known as Euler's equations.
Now we can consider the problem of a body moving freely with one point fixed, which can be taken as the center of mass. An asteroid moving in space is a good example of such a body, since the torques exerted by unequal solar attraction are small and have little effect if the body is rotating rapidly. Such torques indeed cause the axis of the earth to precess, but this is a slow effect. We can safely neglect such torques with an asteroid rotating with periods of hours or less.
First of all, the kinetic energy T of the body must be constant, so 2T = Hiωi = Iijωiωj = constant. The angular momentum is also constant, since no external torques act, so this says that the component of the angular velocity in the direction of H is also a constant. If we consider a space in which the components of the angular velocity are the coordinates, then this equation also defines an ellipsoid in this space, which is similar to the inertia ellipsoid. We shall call this the energy ellipsoid, since its size depends on the kinetic energy of the motion. We shall choose the body axes so that the inertia tensor is diagonalized, so the body axes are also the symmetry axes of the energy tensor. The semiaxes of the energy ellipsoid are √(2T/A(k)). The angular velocity is a vector from the origin O to a point on the energy ellipsoid P, as shown in the diagram at the left.
If the equation for the energy ellipsoid is differentiated, we find that Iijωji = 0. Now dωi is a vector in the tangent plane at P, so this says that the angular momentum is perpendicular to the tangent plane. Because the angular momentum is constant, this means that the orientation of the tangent plane remains constant during the motion. Also, since the component of the angular velocity in the direction of the angular momentum is constant, the distance d from the origin O to the tangent plane is constant. Therefore, we find the important result that the tangent plane to the energy ellipsoid is fixed in space. We call it the invariant plane. Since the angular velocity passes through the point of contact P, there is no relative motion between the energy ellipsoid and the invariant plane: the energy ellipsoid must roll on the invariant plane without slipping.
The angular velocity must terminate on the energy ellipsoid in any case. For a certain d, it must also lie on the surface obtained by squaring the relation Hd = 2T, which is Σ(A(i)i)2 = 4T2. Eliminating the constant terms between these two equations, we find that Σ(A(i)/2T)[(1/d2) - (A(i)/2T)]ωi2 = 0, which is the equation of a cone (not in general a circular one) with center at O, on which the angular velocity must lie. This cone intersects the energy ellipsoid in a curve called the polhode (Greek: "path of the pole"). This cone rolls without slipping on a similar cone fixed in space determined by the path of the angular velocity in the invariant plane, which is called the herpolhode. We have now arrived at a complete description of the motion of the body, making use of the inertia ellipsoid.
Let's now specialize to the case frequently met when two of the moments of inertia are the same, say A = B, with C different. The case when C < A is shown in the diagram, where the inertia ellipsoid is prolate, and the 3-axis is the symmetry axis. Now the polhode and herpolhode determine circular cones that roll on each other without slipping, and the motion can be easily visualized. The component of angular velocity Ω along the symmetry axis is called the spin. It is given by Ω = ω cos α. The radius of the polhode is ω sinα, and the radius of the herpolhode is ω sin (θ - α). The angle between the symmetry axis and the direction of H is θ. It is related to α by tanα = (C/A) tanθ. The rotation of the symmetry axis around the direction of H is called precession, and its amount is dψ/dt = CΩ/(A cosθ).
In finding the inertia tensor for bodies made up of simple geometric shapes, the Parallel-Axis Theorem is useful. It says that the moment of inertia about an axis parallel to an axis through the center of gravity is equal to the moment about the axis through the center of gravity plus the total mass of the body times the square of the distance between the axes, or Iii = Iii' + md2. For products of inertia (off-diagonal elements), the product of inertia is the product of inertia referred to the center of gravity plus the mass times the product of the coordinate differences. That is, Iij = Iij' + mxy. Tables of the moments of inertia of simple figures can be found in handbooks and in texts of engineering mechanics. The moment of inertia of a parallelepiped about an axis through the centroid perpendicular to a face is (m/12)(a2 + b2), where a and b are the sides of the face. The centroidal moment of inertia of a sphere is (2/5)mr2, and of a disk relative to an axis perpendicular to its plane, like a wheel and axle, (1/2)mr2.
The Strain and Stress Tensors and Elastic Constants
Consider a solid elastic medium that is deformed by forces applied to its boundaries, or by forces exerted directly on the material by external influences. In response to these forces, a general point originally at xi before the forces are applied moves to a point xi + ξi. The displacement ξi is not necessarily small, but its derivatives Eij = ∂iξj we presume are much less than unity. These quantities are called strains, and form a rank-2 tensor that is a function of position. It is convenient to separate Eij into symmetric and antisymmetric parts, Eij = eij + Ωij. The symmetric part eij is called the pure strain tensor, while the antisymmetric part Ωij represents the rotation due to the deformation. The vector associated with Ωij gives the rotational axis and the angle of rotation. We will be mainly interested in the pure strain, which represents the deformation of the medium.
If the medium returns to its initial state when the forces are removed, the deformation is called elastic, and all the strain energy put into the body is recovered. If the deformation is too large, the body does not return to the initial state, mechanical energy is dissipated, and the deformation is called plastic. For solid bodies, deformation is usually elastic for sufficiently small strains. We shall deal with this case exclusively here.
Since the pure strain is symmetric, it can be diagonalized. Let the diagonal elements be a, b, and c. Then, a small parallelepiped with sides dx, dy and dz and volume V = dxdydz becomes a small parallelepiped with sides (1 + a)dx, (1 + b)dy and (1 + c)dz after deformation, of volume V + dV = (1 + a + b + c)dxdydz, so that dV = (a + b + c)V. Quantities of the order of squares of strains have been neglected. The sum a + b + c = dV/V is the relative increase in volume at the point, called the dilatation. Now, a + b + c is just the trace of the strain tensor, eii = ∂iξi, which we know is invariant under rotation.
As an example, consider a body strained as shown in the figure by a shearing force. The only nonzero component of the strain tensor is E12 = a, where a is a small quantity equal to the angle of strain θ. Then the pure strain tensor has e12 = e21 = a, and the rotation tensor has Ω12 = -Ω 21 = a. We note that the deformation is indeed equal to a rotation of a radians about the 3-axis plus an extension along the 2-axis and a contraction along the 1-axis. Indeed, the pure strain tensor has eigenvalues ±a/2. The trace is zero, so there is no dilatation. This sort of deformation is called pure shear.
Now we must consider the causes of deformation and rotation, stresses. If we imagine a plane surface in the body and that the material on one side of the plane surface is removed, the forces that it exerted on the material on the other side can be represented by forces acting on this plane surface. Let the unit normal vector to the surface be taken as the normal pointing towards the removed material, or outwards. The normal force is positive when it is a pull, or in the direction of the normal, or a tension. There may also be a force in the plane of the surface, perpendicular to the normal, called a shear force, and in any particular case the positive directions of its two components in the surface will be agreed upon. A force per unit area of surface is a stress. If a hydrostatic pressure p acts on the surface, then the normal stress is -p and the shear stresses are zero.
The stresses will, in general, depend on the direction of the normal. For any normal vector ni, we will have stresses Fi that are a function of the ni. This defines a tensor Sij such that Fi = Sijnj, called the stress tensor. That this is a satisfactory definition is can be seen by considering the equilibrium of a small tetrahedron, as shown in the figure at the left. The three components of the force on the inclined face of area dS are balanced by equal and opposite forces on the other three sides. Note that the area of each side is nidS, and the force on it will be in the opposite direction to the force on the face dS. To prove this, write out the forces in the 1, 2 and 3 directions separately and show that they balance.
The stress tensor must be symmetric, or there would be unbalanced torques on small areas that would cause them to rotate. The absence of such rotation causes the stress tensor to be symmetric. In the figure, we take the moments of the forces tending to rotate the cube about the 3-axis that come from the 1-2 component of the tensor, showing that S12 = S21. The same holds for each of the other off-diagonal elements.
We now look for the connection between the stress and pure strain tensors. Since the strains are small compared to unity, we assume that Hooke's Law holds, and the stresses are linear functions of the strains. Actually, Hooke's Law is always valid for elastic deformations, since the strain is still small when inelasticity begins. A systematic way to do this is to consider a deformation energy F defined by ∂F/∂eij = Sij. Hooke's Law then requires that S be proportional to e, or that F be a homogeneous quadratic function of the strains. The most general isotropic quadratic homogeneous function of the strains is F = (1/2)λ(ekk)2 + μ(eij)2, where the constants λ and μ are called the Lamé coefficients. If we differentiate F, we find Sij = λekkδij + 2μeij, which is the relation between stress and strain for an isotropic, elastic body.
Poisson took λ = μ, as did Cauchy and others who thought there should be only one elastic constant for an isotropic medium. Their theories were based on central forces between supposed "molecules" that have little in common with our modern molecules. There was an extended debate between those who demanded more elastic constants and those who demanded fewer. In the general case (as we shall discuss below) 21 constants were required by those who favored more, and only 18 by those favoring less. Time and experiment have come down on the side of those who think there must be the larger number.
Elastic constants useful in specific problems can be defined in terms of λ and μ. If we assume an isotropic pressure p, then -p = λekk + 2μe(k)(k) = (λ + 2μ/3)dV/V. The bulk modulus k is defined by dV/V = -p/k, so k = λ + 2μ/3. If an axial force F is applied to a rod of length L and cross-sectional area A, the rod lengthens by ΔL = FL/AY, where Y is Young's modulus. At the same time, the rod contracts laterally, and the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is σ, Poisson's Ratio. Under these conditions, we find that σ = λ/(2λ + 2μ) and Y = 2(σ + 1)μ (see Exercise 5). Poisson's ratio can be between 0 and 1/2, but is usually not far from 1/4, which Poisson assumed was the case. It is 1/2 for a body with no shear strength, such as a liquid. The modulus μ itself is the ratio of a shearing stress to the shearing strain (an angle), so is called the modulus of rigidity. For more details on each of these quantities, refer to any book on Strength of Materials. A quantity called a modulus has the dimensions of a stress, it should be noted.
Steel has Y = 30 x 106 psi or 2.07 x 1012 dyne/cm2, μ = 12 x 106 psi or 8.27 x 1011 dyne/cm2, and σ = 0.27. Its bulk modulus, calculated from these figures, is k = 20 x 106 psi or 1.38 x 1012 dyne/cm2. Water, on the other hand, has μ = 0, since it lacks rigidity, and k = 3.16 x 105 psi or 2.18 x 1010 dyne/cm2. It is about 63 times more compressible than steel. As for gases, dV/V = -dp/p for an ideal gas, so k = p. At one atmosphere, this is 1.47 psi or 1.013 x 106 dyne/cm2, about 22,000 times more compressible than water.
Rubber is a curious material with σ ≈ 0.5, which implies that it has very low rigidity, a kind of "solid fluid." For rubber, Y = 100 to 600 psi, and &mu = 30 to 200 psi, so its rigidity is indeed small. Glass is on the opposite pole, with Y = 10 x 106 psi and μ = 5 x 106 psi. Its Poisson's ratio is low, 0.20 to 0.27, which implies that it is quite rigid compared to its longitudinal elasticity.
A medium whose properties depend on direction is often called anisotropic, but a less barbarous word is aelótropic (Greek: change-turning). The above expression for F suggests the generalization to an aelotropic medium by setting F = (1/2)λijkleijekl, which gives S1j = λijklekl. The rank-4 tensor λijkl is called the elastic constant tensor, an operator connecting two rank-2 tensors just as a rank-2 tensor is an operator connecting two vectors. In general, it has 81 components, but there is a great deal of symmetry here, since the energy is unchanged if i,j or k,l are interchanged (the strain tensors are symmetric), or if i,k and j,l are simultaneously interchanged. As a result, there are only 21 independent components at worst. It is confusing to work this out, but all 81 components can be listed, and equal ones sorted out, as a last resort.
The symmetry of crystals will introduce more relations between the constants, reducing their number. Even in a triclinic crystal, the least symmetric, the possibility of choosing convenient coordinates reduces the number to 18. A monoclinic crystal has 12, an orthorhombic crystal 9. A tetragonal crystal has 6, as does a trigonal (rhombohedral) crystal like calcite or quartz. A hexagonal crystal has 5, and a cubic crystal 3. Cubic crystals are often considered to be isotropic in many respects, but they have an extra elastic constant that truly isotropic materials do not have. The constant corresponding to λ splits into two, one the coefficient of the squares of the diagonal elements of e, the other the coefficient of the cross products. This reduction in the number of constants is found by applying the symmetry elements of the crystals, which turns some constants into their negatives, so they must vanish. This is an interesting point, but we cannot go into it further at this time.
An interesting application of this theory is to the propagation of mechanical waves in solids, which has application to seismology, nondestructive testing, and other fields. Such waves are almost always elastic, and have an interesting variety of properties that have been intensively studied. The theory is generally more complicated than that of electromagnetic waves, and includes the subject of surface waves (Rayleigh and Love waves), as well as waves in an infinite medium.
The Dielectric Tensor and Crystal Optics
The relation between the electric displacement D (statcoulombs/cm2) and the electric intensity E (statvolts/cm), considered in the first approximation as a proportionality, will in general be given by Di = εijEj, where the dielectric tensor satisfies εij = εji. The requirement of symmetry comes from several sources, one of which is simply that the tensor should be diagonalizable by an ordinary rotation, which establishes the three orthogonal principal axes of polarization, and the three principal dielectric constants, its eigenvalues. This yields D(k) = ε(k)E(k), where k = 1, 2 and 3. An electric intensity in a principal direction gives a displacement in the same direction. If all three directions are equivalent in the medium, then the three constants are equal: ε(k) = ε, and an electric intensity in any direction creates a displacement in the same direction; the medium is then isotropic.
In crystals belonging to the cubic or isometric system, three equivalent axes can be found, so the medium is isotropic. In the trigonal (rhombohedral), tetragonal and hexagonal systems, two equivalent axes perpendicular to the third can be found. If the unique axis is the 3-axis, then ε(1) = ε2, while ε3 is different. In the orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic systems, all three principal dielectric constants may differ. In any case, dielectric constants may accidentally be closely the same, so the medium will resemble a more symmetric one. Noncrystalline materials, such as polymer sheets, may be anisotropic as well. Nonisotropic transparent materials may show double refraction, discovered in 1669 by Bartholinus in Iceland spar, or transparent calcite, CaCO3, and first explained by Huygens not long afterwards. Such materials are also called birefringent.
We must first discuss the propagation of plane electromagnetic waves in an anisotropic medium. We shall assume throughout that B = H, or μ = 1, which is true in transparent crystals. Assume that the wave depends on space and time through a factor exp[iω(t - nr·s/c)], where ω is the angular frequency, v = c/n is the phase velocity, r the position vector and s is the unit vector normal to the wavefront. Then we can replace time derivatives by iω and del by -iωns/c in Maxwell's equations. We find: s·D = 0, s·H = 0, ns x H = -D, and ns x E = H. All the terms in these expressions are constant vector amplitudes.
The spatial relations between the vectors used to describe the wave are shown in the diagram at the right. The wavefront is the plane of H and D, with s the wavefront normal. E lies in the plane of s and D making an angle α with D. Since browsers do not yet support the perpendicular symbol, the electric intensity along D will be represented in the text by E+. The Poynting vector S is in the direction of t, the ray unit vector. This gives the direction of energy flow, which is not normal to the wavefront. The phase velocity is vs, with v = c/n, and the ray velocity is vrt, with vr = c/nr. The electric energy density we = E·D/8π = (n/8π)H·(s x E) and the magnetic energy density wm = H·B/8π is given by exactly the same expression, so the total field energy w = (n/c)s·S, where S = (c/4π)(E x H) is the Poynting vector. Now, vr = S/w, so v = vrs·t = vr cos α. The indices of refraction are then related by nr = n cos α.
The magnetic field can be eliminated between the Maxwell curl equations with the important result that D = n2[E - s(s·E)] = n2E+. This is a relation between E and D that must be satisfied by the wave, and is completely independent of the relation between them given by the dielectric tensor. Both relations must be satisfied in the wave. Since E+ = (E·D)D/d2, this relation can also be written as n2 = D2/(E·D). Similarly, it can be shown that nr2 = (D·E)/E2.
Applying the diagonalized dielectric tensor (which means everything must be referred to principal axes) we find εkEk = n2[Ek - sk(s·E)]. The k here is not a tensor index, merely an indentifier of one of the three components. Written out fully, we find three homogeneous equations for the field components Ek. Such a system can have non-zero solutions only if the determinant of the coefficients vanishes. This condition will determine the value of n, or the phase velocity, for which both Maxwell's equations and the dielectric relation are satisfied. Fresnel discovered a cunning way to do this that yields a symmetrical equation for v in terms of the components of the wave normal vector.
Rearrange the equation to Ek = [n2sk/(n2k)] (s·E). This is valid if the quantity in parentheses does not vanish. Now multiply by sk and add the equations for k = 1, 2 and 3. The dot product cancels, and we find a sum of three similar terms that adds to 1. Now the sum of the squares of sk is also 1, so subtract this from both sides and combine the terms with the same sk's. Now change from n's and ε's to the velocities. The final result is s12/(v2 - v12) + s22/(v2 - v22) + s32/(v2 - v32). This is Fresnel's equation of wave normals. To use it, multiply by the denominators to clear of fractions. The result is a quadratic equation in v2, which gives two values for any value of s. The squares mean that the wave can travel in either direction. We will see that each pair of solutions for the same s gives us two plane-polarized waves polarized at right angles to each other which, in general, travel at different velocities.
A similar process in terms of t instead of s yields Fresnel's ray equation, which gives us the ray velocity vr in terms of the ray unit vector. This can be found in Born and Wolf. What is more interesting is to find t in terms of s and the phase velocity. The result is tk = sk{[v2 + g2/(v2 - vk2)]/√(v4 + g2)}, where g2 = v2(vr2 - v2) = {[s1/(v12 - v2)]2 + [s2/(v22 - v2)]2 + [s3/(v32 - v2)]2}-1. From these formulas, we can find the ray vector and the ray (energy) velocity. When the phase and ray velocities re known, then the angle α can be found by a formula given above.
Now we can proceed to consider a geometric construction to find the directions of polarization of a wave travelling in an arbitrary direction in an anisotropic medium. The field energy w is given by 8πw = D121 + D222 + D323. Taking new variables xk = Dk/√4πw, we have the equation x121 + x222 + x323, which is the equation of an ellipsoid whose semiaxes are the square roots of the principal dielectric constants, or the indices of refraction for waves polarized along a principal axis. This ellipsoid has been called the optical indicatrix or the index ellipsoid. Consider the intersection of the plane x1s1 + x2s2 + x3s3 = 0 normal to a wave vector s with the ellipsoid. This intersection will be an ellipse. The axes of this ellipse are the directions of polarization of the two waves with the given wave vector.
It should be clear that once we assume a direction for the wave, the polarization in the perpendicular plane must be carefully chosen so that E and D are coplanar with s, which in general they will not be. This happens for two polarizations that differ by 90°, and the two polarizations will travel with different velocities. This allows the two polarizations to be separated by refraction, as in a Nicol prism.
This is proved by finding the extrema of the vector from the origin to the ellipse, and showing that the result is the same condition that we found above from the combination of Maxwell's equations and the dielectric tensor. Any direction s for which the intersection is a circle is a direction along which a wave may have any polarization, and all polarizations travel at the same velocity. Such a direction is called an optic axis of the crystal. For an ellipsoid with axes all of different lengths, there will be two such directions symmetrically located in the plane of the two axes with the largest and smallest indices on either side of the axis of greatest index. Such media are called biaxial.
If two indices are equal, then a plane perpendicular to the axis of the third index cuts the ellipsoid, which is now a spheroid, in a circle. Therefore, this axis is the optic axis, which is the only one. Such media are called uniaxial. If the third index is greater than the other two, the medium is called positive, and negative otherwise. The two equal indices, or velocities, are called ordinary and denoted by a subscript "o" while the third is called extraordinary and denoted by a subscript "e." If we write Fresnel's equation of wave normals for this case, for a wave travelling in a direction making an angle θ with the optic axis, we easily find the two solutions v2 = vo2 and v2 = vo2 cos2 θ + ve2 sin2 θ. This gives two surfaces, one a sphere of radius vo for the "ordinary" wave, and one a surface of fourth order, an ovoid, for the "extraordinary" wave. For a positive uniaxial medium, the ovoid is inside the sphere, while for a negative uniaxial medium, it is outside, as shown in the diagram. These figures are not the index ellipsoid.
The distance between the ordinary and extraordinary wave normal surfaces is greatly exaggerated in the diagrams, as can be seen from the actual figures for calcite and quartz that are given. The extraordinary velocity surface is drawn as an ellipse for convenience, but it is not an ellipse, being blunter at the ends of the major and minor axes than an ellipse. Huygens took it for an ellipse, which indeed it closely resembles, and elementary Optics texts have followed him in this, but this is an error, although it gives the ray direction quite well using Huygen's construction. This is reminiscent of the Bohr atom, in which erroneous concepts give the correct result. In quartz, the two surfaces do not exactly meet on the optic axis, and this is the source of optical activity in quartz, but the effect can be neglected here. The optic axis of a cleavage rhomb of calcite passes through a blunt corner making equal angles with the sides and faces. If you look at a dot through the crystal, two images will be seen. When you rotate the crystal, the ordinary image will remain fixed while the extraordinary image rotates around it. The reason is that the ray velocity of the extraordinary wave is inclined to the wavefronts, lying in the plane containing the wave normal and the optic axis, as shown in the diagram. The ordinary wave is polarized at right angles to the optic axis, the extraordinary ray is polarized parallel to the optic axis, a fact easily checked with a Polaroid filter.
1. Diagonalize the symmetric matrix with rows: 6 0 0; 0 34 12; 0 12 41, finding the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors. Sketch the associated ellipsoid. (Leigh Page) Answers: the eigenvalues are 6, 50, and 25. The eigenvectors are (1,0,0), (0,3/5,4/5), (0,3/5,-4/5).
2. Find the inertia tensor for two masses of 100 g that are 10 cm from the x-axis, but on opposite sides and 10 cm apart vertically. Find the angular momentum when the masses rotate at 600 rpm about the x-axis, and the resulting moment. What rotating torque must be supplied? Check by analyzing the problem as two point masses. Find the principal axes by inspection. Answers: I = 20,000 -10,000 0; -10,000 5000 0; 0 0 25,000. Eigenvalues 25,000, 0, 25,000. H1 = 20,000ω, H2 = 10,000ω, H3 = 0. Torque 10,000ω2 dyne-cm normal to plane of masses. Principal axes: line joining the masses, line normal to this, line at right angles to these two axes.
3. The body shown in the diagram is constructed from three identical cubes of side a and mass m. C is the center of mass of the body. Find the inertia tensor with the axes shown, using the parallel-axis theorem. Diagonalize the tensor, and find the principal moments of inertia and the principal axes. The problem can be solved using rational numbers. The principal axes can be determined by inspection, which will be a check on your solution. Answers: Principal moments of inertia 3/2, 5/6 and 1/2, in units of ma2. Principal axes: rotate x,z 90° about the y-axis.
4. Find the angle between the wave normal and the ray for light perpendicularly incident on a cleavage face of a calcite rhomb. The optic axis passes through a blunt corner where three faces meet with face angles of 101° 55'. From this information, find the inclination θ of the wave normal s to the optic axis. Find the phase and ray velocities for this case. The indices of refraction are no = 1.6584, ne = 1.4864. Answers: θ = 44.610°, v = 0.63836c, vr = 0.64215c, α = 6.228°.
5. From the equation giving the stress tensor in terms of the strain tensor, k and μ, find the relation between the traces of the strain and stress tensors, and from this the equation giving the strain tensor in terms of the stress tensor. Use this equation to find the strains when only σ11 is nonzero. This is the case of uniaxial homogeneous stress in a uniform rod, when both stress and strain tensors are diagonal. Find expressions for Young's modulus, Y = σ11/e11, and Poisson's ratio, σ = -e22/e11 = -e33/e11, in terms of k and μ.
L. Page, Introduction to Theoretical Physics, 3rd ed. (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1952). Chapters II and III.
M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics (London: Pergamon Press, 1959). Chapter XIV.
A. E. H. Love, A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 4th ed. (New York: Dover, 1944; reprint of the 1927 edition by Cambridge University Press). Contains a good Historical Introduction.
L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Theory of Elasticity (London: Pergamon Press, 1959). An excellent concise treatment, using index notation.
Return to Physics Index
Composed by J. B. Calvert
Created 13 October 2002
Last revised 2 June 2009
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Domatia)
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A hairless foveole domatium in the leaf underside of Guioa acutifolia
Eriophyoid inside domatium of Cinnamomum camphora
Mite inside domatium of Cinnamomum camphora
A domatium (plural: domatia, from the Latin "domus", meaning home) is a tiny chamber produced by plants that houses arthropods.[1]
Ideally domatia differ from galls in that they are produced by the plant rather than being induced by their inhabitants, but the distinction is not sharp; the development of many types of domatia is influenced and promoted by the inhabitants. Most domatia are inhabited either by mites or ants, in what can be a mutualist relationship, but other arthropods such as thrips may take parasitic advantage of the protection offered by this structure.
Domatia occupied by ants are called myrmecodomatia.[2] An important class of myrmecodomatia comprise large, hollow spines of certain acacias such as Acacia sphaerocephala, in which ants of the genera Pseudomyrmex and Tetraponera make their nests. Plants that provide myrmecodomatia are called myrmecophytes. The variety of the plants that provide myrmecodomatia, and the ranges of forms of such domatia are considerable. Some plants, such as Myrmecodia, grow large bulbous structures riddled with channels in which their ants may establish themselves, both for mutual protection and for the nutritive benefit of the ants' wastes.
Often domatia are formed on the lower surface of leaves, at the juncture of the midrib and the veins. They usually consist of small depressions partly enclosed by leaf tissue or hairs. Many members of the Lauraceae family develop leaf domatia. Domatia are also found in some rainforest tree species in the families Alangiaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Fabaceae, Icacinaceae, Meliaceae, Rubiaceae, Sapindaceae and Simaroubaceae.[3]
External links[edit]
1. ^ O'Dowd, Dennis J.; Mary F. Willson (June 1991). "Associations Between Mites and Leaf Domatia". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 6 (6): 179–182. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(91)90209-G.
2. ^ Wilson, Edward O., The Insect Societies, Publisher: Belknap Press 1971, ISBN 978-0-674-45490-3
3. ^ Williams, J.B; Harden, G.J.; McDonald, W.J.F. (1984). Trees and Shrubs in Rainforests of New South Wales and Southern Queensland. Botany Department, University of New England. ISBN 0-85834-555-2.
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Kilo, Mega, Giga: What Are These Computer Terms?
Updated on May 06, 2016
What are all these terms?
It recently occurred to me that there are a literal ton of terms used in selling and marketing computers. These terms may not mean much to the vast majority of computer purchasers, but they are important.
So I thought I'd address these computer and Internet terms.They are terms that can actually be applied to many technical sciences, not just computing.
Why is Watt or Hertz capitalized in abbreviations and why are other terms not capitalized? What is a Watt? What is a Hertz? Check the end of this article for an answer. Maybe you too could become part of the library of terminology.
And why should you care if a drive is SSD or not; that a disc drive is SATA or PATA. I hope to answer these questions and more.
Kilo Mega Giga. What are these?
Some of the following terms are capitalized because the same letters are used for both directions of the scale. For example a lowercase "m" is used for micro because it's a fractional unit. Uppercase "M" is used if it's a multiplier.
These terms have their roots in a language rather than in the name of a specific person. They are Greek (literally) for units of measure. The units are very generic and can be applied to a number of other terms for a combined term.
Here are the "order of magnitude" terms and what they mean. Some are no longer in common use;
• deca to the power of ten (101)
• hecto to the power of one hundred (102)
• Kilo to the power of one thousand (103)
• Mega to the power of one million (106)
• Giga to the power of one billion (109)
• Tera to the power of one trillion (1012)
• Peta to the power of one quadrillion (1015)
• Exa to the power of one quintillion (1018)
• Zetta to the power of one sextillion (1021)
• Yotta to the power of one septillion (1024)
Rules are that orders of magnitude are capitalized above hecto.
By combining these terms with other units of measure you end up with a very handy multiplier in word form.
So for example if we wanted to know how fast a computer ran (it's clock speed) we might say that it runs at 2 GigaHertz or 2GHz. Or if we wanted to know how much power the computer consumed we might say it ran on 100 milli-watts or 100mW*.
So to put this into perspective a really fast computer would have the following parameters. It would have a Core 2 Duo processor (Core Duo was the processor prior to the Core 2 Duo). It would operate at or above 2.0GHz. That's GigaHertz. It would have a hard disc at or above 80GB. That's GigaBytes and have at least 2GB of memory operating at or above 667MHz, that's MegaHertz.
It will be a while before Tera starts being used, but likely sooner than any of us expect...including myself. Of course when this happens we'll be seeing numbers like 1TB, for TeraByte.
Microsoft recently upgraded the accessible performance of flash drives or solid state device(s) (SSD) by allowing a file size upper limit in the ExaByte (EB) range. This upgrade in file size upper limit is implemented in the Windows Vista Service Pack 1 released on February 4, 2008.
It will likely be decades (if ever) before we see Peta used with clock speed, but if we do it will be recorded as PHz or PetaHertz. I say "if ever" because quite frankly a processor that gets into these speed ranges will likely be nothing like the processors we see today which are based on semiconductor technology. A processor this fast would have to be based on an entirely different type of technology.
I would hazard to guess that a PetaHertz computer would operate on an atomic or sub-atomic level.
Going in the opposite direction you end up with terms that represent fractional units rather than multipliers. These units are represented by lower case letters. So, for example, "M" would be Mega, but "m" would be milli.
Here are the fractional units from largest to smallest.
• deci one tenth (0.1)
• centi one hundredth (0.01)
• milli one thousandth (0.001)
• micro one millionth (0.000001)
• nano one billionth (0.000000001)
• pico one trillionth (0.000000000001)
• femto one quadrillionth (0.00000000000001)
• atto one quintillionth (0.00000000000000001)
• zepto one sextillionth (0.00000000000000000001)
• yocto one septillionth (0.0000000000000000000001)
*milli is going in the opposite direction. Milli is one thousandth.
High numbers are good except when...
Generally speaking when talking about computer performance statistics, high numbers are better.
A computer with a 2.0GHz processor is faster than a computer with a 1.8GHz processor. Memory that operates at 667MHz is better than memory that operates at 500MHz. A computer with a 10 base T 1000 network connection is faster than a computer with a 10 base T 100 network connection. I think you get the general idea.
The exception to this rule is disc or memory access speed. In this area lower numbers are better as the less time to write or access a file or folder the faster the better. Interestingly manufacturers do not publish access speed figures very often.
So, using the scale for fractional units (above) a disc drive that can access data in the micro-seconds is going to be faster than one that can access data in the milli-seconds.
PATA & SATA are abbreviations for describing how information storage devices are connected to a computer system. In no way to these two terms define how fast a disc drive works or how much information one can contain. Rather these terms define how data is moved from a drive to (say) memory.
The "P" in PATA stands for parallel; the "S" in SATA for serial. The ATA in both cases is an abbreviation for the same thing.
ATA stands for Advanced Technology Attachment. Since the disc drive is "attached" to the computer via "advanced technology." Because there was only one original ATA interface (being was parallel) PATA and SATA did not come into common usage (as terms) until 2003 when a serial interface version was developed.
Parallel interfaces have a distance limit. This is due to the fact that so many data lines (sixteen and up) are required send and receive data simultaneously. In early versions there were sixteen and then up to twenty-eight data lines that could communicate to and from the drive simultaneously. The problem with so many independent wires being used is that they tend to become radio-antenna with length. They will quite literally pick up signals from outside (radio, TV, cell phone) and this in turn can corrupt signals meant to be confined to the cabling and in turn stored on the disc drive. I don't know about you, but I don't want someone's cell phone conversation mixed up with a letter I'm writing or a video I'm storing.
This is why there is a distance limit. This limit is anywhere from eighteen to thirty-six inches (three feet max) depending on the application. Clearly if the cabling is used in an enclosed metal cabinet greater lengths are unimportant and really unnecessary, but if the cabling must extend between one device and another, with an external drive for example, then length and potential corruption becomes an important consideration.
An attempt was made to extend this distance by providing a ground wire for every signal wire (which helps dampen signal problems), but this doubled the number of wires that had to be accounted for at both the cable ends. This is why ribbon cable looks like ribbon rather than wire.
Serial ATA does away with this problem and lengthens the distance signals can be sent over the wire. This was only possible with faster disc controller devices since the number of signal lines was reduced from sixteen (or more) to four (with seven wires total).
Advantages of SATA are;
• Longer cable lengths permitted.
• Higher data transfer rates than PATA
• More efficient cooling inside the computer enclosure due to thinner cabling. Thin cables block less airflow than ribbon cabling.
• The ability to queue data streams and write to disc when ready.
The first generation SATA interfaces were no faster than the PATA standard they replaced, but the current generation SATA interface doubled that speed. There is now a SATA standard in the works that will once again double the last speed increase. This next generation of SATA may not be that noticeable until it is joined with faster disc controllers, processors, and memory. Three other technologies that continue to evolve.
I won't go into the PATA pin specifications here; there are just too many, but the SATA pin-out (what each pin does) is;
• Pins 1 through 3 data
• Pins 4 through 6 ground for data
• Pins 7 through 9 five (5) volts (power).
• Pin 10 ground
• Pin 12 ground
• Pins 13 through 15 twelve (12) volts (power).
A side note on Parallel vs Serial
The parallel vs serial path of progress has already played out in another area of the computer world; your printer.
Two decades ago there were two ways to connect a printer to your computer. Via a parallel cable or a serial cable. Then as now, or rather recently, parallel was the preferred method of connecting a printer because the signal processing was fast and with a fast enough printer you could get reams of printouts quickly. The drawback, of course, was your printer had to be very close to the computer. There was a literal length limit on how long a parallel cable you could buy for your printer.
Serial was not nearly as fast with signals, but with a serial cable you could have your computer in one room and the printer in another. Considering how noisy those early printers were (they used pin hammers against ink ribbon to make characters*) this was not a bad thing at all. You could put your printer in a room, close the door, and only visit it when you needed to retrieve the printout.
Then as now the serial interface got faster and the parallel cable went the way of the dinosaur.
Your USB cable is really a serial cable. The "S" stands for serial from Universal Serial Bus.
* It sounded like someone cutting sheet metal with a circular saw when it ran.
Why are Watt and Hertz Capitalized?
James Watt: Was a Scottish inventor and engineer who produced one of the first successfully viable steam engines. By no means did he invent the first one, but he did build the first practical, marketable steam engine.
He targeted sales of his engines to farmers and others who worked in agriculture. He also coined the term "horsepower." This wasn't just a frivolous application of a new term. He wanted his potential steam engine customers to be able to easily relate what his engines could do to the common prime mover of the day; the horse.
In fact, Watt got it wrong. By his measure of a horse's power they are not as strong as he gave them credit for. This way his "horsepower" engines actually did better than the actual horse. Or, as some have said, he under promised and over-delivered.
The reason the "W" of Watt is capitalized is out of respect for Mr. Watt.
Heinrich Hertz: The term Hertz refers to the a measure of frequency or "a measurement of the number of times that a repeated event occurs per unit of time." Usually this unit of measurement is applied in seconds, microseconds, and so on.
The reason the "H" of "Hz" is capitalized is again a mark of respect for the person who came up with a standard unit of measure, like Watt, that has a lasting place in terminology.
Could you be the next James Watt or Heinrich Hertz? Why not!
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aqeel husssain 9 years ago
i m happy to see that it is very help for students as well as for all people who keep interest in computers
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New gamma camera design
Dear Reader,
Having an academic interest in nuclear accident chemistry I search the literature every now and then for articles which mention “Fukushima”, I saw one which caught my interest it was about an idea which I think is truly interesting. It is about the age old problem of how do we see radiation.
Now two easy to imagine gamma camera’s exist, these are the pin hole type and the gamma camera with lots of holes, each hole has a well collimated detector at the bottom of it. These gamma cameras will require plenty of heavy lead shielding to operate and collect nice pictures. When the gamma energy is low (such as Am-241 or I-131) it will be possible to make these machines but when the gamma energy is much higher (Cs-137 or Co-60) it will be very hard to build these gadgets as the gamma rays need thick layers of lead to stop them.
Here is the most simple design the pin hole camera which uses a small hole to make the image appear.
Pin hole camera
Pin hole camera
The second design is the array of holes, this will work as long as the holes are much longer than their diameter. Also it will work better with low energy gamma emitters as they are easier to stop in the shielding. If the maker of the camera is clever there are some things that they can do to improve the image such as moving the camera around to reduce the effect of the grid of holes on the picture. In the following diagram it should be clear that while the red gamma ray can reach the thick black detector plate the blue and purple rays are blocked by the lead in the shielding / holes array.
Gamma camera design two
Gamma camera design two
The Compton effect camera works in a different and much smarter way, it uses something known as Compton scattering of gamma rays and two detector arrays. The idea is that when a gamma ray scatters off an electron it changes direction and at the same time loses some energy. At a bare minimum what is needed is an energy dispersive detector at the back of the camera and an ordinary detector at the front of the camera.
The geometry of the Compton camera
The geometry of the Compton camera
The classic formula for Compton scattering is
λ’ – λ = (h/mec).(1- cos θ)
We can rearrange and alter it a little to get
cos θ = 1 – [(c2 me)/E’] + [(c2 me)/E]
cos θ – 1 = [(c2 me)/E] – [(c2 me)/E’]
(cos θ – 1) / (c2 me) = 1/E – 1/E’
(c2 me) / (cos θ – 1) = E – E’
(c2 me/h) / (cos θ – 1) = v – v’
(cos θ – 1)(h / c2 me) = (1/v) – (1/v’)
(cos θ – 1)(h / c me) = (c/v) – (c/v’) = λ’ – λ
(cos θ – 1) = (λ’ – λ)/(h / c me)
cos θ = 1 + (λ’ – λ)/(h / c me)
θ = cos-1 {1 + (λ’ – λ)/(h / c me)}
Now that algebra was fun, to digress the other day I speculated what would happen in a world where children were banned from doing maths and were forced to play video games and do facebook all day at school. I suspected that some children would rebel by forming illegal underground maths clubs where at clandestine meetings they would study geometry and calculus. Maybe they would pass around maths textbooks behind the bike shed or in the woods, some lads might hide a cache of maths books in their bed rooms out of reach and sight of their mothers. Just imagine the shock and horror of a woman when she discovers her 15 year old son is hanging around fully clothed with an immoral maths freak girl who is doing Laplace transformations, or maybe her son has fallen in with the bad of the bad Fourier transformers.
But back to the real world
If we assume that we have a monochromatic gamma source such as the 137mBa formed from 137Cs then we will have a original gamma energy (E) of 662 keV (1.0606 x 10-13 J), as we know the electron rest mass and the speed of light we can from the energy of the photon after scattering work out the angle it was scattered through.
If the Compton camera is used to image when the background is high or when the source emits photons with several different energies then the front detector also needs to be an energy dispersive detector. For example if we were to image a X-ray source or 192Ir source then we would need both detectors to be energy dispersive. We also have the advantage if both detectors are energy dispersive that we will also get a gamma spectrum from the object. This could be an advantage if two different sources are present in the field of view of the camera.
Here is a graph of the energy of the product photon as a function of the scattering angle.
Scattered photon energy as a function of scattering angle
Scattered photon energy as a function of scattering angle
For those of you who like log scales here is the graph with a log scale for the y axis
Graph of energy of scattered photon as a function of scattering angle for four different original gamma photons
What happens in Compton scattering is that the photon scatters off an electron, the electron gains some of the energy of the photon. As the gamma photons have much more energy than the electrons it can be regarded as gamma photons bouncing off stationary electrons. As the electron takes some of the energy away from the photon the scattered photons have lower energies than the original photons.
What happens in the camera is that by measurement of the energies of the events in the two detectors the angle change of the photon in the first detector is measured. Then as we know the relative positions of the two events in the two detectors we know the angle of the scattered photon. This allows us to create a cone which will include the location of the original source. Here is a crude sketch I have made of the operation of the Compton camera.
The Compton camera is in operation
The Compton camera is in operation
What happens is that the camera will have a computer in it which trys to recreate the original image, it will for each photon event create a curved shape. By adding the data for different events it will be able to establish what the original image (where the gamma source was). This type of camera can be used for a range of tasks which include medical and industrial applications.
One Response
1. Reblogged this on Electronics Infoline.
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Adverse effects on environment and ecosystem
Light pollution affects a wide variety of living organisms including mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, insects and even microorganisms, causing adverse effects on environmental and ecosystem.
In the worst scenario, it would even influence the entire ecological balance. There is already study show that light pollution affects the reproduction behaviors of various kinds of creatures which will impact on population and eventually threaten Biodiversity.
Gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus)
Microcebus murinus Picture source: Wikimedia Commons
Nocturnal creatures’ behaviors are seriously affected by light pollution. Researches show that light pollution modifies the expression of biological rhythms and behaviors of female grey mouse lemur. The oestrus occurrences and peaks of urinary estradiol are found to be significantly advanced (by 10 days) when comparing to control groups, which may eventually affect the reproductive fitness of the species. (Le Tallec et al., 2013)
Light Pollution Modifies the Expression of Daily Rhythms and Behavior Patterns in a Nocturnal Primate
Author(s): Thomas Le Tallec, Martine Perret, Marc Théry
Publication: PLoS ONE (2013)
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079250
Short-tailed fruit bats (genus Carollia bat) & pepper plants (genus Piper)
Carollia brevicauda Picture source: Wikimedia Commons
Nocturnal animals prefer dark environment and tend to avoid illuminated areas. Overwhelming light pollution in rural area limits their activity and hence affects forest regeneration. It is found that Piper infructescence are less likely to be harvested when plants are illuminated by street lamps than under natural darkness, as the result of frugivorous bats, the seed-dispersers, being deterred by the artificial light at night. (Lewanzik & Voigt, 2014)
Artificial light puts ecosystem services of frugivorous bats at risk
Author(s): Daniel Lewanzik, Christian C. Voigt
Publication: Journal of Applied Ecology (2014)
DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12206
Songbirds & European blackbirds (Turdus merula)
European blackbirds Picture source: Wikimedia Commons
Songs of songbirds are important signal of sexual intentions for attracting mates as part of their reproductive behaviors. Scientists from Max Planck Institute for Ornithology studied the behavioral change of songbirds under different combinations of light and noise pollution. Result show that artificial night lighting is the major factor that leads to an earlier start of dawn singing, significantly affects their reproductive behavior. It also found that European blackbirds start their activity earlier and have faster but less robust circadian clocks than forest conspecifics even under low level light pollution (0.3 lux). (Dominoni et al., 2013)
Urban-like night illumination reduces melatonin release in European blackbirds (Turdus merula): implications of city life for biological time-keeping of songbirds
Author(s): Davide M Dominoni, Wolfgang Goymann, Barbara Helm, Jesko Partecke
Publication: Frontiers in Zoology (2013)
DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-10-60
Sea turtles
Loggerhead sea turtle Picture source: Wikimedia Commons
Sea turtle hatchlings rely on star and moon light reflection to distinguish land and sea; however, artificial lightings at shore area disorient the hatchling. It makes them difficult to find their way to sea and increases their chance of being predators’ food. By using long wavelength (red) outdoor illumination, it can significantly reduce the chance of confusing the hatching. (Marco et al., 2012)
Abundance and exploitation of loggerhead turtles nesting in Boa Vista island, Cape Verde: the only substantial rookery in the eastern Atlantic
Author(s): Marco, A., Abella, E., Liria-Loza, A., Martins, S., López, O., Jiménez-Bordón, S., Medina, M., Oujo, C., Gaona, P., Godley, B.J., López Jurado, L.F.
Publication: Animal Conservation (2012)
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2012.00547.x
European perch (Perca fluviatilis)
European perch Picture source: Wikimedia Commons
Not only terrestrial but also aquatic organisms are sensitive to light pollution. Research led by The Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries studied how the circadian rhythm of European perch, a commonly found freshwater predator in Europe and Asia, is affect by light pollution. It is found that even under low light condition (1 lux) at night, the fish ability of producing Melatonin, a kind of circadian hormone that regulates circadian rhythm, is significantly reduced and hence strongly impair the circadian rhythmicity of the fish. (Brüninga et al., 2015)
Spotlight on fish: Light pollution affects circadian rhythms of European perch but does not cause stress
Author(s): Anika Brüninga, Franz Hölkera, Steffen Frankeb, Torsten Preuera, Werner Kloasa
Publication: Science of The Total Environment (2015)
Moths (Lepidoptera)
a moth Picture source: Wikimedia Commons
Moths, known to be strongly attracted to light sources, are one of the insects that suffer most from artificial light at night. Studies show that moth reproduction can be severely affected by artificial light, e.g., city female moths are found producing less pheromone than rural one. Scientists also find that those pheromone produced have significantly altered compositions that work much less efficient in attracting male moths. (van Geffen et al., 2015)
Artificial light at night inhibits mating in a Geometrid moth
Author(s): Koert G. van Geffen, Emiel van Eck, Rens A. de Boer, Roy H.A. van Grunsven, Lucia Salis, Frank Berendse, Elmar M. Veenendaal
Publication: Insect Conservation and Diversity (2015)
DOI: 10.1111/icad.12116
Microcystis aeruginosa
Microcystis aeruginosa Picture source: Wikimedia Commons
Light pollution directly alters photosynthetic behavior of microorganisms. Studies show that expression of chlorophyll-binding proteins increases with level of light pollution. (Poulin et al., 2014)
The impact of light pollution on diel changes in the photophysiology of Microcystis aeruginosa
Author(s): Carina Poulin, Flavienne Bruyant, Marie-Helene Laprise, Amanda M. Cockshutt, Jennifer Marie-Rose Vandenhecke, Yannick Huot
Publication: Journal of Plankton Research (2014)
DOI: 10.1093/plankt/fbt088
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