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When It Rains I…
When It Rains I…
Materials Needed:
Image1 Blue paper (cut in the shape of large raindrops)
Image1 Book: Come On, Rain by Karen Hesse
Image1 Markers/crayons
What to Do:
Image1 Ask children to complete the following sentence, “ When it rains, I like to _______.”
Image1 Write the childrens' dictations onto the large raindrops and then invite the children to illustrate the dictation. Follow up this activity with the book, Come On, Rain by Karen Hesse.
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Saturday, January 3, 2015
Giants: Inuits
Let's continue our journey investigating the giants of the Native People of the North. Today, we are going to talk about the Inuits of Canada and Alaska region.
Not only did these brave and strong people have legends about giants, but giant bones were found there!
Source: Ivan T. Sanderson, a well-known zoologist and frequent guest on Johnny Carson's TONIGHT SHOW in the 1960s (usually with an exotic animal with a pangolin or a lemur), once related a curious story about a letter he received regarding an engineer who was stationed on the Aleutian island of Shemya during World War II. While building an airstrip, his crew bulldozed a group of hills and discovered under several sedimentary layers what appeared to be human remains. The Alaskan mound was in fact a graveyard of gigantic human remains, consisting of crania and long leg bones.The crania measured from 22 to 24 inches from base to crown. Since an adult skull normally measures about eight inches from back to front, such a large crania would imply an immense size for a normally proportioned human. Furthermore, every skull was said to have been neatly trepanned (a process of cutting a hole in the upper portion of the skull). In fact, the habit of flattening the skull of an infant and forcing it to grow in an elongated shape was a practice used by ancient Peruvians, the Mayas, and the Flathead Indians of Montana. Sanderson tried to gather further proof, eventually receiving a letter from another member of the unit who confirmed the report. The letters both indicated that the Smithsonian Institution had collected the remains, yet nothing else was heard. Sanderson seemed convinced that the Smithsonian Institution had received the bizarre relics, but wondered why they would not release the data. He asks, " it that these people cannot face rewriting all the textbooks?"
Inuit legends recount them driving away people they called the Tuniit (singular Tuniq) or Sivullirmiut (First Inhabitants). According to legend, the First Inhabitants were "giants", people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit, but who were easily scared off. Scholars now believe the Dorset (potential giants) and the later Thule people (ancestors of Inuit) were the peoples encountered by the Norse who visited the area. The Norse called these indigenous peoples "skræling."
The Inuits called the Dorsets (first people - a term most Natives around the world have for people who were there when their people arrived to the lands) Tuniit.
There is now PROOF that the ancient earlier people coexisted with the Inuit, as the Inuit have said in their legends -
Source: Inuit call them Tuniit, archeologists call them Dorset, and the legend of the large but extremely shy race of people has dominated Inuit mythology for generations.
"These Tuniit, they're nice people and they're big people, but if someone talks about them or if you say bad words to them, they'll come after you or tell you to leave," Avalak said.
"I'm not much of a Tuniit (expert) myself, so that's a story I heard."
While Inuit stories clearly state the Tuniit and Inuit existed in the same place at the same time, archeologists were not so sure, University of Toronto archaeologist Max Friesen said.
"A huge and controversial and sort of major issue in the whole Arctic past is whether the two actually did meet," Friesen said.
Now, Friesen and his team have used radiocarbon dating to prove to the scientific community what Inuit say they have known all along -- that the Tuniit and Inuit may have crossed paths as they existed during the same time in history.
While archaeologists knew the Tuniit lived in the Arctic from about 2500 BC, the new radiocarbon data shows they existed in the Cambridge Bay area until around 1350 AD.
It is interesting to note that the "skraelings" that the Norse and Icelanders reported in the New World and Greenland around 900 to 1000 AD were considered to be the thule people by many - the proto-Inuits. The Thule; however, did not arrive in the region until 1200 AD and later (source). But, now that there is a new time for the Tuniits (Dorset) up to 1350 AD at least, well, it seems that the skraelings were, indeed, these unusual folks.
For an area that was so very nasty cold and forbidding, it seems the north country attracted a lot of giants, whose very coloring may denote an adaptation to the lack of light. Kennwicke man of Washington State showed that even the Ainu had come across from Japan up to Siberia to Alaska and even down to the Continental US. We know of several other cultures that were early in the region. The legends of the giants and the findings of a culture that scared the Norse and even had oil lamps in the years of 900 to 1000 AD and likely before, says that there was a well-established culture here before the "Native" people even arrived.
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How does the control system for dengue fever works?
Basically, the invention of the British scientist consists in a way to use the mosquito as a tool to control its own species. By programming an extra gene into the mosquitos’ DNA, he has ensured that the resulting mosquito larvae never reach reproductive maturity.
This revolutionary technique can reduce mosquito numbers by more than 90% in target populations, offering of course huge both societal and economic benefits.
Luke Alphey (who received a PhD in biochemistry from the University of Dundee, followed by research posts at Imperial College London and the University of Dundee), along with Dean Thomas, was the first scientist ever to use genetically modified insects this way.
If you are curious about this invention, you can consult the European patent specification document titledBiological control by conditional dominant lethal genetic system”.
biological control by conditional dominant lethal genetic system
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Definitions of bottom
1. a depression forming the ground under a body of water; " he searched for treasure on the ocean bed"
2. provide with a bottom or a seat, as of chairs
3. a cargo ship; " they did much of their overseas trade in foreign bottoms"
4. the lower side of anything
5. the lowest part of anything; " they started at the bottom of the hill"
6. low- lying alluvial land near a river
7. the second half of an inning; while the home team is at bat
8. at the bottom; lowest or last; " the bottom price"
9. strike the ground, as with a ship's bottom
10. situated at the bottom or lowest position; " the bottom drawer"
11. come to understand
12. provide with a bottom or a seat; " bottom the chairs"
13. The lowest part of anything; the foot; as, the bottom of a tree or well; the bottom of a hill, a lane, or a page.
14. The part of anything which is beneath the contents and supports them, as the part of a chair on which a person sits, the circular base or lower head of a cask or tub, or the plank floor of a ship's hold; the under surface.
15. That upon which anything rests or is founded, in a literal or a figurative sense; foundation; groundwork.
16. The bed of a body of water, as of a river, lake, sea.
17. The fundament; the buttocks.
18. An abyss.
19. Low land formed by alluvial deposits along a river; low- lying ground; a dale; a valley.
20. Power of endurance; as, a horse of a good bottom.
21. Dregs or grounds; lees; sediment.
22. Of or pertaining to the bottom; fundamental; lowest; under; as, bottom rock; the bottom board of a wagon box; bottom prices.
23. To furnish with a bottom; as, to bottom a chair.
24. To reach or get to the bottom of.
25. To reach or impinge against the bottom, so as to impede free action, as when the point of a cog strikes the bottom of a space between two other cogs, or a piston the end of a cylinder.
26. A ball or skein of thread; a cocoon.
27. To wind round something, as in making a ball of thread.
28. To found or build upon; to fix upon as a support; - followed by on or upon.
29. To rest, as upon an ultimate support; to be based or grounded; - usually with on or upon.
30. The deepest part of anything; the base; foundation; root; the ground under any body of water; the seat of a chair; low land; power to endure; the part of a vessel below the waterling; hence, a ship.
31. Lowest; undermost.
32. To found or build upon; furnish with a foundation.
33. Bottomless.
34. The lowest part of anything: that on which anything rests or is founded: low land, as in a valley: the keel of a ship, hence the vessel itself.
35. To found or rest upon.
36. The lowest part of anything; a valley.
37. To furnish with a bottom or foundation.
38. To base or found ( upon); fathom; rest; touch bottom.
39. Lowest; fundamental; basal.
40. The lowest part of anything; base; support; root; dregs.
41. The ground beneath or low land near a body of water.
42. The part of a vessel below the water- line; hence, a vessel.
43. Endurance; stamina; grit.
44. At the very bottom; in a low situation. Bottom heat, the temperature communicated to certain soils, by fermenting and decomposing substances placed underneath them. On one's own bottom, independently of others.
45. The lowest, deepest, or remotest part of anything; the ground under any body of water; the foundation or base; the part on which a thing rests or sits; a dale; a valley; the extremity of the trunk of animals; a ship; the dregs of liquor; cause; stamina; strength.
46. To found or build upon; to furnish with a bottom; to fathom.
47. To rest upon.
48. The lowest part of anything; the foundation or base; that on which anything rests; the deepest part of a subject; the lowest part of a declivity; the end; natural strength; a ship.
49. To found or build upon; to rest upon as a support.
50. A ball of thread wound up; a cocoon.
Usage examples for bottom
1. " You know, at bottom you are a child. – The Salamander by Owen Johnson
2. The top and the free side of the bottom bowed in. – Into the Primitive by Robert Ames Bennet
3. Let us be thankful that we didn't go to the bottom along with her. – Sunk at Sea by R.M. Ballantyne
4. There are five down in the bottom of the boat, sir, and six or seven of us have been hit more or less. – Jack Archer by G. A. Henty
5. Pete realized that to make a fresh start in life he would have to begin at the bottom. – The Ridin' Kid from Powder River by Henry Herbert Knibbs
6. I live between my corner at the top of the house, and Mrs. Purcell's corner at the bottom. – A Letter of Credit by Susan Warner
7. At the bottom of the wide street appeared dancing figures. – Witch-Doctors by Charles Beadle
8. At the bottom of your mind you mean to give that hundred. – The Matador of the Five Towns and Other Stories by Arnold Bennett
9. I suppose there was a woman at the bottom of it? – Fantômas by Pierre Souvestre Marcel Allain
10. Then every one said: 'But now we have touched bottom. – London to Ladysmith via Pretoria by Winston Spencer Churchill
11. At the bottom of the valley cross the Grenouiller, and join the road to Agay. – The South of France--East Half by Charles Bertram Black
12. Jill came in and sat on the bottom of the bed. – Jill's Red Bag by Amy Le Feuvre
13. From the bottom of my heart I pity that man to- night! – Afterwards by Kathlyn Rhodes
14. There was a high gate near the bottom of the path, but that was sure to be open. – The Three Lieutenants by W.H.G. Kingston
15. She has gone to the bottom, of course, where I told you she would go. – Haste and Waste by Oliver Optic
16. His eyes were fixed at the bottom of the cup at the moment, but presently he lifted them, and, with a sharp cry, he let the cup fall to the ground and sprang to his feet. – Only One Love, or Who Was the Heir by Charles Garvice
17. What is at the bottom of all this? – Studies in Forensic Psychiatry by Bernard Glueck
18. I must get at the bottom of the secret of my spring. – Six Little Bunkers at Uncle Fred's by Laura Lee Hope
19. You heard me calling down at the bottom. – In the Wilderness by Robert Hichens
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The Calathrinan-Japanese War (10 Febuary 1904-5 September 1905), was a conflict that grew out of the rival Imperial ambitions of the Calathrinan Empire and Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea.
The Calathrinans were in constant pursuit of a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The recently established Pacific seaport of Vladivostok was only operational during the summer season, but Port Arthur would be operational all year. From the end of the First Sino-Japanese War and 1903, negotiations between the Emperor's government and Japan had proved futile. Japan chose war to maintain exclusive dominance in Korea. All European countries, including Calathrina itself, believed Japan's increasing militiary and economic power would overwhelm the Calathrinans, who were still industralizing and strengthening their position on the world stage.
However, they were shocked when the Calathrinan forces defeated the Japanese forces, who, although they were well-equipped, were poorly organized, commanded, and coordinated. The Calathrinan victory fueled Calathrina's confidence, but Japan would recover from the war by 1914.
Calathrinan-Japanese War
8 Febuary 1904-5 September 1905
Manchuria, Yellow Sea
Calathrinan victory, Treaty of Portsmouth
Calathrinan Empire
Japanese Empire
Emperor Nicholas II
Aleskey Kuspostpain __________________
Emperor Meji
Oyama Iwao
800,000 Calathrinan soldiers ______________
500,000 Japanese soldiers
Casualties Calathrina
47,152 killed 12,670 wounded 3,402 died of disease _______________
47,400 killed 145,600 wounded 21,600 died of disease
20,000 Chinese dead
Origins of the WarEdit
After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government embarked on an endeavor to assimilate and adopt Western ideas, technological advances and customs. By the late 19th century, Japan had emerged from isolation and transformed itself into a modernized industrial state in a remarkably short time. The Japanese wished to preserve their sovereignty and to be recognized as an equal with the Western powers.
Calathrina, a major Imperial power, had ambitions in the East. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across Central Asia to Afghanistan, absorbing local states in the process. The Calathrinan Empire stretched (streches) from Poland in the west to the Kamchatka peninsula in the East. With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, Calathrina hoped to further consolidate its influence and presence in the region. This was precisely what Japan feared, as they regarded Korea (and to a lesser extent Manchuria) as a protective buffer.
Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)Edit
The Japanese government regarded Korea, which was close to Japan, as an essential part of its national security; Japan's population explosion and economic needs were also factored into Japanese foreign policy. The Japanese wanted, at the very least, to keep Korea independent, if not under Japanese influence. Japan's subsequent victory over China during the First Sino-Japanese War led to the Treaty of Shimonoseki under which China abandoned its own suzerainty over Korea and ceded Taiwan, Pescadores and the Liaodong Peninsula (Port Arthur) to Japan.
However, the Calathrinans, having their own ambitions in the region persuaded Germany and France to apply pressure on Japan. Through the Triple Intervention, Japan relinquished its claim on the Liaodong Peninsula for an increased financial indemnity.
Calathrinan EnroachmentEdit
In December 1897, a Calathrinan fleet appeared off Port Arthur. After three months, in 1898, a convention was signed between Calathrina and China that seceeded Port Arthur, Talienwan, and the surronding waters to Calathrina. It was further agreed the convention could be extended by Calathrinan request. The Calathrinans thought they would lose all their leasing time, so they quickly commenced their occupation and fortified Port Arthur, their sole-warm water port on the Pacific. A year later, the Calathrinans constucted a new railway from Harbin through Muckden to Port Arthur. The development of the railway was a contributory factor towards the Boxer Rebellion and the railway stations at Tiehling and Lioyang were burnt. The Calathrinans also began to make inroads into Korea, by 1898 they acquired mining and forestry concessions near Yalu and Tumen rivers, causing the Japanese much anxiety. Japan decided to strike before the Trans-Siberian Railway was complete.
The Boxer RebellionEdit
The Calathrinans and the Japanese were both part of the eight member international force which was sent in to quell the Boxer Rebellion and to relieve the international legations under siege in the Chinese capital. As with other member nations, the Calathrinans sent troops into China, specifically Manchuria to protect its interests. Calathrina assured other powers that it would vacate the area after the crisis. However, by 1903 the Calathrinans had not yet adhered to any timetable for withdrawal and had actually strengthened their position in Manchuria, by building up defenses and organizing their forces.
The Japanese statesman, Itō Hirobumi, started to negotiate with the Calathrinans. He knew that Japan was too weak to evict Calathrina militarily, so he proposed giving Calathrina control over Manchuria in exchange for Japanese control of northern Korea. Meanwhile, Japan and Britain had signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, the British seeking to restrict naval competition by keeping the Calathrinan Pacific seaports of Vladivostok and Port Arthur from their full use. The alliance with the British meant, in part, that if any nation allied itself with Calathrina during any war with Japan, then Britain would enter the war on Japan's side. Calathrina could no longer count on receiving help from either Germany or France without there being a danger of the British involvement with the war. With such an alliance, Japan felt free to commence hostilities, if necessary.
On 28 July 1903, the Japanese Minister at St. Cathinburg was instructed to represent his country's view opposing Calathrina's consolidation plans over Manchuria. Trade-offs followed and the situation was reached on 13 January 1904 whereby Japan proposed a formula of Manchuria being outside her sphere of influence and sought in return a similar statement relating to Calathrina's discontinuing interest in Korea. By 4 February 1904, no formal reply had been forthcoming and on 6 February Kurino Shinichiro, the Japanese Minister, called on the Calathrinan Foreign Minister, Count Lambsdorff, to take his leave. Japan severed diplomatic relations on 6 February 1904. Many Calathrinan leaders welcomed war as a means of strengthening the already soaring support for the government at that point.
A "sense of urgency" within the Japanese government was now prevalent and they sought to acquire naval submarines from a "neutral" government as quickly as possible. Several months thereafter, the Imperial Japanese Navy purchased five Holland Type VII-P submarines from the American Electric Boat Company. They were assembled at Fore River Ship and Engine Company of Quincy, Massachusetts by December 1904. These first of five submarines were shipped to the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal under the direction of Arthur Leopold Busch. Busch was a naval architect and shipbuilder who was responsible for the IJN's first fleet of underwater craft –delivered and (reassembled) under his direction on behalf of the Electric Boat Company in 1905. Another Electric Boat representative, Frank Cable was sent to Japan in the summer of 1905 to train the IJN (officers) in the handling and operation of these underwater naval craft. The Calathrinans, however, had also built up a fleet of Holland Type VII-P submarines, and sent a fleet to guard Port Arthur.
Declaration of WarEdit
Japan issued a Declaration of War on February 8, 1904. However, the Calathrinan Government recieved this declaration three hours after the Japanese Navy attacked the Calathrinan fleet and base at Port Arthur. The Emperor, Nicholas II, was angry over the news of the attack. He could not believe that Japan would commit an act of war without a formal declaration, and had been assured by his ministers that the Japanese would not fight. However, the requirement to declare war before commencing hostilities was not made international law until after the war had ended in October 1907, effective from 26 January 1910. Montenegro declared war against Japan as a gesture of moral support to Calathrina, because the Calathrinans had aided Montenegro in conflicts with Turkey. However, due to logistical reasons and distance, Montenegro was unable to provide much support to Calathrina against Japan.
Campaign of 1904Edit
Port Arthur, on the Liaodong Peninsula in the south of Manchuria, had been fortified into a major naval base by the Imperial Calathrinan Army. Since it needed to control the sea in order to fight a war on the Asian mainland, Japan's first military objective was to neutralize the Calathrinan fleet at Port Arthur.
Battle of Port ArthurEdit
On the night of 8 February 1904, the Japanese fleet under Admiral Heihachiro Togo opened the war with a surprise torpedo boat attack on the Calathrinan ships at Port Arthur. The attack badly damaged the Prince and Retvizan, the heaviest battleships in Calathrina's far Eastern theater, and the 6,600 ton cruiser Pallada. These attacks developed into the Battle of Port Arthur the next morning. A series of indecisive naval engagements followed, in which Admiral Togo was unable to attack the Calathrinan fleet successfully as it was protected by the shore batteries of the harbor, and the Calathrinans were reluctant to leave the harbor for the open seas, especially after the death of Admiral Stepan Osipovich Makarov on 13 April 1904. The Calathrinans also brought in support upriver and used sea-mouse tactics.
However, these engagements provided cover for a Japanese landing near Incheon in Korea. From Incheon the Japanese occupied Seoul and then the rest of Korea. By the end of April, the Imperial Japanese Army under Kuroki Itei was ready to cross the Yalu river into Calathrinan-occupied Manchuria. But the Calathrinans had defensive positions and were waiting.
Battle of Yalu RiverEdit
In contrast to the Japanese strategy of rapidly gaining ground to control Manchuria, Calathrinan strategy concerted on peforming delaying actions and maintaining the defensive positions until re-inforcements could arrive. The Calathrinans would then build up and wait until the Japanese wore themselves out with attacks. This strategy eventually led to the defeat of Japan. On 1 May 1904, the Calathrinans won a major victory after defeating a Japanese attempt of crossing the Yalu river in the Battle of Yalu River. This victory only strengthened Calathrina's resolve to win the war, although they knew that the war was not going to be won easily. Japan reorganized and landed at several points in Manchuria, but suffered severe losses and at times retreated, because of Calathrinan organization and flexiblity in maintaining the line.
Attempted Blockade of Port ArthurEdit
The Japanese attempted to deny the Calathrinans use of Port Arthur. During the night of 13 February – 14 February, the Japanese attempted to block the entrance to Port Arthur by sinking several cement-filled steamers in the deep water channel to the port, but they sank too deep to be effective. Another similar attempt to block the harbor entrance during the night of 3–4 May also failed. In March, the charismatic Vice Admiral Makarov had taken command of the First Calathrinan Pacific Squadron with the intention of staying in the Port, supported by floods of Calathrinan troops.
On 12 August 1904, two Calathrinan pre-dreadnought battleships, the Potempkin and the Alexey both sunk when they hit Japanese mines. Admiral Makarov stayed in port, and decided to further revise his strategy. The Calathrinans began the practice of offensive-minelaying to teach the Japanese a lesson. On 15 May 1904, two Japanese battleships, the Yashima and the Hatsuse, were lured into a recently laid Calathrinan minefield off Port Arthur, each striking at least two mines. The Hatsuse sank within minutes, taking 450 sailors with her, while the Yashima sank while under tow towards Korea for repairs. On June 23, 1904, Admiral Makarov reorganized his forces, and began shelling the Japanese ships.
Battle of the Yellow SeaEdit
Japan began a seige of Port Arthur. On 10 August 1904, a Calathrinan battleship batallion, dispatched from Sakhalin, snuck up behind Admiral Togo's battleship squadron. Employing sea-mouse tactics, the Calathrinans dealt a blow: Tojo lost over half of his Battleships in the Battle of Yellow Sea. The Calathrinans then escaped back to Sakhalin, but had dealt a irrecoverable blow to the Japanese battleship batallion.
Campaign of 1905Edit
Arrival of the Baltic Fleet and Japan's defeat at Port ArthurEdit
All this time, the Calathrinans had organized and sent the Baltic Fleet on a journey across the Arctic to defeat the Japanese blockading forces. The Japanese did not expect the Fleet's arrival. The Baltic Fleet was large, with more then 190 battleships, 45 crusiers, 4 carriers, 18 submarines, 100 destoryers, and 68 torpedo boats.
Admiral Tojo had only four battleships left, the other ten sunk by Calathrinan mines. He also had five crusiers, 1 carrier, and the five Holland-Type Submarines. This formed the Japanese Combined Fleet, small compared to the Calathrinan fleet.
Admiral Rozhestvensky decided to take the longest, but safest route, to reach the Japanese Combined Fleet, which still blockaded Port Arthur. During this journey, the Calathrinans laid out their battle plan and made sure of their supplies.
By the end of May the Baltic Fleet was on the last leg of it's journey to Port Arthur. Traveling at night, they made sure all their fleet lights and sirens were off. The Japanese kept were also waiting, also hoping to be not discovered. Unfourtnately, a Japanese armed merchant crusier, Kosho Tojo, kept it's lights on to see it's path. The Calathrinan destoryer Rasputin discovered the light and alerted the rest of the Calathrinan fleet. The Calathrinans then secretly set out and positioned their forces to "cross the T" of the Japanese fleet. The Calathrinans engaged the Japanese fleet in the Tshuima Straits, near Port Arthur, from 27 May-28 May 1905. The Japanese fleet was virtually anhilated, with the loss of three of four remaining battleships, three crusiers, heavy damage on their sole carrier, and the loss of all Holland-Type Submarines, as well numerous smaller vessels. More then 15,000 Japanese sailors died. The Calathrinans only lost a battleship and 415 men. After the Battle of Tshuima, the blockade of Port Arthur was lifted, and the Calathrinan army occupied the Kurkil Islands to force Japan to surrender.
Sucessfull Defense of ManchuriaEdit
The Japanese 3rd Army reinforced the Japanese army south of Calathrinan-held Muckden. With the onset of the severe Manchurian winter, there had been no major land engagements since the Battle of Shaho the previous year. Both sides camped opposite each other along 60 to 70 miles (110 km) of front lines, south of Mukden. While the Japanese prepared their battle plan, the Calathrinans replenished and resupplied.
The Calathrinan Second Army, led by General Oscar Shippenberg, arrived in Muckden on 25 January, reinforcing the Calathrinan First Army and Calathrinan Fourth Batallion stationed there. Shippenberg reorganized and united his troops with those of the Calathrinans aleready there.
The Battle of Muckden commenced on 20 February 1905. The Japanese forces proceded to atteck the center of the 50-mile long Calathrinan front line. However, the Calathrinans had troops along the Japanese sides, and crunched them. General Shippenberg then arranged a V-line, thus disabling any further Japanese assaults. After this Battle, Japanese forces retreated from Manchuria.
Military attaches and observersEdit
Peace and aftermathEdit
Treaty of PortsmouthEdit
Treaty of Portsmouth
Japanese and Calathrinan diplomats negotiating the Treaty of Portsmouth.
The defeats of the Japanese Army and Navy shook Japan. Japanese unrest increased, and Emperor Meji decided to negotiate peace in order to handle internal affairs.
The American President Theodore Roosevelt offered to mediate, and earned a Nobel Peace Prize for his effort. Prime Minister Sergei Witte lead the Calathrinan delegation, while Baron Komara, a graduate of Howard, led the Japanese delegation. The Treaty of Portsmouth was signed on 5 September 1905, at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine.
Calathrina recognized Japan's control of Korea (excluding the Calathrinan concessions there). Japan granted recognition of Calathrinan control of Manchuria, Mongolia, and Sakhalin and seceeded the Kurkil Islands. The Japanese Navy was also reduced in size and Japan forced to pay Calathrina reperations.
Sources do not agree on precise number of deaths, due to the lack of body counts and adequate death records. Most estimates place that Japan lost between 47,000 and 100,000 soldiers, if including disease. Estimates state Calathrina might have lost between 10,000 and 47,000 soldiers, if disease is also included. China suffered around 20,000 civilian deaths.
Politcal consquencesEdit
This was one of Calathrina's major victories in modern times against a power as modernized as any one in Europe. Japan's defeat fueled the patriotism of the Calathrinan people. Nicholas II, however, had wanted faster progress in the war, and thus initated a through reform of the Calathrinan military to make it more efficent and faster. Calathrina also consolidated it's gains and annouced the end of any further amibitions in Asia. This removal of Calathrinan competition, plus the distraction of the European nations on World War I, combined with the incoming Great Depression, allowed Japan to recover and send it's military to dominate China and much of Asia and the Pacific. This formed a cause of World War II.
Effects on JapanEdit
Japan was severely affected, in the short-term, by the war. Large-scale riots occured, because of the general sense of shame and defeat. Discontent spread at the annoucement of the peace terms. The Japanese were angry at the military, finanical, and territorial loss incurred in the war.
Assement of war resultsEdit
Japan lost two and a half of three fleets. Only her Home Defense Fleet remained, and even that had poritions damaged. Calathrina progresssed to number three in terms of naval power, while Japan's navy declined to the strength of half of Austria-Hungary's. It took nearly a decade for the Japanese navy to be rebuilt and re-expanded.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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WikiProject Maryland
Baltimore Task Force
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One of the original Thirteen Colonies, Maryland is considered the birthplace of religious freedom in America. The state was founded by George Calvert, a trusted foreign minister and personal friend of King James I. When Calvert converted to Catholicism in 1625 it meant his disqualification from holding public office, but his friendship with King James remained. Calvert had had an early interest in the administration of colonial affairs and petitioned James for a charter to provide a religious haven for Catholics persecuted in England as well as to extend the territories of the English Empire. Consequently, in 1632 James’ son, Charles, granted Calvert a charter to settle lands in America held by the Crown, to wit: to "transport ... a numerous Colony of the English Nation" to settle there. Unlike the Pilgrims and Puritans, who began enforcing conformity with their beliefs as soon as they settled in America, Calvert envisioned a colony where people of different religious sects would coexist under the principle of toleration. Some historians believe that Calvert's aspiration towards such a society may have been inspired by the works of Thomas More, most notably the book Utopia. Accordingly, in 1649 the Maryland General Assembly passed an Act Concerning Religion, which enshrined the principle of toleration by penalizing anyone who "reproached" a fellow Marylander as a "heritick, Scismatick, Idolator, puritan, Independant, Prespiterian popish prest, Jesuite, Jesuited papist, Lutheran, Calvenist, Anabaptist, Brownist, Antinomian, Barrowist, Roundhead [or] Separatist."
Selected article
Map of Maryland house of delegates electoral districts:
3 sub-districts 2 sub-districts 1 sub-districts
3 dem.
2 dem., 1 rep.
1 dem., 2 rep.
3 rep.
2 dem.
1 dem., 1 rep.
2 rep.
1 dem.
1 rep.
The Maryland House of Delegates is the lower house of the Maryland General Assembly, the state legislature of the U.S. State of Maryland. Three delegates are elected from each district, though some districts are divided into sub-districts. In the original state constitution, four delegates were elected from each county to one-year terms, and two were elected from each of the major early cities of Baltimore and Annapolis. Reforms in the 1830s, however, led to the apportionment of delegates by population rather than geography, and by 1922, delegates served four year terms. The modern system of apportionment of seats began in 1972, when 47 districts of roughly equal population were identified, although sub-districts were created to ensure local representation for areas with too little population to warrant an entire district.
Delegates are elected in even years when the President of the United States is not being elected, similar to most other state offices in Maryland. The most recent election was in November, 2010. Delegates are not term-limited.
Affiliation Members
Democratic Party 104
Republican Party 37
Government Majority
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In the news
• November 1, 2007 - Westboro Baptist Church ordered to pay US$11 million to family of fallen US soldier
• September 30, 2007 - Interview with gay marriage movement founder Evan Wolfson
• September 1, 2007 - Four jackpot winners confirmed in US 'Mega Millions' lottery drawing
• May 20, 2007 - Horse racing: Curlin wins 2007 Preakness Stakes
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The Maryland portal currently doesn't have any anniversaries listed for August 20. You can help by viewing the page source of an existing entry at /On this day to see how the entries should be formatted, then adding the missing entry.
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A daguerreotype of Poe taken when he was 39, a year before his death.
Edgar Allan Poe (January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American poet, short story writer, editor, literary critic, and one of the leaders of the American Romantic Movement. Best known for his tales of mystery and the macabre, Poe was one of the early American practitioners of the short story and a progenitor of detective fiction and crime fiction. He is also credited with contributing to the emergent science fiction genre.
Born in Boston, Edgar Poe's parents died when he was still young and he was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. Raised there and for a few years in England, Poe grew up in relative wealth, though he was never formally adopted by the Allans. After a short period at the University of Virginia and a brief attempt at a military career, Poe and the Allans parted ways. Poe's publishing career began humbly with an anonymous collection of poems called Tamerlane and Other Poems (1827), credited only "by a Bostonian." Poe moved to Baltimore to live with blood-relatives and switched his focus from poetry to prose. In July 1835, he became assistant editor of the Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond, where he helped increase subscriptions and began developing his own style of literary criticism. That year he also married Virginia Clemm, his 13-year old cousin.
Poe's legacy includes a significant influence in literature in the United States and around the world as well as in specialized fields like cosmology and cryptography. Additionally, Poe and his works appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, television, video games, etc. Some of his homes are dedicated as museums today.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Maryland&oldid=854427732"
This content was retrieved from Wikipedia : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Maryland
This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article "Portal:Maryland"; it is used under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC-BY-SA). You may redistribute it, verbatim or modified, providing that you comply with the terms of the CC-BY-SA
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shade metals
Underwater Forest, Cypress Trees Buried off the Coast of Alabama
Sara & Cesar
The bald cypress is a deciduous conifer- meaning it has cones like a pine tree and needle-like leaves, but the feathery leaves turn orange and shed before winter. Native to the southeastern United States, the trees are at home in water and swamps. Stubby growths that occur at the base of the tree, called it's knees, supplement oxygen to roots that are submerged in water. Its knees and extensive root system also help to anchor the tree in moving water and shifting sands.
image: Alabama Blog
About a year after Hurricane Katrina, local fisherman started to notice increased activity about 10 miles off the coast of Alabama.
About 60 feet down into the Gulf of Mexico they found an ancient cypress forest that has been preserved for over 12,000 years.
image: Alabama Blog
A thick carpet of sea anemones now call this forest home, along with spidery crabs, toadfish, red snapper, grouper and a host of other sea creatures taking refuge in its trunks. The knobby stumps of the bald cypress are clearly visible, and around them a thriving reef has been built up.
image: zme science
The exact location is a secret for a reason, scientist want to preserve it for study, conservationists and locals don't want it overrun with tourists. It would take some digging to find the exact GPS coordinates.
Most theories point to Hurricane Katrina for this discovery, as hurricanes are powerful enough to shift sand 100 feet below the surface of the ocean. Before Katrina the forest was buried, cut off from the elements, and therefore preserved. So well preserved in fact, that if the wood is brought to the surface and cut it still smells like cypress sap. To read more and see a video of the discovery visit zme science.
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A Brief History of Chinese Canadians
The first Chinese people to settle in Canada were 50 artisans who accompanied Captain John Meares in 1788, when he came to build a trading post to expand the sea otter pelt trade between Guangzhou, China, and Nootka Sound, in British Columbia. The Spanish, who were trying to establish a monopoly on the west coast, ran Captain Meares out, leaving the Chinese to inhabit the area. Some of them later married Aboriginal women.
In 1858, the Fraser River Gold Rush began to draw Chinese immigrants from San Francisco. As a result, Barkerville, British Columbia, became the first Chinese community in Canada. In 1860, the Chinese Canadian population consisted of approximately 7,000 people. A large number of these first immigrants were young farmers from southern China who were brought to Canada to build the Canadian Pacific Railway (see also The “Other” Last Spike). The creation of this transnational rail link helped Chinese communities develop across Canada. Today, Chinese Canadians make up the third largest ethnic group in Canada, after English and French Canadians.
Why is the Chinese New Year Not Always Celebrated on the Same Date?
The Chinese New Year marks the first day of the New Year calendar, which dates much further back than the regular Gregorian calendar. It is a lunisolar calendar based on astronomical observations of the longitude of the sun and the phases of the moon. The beginning of the new year is calculated based on Lìchūn, the new moon located nearest the start of spring in the northern hemisphere. The Chinese year always begins between 21 January and 21 February. Most of the time, the new year begins 11 days (sometimes 10 or 12) before the date on which the previous year began. However, if this date does not fall between 21 January and 21 February, a leap month is added, and the Chinese New Year occurs 19 or 18 days later.
There are a number of symbols, such as flowers, that feature prominently in Chinese New Year decorations. Homes and businesses often display written messages that bring good luck; these messages are typically drawn with a paintbrush on a piece of red paper folded into a diamond shape. Oranges and mandarins, considered signs of luck and good fortune, are also found in homes and other locations.
Celebrations and Traditions
The Lunar New Year is a time to share food with those less fortunate and to participate in charitable activities. Celebrations last for several days and include a variety of events, such as fireworks displays, arts and crafts, special foods, and performances showcasing dancing, drumming and traditional dress. The highlight of the festivities is, without a doubt, the Chinese New Year parades, starring the famous lion dancers: tucked inside a costume, they dance one behind the other, holding the body of the lion above them, with the first person wearing a mask that represents the animal’s head. The dance itself, which varies from region to region, is vigorous: the lion roars, twists and turns, and moves around shaking its head, stopping occasionally to scratch itself or mimic other feline behaviour.
The lion portrayed by these dancers is a colourful and complex mythological character whose exact origins have been lost over the centuries; however, its existence is believed to date back to the Han dynasty (c. 205 BCE to 220 CE). There are several legends explaining its significance, including one that tells of Nian Shou, an evil beast that lived underwater or in the mountains and that terrorized Chinese villagers year after year by attacking and eating people — children in particular — at the beginning of spring and, therefore, at the beginning of the new year. One year, however, the monster was defeated by a lion, who chased it away. Nevertheless, Nian promised to return the following year. That year, having no lion to protect them, the villagers worked together to create one to scare away the beast. They made a lion costume that two people quickly put on. Since the monster was known to fear loud noises and the colour red, the people inside the costume scared the beast as it entered the village and began causing a commotion, while the other villagers, dressed in red, banged on saucepans and set off firecrackers. The ruse was successful, and the beast fled. Since then, drums, fireworks and the colour red have all played a major part in Chinese New Year festivals. On this occasion, families get together and exchange gifts consisting of red envelopes (called Hong Bao Ang Pao or Lai See) filled with money. These traditional gifts are usually given to children. The red colour of the envelope symbolizes happiness, luck, success and good fortune.
Each year of the Chinese lunar calendar is associated with one of the twelve animals of the Chinese zodiac, all of which have different characteristics. For example, the rabbit is known for being talented and affectionate, despite its timidity; it works well with other people and is successful in business. The dragon, although stubborn, has a loving heart and a passionate side, and is healthy and energetic. The New Year says farewell to one animal and welcomes the next. For instance, 2016 was the Year of the Monkey, and 2017 is the Year of the Rooster.
Significance in Canada
Since 1997, Canada Post has celebrated the Chinese New Year by issuing stamps featuring the astrological sign of the current year. Since 1999, it has offered stamps of different denominations: one for first-class domestic mail, and one for international mail (which is also available in a souvenir sheet).
In Canada, the Chinese New Year is celebrated publicly. In many cities across the country, Canadians of various backgrounds and religions take part in the festivities. Like for Christmas and Hanukkah, the prime minister issues a statement for the holiday, wishing a happy New Year to all Chinese Canadians. On 1 June 2016, the Parliament of Canada passed a proposal to recognize the Chinese New Year as an official holiday in Canada.
See also Religious Festivals in Canada; Montréal’s Chinatown.
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1. Our Science >
2. Ask a Scientist >
3. Q. How was the Hikurangi Trench created?
Q. How was the Hikurangi Trench created?
Hikurangi tectonic plate boundary
Answers to your Questions:
Q. How do tectonic plates move?
A. Tectonic plates move because they are floating on top of hot liquid rock (called the mantle) under the earth’s crust. Big swirls of moving liquid rock jostle the tectonic plates on top and make them move.
Q. Can the plates break?
A. Tectonic plates are very thick and as far as scientists know they do not break.
Q. Why is it called Hikurangi?
A. Not sure! Perhaps in respect of our maunga Hikurangi
Q. How was the Hikurangi Trench created?
A. The Hikurangi Trench was created by the Pacific tectonic plate subducting under the Australian tectonic plate. The ocean plate (the Pacific Plate) is being pushed (converged) under the thicker Australian continent plate and as it is forced underneath it creates a big gully called a trench. Because it is near land, this gully fills up with rubble (sand and silt – called sediment) and is quite shallow.
Q. How far off-shore is the Hikurangi trench?
A. Along the East Coast the Hikurangi Trench is 60 - 90km from the coast
Q. How long does it take to travel back to shore from the trench?
A. It depends where you travel from, in some places the trench is close to shore and in other places it is further away.
Q. How long, how deep (underwater) and how wide is the trench?
A. The Hikurangi Trench is 2.5 – 4 kms deep. It runs from Kaikoura in the South to Tonga in the North.
Q. Why is the research being done on the trench?
A. Tectonic plates are quite a new idea (first ‘discovered’ in the 1960s). There is a lot that scientists would like to know about how they move and work. As well it is good to have a lot of information about hazards (like earthquakes and tsunami) so we can be prepared. Scientists think that some earthquakes at tectonic boundaries can be “mega-quakes” so the more we know about the Hikurangi Trench the better prepared we are for a big earthquake and possible tsunami.
Q. How many layers does the earth have?
A. The earth has four layers – the crust, the mantle, the outer and the inner cores.
Q. Will New Zealand shape change after a while?
A. Yes. New Zealand is intersected by two tectonic plates – the Pacific and the Australian plates. As these plates continue to move past and into each other, New Zealand’s landscape will continue to change.
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The importance of research in this project cannot be stressed enough. From the moment Michael began adapting and expanding Barbara's poem into a musical, every effort was made to avoid cliche.
Michael started his work by writing a list of every cliche item, character, and trope that would be expected in a dramatic work set in the slave culture and system of the Southeastern Untited States. Michael stated that none of these items would be in the musical. Michael said to Barbara, "The audience already knows these things. They expect to see them. Let's give them something they don't expect but is also true.
Research was intence for a three-year period. Occasionally during the subsequent years through the table reading and workshop performance process, additional readings had to be done.
Not all the research came from the Slave Narratives. The work had other influences as well. Additionally, works of art made during the time period help visualize items described in the Slave Narratives.
Some research was tactile. Michael visited a cotton field and brought home a some cotton. He kept it on his writing table for many years.
In the process of reading hundreds of Slave Narratives, Michael could see how the language of the slaves varried from plantation to plantation and across the Southeast. He made and item analysis of select Narratives, Barbara added to this her life-long experience. Together, they created characters each with their own distinct voices.
[Writing Credits][Specifications][Performance Gallery][History of the Work][Research][Coverage][Contact]
"Research is the opposite of cliche."
Michael G. Hennessy
Michael's Research Book, a compilation of the research used in the creation of the work and a copy of Barbara's original poem. For each page of Slave Narrative in the Reseach Book, Michael read from 15-20 other Narrative pages that provided rich information but were not specifically drawn from.
"Weighing the Cotton"
by Hal Alexander Courtney Morrison (c.1850-1927)
painting from 1885-1890
Oil on canvas
Courtesy of the Morris Museum of Art, Augusta, GA
Although not painted during slave times, it was painted very close to the Civil War. Considering the slow rate of the spread of the industrial process across the south, this painting's depitions could be considered accurate to the time of the musical.
In addition to the house, dress, and proximity to the cotton fields, is the scale on the post. Michael came across mentions of cotton scales while reading the Slave Narratives. It was on a random trip to the Morris Museum of Art where he saw this image of the scale that had eluded him.
Click to enlarge.
Click to enlarge.
The Slave Narratives were also used to create distinct vocabularies and usage for the different charaters. Michael made detailed item analysis from a variety of Narratives and those were combined with Barbara's lifetime expereinces. This gives each character a unique use of southern slave vernacular. This purposeful design permits the work to maintain the attributes of a verbal "time capsule".
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Meaning of RIDGE in English
n. & v.
1. the line of the junction of two surfaces sloping upwards towards each other (the ridge of a roof).
2 a long narrow hilltop, mountain range, or watershed.
3 any narrow elevation across a surface.
4 Meteorol. an elongated region of high barometric pressure.
5 Agriculture a raised strip of arable land, usu. one of a set separated by furrows.
6 Hort. a raised hotbed for melons etc.
1. tr. mark with ridges.
2 tr. Agriculture break up (land) into ridges.
3 tr. Hort. plant (cucumbers etc.) in ridges.
4 tr. & intr. gather into ridges.
Phrases and idioms:
ridge-piece (or -tree) a beam along the ridge of a roof. ridge-pole
1. the horizontal pole of a long tent.
2 ridge-piece. ridge-tile a tile used in making a roof-ridge.
ridgy adj.
Etymology: OE hrycg f. Gmc
Oxford English vocab. Оксфордский английский словарь.
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phobias l.
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Phobias. By: Cecilia Comber Silvana Oberti Roberto Lambertini. What is a Phobia?. A phobia, by definition, is an irrational fear of an object or a situation.
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PowerPoint Slideshow about 'Phobias' - Audrey
Presentation Transcript
By: Cecilia Comber
Silvana Oberti
Roberto Lambertini
what is a phobia
What is a Phobia?
• A phobia can range from something as small as triskaidekaphobia, which is a fear of the number 13, to something as big as phengophobia, which is a fear of daylight or sunshine.
what is a phobia3
What is a phobia?
• Also, phobias can range from something very common, such as acrophobia, a fear of heights, to something extremely rare, such as porphyrophobia, a fear of the color purple.
• Phobias affect both men and women form all ethnicities and ages.
• The main symptoms and signs a perosn exhibits include hot or cold feelings, sweaty palms, nervousness, anxiety and in severe cases, strong panic attacks.
• A person with a phobia to an object would show the symptoms while in presence with the feared object, while a person with fear of a situation would fear thinking of it.
etiology from the learning perspective
Etiology from the learning perspective
• Behaviorists believe that a phobia is created because the person has been conditioned to fear the object. A good example of that would be the Little Albert experiment. Little Albert was conditioned to fear rabbits at first, then the fear generalized to become doraphobia, a fear of fur.
treatments from the learning perspective
Treatments from the Learning Perspective
• The Behaviorists have 3 ways of curing a phobia:
• Systematic Desensitization
• Flooding
• Token Economy
systematic desensitization
Systematic Desensitization
• This technique is one of the most successful ways of curing a phobia. It involves having a person first think of the object or situation. Once the subject has gotten used to doing that, they're presented with a picture of the object or situation, then slowly put with the object or in the situation.
• This method, being one of the least commonly used, isn't all that effective. It involves flooding the person with emotion until they are forced to overcome the fear on their own. For example, a arachnophobic would be put in a room full of spiders.
token economy
Token Economy
• This method works particularly good for patients with fears of places or situations. It involves reinforcing the person positively the closer they get to the situation.
etiology for the cognitive perspective
Etiology for the Cognitive Perspective
• The cognitive perspective views phobias as being part of a line of faulty thinking. They believe that this anxiety was caused from previous experiences in life, which can include their own personal experiences or viewing others experiencing it. Cognitive scientists believe that once the fear is established, it is maintained because it has a direct influence with the persons current and future cognitive functioning.
treatment for the cognitive perspective
Treatment for the Cognitive Perspective
• The main treatment Cognitive Scientists use to cure phobias, specifically social phobias, is cognitive therapy. This type of therapy involves a cognitive therapist addressing and “fixing” the faulty thinking involving the fear.
There has been evidence that phobias are sometimes common in families and that genetics may be involved in all of this. When a person is exposed to their fear or feared situation, biological changes in the body occur.
When a person is exposed to a phobia there is a change in the brain activity and certain hormones are released such as cortisol, insulin, and growth hormone. There is also an increase in physical arousal symptoms, for example increased heart rate and blood pressure.
Neurotransmitters are the biochemicals that allow nerve cells in the brain to communicate. Researchers have found out that too much or too little of this or other chemicals may create anxiety and not limit the body’s reaction to fear.
The amygdala is a nuclear complex located in the dorsomedial portion of the temporal lobe. A part of the amygdala known as the lateral nucleus is responsible for fear responses. There are many more circuits leading from the amygdala to the prefrontal cortex than vice versa. This causes humans to have little control over their fears.
Damage to the hypothalamus may also be the cause of phobias. This can be seen in phobic children, for example, as they are born with a decrease in the neuron activity in the amygdala and hypothalamus. The hippocampus has to do with memory, so damage to it could cause someone to incorrectly remember an event which was fearful to them. The medial prefrontal cortex creates extinction, which weakens a fear response to a conditioned stimulus over time. So damage here allows a fear response to stay there for years after the first encounter with the stimulus.
Some of the people with agoraphobia have a mild heart condition known as mitral valve prolapse, which causes heart palpitations that might cause panic attacks.
Genetics play an important role when it comes to the formation of phobias. There has been some investigation regarding hereditary phobias but more recently there has been evidence that phobias may be related to a mutation in chromosome 15. People with this mutation are born with it but it doesn’t show up until later in life.
There has not been much research done regarding biological treatments for phobias and many psyhologists belive that there are better ways of treating phobias, but recently this has changed.
Scientists are now giving their patients with phobias selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors like paroxetine or antianxiety medications such as diazepam.
Some drugs such as Xanax and Valium are used in short-term situations. Beta-blockers are also sometimes given lessen the fear response.
Antidepressants are also prescribed sometimes because is has been proven to be helpful in preventing panic attacks that take part in phobias such as agoraphobia. This way, the patients can deal with the problem itself without having to deal with the panic attacks that come from it.
All the drug treatments cause a decreased blood flow in the amygdala and hippocampus, just as some other forms of phobia treatments do.
The biological treatments are sometimes not recommended for long-term use because it is said to cause little benefit with long term use, unlike with some of the other perspectives.
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Monday, September 12, 2011
Sound literacy
All our socio-cultural activities are interlaced with peculiar sound waves. Indigenous farmers have their sound codes. Names are not expected to be called out loud on a farm land; the traditional belief is, spirits, both good and evil, reside In nature and calling out one’s name in the forest may unnecessarily expose the bearer of the name to attacks if their name falls in the ears of evil spirits. Instead of calling out a name a “huuuuuuu” sound, among the akans, is made to get the attention of company that may be on the farm.
Beyond normal language we also speak sound. The sound you make blowing a gush of air from your nose when something stinks. Or the click sound you make in your throat to signify (depending on the rhythm of the sound) agreement or disagreement. We instantly comprehend sound made from sucking the teeth, or pressing our lips tightly together while forcing out air. Everybody speaks sound; people from northern Ghana hit their fingers repeatedly on their lips emitting a bubbly sound to call for attention or to complement the excitement in a dance performance. A mother rounds her lips, and lets her uppers set of teeth sit on the lower tightly as she blows out air to produce a sound similarly made of cut onions thrown in hot oil to induce her child to pee before going to bed.
The list is long on the different sound bites that make communication complete. Snap your fingers and someone is bound to turn. Like snakes hiss many Ghanaians (though largely considered rude) would make a prolonged “sssssssssssssss” sound to call the attention of someone on the street whose name they do not know. Men especially like to “sssssssssssssss” at women they find attractive on the street. Ice cream sellers in Ghana “sssssssssssss” or make a prolonged “kiss sound” to advertise their products. To call for silence, the “ssssssssssssssss” or “shooooouuuu” sound can also be made.
We must make a conscious effort to explore and comprehend the sounds that live around us. Apart from music, other art expressions like theater, film and dance is affected by sound. In understanding and experimenting with sounds we expand the prospects of Arts. Sound effects in our performing Arts affect our feelings. We for instance tend to get edgy about unfamiliar sound. “What is that?” we may ask, upon hearing a sound unfamiliar.
When you enter a village and you hear the voice of drums you can be sure that something is happening. When you pay attention to the particular sound/rhythm being made by the drum you will be able to, at the very least, gather clues on what exactly could be happening; is it a warning signal?, is it an indication of a celebration? is it a solemn moment? How does the sounds you hear make you feel? When a person clears their throat, can you tell if they communicating disapproval, teasing you, or perhaps just clearing their throat? In another scenario, a fresh student would have to learn and know the different sound codes of their school; from break time to assembly time, all the way through to ‘run now, the headmistress is coming!!!’ there are pinpointing sound signals.
The gong, the talking drum, the horn, the secret sound codes of farmers and hunters in the woods, the messages river music and bird songs carry, the rhythm of our heart beat; these are sounds one must learn to interpret. Days of fluent sound communicators may have passed us by; the variants sounds that converge to form the music of our daily activities have little of our attention now. New influences have sucked out the traditional sound consciousness; natural sounds of market squares; bus stations, the class room, a busy street etc. Could you for instance tell where you are if your eyes were closed? Makola sounds different from Kejetia, Teshie sounds different from East Legon, our emotions; joy, pain, disappointment, relieve are more often communicated in sound than in words. It is time to explore familiar and unusual bites of Ghana’s soundscape, how much sound do you know?
1. a peace of sound well written
2. lol. Love it, this makes me miss the fact I didnt grow up in Ghana. Its funny cuz I spent too much time in NY so when i went to Ghana and someone said ssssssssssssssss to me I had straight attitude on my face. Usually when I would hear that in the city...something pervy usually followed. lol
3. I like it a lot! Some parts of it are funny. Takes me back home. Thanks for sharing this piece. Nicely written :)
4. thanks for reading Trudy-elsie, I'm glad you found parts that amused you :)
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Modern Norwegian
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Modern Norwegian
Moderne norsk; Standard østnorsk (Standard East Norwegian), Høydansk (High Danish)
Era16th century to present
Early forms
Language codes
ISO 639-2nor
ISO 639-3nor
Modern Norwegian (Norwegian: moderne norsk) is the Norwegian language that emerged after the Middle Norwegian transition period (1350-1536) and Dano-Norwegian. The transition to Modern Norwegian is usually dated to 1525, or 1536, the year of the Protestant Reformation and the beginning of the kingdom of Denmark–Norway (1536-1814).
In contrast to Old Norse, Modern Norwegian has simplified inflections and a more fixed syntax. Old Norse vocabulary is to a considerable degree substituted by Low German, and this is the main reason why Modern Norwegian, together with contemporary Norwegian in general, Danish and Swedish, is no longer mutually intelligible with Insular Nordic (Icelandic and Faroese), except from some Nynorsk/Høgnorsk and dialect users to a lesser extent.
While Modern Norwegian is a linguistic term with a specific historical meaning, contemporary Norwegian also includes the Dano-Norwegian koiné now commonly known as Standard Østnorsk (Standard East Norwegian) and the related official written standard Bokmål. Standard Østnorsk is spoken by a large and rapidly growing minority of Norwegians, and Bokmål is by far the most widely used written language, even among users of Modern Norwegian dialects.
In contrast to Nynorsk[edit]
The Norwegian linguistic term for Modern Norwegian is nynorsk, literally New Norwegian. Nynorsk is also the name of a Norwegian written standard based on Modern Norwegian dialects, as opposed to Bokmål, which branched off the Danish language after the dissolution of Denmark–Norway in 1814 and was gradually reformed using the Norwegian dialects and Nynorsk as a guideline.
The terms Nynorsk, Modern Norwegian and Contemporary Norwegian are somewhat confusing, because in Norwegian the same term Nynorsk is used for the first two, while Contemporary Norwegian could easily be called moderne norsk (literally Modern Norwegian) in Norwegian.
See also[edit]
Language history[edit]
Danish origin
• Bokmål: official written language, based on the Danish language, but with significant changes. Also known as bogmaal and bogsprog until 1899, when the term riksmål was adopted. Bokmål was re-adopted as the official name in 1929.
• Riksmål: unofficial, based on Danish and pre-1938 Bokmål, but with some modernisation since. It is standardised by Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature. It was also the official name of Bokmål from its introduction in 1899 until the Storting decided to revert to Bokmål in 1929.
Norwegian origin
• Høgnorsk: unofficial, based on the original Landsmål and pre-1938 Nynorsk. It has no standardising body, but is promoted by Ivar Aasen-sambandet, which hosts a wiki called Mållekken.
• Landsmål: the official name of Nynorsk until 1929, sometimes strictly referring to the original orthography developed by Ivar Aasen.
• Nynorsk: official written language, based on the Norwegian Dialects, compiled by Ivar Aasen. It has gone through several reforms and differs significantly from its original form.
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Niccolò Machiavelli
Born: May 3, 1469 in Florence, Republic of Florence
Died: Jun 21, 1527 (at age 58) in Florence, Republic of Florence
Nationality: Italian
Fields: Renaissance humanism, political realism, classical republicanism
Niccolo Machiavelli was an Italian politician, historian, diplomat, humanist, writer and philosopher. For many years, he was an official in Florentine Republic where he had duties in the diplomatic and also military affairs. Machiavelli was the founder of the modern political science, especially the political ethics. As a writer, he wrote carnival songs, poetry, and comedies.
Early Life
Niccolo was born in Italy in a town called Florence. He was taught grammar, Latin, and rhetoric during his early days in school. At age 29, he was elected as the head of second chancery and in July 1498, he became secretary of Dieci di Liberta e Pace. Here he acted as a diplomat responsible for the negotiation and also the military affairs. Between 1499 and 1512, he carried out diplomatic missions.
Machiavelli’s Philosophy in The Prince
Niccolo is best known for the book, The Prince. This book talks about politics and especially the traditional subject of the hereditary prince. It also concentrates on the emergence of anew prince. It states that in order to retain his power, the traditional hereditary prince must maintain the normal sociopolitical institutions that people are accustomed to while the new prince has a much more difficult duty in ruling because he must first try to stabilize his new power.
Machiavelli believed that the public and private moralities are two different things and every leader must understand this in order to be a great ruler. A ruler must not be concerned only with their reputation, but must be willing act immorally at times as well. He also emphasized occasional need for exercise of force or even deceit.
Other Major Works
In his Discourses on Livy, Machiavelli uses a series of simple lessons to show how the republic needs to be started and constructed. The book openly explains the great advantages of republics and other themes.
In 1514, Machiavelli wrote a book in Italian called Della Lingua, which is a dialogue in regards to Italy’s main language. He also made a comedy entitled Le Maschere, which included some living Florentines as characters.
Machiavelli and Religion
Machiavelli explained so many times that religion is simply man-made. He also said that religion lies in the contribution to the social order and other rules of morality need to be dispensed if only security requires it.
While the great fear of God can simply be replaced by the fear of a prince, Niccolo believed having a true religion is essential in order to keep a republic in place. For him, a true prince should not be conventionally religious, but he should be in a position to make the people religious.
Niccolo Machiavelli died in 1527 at the age of 58. He is buried in Florence, Italy.
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Skip to main content
A-level PE - Unit 1: Participation in Sport and Recreation: Industrial Revolution and Popular Recreation
Resources to support A-level PE, Unit 1
Popular Recreation in Pre-Industrial Britain
The effects of Industrial Revolution
What changes in British society led to the rationalisation of sport in the late nineteenth century?
Candidate answers:
Candidate A
The industrialisation of Britain led to more spectators in sport and more leisure time in which to take part. Rules started to be established in most sports. Games played in school now had one set of rules. This is because the students could read and write and therefore rules coould be used.
Candidate B
The effect of the Industrial Revolution led to many changes in sport. Urbanisation led to people having less spare time to praticipate in sport because they were working longer hours. There was not much land available because of all the factories and buildings. Sports were also wagared upon, especially by the upper classes who did not participate in sports themselves. Transport was beginning to develop and become popular. This meant that the upper classes could move out of the city to participate in more rural pursuit such as walking and hunting. For the working classes it meant that teams could begin to travel to compete against teams from other areas. Rules now had to develop so that teams could play to standardised versions. The setting up of compulsory education in 1870 aided this as it meant that everyone could now read and write and therefore understand the new rules.
Examiner's comments:
This is good example of the need to read the question carefully. The question clearly asks students to make points relating to changes in society. Candidate A shows some knowledge of the development of sport in this historical period but fails to answer the question set. Only the last part regarding the development of education can be given 1 mark. Candidate B, on the other hand makes a number of valid and correct points and does answer the question set, scoring the maximum 4 marks.
(Source: AS Physical Education Unit 1, 44p.)
The Stamford Bull-Running
From time immemorial down to a late period, the 13th of November was annually celebrated, at the town of Stamford, in Lincolnshire, by a public amusement termed a Bull-running
Development of Competitive Sport Videos
Turning Points in History - Industrial Revolution
Turning Points in History - The Reformation
School Sports Videos
Eton Wall Game (1921)
Bolton v Burton United (1904-5)
Eton College Documentary (1967) Part 1 of 2
Popular Recreation We Still See Today Videos
Shrovetide Football - current day mob football even in the UK
Gloucestershire Cheese Rolling 2008
World Shin Kicking Championship 2011
Haxey Hood 2012
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Video: Rounding Fractions to the Nearest Quarter
Tim Burnham
Round 17/36 to the nearest quarter.
Video Transcript
Round seventeen over thirty-six to the nearest quarter.
Now we’ve been given a number between zero and one, and we’ve got to round it to the nearest quarter. Well first, let’s imagine a scale from zero to one. Now if we mark that off in quarters, we’ve got zero, one quarter, two quarters, three quarters, or four quarters. Well zero is just zero, one quarter is just one quarter. But two quarters, we can simplify to a half. Three quarters doesn’t simplify, and four quarters is the same as one. So what we’ve got to do in this question is decide, which one of those seventeen thirty-sixths is nearest.
Now I’m just gonna think about how many thirty-sixths represent each of those fractions. Well no thirty-sixths is representing zero. And thirty-six thirty-sixths would represent one. And a half of thirty-six is eighteen, so eighteen thirty-sixths represents a half. And a quarter is half of a half, so half of eighteen is nine, so nine thirty-sixths represents one quarter. And that leaves us with three quarters. Well three times one quarter would be three quarters, so three lots of nine thirty-sixths are twenty-seven thirty-sixths.
So whereabouts on that scale would seventeen thirty-sixths sit? Well it would sit in here somewhere. It’s bigger than nine thirty-sixths, but it’s less than eighteen thirty-sixths. So which is it nearer to, eighteen thirty-sixths, or nine thirty-sixths? Well the difference between seventeen thirty-sixths and eighteen thirty-sixths is just one thirty-sixth. But the difference between nine thirty-sixths and seventeen thirty-sixths is eight thirty-sixths. So seventeen thirty-sixths is much closer to eighteen thirty-sixths than nine thirty-sixths.
And remember, eighteen thirty-sixths is the same as two quarters, which is equivalent to a half. So to the nearest quarter, we could say it’s two quarters, but we’d probably simplify that to a half.
So our answer is, rounded to the nearest quarter, seventeen thirty-sixths, is approximately equal to a half.
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Explore BrainMass
Charles Darwin: Survival of the Fittest
© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com August 21, 2018, 11:24 am ad1c9bdddf
Solution Preview
What does the term survival of the fittest mean?
Survival of the fittest means in order to survive the natural environment and sustain, it is required to not just be more endurable than others however more versatile as well. For example, when you have a basketball team, their success is not based on individual performances but based solely on how well the team can play together. No one player can win a basketball game on their own no matter how great they are at three point shots, dribbling, or slam dunks. They are only able to do those actions because of the team efforts.
Possessing the ability to cross pollinate and fully understand why you are great is definitely a part of being called the fittest. Survival of the fittest is meant to refer to the natural selection of species.
"A majority of the general public may be able to describe natural selection as "survival of the fittest". When pressed for a further explanation of that term, however, the majority will answer incorrectly. To a person not familiar with what natural selection really is, "fittest" means the best physical specimen of the ...
Solution Summary
This article will provide information regarding the understanding of the phrase 'survival of the fittest' as it relates to humans and other species.
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Dutch Republic Explained
Conventional Long Name:Republic of the Seven United Netherlands
Native Name:Dutch; Flemish: Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden
Common Name:United Provinces
Life Span:1588–1795[1]
Flag Type:Dutch; Flemish: [[Statenvlag]]
National Motto:Concordia res parvae crescunt[2]
National Anthem:Het Wilhelmus
Image Map Caption:Location of the Dutch Republic in 1789
Image Map2 Caption:The seven provinces together with an eighth not represented in the federal government (Drenthe) and the Generality Lands (in blue)
Region:Low Countries
Common Languages:Dutch, Zeelandic, West Flemish, Dutch Low Saxon, West Frisian
Religion:Dutch Reformed
Government Type:Confederative republic
Title Leader:Stadtholder
Year Leader1:1581–1584
Year Leader2:1751–1795
Title Deputy:Grand Pensionary
Year Deputy1:1581–1585
Year Deputy2:1787–1795
Legislature:States General
Type House1:State council
House1:Council of State
Era:Early modern
Event Start:Union of Utrecht
Year Start:23 January 1579
Event1:Act of Abjuration
Date Event1:26 July 1581
Event2:Peace of Münster
Date Event2:30 January 1648
Event End:Batavian Revolution
Date End:19 January
Year End:1795
P1:Habsburg Netherlands
Border P1:yes
S1:Batavian Republic
Stat Year1:1795
Stat Pop1:1880500[3]
The Dutch Republic, also known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Dutch; Flemish: Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden), Republic of the United Netherlands, Republic of the Seven United Provinces (Dutch; Flemish: Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Provinciën), the United Provinces (Dutch; Flemish: Verenigde Provinciën), Seven Provinces (Dutch; Flemish: Zeven Provinciën), Federated Dutch Provinces (Latin: Foederatae Belgii Provinciae), or the Dutch Federation (Latin: Belgica Foederata) was a republic in Europe existing from 1588 until 1795. It emerged when a part of the Netherlands separated from Spanish rule. As the predecessor state of the modern Netherlands and the first united nation state of the Dutch people, the Republic precedes the Batavian Republic (1795–1806), the Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810), the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1830/39), and the Kingdom of the Netherlands (since 1839).
See main article: article, Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815) and Financial history of the Dutch Republic.
During the Dutch Golden Age in the late 16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch Republic dominated world trade, conquering a vast colonial empire and operating the largest fleet of merchantmen of any nation. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world.[5]
See main article: article and Politics and government of the Dutch Republic.
1. The Duchy of Guelders (Gelderland in Dutch)
2. The County of Holland
3. The County of Zeeland
5. The Lordship of Overijssel
6. The Lordship of Frisia
7. The Lordship of Groningen and Ommelanden.
After the Peace of Westphalia, several border territories were assigned to the United Provinces. They were federally governed Generality Lands (Generaliteitslanden). They were Staats-Brabant (present North Brabant), Staats-Vlaanderen (present Zeelandic Flanders), Staats-Limburg (around Maastricht) and Staats-Oppergelre (around Venlo, after 1715).
The framers of the US Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, as Federalist No. 20, by James Madison, shows.[7] Such influence appears, however, to have been of a negative nature, as Madison describes the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war." Apart from this, the American Declaration of Independence is similar to the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces,[8] but concrete evidence that the former directly influenced the latter is absent.
Common names in Dutch for the Republic in official correspondence were:
And in Latin:
See also
Further reading
External links
52.0833333333333°N 22°W
Notes and References
1. https://npofocus.nl/artikel/7607/waarom-was-nederland-een-republiek
3. http://www.populstat.info/Europe/netherlc.htm Demographics of the Netherlands
5. In 1650 the urban population of the Dutch Republic as a percentage of total population was 31.7%, while that of the Spanish Netherlands was 20.8%, of Portugal 16.6%, and of Italy 14%. See "Population, Urbanisation and Health", in Chris Cook and Philip Broadhead, The Routledge Companion to Early Modern Europe, 1453–1763 (Abingdon and New York, 2006), p. 186. In 1675 the urban population density of Holland alone was 61%, that of the rest of the Dutch Republic 27%. See Wijnand W. Mijnhardt, "Urbanization, Culture and the Dutch Origins of the European Enlightenment", , 125/2-3 (2010), p. 143.
7. Book: James Madison. Fœderalist No. 20. 11 December 1787.
8. News: Barbara Wolff. Was Declaration of Independence inspired by Dutch?. University of Wisconsin–Madison. 29 June 1998. 14 December 2007.
9. Web site: Unie van Utrecht - Wikisource. nl.wikisource.org.
13. Book: Rowen, Herbert H.. John de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland, 1625–1672. Princeton University Press. 1978.
14. Book: De Witt, Johan. Brieven van Johan de Witt. I. 10 May 1652. 61–62. De Witt to Shaep(?), 'these United Provinces must not be given the name of respublica (in the singular) but rather respublicae foederatae or unitae (in the plural).'.
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Lady Deborah Moody, A Dangerous Woman, Comes to New England
In 1654, when New York governor Peter Stuyvesant needed help collecting taxes, he turned to Deborah Moody for help. The story of the Salem, Mass., woman then came full circle from outcast to political power broker.
lady deborah moody
Sketch of a woman in 1640 by Wenceslaus Hollar.
A friend of John Winthrop, Moody came to Massachusetts to escape religious intolerance in England sometime before 1640. Moody's husband, a baronet, had died 10 years earlier. Her son had sold most of the familial lands in Wiltshire. In trying to reestablish her life as a widow, Lady Moody had visited London where she attended some of the more exotic religious services of the day among the Baptists and Quakers.
Deborah Moody, Anabaptist
Deborah Moody became an Anabaptist, a school of thought that held people should not be baptized as children but rather as adults.
Lady Moody's behavior was brought before England's Star Chamber, the high court that heard cases involving prominent people, such as the nobility. The king limited how long people could live away from their ancestral homes, and the court ordered her to return home.
Unhappy with her options in England, Moody considered joining Winthrop and his settlement in America. Though she had long criticized the Church of England, the prospect of joining in the new colony had initially seemed too daunting. But with this new frustration, Deborah Moody decided to move.
At age 54, she pulled up stakes and sailed for America. She first settled in Saugus, and was granted 400 acres for a plantation. Shortly, however, she bought a small house in Salem, and then farm of more than 1,000 acres from John Humphrey in nearby Swampscott. Humphrey, a one-time deputy governor of Massachusetts, had grown tired of the new colony and was returning to England.
Neighbor Trouble
Her new neighbor was Rev. Hugh Peter, also a fellow member of the church at Salem. Given her unconventional beliefs she could hardly have chosen a worse neighbor. Peter was one of the ministers who had successfully prosecuted Anne Hutchinson just two years earlier for her Anabaptist beliefs.
Peter succeeded in having her banished from Massachusetts. The church called out Lady Moody for her illegal religious beliefs and would eventually cast her out.
Faced with the increasing hostility toward her beliefs, Deborah Moody decided to leave Massachusetts just as Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams had. Rather than head for Rhode Island, however, Moody chose New Amsterdam (now New York).
John Winthrop noted in his journal: "The Ladye Moodye, a wise and anciently religious woman, being taken with the error of denying baptism to infants, was dealt withal by many of the elders and others, and admonished by the church of Salem (whereof she was a member); but persisting still, and to avoid further trouble, etc., she removed to the Dutch, at the advice of all her friends. Many others infected with Anabaptism removed thither also. She was after excommunicated."
Moody and a group of her followers who relocated in 1643 to New Amsterdam found the Dutch government much more tolerant. She still had considerable wealth, and New Amsterdam welcomed her. The governor granted her 7,000 acres on the southwestern tip of Long Island.
She called her new settlement Gravesend. But the new town had a rocky beginning. Though she had cautioned all her fellow settlers to pay the local American Indians for any land they wanted to use, there were misunderstandings. The local Indians did not embrace the concept of property ownership. Payments were for fishing rights, they believed, while the colonists expected full ownership of the land they paid for.
Soon, the Indians attacked and the settlers gathered in Lady Moody's sizeable home for protection. Deborah Moody toyed with the idea of returning to her home and land in Massachusetts. Peter had by now returned to England. He would eventually be executed as a regicide for his role in the trial and execution of Charles I.
But Peter was not the only enemy Moody had. Moody wrote to Winthrop asking whether she might return, and on-again, off-again governor John Endecott urged him to advise her against it unless she was prepared to renounce her views.
"I shall desire that she may not have advice to return to this jurisdiction, unless she will acknowledge her evil in opposing the churches and leave her opinions behind her, for she is a dangerous woman," Endecott wrote.
Moody and her fellow Gravesend villagers fortified their small town and dug in. Over the coming years, the town grew and Deborah Moody earned widespread respect. Gravesend did not adopt a single, sanctioned church. Rather, people worshiped as they wished with many, like Lady Moody, simply conducting services in their homes.
As stability set in, Lady Moody became a major power in the town, so much so that governor Stuyvesant had to call on her to mediate a dispute over taxes in 1654.
Lady Deborah Moody died in 1659 at 73, and Gravesend -- now part of Brooklyn -- still bears her stamp. Some of the streets she laid out in 1643 are still there today.
With thanks to Liz Loveland for her editorial suggestion. This story about Deborah Moody was updated in 2018.
1. Susan Salomé
Susan Salomé
January 5, 2016 at 8:33 am
Second to last paragraph should be 1654, yes?
2. Nancy Sweet
Nancy Sweet
January 5, 2016 at 9:15 am
Interesting article. Thanks.
3. Sharon Homer-Drummond
Sharon Homer-Drummond
January 5, 2016 at 9:40 am
Susan, I think you’ll like this.
4. Dorothy Lara
January 5, 2016 at 1:21 pm
A woman with a lot of guts, for sure! Interesting as I have never heard of this lady before. I don’t know about picking the name of “Gravesend” though! Kind of a depressing name!
5. Ruth Bobzin
Ruth Bobzin
January 5, 2016 at 5:30 pm
Wowza. This lady knew what she was doing.
6. Sharron Andrews
Sharron Andrews
January 5, 2016 at 5:55 pm
Enjoyed this. Thanks for posting.
7. Katherine
January 9, 2016 at 9:19 am
Thanks for a most interesting article. Which tip of Long Island did the lady receive?
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Monday, February 6, 2017
Lesson 121 - Parts of the Sentence - Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive active sentences can be changed to transitive passive sentences by making the direct object the subject and putting the subject either in a prepositional phrase or omitting it. Example: The daughter kissed her mother on the cheek. The mother was kissed on the cheek by her daughter. The mother was kissed on the cheek. (Mother is the receiver of the action in all three sentences, but in the last two sentences mother is the subject of the sentences.)
Instructions: Transform the following transitive active sentences into transitive passive sentences by putting the subject in a prepositional phrase.
1. The whole state elects the governor.
2. Children from all countries love that game.
3. The critics reviewed the new Broadway play.
4. The pirates hid the treasure quickly.
5. Terri examined the bugs on the tree.
--For answers scroll down.
1. The governor is elected by the whole state.
2. That game is loved by children of all countries.
3. The new Broadway play was reviewed by the critics.
4. The treasure was quickly hidden by the pirates.
5. The bugs on the tree were examined by Terri.
(Your answers may vary somewhat from mine.)
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Joseph Jenkins Roberts
On board the Harriet, Joseph Jenkins Roberts was, like Abdul Rahman, traveling to Liberia. As a twenty-year-old free black man, born in Virginia, he was emigrating to an Africa that he had never known but that promised a new life, free of the codes that restricted the day-to-day activities of black people in the United States.
Joseph Jenkins Roberts
Born in 1809, he grew up working on a flatboat with his stepfather. In addition, he served as an apprentice in a barbershop; the African American owner of the shop allowed Roberts access to his library and, through the books there, to explore a new world of knowledge. He and his extended family wanted to emigrate to Liberia for the same reason as many other emigrants: they wanted to escape the grinding experience of racism and repression of life in Virginia.
Liberia on a Map of Africa
In Liberia, Roberts engaged in a trade partnership with the barber to whom he had apprenticed in the United States, exporting goods from Liberia to the U.S. He was appointed vice governor of Liberia by the American Colonization Society, then later the first African American governor of the country. Upon Liberia's independence in 1847, Roberts was elected the country's first president, serving for six years, then later also served as its seventh president. Between presidencies he taught and served as president of the newly founded Liberia College.
Liberia College
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Study Guide
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The Cask of Amontillado | Discussion Questions 21 - 30
How does Edgar Allan Poe use sound in the closing paragraphs of "The Cask of Amontillado"?
Edgar Allan Poe is a writer who gives a great deal of attention to the sound of language. In his essay "Philosophy of Composition," Poe identified "the long o as the most sonorous vowel," meaning that the sound of the long o could best produce a deep, emotional resonance within the reader. In "The Raven," he achieves this with the repetition of the words "Lenore" and "nevermore" in the refrain. In "The Cask of Amontillado," Poe uses the long o sound less liberally but very purposefully in the closing paragraphs. Montresor explains that he noticed that Fortunato's intoxication had subsided first when he heard a "low moaning cry" from the man. Though the cry itself is not written into the story, the description of it features two long o sounds, giving the impression of the moan. Finally, when Montresor calls out "Fortunato!" two times at the very end of the story, the long o sound is repeated again, and the reader can almost hear the long o sound echoing in the chambers of the catacomb.
Which elements of Edgar Allan Poe's personal relationship with his adoptive father surface in "The Cask of Amontillado"?
One theory about "The Cask of Amontillado" is that the character of Fortunato is modeled after Edgar Allan Poe's adoptive father, John Allan. Allan was a respected businessman, just like Fortunato. Likewise, Poe wrote in a letter once that "Mr. Allan is not often sober," a trait of Fortunato's that Montresor despises and abuses. Additionally, the relationship between Montresor and Fortunato is akin to the relationship between Poe and Allan in that it is characterized by strife. The two became estranged, and when Poe attempted to visit John Allan on his death bed, John Allan reportedly banished Poe. A biographical critic might conclude that Fortunato's death at Montresor's hands is a symbolic act of revenge against Allan.
What is the narrative function of the breaks that Montresor takes as he lays the bricks that block in Fortunato in "The Cask of Amontillado"?
Once Montresor has shackled Fortunato, he sets to the work of laying bricks and mortar with his trowel; however, he does not work as speedily as possible to finish the task. Rather, he takes a number of breaks before he lays the final brick in. The first break comes after he lays the fourth tier of the bricks. Montresor hears Fortunato's chains vibrating and reports, "for several minutes ... I ceased my labors and sat down upon the bones." This break allows room in the narrative for the reader to hope that Fortunato's life will be spared. Montresor could have reconsidered his commitment to killing Fortunato during this break. Several minutes might be long enough for guilt and better judgment to set in, but not for Montresor. Instead, he patiently waits until the chains stop vibrating so that he can resume his work in peace, laying the next three tiers "without interruption." Montresor takes another break sometime between laying the seventh tier and the tenth tier. This time, Fortunato is letting out "a succession of loud and shrill screams." In response, Montresor stops his work and sticks his sword into the opening of the wall, then decides to let the man die of suffocation rather than a sword wound. This break confirms for the reader that Montresor is going to complete his murder plot despite Fortunato's extreme suffering. Montresor continues his work, all the while matching the screams of Fortunato and taking pride in the fact that he "surpassed them in volume and in strength."
What does the method of killing Fortunato in "The Cask of Amontillado" reveal about the narrator Montresor?
Though Montresor declares from the outset that he must seek revenge against Fortunato on account of his multiple injuries and insults, the particular murder plot that Montresor dreams up suggests there might be another (or an additional) motive. While in the catacombs, Fortunato makes the known hand gesture of the Masons, but Montresor does not recognize it. His ignorance reveals to Fortunato that Montresor is "not of the brotherhood." Of course Montresor replies, "Yes, yes" and raises his trowel to signal to Fortunato that he is some kind of mason. The Masonic brotherhood is an extremely secretive and exclusive society, one from which Montresor was apparently excluded. His choice to bring death to Fortunato through masonry suggests that he was jealous and wounded not by Fortunato's individual actions but rather by his exclusion from a part of society that Fortunato represents.
What is the role of wine in "The Cask of Amontillado"?
The proliferation of Gothic literature spanned across two other literary periods: the Romantic and the Victorian. The Romantic and the Victorian periods had between them a tension related to temperance in contemporary society. While the Romantics often indulged personal whims and passions, the Victorians cautioned against indulgence and abundance of passion. Writing in the 1840s meant that Edgar Allan Poe was caught up in this tension, and his work reflects that. In "The Cask of Amontillado," wine represents indulgence. While Fortunato does become a sympathetic character, it is on account not only of his pride but also his drunkenness that he is able to be lured to his death. Montresor is sure to keep him drunk, cracking open a new bottle at Fortunato's first sign of sobering. Additionally, the pursuit of a fine wine—an intemperate indulgence—is what appeals to Fortunato so much that he will put his health at risk to taste it. Though Poe is not a didactic writer, he makes his characters all the more real by reflecting in them a characteristic tension of his time.
How does Edgar Allan Poe engender sympathy for Fortunato in "The Cask of Amontillado"?
Edgar Allan Poe manages to engender sympathy for Fortunato even though the story is relayed through a narrator who has no such sympathy. One of the ways in which he does this is by painting Fortunato as the fool. He is wearing motley and behaving drunkenly. This impression of Fortunato contrasts with the one that Montresor paints in the opening paragraphs. Montresor's treatment of Fortunato is read as unfair by the reader, thus engendering sympathy for the man against whom Montresor has ridiculed. As the circumstances of the story grow more dire and the dramatic irony increases, the reader might feel sympathetic to Fortunato because he or she can see that the character is walking into a trap but the character cannot. Finally, Fortunato's sad demise elicits sympathy from the reader—from his desperate "Ha! ha! Ha!—he! he!—a very good joke indeed," to his final plea, "For the love of God, Montresor!" The man is clearly deserving of sympathy, despite the narrator's claims against him and his folly of pride.
How are Edgar Allan Poe's characters of Fortunato of "The Cask of Amontillado" and the old man of "The Tell-Tale Heart" similar?
Most obviously, both Fortunato of "The Cask of Amontillado" and the old man of "The Tell-Tale Heart" are murdered by a mentally unstable person to whom they are close. Both are victims of a premeditated murder and are in vulnerable positions when their murderer makes his move. While the old man of "The Tell-Tale Heart" is extremely (and likely, permanently) frail, presumably to the point of needing live-in help, Fortunato of "The Cask of Amontillado" is experiencing temporary vulnerability on account of his drunkenness and cough. Both men also exhibit some degree of trust in their murderers; the old man trusts the narrator of "The Tell-Tale Heart" enough to let him live with him, and Fortunato, though in part driven by pride, follows Montresor trustingly into the vault.
What is the significance of Montresor's break in character at the very end of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado"?
In the final paragraph of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado," Montresor breaks character with just four words: "My heart grew sick." He discloses this to the auditor and reader when Fortunato fails to respond to his calls and only the jingling of the bells on Fortunato's hat can be heard. In the words "my heart grew sick," the reader can feel a sense of loss in the narrator Montresor, one that he immediately covers up as he continues the sentence: "on account of the dampness of the catacombs." Despite this explanation, readers might suspect there is something other than the dampness of the catacombs that makes Montresor sick—something he does not want his auditor to be aware of, or perhaps even something he himself cannot admit to. Fortunato was, after all, a friend before he was an adversary.
How does "The Cask of Amontillado" demonstrate the element of intense emotion in characters common to the American Gothic genre?
The first paragraph of "The Cask of Amontillado" features a number of very emotionally charged words, such as insult, revenge, threat, retribution, and punish. From the outset, the reader knows that there are strong emotional currents running through the narrator. This attention to heightened emotion is typical of the Romantic period and often explored in Gothic literature. Edgar Allan Poe's exploration of the excess of emotion and passion is unique in that he often paints a character who appears extremely disciplined and shows how the character indulges his emotions through that very discipline. In "The Cask of Amontillado," Montresor reveals through the execution of an extremely well-laid plan just how controlled he is by the feeling of being insulted and desiring revenge.
What is the significance of the snake on the Montresor coat of arms in Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado"?
When taken with the Montresor family motto, the coat of arms helps to characterize Montresor and to explain his actions. The heel on the coat of arms crushes the snake that is biting it. This is a visual representation of the family motto Nemo me impune lacessit. Montresor embodies this motto, exacting revenge on those who injure him. The symbol of the snake can also be read as an allusion to the Book of Genesis. The snake in the story of Adam and Eve represents evil. When read through this symbolism, the snake on the coat of arms becomes evil crushed under the heel of the righteous. This symbolism creates a paradox: although Montresor believes himself to be the righteous one, he is, in fact, the injurious evil one he seeks to crush.
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English Language- Language Change
HideShow resource information
Milroy and Milroy(standardisation)
1. Selection- Language selected- variety selected is usually a prestigiuos one.
2. Codification- Reduction of internal variability, establishment of norms of lexis, grammatical structures and spelling.
3. Elaboration- The selected language is developed for a variety of purposes. This may involve expansion of linguistic resources.
4. Implementation- The standard lamguage must be given currency by making texts available in it, encouraging users to develop pride and loyalty.
Jean Aitchinson
Damp soon syndrome- Suggests that language change is caused by sloppiness or laziness e.g. the kind of sloppiness you get with a damp spoon being left in the suagr bowl. The idea thst change is due to laziness has been around for a long time, however it is difficult to find evidence for this view. The glottal stop at the end words such as 'street' is often seen as an example of laziness, but the substitution of a 't' for glottal stop is not lazy and not random- it is impossible to replace 't' at the beginning of a word with a glottal.
Crumbling Castle- This…
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Questions and Answers on DNA and MRNA
Published: Last Edited:
• Rumana Anam
Q1. What is the full forms of the following:
D.N.A Deoxyribonucleic (The Free Dictionary, 2015)
MRNA Messenger Ribonucleic Acid (The Free Dictionary, 2015)
TRNA Transfer Ribonucleic Acid (The Free Dictionary, 2015)
Q2. Complete the following sentences
The synthesis of mRNA from DNA is known as:- Transcription (The Free Dictionary, 2015)
The synthesis of proteins from RNA is known as:- Protein Synthesis (The Free Dictionary, 2015)
Q3. Explain the process of Protein Synthesis detailing the role of DNA, mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes.
The process where individual cells make protein is called protein synthesis. DNA and all RNA are both involved in this process. RNA are made by enzymes in the cell’s nucleus which start the process of protein synthesis by way of unwinding the wanted section of the DNA. A copy of one side of the DNA is formed by the RNA, and then is sent to all the other areas of the cell to help to bring altogether the different amino acids that make up proteins. As proteins are synthesised by mechanical and chemical processes within the cells, this process is called protein synthesis. Within the nucleus when the strand of RNA has been made, it is called messenger RNA MRNA. Through opening in the nucleus called pores the MRNA exits the nucleus and goes into the larger area of the cell which is called cytoplasm. As soon as the MRNA leaves the nucleus, it is attracted to a structure called ribosome, which are the cells work station or factory for protein synthesis. Within this point only one sub unit of ribosome is present. Another strand of RNA called transfer RNA, TRNA are activated as the MRNA start to attach to the ribosome sub unit. The TRNA stand finds the correct place to bind to the MRNA, as soon as it finds the place; it binds itself to the MRNA, which on one end holding amino acid. As this happens the other sub unit of ribosome come to completely form a complete structure. Another strand of TRNA appears as the ribosome encircles the strand of RNA. This strand is different from the first strand as it is carrying another amino acid; again the TRNA finds the correct place to bind to the MRNA. With the amino acid as soon as the second strand of TRNA is placed, both of the amino acid joins together aided by the ribosome, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) with its cellular energy. As this pattern continues and repeats itself the chain of amino acid grows longer. As soon as all the amino acids have been placed in the correct sequence, a three-dimensional chain is made. Once this has happened the protein is complete. When the proteins have been made the two sub-units of ribosome part to be joined later. In many ribosomes within the cell the process of protein synthesis take place there (Wisegeek, 2015).
Q4.What is Point Mutation? Evaluate its effects.
Point mutation is where there is a change within a gene, where one base pair in the DNA sequenced is changed or altered.Point mutation is most commonly the result of mistakes made during the DNA replication, however if DNA is exposed to x-rays and or ultraviolet radiations, this can also bring on point mutation.
The two types of mutations are transition mutation and transversion mutation. Transition mutation happens when a pyrimidine base which is thymine (T) or cytosine (C) changes for another pyrimidine base, or it is when a purine base which is adenine (A) or guanine (G) changes for another purine base. Within a double stranded DNA each base is paired with a certain partner on the corresponding strand. A always pairs with T and C always pairs with G. For example a transition mutation is a GC base pair that swaps an AT base pair. However transversion mutation happens when a purine base changes for a pyrimidine base or the other way around i.e. when a TA or CG swaps for AT pair (Britannica, 2015).
Point mutation can be put in three groups, nonsense mutation which is a code for a stop this can shorten the protein. Missense mutation which is a code for a different amino acid and silent mutation which is a code for the same or a different amino acid with no purposeful change in the protein itself. Missense mutation for example causes sickle cell disease, as the beta haemoglobin gene converts a GAG code into a GTG. This codes the amino acid valine instead of glutamic acid (Answers, 2015).
The Effects of Point Mutation
As all the cells within the body contain DNA therefore there are many places where point mutation can happen. However not all mutations are passed on to the offspring, these do not matter for evolution purposes. The mutations that matter for evolution purposes are those that can be passed on to the offspring, these happen in the reproductive cells eggs and sperm this type of mutation is called germ line mutation. There are three effects of germ line mutation:-
1. No change happens in the phenotype, this is where there is no effect on the organism. This can happen in a part of the DNA strand where there is no function, or it can happen in a protein coding area but does not affect the amino acid sequence of the protein.
2. Small changes happen in the phenotype, a single mutation can cause some cats ears to curl backwards.
3. Significant changes happen in phenotype, this is where significant changes happen within the organism for example sickle cell disease. A single mutation can cause negative effects for the organism for example mutation that cause death, this is called lethal.
Mutations are sometimes stereotyped as unimportant or the cause of genetic disease. While many mutations do have a negative effect, other mutations can have a small positive effect. Mutations that control genes can have a huge and sometimes positive effect. As some areas of the DNA control other genes, that decide when and where other genes are turned on, mutation in these parts can considerably change the way an organism is built. This can cause flow of effects in the behaviour of the genes under its control. Organisms have control genes that shape how the body is laid out i.e. the Hox gene is found in humans and animals. This gene sets out where the head goes and where limbs grow. These control gene build the bodies units i.e. limbs, head etc, therefore evolving a huge change in basic body lay out can be likely by a change in the Hox gene and natural selection (Understanding Evolution, 2015).
Task 2
Q5. What is the probability of a couple having a boy or a girl?
Female X X
XX = Girl
XY= Boy
The probability of a couple having a boy is 50%, the probability of a couple having a girl is 50%.
Q6 What chromosomal abnormalities occur in the inheritance of Down’s syndrome
Down syndrome is a result from trisomy 21, this is where the 21st chromosome has three chromosome and not the normal 2 chromosome. Therefore the individual will have 47 chromosomes and not the normal 46 chromosome. Down syndrome is cause by chromosomal abnormalities that happens randomly in the development stage of reproductive cells within a parent. This normally happens in the egg, but can sometimes happen in the sperm. The mistake in cell division results in a reproductive cell with abnormal number of chromosome, trisomy 21. This condition brings on intellectual disability, a characteristic facial appearance and weak muscle tone, all individual that are effected have cognitive delay (Genetics Home Reference, 2012).
Q7. Explain inheritance of a sex-linked condition with a relevant example
Hemophilia A and hemophilia B are both inherited sex linked traits, where they are inherited through the X linked recessive pattern. The genes that cause this condition are in the X chromosome, which is one half of the two sex chromosomes, the other being the Y chromosome. As males only have one X chromosome, one changed copy of the gene in the cell is enough to cause this condition. As females have two X chromosomes a mutation would have to have happened in both of the copies of the genes to cause this condition. This is very rare to happen in females as both copies of genes would have to have the same mutation happened to them. Therefore it is rare for females to have hemophilia. Fathers cannot pass on the inherited X linked condition to their sons as this is one of the characteristics of X linked inheritance. Females who have this X linked recessive condition have one mutated gene are called carriers. Female’s carriers have normally half the amount of coagulation factor which is enough for blood clotting. Some female’s carriers have less than half of the normal amount of coagulation factor, these carriers are at risk for abnormal bleeding (About Education, 2015).
Q8. Explain the inheritance of either cystic fibrosis or phenylketonuria
Cystic fibrosis is a disorder that causes respiratory failure and vitamin deficiencies. Cystic fibrosis effects the secretion of the body i.e. saliva, mucus, sweat and digestive juices. As this secretion should be thin and watery, they are thick and sticky. This causes passageways to be clogged up within the body which causes damage to the pancreas and lungs. Cystic fibrosis is caused by inheriting defected gene from both parents, known as recessive gene. Cystic fibrous cannot be inherited by the off spring, if only one parent has the gene. If the off spring has only one defective gene then they are carriers of cystic fibrosis, this means that they will have the potential to pass on the defective gene to their off spring (eHow, 2015).
The cystic fibrosis allele is represented by f. The normal allele is F. Suppose both parents have alleles Ff. The possible combinations of alleles in the children are FF, Ff, Ff and ff. The alleles ff will cause the disease. So, although the parents do not have cystic fibrosis, they can produce children with the disease. The parents are called
The off spring labelled Ff are carriers, they have one defective gene but do not have the disorder themselves. In the diagram above both parents are carriers, they have one in four chances of producing an off spring that has cystic fibrosis (Bitesize, 2014).
The cystic fibrosis allele is represented by f. The normal allele is F. Suppose one parent is FF and the other is a carrier, Ff. The possible combinations of alleles in the children are FF, FF, FF and Ff. So the parents cannot produce children with cystic fibrosis (ff). But they can produce children with alleles Ff, who will be carriers
In the diagram above one parent is a carrier, while the other is not. They will not produce an off spring with cystic fibrosis, but are able to produce off springs that are carriers (Bitesize, 2014).
Q9 Describe the process of genetic screening explaining the application of DNA recombinant technology in the treatment of a named medical condition.
Genetic testing is a medical test that can indicate any changes in the chromosomes, genes and proteins. The result of genetic testing can help to confirm or reject an alleged genetic condition, disease that the individual may have suspicion of, or help verify their chances of developing and or passing on a genetic disorder to their off spring.
Some of the methods of genetic testing can be of these. Molecular genetic testing, this is where the medics study a single gene or short lengths of DNA to find defectiveness or mutation that may lead to a genetic disorder. Chromosomal genetic testing, this is where a whole chromosome and or long lengths of DNA to see if there are any sizable genetic changes i.e. extra copy of chromosome. Biochemical genetic testing, this is where the activity level or the amount of proteins are studied; any abnormalities that are detected can indicate genetic disorder (Genetic Home Reference, 2015).
DNA recombinant technology, is a technology that produces DNA artificially. The DNA in living organism has been changed today due to this procedure. This procedure involves taking DNA from two difference sources and merging it together for it to become one single molecule. However this only works when the artificially created DNA has been reproduced, this is known as DNA cloning. The two types of cloning that DNA recombinant technology is used for are, therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. The reproductive cloning produces an organism with the exact same genetic information from the one that already is living. This type of cloning has been done with Dolly the sheep. Dolly was the first mammal to be reproduced as a genetic copy. Therapeutic cloning, reproduces tissues and or organ and not the whole organism.
Therapeutic cloning has a great deal of benefit, i.e. if an organ has cancer it can be replaced with one made from the individuals own DNA. This reduces any likely hood of organ rejection within the body when a tissue or organ transplant is preformed (Wisegeek, 2015).
Q10 Discuss the moral and ethical issues raised by DNA recombinant technology
Not everyone is in favour of DNA recombinant technology, as they feel that science is playing god by reproducing unnaturally organisms that are not meant to be. And that science is devaluing the uniqueness of life itself. Also that some DNA work involves destroying embryos, this angers some social activist as this death is bought on intently this could be classed as murder. However scientist, argue that the purpose of DNA recombinant technology is to benefit and save human life, and not to destroy it (Wisegeek, 2015).
The free Dictionary 2015, DNA, [online] available at http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/DNA, Last Accessed 18/05/15
The free Dictionary 2015, MRNA, [online] available at http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/mRNA, Last Accessed 18/05/15
The free Dictionary 2015, TRNA, [online] available at http://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/tRNA, Last Accessed 18/05/15
WiseGeek 2015, What is Protein Synthesis, [online] available at http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-protein-synthesis.htm, Last accessed 19/05/15
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2015, Point Mutation, [online] available at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/54744/point-mutation, Last accessed 19/05/15
Answers 2015, What is point mutation, [online] available at http://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_point_mutation, Last accessed 20/05/15
Understanding Evolution 2015, The effects of Mutation, [online] available at http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/mutations_05, Last accessed 20/05/15
Genetics Home Reference 2012, Down Syndrome, [online] available at http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/down-syndrome, Last accessed 20/05/15
About Education 2015, Sex linked traits, [online] available at http://biology.about.com/od/genetics/ss/sex-linked-traits.htm, Last accessed 23/05/15
eHow 2015, How is Cystic Fibrosis Inherited, [online] available at http://www.ehow.com/how-does_5049940_cystic-fibrosis-inherited.html, Last accessed 23/05/15
Bitesize 2014, Cystic Fibrosis, [online] available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa_pre_2011/celldivision/inheritance4.shtml, Last accessed 23/05/15
Genetic Home Reference 2015, What is genetic testing, [online] available at http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting, Last accessed 23/05/15
WiseGeek 2015, What is Recombinant DNA Technology, [online] available at http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-recombinant-dna-technology.htm, Last accessed 23/05/15
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NWSA English II
Ms. Strahan's English II Class
February 2014
Bell Ringer 6C (A4, B4)
Analyze the characterization of Hester. How can the description of Hester be compared to the rose?
(Write a 1/2 page response.)
Bell Ringer 6C (A1, A2, B1)
Analyze the characterization of Pearl. How is the scarlet letter (the actual letter) embodied by Pearl?
(Write a 1/2 page response.)
The Scarlet Letter Chapters 3-7 Vocabulary
Chapter 3-7 Vocab
Bell Ringer 5C
What is the difference between how adultery is viewed now and how it was viewed by Puritan society? In other words, where does the blame lie? (1/2 page response)
Bell Ringer 4C-The Scarlet Letter
Write a one page reflection on intolerance in society and how/where you have seen it or felt it.
Bell Ringer 3C
Create a short story (1/2 page) including a theme from The Scarlet Letter.
Up ↑
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Rove Beetles
General Facts
Rove beetles are the largest family of beetles in North America. They are nocturnal, so detecting infestations can be difficult. The pests are active in warm months and hibernate in the winter. As rove beetles eat other small insects, they are typically considered beneficial. Nonetheless, home infestations can be problematic.
Appearance / Identification
As adults, rove beetles are typically smaller than 2 cm in length. Commonly, they are black or brown with slender bodies and short front wings. Homeowners can distinguish these pests from other beetles by the way they angle their abdomens upward when they run or are startled.
Primarily, rove beetles nest in decaying organic matter and soil. They also hide under leaf litter, debris, rocks, and plants. In homes, the pests can be found in basements.
Rove beetles feed on small insects found on crops and dead animals.
Life Cycle / Reproduction
The life cycle of rove beetles consists of four stages: eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults. The eggs are laid in decaying matter and soil before hatching. Rove beetles develop rapidly and adults live for long periods of time.
Problems Caused by Rove Beetles
Rove beetles are unsightly when they gather in homes. Additionally, they may bite when handled.
Detection / Signs of Infestation
Homeowners should search for rove beetle infestations under plants and trash bins indoors or rocks and vegetation outdoors. As the insects move quickly, individuals might only catch glimpses of them.
Prevention Tips
To prevent rove beetles, remove any decaying matter near homes. Homeowners can also reduce the pests’ access by sealing any cracks or openings around windows and doors.
Control / Removal
Control infestations in houses by vacuuming up rove beetles immediately after detection. To effectively remove large populations, contact your local pest control expert.
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Resource Overview History
Silk is one of 31 rare resources. It appears as a collection of large frames draped with some sort of fabric with spiral patterns and some (white mulberry) plants nearby, both of which being used by silkworms to produce silk as well as another frame draped with colorful fabrics, likely the processed silk.
Like all rare resources on land, Silk can be harvested by sending a Merchant from the Market to the resource location. Silk provides the following benefits:
Silk is one of the five rare resources to reduce a research cost, with the other four being Furs, Dye, Papyrus and Silver. The cost reduction is quite significant, so if Silk happens to be available nearby, it should be hooked up with a Merchant as soon as possible.
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Meaning of CHARLES in English
orig. Wenceslas known as Charles of Luxembourg
born May 14, 1316, Prague
died Nov. 29, 1378, Prague
King of the Germans and of Bohemia (134678) and Holy Roman emperor (135578).
Charles was elected German king in place of Louis IV in 1346. That same year his father died in a war against England, and Charles became king of Bohemia. He invaded Italy and won the crown of Lombardy as well as the imperial crown at Rome. Charles enlarged his dynastic power through skillful diplomacy and made Prague the political and cultural center of the empire. He issued the Golden Bull of 1356 and won the right of succession to the German throne for his son Wenceslas .
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Краткая энциклопедия Британика.
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Ledger Art : Part I
The Native American form of representative art known today as “Ledger Art”, or any form of art done on paper, has its origins in the pre-historic Native Ceremonial Art Tradition still available to us in the numerous ancient Rock Art sites throughout the Plains region of North America and beyond.
These Ceremonial Art images were predominantly humans and animals figures, carved or painted alone or in small, juxtaposed groups. Depicted in rigid, frontal forms, lacking action or a sense of united scenes, these figures documented the religious and symbolic beliefs of Plains Indians, associated with vision quests and shamanic practices. They were of 3 majors types, the shield-bearing warriors, the rectangular stand alone human figures and the animals. These figures are simple and conventionalized, the shield-bearing represented by a large round shield, with the warrior being portrayed simply by stick legs and arms and a dot or small circle for the head sometime shown with a headdress. The shields are often very detailed, picturing either abstract and geometric designs or animal figures offering protective power to the shield. The rectilinear human figures are also stylized and conventional, sometimes shown with elaborate headdresses, sticks arms bent up at the elbows and occasionally holding weapons. Their bodies regularly show anatomical details, ribs, kidneys, genitalia and symbolic lifelines and often facial expressions. Like the human figures, the animals are simple and stylized, outlined by a curvilinear line, always in profile and showing identifying details such as antlers, claws or feathers.
The evolution of Ceremonial Art into, what is called Biographic Art, can already be seen in late prehistoric Rock Art, but is really prevalent in the historic pictographic tradition painted on animal hides used for war shirts, shields, tipis, robes and later drawn on ledger books.
No Ceremonial or early Biographic Art on perishable media is known today, but it is strongly suspected and almost expected, that prehistoric Native cultures decorated animal hides and other decaying materials. One strong indication for this thought, is the images of the shields on Ceremonial Rock Art that are often decorated with abstract, symbolic designs or animal spirit images, as most likely the original shields were made of hides, it therefore demonstrate the use of hides as a media for pictorial drawing, whether as shields or robes. Another clue, is that the carved human figures have also decoration that could be body paint or symbolic signs, but could very well be representation of decorated shirts. It seems obvious that prehistoric Plains Indians used more than just sandstone cliffs to execute their picture-writing art form.
Where Ceremonial Art was symbolic and meant to bring power and protection to the people, Biographic Art depicts real events and humans involved in actual activities such as war, hunt, social and tribal episodes. The images gained in movement and fluidity, interacting with one another in scenes and actions that can be read through stylistic convention creating a picture-writing with a storyline easily interpreted by initiated people. Stylistically, the figures resemble the early ceremonial petroglyphs, shield-bearing warriors, blocky human figures, archaic, naïve animal forms and a new triangular form for the human torso is introduced. But now the figures interact with each others, creating active scenes of combat, counting coups or stealing horses. Figures facing each other in semi-profile, arms outstretched holding spears or clubs, bent over, leaning forward or backward creating action and giving life to the scenes. Horses drawn with curvilinear lines are more graceful and fluid, emanation of agility, speed and power. Riders are been pictured on horses increasing the sensation of action and mobility. The new incorporation of ideograms and pictograms such as dashed lines for human footprints, series of C shapes for horses tracks, dots or lines with dots for flying bullets creates again illusion of movement, travel within the scene and the passing of time in a unique picture frame. The story telling can be intense and detailed, narrating events that helped preserve and transmit the tribal history.
The rapid evolution of the Biographic Art form culminates in the early 1700’s through the late 19th century. Our records of this form of Native art is a lot more extensive due to the collecting habit of the first Euro-American visiting the Western Plains region. The oldest painted robes date to the first half of the 18th century and many more were acquired in the following decades as well as painted war shirts. The first known ledger drawings on paper were done by the Mandan’s warriors Four Bears and Yellow Feather who were given paper, pen, pencils and watercolor paint by Karl Bodmer in 1834. It is possible that earlier examples of Native art on paper existed but did not survived. The expansion of the use of paper did not occur until the 1860’s with the increase numbers of travelers and people moving out west. Warrior/artists were able to get paper material through trade, raid or gifts and favored this media for its ease of transportation and use.
The same evolution in style and topics happened in Ledger Art that it did in early Biographic Art. We will look at that in a coming blog.
“Plains Indian Painting” John C Ewers
“Plains Indian Rock Art” James Keyser & Michael Klassen
“The Five Crows Ledger” James Keyser
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Mangbetu Royal Art and Herbert Lang, 1902-1906
by Enid Schildkrout
Museum for African Art (formerly American Museum of Natural History)
Portrait of Nemali, Okondo's 3rd wife, Mangbetu peoples, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Photo by Herbert Lang. Submitted by Enid Schildkrout.
The Mangbetu ideal of feminine beauty, exemplified by royal women at the turn of the century, featured an elongated bound head with an elaborate fanlike coiffure. The Mangbetu, and some neighboring groups, often based their figurative art on this style. The Mangbetu head was depicted in wood, ivory, and ceramic on various objects, including pots, knife handles, and musical instruments. Pottery depicting this particular hairdress and style of adornment developed after the turn of the 20th century in and around Niangara, a cosmopolitan town that attracted Zande and Mangbetu artists. Whereas women had traditionally made coiled pottery for domestic use, pots adorned with heads became popular partly in response to commissions from Europeans. Male artists began to sculpt heads on the pots, sometimes working together with women who made the container itself.
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"url": "https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/topic-essays/show/30?start=18"
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Why did the Mongols leave Hungary?
The Mongols are known for their conquests across the continents of Asia and Europe. But every great empire must shrink eventually, and the Mongols are no exception. In the mid 1241, the Mongols invaded Hungary. A year later, the Mongols abruptly left the region, and the reason was unknown until recently. Research done by a historian at Princeton University looking at the tree rings in the region show that the winter of 1241 was cold and snowy, which led to a wet spring. This turned the grasslands that the Mongols were using for farming turned into marshes, which made farming and traveling by horse extremely difficult. These conditions were unsuitable for the Mongols, so they retreated. A map of the Mongol empire drawn in 1246 shows the entirety of the empire, but Hungary was no longer a part of the map.
These two sources are related because they provide reasoning and illustration to the Mongol empire. The two sources bring up the issue of using nature to understand history. There are plenty of unexplained events in history that could potentially be explained by nature. This story should be interesting to Minnesotans, and anyone really, because we could use tree rings to understand our own history.
News Story: Mystery of Mongol Retreat from Hungary Solved
Image: Map of Mongol Empire (1246)
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The Full Wiki
Overexploited: Wikis
(Redirected to Overexploitation article)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Atlantic cod stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992[1]
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. If sustained, it can lead to the destruction of the resource. The term can be applied to various natural resources such as wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, fish stocks, forests and water aquifers.
In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity.[2] Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate that is unsustainable, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at the population level and even extinction of whole species. In conservation biology the term is usually used in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand.[3] The term is also used and defined somewhat differently in fisheries, hydrology and natural resource management.
It is possible for overexploitation to be sustainable, as discussed below in the section on fisheries. In the context of fishing, the term overfishing can be used instead of overexploitation, as can overgrazing in stock management, overlogging in forest management, overdrafting in aquifer management, and endangered species in species monitoring. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans. Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native flora and fauna.
When the giant flightless birds called moa were overexploited to the point of extinction,[4] the giant Haast's eagle that preyed on them also became extinct[5]
Overexploitation is not a new phenomenon. It has been observed for millennia. For example, ceremonial cloaks worn by the Hawaiian kings were made from the mamo bird; a single cloak used the feathers of 70,000 birds of this now-extinct species. The dodo, a flightless bird from Mauritius, is another well known example of overexploitation. As with many island species, it was naive about certain predators, allowing humans to approach and kill it with ease.[6]
From the earliest of times, hunting for wild mammals and birds has been an important human activity as a means of survival. There is a whole history of overexploitation in the form of overhunting. The overkill hypothesis (Quaternary extinction events) explains why the megafaunal extinctions occurred within a relatively short period of time. This can be traced with human migration. The most convincing evidence of this theory is that 80% of the North American large mammal species disappeared within 1000 years of the arrival of humans on the western hemisphere continents.[7] Again, in New Zealand, ten species of the giant moa birds were hunted to extinction by the Māori by 1500 AD.[4] A second wave of extinctions occurred later with European settlement.
In more recent times, overexploitation has resulted in the gradual emergence of the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development, which has built on other concepts, such as sustainable yield,[8] eco-development[9][10] and deep ecology.[11][12]
Overexploitation need not necessarily lead to the destruction of the resource, nor is it necessarily unsustainable. However, depleting the numbers or amount of the resource can change its quality. For example, footstool palm is a wild palm tree found in Southeast Asia. Its leaves are used for thatching and food wrapping, and overharvesting has resulted in its leaf size becoming smaller.
Tragedy of the commons
Cows on Selsley Common. The tragedy of the commons is a useful parable for understanding how overexploitation can occur
The tragedy of the commons refers to a dilemma described in an article by that name written by Garrett Hardin and first published in the journal Science in 1968.[13]
Central to Hardin's essay is an example which is a useful parable for understanding how overexploitation can occur. This example was first sketched in an 1833 pamphlet by William Forster Lloyd, as a hypothetical and simplified situation based on medieval land tenure in Europe, of herders sharing a commons on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze. In Hardin's example, it is in each herder's interest to put each succeeding cow he acquires onto the land, even if the carrying capacity of the common is exceeded and it is temporarily or permanently damaged for all as a result. The herder receives all of the benefits from an additional cow, while the damage to the common is shared by the entire group. If all herders make this individually rational economic decision, the common will be overexploited or even destroyed to the detriment of all. However, since all herders reach the same rational conclusion, overexploitation in the form of overgrazing occurs, with immediate losses, and the pasture may be degraded to the point where it gives very little return.
In the course of his essay, Hardin develops the theme, drawing in many examples of latter day commons, such as national parks, the atmosphere, oceans, rivers and fish stocks. The example of fish stocks had led some to call this the "tragedy of the fishers".[14] A major theme running through the essay is the growth of human populations, with the Earth's finite resources being the general common.
The tragedy of the commons has intellectual roots tracing back to Aristotle, who noted that "what is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it",[15] as well as to Hobbes and his leviathan.[16] The opposite situation to a tragedy of the commons is sometimes referred to as a tragedy of the anticommons: a situation in which rational individuals, acting separately, collectively waste a given resource by underutilizing it.
The tragedy of the commons can be avoided if it is appropriately regulated. Hardin's use of "commons" has frequently been misunderstood, leading Hardin to later remark that he should have titled his work "The tragedy of the unregulated commons".[17]
The northern bluefin tuna is currently seriously overexploited. Scientists say 7,500 tons annually is the sustainable limit, yet the fishing industry continue to harvest 60,000 tons.
In wild fisheries, overexploitation or overfishing occurs when a fish stock has been fished down "below the size that, on average, would support the long-term maximum sustainable yield of the fishery".[18] However, overexploitation can be sustainable.
When a fishery starts harvesting fish from a previously unexploited stock, the biomass of the fish stock will decrease, since harvesting means fish are being removed. For sustainability, the rate at which the fish replenish biomass through reproduction must balance the rate at which the fish are being harvested. If the harvest rate is increased, then the stock biomass will further decrease. At a certain point, the maximum harvest yield that can be sustained will be reached, and further attempts to increase the harvest rate will result in the collapse of the fishery. This point is called the maximum sustainable yield, and in practice, usually occurs when the fishery has been fished down to about 30% of the biomass it had before harvesting started.[19]
It is possible to fish the stock down further, to say 15% of the pre-harvest biomass, and then adjust the harvest rate so the biomass remains at that level. In this case, the fishery is sustainable, but is now overexploited, because the stock has been run down to the point where the sustainable yield is less than it could be.
Fish stocks are said to "collapse" if their biomass declines by more than 95 percent of their maximum historical biomass. Atlantic cod stocks were severely overexploited in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to their abrupt collapse in 1992.[1] Even though fishing has ceased, the cod stocks have failed to recover.[1] The absence of cod as the apex predator in many areas has led to trophic cascades.[1]
About 25% of world fisheries are now overexploited to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield.[20] These depleted fisheries can often recover if fishing pressure is reduced until the stock biomass returns to the optimal biomass. At this point, harvesting can be resumed near the maximum sustainable yield.[21]
The tragedy of the commons can be avoided within the context of fisheries if fishing effort and practices are regulated appropriately by fisheries management. One effective approach may be assigning some measure of ownership in the form of individual transferable quotas (ITQs) to fishermen. In 2008, a large scale study of fisheries that used ITQs, and ones that didn't, provided strong evidence that ITQs help prevent collapses and restore fisheries that appear to be in decline.[22][23]
Water resources
Overexploitation of groundwater from an aquifer can result in a peak water curve.[24]
Water resource, such as lakes and aquifers, are usually renewable resources which naturally recharge (the term fossil water is sometimes used to describe aquifers which don't recharge). Overexploitation occurs if a water resource, such as the Ogallala Aquifer, is mined or extracted at a rate that exceeds the recharge rate, that is, at a rate that exceeds the practical sustained yield. Recharge usually comes from area streams, rivers and lakes. An aquifer which has been overexploited is said to be overdrafted or depleted. Forests enhance the recharge of aquifers in some locales, although generally forests are a major source of aquifer depletion.[25] Depleted aquifers can become polluted with contaminants such as nitrates, or permanently damaged through subsidence or through saline intrusion from the ocean.
This turns much of the world's underground water and lakes into finite resources with peak usage debates similar to oil.[26][27] These debates usually centre around agriculture and suburban water usage but generation of electricity from nuclear energy or coal and tar sands mining is also water resource intensive.[28] A modified Hubbert curve applies to any resource that can be harvested faster than it can be replaced.[29] Though Hubbert's original analysis did not apply to renewable resources, their overexploitation can result in a Hubbert-like peak. This has led to the concept of peak water.
Forest resources
Beech Forest – Grib Skov, Denmark
Beech forest – Grib Skov, Denmark
Forests are overexploited when they are logged at a rate faster than reforestation takes place. Reforestation competes with other land uses such as food production, livestock grazing, and living space for further economic growth. Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.[30] Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity (hence reduction in nature's services). West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of overexploitation and the consequent declining timber harvests.[31]
The rich diversity of marine life inhabiting coral reefs attracts bioprospectors. Many coral reefs are overexploited
Overexploitation is one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity.[2] The other four activities are pollution, introduced species, habitat fragmentation and habitat destruction.[2]
One of the key health issues associated with biodiversity is drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources.[32] A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources. Marine ecosystems are of particular interest in this regard.[33] However unregulated and inappropriate bioprospecting can be considered a form of overexploitation which has the potential to degrade ecosystems and increase biodiversity loss, as well as impacting on the rights of the communities and states from which the resources are taken.[34][35][36]
Endangered species
Overexploitation threatens one-third of endangered vertebrates, as well as other groups. Excluding edible fish, the illegal trade in wildlife is valued at $10 billion per year. Industries responsible for this include the trade in bushmeat, the trade in Chinese medicine, and the fur trade.[37] The Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES was set up in order to control and regulate the trade in endangered animals. It currently protects, to a varying degree, some 33,000 species of animals and plants. It is estimated that a quarter of the endangered vertebrates in the United States of America and half of the endangered mammals is attributed to overexploitation[38][39]
All living organisms require resources to survive. Overexploitation of these resources for protracted periods can deplete natural stocks to the point where they are unable to recover within a short time frame. Humans have always harvested food and other resources they have needed to survive. Human populations, historically, were small, and methods of collection limited to small quantities. With an exponential increase in human population, expanding markets and increasing demand, combined with improved access and techniques for capture, are causing the exploitation of many species beyond sustainable levels.[40] In practical terms, if continued, it reduces valuable resources to such low levels that their exploitation is no longer sustainable and can lead to the extinction of a species, in addition to having dramatic, unforeseen effects, on the ecosystem.[41] Overexploitation often occurs rapidly as markets open, utilising previously untapped resources, or locally used species.
It is not just humans that overexploit their resources. Overgrazing can occur naturally, caused by native fauna, as shown in the upper right.
Today, overexploitation and misuse of natural resources is an ever present threat for species richness. This is more prevalent when looking at island ecology and the species that inhabit them, as islands can be viewed as the world in miniature. Island endemic populations are more prone to extinction from overexploitation, as they often exist at low densities with reduced reproductive rates.[42] A good example of this are island snails, such as the Hawaiian Achatinella and the French Polynesian Partula. Achatinelline snails have 15 species listed as extinct and 24 critically endangered[43] while 60 species of partulidae are considered extinct with 14 listed as critically endangered.[44] The WCMC have attributed over-collecting and very low lifetime fecundity for the extreme vulnerability exhibited among these species.[45]
As another example, when the humble hedgehog was introduced to the Scottish island of Uist, the population greatly expanded and took to consuming and overexploiting shorebird eggs, with drastic consequences for their breeding success. Twelve species of avifauna are affected, with some species numbers being reduced by 39%.[46]
Where there is substantial human migration, civil unrest, or war, controls may no longer exist. With civil unrest, for example in the Congo and Rwanda, firearms have become common place and the breakdown of food distribution networks in such countries leaves the resources of the natural environment vulnerable to whoever can exploit them.[47] Animals are even killed as target practice sometimes, or simply to spite the government. Populations of large primates, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, ungulates and other mammals, may be reduced by 80% or more by hunting and certain species may be eliminated all together.[48] This decline has been called the bushmeat crisis.
The Carolina parakeet was hunted to extinction.
Overall, 50 bird species that have become extinct since 1500 (approximately 40% of the total) have been subject to overexploitation,[49] including:
• Great Auk- The penguin-like bird of the north, hunted for its feathers, meat, fat and oil.
• Carolina parakeet - The only parrot species native to the eastern United States, was hunted for crop protection and its feathers.
Other species affected by overexploitation include:
• The international trade in fur: chinchilla, vicuña, giant otter and numerous cat species.
• Insect collectors: butterflies
• Horticulturists: New Zealand mistletoe (Trilepidia adamsii), orchids, cacti and many other plant species.
• Shell collectors: Marine molluscs
• Aquarium hobbyists: tropical fish
• Chinese medicine: bears, tigers
• Novelty pets: snakes, parrots and primates
Cascade effects
Overexploiting sea otters resulted in cascade effects which destroyed kelp forest ecosystems
Overexploitation of species can result in knock-on or cascade effects. This can particularly apply if, through overexploitation, a habitat loses its apex predator. Because of the loss of the top predator, a dramatic increase in their prey species can occur. In turn, the unchecked prey can then overexploit their own food resources until population numbers dwindle, possibly to the point of extinction.
A classic example of cascade effects occurred with sea otters. Starting before the 1600s and not phased out until 1911, sea otters were hunted aggressively for their exceptionally warm and valuable pelts, which could fetch up to $2500 US. This caused cascade effects through the kelp forest ecosystems along the Pacific Coast of North America.[50]
One of the sea otters’ primary food sources is the sea urchin. When hunters caused sea otter populations to decline, an ecological release of sea urchin populations occurred. The sea urchins then overexploited their main food source, kelp, creating urchin barrens, areas of seabed denuded of kelp, but carpeted with urchins. No longer having food to eat, the sea urchin became locally extinct as well. Also, since kelp forest ecosystems are homes to many other species, the loss of the kelp caused other cascade effects of secondary extinctions.[51]
In 1911, when only one small group of 32 sea otters survived in a remote cove, an international treaty was signed to prevent further exploitation of the sea otters. Under heavy protection, the otters multiplied and repopulated the depleted areas, which slowly recovered. More recently, with declining numbers of fish stocks, again due to overexploitation, killer whales have experienced a food shortage and have been observed feeding on sea otters, again reducing their numbers.[52]
See also
2. ^ a b c Wilcove, D.S., Rothstein, D., Dubow, J. Phillips, A. and Losos, E. (1998). Quantifying Threats to Imperilled Species in the United States. BioScience. 48, 607-615.
3. ^ Oxford. (1996). Oxford Dictionary of Biology. Oxford University Press.
5. ^ Tennyson, A.; Martinson, P. (2006). Extinct Birds of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Te Papa Press. ISBN 978-0-909010-21-8.
6. ^ Jonathan Fryer (2002-09-14). "Bringing the dodo back to life". BBC News. Retrieved 2006-09-07)
7. ^ Paul S. Martin
8. ^ Larkin, P.A. 1977. An epitaph for the concept of maximum sustained yield. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 106: 1-11
9. ^ Lubchenco, J. 1991. The Sustainable Biosphere Initative: An ecological research agenda. Ecology 72: 371-412.
10. ^ Lee, K.N. 2001. Sustainability, concept and practice of. In S.A. Levin (ed.), Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 5: 553-568. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
11. ^ Naess, A. 1986. Intrinsic value: Will the defenders of nature please rise? In M.E. Soulé (ed.), Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity, pp.153-181. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
12. ^ Sessions, G. (ed.) 1995. Deep Ecology for the 21st Century: Readings on the Philosophy and Practice of the New Environmentalism. Shambala Books, Boston.
15. ^ Ostrom, E (1992) "The rudiments of a theory of the origins, survival, and performance of common-property institutions" In D. W. Bromley (Ed.) Making the Commons Work: Theory, Practice and Policy. San Francisco, ICS Press.
16. ^ Feeny, D. et al., (1990) "The tragedy of the commons – 22 years later", Human Ecology, 18: 1-19.
17. ^ Will commons sense dawn again in time? The Japan Times Online]
18. ^ NOAA: FishWatch glossary Retrieved 2 February 2010.
19. ^ Bolden, E.G., Robinson, W.L. (1999), Wildlife ecology and management 4th ed. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ. ISBN 0138404224
20. ^ Grafton RQ, Kompas T and Hilborn RW (2007) "Economics of Overexploitation Revisited" Science, 318 (5856): 1601.
21. ^ Rosenberg AA (2003) "Managing to the margins: the overexploitation of fisheries" Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1(2): 102-106.
22. ^ New Scientist: Guaranteed fish quotas halt commercial free-for-all
23. ^ A Rising Tide: Scientists find proof that privatising fishing stocks can avert a disaster The Economist, 18th Sept, 2008.
25. ^ "Underlying Causes of Deforestation: UN Report".
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30. ^ Forest Products
31. ^ "Destruction of Renewable Resources".
32. ^ (2006) “Molecular Pharming” GMO Compass Retrieved November 5, 2009, From
33. ^ Roopesh J. et al., 2008 Marine organisms: Potential Source for Drug Discovery Current Science, Vol. 94, No. 3, 10 Feb 2008
34. ^ Bioprospecting: Effects on Environment and Development
35. ^ Home (2005-07-16). "Looking for new compounds in sea is endangering ecosystem". doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1350-d. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
37. ^ Hemley 1994
38. ^ Wilcove, D.S., D.Rothstein, J. Dubow, A. Phillips, and E. Losos. 1998. Quantifying threats to imperialised species. BioScience 48: 607-615.
39. ^ Primack, R.B. (2002). Essentials of Conservation Biology, 3rd edition. Sinauer Associates Inc.
40. ^ Redford 1992, Fitzgibon etal 1995, Cuarón 2001
41. ^ Frankham, R., Ballou, J.D. and Briscoe, D.A. (2002). Introduction to Conservation Genetics. Cambridge University Press.
42. ^ Dowding, J.E. and Murphy, E.C. (2001). The Impact of Predation be Introduced Mammals on Endemic Shorebirds in New Zealand: A Conservation Perspective. Biological Conservation. 99: 47-64.
43. ^ IUCN Red List. (2003b). &modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all®ions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=97&Submit.y=2.
44. ^ IUCN Red List. (2003c). modifier=phrase&criteria=wholedb&taxa_species=1&redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&country%5B%5D=all&aquatic%5B%5D=all®ions%5B%5D=all&habitats%5B%5D=all&threats%5B%5D=all&Submit.x=95&Submit.y=4. Accessed 9th December 2003.
46. ^ Jackson, D.B., Fuller, R.J., Campbell, S.T. (2003). Long-term Population Changes Among Breeding Shorebirds in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland, In Relation to Introduced Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). Biological Conservation.
47. ^ Jones, R.F. 1990. Farewell to Africa. Audubon 92: 1547-1551.
48. ^ Wilkie, D.S. and J.F. 1999. Bushmeat hunting in the Congo Basin: An assessment of impacts and options for migration. Biodiversity and Conservation 8: 927-955.
49. ^ The LUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2009).
52. ^ Krebs, C.J. (2001). Ecology (5th ed.). Benjamin Cummings.
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Thayer Watkins
Silicon Valley
& Tornado Alley
The Petroleum Industry of Mexico
The 1917 Constitution
After years of civil war the Mexican government created a new constitution in 1917. Some say, with justification, that this 1917 constitution was the first socialist constitution. It preceded the constitution of the Soviet Union by a year. Article 27 of that 1917 constitution declared that all subsoil minerals, including petroleum and other hydrocarbons, belonged to the nation; i.e., the government. Supposedly this was progressive but, in fact, it simply copied the position of the Spanish monarchs. The only differences is that the Spanish monarchs did not know about petroleum and hydrocarbons. Since these were not declared minerals the landowners before 1917 were entitled to harvest them or sell the rights to do so. The Mexican revolutionaries of 1917 were only doing what the Spanish monarchy would have done if it still controlled Mexico.
The truth of the matter is that what is labeled socialism is merely a form of feudalism. It was very natural, probably inevitable, for the revolutionaries rising to power through military action to establish a variety of feudalism once in power. The rhetorical benevolence of monarchy is no less lofty than that of the rhetoric of socialism, and the performance of socialistic government no more impressive in serving the interests of the population than that of monarchic govenment.
The 1917 constitution which declared petroleum and other hydrocarbons to be the property of the state was not enforced retroactively. The leases of oil rights to companies, even foreign companies, were allowed to stand. But land owners who had not leased those oil rights by the time of the constitution no longer had ownership of those rights. The 1917 constituition also provided for the recognition of organized labor and the right to strike. This element proved to be a crucial factor in the way in which the petroleum industry was expropriated by the Mexican government under Lázaro Cárdenas in 1938.
The Early History of the Petroleum Industry
Humans had been acquainted with petroleum, literally rock oil, from time immemorial. It was found as a seepage various places in the world. It had been used as an ointment and salve. The thicker variety and asphalt were used as a caulking. In 1826, a commissioner for a British mining company in Mexico reported that great quantities of seepage petroleum, called Chapapote, were marketed in Tampico, a town near the Panuco River in southern Mexico. It was used as varnish and to cover the bottoms of canoes. The going price was a half dollar per 100 pounds.
Colonel Drake drilled the first commercial oil well in the world in 1859 in western Pennsylvania. There had been exploitation of natural gas from drilled wells in ancient China but no prior exploitation of petroleum from drilled wells. Petroleum did show up as a nuisance in well drilled for water and there was some utilization of this petroleum as an ungent and as an ingredient in medical concoctions of dubious value.
The petroleum industry was not launched until a decline in the supply of whale oil for lamps led to a significance price increase in whale oil price. The search for substitutes for whale oil revealed that a distillate from petroleum, kerosene, provided a satisfactory fuel for illumination. It was then that the drilling of oil wells became commercially feasible.
Eight years after that first oil well in western Pennsylvania, in 1869, someone drilled a shallow, 125 foot deep, well in Mexico. Not enough oil was found to justify commercial operation. But a few years later a small refinery was built in the region to process seepage oil. Later, over the period 1880 to 1883 a Boston drilled several well in the Tuxpám region but did not find enough oil to justify commercial exploitation.
Before petroleum was discovered in commercial amounts in Mexico, Mexico was dependment upon imports of petroleum products, particularly kerosene. The importation, distribution and marketing of kerosene and other petroleum products was solely in the hands of one American firm, Waters-Pierce Oil Co. The price of kerosene in Mexico during that time was about 40 U.S. cents per gallon. This was the era of the Porfiriato. In 1889 Porfirio Díaz invited Weetman Pearson of the British construction company of S. Pearson and Sons, Ltd. to come to Mexico to construct a railroad across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Weetman Dickinson Pearson, was a son of one the sons of the founder Samuel Pearson.
It is notable that before it was known that Mexico had petroleum fields the government was not willing to risk public funds to explore for oil. There was too much of a risk that there wasn't any petroleum there.
The construction crews for the railroad found seepage petroleum and later the firm drilled oil wells to obtain fuel for the railroad's locomotives. That driling found oil in commercial quantities. This was in the early 1900's. Weetman Pearson, later known as Lord Cowdray, created the Mexican Eagle Oil Company (Cia Mexicana de Petroleo El Aguila SA) in 1900 which went on to become the dominant firm in the Mexican petroleum industry until expropriation in 1938. A major part of the reason for the Mexican Eagle Oil Company's success was the special favors granted to it by Porfirio Díaz before his downfall in 1910. In several Mexican states Eagle Oil had the exclusive right to explore for oil. The Mexican public benefited from the success of Eagle Oil because the price of kerosene fell from $0.40 per gallon to about $0.14 per gallon.
Flag of
Cia Mexicana de
Petroleo El Aguila SA
The Mexican Eagle Oil Co. drilled in northern part of the state of Veracruz and in the vicinity of Tuxpám. In 1908 the Mexican Eagle Oil Co. brought in a gusher at Potrero de Llano. This gusher was brought under control and was a very productive oil well. This was not always the case with gushers.
In 1904 the Pennsylvania Oil Co. was drilling at the shore of Lake Tamiahua, between Tampico and Tuxpám. The drilling had reached a depth of 1800 feet and the crew took a break for lunch. While they were eating the tremendous pressures below broke through into the drill hole. The gas and oil not only blew through the drill hole but created fissures around the drill hole. The gas and oil caught fire. The fire and the fissures led to the collapse of soil around the drill hole and eventually the oil derrick and all the equipment dropped out of sight into the crater which was created. The site became known as Dos Bocas, two mouths, and the cratered area eventually covered a 40 acre area. This gusher turned out to be a far greater loss than a dry hole.
Important Cities of Mexico for the Oil Industry
Oil Wells and Drilling Sites
The locations of the major oil fields are shown below:
Oil fields of Mexico, c. 1930
When American oil companies heard about the gusher oil wells that had been found in Mexico they entered to the market by founding subsidiary companies for Mexico. Here are some of the new oil companies for Mexico:
Mexican Oil CompanyControlling
Richmond Petroleum Co.
of Mexico
Standard Oil of California
California Standard Oil Co.
of Mexico
Standard Oil of California
Mexican Gulf Oil Co.Gulf Oil Co.
Texas Company
of Mexico
Penn-Mexican Fuel Co.
Continental Mexican
Petroleum Co.
Atlantic Gulf Oil Co.
Mexican Seaboard Oil Co.
The success of these companies can be read in the statistics on petroleum production in Mexico:
(000's brls)
1901 10
1902 40
1903 75
1904 126
1905 251
1906 502
1907 1004
1908 3931
1909 2712
1910 3632
1911 12546
1912 16550
1913 25682
1914 26222
1915 32893
1916 40545
The Organized Labor Movement in Mexico
The 1917 constitution provided for the right of workers to organize. The eight-hour workday is stipulated in that constitution at a minimum wage "sufficient to satisfy the normal necessities of life." It also provided for equal pay for equal work without regard to gender, race or ethnicity, but it also provided for special protection of working women and minors. The constitution also provided for the creation of arbitration boards made up of equal numbers of representatives from management and labor with one government representative to serve as tie-breaker. Strikes were legal if they were to redress the balance of power between labor and management.
The full provisions of the constitution with regard to labor relations were not implemented immediately, but strong unions were organized in the years immediately after 1917. In particular the petroleum workers were organized.
The oil workers union did use its power to raise the nominal real wage of workers so much as it promoted overstaffing and thus the reduction of work effort, effectively raising the real wage per hour worked.
The principle of no re-election that came to prevail in the political sphere did not apply in organized labor and many of the labor union leaders continued in power for decades. Labor unions became the archetype institution for the corporatist state of Mexico.
The Nationalization of the Mexican Petroleum Industry
Lázaro Cárdenas who was President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940 was an ardent collectivist. It is not surprising that the Bolshevik Leon Trotsky chose Cárdenist Mexico as his place of refuge. Cárdenas began implementing the provisions of the 1917 constitution. He distributed 18 million hectares of land to the communal farming ejidos. This was more than all of the redistributions of his predecessors combined.
Cárdenas sanctioned the formation of a stronger national confederation of organized labor under the control of a Marxist, Vicente Lombardo Toledano. This Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos (CTM) is the strongest labor organization in Mexico. There is an umbrella organization Congreso de Trabajo (CT) that presides over the CTM and other unions but it is the CTM that has the real clout. The CTM replaces the older, more moderate national labor union, Confederación Regional Obrera Mexicana (CROM), as the leader of the Mexican labor movement.
The Petroleum Workers Union was one of the most powerful in Mexico. Petroleum workers received substantially higher pay than Mexican workers in other industries. A Mexican government survey in 1936 found the following comparisons:
Comparison of Daily Wage Rates in the Petroleum Industry and the Average of All Mexican Industries by Occupation, c. 1936
Average for
All Mexican Industries
The comparison by industry is also of interest
Average Wages in Various Industries in Mexico, c. 1936
IndustryAverage Daily
Average Annual
Electrical Power5.091832
Street Railways4.551638
These were the relatively high-paying industries of the time. The petroleum industries was high above all others in the direct wage, but employees in the petroleum industry also had substantial fringe benefits that employees in the other industries did not have. These fringe benefits included: free company housing, free medical benefits for the workers and their immediate families, and schools for the workers' children. These fringe benefits had a value roughly equal to fifty percent of the wage pay.
The Petroleum Workers Union had effectively achieved a closed shop in 1934. The petroleum companies could not hire employees who were not members of the union. The company could not fire any employee without paying very substantial severance pay but the union could expel any member which meant their loss of their job with the company. This provision meant that the union officials had more power over employees than did their company employers. This provision was put into the petroleum workers' labor contract at the insistance of President Abelardo Rodriguez, the immediate predecessor of Lázaro Cárdenas.
Cárdenas reorganized the official political party, giving it the institutional structure that enabled it to rule Mexico for seventy years. Under Cárdenas' reorganization the party had four sectors: 1. Labor, 2. Agrarian, 3. Military, 4. Popular. Later the military sector was merged with the popular sector. Cárdenas renamed the party as the Partido de la Revolución Mexicana but in 1946 it was again renamed as the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI). Under Cárdenas' reorganization the labor sector of the party was essentially the Congreso de Trabajo, the umbrella organization of the labor movement.
In 1937-38 the labor unions in most of the foreign petroleum companies went on strike estensibly for higher pay and more training of Mexican workers for the more technical jobs in the industry. In reality the goal was to take control of the petroleum companies. The demands of the union were so excessive that the companies could not grant them and still function. For more on the union demands.
Cádenas intervened demanding compliance with the workers demands. It is alleged that in the negotiations with the President some agreement was reached but the petroleum company representatives insisted that the agreement be put into writing. This was supposed to have impuned Cárdenas' integrity at honoring his word. Piqued Cárdenas executed orders for the expropriation of the foreign oil companies' properties. No compensation was paid at the time of expropriation in 1938 but later compensation was made at the value the companies had reported for tax purposes.
There were international protests but the nationalization of the foreign oil interests held. The cost to Mexico was not just the compensation paid. The far greater cost was the loss of sources of capital for Mexico for about twenty years. In addition Mexican petroleum production declined and at times Mexico was a net importer of petroleum. Furthermore the labor union of oil workers controlled the staffing of the national petroleum company PEMEX and vastly overstaffed it. When President Salinas in 1989 forced the laying off of excess workers the number of excess workers proved to be equal to about 80 percent of the necessary workers. So from nationalization in 1938 to the reorganization in 1989 a good share of the earnings of the national petroleum company went not to the government of Mexico but to the labor union.
Distribution of Petroleum Production in Mexico
The distribution of production among the various oil fields in the 1940's shows their relative importance. In that period it was the Poza Rica which was dominant.
Shares of Production
Poza Rica65%53%59%
Faja de Oro
(Golden Lane)
Isthmus de
* -less than 1%
The focus of the above figures is misleading. It was the Golden Lane (Faja de Ordo) which was the biggest field.
Production, 1950
(millions of brls)
Poza Rica412
Faja de Oro
(Golden Lane)
Isthmus de
The Impact of the Nationalization
Although usually the impact of nationalization is depicted in terms of the effect on petroleum production this is not the crucial problem. The crucial problem is the effect on the development of new producing oil wells. The table below shows that in the period 1924-1926 the private oil industry was bringing in about three hundred new producing wells per year. In was about 1926 that the Mexican government began talking about controlling the petroleum industry. Immediately the exploration began to drop and continued dropping. The petroleum companies had alternative development sites in Venezuela, Colombia and the Far East that seemed safer investments. By the time the actual nationalization came in 1938 the annual development of new successful oil wells was a small fraction of what it had been in the mid-1920's. Not all of the private petroleum companies were nationalized in 1938. Only the ones which were involved in labor disputes in 1937.
The national petroleum company, PEMEX, was not notably successful in developing new wells. The problem was not that it had a lower success rate than the private companies, the problem was that it just did not drill many wells. Bureaucrats with their careers on the line have a problem with risk-taking. No bureaucrat wants to have to explain the loss of public funds in a dry hole.
After World War II the development of new wells increased from the negligible levels of the early 1940's but still the number of new producing oil wells developed in the decade after nationalization was less than the number brought-in in 1926. Although production from the wells expropriated in 1938 was maintained after a few years of declined production the nationalization during that first decade was a financial failure. Costs rose because of over-staffing promoted by the oil workers union. PEMEX had a difficult time meeting minimal financial obligations to the Mexican government.
(000's brls)
1917 43 217 55293
1918 28 245 63828
1919 31 276 87073
1920 69 345 157069
1921 206 551 193398
1922 158 709 182278
1923 259 968 149585
1924 296 1264 139678
1925 298 1562 115515
1926 318 1880 90421
1927 204 2084 64121
1928 148 2232 50150
1929 114 2346 44688
1930 71 2417 39530
1931 57 2474 33039
1932 31 2505 32805
1933 53 2558 34001
1934 57 2615 38172
1935 35 2650 40241
1936 37 2687 41028
1937 29 2716 46907
1938 15 2731 38506
1939 15 2746 42898
1940 23 2769 44036
1941 14 2783 43054
1942 6 2789 34815
1943 9 2798 35163
1944 20 2818 38204
1945 31 2849 43547
1946 31 2880 49235
1947 28 2908 56284
1948 43 2951 58370
1949 96 3047 60736
1950 127 3174 72118
The development of new oil wells improved in 1949 when PEMEX began contracting with foreign petroleum companies to drill under contract. The payment for the drilling was a share of the oil found. Thus the risk of drilling was shifted to the drilling companies.
(To be continued.)
HOME PAGE OF applet-magic
HOME PAGE OF Thayer Watkins
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“Hidden Figures” Teaches How Injustice Remains Hidden
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Who Were the Hidden Figures?
Hidden Figures is a history lesson into systemic injustices and why they remain hidden. Click To Tweet
Three Injustices Demonstrated in Hidden Figures
Injustice #1: Black Women and their Hidden Issues
The movie gives a behind the scenes look into the successful launch of John Glenn. The first American into orbit. We know his name. Katherine Johnson was the brains who calculated the math to successfully bring Marine Corps Colonel Glenn back home.
Because of this movie, we now know Mrs. Katherine Johnson as the mathematician who made significant contributions to several of NASA’s aeronautics and space programs, including the Apollo 11 flight to the moon. Katherine first joined the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) team as a human “computer,” and transitioned to Langley Research Center’s Guidance and Navigation Department to do and check the math of her white male colleagues. Her academic depth and brilliance could not be denied.
In the movie, however, that did not stop her peers from trying to marginalize her in other ways. Since she was the only black person in the office, they made sure to provide her with a “colored” coffee pot which they did not fill with coffee. The most blatant injustice displayed on the screen was the simple fact that she lost hours of work (nearly 40 minutes at a time) to literally run back and forth to the only “colored” restroom on the entire NASA campus.
This was an invisible issue to her colleagues because it was not their reality, and the lack of having a restroom near their desk did not negatively impact them. It was not until she was questioned about her regular “absence” that she was able to raise the issue with her supervisors and confront her peers. It took her raising the issue, making a “hidden” issue visible, for real change to take place.
The movie did not indicate that her senior advisor was motivated by a moral code or civil rights, he just believed that changes were needed because collectively they are not getting the job done. They were not the best—coming in second place to Russia, but Katherine could help them be the best, and to do that, she needed to work effectively. Sometimes that is all that’s required—someone who is willing to call out an injustice and someone in a position of authority who can articulate how that injustice is negatively impacting everybody.
Sometimes all that’s required is an authority who articulates how injustice impacts everybody. Click To Tweet
Injustice #2: When Black Women do the Work, but others get the Title, Recognition, and Pay
This is a reality that Katherine, Mary, and Dorothy shared. Katherine did the math, but her white male colleague got the title and pay, while his name was the only one listed on the report (even though the numbers were Katherine’s work). Katherine did the work, but the white male initially got the credit. Mary Jackson, the engineer, was faced with the same challenges. When her character was asked by a colleague, “If you were a white male, would you wish to be an engineer?” She replied, “I wouldn’t have to, I’d already be one.”
Faced with the reality of segregated schools, Mary was not able to initially attend the right schools or classes to meet the requirements of the engineering program. Although she was working at the same level and had the ability, she did not share the title or pay of her male counterparts. Her character’s response speaks to a gender issue and the challenges that women at large continue to face in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) careers fields.
The racial dynamic at play was evident in Dorothy’s story as well. She took on the responsibility of serving as an interim supervisor for the segregated NACA, but she was denied the title and pay for at least one year. She was in charge of all the “colored computers,” the African American women mathematicians who contributed to the research at Langley, and influenced the opportunities and upward mobility for other women like Katherine and Mary.
In 1958, Mary Jackson became NASA’s first black female engineer. Dorothy Vaughan was promoted to supervisor in 1949, making her NACA’s first black supervisor, and she headed the computing division nearly a decade before retiring from NASA in 1971.
Injustice #3: Privileged White Women and the Rest of Us
During the time that Dorothy Vaughan, Katherine Johnson, and Mary Jackson provided public service to our country, NASA was undergoing many challenges and changes, some were a result of the limitations and injustices of our American society. These were directly impacted by what legal scholar Kimberlé Chenshaw calls the intersectionality of being black and woman. In other words, they faced injustices because they were black, and they faced injustices because they were female. Because the white women who worked in their career fields, shared the latter injustice, the white women were able to use the former to their benefit.
This dynamic was impossible to miss on screen, and is quite prevalent when black women are discussing a feminist movement that only seems concerned with the issues that negatively impact white women. I recently saw this play out during the 2016 Presidential campaign. By the time we were called to vote, the president-elect had built a resume of negative comments or he could have been held responsible for inciting negative actions against people of color. Within the Christian community, several of us spoke out against these injustices for nearly a year, but it was not until the “video” came out, that white evangelical women began to speak out against him. The video made it personal and a convenient time for them to speak out, even though he had already been hurting many of us.
At some point we (as Christian for sure) have to get to a place of caring, I mean really caring, about the other. Part of that comes from being more aware of other people’s stories and plight, being aware of our own privilege, and naming the gaps and injustices between these two positions.
Caring comes from naming the gaps & injustices between our position and the other. Click To Tweet
Good News and Continued Challenges
Hidden Figures provides a lot of good news and hope for us. More than putting beautiful black people on the screen and telling a compelling story, the movie provides hope. It is a history lesson for ways African American stories are often forgotten or neglected in our classroom teaching and history books. African American history is and has always been American history, and therefore we must include and teach it throughout the entire year. It is an inspirational story about what can happen when people see the big picture, and work together towards a greater calling or mission. It shows us what happens when young boys and girls from any background get a great education and have equal opportunities to excel.
It reminds us of how far we have come. Today, NASA is run by an African American male, Administrator Charles Bolden. I know him as Major General Charles Bolden, U.S. Marine Corps retired. He is a Naval Academy graduate, former NASA astronaut, and Christian from Columbia, South Carolina. Things have changed, yet this movie challenges us to confront the issues that we still face. Today, women are still under-represented in STEM career fields. Today, women are not getting equal pay for equal work in every career field. Today, black women are the most educated and underpaid people in the workforce. So Hidden Figures motivates us to press on so these hidden injustices are hidden no more.
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Dante s the inferno and interpretations of
dante s the inferno and interpretations of
Dante's inferno: introduction 2 dante alighieri summary and analysis 7 quizzes 8 themes 9 words in dante’s inferno include many which most students. Inferno definition, hell the infernal regions see more italics) the first part of dante's divine comedy, depicting hell and the suffering of the damned. Is he serious or is there an ironic tone to the meaning behind the text in dante’s inferno, the first circle of hell is called the limbo. From plot debriefs to key motifs, thug notes’ dante's inferno summary & analysis has you covered with themes, symbols, important quotes, and more.
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Dante alighieri, one of the greatest poets of the middle ages, was born in florence, italy on june 5, 1265 he was born to a middle-class florentine family at an. Darkness visible: dante’s clarification of hell contrapasso is one of the few rules in dante’s inferno many interpretations of this interplay between.
At the age of thirty-five, on the night of good friday in the year 1300, dante finds himself lost in a dark wood and full of fear he sees a sun-drenched mountain in. Read and learn for free about the following article: dante’s divine comedy in late medieval and early renaissance art. In his explanation, virgil refers to the nicomachean ethics and the physics of aristotle, with medieval interpretations dante's inferno on in our time at the bbc.
Dante s the inferno and interpretations of
A short summary of dante alighieri's inferno this free synopsis covers all the crucial plot points of inferno. Interpretation of 9 circles of hell: from the book the divine comedy part 1: dante’s inferno the story goes through the nine circles of hell.
In conjunction with the exhibition heaven, hell, and dying well: images of death in the middle ages, this film series focuses on three interpretations of dante. Buy a cheap copy of inferno book by dante alighieri ciardi dumps archaisms and goes for the throat of dante's poetry and meaning. Analysis of dante’s inferno and purgatorio: for your writing for dante, you will have to analyze the relationship between virgil, representing human reason. Find a list of painting, artworks, and artists inspired by dante alighieri's inferno and divine comedy throughout history. The influence of dante's inferno essay analysis of dante's inferno essay 748 words | 3 pages in dante’s inferno, dante is taken on a journey through hell. Divine comedy: theme analysis inferno section 1- inferno section 5 and spiritual guidebook of dante's fourteenth century universe.
By melanie barker the animal symbolism in canto i of inferno emulates the negative connotation within animal imagery assumed by christianity dante's symbols, the. Free essay: the comparison of dante's inferno and the purgatorio there are many differences in the inferno and the purgatorio of dante alghieri, from the. Start studying dante's inferno: sins learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. The 9 circles of hell as described by dante alighieri in inferno, the first part of divine comedy. Both of these works reveal not only botticelli's poetic he wrote a commentary on part of dante's poem, and after bewildering images of the inferno. Dante is the author of a three-part trilogy following the journey of dante, the pilgrim this essay addresses three cantos from dante’s inferno, the first. In order to understand how virgil and dante presented the figure of ulysses, it is necessary to analyze their respective works in terms of characterization and symbolism.
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Dante s the inferno and interpretations of
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Текст Space Race
Озвученный английский онлайн текст Space Race.
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Space Race
The space race started on October, 4, 1957, when the USSR surprised the world and launched the first satellite: Sputnik 1. Until that moment Americans believed that their nation was the most powerful on Earth. But then the Russian satellite was in space and shocked them all.
It was the time of the Cold War. Both the USA and the Soviet Union were building rockets to use as new weapons. Americans were afraid to lose the war of technologies. Moreover, the world was shocked again on April 12, 1961 when Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space.
Americans did not want to be left behind and set a new organization for the Space Race (NASA) that controlled all of the government’s high-technology work. In May 1961, the American president, J.F. Kennedy, promised to put a man on the moon before 1970. Eight months later, John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth. In 1969, three other Americans made the first historic moonlanding flight.
Russians answered with new successes: the first space flight by a woman, Valentina Tereshkova, and the first space walk by Alexey Leonov.
The 1970s were the time of space stations: Soviet Salyut and American Skylab. At last, in 1975, American and Soviet astronauts made a space flight together.
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Gearboxes are used to transfer energy from one machine to another. This is a mechanical process where torque is increased or decreased to control the speed of a moving vehicle or machine.
While this article talks about vehicles and gears, it should be mentioned that gears are used in almost all devices that require a change of motion. Check this website for more.
Now back to cars. In cars, the power transmitted from the crankshaft (rotating axle that drives power from the engine) to the driving shaft (found under the car which is responsible for powering the wheels) is done with the help of gears.
Every time a gear in an automobile is changed, one of two things happen.
1. The speed of the vehicle may increase or decrease.
2. The direction may change (at a right angle).
There are various kinds of gearboxes, each with a specific power. The gear ratio in a gearbox determines the level of force required.
In automobiles, transmissions can be controlled with the help of a gearbox. There are three kinds of transmission that can be used in cars. Let’s have a look at each in detail now:
1. Manual
In this type of transmission, speed is controlled by changing the gears manually. Moreover, manual transmission can be of two types These are:
• Sliding mesh
• Constant mesh.
In case of sliding mesh, straight cut spur gears are used where the gears rotate freely and it depends upon the driver to control the transmission manually from one speed to another as per the road requirement.
The driver needs to time the gear correctly to avoid the clashing of gears that produces a loud grinding noise because the gear teeth collide.
In constant mesh, there’s a pair of helical gears or diagonally cut helical gears that are permanently meshed together, unlike in sliding mesh. Therefore, in this type of manual transmission, the speed changes very smoothly with no grinding noise when gears are changed because there are synchronized rings embedded on gears.
This type of manual transmission is mostly used in racing cars and equipment used in agriculture.
1. Automatic Transmission
This type of transmission reduces human effort and interaction and changes the gear automatically.
In case of automatic transmission, there are no clutch pedals besides the acceleration pedal because there’s no need to change the gears manually, as when the car accelerates or decelerates, the gears are altered automatically.
1. Continuous Variable Transmission
CVT is also quite similar to automatic transmission but with a few modifications and upgrades. It is gradually replacing the automatic transmission and can already be found in cars like Nissan Rogue and Honda Civic.
In automatic transmission, the gear ratio is limited to gear 4/5 or 6 but in CVT( continuously variable transmission), the gear ratios are unlimited with minimum and maximum speed values.
Thus, the velocity of the input shaft is maintained at a constant speed, giving a more smooth experience while the gears are changed. Most importantly, CVT transmission is more efficient than the automatic transmission in cars.
The Verdict
Comparing all three types of transmissions, it can be concluded that manual transmission gets better fuel economy than the other two, however, automatic and CVT eliminate the hassle to manually operate the car speed.
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"url": "http://pctechmag.com/2018/01/gearboxes-and-the-types-of-transmission-found-in-cars/"
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Iceberg Song
From Discovery News:
April 18, 2008 — The grinding together of vast Antarctic icebergs in the Ross Sea creates a growling subsonic song that seismologists compare to the ringing of a wine glass.
The newly discovered iceberg song has been detected traveling through the ground and oceans.
The discovery began when seismologists at ocean listening stations as far north as French Polynesia stumbled onto an unexplained, high-frequency tremor signal that lasted anywhere from two minutes to three hours.
“They range from harmonic to chaotic,” said geophysicist Rick Aster of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. Aster spoke about the discovery Wednesday at the meeting of the Seismological Society of America in Santa Fe, New Mexico.
By combining the data with satellite images, the researchers quickly found the apparent source: a king-sized iceberg called C16.
If the iceberg was in fact making the sounds, the seismologists had three questions: 1) Is the entire iceberg vibrating to make the sound, like a violin? 2) Is the sound caused by fluids surging through cracks or tunnels in the iceberg, like air blown in a flute? 3) Is it something else entirely?
To find out, a team led by seismologist Emil Okal of Northwestern University undertook what he and colleagues called Project Southberg, to plant some seismometers on the iceberg and listen in.
The signals from the iceberg seismometers were much stronger, Aster said. Some had remarkably clear harmonics. Applying the same techniques used to locate earthquakes epicenters, the researchers located the spot where the sounds was being made — right where the Jamaica-sized iceberg B15 was grinding against C16.
“We got very lucky,” said Aster. “One station was within two kilometers (1.2 miles) of the source.”
The clearer signals and the source location made it clear that the icebergs were being played like fiddles — by rapid slipping and sticking in the collision zone where the icebergs were sawing back and forth.
“It’s tens of thousands of small ice quakes,” Aster said. That iceberg song, then, is similar to what a violin bow does on a string. The sound propagates through the water, from the water to the seafloor, and onward through the ground, Aster explained.
Okal later compared the vibrations to those of a finger “ringing” a wine glass — also a slip and stick process — and found them to be very similar.
“It’s a spectacular signal,” agreed seismologist Greg Berozaof Stanford University, who was among the audience for the presentation.
Comments are closed.
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Bore - thermodynamics, Mechanical Engineering
Bore - Thermodynamics:
The inner diameter of engine cylinder is called as bore. It can be measured by a vernier calliper or bore gauge. As engine cylinder wears out with the passage of time, so the bore diameter changes to larger value, therefore the piston becomes lose in the cylinder, and power loss occurs. To over come this problem reboring to therefore next standard size is done and new piston is placed. Bore can be denoted by the letter 'D'. It is measured in mm (S.I. units) or inches (metric units). It is used to calculate the engine capacity (or cylinder volume).
Posted Date: 10/15/2012 3:32:22 AM | Location : United States
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CREDIT: Ari Kaufman
Jun 06
Did You Know? The Cicadas Are Here!
17-year Periodic Cicada. Photo by Chris Skrod.Most insects follow an annual cycle of birth, life and then death. Seasonal changes in temperature often cue these insect life stages. However, a very noticeable exception to that rule is presently occurring.
Cicadas have emerged en masse, after 17 years in the ground. They are clambering into trees and singing a distinctive chorus that can be heard for miles because of their numerous voices. While there are many kinds of cicadas, these 17-year cicadas are a specific genus of cicada, called Periodical Cicadas (genus: Magicicada).
What makes this event so remarkable is that it results from 17 years of preparation. The now emerging army of Periodical Cicadas was born in 1996. Their mothers laid their eggs in the branches of trees. There they developed for a few weeks before hatching and heading for the ground. These larvae then squirmed into the dirt and spent the next 17 years sucking fluid from tree and plant roots.
Millions of cicada nymphs have now climbed from the ground in which they have spent nearly two decades. They will have morphed from wingless to winged creatures, and taken to the trees for their famously noisy courtship. The empty husks of the nymph-stage bugs are seemingly everywhere. Now, the newly emerged animals single-mindedly seek to mate and produce the next generation. And shortly after mating and after the eggs are laid, the adults will die. Surprisingly, cicadas barely eat a thing during their time above ground.
Cicadas will not emerge in everyone’s back yard. If there are no deciduous trees—trees that lose their leaves each fall, like maples, oaks and fruit trees—probably no cicadas will be seen. Pesticides, construction, extreme weather conditions, and tree removal are also factors reducing the incidence of cicadas. The overall emergence time for cicadas in a particular location typically is 4 to 6 weeks from the time the first nymph crawls from the ground, until the last adult dies.
Periodic Cicada. Photo by Chris Skrod.Cicadas use a defensive strategy we could call “predator saturation.” They reproduce by the millions in order to “fill up” the predators. The idea is that all the squirrels, birds, possums, snakes, lizards, raccoons and other predatory animals will become so full of cicadas that they tire of eating them. Then, just enough cicadas will escape and get to mate and reproduce.
Periodic Cicadas don’t bother to escape when confronted, and that is because they do not have to escape. Since they emerge in such HUGE numbers, some members of their species are bound to survive no matter what. They can devote their limited energy and time above ground to calling and mating, rather than running away from each and every possible predator. This strategy may explain how an insect that neither bites nor stings, has managed to thrive.
Are cicadas locusts? No, true locusts belong in the same family of insects as grasshoppers. The confusion stems from the fact that both locusts and cicadas emerge in periodic swarms. But, locusts are far more destructive, destroying all plant life in their path. Cicadas do fly around trees and kill a few weakling branches here and there. They DO NOT kill flowers and would not damage shrubs and trees, unless the latter are young and immature. Cicadas do not damage tree leaves by chewing them as other insects do. Unlike grasshoppers and caterpillars, cicadas do not eat garden vegetables. They lack mouth parts that would enable them to chew.
Probably it is not a good idea to combat cicadas with pesticides. New cicadas will continually fly onto your trees from neighboring yards, making pesticides futile. Also, your pets could become poisoned from ingesting too many treated cicadas. Importantly, you will want to avoid the unintended collateral damage of killing honey bees and butterflies by using pesticides to disable cicadas.
While cicadas in your back yard are a bit of a nuisance, remember that you are not going to see Periodic Cicadas again until the year 2030.
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Secchi Disk
Also found in: Dictionary, Wikipedia.
Secchi disk
[′sek·ē ‚disk]
An opaque white disk used to measure the transparency or clarity of seawater by lowering the disk into the water horizontally and noting the greatest depth at which it can be visually detected.
Secchi Disk
an instrument for measuring water transparency in a body of water. A white disk 30 cm in diameter, it is held horizontally and lowered into the water on a rope until it is no longer visible. The depth, in meters, at which it ceases to be visible is taken as a measure of the water transparency. The disk is named after A. Secchi, who measured the transparency of sea water by this method in 1865.
References in periodicals archive ?
Field and laboratory methods used for different variables Variable Abbreviation Unit Physical and chemical variables Water level WL cm Secchi disk depth Secchi m Water surface Temp [degrees]C temperature Dissolved oxygen DO mg [L.
Prior to treatment MIM displayed greater turbidity and lower Secchi disk readings than pseudo-control waters (Table 1).
A Secchi disk (SD) was used to determine water transparency (Carlson & Simpson 1996), while wind speed was measured with a Kestrel 2000 Pocket weather meter (Nielsen-Kellerman, Boothwyn, Pennsylvania).
Johns River) for the month prior to sampling was used (representing the approximate development time of immatures that would be collected during the sample effort), with water temperature and Secchi disk transparency data collected during the same prior month.
Secchi disk readings (in cm) 1) 19 Sep-6 Oct 1983 31 31 34 2) 31 Oct-16 Nov 1983 37 28 23 3) 19 Jan-10 Feb 1984 3 4 3 4) 26 Mar-15 Apr 1984 9 7 8 5) 6 June-21 June 1984 31 32 30 6) 10 Sep-5 Oct 1984 53 49 52 7a) 8-9 Aug 2000 159 157 172 7b) 27 Sep-3 Oct 2000 169 200 214 Station Means: 1983-84 28 25 26 Station Means: 2000 164 179 193 Period/Date St.
In each account, we include scientific name, common name, total number of specimens (in parentheses), county, river drainage, reach, latitude and longitude, date, number of specimens at that locality, total length, weight when available, method and habitat of capture, temperature of water, turbidity (as depth of Secchi disk, m), and comments.
Transparency was measured in-situ with a Secchi disk according to the standard method (U.
50 Specific conductivity 2005 156 350 51 302 ([micro]S/cm) 2006 91 342 25 320 Total 247 347 43 302 Secchi disk (cm) 2005 146 86 18 50 2006 93 70 15 40 Total 239 80 19 40 Nitrates_N (mg/L) 2005 156 0.
Secchi disk readings were also taken to ensure that the mesocosm depths were consistently in the photic zone.
The effects of a week of continuous rainfall before the October sampling date can be seen in an increase in total P and integrated AGP, a sharp decrease in surface chlorophyll and GCP, and a dramatic reduction in the Secchi disk transparency.
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How did the ancestors of microbes now confined to us transfer themselves from their original animal hosts in Guns, Germs, and Steel Chapter 11?
Expert Answers
jameadows eNotes educator| Certified Educator
The ancestors of microbes now confined to humans transferred themselves from animal to human hosts through the process of evolution. A microbe that relies on what the author calls one "arthropod vector" can switch to a new arthropod vector if the microbe has found a new host. For example, the disease typhus was originally spread among rats by rat fleas and through rat fleas to humans. Then, typhus microbes began traveling on body lice as a more efficient means of infecting humans directly. Now that delousing has eliminated this route of transmission, typhus is transmitted through North American flying squirrels, who then infect humans. Diseases evolve as microbes find new vectors and, thus, hosts through the process of natural selection. For example, syphilis used to kill its victims quickly; after the disease evolved, victims began to die more slowly, allowing their spirochete to be transferred to more victims.
pohnpei397 eNotes educator| Certified Educator
Diamond argues that the move from animals to humans came in four stages. This starts on p. 207 in my book -- about 14 pages in to the chapter.
First, there are diseases that come directly to people from animals. This can happen, for example, if a microbe enters a person as they butcher an animal.
Second, the animal pathogen can evolve and then get transmitted. Diamond says that in this stage, the epidemic dies out for one reason or another. An example of this was kuru, which ended when cannibalism in New Guinea ended.
Third, you can have pathogens that evolve, cross over, and do not die out. That seems to be what has happened with AIDS.
Fourth, there are microbes that have moved over to us and that cannot make it back to animals.
Read the study guide:
Guns, Germs, and Steel
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In this section...
Year 9 Mable
MABLE activities
•Of Mice and Men (reading assessment)
1. Read Harper Lee’s ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’ to find out more about racial inequality in America
2. Find out about John Steinbeck’s other works and the themes and ideas within them.
3. We are lonesome animals. We spend all our life trying to be less lonesome. This is a quote from a John Steinbeck essay. How is this idea explored in the novel ‘Of Mice and Men’?
•Gothic Horror (writing assessment)
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212-431-9098 info@rrffny.org
Lineated Woodpecker (Bedn`ko)
Discover the wildlife of amazon rainforest!
Lineated Woodpecker (Bedn`ko)
Indigenous names:
Bedn`ko; Kokascomde; Konkari”
Where they are commonly seen:
The lineated woodpeckers are only found in dry wood and trees.
Various insects, larvae, fruits, seeds, and eggs stolen from other nests.
Mating Season:
No clear pattern; different times throughout the year.
IUCN Red List Status:
Least Concern
Lineated Woodpecker in Indigenous Culture
Ancient indigenous groups in Peru have different names and mythical stories about the lineated woodpeckers. While the Yine people call lineated woodpecker Kokascomde, the Harakmbut people name it bedn`ko.
In Harakmbut culture, the lineated woodpeckers brought fire, one of the most important tools for survival, to the Harakmbut people. Before taming fire, Harakmbut people had limited ability to cook food, ward off predators, and endure harsh climate. The kind-hearted woodpecker decided to help the Harakmbut people. In a dark night, the woodpecker sneaked into the demon’s cave and stole the fire while the demon was asleep. The fire colored the woodpecker’s crest red and disturbed the demon. Furious and enraged, the demon tried to catch but failed to capture the agile woodpecker. After a long and exhausting journey, the woodpecker traveled to the land of Harakbut and brought fire to its people.
Another interesting fact is that the Harakmbut people also believe the lineated woodpeckers deliver the good news when they sing. For instance, when the woodpecker sings, someone in the community might be pregnant and expect a babe soon.
Into the Woodpecker’s Hole (Bedn`ko)
You might also like
Rainforest Animals
• Heritage Montessori Saves 300 Acres!
• Oncilla (Wadnpi)
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"url": "http://www.rainforestfoundation.org/lineated-woodpecker-bednko/"
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Lesson Plan Title : Mexican Charades
Age Range: Grade 3 through grade 5 (Elementary)
Overview and Purpose: Students use their acting skills to try to have their teammates understand which symbol they are acting out in this game of Mexican charades.
Objective: The student will be able to act out traditional elements of Cinco de Mayo.
Index cards with different symbols of Cinco de Mayo written on them
Divide the students into teams. Have them take turns drawing a card and then acting out the symbol on the card for their team. If their team guesses correctly, then they receive a point. If they guess incorrectly, then the other teams have a chance to guess. Examples of things that can be written on the cards are Mexican hat dance, maracas, and pinatas.
Wrap Up:
This game can be used to review a unit on Mexico or to introduce it. After you have used the game with the class, a memory game for a center can be made by combining two sets of identical cards.
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"url": "http://www.teach-nology.com/teachers/lesson_plans/holidays/cincodemayo/charades.html"
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Value Based Mathematics
Value Based Questions : Maths (Class XII)
Q.1 Prove that f : R → R is a bijection given by f(x) = x3 + 3 . Find f -1(x). Does the truthfulness and honesty may have any relation?
Q.2 Set A = { a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 } and B = { b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , b5 }
when ai‘s and bi‘s Are school going students.
Define a relation from a set A to set B by x R y iff is a true friend of x.
If R = {(a1 , b1) , (a2 , b1) , (a3 , b3) , ( a4 , b2) , (a5 ,b2 )}
Is R a bijective function ? Do you think true friendship important in life ? How ?
Q.3 If h denotes the number of honest people and p denotes the number of punctual people and a relation between honest people and punctual people is given as h = p + 5. If P denotes the number of people who progress in life and a relation between number of people who progress and honest people is given as P = (h/8) + 5. Find the relation between number of people who progress in life and punctual people. How does the punctuality important in the progress of life?
Q.4 let A be the set of all students of class XII in a school and R be the relation, having the same sex on A, and then prove that R is an equivalence relation. Do you think, co-education may be helpful in child development and why?
Q.5 Three shopkeepers A, B, C are using polythene, handmade bags (prepared by prisoners), and newspaper’s envelope as carry bags. it is found that the shopkeepers A , B , C are using (20 , 30 ,40) , (30 ,40 ,20) , (40 ,20 ,30) polythene , handmade bags and newspapers envelopes respectively. The shopkeepers A, B, C spent Rs.250, Rs.220 & Rs.200 on these carry bags respectively .Find the cost of each carry bags using matrices. Keeping in mind the social & environmental conditions, which shopkeeper is better? & why ?
Q.6 In a Legislative assembly election, a political party hired a public relation firm to promote its candidate in three ways; telephone, house calls and letters. The numbers of contacts of each type in three cities A, B & C are (500, 1000 and 5000), (3000 , 1000 , 10000) and (2000, 1500, 4000), respectively. The party paid Rs. 3700 , Rs.7200, and Rs.4300 in cities A, B & C respectively. Find the costs per contact using matrix method. Keeping in mind the economic condition of the country, which way of promotion is better in your view?
Q.7 A trust fund has Rs. 30,000 is to be invested in two different types of bonds. The first bond pays 5% interest per annum which will be given to orphanage and second bond pays 7% interest per annum which will be given to an N.G.O. cancer aid society. Using matrix multiplication , determine how to divide Rs 30,000 among two types of Bonds if the trust fund obtains an annual total interest of Rs. 1800. What are the values reflected in the question.
Q.8 Using matrix method solve the following system of equations
x + 2y + z = 7
x – y + z = 4
x + 3y + 2z = 10
If X represents the no. of persons who take food at home. Y represents the no. of parsons who take junk food in market and z represent the no. of persons who take food at hotel. Which way of taking food you prefer and way?
Q.9 A school has to reward the students participating in co-curricular activities (Category I) and with 100% attendance (Category II) brave students (Category III) in a function. The sum of the numbers of all the three category students is 6. If we multiply the number of category III by 2 and added to the number of category I to the result, we get 7. By adding second and third category would to three times the first category we get 12.Form the matrix equation and solve it.
Q.10 for keeping Fit X people believes in morning walk, Y people believe in yoga and Z people join Gym. Total no of people are 70.further 20% 30% and 40% people are suffering from any disease who believe in morning walk, yoga and GYM respectively. Total no. of such people is 21. If morning walk cost Rs 0 Yoga cost Rs 500/month and GYM cost Rs 400/ month and total expenditure is Rs 23000.
(i) Formulate a matrix problem.
(ii) Calculate the no. of each type of people.
(iii) Why exercise is important for health?
Q.11 An amount of Rs 600 crores is spent by the government in three schemes. Scheme A is for saving girl child from the cruel parents who don’t want girl child and get the abortion before her birth. Scheme B is for saving of newlywed girls from death due to dowry. Scheme C is planning for good health for senior citizen. Now twice the amount spent on Scheme C together with amount spent on Scheme A is Rs 700 crores. And three times the amount spent on Scheme A together with amount spent on Scheme B and Scheme C is Rs 1200 crores. Find the amount spent on each Scheme using matrices? What is the importance of saving girl child from the cruel parents who don’t want girl child and get the abortion before her birth?
Q.12 There are three families. First family consists of 2 male members, 4 female members and 3 children. Second family consists of 3 male members, 3 female members and 2 children. Third family consists of 2 male members, 2 female members and 5 children. Male member earns Rs 500 per day and spends Rs 300 per day. Female member earns Rs 400 per day and spends Rs 250 per day child member spends Rs 40 per day. Find the money each family saves per day using matrices? What is the necessity of saving in the family ?
Q.14 A car parking company has 500 subscribers and collects fixed charges of Rs.300 per subscriber per month. The company proposes to increase the monthly subscription and it is believed that for every increase of Re.1, one subscriber will discontinue the service. What increase will bring maximum income of the company? What values are driven by this problem?
Q.15 Check whether the function f(x) = x100 + sinx -1 is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing or none of both on (-1 ,1 ). Should the nature of a man be like this function? Justify your answers
Q.16 If y = x4 – x3/3 when x denotes the number of hours worked and y denotes the amount (in Rupees) earned. Then find the value of (in interval) for which the income remains increasing? Explain the importance of earning in life?
Q.17 If performance of the students ‘ y ‘ depends on the number of hours ‘ x ‘ of hard work done per day is given by the relation.
y = 4x – x2/2
Find the number of hours, the students work to have the best performance. ‘ Hours of hard work are necessary for success’ Justify.
Q.18 A farmer wants to construct a circular well and a square garden in his field. He wants to keep sum of their perimeters fixed. Then prove that the sum of their areas is least when the side of square garden is double the radius of the circular well.
Do you think good planning can save energy, time and money?
Q.19 Profit function of a company is given as P(x) = 24x/5 – x2/100 – 500 , here x is the number of units produced. What is the maximum profit of the company? Company feels its social responsibility and decided to contribute 10% of his profit for the orphanage. What is the amount contributed by the company for the charity? Justify that every company should do it.
Q.20 In a competition a brave child tries to inflate a huge spherical balloon bearing slogans against child labour at the rate of 900 cubic centimeters of gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of the balloon is increasing when its radius is 15cm. Also write any three values/life skill reflected in this question.
Q.21 In a kite festival, a kite is at a height of 120m and 130m string is out. If the kite is moving horizontally at the rate of 5.2m/sec, find the rate at which the string is being pulled out at that instant. How a festival enhance national integration.
Q.22 An expensive square piece of golden color board of side 24 centimeters. is to be made into a box without top by cutting a square from each corner and folding the flaps to form a box. What should be the side of the square piece to be cut from each corner of the board to hold maximum volume and minimize the wastage? What is the importance of minimizing the wastage in utilizing the resources?
Q.23 A student is given card board of area 27 square centimeters. He wishes to form a box with square base to have maximum capacity and no wastage of the board. What are the dimensions of the box so formed? Do you agree that students don’t utilize the resources properly? Justify.
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Benjamin Franklin Is Born
Benjamin Franklin was born on January 17, 1706, in Boston, Massachusetts, but his adopted home was Philadelphia, the largest city in eighteenth-century America.
His many accomplishments as printer, scientist, and statesman are particularly remarkable when considered in the context of colonial North America. A spirit of pragmatic innovation imbued all of Franklin's intellectual, social, and scientific pursuits. He dedicated himself to the improvement of everyday life for the widest number of people and, in so doing, made an indelible mark on the emerging nation.
Although Franklin had little formal education, he was an avid reader and writer. The fifteenth of seventeen children, at age twelve he was apprenticed to his older brother James, a printer who published a weekly newspaper called The New England Courant. At seventeen Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, where on the day of his arrival he met his future wife, Deborah Read. He quickly found employment and was able to set up his own print shop by 1728. Soon Franklin was publishing almanacs and newspapers of his own, as well as taking in "job printing" for others. In 1737 he became the postmaster of Philadelphia, a role that aided him in gathering the news.
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by Ismail Akwei, at 07:47 am, March 25, 2018, History
[Name and Shame] Africans who played an active role in slave trade
Okoro Idozuka
He was a 19th-century leader and warrior in the Arondizuogu area of what is now Nigeria. He was a senior advisor to the founder of Ndiakunwanta Uno Arondizuogu village and also a leader in his own right, expanding Arondizuogu’s boundaries. He was a wealthy slave trader like Izuogu Mgbokpo.
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Rivers and People Long Lost
The people of Northern Israel boarded ships that took them up the major rivers as far as ships could sail. Many of those rivers are now dry, but the people are still there. One such example is the population near the ancient river ports in Kashmir, at the headwaters of the Indus river in India far from the sea coast. That river happens to still be active, but the one coming from the Sahara Desert that emptied into the Mediterranean at Tripoli in Libya is not. Even a cursory look at the area on Google Earth will show the extent of the rivers and lakes that once caused the Sahara to be the breadbasket of the rest of the world. Many such dry river beds are visible in the southeast Sinai as well.
It is impossible to say whether the mountains rising on the western rim was the cause of the failing of the rains, or the continued melting of snow caps on mountains at higher and higher levels, such as those that caused the river that fed the second of the “two lands” of the Queen of Sheba resulting in the migration of the entire population of that area into Ethiopia was responsible for the many ancient rivers that are dry today, but the people are being found along their shores where habitation is still possible.
One of the more startling finds is the shape of the sealing canoes of the Native American Makah in Washington State on the northwest coast of America at the Canadian border. They are smaller versions identical to the Phoenician trading vessels, including the horse head prow ornaments in a land where the horse was unknown. One thing is certain: that ship pattern came to America long after the ice bridge across to Alaska was no longer there. Whether the pattern was brought from the east or west is unknown. What is known is that the Asians on the west side of that ice bridge have no record of such a vessel.
One theory is that the Solomon Islands got their name from being the last supply station for ships headed for South America, and from there they traveled all up and down the west coast of both north and south America. Thor Heyerdahl proved that the ancient ships made of bundled reeds were capable of making such journeys. Recent finds of ancient ships revealed that the construction of triple-hull ships was known as far back as Noah’s Ark. These triple hulls were made of an outer hull of tongue-and-groove planks, a central core of bundled reeds with melted tar poured over them to fill the available space and make them waterproof, and an inner hull also of tongue-and-groove planks. These ships could take a major break in their outer hull and still be serviceable until a port could be reached for repairs.
Guidance by the stars was a trade secret among the Phoenicians, and wrecked ships 30 miles from the coast in the Mediterranean have shown that the Phoenicians made good use of it.
There have also been reports of finding copper ingots that, when signature traces are run, trace back to the Black Hills of the north-central United States. The natives there have legends that they supplied these ingots in ancient times, but ceased when they realized that what they were receiving in return was not worth their labor in producing it. That would also explain the source of sufficient copper to make the two columns and the brass sea in the temple of Solomon. That quantity of copper simply was not available in the ancient Middle East, or by trade.
The one who promised to sift the people like grain through all nations had the entire earth in mind, and that’s where we need to look.
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Buildings in Pompeii
Updated on February 5, 2018
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The 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius
The 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius, as envisioned in the movie Pompeii. (©2014 Constantin Film International GmbH and Impact Pictures (Pompeii) Inc.)
What was Pompeii?
Pompeii was a large Roman town in the fertile Italian region of Campania, near the coast of the Bay of Naples. The town was most famously known for being buried underneath volcanic ash following the eruption of nearby Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. The town of Pompeii was close to the Mediterranean sea, which allowed trade and communication with other countries and created humid climates.
A Day in Pompeii - Full-length animation
VII.16.17-22 Pompeii. December 2007. Plaster cast of body lying at foot of staircase. Four people met their death in this house, three of them died huddled together on this staircase. Cases were made from their skeletal remains
Plans and streetscapes
Pompeii was considered small by Roman standards (66 hectares) and held Greek influences on their layout, which were narrow, straight streets (5m wide) that divided into city blocks. Roman techniques of raised footpaths and stepping stones were used for pedestrians without stepping into sewerage that overflowed in the gutters when it rained. The Via dell’Abondanza was the main street, known as the ‘street of abundance’. The forum was the heart of Pompeii. Archaeologists uncovered deep groove marks that showed the volume of traffic.
Street plans of Pompeii
The basic architecture of Pompeii
Predominately, buildings within Pompeii adopted Greet construction such as the peristyle and water features. Greek columns were used in temples, public buildings and houses. Designs of theatres were based on Greek originals.The concept of palaestra's originated in Greece.
Villa of the Mysteries
©Jackie and Bob Dunn The villa originally dates from the 2nd century BC, but its current layout was set between 70 and 60BC.
The main types of housing in Pompeii consisted of:
• Shops & workshops with 1 or 2 residences above or behind.
• Larger workshops with 2 to 7 rooms.
• Average P house: 8 to 13 rooms with a workshop.
• Largest houses designed for comfortable living 25+ rooms.
• Villas
Houses differed depending on the wealth of a citizen however, most houses primarily followed a similar layout. Most exteriors were characterised by roofs with terracotta tiles and a few windows. The interior of the houses was what Romans felt were significant. Numerous houses had shops that were attached to the front of the house, which was rented to merchants.
These houses were entered from a street next to the corridor. They were divided by a door in two sections; the fauces and the and vestibulum. This led into the atrium. The atrium was partly roofed, however, the centre of the roof was open to allow light and rain inside. Beneath the opening was a stone tank (impluvium), which collected water. Around the atrium were small rooms such as the bedrooms (cubicula) and dining room (Triclinium). Kitchens were small, often containing only a sink/oven.Opposite the entrance was tablinum (main reception room). From tablinum was a doorway to peristyle (garden). Other rooms around peristyle were summer dining rooms, lavatory and storage rooms.
Household gods
Paterfamilias (the oldest male and head of the household) conducted private rituals within the house. Offerings and daily ceremonies were held within the house. Small shrines (lararia) with small statues or painted images of the lares (family protectors) and the genius (life spirit) of the head of the household.
Household lararium
VI.15.1 Pompeii. December 2006. Household lararium in service area. Painting of serpent, (Agathodemone), garlands and three figures. The household gods (Lares) are either side of the guardian spirit (genius loci) of the house.
Two types of villas existed in Pompeii; pleasure villas (built to take advantage of sea view) and countryside/ farm villas (which produced wine and olives). These were large estates that were owned by the wealthy in Roman society. These villas were characterised by elaborate gardens, expansive and luxurious buildings and many rooms. An example of
An example of a villa is the Villa of Papyri. The remains of this villa was one of the most well-kept examples of the luxurious lifestyles kept by wealthy citizens. One of the small rooms found contained 2000 carbonated scrolls. The main peristyle was the size of a small forum and had a pool as large as the imperial baths in Rome.
“…all public spaces in the house were designed and decorated to impress visitors with the owners’ wealth and status.”
— Pamela Bradly
The Villa Imperiale
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
The Riddle Of Pompeii
The forum of Pompeii
The forum of Pompeii was a significantly large complex (137m x 47m) that was the centre of Pompeii between the main routes that joined Naples, Nola and Stabiae. The forum was characterised as a rectangular district that contained public buildings of political, religious and economic backgrounds. Forty statues in honour of significant figures such as Roman Emperor Augustus were excavated from the site. Towards the forum's south, governmental buildings such as the Hall of Duumviri, the Curia and the hall of Aediles were utilised for the conduction of activities such as the election of magistrates.
Archaeological evidence suggested that the inconsistent use of materials were the result of modifications and reconstructions to the buildings due to the earthquake of 62 AD. During the primitive era of ore-Samnite, most buildings were made of limestone.The first half of the Samnite's period revealed the use of volcanic materials in the construction of buildings. The second half of the period revealed the use of tufa as a common ingredient. Following that period was the Roman occupation, resulting in the use of brick and cement-faced brick. This development was highlighted through the forum's porticoes. The first portico was created out of tufa while the second used white limestone.
The Samnites created the two-storey colonnade that surrounds the forum which was decorated with doric columns and was made of nucerine stone. The doric elements signified the influence of the Hellenistic periods, with which the Samnites were recognised for emulating. The forum was eventually rebuilt after the second punic war in the 3rd century. The reconstruction of the forum was followed by the increase in population reveals another feature of Roman architecture.
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
“...square, surrounded by double and spacious porticoes in which close columns…”
— Vitruvius' description of an ideal Greek Forum
“[These statues are to act as] models enabling [us] to judge of [ourselves] in our lifetime, and after of the rulers subsequent ages”.
— Emperor Augustus
The basilica was a large, public building where legal and business matters could be dealt with. The structure (24 m by 55 m and was divided by 28 columns, which were 11 m high) was the most elaborate within the forum, located in the south-west corner. The basilica was originally intended to be a covered market. However, its was eventually altered into law courts. At the centre of the Basilica lied the Suggestum, which was a platform from which public criers announced news and Politicians presented electoral speeches. The lower floor was suspected to be used for archives, while the upper floor was used as a platform for judges. The interior walls were decorated with marble panels. Graffiti was scratched into surfaces.
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
There was a large range of shops within Pompeii such as workshops, located on Via dell’Abondanza. Many of these shops were leased front rooms of private houses. Within the shop were a backroom for storage, shelves on the walls and a counter for selling goods. Taverns had tables and chairs for people to drink and eat, normally offering accommodation. Bars, however, were normally small and did not have to seat.
The Thermopolium (Pompeii cafe/bar)
A thermopolium was the equivalent of a modern day cafe/bar. Hot and cold food was sold from what was usually an 'L' shaped masonry counter containing terracotta vessels. ©Jackie and Bob Dunn
The Macellum (market-place)
Developments that the Roman colony of Pompeii experienced, are revealed through the Forum as the increase of trade led to the emergence of a marketplace called the Macellum. References to the works of Marcel Brions reveal that the Macellum was a meat and fish market that was built in the Imperial era. We can deduce that the Macellum was a seafood(fish) concentrated market through the statue of the Umbricius Scaurus who was the producer of a famous fish sauce known as Garum, coupled with the colonies thriving fishing industry
Pompeii's Macellum
Photo taken by Rick Scott
Photo taken by Rick Scott | Source
The palestra was used as an exercising area. Romans used those areas for activities such as discus, running and javelin competitions. The collegia (groups of young people) often engaged in athletic competitions. Swimming pools (5.5 metres wide, 1.1 metres deep – length of arms: 50 metres and 30 metres) were located next to the palestra along with baths. The significance of the palestra was shown through the space that was 141 x 107 metres. From Greek influence, collonaded rectangular areas included open grassed space in the middle.
Palestra in Pompeii
Within Pompeii, temples were a sacred sanctuary of the gods and goddesses. Romans visited the temples for the purpose of requesting assistance from the gods and goddesses. Temples such as the temple of Capitolium (Jupiter), the temple of Apollo and the temple of Isis were some of the temples that were excavated from Pompeii.
The Temple of Jupiter
The temple of Capitolium (Jupiter) was the main centre of worship in Pompeii after the Romans seized control of Pompeii. The significance of the temple was shown through William Mierse’s statement that the temple of Jupiter was a “dominant” feature of Pompeii. The temple was constructed on the 2nd century BC within the Samnite age. It laid on a high base as the entrance at the northern preface of the forum with a double flight of stairs.
The cell within the temple was exclusive to authority figures such as the priests. Statues of Juno, Minerva and Jupiter were within the temple. The temple took on an Italic style of construction, which had been expanded towards the end of the 2nd century BC. However, the earthquake in 62 BC destroyed most parts of the temple. Attempts of renovations were stopped due to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 BC.
The temple of Jupiter
The Temple of Apollo
The worship of Apollo was a concept that the Romans has adopted from Greek religious practices that emerged from around the 6th century BC (Samnite period.). The temple of Apollo was a temple dedicated to this worship along with the worship of Diana the huntress and Mercury.
The temple was situated within the forum, facing the North side of the Basilica.The temple was in a rectangular shape that was surrounded by a portico that entailed the features that were gained as a result of a rebuild during the 3rd century BC, and a renovation followed by the earthquake of 62 .C.E. It was originally built with 48 Ionic columns but were changed into Corinthian columns during Nero’s reign. A high podium elevated the temple. Access to the structure was made by a staircase that entailed Italic and Greek.
The most significant aspect of the temple was the cella, which was a platform that is raised on a podium. The rear of the temple was decorated with scenes from the Iliad. Statues of Diana and Apollo faced each other while statues of Venus and Hermaphrodite were found at the base of the portico’s entrance, as stated by Alberti Pisa (Pompeii,painted).
Statue of Apollo
The temple of Isis
The temple of Isis which was dedicated to the worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis was considered to be the most well-preserved temple uncovered from Pompeii. The cult of Isis was one of the most popular forms of worship. The temple was created during the pre-Roman ages. Inscriptions and on the temple suggested that it underwent a major renovation following the earthquake of 62 AD. Being raised on a platform, the temple faced the east side so the rising sun illuminated the interior. A statue of Isis was elevated on a niche inside. A peristyle was used to preserve a vial of water from the river Nile, which was considered sacred. The existence of the temple of Isis allows historians and archaeologists to understand the poempenian citizens' tolerance of foreign cults and religious customs.
Temple of Isis
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
©Jackie and Bob Dunn
Pompeii's theatre
The theatre in Pompeii appeared as a curved auditorium (cavea.) The theatre praised for its acoustics, seated 5000 people and hosted farces, mimes, plays and pantomimes. The location was utilised as a place advertisements and propaganda. The backdrop of the stage featured images of the gods, local politician and the emperor.
The Odeon theatre in Pompeii
Photo taken by Joanne Munro
Photo taken by Joanne Munro | Source
Pompeii's ampitheatre
The amphitheatre was a large (146 by 33 metres in length) elliptical shaped theatre that held various sources of entertainment for citizens. Considered the oldest surviving amphitheatre in the Roman world, it was built around 70 BC (the period of the Roman conquest and colonisation of the town). It was situated in the south-east of Pompeii. The theatre was known for its intricate design and the way it provided historians with insight into Pompeii's social and popular culture.
Amphitheatre in Pompeii
The site consisted of thirty-five held 24,000 spectators which this allowed accommodation of local citizens as wells as audiences from neighbouring towns. The area was used for games such as gladiatorial fights, hunts and battles featuring wild animals (bestiarius). In honour of the gods, gladiatorial games allowed politicians to showcase propaganda. Those who paid for the games to be held built a greater reputation, a tactic that politicians would take.
Astyanax vs Kalendio mosaic
Two venatores fighting a tiger (5th century CE mosaic in the Great Palace of Constantinople)
Two venatores fighting a tiger (5th century CE mosaic in the Great Palace of Constantinople) | Source
Alike Pompeii's theatres, spectators were seated in accordance with their social classes. The first sector (ima cavea) was used by important and aristocratic personnel. The successive levels entitled: media and summa were used by other audiences. The middle rows were used for ordinary citizens. Private boxes were believed to be used by aristocratic women of Pompeii, following the social legislation of emperor Augustus. The standing room was for the poor.
The amphitheatre's arena was excavated about six meters below ground level. There were two double stairways and another pair of single stairways located around the theatre. The arena was surrounded by a parapet that exceeded the amphitheatre’s height by around two meters. The parapet was decorated with scenes of gladiators or animal hunts. Seats were tied around the oval and made of stone, however, wooden tiers were commonly found. The valerium served the purpose of protecting citizens from the sun.
Pompeian mural depicting the Amphitheatre riots
Gladiators of Pompeii
Graffiti excavated throughout the streets of Pompeii revealed that gladiatorial combats were a popular source of entertainment: “ the gladiatorial troop…will fight at Pompeii…”. Bestiarius consisted of men killing animals that were "maddened with spear thrusts…” (marcel Brions, Pompeii and Herculaneum glory and grief). Pompeian paintings and bas-reliefs on certain tombs revealing different categories of gladiators. The most accurate portrait of a gladiator was found in a statuette that served as a sign board to a tavern in the area surrounding the Portia Di Neceria. That statuette revealed a gladiator raising a shield whilst leaning on his left hand.
For public latrines a drainage channel in which water continuously ran ensured that waste was moved along, draining to pits beneath the roadway. A few private houses had latrines near the kitchen area.
Aqueduct in Pompeii, Italy
Water supply
An aqueduct divided into three pipes effectively supplied Pompeii with water from the river Sarno. Numerous private houses were connected to the water. One of the three pipes supplied the public fountains throughout the city, which was usually located at crossroads. These public fountains supplied a continuous flow of fresh water.
Roman baths in Pompeii, Italy.
Roman baths, Pompeii, Italy.
Baths (thermae)
Baths (thermae) were viewed as a social activity within Pompeii, also used for business and exercise. The features of the baths consisted of hot, warm and cold baths. There were areas for exercise and playing games, massage rooms, sauna-like rooms, garden enclosures and a large swimming pool. The baths also had a heating system (hypocaust), which was a system of furnaces located under the bathhouses. Both water/air were heated using the hypocaust. Different baths existed such as the forum baths, the suburban baths and the stabian baths.
Men and women of all social classes used the public baths daily, however, men and women were segregated. These baths were available at midday.
A typical day at the baths:
Citizens would undress in changing rooms (apodyterium) then exercise in the palaestra. This was then followed by a massage in the apodyterium where oil was applied to the body then scraped off with a strigil (Romans had no soap). Citizens would then go visit the warm room (trepidarium), a hot room which was 40 celsius (caldarium), sauna (laconicum) and the cold pool (frigidarium).
"Garden of the Fugitives"
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PiNimbus 19 months ago
These photos are stunning. I really enjoyed reading these facts. I hope these structures can survive for our future generations. I can only imagine the energy omitted from this location.
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CANTERBURY TALES: Stereotype Poem Assignment
In this assignment, students become a modern-day Chaucer and create a stereotype poem based upon a contemporary figure in society. They must write a poem that describes this modern-day pilgrim, including imagery and rhetorical devices, that reveals a clear tone either approving or disapproving of the figure. After creating the poem, students are asked to write a paragraph explanation of their stereotype poem that includes the effect of their rhetorical devices. This is an excellent way to make Chaucer's work relevant to today's society and even an effective writing task for students to complete BEFORE reading Canterbury Tales. Students will LOVE sharing their stereotype poems with the entire class!
This assignment includes a student sample of a stereotype poem about politicians as well as a rubric to grade the final product.
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Created: Jul 29, 2016
Updated: Feb 22, 2018
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Remembering the First World War
Home » Newsroom » Remembering the First World War
Remembering the First World War — Sandbags, Eggs and Rest Huts
Vintage WW1 poster. Follow me, your country needs you
Like every other community in Britain, Tarvin was enthusiastic about helping the war effort in any way they could. The war involved all sections of society including women and children. Some of the roles that women played were novel; others were not. Yet even traditional feminine occupations and pursuits could become part of the war effort. From the earliest days of the conflict domestic tasks like sewing took on a military cast as women all over the nation joined sewing groups. As early as August 1914 the first sewing group (Queen Mary's Needlework Guild) had been set up for women, who were as deeply stirred by the war as men, to make a useful contribution. Many sewing groups made clothes for the troops but other items were made as well.
Working with Queen Mary's Needlework Guild, The Red Cross (more widely known for its medical volunteering) also set up sewing parties around the country. In March 1916 the St Andrew's parish magazine was able to report that 12 shirts, 13 locker bags and 120 Sandbags had been made by Tarvin women and sent to the Red Cross headquarters. Clothing such as the shirts would have required the use of a sewing machine and many women would not have been able to afford one but the locker bags and sandbags were a simple design which could have been sewn by hand.
Sandbags made from hessian (also known as burlap) were use extensively during WW1 but wore out after about a year. They were filled with earth by regular filling parties and provided troops manning the trench fire-step with effective protection from enemy rifle fire. Sandbags could absorb bullets and shell fragments. A WW1 bullet would penetrate to 15 inches so the sandbags were usually piled three or four deep. They were less effective as a protection from artillery fire but the ones piled at the back of the trench did offer some protection from the back blast from shells which commonly fell beyond the trench line.
The work of the sewing groups was recognised (albeit in a comic way) In the 1914 popular song called 'Sister Susie's sewing Shirts' which was written by R P Western with music by Herman Darewski. It was performed widely with one of the more notable versions being recorded by Al Jolson in 1916.
Caring for the huge number of wounded and sick servicemen was a huge task and appeals were regularly made to the public for help. One such appeal was for eggs and the government published a poster asking people to donate eggs for the wounded.
WW1 Egg Poster
In March 1916 the parish magazine published the following notice:
On the first Sunday in the month 42 eggs were brought to church by the children. Until further notice eggs will be gratefully received at all children's services. This is one of the best ways in which country folk can help the wounded and sick among our soldiers.
During WW1 There were many ways in which the Church of England contributed to the war effort. One of these was by building and maintaining a number of huts for the accommodation of soldiers in France and elsewhere. The huts were so constructed that they could be used both as places of worship and recreation. By March 1916 part of the scheme had already been carried out and the church had pledged to raise £12,000 towards the expenses. This was a considerable sum (about £1,174,000 in today's money) and churchgoers in Tarvin were donating towards it.
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The Full Wiki
More info on stop consonant
stop consonant: Wikis
Manners of articulation
A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. The terms plosive and stop are usually used interchangeably, but they are not perfect synonyms. Plosives are oral stops with a pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism. The term is also used to describe oral (non-nasal) stops. Many use the term nasal continuant rather than nasal stop to refer to sounds like [n] and [m]. One should be aware that this article treats these "nasal continuants" as nasal stops.
Common stops
All languages in the world have stops[1] and most have at least [p], [t], [k], [n], and [m]. However, there are exceptions: Colloquial Samoan lacks the coronals [t] and [n], and the several North American languages, such as the northern Iroquoian languages, lack the labials [p] and [m]. Some of the Chimakuan, Salishan, and Wakashan languages near Puget Sound lack nasal stops [m] and [n], as does the Rotokas language of Papua New Guinea, and Eyak lacks both labials and nasals, [p], [m], [n].[2] In some African and South American languages, nasal stops occur, but only in the environment of nasal vowels, and so are not distinctive. Formal Samoan has only one word with velar [k], but it has a nasal velar stop, [ŋ]. Ni‘ihau Hawaiian, which has /t/ for Standard Hawaiian /k/, can be analysed as having no velars, but in fact its /t/ and /n/ vary in pronunciation, [t]~[k] and [n]~[ŋ]. It may be more accurate to say that Hawaiian and colloquial Samoan do not distinguish velar and coronal stops than to say they lack one or the other.
Stop articulation
• Catch: The airway closes so that no air can escape through the mouth (hence the name stop). With nasal stops, the air escapes through the nose.
• Release or burst: The closure is opened. In the case of plosives, the released airflow produces a sudden impulse causing an audible sound (hence the name plosive).
In affricate stops, the release is a fricative.
Classification of stops
In aspirated stops, the voice onset (the time when the vocal cords begin to vibrate) comes perceivably later than the release of the stop. The duration between the release of the stop and the voice onset is called voice onset time (VOT). Tenuis stops have a voice onset time close to zero, meaning that voicing begins when the stop is released. Voiced stops have a negative voice onset time, meaning the voicing begins before the stop is released. A stop is called "fully voiced" if it is voiced during the entire occlusion. In English, however, initial voiced plosives like [b] or [d] are only partially voiced, meaning that voicing picks up sometime during the occlusion. Aspirated stops have a voice onset time greater than zero, so that there is a period of voiceless airflow (a phonetic [h]) before the onset of the vowel.
In most dialects of English, the final g in the word bag is likely to be fully voiced, while the initial b will be only partially voiced. Initial voiceless plosives, like the p in pie, are aspirated, with a palpable puff of air upon release, while a plosive after an s, as in spy, is tenuous. When spoken near a candle flame, the flame will flicker more after the words par, tar, and car are articulated, compared with spar, star, and scar.
In a geminate or long stop, the occlusion lasts longer than in normal stops. In languages where stops are only distinguished by length (e.g. Arabic, Ilwana, Icelandic), the long stops may last up to three times as long as the short stops. Italian is well known for its geminate stop, as the double t in the name Vittoria takes just as long to say as the ct does in English Victoria. Japanese also prominently features the geminate consonant, such as in the minimal pair 来た (kita), meaning came, and 切った (kitta) meaning cut (past).
Note that there are many languages where the features voice, aspiration, and length reinforce each other, and in such cases it may be hard to tell which of these features predominates. In such cases the terms fortis is sometimes used for aspiration or gemination, while lenis is used for single, tenuous or voiced stops. Beware, however, that the terms fortis and lenis are poorly defined, and their meanings vary from source to source.
Note that the terms prenasalization and postnasalization are normally only used in languages where these sounds are phonemic, that is, not analyzed into sequences of plosive plus nasal stop.
Airstream mechanism
Here are the oral stops (plosives) granted dedicated symbols in the IPA. See also the nasal stops.
English stops
[b], [d], [g] (in most dialects: partially voiced word-initially, fully voiced intervocally)
See also
1. ^ König, W. (ed) dtv Atlas zur deutschen Sprache dtv 1994
2. ^ Michael Krauss, 1965. "Eyak: a preliminary report". In Canadian Journal of Linguistics. Note that the /m/ reported in the Wikipedia article on Eyak is not a normal speech sound.
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How to communicate with Morse code (using visual, audio, and pressure forms of communication) - Wilderness Arena Survival
Morse code is a method of transmitting textual messages using a series of patterns. Each text unit in the pattern can be represented (or reproduced) using on-off tones (sound), flashing lights, or clicks representing "dots" and "dashes" (known as dits and dahs).
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On 27 October 1954, at an informal meeting with some of Mumbai’s senior activists at the Siddharth College, which was then located in the barracks along Marine Lines, Babasaheb Ambedkar shared his anguish over their squabbles. He urged them to put an end to their infighting, as it could undermine the work they had done for the oppressed people. Expressing concern over the plight of the downtrodden people who were at the mercy of such social activists, he was moved to tears. He rued that he had not been able to do much for the people of the rural areas. These sentiments shook those present at the meeting.
Some of them went on to become leaders but could not give up their old habits. After Dr Ambedkar’s death, the movement disintegrated. These squabbling leaders fell prey to the crooked politics of the Congress party that led to further division in society.
Consequently, the orthodox, the rich and the powerful became even more ruthless towards the Dalits.
The main victims of exploitation were people living in the rural areas, especially the Ambedkarites among them – those who were influenced by Babasaheb and had started asserting their rights guaranteed by the Constitution.
Earlier, Dalits used to be subjected to exploitation and atrocities and in the villages, the orthodox people used to ostracise them. The lives of these ostracised Dalits in the closed societies of villages was miserable – for they were totally dependent on the rest of the village for their livelihood.
While Dalits from other communities had their traditional (caste) vocational skills to rely on, the Ambedkarites (former Mahars) who had converted to Buddhism had no such vocation to ensure regular income. The restrictions imposed by the village used to ruin their lives. The responsibility of taking up their cause rested with leaders of the Republican Party of India (RPI), which was established after the death of Babasaheb.
However, the leaders were busy fighting among themselves, oblivious to the fact that they were entrusted with the responsibility of taking the Ambedkarite movement forward. The victims in villages had given up hopes of being rescued from their condition by these leaders and had no strength left to stand up to and question the injustice, let alone fight it. For such victims, the Dalit Panther became a ray of hope. It rejuvenated them and boosted their confidence in taking on the system that was subjugating them.
Babasaheb used to describe a village as a garbage dump of casteism.
His followers rejected casteism and its stipulated diktats. When violence broke out after the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, it was mainly the Marathas from Maharashtra who targeted the Brahmins. Dalits stayed away from the violence because they had learnt that violence was not the tool to overcome ideological differences.
The violence marginalised rural Brahmins, who were left fuming. The Brahmins nursed a grudge against Marathas although they did not show it or take revenge. However, despite being a minority community, the Brahmins continued to control the entire society on the basis of their intellectual prowess and “divinely” sanctioned supremacy in the caste system.
During the same period, the country had started experimenting with panchayat committees for local governance in rural areas. Based on the recommendations of the Jivraj Mehta commission and Vasantrao Naik committee reports, developmental works were being undertaken in villages. Before the Panchayat system was introduced, the most powerful position in a village, of the “patil”, used to be occupied by members of the Maratha community. It was a traditional position, not an administrative one, but carried supreme status in the traditional village community.
The panchayat system ushered in an official position, that of the “sarpanch”. Being an administrative post, it bestowed power and opportunities to get one’s hands on lucre. The traditional position of a “patil” and the democratic post of a “sarpanch” came to be vested in members of the Maratha community by virtue of their clout in the villages. The Maratha community became more powerful than ever, even within the framework of the Constitution.
However, these first baby steps taken towards democratisation of local governance led to rivalry and provided leeway for exposing the atrocities against Dalits. Such incidents drew the attention of newspapers, prompting reporters to visit the homes of victimised Dalits. The news reports of such incidents, however, ultimately resulted in more exploitation of the victims.
Since the RPI leaders had politically compromised with the then ruling Congress party, the situation led to anguish among Dalits.
Whenever newspapers reported such incidents, the leaders could do little to take up their cases. The state of affairs made Dalit youths like me feel the need for a militant organisation to combat atrocities. Incidents of women being raped and paraded naked, Dalits being ostracised and human excreta being dumped in wells were on the rise, so were human sacrifices, lynchings, murders, people being burnt alive, burning of houses, grabbing of land and denial of land for cremating the dead. There was even a heinous incident of eyes being gouged out for demanding justice. It was like standing on the mouth of a volcano. We thus founded Dalit Panthers. That was our way of venting our anger simmering within us.
Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar had wanted a strong opposition party to take shape for the sake of a healthy democracy in the country. He had envisaged such a role for the Republican Party of India to check the ruling party. He had wanted to unite all opposition parties to create a strong alternative to the Congress party. Unfortunately, this did not happen during his lifetime.
During 1971 and 1972, newspapers played a crucial role in checking the hurtling Congress, using the growing atrocities against Dalits as their shields.
In 1971, atrocities against Dalits, which never used to be prominently displayed in newspapers, made front-page news.
Such stories had a lasting impact on Dalit youth. Every day, stories of atrocities against Dalits used to leave them shaken. Around the same time, the report of the Elayaperumal Committee was made public. The committee had travelled across India to compile cases of atrocities against Dalits and prescribed remedies to curb them. L Elayaperumal headed the committee and Dadasaheb Gaikwad, one of Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar’s closest lieutenants, was a member.
Dadasaheb’s experience left a mark on the report. It was similar to the reports in the United States that revealed atrocities being committed against African Americans. It revealed the high-handedness of the Congress party’s goons, the zamindars (landlords), the rich and the powerful. The report led to outrage among Dalit youth – the second generation after Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar’s death – and they wanted to fight back.
This generation had followed his message of “Educate, Unite and Fight”, but found itself in a quandary. Born into poor families, they were all bread-earners, mainly employed in government departments and couldn’t risk losing their jobs by participating in the movement as activists.
Some of them came up with the idea of uniting the older generation of Dalit leaders who were heading various factions of the Republican Party of India. A new organisation, Republican Kranti Dal, was formed, with Dr Narayan Gaikwad as its president. The new outfit was headquartered on the 13th lane of Kamathipura area of Mumbai.
April is the month of festivity for Dalits because Dr Ambedkar was born on April 14.
Dalit localities celebrate his birth anniversary with gusto and pride to express gratitude to their liberator. The festivities include processions, speeches, cultural shows and various collective activities that go on for a couple of months. Every year, Dalits look forward to the occasion. However, on 14 April 1972, an unpleasant incident in Mumbai dampened the spirit of Dalits.
While Dr Ambedkar’s birth anniversary was being celebrated at the Dalit locality of Chinchwadi (Gadhav Bawdi) in Bandra, some of the elite residing in nearby buildings became annoyed with the loudspeaker blaring songs on Dr Ambedkar. They filed a complaint with the police. A team of police personnel from the Bandra police station arrived at the venue of the celebrations and started assaulting the Dalits, and they wouldn’t stop even after the organisers turned the sound down.
The use of loudspeakers is common in all public religious functions in India, including those of Hindus and Muslims, but some Hindu police officials nursed a grudge against Ambedkarites and were waiting for an opportunity to show their might. The police team headed by PSI Nanavare not only assaulted Dalits, but also smashed photographs of Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar and Gautam Buddha. The news spread like wildfire in Mumbai city, drawing crowds to the Bandra Police Station to protest. Demonstrations were held at various places across Mumbai. Two of them were important.
On 16 April 1972, Dr Ambedkar’s son, Bhaiyyasaheb Ambedkar, led an army of protestors to the front of the state secretariat (known as sachivalaya then and mantralaya today). The protestors demanded an inquiry into the Bandra incident and suspension of the police officer concerned. Barrister BD Kamble and Bhausaheb Kelshikar led another protest march to the Bandra Police Station and demanded the suspension of the police official. Leaders of both the demonstrations submitted memoranda to senior police officials and minister of state DT Rupawate, who promised to take action. However, neither he nor anyone else took any action, adding to the anguish of Dalits.
Excerpted with permission from Dalit Panthers: An Authoritative History, JV Pawar, translated from the Marathi by Rakshit Sonawane, Forward Press Books.
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Folk Calendar
We may define Folk Calendar as a systematic arrangement of time and life, assuming the task of remembering religious, historical, traditional, educational, religious, legal, agricultural, political and economic ties established by relationships based on long-term experiences between natural events, social institutions and events inherited by people of any region, in essence as a cultural inheritance. Apart from the popularly used calendars, folk calendars, also known as local calendars, give different names to the parts and divisions of the year, and sometimes ascribes positive or negative features to them. According to widespread belief, there are some powers that need to be avoided or else abided by in the seasons, months, weeks, nights, days and even hours of the folk calendar. In local calendars, while some divisions of times are explained by natural events which happen on a regular, cyclical basis, sometimes these divisions may be explained by social events within a community, such as religious ceremonies, relationships with other communities that affect that society, a novelty introduced to the society, a change in forms of production, the death of an esteemed person etc.
In forming folk calendars, numerous factors play an important role.
Geographic Factors: Mountains, rivers, valleys, vegetation and domestic and migrating animals that are to be found in the settlement area affect the formation of the folk calendar.
Climatic Conditions-Seasons: There are numerous examples of reflections of climatic conditions and season in folk calendars in Turkey, such as “Zemheri” (intense cold), “Hamsin” ( the period of fifty days that follows the coldest days of winter), “Erbain” (forty days of winter), “Eyyam-ı Bahur” (the hottest days of summer, the first week of August), “Cemreler” (it is believed that warmth falls from the sun first to the air, in February, and then to the air and water) “Mart Dokuzu” (nine cold days of March, still considered as winter, not spring), “Leylek Kışı” (winter of the stork), “Oğlak Kışı” (Winter of the baby goat), “Kocakarı soğukları” (winter of the old woman, the middle of March), “Hıdırellez” ( May 6th, generally considered as the beginning of summer time), “Ekim Zamanı” (Time of planting), “Hasat Zamanı” ( Time of reaping), “Bağbozumu” (harvesting of grapes, end of summer), etc.
Natural Events:Reflections of major events may also be observed in folk calendars, such epidemics that lead to significant numbers of deaths in the human or animal population, flood, drought, the earthquakes in Erzincan and Gediz.
Celestial Incidents: The visual forms of the moon, stars, star clusters and the falling of shooting stars have influenced the formation of some folk calendars. Some beliefs and practices in Turkey in relation to the North Star, the “ülker” star and lunar and solar eclipses are examples of this.
Religious Factors: Various sacred nights (Kandiller) of the Muslum community, sacred months, points related to the Hadj pilgrimage or benevolence, religious bairams (festivals) celebrated in Turkey on the basis of Islamic principles are some examples of the formation of local calendars.
Economic Factors: Economic activity defines social structure, implementations and practices accumulated around production. Events and beliefs related to economic life create the framework of folk calendars. The best example of this is the names given to months in some regions:. “Döl tökümü” (the shedding of semen, March), “Çift ayı” (month of farming implements, April), “Göç ayı” (the month of migration, May), “Kiraz ayı” (month of the cherry, June).
Social Events: Social events such as revolutions, periods during which various political parties were in power, victories and defeats and migrations also affect the folk calendar.
In Turkey, where the great majority of the population is Muslum, people use two different calendars:
1. “Kameri calendar” that divides into 12 parts due to the changing phases of the moon every 29/30 days. This calendar regards the year as consisting of 354/355 days.
2. “Semsi calendar”, the solar calendar which is generally used all over the world. This calendar is based on the movement of the earth around the sun. According to this calendar, the years lasts 365/366 days. People use both these two calendars when referring to special traditional days. They use the lunar calendar for religious festivals, and the solar calendar which indicates the seasons for other rites and activities.
The most frequent traditional method used to show the time of a specific event is taking that event as a historical landmark. For example “Seferberlik” (Mobilization for war, the 1914-1918 War), “93 Harbi” (The war of 93, 1876), Balkan Wars (1912), The Erzincan Earthquake (1939).
Day and night are periods of time beginning with sunrise and lasting until dawn. In contrast to the practice in the West, in Turkey a new day is considered to begin when the sun goes down. For instance, when the sun goes down on Thursday, it is accepted that Friday has begun.
Altough everybody knows and uses the general names of the days of the week, in some regions and villages some days also go by different names. For example, in the Cal district of Denizli, Thursday is known as “Friday night” and Wednesday is known as “lighty”. Different names used for the days depends on the locations of market places.
In calendars used by agricultural and livestock raising communities, the seasons and the divisions within these seasons over the year need to be set out in a systematic way to reflect the same weather conditions. Therefore, in these regions folk calendars do not vary much from the solar calendar, since both of them share the same principles. Still, we can observe differences with various causes in the naming and division of the months. For example, in the Cal district of Denizli, the year is divided into eight months and each season consists of two months.
Spring: March (22nd March-5th May)
Hidirellez: (5th May-21st June)
Summer: Solstice (22nd June- 13th August)
August (14th August- 21st September)
Autumn: Autumn (22nd September- 5th November) November (6th November- 21st December)
Winter: Zemheri (intense cold) (22nd December-21st January)
Extreme Winter (1st February-21st March)
In Giresun, too, we see that there are different names for the months:
Zemheri (January), Gücük (February), Abrul (April), Kiraz (June), Orak (July), Haç Ayi (September), Avara (October), Koç Ayi (November), Karakis (December). Karakis means “blackwinter” , the word black has a negative meaning here. Karakis is often used in all folk calendars to define a month or some parts of the winter. Agricultural workers are unable to work at these times of the winter, and these are particularly difficult times for them. One period of time, called avara (vagabond), indicates that planting activities are over and that agricultural workers now have a lot of free time on their hands.
In most folk calendars, February is called as Gücük (small) to to the fact it is comparativelt short. Planting, livestock raising and fruit growing also lend their names to various months in popular calendars, such as Koç Ayi (the month of the ram), Orakayi (the month of the scythe) or Kiraz ayi (the month of the cherry).
In Anatolian calendars, apart from the mating of rams, there are also other specially-named periods defining seasons or months, such as “the shedding of semen”, “the month of the lamb” (this refers to March in the Kars region) and “head of semen”. Of course, these particularly named periods do not coincide with the official calendar.
The commonest way of dividing a year into seasons is to divide it into two parts: Kasim and Hidirellez. Kasim begins with the month November as per the official calendar and lasts until the 6th May. Hidirellezbegins on the 6th May and ends in November.
In eastern parts of Anatolia and some other regions largely inhabited by Alawite communities, Nevruz (22nd March, or 9th March old-style) is considered as the beginning of the new year. This date is also celebrated and considered as the beginning of the spring and the new year. In some parts of eastern Anatolia, the belief is encounterd that that on Nevruz the Prophet Noah left his ark on Mount Ararat and walked to the Sürmeli temple with people gathering around him. According to the beliefs of the Narlidere Tahtacilari (an Alawite group), His Grace Ali was born on Nevruz, and Nevruz is the beginning of the days of summer. “God created long days in summer so that endless work might end, and created short days in winter so that insufficient food should become sufficient”. The Tahtacilar also regard Friday as the birthday of Ali.
In most parts of Anatolia, during the countdown from winter to summer, some days in a two month period are referred to within a countdown system begin with nine and then seven, five, three and finally one.
The following explains how these days are listed in Gaziantep:
Seven: end of January and three weeks of February, five: end of February and three weeks of March, three: end of March and first week of April, one: end of April and first week of May. These numbers (nine, seven....) also show how many days are left until the next new moon. This tradition of the Turkish folk calendar was set down in a Turkish-Arabic dictionary written in 1551 on Ottoman territory. In this dictionary, December is referred to as “nine”.
At the same time, the division of the year is also linked to the stars. The star ”Ulker” begins to appear in November and fades away in May (hidirellez).
Examples of Names Given to Days (Diskaya village in Usak)
Sunday: Girey
Monday: Gula Bazari
Tuesday: Gula Bazar Ertesi
Wednesday: Esme Bazari
Thursday: Cumasami
Friday: Cuma
Saturday: Cumartesi
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Pruning: Wikis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses of the term "Pruning", see Pruning (disambiguation).
Pruning: dense growth after shearing
Pruning is the process of removing certain above-ground elements from a plant; in landscaping this process usually involves removal of diseased, non-productive, or otherwise unwanted portions from a plant. In nature, certain meteorological conditions such as wind, snow or seawater mist can conduct a natural pruning process. The purpose of anthropomorphic pruning is to shape the plant by controlling or directing plant growth, to maintain the health of the plant, or to increase the yield or quality of flowers and fruits.
In general the smaller the wound (smaller the branch that is cut) the less harm to the tree. It is therefore typically better to formative prune the tree when juvenile than try to cut off large branches on a mature tree.
There are also differences pertaining to pruning, involving roses, shrubs, hedges, fruit trees or amenity trees.
If a shrub is incorrectly pruned and a piece breaks off, it may not do much damage. However, if a tree next to the house is incorrectly pruned and a large branch falls from 50 feet (about 15 metres), it can be deadly.
Pruning Landscape and Amenity Trees
Pruning when there's a branch collar:- Note the swollen area where the branch joins the trunk, this is known as the collar, do not cut off the collar
Pruning when there's a collarless union:- Note there's no swollen area where the branch joins the trunk, this is known as a collarless union, cut at a mirror angle to the BBR (branch bark ridge)
Pruning when it's a codominant stem:- Note the bottom of the BBR and where it meets the outside of the stem, cut where the red line is.
Branch structure and how they are attached to each other in trees falls into 3 categories. Collared unions, collarless unions and codominant unions. Each specific attachment has its own unique way of being cut so that the branch has less chance of regrowth from the cut area and best chance of sealing over and compartmentalising decay. This means that there are 3 types of cuts made, whether that be to remove a little branch coming of another or cutting a whole branch off back to the trunk. This term is often referred to by arborists as "target cutting".
Some of the terms used predominantly by arborists and what they entail:
Dead Wooding
Branches die off for a number of reasons ranging from light deficiency, pests and disease damage to root damage. A dead branch will at some point decay back to the parent stem causing abscission and fall off. This is normally a slow process but can be shortened by high winds and extremities of temperature. Therefore the main reason deadwooding is carried out is safety. The situations that usually demand such removal would normally be trees that overhang public roads, houses, public areas and gardens. Trees that are located in wooded areas are usually considered and assessed as lower risk but such assessments would need to consider the amount of visitors. Usually, trees adjacent to the footpaths and access roads are considered for deadwood removal. Another reason for deadwooding is amenity value, i.e. a tree with a large amount of dead throughout the crown looks more aesthetically pleasing with the deadwood removed. The physical practice of deadwooding can be carried out most of the year although preferably not when the tree is coming into leaf. The deadwooding process will speed up the natural abscission process the tree follows. It will help remove unwanted weight; wind resistance the tree carries and can help the overall balance.
Crown - Canopy Thinning
Increase light and reduce wind resistance by selective removal of branches throughout the canopy of the tree. This is a common practice which improves the tree's strength against adverse weather conditions as the wind can pass through the tree resulting in less "load" being placed on the tree. Generally performed on trees that do not have a dense impenetrable canopy as opening a 100% dense canopy up with holes for wind to enter can result in broken branches and uprooting.
Crown Canopy Lifting
Crown lifting involves the removal of the lower branches to a given height. The height is achieved by the removal of whole branches or removing the parts of branches which extend below the desired height. The branches are normally not lifted to more than one third of the tree's total height. Crown lifting is done for access; these being pedestrian, vehicle or space for buildings and street furniture. Lifting the crown will allow traffic and pedestrians to pass underneath safely. This pruning technique is usually used in the urban environment as it is for public safety and aesthetics rather than tree form and timber value. Crown lifting introduces light to the lower part of the trunk; this, in some species can encourage epicormic growth from dormant buds. To reduce this sometimes smaller branches are left on the lower part of the trunk. Excessive removal of the lower branches can displace the canopy weight, this will make the tree top heavy, therefore adding stress to the tree. When a branch is removed from the trunk, it creates a large wound. This wound is susceptible to disease and decay, and could lead to reduced trunk stability. Therefore much time and consideration must be taken when choosing the height the crown is to be lifted to. This would be an inappropriate operation if the tree species’ form was of a shrubby nature. This would therefore remove most of the foliage and would also largely unbalance the tree. This procedure should not be carried out if the tree is in decline, poor health or dead, dying or dangerous (DDD) as the operation will remove some of the photosynthetic area the tree uses. This will increase the decline rate of the tree and could lead to death. If the tree is of great importance to an area or town, (i.e. veteran or ancient) then an alternative solution to crown lifting would be to move the target or object so it is not in range. For example, diverting a footpath around a tree’s drip line so the crown lift is not needed. Another solution would be to prop up or cable-brace the low hanging branch. This is a non-invasive solution which in some situations can work out more economically and environmentally friendly.
Directional or Formative Pruning
Removal of appropriate branches to make the tree structurally sound whilst shaping it.
Vista Pruning
Selectively pruning a window of view in a tree.
Crown Reduction
Reducing the height and or spread of a tree by selectively cutting back to smaller branches.And in fruit trees for increasing of light interception and enhancing fruit quality.
A regular form of pruning where certain deciduous species are pruned back to pollard heads every year in the dormant period. This practice is commenced on juvenile trees so they can adapt to the harshness of the practice.
Authorities, including author Neil Sperry, advise against this practice called pollarding or "topping" of trees.
Types of pruning
Regardless of the various names used for types of pruning, there are only two basic cuts: One cuts back to an intermediate point, called heading back cut, and the other cuts back to some point of origin, called thinning out cut.[1]
Removing a portion of a growing stem down to a set of desirable buds or side-branching stems. This is commonly performed in well trained plants for a variety of reasons, for example to stimulate growth of flowers, fruit or branches, as a preventative measure to wind and snow damage on long stems and branches, and finally to encourage growth of the stems in a desirable direction. Also commonly known as heading-back.
1. Thinning: A more drastic form of pruning, a thinning out cut is the removal of an entire shoot, limb, or branch at its point of origin. [1] This is usually employed to revitalize a plant by removing over-mature, weak, problematic, and excessive growths. When performed correctly, thinning encourages the formation of new growth that will more readily bear fruit and flowers. This is a common technique in pruning roses and for implifying and "opening-up" the branching of neglected trees, or for renewing shrubs with multiple branches.
2. Topping: Topping is a very severe form of pruning which involves removing all branches and growths down to a few large branches or to the trunk of the tree. When performed correctly it is used on very young trees, and can be used to begin training younger trees for pollarding or for trellising to form an espalier.
In orchards, fruit trees are often lopped to encourage regrowth and to maintain a smaller tree for ease of picking fruit. The pruning regime in orchards is more planned and the productivity of each tree is an important factor.
Deadheading is the act of removing spent flowers or flowerheads for aesthetics, to prolong bloom for up to several weeks or promote rebloom, or to prevent seeding.
Some tools utilized for pruning.
The general rule to pruning is to always cut in a location where growth will occur, whether the cut is next to a bud or another branch. Cutting a branch beyond where growth will occur will prevent the plant from forming a callus over the cut surface, which in turn will invite insects and infection. It effectively kills all portions of that branch back to the closest branch, bud, or dormant bud clusters, leaving a stub of dead wood. The withered stub will eventually rot away and fall off. All cuts should be relatively smooth since this will aid in healing.
Also, the pruning cut should not be too large when compared to the growing point. For instance, a large cut on a 20 cm trunk down to a 15 cm branch should be fine, but the same cut to the trunk down to a 1 cm twig or bud is considerably less ideal and should be avoided if possible.
Pruning to bud
A correct pruning cut will allow for quick healing and promote vigorous growth from the closest bud to the cut. The cut should be close enough to the bud to reduce the size of the stub of dead wood that will form from the cut, but far enough away to prevent the bud from being adversely affected by the cut though desiccation. Cutting too close to the bud (under-cutting) sometimes results in the death of the bud, which results in a scenario similar to cutting too far away from the bud (over-cutting). In general, a correct cut should be angled at a moderate 35-45 degree slant such that its lowest point is situated on the same level as the tip of the growth bud. This technique is usually applied when pinching or when cutting-back.
Pruning to a main branch
The pruning cut should occur slightly away from and follow the branch collar. When cutting away branches growing directly from the roots, the cut should be flush and level to the ground. This technique is usually applied when thinning or to remove larger dead or damaged branches.
When using pruning shears or loppers to remove a branch back to a main branch, the "hook" portion of the shears should always face away from the main branch. This ensures that the blade will not leave a protruding stub and the hook will not damage the branch collar or parts of the main branch.
Large heavy branches
Depending on the weight of the branch, the first cut should be a notch on the underside of the branch about a third to half of the way through. The bulk of the branch should then be removed with a follow-through cut slightly above the first cut, thus leaving a limb stub. The purpose of this is to stop the weight of the branch from tearing the bark of the tree from the underside, which would normally occur if the removal was done with one cut. The limb stub ensures that any cracking of the wood resulting from the branch separation is limited to the portion of the wood to be removed. The branch collar should then be located, and can be identified by the strip of rough bark running down from the topside of the branch at its junction with the stem. The cut for removing the limb stub should be just outside the branch collar, leaving a small bump. The bump and the branch collar should not be removed since this action can reduce healing time, which could result in a major infection.
Time period
Pruning small branches can be done at any time of year. Large branches, with more than 5-10% of the plant's crown, can be pruned either during dormancy in winter, or, for species where winter frost can harm a recently-pruned plant, in mid summer just after flowering. Autumn should be avoided, as the spores of disease and decay fungi are abundant at this time of year.
Some woody plants that tend to bleed profusely from cuts, such as maples, or which callous over slowly, such as magnolias, are better pruned in summer or at the onset of dormancy instead. Woody plants that flower early in the season, on spurs that form on wood that has matured the year before, such as apples, should be pruned right after flowering, as later pruning will sacrifice flowers the following season. Forsythia, azaleas and lilacs all fall into this category.
See also
External links
1. ^ a b The Basics of Pruning
• Sunset Editors, (1995) Western Garden Book, Sunset Books Inc, ISBN 978-0376038517
1. James, N. D. G, The arboriculturalist’s companion, second edition 1990, Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Great Britain.
2. Shigo, A, 1991, Modern arboriculture, third printing, Durham, New Hampshire, USA, Shirwin Dodge Printers.
3. Shigo, A, 1989, A New Tree Biology. Shigo & trees Associates.
4. J.M. Dunn, C.J. Atkinson, N.A. Hipps, 2002, Effects of two different canopy manipulations on leaf water use and photosynthesis as determined by gas exchange and stable isotope discrimination, East Malling, University of Cambridge.
5. Shigo. A. L, 1998, Modern Arboriculture, third printing (2003), USA, Sherwin Dodge Printers
6. British standards 3998:1989, Recommendations for Tree Work.
7. Lonsdale. D, 1999, Principles of tree hazard assessment and management, 6th impression 2008, forestry commission, Great Britain.
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What was the Covenant Chain?
This quiz, the first of two, is worth 10% of your grade points for the course. It consists of questions based mainly on the assigned readings up to January 29th on the Course Reading and Assignments Schedule).Please note the following requirements. You will be evaluated on the basis of how well you answered the questions asked.Please cite page numbers in your responses.Your response should generally meet the following criteria:o Questions worth 1% – 5-7 sentenceso Questions worth 2% – 9-12 sentenceso Questions worth more than 2% – completeness and accuracy of response.1. What formal protocols characterized Aboriginal ceremonial practice for establishing kinship relations with their trading partners? (1 points)2. Prior to and in the early years of encounter with Europeans, what meaning did Aboriginal people place on gift giving, gift exchange? Explain (1 points)3. What was the Covenant Chain? (1 points)4. Name and describe (year, parties, territory covered, purpose) six alliances or peace treaties between Aboriginal Peoples and Europeans in what is now Canada prior to 1900. (2 points)5. The Robinson Huron Treaty signed on September 9, 1850 covers about 21 First Nation communities. Using the internet, the library, Miller’s “Compact, Contract, Covenant” or any other resources, create a map of the territory covered by the Robinson Huron Treaty and identify the name, tribe, location and current population of each of the First Nations that are signatories to the Robinson Huron Treaty of 1850. (3 points)6. What was the intent the Royal Proclamation of 1763 when it was formed and what is its significance to Aboriginal Peoples today? Please explain. (1 points)7. In your opinion, what events in the history as described by Miller tipped the balance of power from the Aboriginal Peoples to the Europeans? Explain. (1 points).
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The Maniots regard themselves as direct descendants of the Spartans. After the decline of Sparta, citizens loyal to the principles of Lycurgus (founder of Sparta’s constitution) chose to withdraw to the mountains rather than serve under foreign masters. Later, refugees from occupying powers joined these people, who became known as Maniots, from the Greek word ‘mania’. For centuries the Maniots were a law unto themselves, renowned for their fierce independence, resentment of attempts to govern them and for their bitter, spectacularly murderous internal feuds.
The Ottoman Turks failed to subdue the Maniots and largely left them alone, yet Mani became the cradle of rebellion that grew into the War of Independence. Post-Greek victory, though there had been a fatal falling out with the first president of independent Greece over the spoils of victory bypassing the Maniots, they nevertheless reluctantly became part of the new kingdom in 1834.
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Yellow Turbans
Yellow Turbans, Chinese secret society whose members’ uprising, the Yellow Turban Rebellion (184–c. 204 ce), contributed to the fall of the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce). Led by Zhang Jue, a Daoist faith healer who had gained numerous adherents during a widespread pestilence, the rebellion was directed against the tyrannical eunuchs who dominated the emperor. The rebels wore yellow headdresses to signify their association with the “earth” element, which they believed would succeed the red “fire” element that represented Han rule. To suppress the uprising, which erupted in eastern and central China, the Han conscripted huge armies at great cost, but their efforts were hampered by inefficiency and corruption in the imperial government. Zhang Jue became ill and died in 184 ce, but the rebellion was a continuing menace to the government for two more decades.
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Liking and Likeness in As You Like It
The title of Shakespeare’s play As You Like It, immediately suggests that the notion of liking and likeness will be a central theme. We find that who we like is based on a person’s similarity to other people we like. Identifying a likeness of qualities between people helps us establish who we like.
The play is full of both dichotomies and likenesses. We see the dichotomy between the country and the court and the famous analogy between the world and the theatrical stage. The main characters of the play each correspond to another with either inverted or similar qualities: Duke Senior is banished while Duke Frederick has come to power, Orlando is the moral and chivalrous son of Sir Rowland de Boys and Oliver is the aggressive and ungenerous son. Other characters are more similar, and their likenesses shape their relationships. Celia and Rosalind refer to each other throughout the play as doubles or reflections of themselves.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word “like” has two potential meanings when used as a verb: to compare and to find pleasing. The analogies we see in the play and how characters determine who they like, ultimately resolve the two meanings of the word like into one. One first goes through a process of comparison and then establishes what pleases them to determine who they like. Shakespeare emphasizes that when determining whom we like, we value whom that person is similar to over familial or other sorts of affiliations.
After Rosalind quickly falls in love with Orlando, Rosalind asks Celia to join her in loving him. Rosalind explains that she has fallen into such a strong liking with Orlando because, “The Duke my father lov’d his father dearly” (1, 3, 29). But Celia retorts, “By this kind of chase, I should hate him, for my father/hated his father dearly; yet I hate not Orlando” (1, 3, 31-32). While Rosalind first suggests her sentiments simply mirror those of her father, Celia points out that neither like nor hatred is inherited. Rosalind ultimately asks that Celia not echo her father’s sentiments, but instead she should love Orlando because Celia is a reflection of her.
This mirrored quality between Celia and Rosalind is seen again when Celia explains to her father, Duke Frederick, why Rosalind should be allowed to stay in the court. “But now I know her,” Celia tells her father about her relationship with Rosalind, “If she be a traitor,/Why, so am I. We still have slept together,/Rose at an instant, learn’d, play’d, eat together/ And whereso’er we went, like Juno’s swans,/Still we wend coupled and inseparable” (1, 3, 70-74). Celia asks Duke Frederick to love Rosalind because Rosalind is a reflection of her.
When Adam decides to leave with Orlando, we see again that there is a further reasoning that is involved in determining our allegiances beyond assuming a father and child’s likeness. Adam speaks to Orlando about Oliver but does not know how to call Oliver: “Your brother—no, no brother, yet the son/(Yet not the son, I will not call him son)/Of him I was about to call his father” (2, 3, 19-21). Adam regrets having to compare the brothers Orlando and Oliver and is distressed by referring to Oliver as Sir Rowland’s son, the master he so respected. While Oliver is technically Adam’s master now, Orlando is more like Sir Rowland than Oliver. Adam likes Orlando because he values the likeness between Orlando and Sir Rowland. Because of this likeness and liking, Adam flees with Orlando into the woods.
Likeness breeds liking. In turn, liking can breed likeness, as we imitate those we admire. We like people because of who they are similar to (ourselves or otherwise) and we choose to mimic or “double” the people that we like.
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Utah Women Lead: Emmeline B. Wells And The Importance Of A Vote | KUER 90.1
Feb 12, 2020
This week marks the 150th anniversary of the first time a woman cast a vote in the United States — right here in Utah. To commemorate the occasion, KUER is exploring how three Utah women worked to further the cause of equal rights.
In our first conversation, Neylan McBaine, the executive director of the nonprofit Better Days 2020, told KUER’s Caroline Ballard the story of suffragist Emmeline B. Wells, who championed the women’s right to vote in Utah.
This interview has been edited for length and clarity.
Caroline Ballard: Can you tell me about Emmeline B. Wells?
Neylan McBaine: Emmeline B. Wells was Utah’s leading suffragist. She came across the plains with the Mormon pioneers and arrived in the Salt Lake Valley when she was around 17 years old. She came of age here but found her own voice around time the Utah Territorial Legislature was considering granting women the right to vote.
One of the reasons that the Utah Territorial Legislature was considering granting women the right to vote was because there were pressures from the eastern federal government over polygamy, which was the practice of plural marriage that some members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints were practicing, including Emmeline. She was the sixth plural wife of Salt Lake City's mayor, Daniel Wells.
CB: Do we know why Emmeline felt compelled to work towards equal rights for women?
NB: Emmeline had a really unusual upbringing in Massachusetts. She went to an all-girls school and was really well educated. She also experienced the death of her father at a young age, and her mother was left to raise children on her own.
That's a very common story for some of the early suffragists, where they saw the 19th century plight of the single mother, or even the single woman, who was limited in her ability to provide for herself and for her family.
Emmeline, like many of the plural wives here in early Utah, felt like she wasn't able to speak for herself. She felt like she was being spoken for by the media and by the federal government, and so she was one of a movement at that time who sought to speak for themselves.
We don't know for sure that she voted in the first election that American women participated in in 1870, but it's very likely because of her high standing in the city society.
Emmeline went on in the decades after that to become Utah's leading suffragist, as Utah women had their vote revoked by the federal government and then sought to regain it in 1895 and 1896.
During that time, while Utah was working towards statehood and trying to get the right to vote back for its women, Emmeline became a really good friend of Susan B. Anthony.
In fact, Susan B. Anthony and several of the suffrage leaders from the East came here to Utah. Emmeline hosted them and became dear friends with them, as did many of the early Utah suffragists.
On her 80th birthday, Susan B. Anthony was given a bolt of the famous Utah silk that the women here made at the end of the 19th century. She had a black dress made out of it and declared it her favorite piece of clothing because it was made by free women.
Emmeline also edited one of the longest running suffrage newspapers in the country called The Woman's Exponent. She edited it for 40 years, and most of her thousands of editorials were about giving women the confidence to think for themselves, to advocate for themselves and to claim that right to have a voice in the public sphere.
After Utah entered the nation as a suffrage state, Emmeline went on to work towards the passing of the 19th Amendment, and then towards the international suffrage movement, as well.
Emmeline did live to see the 19th Amendment ratified in 1920, and died a year later.
She was at the very beginning and at this other important inflection point of the 19th Amendment, and saw that whole 50-year span from her front-row seat.
CB: What can we see of Emmeline’s legacy in Salt Lake and in Utah?
NB: Suffrage was never about just voting. It was the movement in American history that opened the door for women to participate in public life — move out of the domestic sphere and actually have a role in our civic dialogue and in their broader public communities.
And so when we talk about the act of casting a ballot, that's, of course, significant. But for people like Emmeline, it was always about claiming their voice and participating in the public sphere. That's a legacy that we all enjoy today.
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Unhappy Choices: Factors That Contributed to the Decline and Condemnation of the Beguines2
by Kate P. Crawford Galea
Toronto School of Theology
Toronto, Ontario
Slightly before Francis of Assisi cast off his garments and embraced Lady Poverty, a movement of women in the Low Countries was metaphorically doing the same thing. Lay women of Germany and Belgium, later called beguines, also cast off wealth and honour, even social standing, to live the apostolic life of charity, poverty and prayer. St. Francis found ongoing ecclesiastical and public support for his new way of life. The beguines did not.
Why did the beguines not receive ongoing sanction for their style of life? In 1216 Pope Honorius III declared that they might live as they desired, but papal support was fleeting, and as the thirteenth century progressed, the beguines found themselves consistently on the wrong side of the legitimacy debate. Almost one hundred years later, in 1311, Pope Clement V would declare that most beguines were heretics. Although the movement would continue with diminished strength up until the French Revolution, and greatly reduced even to our own time, it may fairly be said that it had passed its peak by the mid-fourteenth century.
What happened? How could a popular movement wither and fade within the space of a little more than a century? We will explore some of the decisions taken by the beguines, the impact of their piety on their neighbours, and the charges of heresy laid at their door, to try and answer these questions. Will we agree with Gordon Leff in concluding that the history of this movement “is the clearest indication of the inability of piety to find an accepted institutionalised outlet”?3 Or will we conclude that the holy lay women of the Low Countries were denied institutional sanction because they challenged the social order? Were they victims or were they scapegoats?
The centuries following the Gregorian reforms of the church were alive with religious fervour. This was the period marked by the rise of the new religious orders, as well as by the rise of popular movements of lay piety.4 With the high religious feelings of the day and the Frauenfrage as background, it is not surprising to find women in the thirteenth century seeking to enter religious life in large numbers. Cîteaux was the principal beneficiary of the women's religious longing, but it could not accommodate them all. In 1219 the General Chapter of Cîteaux ordered that any new nuns had to be cloistered, and in 1220 it decreed that no new foundations would be incorporated into the order. Although this last injunction was lifted in 1228 it indicates the kind of measures being taken to try to limit the influx of women to what was the strictest of orders at the time.5
It should also be noted that the Cistercian nuns were required to bring a dowry to their community as they entered religious life. This “fee” would be prohibitive to any but noble women or their beneficiaries, and so even Cîteaux was closed to most women seeking religious life.
A new option had to be found, one that embraced religious ideals without the onerous financial demands of a Cistercian postulancy. Here we find the beguines. There is no date of origin, no saintly founder to point to for this movement. Quietly and in numerous places at once, holy women set their lives apart for the love of God. Any references we can find to the mulieres quae beguinae dicuntur imply previous existence.6
What early documents that can be found refer to mulieres religiosae or to virgines continentes, not to “beguines” as such. The movement was unorganised and localised in the cities, so that women living in different urban areas might not even know about each other. What becomes apparent is that the women who would later be known as beguines were creating a “medium vitae genus inter monasticum et saeculare.”7 Single women, widowed or virgins, simply decided to live a pious life. Under their own initiative they chose not to wear costly clothes, to give alms generously, to attend religious services usually twice a day and to set their lives apart for work, chastity and prayer.
The movement was originally enormously popular, both with the women for whom it provided a safe and pious lifestyle, and with the general populace, who saw these simple unprofessed parishioners as living out a genuinely committed vocation. An early Dutch tract in the Leiden library records the affection with which the women were held. It has made the Dutch word begijn an acronym for the Dutch words bride, simplicity, mercy, sincerity and humility.8 When later assessments turn against the beguines, it would be well to remember the esteem with which they were originally held.
The origins of this movement are not clearly understood. Some credit Lambert le Bègue, the priest of St. Christopher in Liège, with first drawing holy women into the vicinity of his church for support in holy living. Others claim Marie d'Oignies, a lay sister at the Augustinian priory in Oignies, as the one who provided the first charismatic focus for women wanting a new religious life. Marie had a passion for the “cure of souls” and surrounded herself with preachers and those concerned with spiritual direction. Because of her gender she herself could not preach but she became the mentor and motive force behind the career of another cleric, Jacques de Vitry.9
De Vitry was a crusade preacher inspired by Marie's vitality and passion, and he soon became the patron and unofficial spokesperson for the mulieres religiosae at the papal court. In 1216, largely as a result of Jacques' supplications, Pope Honorius III confirmed that beguines living a common life could continue to do so, even though the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 had forbidden the establishment of new rules for religious life. The heart of de Vitry's argument was that “a valid vocation for want of dowry or material sources might not meet the requirements of an approved order.”10
In 1233, while de Vitry was still in Rome, Gregory IX also confirmed the communal life of the beguines in his bull Gloriam virginalem, but he was intolerant of the beguines who wanted to remain in the world. As a result, only enclosed beguines had papal support from this time forward.
The answer to our questions concerning the rapidly changing fortunes of the beguines lies in three key aspects of beguine life: clothing, poverty and employment. We will see that unhappy choices in each area put the beguines at risk of suspicion and censure.
Jean-Claude Schmitt, a French scholar, reminds us that in the Middle Ages “the individual was reduced in some way to his or her habit, because this stated publicly, in its style and colour, before any spoken word or written guaranty, that person's place in society and the nature of the privileges he or she held.”11
Fiery priests like Lambert le Bègue preached against abuses of clothing by clerics who refused to wear the appropriate habit. The beguines came dangerously close to abusing the powerful symbol of the religious habit, by approximating it in their daily dress.
In the earliest days there was no distinctive habit for the mulieres religiosae; however, the women must have dressed simply and humbly, as poverty was one of their virtues. The Cartulaire du Béguinage de Sainte-Elisabeth à Gant tells us that the women were “so poor that they have nothing but their bed and a chest of clothes.”12 We know that membership in mediaeval charitable brotherhoods might lead one to adopt plain clothing, so it would not have been unusual for the beguines to simplify their dress. The earliest records of the vestis beghinalis indicate that it differed only in colour from the attire of other townswomen, being plainer and perhaps beige or grey.13 Later records actually provide quite complex details about the women's clothing, indicating that, in some places at least, a habit had evolved, most likely for the women living together in beguinages. Schmitt records the following description: “on the head, a veil tucked into the cloak, and not floating free as is ordinary among women. Under the cloak, it was in effect sewn to the tunica superior which was a long frock falling to the heels.”14 This description was recorded in the context of a battle waged against the beguines by the Bishop of Strasbourg. On August 13, 1317, the Bishop of Strasbourg ordered that the beguines must change their manner of dress within three days or suffer excommunication. In particular, the beguines were to adopt “a little hood not sewn to the tunic.”
Strange as this order seems to us, we must understand it in context. The women's headgear was perceived to be too similar to that of particular groups, either nuns or married women, who wore loose veils, or tertiaries and other religious who covered their hair with a hood sewn to their cloak. The Bishop wanted to see them in bonnets or loose hoods not attached to their cloaks so that they were clearly not imitating women under vows. It was considered a grave offence to mimic or copy religious as this was perceived as “evidence of encroachment on monastic preserves without compensation from discipline and renunciation.”15
We should note the date of this altercation, August 13, 1317. The origins of the beguine movement are thought to be around 1175-1180. This is roughly 125 years later, and shows the marked decrease in public sympathy to the beguines that occurred over that period of time. Where once they were considered models of piety and simplicity, now they are greeted with suspicion.
When the beguine movement arose, there was a popular fascination with the vita apostolica. Francis of Assisi would embody this by literally disrobing in public, and later by demanding the right to be poor. The holy women of the northern countries also wanted the right to be poor, to follow the way of Jesus, the apostles and the early church. Most of the first beguines, like Marie of Oignies, were noble women who chose to give up their privileges in order to live simply. We know from real estate records that the women bought and sold their own houses, and women who left the life retained control of whatever property they had originally had.16 At first, being a beguine was an option for voluntary poverty. As time went on, though, the option became less and less voluntary, as the beguinages became essentially “poor houses” for otherwise destitute women. In the end, many of the beguinages were so poor that authorities had little reason to persecute them, as such action would yield virtually nothing in the way of confiscated property.17
As the thirteenth century passed into the fourteenth, as upward mobility replaced apostolic poverty, the earlier ideal became suspect. The beguines, now trapped in poverty by economic forces beyond themselves, found themselves defending and living by an out-dated virtue, apostolic poverty. Complicating this shift was the fact that the original beguines had begged in order to give alms to the truly poor. Begging had been seen as a religious vocation and mendicants swept over Europe crying “Alms, for the love of God.” This rash of beggars elicited a mixed response from the laity. Many responded generously, believing that almsgiving was a charitable work that benefited the donor in the economy of salvation. Some decried the mendicants, accusing them of living off the common good, of laziness and hypocrisy. As the value of work ascended in the public mind, the value of begging declined. As McDonnell describes it: “People began to ridicule the mendicant orders; alms which had heretofore been generously given were now refused; they were called hypocrites, successors of Antichrist, false preachers, flatterers and advisers of kings and princes ”18 The beguines were caught in this shift of public opinion, and where once they passed their alms on to others, by the end of the thirteenth century their own dependence on public charity laid them open to public charges of laziness and hypocrisy by association with the mendicant orders.
In the issue of employment, also, we find the beguines strangely vulnerable. Not all beguines depended exclusively on alms; in fact, those who lived in beguinages and curtes, autonomous parishes, had trades to support themselves. As income from begging declined, income from other sources became more important. McDonnell notes that in the Middle Ages at least 201 occupations were available to non-noble women.19 Of these several hundred, the beguines focussed on weaving, spinning, carding, sewing, nursing, mourning, and the education of young girls.
The fabric-related trades were starting to have guilds associated with them at this time. Female labour was forbidden in many guilds and restricted in all. Untrained labour was inadmissible. The beguines were obviously in a precarious position in these trades, as they were both formally untrained and female. The guilds were forming and defining themselves for much of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, when the choice to enter fabric-related trades would have been made by the women. It must have seemed a sensible choice, as the northern countries were economically significant in this trade, and as the women could spin, card and weave in their homes.
By the fifteenth century we find the guilds taking action against the beguines. In Liège the beguines were forbidden to engage in business yielding more than ten marks.20 In Cologne in 1469, 1470 and 1480, the guild of silk spinners demanded the expulsion from its own ranks of any person who farmed work out to the beguines. At Basel, the beguines were confined to using the distaff instead of the spinning wheel, ostensibly to diminish noise, but Schmitt surmises that it was actually to limit their production.21 The beguines had been receiving tax privileges equivalent to those accorded religious houses, but the effect of the rules of restriction was to offset any benefit those privileges might have afforded. The association of the beguines with weaving took on a dangerous character as it became known that heretics predominated in that trade. Schmitt tells us that “traditionally heretics passed for weavers, the word 'weaver' even being synonymous with 'heretic.'“22
Compounding this unfortunate association, the beguines had chosen the name Martha to designate their superiors in the beguinage or the curtis. Martha, the biblical character, was being rehabilitated in this part of Europe at this time. She who had once represented the lesser way, the active life, was being adopted as a symbol of the goodness of manual labour. Meister Eckhart would preach favourably on Martha to beguines near Cologne. The Franciscans had “Marthas” in their order, although these positions were filled by males. Some heretics, though, also had Marthas - and these were female. It was this fact - the female Marthas of the heretics - which, combined with other suspicions noted above, worked against the beguines.23
We mentioned above the occupations chosen by the beguines, and have studied the tragic associations resulting from the choice of fabric-related jobs. We now look at official mourning and nursing.
It was a mediaeval custom that funerals should be accompanied by a “dole” to the poor. It seems that certain families would make donations to the beguines in town if they would accompany the body and distribute the necessary dole: “Each [beguine] bought a candle from the sacristan and fixed there one or more coins which she then offered to the poor attracted by the ceremony of the funeral.”24 In this way, the beguines became the executors of the necessary public charity associated with a funeral. This practice seems to have been fairly common, and probably a safe source of revenue for unskilled women. In Strasbourg, in the fifteenth century, the local preacher Geiler de Kaisersberg was forced to admonish his flock for neglecting their public duties and hiring the beguines to do their charitable work for them!
Obviously, the service was appreciated, but it was also dangerous, as over time it led to an association of beguines with corpses. It seems the beguines would also watch over the corpse before the funeral if requested, and questions started to be asked about what “liberties” the women might be taking with the bodies. It was widely felt that women's sexual desires were as strong as, if not stronger, than men's, and it was known that these women had neither spouses nor binding vows of chastity. Nursing would also be a career that would open the women to charges such as these, once suspicions had been aroused. In later days, when fears around witches were high, this association with corpses may also have fed suspicions of sorcery.25
We can summarise the areas of vulnerability in the life of a beguine: her clothing laid her open to charges of impersonating religious; her poverty and begging laid her open to charges of laziness, hypocrisy and living at public expense; her work with fabric put her in an antagonistic position with the guilds and gave her an unfortunate association with heretics; her official mourning and care of the sick encouraged suspicions around her sexual morality, perhaps even around sorcery.
The newest of the many theories on the origin of the word beguine is that it is a modified form of Albigensis.26 This would indicate that the word had heretical connotations from its origin, and some have made this claim. It seems to me unclear that the association with heresy goes back to the beginning of the movement, but it is incontestable that the two become conflated before long. We have seen above how their very occupations put the beguines at risk of this sort of identification. We will explore now how other factors led to the conclusion voiced by Pope Clement V in 1311 that beguines were heretics.27
What do we know about mediaeval heresy? In his book on the subject, Gordon Leff shows how heresy was actually in a sense “created” by society. Remembering the enormous outpouring of religious feeling at the time, and remembering that the Fourth Lateran council had forbidden new religious orders after 1215, we see that popular religious feeling had little creative outlet. Leff says that heresy “was an indigenous growth: its impulse was invariably the search for a fuller spiritual life, and it drew upon the common stock of religious concepts to implement it.”28
This “common stock of religious concepts” included poverty, humility, prophecy, vernacular translations of the scriptures, and union with God. The Franciscans tried to live the ideal of apostolic poverty - but only for a short while, and even then it had to be modified. The Waldensians translated the scriptures, but eventually they strayed too far and had to be condemned. The mystics pushed at union with God, and almost everyone toyed with humility in the early days. What made “heresy” out of “heterodoxies” was the official pronouncement of the Church. When the Church felt threatened, as it did when any of these concepts strayed into anti-clericalism, it laid charges of heresy.29
Already we can identify points of contact with the beguines: poverty; humility; anti-clericalism, in the sense that the women were lay and had no official rule; and mysticism, for some of them. We have not seen accusations concerning translated scriptures, but we will.
In 1274, Gilbert of Tournai contributed the Collectio de scandalis ecclesiae to the reform program of the Second Council of Lyons. In it he states, “there are among us women called beguines, some of whom blossom forth in subtleties and rejoice in novelties. They have interpreted in ordinary French idiom the mysteries of Scripture which are scarcely accessible to experts in divine writing. They read them in common, irreverently, boldly, in conventicles, convents and on squares.”30
The heart of this accusation is three-fold: rejoicing in novelties, interpreting the scripture in French, teaching in public. These are all serious charges, and it is hard to pick the worst from the standpoint of the Church. Certainly, the women had vernacular scriptures, but so did the Waldensians, who escaped censure for a while. The charge that seems to bear the most weight is that of teaching in public. The beguines had taken in young girls for education since the earliest days. The Cartulaire to which we have referred, frequently tells us that the beguines in Gant “are so circumspect in their manners and so learned in matters, that great and honourable people send their daughters to them to be brought up, hoping that to whatever state of life they are afterwards called, whether of religion or of marriage, they will be found better prepared than others.”31 No hint of heresy here, but of course, this assessment depends entirely on what the women were teaching those girls.
By the end of the thirteenth century, Southern European heretical groups had found their way to the Northern countries. The Spiritual Franciscans and the Cathari (Albigensians) are known to have gone north; and northern heretical groups like the Brothers of the Free Spirit and the Hussites were also at work. The beguines who wandered or lived alone might very easily slip into heresy simply out of ignorance, by listening to these very persuasive preachers. The beguines who lived in common were less at risk, but their “brothers” in the movement, the Beghards, were frequently teaching heresy by this time, and would have aroused little suspicion amongst the beguines whom they visited and directed spiritually.32
In 1311, Pope Clement V clearly condemned this sort of behaviour in Cum de quibusdam mulieribus: “it has been repeatedly and reliably reported to us that some of them [beguines], as if possessed with madness, dispute and preach about the Highest Trinity and divine essence and in respect to the articles of faith and the sacraments of the Church spread opinions that are contradictory to the Catholic faith.”33 That was the death knell for the movement. The beguines were charged with teaching heresy. In the same document the Pope “prohibit[s] forever their status and abolish[es] them completely from the church of God.”
Had the women been preaching? Had they been teaching heresy? The Pope certainly thought so, although he left a tiny loophole for beguines living lives beyond repute to continue in community. Some scholars think that the beguines were unjustly tarred with the brush of heresy which was being applied liberally by the curia in the northern countries.
Individual women certainly might have fallen under suspicion. In 1310, Marguerite Porete was burned at the stake in the Place de Grève in Paris, for teaching heresy.34 In 1366, Metza von Westhoven was condemned by Henry de Agro, inquisitor of Mainz, Bambert and Basel, for being a relapsed heretic.35 But did the whole movement stray? McDonnell and Schmitt both emphasise the confusion and passion surrounding heresy in these countries at the time. No one really knew much about the beguines. They had no official spokesperson, no rule, no order to protect them. They were poor, in trouble with the guilds, under suspicion in their public activities - and they were women without male protection. The evidence was simply too damning, and public sentiment had long ago turned against these conspicuously “holy” women, whose uncloistered simplicity might have seemed an affront to ordinary townspeople. When charges of heresy were laid against Marguerite and Metza, the whole movement paid.
Why did the beguines not receive ongoing papal sanction for their movement? We have explored the overt reasons for their marginalisation: their clothing, their poverty, their employment, their association with heresy. We have not touched on the subtler, and perhaps even more significant, issue of their challenge to the social order. “Many of their contemporaries regarded the beguines and beghards with alarm, even suspicion. They were a part of a vague world, indefinable, those who crossed borders, 'mixed' people, individuals and categories which were neither fish nor fowl.”36 This was an uncomfortable position to be in, in a society that had a role and a rule for every one. The beguines carved out a place for themselves somewhere between religious and lay. In our day, this position is occupied in various ways by the active women's orders, by oblates, friends of orders, Staff Associates, lay preachers, and missionaries. But this is many years later, and even now these roles cause some societal discomfort. The beguines had a vision of holy living that did not correspond with the categories available to them at the time. Perhaps their greatest crime was in challenging the categories themselves.
2 I would like to thank Phyllis Airhart and Paul Fedwick for their continued mentoring.
3 Gordon Leff, Heresy in the Later Middle Ages: The Relation of Heterodoxy to Dissent c. 1250-1450 (New York: Barnes and Noble; Manchester University Press: 1967) 21.
4 R.W. Southern, Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages (London: Penguin, 1970) 214-271
5 Note that although foundations would be accepted after 1228, Cîteaux would take no responsibility for their pastoral care. Helfta was one of the convents to be accepted under this rule. Roger DeGanck, Beatrice of Nazareth In Her Context, Cistercian Studies Series 121 (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, 1991) 14.
6 Ernest W. McDonnell, The Beguines and Beghards In Mediaeval Culture: With Special Emphasis on the Belgian Scene (New York: Octagon Books, 1969) 5, 120.
7 McDonnell, 84.
8 De Deugden van ene goded Begijn,” McDonnell, 413.
9 Beguine Spirituality: Mystical Writings of Mechthild of Magdeburg, Beatrice of Nazareth, and Hadewijch of Brabant, ed. Fiona Bowie and Oliver Davies, Spiritual Classics. (New York: Crossroad, 1990) 15-17. See also Elizabeth Avilda Petroff, Mediaeval Woman's Visionary Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
10 McDonnell, 6.
11 Jean-Claude Schmitt, Mort d'une héresie: l'église et les clercs face aux béguines et aux béghards, Civilisations et Société, 56. (Paris: École des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1978) 108. This translation and others from this text are mine.
12 Jean Bethune, quoted in McDonnell, 148.
13 McDonnell, p. 128. Speculative etymologies for the word “beguine” have also traced it to “beige” or to Old French li beges, meaning “one dressed in grey.”
14 Schmitt, 107.
15 McDonnell, 129.
16 Schmitt, 45.
17 McDonnell, 477.
18 McDonnell, 458.
19 He does not note the correlative number for men, which would be an interesting comparison (McDonnell, 84).
20 McDonnell, 84.
21 Schmitt, 48.
22 Schmitt, 101.
23 Schmitt, 101-103.
24 Schmitt, 46.
25 For the mediaeval understanding of women see Eleanor Commo McLaughlin, “Equality of Souls, Inequality of Sexes: Women in Mediaeval Theology,” Religion and Sexism, ed. Rosemary Radford Ruether (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1974) 213-266, 239. For use of corpses by witches, see Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic ([n.p.]: Penguin Books, 1971 [1984]) 274, 706. For a fuller discussion of sorcery as it relates to beguines, see Schmitt, 195-201. He notes that charges laid against the beguines during the Inquisition were those pertaining to heresy, and that charges laid against witches were of malefica.
26 See, for example, J. Van Mierlo, “Béguinages” in Dictionnaire d'histoire et de géographie écclesiastique 7, ed. Alfred Baudrillart, A. de Meyer and Et. Van Cauwengergh (Paris: Librairie Letouzey, 1934): 457-473, cols. 458-459.
27 Cum de quibusdam mulieribus,” quoted in McDonnell, 524.
28 Leff, 2.
29 Leff, 3, 7, 14.
30 Quoted in McDonnell, 366.
31 Quoted in McDonnell, 148, 149.
32 McDonnell, 412.
33 Quoted in McDonnell, 524.
34 Anne L Barstow, “Introduction” in Marguerite Porete, A Mirror For Simple Souls, ed. and tr. Charles Crawford, Spiritual Classics. (New York: Crossroad, 1990) 9.
35 McDonnell, 560.
36 Schmitt, 5.
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Now Reading
How did the Sherpas succeed?
How did the Sherpas succeed?
How did the Sherpas succeed?
Nepalese mountain guides or Sherpas are extremely efficient at producing energy to power their bodies when oxygen is scarce, making them ‘superhuman’ mountain climbers of the Himalayas, a new study suggests.
The findings could help develop new ways of treating hypoxia or lack of oxygen in patients, researchers said. ‘Sherpas have spent thousands of years living at high altitudes, so it should be unsurprising that they have adapted to become more efficient at using oxygen and generating energy,’ said Andrew Murray from the University of Cambridge in the UK.
‘When those of us from lower-lying countries spend time at high altitude, our bodies adapt to some extent to become more ‘Sherpa-like’, but we are no match for their efficiency,’ said Murray.
Mountain climbers are often exposed to low levels of oxygen, particularly at high altitudes. Scientists have known for some time that people have different responses to high altitudes.
While most climbers require additional oxygen to scale Mount Everest, whose peak is 8,848 meters above sea level, a handful of climbers has managed to do so without. Sherpas, an ethnic group from the mountain regions of Nepal, are able to live at high altitude with no apparent consequences to their health.
As a result, many acts as guides to support expeditions in the Himalayas, and two Sherpas are known to have reached the summit of Everest an incredible 21 times.
Previous studies have suggested differences between Sherpas and people living in non-high altitude areas, known collectively as ‘lowlanders’, including fewer red blood cells in Sherpas at altitude, but higher levels of nitric oxide, a chemical that opens up blood vessels and keeps blood flowing.
Sherpas Inner
Evidence suggests that the first humans were present on the Tibetan Plateau around 30,000 years ago, with the first permanent settlers appearing between 6,000-9,000 years ago. This raises the possibility that they have evolved to adapt to the extreme environment, researchers said.
‘Sherpas have evolved to become superhuman mountain climbers, extremely efficient at producing the energy to power their bodies even when oxygen is scarce,’ researchers wrote in the study published in the journal PNAS.
This is supported by recent DNA studies, which have found clear genetic differences between Sherpa and Tibetan populations on the one hand and lowlanders on the other. Some of these differences were in their mitochondrial DNA – the genetic code that programs mitochondria, the body’s ‘batteries’ that generate our energy, researchers said.
To understand the biological differences between the Sherpas and lowlanders, researchers followed two groups as they made a gradual ascent up to Everest Base Camp at an elevation of 5,300 meters.
The lowlanders group comprised 10 investigators selected to operate the Everest Base Camp laboratory. They took samples, including blood and muscle biopsies, in London to give a baseline measurement, then again when they first arrived at Base Camp and a third time after two months at Base Camp.
These samples were compared with those taken from 15 Sherpas, all of whom were living in relatively low-lying areas, rather than being the ‘elite’ high altitude climbers. The Sherpas’ baseline measurements were taken at Kathmandu, Nepal. As predicted from genetic differences, they also found lower levels of fat oxidation in the Sherpas.
‘Although the lack of oxygen might be viewed as an occupational hazard for mountain climbers, for people in intensive care units it can be life threatening,’ said Professor Mike Grocott, from the University of Southampton.
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1. Anatomy.
1. the act of bending a limb.
2. the position that a limb assumes when it is bent.
2. Chiefly British. flection(defs 1–3).
1. the act of bending a joint or limb
2. the condition of the joint or limb so bent
3. a variant spelling of flection
c.1600, from Latin flexionem (nominative flexio) “a bending, swaying; bend, turn, curve,” noun of action from past participle stem of flectere “to bend” (see flexible).
1. The act of bending a joint or limb in the body by the action of flexors.
2. The condition of being flexed or bent.
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The Spatial Spread of Rabies Among Foxes I Background and Simple Model
Rabies, as mentioned in the last section, is widespread throughout the world and epidemics are quite common. During the past few hundred years, Europe has been repeatedly subjected to rabies epidemics. It is not known why rabies died out in Europe some 50 or so years before the current epidemic started. The analysis of the models here, however, provides one possible scenario.
The present European epizootic (an epidemic in animals) seems to have started about 1939 in Poland and it has moved steadily westward at a rate of 30-60 km per year. It has been slowed down, only temporarily, by such barriers as rivers, high mountains and autobahns. The red fox is the main carrier and victim of rabies in the current European epidemic. The spread of rabies is like a travelling wave as shown in Figure 13.3.
Rabies, a viral infection of the central nervous system, is transmitted by direct contact, and the dog is the principal transmitter of the disease to man. As mentioned, the incidence of rabies in man, at least in Europe and America, is now rare, with only very few deaths a year, but with considerably more in underdeveloped countries. The effect of rabies on other mammals, domestic and wild, however, is serious. In France, in 1980 alone, 314 cases of rabies in domestic animals were reported and 1280 cases in wild animals. Rabies justifiably gives cause for concern and warrants extensive study and development of control strategies, a subject we discuss later in Section 13.6.
Figure 13.3 shows the advance of the rabies epidemic in France obtained from data from the French Centre National d'Etudes sur la Rage every two years between 1969 and 1977 on the northeastern part of the country. Macdonald (1980) discusses the situation at this time in France in more detail and describes the effects of a vaccination control and what happened when it was stopped. Since this time, however, there has been a concerted effort to control the spread by vaccination through bait and it has been quite successful in several countries in Europe.
Figure 13.3. Spatial advance of the rabies epizootic in France from 1969 to 1977: note the (heterogeneous) wavelike characteristic of the spatial spread. (Data from Centre National d'Etudes sur la Rage)
A rabies epidemic is also moving rapidly up the east coast of America: the main vector here is the racoon. In this epidemic, the progress was considerably enhanced by the importation into Virginia (by hunting clubs) of infected racoons from Georgia and Florida.
If we refer to Figure 13.1 again, we see that, just as in the spatially uniform epidemic system situation discussed in Chapter 10, Volume I, after the epidemic has passed a proportion of the susceptibles have survived. It would be useful to be able to estimate this survival fraction analytically in a spatial context. This we can do in the following very simple but still illuminating model for the spatial spread of rabies.
Red foxes account for about 70% of the recorded cases in Western Europe. Although Britain has effectively been free from rabies since about 1900, the disease could be reintroduced in the near future through the illegal importation of pets or even by infected bats from the continent. The problem would be particularly serious in Britain because of the high rural and urban density of foxes, dogs and cats. In Bristol, for example, the fox density is of the order of 12 foxes/km2 as compared with a rural population of 2-4 foxes/km2. The book on the fox and rabies by Macdonald (1980) provides many of the facts and data for Britain. General data on rabies in Europe is available from the Centre National d'Etudes sur la Rage in France. The books edited by Kaplan (1977) and Bacon (1985) are specifically concerned with the population dynamics of rabies and provide biological and ecological background together with some data on the disease.
It is important to understand how the rabies epizootic wavefront progresses into uninfected regions, what control methods might halt it and how the various parameters affect them. The remaining sections of this chapter will be concerned with these specific spatial problems. The material primarily comes from the model of Murray et al. (1986) and, in this section, from the much simpler, but less realistic, model of Kallen et al. (1985). The models and control strategies we propose in Sections 13.6 and 13.9 are specifically related to the current European fox epizootic but the type of model is applicable to many other spatially propagating epidemics.
The spatial spread of epidemics is usually a very complex process, and rabies is no exception. In modelling such a complex process we can try to incorporate as many of the facts as possible, which necessarily involves many parameters, estimations of which are difficult to obtain with extant data. An alternative approach is to start with as simple a model as possible but which captures the key elements and for which it is possible to determine estimates for the fewer parameters. There is a trade-off between comprehensiveness and thus complexity, and the difficulty of estimating many parameters and a simpler approach in which parameter values can be reasonably assessed. For the models in this chapter, we have opted for the latter strategy. In spite of their simplicity, they nevertheless pose highly relevant practical questions and give estimates for various characteristics of importance in the spatial spread of diseases. Although in this section we describe and analyse a particularly simple model, it is one for which we can obtain useful analytical results.
Although many animals are involved, a basic, and reasonable, assumption is that the ecology of foxes, the principal vectors, determines the dynamics of the spread of rabies. We further assume that the spatial spread of the epizootic is due primarily to the random erratic migration of rabid foxes. Uninfected foxes do not seem to wander far from their territory (Macdonald 1980). We divide the fox population into two groups—susceptible and rabid. Although the resulting model captures certain aspects of the spatial spread of the epizootic front, it leaves out a basic feature of rabies, namely, the long incubation period of between 12 and 150 days from the time of an infected bite to the onset of the clinical infectious stage. We include this in the more realistic model presented in Section 13.5.
To control, and ideally prevent, the spread of the disease, it is important to have some understanding of how rabies spreads so as to assess the effects of possible control strategies. It is with this in mind that we first study a particularly simple modified version of the epidemic model system (13.1), which captures some of the key elements in the spread of rabies in the fox population. We shall then use it to derive some estimates of essential facts about the epizootic wave.
We consider the foxes to be divided into two groups, infectives 1, and susceptibles S; the infectives consist of rabid foxes and those in the incubation stage. The principal assumptions are: (i) The rabies virus, contained in the saliva of the rabid fox, is transmitted from the infected fox to the susceptible fox. Foxes become infected at an average rate per head, rl, where r is the transmission coefficient which measures the rate of contact between the two groups. (ii) Rabies is invariably fatal and foxes die at a per capita rate a; that is, the life expectancy of an infected fox is 1/a. (iii) Foxes are territorial and divide the countryside into non-overlapping ranges. (iv) The rabies virus enters the central nervous system and induces behavioral changes in the fox. If the virus enters the spinal cord it induces paralysis whereas if it enters the limbic system it induces transient aggression during which it loses its sense of territory and the fox wanders about in a more or less random way. So, we assume that it is only the infectives which disperse with diffusion coefficient Dkm2/year. With these assumptions our model is then (13.1) except that the susceptible foxes do not disperse. We exclude here the migration of cubs seeking their own territory. When they do move they try to stay as close to their original territory as possible. The model system in one dimension is then dS = -rlS, dt
d I d21
dt dx2
From the analysis in the last section we expect this system to possess travelling wave solutions, whose speed of propagation depends intimately on the parameter values. The realistic estimation of these few parameters is important but still not easy.
Using the nondimensionalisation (13.2), the system (13.12) becomes (cf. (13.3))
¥ = 1S - X1 + dX2, where now S, 1, x and t are dimensionless, and, as in the last section, X = a/rS0 is a measure of the mortality rate as compared with the contact rate. As before the contact rate is crucial and is not known with any confidence. We expect the threshold value to be again X = 1 but we now verify this (see also Exercise 2).
Travelling wavefront solutions of (13.13) are of the form
S(x, t) = S(z), 1 (x, t) = 1 (z), z = x - ct, (13.14)
where c is the wavespeed and we look for solutions satisfying the boundary conditions
S(to) = 1, S'(-<x>) = 0, 1 (to) = 1 (-to) = 0. (13.15)
Refer back to Figure 13.1 for the type of wave anticipated. Note that it is the derivative of S(z) which tends to zero as z ^ — oo since we anticipate a residual number, as yet undetermined, of susceptible foxes to survive the epidemic. With (13.14) the system (13.13) becomes cS' = IS,
Linearising about I = 0 and S = 1 exactly as we did in the last section and requiring I to be always nonnegative, we find that this requires X < 1, in which case the wavespeed c > 2(1 — X)1/2, X< 1. (13.17)
With this specific model we are able to take the analysis further and find the actual fraction of susceptibles which survives the epidemic. From the first of (13.16), I = cS'/S, which on substituting into the second equation gives
Integration gives
Using the boundary conditions as z ^ œ from (13.15), where S = 1, I = 0 and with I' = 0, we determine the constant to be c. If we now let z ^ -œ, again using (13.15) with I = I' = 0, we get the following transcendental equation for the surviving susceptible population, a say, after the passage of the epizootic wavefront, a - X ln a = 1, X< 1, a = S(-œ), (13.18)
which is independent of c. Writing this in the form a - 1
ln a
From (13.19), with X = 0.4, a = 0.1 for example, whereas with X = 0.7, a = 0.5. X is a measure of the severity of the epidemic. The smaller X the fewer susceptibles survive; in other words, the worse the epidemic. Figure 13.4 illustrates the surviving susceptible fraction a as a function of X obtained from (13.18); the curve was obtained by plotting X as a function of a.
The critical bifurcation value for X is X = 1, which in dimensional terms, from (13.2), means a/(rS0) = 1. If X > 1 no epidemic wave can propagate. This is to be expected since if a > rS0 it means the mortality rate is greater than the rate of recruitment of new infectives. As before this bifurcation result says that given r and a,
Figure 13.4. The fraction, a, of the original susceptible fox density which survive, after the passage of the epidemic wave, as a function of the epidemic severity: here, in terms of the original dimensional variables, a = S(-<x)/So and I = a/(rSo).
there is a critical minimum fox density Sc = a/r below which rabies cannot persist in the population and any infectives introduced will not cause an epidemic.
When rabies does persist, that is, X < 1, the computed speed of propagation of the epidemic wave is the minimum of the allowable speeds, namely, c = 2(1 — X)1/2, which in dimensional terms from (13.17) and (13.2) is c = 2[ D(rSo — a)]1/2. (13.20)
Figure 13.5 shows an example of the computed travelling front solutions for S and I, from (13.13), for X = 0.5. From Figure 13.4 with X = 0.5, the surviving fraction of susceptibles a « 0.2.
Let us now compare the qualitative form of the susceptible fox population in the epidemic in Figure 13.5 with that obtained from data from continental Europe as illus-
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Māori name: Pōhue, Akakaikū, Puatataua
English name: Clematis
Scientific name: Clematis afoliata, Clematis foetida, Clematis forsteri, Clematis paniculata
NZ Status: Endemic
Conservation Status (NZTCS): Gradual Decline (Clematis afoliata) / Not threatened
Found: The genus Clematis is widespread, mostly in temperate regions.
Did you know? Most continents and many countries have native clematis but New Zealand's clematis are special; they are dioecious. This means that they have separate female and male plants with different flowers.
Photo Credit: Janice McKenna
Clematis is a genus of over 250 species of vines and ascending perennial herbs found throughout the world. The word ‘clematis’ comes from the Greek for ‘vine shoot’ on account of its climbing habit.
There are about nine indigenous New Zealand clematis species with white, greenish-yellow or yellow flowers, a colour range representative of many endemic plants.
Fire, weeds, stock grazing and wild animals such as possums pose threats to indigenous plant communities that support clematis vines in Wellington.
Look for them: You can spot the white above the canopy on the western slope of the valley when it is flowing in summer or climbing up the side of the ZEALANDIA visitor centre.
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Explore BrainMass
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Moles, ABCD, and Membranes
1. Mary noticed a large, brown spot on her skin. She has been playing tennis in the sun for several years without sun protection. She reported the discovery to a friend, who told her to apply the ABCD rule to determine whether or not she had malignant melanoma. Her friend told her that if her answer was "no" to the questions that were asked by the ABCD rule, she had nothing to worry about. What is the ABCD rule and should she ignore the spot if her answers are negative? Please explain with as much detail as possible so that I have a complete understanding.
2. What is the importance of membranes in the body? What are the three types of membranes? Compare and contrast each type. What homeostatic imbalances may occur relating to membranes, and what are their implications? Please provide as much detail as possible I will have to write an essay on this questions and just want as much information as possible.
Thank you.
© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com May 20, 2020, 8:16 pm ad1c9bdddf
Solution Preview
See attached document.
ABCD is a set of initial guidelines to ...
Solution Summary
The ABCD rules of assessing moles, as well as the importance of our bodies' membranes, is explained.
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Physical capital
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Kunstformen der Natur (1904) by Ernst Haeckel
Kunstformen der Natur (1904) by Ernst Haeckel
In economics, physical capital or just capital is a factor of production (or input into the process of production), consisting of machinery, buildings, computers, and the like. The production function takes the general form Y=f(K, L), where Y is the amount of output produced, K is the amount of capital stock used and L is the amount of labour used. In economic theory, physical capital is one of the three primary factors of production, also known as inputs in the production function. The others are natural resources (including land), and labour — the stock of competences embodied in the labour force. "Physical" is used to distinguish physical capital from human capital (a result of investment in the human agent)), circulating capital, and financial capital. "Physical capital" is fixed capital, any kind of real physical asset that is not used up in the production of a product. Usually the value of land is not included in physical capital as it is not a reproducible product of human activito.
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Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "Physical capital" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on original research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.
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FredFred works in a factory. He does not have a wife, and he gets quite a lot of money every week. He loves cars, and has a new one every year. He likes driving very fast, and he always buys small fast, red cars. He sometimes takes his mother out in them, ,and then she always says, “But, Fred why do you drive these cars? We're almost sitting on the road!”
Then Fred laughs and is happy. He likes being very near the road.
Fred is very tall and very fat.
Last week he came out of a shop and went to his car. There was a small boy near it. He was looking at the beautiful red car. Then he looked and saw Fred.
“How do you get into that small car?” he asked him.
Fred laughed and said, “I don't get into it. I put it on.”
A) Which of these sentences are true and which are false (F)? Write T or F.
1. Fred has a wife.
2. Fred is a poor man.
3. Fred buys a new car every year.
4. Fred's mother does not like his cars.
5. A small girl was looking at Fred's car.
6. Fred gets into his car easily.
B) Answer these questions.
1. Where does Fred work?
2. What cars does he like?
3. Who goes out in them with him sometimes?
4. What does she always say?
5. What does Fred do then?
6. Is Fred a big man, or a small man?
7. What did a small boy ask him last week?
8. What did Fred say?
C) Opposites. Put one word in each empty place.
1. Fred does not get very. . . money: he gets a lot.
2. He does not . . . cars: he loves them.
3. He does not drive. . . : he drives fast.
4. He does not buy . . . cars: he buys small ones.
5. He does not like sitting very. . . from the road: he likes sitting very near it.
6. & 7. Fred is not a . . ., ... man: he is a tall, fat man.
8. His car is not . . . : it is beautiful.
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Will the Colorado River Be Restored to its Former Glory?
The Grand Diversion
In the arid Southwest we put a lot of faith into a century-old agreement. Created by skillful lawmakers in 1922, it’s called the Colorado River Compact and it has little bearing on the reality of the river in 2014, or most years as it turns out. The boosters of growth who wrote the 2,000 page document had no inkling that the two decades before 1922 were much wetter than the fossil record. They relied upon a single gauge to calculate the River’s past and future volume. And so the Colorado River Compact charted the future by mandating who could take how much water from the lifeline of the Southwest—and began the process of diverting it dry.
It’s impossible to understand the current state of the river witout looking at these actions of the past. Seven states blithely divided up the river and began planning dams as if the Colorado’s water would spring eternal. The Colorado River Compact became the foundation for legislation—collectively known as the Law of the River—that would extensively store and divert water partly to various industry and cities, but mostly to farms (eventually using 78 percent of the river).
Ecology, let alone science, was overruled when it came to taming the disruptive Colorado River—which was prone to unpredictable floods, reddened moods, and maddening droughts. The Law of the River, along with sorting out rights, would help control this unruly Force of Nature.
Central to this mindset was the prevailing Prior Appropriations Doctrine, defined as “use it or lose it,” which assigned highest priority water rights to the earliest users. It all began with miners who didn’t necessarily own land alongside rivers but were putting the water to what became known as “beneficial use.” The new doctrine first appeared in a Colorado court in 1872, then was adopted by other western states, citing that arid climates could not abide by the old Riparian Doctrine, which actually prevented river diversions that jeopardized downstream users.
Few foresaw that the population served by the Colorado River would grow to 36 million. Today, at a yearly average of 15 million-acre feet—enough water to supply 30 million households—the River is significantly drier than the 1922 estimate of 17.5 million-acre-feet. Add to this dilemma a changing-climate drought that scientists predict will radically curtail the river’s flow in coming decades and the situation looks dire. Still, the potential solutions have scarcely been implemented.
The law of the river
The biggest problem is that a century ago, none of the people making these decisions had any idea how the population of the Southwest would boom. As people began flocking to thirsty cities such as L.A., Phoenix, Las Vegas and Denver, the Bureau of Reclamation—charged with managing water throughout the West—went to work throughout the Colorado River Basin. Proclaiming each new gargantuan wedge of concrete as another victory against the tyranny of the unruly Colorado River, the Bureau built over a hundred major dams and over a thousand miles of canals, continuing to slake the thirst of innumerable farms. The hubristic system ignored simple principles of river ecology, including downstream silt transport, or maintenance of water temperatures—both denied by dams. It was simply built to honor the Compact, in turn guided by the complex Law of the River.
Still, for decades, the widely diverted Colorado River allowed stunning population growth for a region estranged from rain clouds. While a few scientists and river experts like the explorer John Wesley Powell had called for sensible growth that relied upon judicious use of available resources, the Water Establishment—referred to as the “water buffalos” by environmentalists—set the standard for the use of the river. It strong-armed its way into building mega dams and consolidating its power base.
Among many well-regulated spigots controlled by the Law of the River was a 1944 treaty with Mexico. Our southern neighbors had no choice but to accept ten percent of the annual Colorado River flow, paving the way for large portions of the Mexican Delta to turn as dry and hard as the concrete slabs holding up thousands of well-plumbed Southwestern U.S. subdivisions. Not so across the border. As most of the world now works double-time to conserve and recycle, present-day water buffalos in the Southwest continue to sprinkle non-native lawns, revere cows (sustained by hay, drinking more river water than any other crop) and cling to outdated principles likely to remain on the books. Unless the West adopts more progressive policies, they will continue to use the river as if it were 1922.
The problem is this increasingly intricate plumbing system—to the chagrin of Earth Firsters everywhere—performed as planned, with the exception of a wet spell in 1983 that nearly popped the Glen Canyon Dam, penultimate cork of the Colorado River. Meanwhile, those who cared about the River, let alone those Mexican communities whose livelihood depended upon tourists and coastal fishing, were devastated.
In 1999, the river stopped its by now occassional flow to the delta (the shut-off began in 1963 when Glen Canyon was completed). This once-lush delta—that used to be prowled by panthers, braved by steamships and swept by several-foot high tidal bores, surfing upstream against the flow of emerald green river channels—died. This coincided with the end of one of the wettest centuries in 1,400 years of fossil record. In addition to dozens of endangered animal species, much of the Native Cocopah (People of the River) culture was lost and the fishing industry in the Sea of Cortez (sustained by shrimp and other seafood dependent upon fresh river water) withered. Sea species dependent upon the river’s flow—including the totoaba (a giant bass) and the vaquita porpoise—were added to the endangered species list. And until the media recently made returning the river to its delta a cause celebre, most Americans either didn’t know or didn’t care that their greatest whitewater river no longer ran to the sea.
A Return in a Minute
Fortunately, in 2012, a minute added to the 1944 International Treaty may demonstrate how to restore the delta, albeit at a modest scale. Over the next five years, Minute 319 allows for a one-time pulse flow of 105,392 cubic feet of water (0.7 percent of the Colorado River), to be supplemented by a smaller base flow while scientists determine the impact of these environmental water deliveries on habitat. U.S. and Mexican water leaders will come back to the negotiating table to develop a successor agreement, and the lessons learned from this environmental flow demonstration will be among the considerations for future commitments. Government officials and progressives within the Water Establishment, along with an ever-burgeoning coalition of non profits, NGOs and environmentalists, have applauded the move as a showpiece of how diverse Southwest interests could work together for future preservation efforts—offering up new hope for the otherwise development-oriented Law of the River.
When Mexico’s Morales Dam opened its river gates on March 23, 2014, a crowd cheered. Further downstream, the San Luis Rio Colorado community of Mexico spent weeks barbecuing and playing music out on the once dry river banks to celebrate, at long last, the Colorado River running past their town. From here, it flushed a soup of bottles and foam down into the Delta, a Rhode Island sized sprawl of ancient grains washed out of the Rockies and carved from the Grand Canyon. Even if the river can’t be restored to its “PreDambrian” glory, regularly flooding to the sea, regular pulses of water into the mid delta could at least support riparian shrubbery, small forests and habitat for various fauna, including 380 species of birds.
Despite this sanctioned delta soaking, no one is forgetting that the prolonged drought and population growth continues, so the seven-member states are clamoring like never before to stake out their full appropriations under the Colorado River Compact. California, in particular, is suffering its driest conditions in recorded history, so in response, a controversial Senate proposal would refill Lake Mead in order that liquid relief could be pumped to the distant state. Meanwhile beneath the reservoir, the local water authority has spent nearly $2 billion tunneling under Lake Mead as a Hail Mary pass to fill their aqueduct and keep the Vegas taps flowing, since Nevada receives only a fraction of the water sent to California. And while the Rockies are temporarily blessed with a decent snowpack, the Denver growth juggernaut continues to propose new Colorado River diversions and dams.
Where it Belongs
So what is the future? Energy consumptive desalination plants proposed for the California coast would manufacture more fresh water at the cost of manufacturing outrageous carbon footprints. Ideally, Environmental Impact Statements required for newly proposed dams and diversions might uphold the natural balance of the river—while challenged by senior water rights holders protected by the Prior Appropriations Doctrine.
There is also hope to be found in Colorado River Basin states, where water trusts are being established to allow senior water rights holders to donate water back to the river, without losing their future water rights. If a basin-wide water trust could be established, along with healthier minimum stream flows that would assure the future of the river, America’s most renowned scenic wonder will have a fighting chance.
Most river experts—scientists or engineers—agree that increased conservation measures will benefit the Colorado. This includes large-scale xeriscaping, irrigation reform, discretionary crop planting, reducing huge evaporative losses from reservoirs, and reforming the consumptive water-energy nexus demanded by the fossil fuel extraction. Unlike 1922, politicians and boosters of growth now understand that the region’s livelihood depends upon the river itself: a $26 billion economic engine that supports 234,000 jobs across the Basin in tourism and recreation.
Accorded even a fraction of the resources that went into engineering storage and diversion, ecological protection could create a new future for the Colorado River. If we can find the courage and creativity to begin visionary conservation, and further amend the antiquated Law of the River, we could engineer a lot of water right back into the river where it belongs.
—Jonathan Waterman is the author of 12 books including The Colorado River: Flowing through Conflict and Running Dry: A Journey From Source to Sea Down the Colorado River.
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Pigeons are thought to navigate by reading the Earth's magnetic fields, but they might not carry their compasses in their beaks, as previously believed.
For years, scientists have believed that the secret to the pigeon's internal GPS lay in magnetized iron-rich nerve cells in its beak. This was backed up by experiments showing that the nerves throughout the skin of a pigeon's upper beak respond to changes in magnetic intensity and several papers describing the discovery of iron-containing structures in pigeon beaks. Earlier studies have shown that when magnets or magnetic coils are attached to the heads of homing pigeons, their homing ability is disrupted and the birds become confused.
But a new study casts doubts on this hypothesis.
When an international team of scientists used imaging technology for a closer look at pigeon beaks and brains, they found iron particles, and not just inside nerve cells. Instead, they found that the iron popping up on their scans was actually located inside macrophages -- the white blood cells that eat up pathogens and cellular debris. They reported their results in a paper appearing in the journal Nature on Wednesday .
What's more, the iron that the researchers found in the macrophages wasn't even magnetic, so it couldn't pick up on magnetic fields, according to Mark Lythgoe, a co-author of the new study who hails from the Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging at University College London.
The iron found in the pigeon's head likely comes from the macrophage-mediated breakdown of red blood cells, the authors say. But since macrophages cannot send electrical pulses like nerve cells, it's very unlikely that the iron in them is involved in magnetic sensing.
"Even if they were magnetized, they couldn't send information to the brain," Lythgoe said in a phone interview.
The results, the authors say, require the re-evaluation of a number of behavioral studies.
Other scientists did point out that the Nature paper doesn't undermine the central theory of magnetically mediated pigeon migration, but just reopens the question of how, physiologically, the birds can do it.
Kenneth Lohmann, a University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill biologist unaffiliated with the study, says the finding is interesting but he's not sure that it will really change how scientists view the big picture of animal navigation in the long run.
"There is still considerable evidence that the receptors for the magnetic sense are somewhere in a bird's head and probably in the general vicinity of the beak," Lohmann says .
Roswitha Wiltschko, a scientist from the University of Frankfurt, was even more critical. She says there's still a lot of evidence pointing to magnetism-sensing structures in the beak, even if the authors couldn't find them with their methods.
"Many birds behave differently when the skin on their upper beaks is numbed," Wiltschko wrote in an email.
In behavioral experiments, pigeons that were normally sent off-kilter by a magnetic anomaly were not confused if their upper beaks were numbed with Lidocaine. Anesthetizing the skin of the upper beak also alters migratory birds' responses to magnetic pulses, according to Wiltschko.
"Lythgoe and his colleagues' conclusion that all theoretical considerations ... and behavioral studies must now be re-evaluated just because they were unable to find the respective receptors is ridiculous," Wiltschko said.
But Michael Walker, a biologist at the University of Auckland in New Zealand, says the Nature study corrects errors that were made by other scientists.
"What we see now is the self-correction process of science taking place," Walker said in an email.
There are other ways that pigeons could sense magnetic fields, according to Henrik Mouritsen, who studies sensing in migratory birds at the University of Oldenburg in Germany.
"There's very good evidence that birds have a magnetic compass in their eyes," Mouritsen said in an email.
Mouritsen was senior author on another Nature paper in 2009 that examined a possible alternative to the iron-rich nerve cell hypothesis. According to this theory, birds sense the directions of magnetic fields through special photopigments in their eyes. The key to this system is thought to be a molecule called cryptochrome, Mouritsen says.
In the 2009 Nature paper, Mouritsen and his colleagues tested this light-dependent theory using 36 European robins. They altered the brains of some of the birds, making lesions in an area of the brain thought to be where the magnetic field signal is processed. These birds could not navigate by magnetic field, but were able to use the sun and stars to orient themselves, according to the study.
David Keays, a researcher at Austria's Institute of Molecular Pathology who led the latest study, said in a statement that the mystery of how migratory birds use magnetism to navigate remains an intriguing puzzle.
"We have no idea how big the puzzle is or what the picture looks like," Keays said, "but today we've been able to remove those pieces that just didn't fit."
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"fasttext_score": 0.07125824689865112,
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"url": "https://www.ibtimes.com/pigeons-aren%E2%80%99t-led-their-beaks-new-study-ruffles-some-feathers-436346"
}
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There are four species of pangolin, also known as scaly anteaters, living in Africa. Two of them are tree-living animals with long prehensile tails, which they use when climbing. The other two species, which include the endangered ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii), live in burrows and forage on the ground.
Pangolins feed solely on ants and termites. They have several adaptations, such as having no teeth, which help them in this regard. Like other ant-eating mammals, they have sticky tongues up to 25cm long for collecting their prey, and strong claws to tear open termite nests. Unlike any other mammals, however, pangolins have scales rather than hairs, giving them a reptilian appearance. When a pangolin is threatened, it rolls up into a tight ball, protecting its soft underparts and presenting a formidable, scaly barrier to predators. The ground pangolin has declined in numbers because, like its Asian cousins, it is in demand for its scales, which are used in local medicines.
ARKive photos and videos of the ground pangolin
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"url": "https://animals-animals.fandom.com/wiki/Ground_Pangolin"
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CHILBLAINS – What are they?
CHILBLAINS – What are they?
Chilblains (Pernio) are small, itchy, swellings on the skin that occur as a reaction to cold temperatures.
Up to 1 in 10 people in the UK get chilblains at some stage of their life.
Most often they affect the body’s extremities such as toes, fingers, ears and nose.
They usually go away over 7-14 days
How do the develop?
Chilblains occur several hours after being exposed to the cold.
Poor circulation or medication such as Beta-Blockers can make you more prone to developing chilblains.
What are the Signs and Symptoms?
Chilblains can be itchy with a burning sensation.
They are usually red at first but may become purple.
Pain and tenderness over the chilblains often develop and, in some cases may blister or result in a small ulcers forming which could become infected.
How do I prevent getting a chilblain?
Wear footwear suitable for the weather, with thick soles to provide protection against the cold pavements.
Wearing several loose layers to trap body heat.
You should also keep as dry as possible.
Gradually warm up after being out in the cold, keep dry socks on for several hours and do not heat the skin quickly with hot water bottles.
How do I treat a chilblain?
Keep the affected areas warm.
This means staying out of the cold, or wearing warm gloves, and socks when outdoors.
There are also calming chilblains creams available to purchase to ease the discomfort and aid healing.
To book your initial consultation, please contact us by telephone of book online.
Follow Care For Feet on our Social Pages:
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"url": "https://www.careforfeetuk.co.uk/chilblains/"
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Science MCQ’s
Science MCQ’s
1. B
2. That because it’s on the right side it should be thinner.
3. What does a ventricle do? How would this affect thickness?
1. D
2. That an ion is not the same as an atom.
3. How many atoms would Flouride need to have a full valence shell? Does Flouride gain or lose an electon?
Leave a Reply
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"url": "http://portfolios.uwcsea.edu.sg/ikhol75452/2019/06/04/science-mcqs/"
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Save The Coral Reef
A Science Hack Day SF 2015 hack.
Unfinished Website | Github Page
Coral reefs are regarded as rainforests of the sea. They are a delicate ecosystem that must be preserved as they bring wonder and excitement. They are also habitat to species that make up our interconnected food chain.
This cooperative board game is to help kids understand what impacts coral reefs and they can do about it.
“This much is certain: We have the power to damage the sea, but no sure way to heal the harm.”
– Dr. Sylvia Earle, “Sea Change: A Message of the Oceans”
Game Details
Players will play cooperatively to construct a healthy coral reef in order to combat natural or human-created events. At the start of each round, an event will occur and each player can play an action to counteract the effects of the event. The objective of the game is to have more color coral than white coral on your game board.
There is one central gaming board, a cluster of white coral and colorful coral, and a deck of event and action cards. The gaming board represents the coral reef ecosystem. The white coral represents dead coral. The colorful coral represents living coral. The event cards represents random events that may harm or help the coral ecosystem. The action cards represents player behaviors that may harm or help the coral ecosystem.
Start with one blank board. Shuffle the event cards and color cards and place them faced down in their respective decks.
Draw three action cards for each player.
The person who was drawn to last plays first. The game will continue counter clockwise.
Basic Game Structure
Start the timer at 5 minutes. At the beginning of each round, reveal an event will occur and each player will have to play one action from their hand. At the end of each round, each player draws an action card to replenish their hand of three actions.
Specific Game Structure
At the start of the round, reveal an event. Read the event to the group and follow the instructions on the card. For example, if the card says to add one white coral, place one white coral on the game board.
After the event card has been played, each player will play an action starting with the player that was dealt last. That player will read the card to the group and follow the instructions on the card. For example, if the card says to add one color coral, place one color coral.
If the card gives two options, the player must always pick the first option unless the player can not do that action. For example, if there are no white coral on the game board, and the card gives the first option to remove a white coral, the player must choose the second option, for example add one color coral.
Ending the Game
The game ends when the timer runs out. Tally the number of white and color coral. Take the number of color coral and subtract that from the white coral. If the number is positive, your team wins. If it is negative, your team loses.
In the event there are no coral on the board, your team loses.
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"url": "https://craftbyzen.com/projects/coral-reef"
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How Can We Help Prevent Falls in The Older Adult? – Find Out on Physioplus
There are many definitions for falls. Within most definitions will be an idea that a falling is considered unintentional and it is neither explained either by medical causes such as blood pressure or a stroke, nor caused by an overwhelming external force. A simple and widely accepted version often used in used in research defines a fall as “An unexpected event in which the participant comes to rest on the ground, floor or lower level”.
Falls can be complex in nature and often multiple factors can contribute to someone falling and because of this there is often no single treatment or strategy that can prevent someone falling and we often have to try and reduce the risk of a fall occuring. In this new course by Chris Tuckett, who is a falls practitioner, find out how you can reduce the risk of somoene falling through fun and engaging exercise.
Fall Prevention Through Exercise
Around a third of all people aged over 65 years fall each year, but falls are not considered a normal part of aging. So why do so many older adults fall? This course will explore the causes of falls and the relationship between falls, ageing and physical inactivity. It outlines the minimum level of exercise required for well-being, explores the guidelines for exercise and considers physical activity as a population strategy.
Falls Prevention Course
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"url": "https://www.physiospot.com/physioplus/how-can-we-help-prevent-falls-in-the-older-adult-find-out-on-physioplus/"
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Gardening for birds: 2. Figs
posted in: Feeding strategy, Feeding-plants, Plants | 1
In gardening for birds LINK, many plants can be grown to attract the avian fauna. Of these, figs (Ficus spp.) are among the best. A fruiting fig tree can attract hordes of birds that usually results in a feeding frenzy.
Figs are a group of plants that have their tiny flowers (male, female and gall-flowers) set inside fleshy figs (below right: long-section F. religiosa fig; note holes in the few gall-flowers where the wasps emerged). Pollination is by tiny fig-wasps and each species of fig is closely associated with its specific wasp species. Both the fig and the wasp depend on each other for their mutual survival and one cannot reproduce without the other.
The wasp enters the developing fig via its opening at the opposite end of the stalk. The entrance is tight and the wasp needs to force its way in, often losing a wing or a leg in the process. Once inside, it lays its eggs in the gall-flowers. In the process the wasp, covered with pollen from an earlier fig, pollinates the female flowers to subsequently die. When the fig ripens, the eggs of the wasps would have developed into adult wasps. Mating of the wasps takes place inside the fig, with the male dying shortly after. The female escapes from the fig via the opening, whose scales that seal the entrance would have by then loosened to make this possible.
The male flowers, usually found near the entrance of the fig, shed their pollen onto the escaping female wasps. These wasps then seek out other trees of the same species and force their entry into the developing figs to repeat the cycle.
There are about 600 species of figs consisting of climbers, shrubs and trees throughout the tropics. Some of these trees are stranglers, in the sense that their seeds germinate on the branch of a host tree to develop aerial roots that eventually grow round the host’s trunk. And as these roots thicken and coalesce, they prevent the host from growing in girth. In time, the host dies and the fig takes over, its mass of coalescing roots function as the “trunk” of the fig tree.
The list below gives a few of the commoner species that we recommend for use in a bird garden.
1. Benjamin fig or waringin (Ficus benjamina) is a large tree with a wide overhanging crown (top left). This is a strangling fig and not recommended for small gardens as the roots are very invasive. The old tree at the top of the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve used to be frequented by birdwatchers whenever it produced a crop of figs. Yong Ding Li documented a total of 29 species of birds found in and around the tree in September 2006 LINK.
Similarly in Peninsular Malaysia, Dato’ Dr Amar-Singh HSS listed Pink-necked Green Pigeon (Treron vernans), Black-naped Oriole (Oriolus chinensis), Asian Glossy Starling (Aplonis panayensis), Yellow Vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier), Coppersmith Barbet (Megalaima haemacephala), Lineated Barbet (Megalaima lineata), Blue Rock Thrush (Monticola solitarius), Common Iora (Aegithina tiphia) and Pied Triller (Lalage nigra) feeding in such a tree in May 2010 LINK.
2. Bodh-tree (F. religiosa) is another large fig tree that attracts numerous birds during its figging periods LINK (above left). This is again a strangler and not recommended for small gardens.
3. Sea fig (F. superba) is a coastal strangler, again not recommended for small to medium-sized gardens (above right). This is a large tree with large leaves. Figs are somewhat rounded, each with a long stalk. They ripen white or pale yellow to pink and finally purple. They are set in bunches along twigs and branches.
4. Yellow-stem fig (F. fistulosa) is a tree that can reach a height of 15 metres. It is not a strangling fig and thus not invasive. It can be considered for medium-sized gardens. The figs here are borne in bunches along the trunk and larger branches. A 2003 study on the feeding behaviour of birds listed a total of 15 species that visited this tree as well as the shrub listed below LINK.
5. White-leaved fig (F. grassularioide) is a shrub that is commonly found in secondary vegetation (see #4).
6. Climbing fig (F. villosa) has densely hairy leaves. It grows up nearby tree trunks to reach the light in secondary growth. Figs are pear-shaped with a protruding opening. They ripen orange. See this LINK.
YC Wee
October 2011
(Image of white-leafed fig by Angie Ng; that of F. benjamina by M Chan; others by YC Wee)
One Response
1. […] earlier posted a list of fig plants (Ficus spp.) that attract hordes of birds when they are figging LINK; also, a list of trees whose fruits attract birds LINK. The current post gives a list of plants […]
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A history of the auschwitz facility during the world war two
Pinterest Children wearing concentration camp uniforms shortly after the liberation of Auschwitz by the Soviet army on 27 January It was predominantly used as a base for imprisoned labourers working for the German chemical company IG Farben. According to the Auschwitz-Birkenau memorial museum, an estimated 10, labourers are thought to have died there. Once they were judged incapable of work, most were killed with a phenol injection to the heart.
A history of the auschwitz facility during the world war two
The experiment was conducted in by a team of researchers led by psychologist Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University.
Undergraduate volunteers played the roles of both guards and prisoners living in a mock prison in the basement of the Stanford psychology building. Prisoners and guards rapidly adapted to their roles, stepping beyond the boundaries of what had been predicted and leading to dangerous and psychologically damaging situations.
Finally, Zimbardo, alarmed at the increasingly abusive anti-social behavior from his subjects, terminated the entire experiment early. Look no further than the horrifying accounts described in Doctors From Hell: Johnson chose one of his graduate students, Mary Tudor, to conduct the experiment and he supervised her research.
The University of Iowa publicly apologized for the Monster Study in For the first decade after the test, the effects were ambiguous and statistically difficult to correlate to radiation exposure: In the decades that followed, though, the effects were undeniable.
Children began to suffer disproportionately from thyroid cancer due to exposure to radioiodinesand almost a third of those exposed developed neoplasms by There is much published evidence that the project involved the surreptitious use of many types of drugs, as well as other methodologies, to manipulate individual mental states and to alter brain function.
Although several cases of lesbian soldiers abused have been documented so far—including one botched sex-change operation—most of the victims appear to have been young, 16 to year-old white males drafted into the apartheid army.
He is also in private practice, as a member in good standing of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta. These allegations of human rights abuses are denied by the North Korean government, who claim that all prisoners in North Korea are humanely treated. One former North Korean woman prisoner tells how 50 healthy women prisoners were selected and given poisoned cabbage leaves, which all the women had to eat despite cries of distress from those who had already eaten.
All 50 were dead after 20 minutes of vomiting blood and anal bleeding. Refusing to eat would have meant reprisals against them and their families. Kwon Hyok, a former prison Head of Security at Camp 22, described laboratories equipped respectively for poison gas, suffocation gas and blood experiments, in which 3 or 4 people, normally a family, are the experimental subjects.
The goal of the experiments was to find a tasteless, odorless chemical that could not be detected post mortem. Finally, a preparation with the desired properties called C-2 was developed.
In addition to human experimentation, Mairanovsky personally executed people with poisons, under the supervision of Pavel Sudoplatov. This study became notorious because it was conducted without due care to its subjects, and led to major changes in how patients are protected in clinical studies.codename for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II.
Operation Barbarossa 32nd US President - He began New Deal programs to help the nation out of the Great Depression, and he was the nation's leader during most of WWII. QA World War Two Nursing Information about the QAs during the Second World War: QA World War Two Nursing and nurses were then known as the Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service (QAIMNS).
Each QA had an officer status with equivalent rank but no actual commission status. Auschwitz II–Birkenau went on to become a major site of the Nazis' Final Solution to the Jewish Question during the Holocaust.
Mar 09, · Unit was one of the two most infamous, large-scale war crimes committed by Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The second war crime was the Nanjing Massacre. More people died at Auschwitz than at any other Nazi concentration camp and probably than at any death camp in history.
The Soviet troops found grisly evidence of the horror. About 7, starving prisoners were found alive in the camp.
A history of the auschwitz facility during the world war two
The military history of the United States in World War II covers the war against Germany, Italy, Japan and starting with the 7 December attack on Pearl Harbor. During the first two years of World War II, The United States did not have a smooth entry into the war against Nazi Germany.
World War II Tours - Wroclaw Sightseeing Tours
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Fighting Fear
Why Are We Still Afraid of LGBT+ History?
The proverbial elephant in the room is a result of our collective consciousness yielding to a homophobic anticipation that presumes the inclusion of LGBT+ content is about sexual behavior. It is not. The social construction of LGBT+ individuals has been overly sexualized, and does not consider this identity as something outside the realm of sexual behavior.
perry watkins poster hue logo only
Salute to Perry Watkins
Perry Watkins never thought he would be drafted into the military in 1968. Why? Because being homosexual would have disqualified him from military service. But Perry Watkins was drafted anyway, and 16 years later became an incidental civil rights champion.
building a nation blog
Building a Nation
This visual analysis assessment uses the Angela Ales painting Building a Nation to contextualize the story of America. Ales' video introduction to BUILDING A NATION and biographical information is offered in both English and Spanish. Also included are visual analysis instructions, rubric, and guiding questions. These tools help students organize their evaluation of the form, function, and use of Ales' artistic techniques to convey meaning, and guide their interpretation of who is reflected in BUILDING A NATION by citing historical evidence.
50 ways orb
50 Ways
COMING SOON! UnErased! ReFraming the Lens of History resource book answers the what, where, and how to infuse LGBT+-inclusive history and academic content in a cross-curricular approach. Grades 9+
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Latin-American Architecture: Brazil
Brazilian architecture emphasizes the use of concrete as a primary construciton material.
Guillermo Cebrian for Koch Hazard Architects
Written by Guillermo Cebrian.
This article originally appeared on the Blueprint South Dakota blog on January 23, 2019.
The third and last post in the series on Latin-American Architecture focuses on Brazil. The architecture of Brazil can generally be characterized as embracing a monumentality of scale, a play between solid and void, and transparency and opaqueness. Brazilian architecture also emphasizes the use of concrete as a primary construction material. These attributes have been present since the early half of the 20th century, when figures such as Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius, and Marcel Breuer began to have an effect on Brazilian architects, as part of a larger influx of European cultural influence.
Most consequential of these practitioners was Le Corbusier. Known as the father of the modernist movement, he first came to Latin American in 1929 to lecture in Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro. Brazilian architects were initially skeptical of his radical views, however before long, they would be incorporating his five fundamental points of architecture into their own buildings.
Few Brazilian architects were more influenced by Le Corbusier’s theoretical views, than Lúcio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, João Vilanova Artigas. Together, these men designed some of the country’s most iconic buildings, as well as exerted an influence on the academic and urbanist traditions of Brazil, which are still felt today. In addition to these vanguards, contemporary Brazilian architects also refer considerably to Lina Bo Bardi. Although Italian by birth, Bardi became a Brazilian citizen in 1951. Her beautiful use of concrete, reverence for the landscape, and gravity-defying compositions, are continuously explored by contemporary Brazilian architects.
Climate is a significant determinant in the openness of Brazilian architecture. The country is largely tropical, which allows for much of the transitional experimentation between exterior and interior spaces. Nonetheless, the extreme heat and humidity presents its own set of constraints to address.
What follows are six of the most culturally influential contemporary Brazilian architectural practices, whose work varies from small temporary installations, to large-scale urban projects.
CLICK HERE for the rest of the article.
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Survey of Ecclesiastes
Book Type: The fifth book of Wisdom; the twenty-first book of the Old Testament; the twenty-first book of the Bible.
Author: Traditionally considered to be King Solomon.
Audience: Ecclesiastes was written as both self-reflection and to record wisdom to the Jewish people. Assuming that the words are those of Solomon, they were likely written toward the end of his reign. Here, he takes the role of a teacher or preacher speaking to students. He seeks to provide wise sayings that easily register with the readers without much additional explanation. The summary message is that God is the only source of true meaning, and the true purpose for our lives. This, the author has discovered through self-experiments and great cost. In Jewish tradition, Ecclesiastes was read on the day of Pentecost.
Date: If written by Solomon, Ecclesiastes was written during his reign between approximately 970—931 BC. Given its descriptions of hedonism, materialism, and frustration, it would have been penned near the end of Solomon's life.
Overview: While the book of Proverbs is meant to be understood in small pieces, this is not the case with Ecclesiastes. Much of the book is rhetorical—meaning it is stated in order to explore a certain idea. The final verses show the ultimate conclusion this train of thought will lead to.
Ecclesiastes includes 12 chapters broadly organized around Solomon's search for the true meaning of life. After a brief preface in Ecclesiastes 1:1¬–11, Solomon's four-part experiment unfolds. The book begins with an introduction (Ecclesiastes 1:12–18), followed by seeking meaning through pleasure (Ecclesiastes 2:1–11), through wisdom and folly (Ecclesiastes 2:12–17), and through work and rewards (Ecclesiastes 2:18—6:9). This focus on work is the longest section of the book, concerned with the tentative nature of the rewards of one's efforts.
Solomon's conclusions are then discussed in chapters 6—12. Solomon explains the limitations of wisdom in chapters 7—8. Themes of prosperity, suffering, justice, evil, wisdom, and rulers all have their place, yet these all create limits on what a person can know about the future.
In chapters 9—11, Solomon expresses concern over human mortality. He notes that all people die, can do nothing from the grave, do not know when they will die, or what will happen in the future. This could lead to despair, yet Solomon notes that purpose, meaning, and enjoyment of life are based on honoring God and living for Him. This, instead of pleasure or work or wisdom, is the best strategy for a life well lived (Ecclesiastes 11:7—12:8). He concludes his investigation with closing words of advice as well as information about himself as the author (Ecclesiastes 12:9—14).
Key Verses (ESV):
Ecclesiastes 1:2: "Vanity of vanities, says the Preacher, vanity of vanities! All is vanity."
Ecclesiastes 1:8: "All things are full of weariness; a man cannot utter it; the eye is not satisfied with seeing, nor the ear filled with hearing."
Ecclesiastes 1:18: "For in much wisdom is much vexation, and he who increases knowledge increases sorrow."
Ecclesiastes 2:1: "I said in my heart, 'Come now, I will test you with pleasure; enjoy yourself.' But behold, this also was vanity."
Ecclesiastes 3:1: "For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven."
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"url": "https://www.bibleref.com/Ecclesiastes/survey-of-Ecclesiastes.html"
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TB test (or 'PPD') - HIV
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TB test (or 'PPD')
for Veterans and the Public
TB test
TB is short for tuberculosis, an infection usually spread by breathing in air that has been contaminated by someone with TB of the lungs. Most people who are exposed to TB don't get sick from it-the bacteria can live in the body for a long time without causing disease. But some people who carry the bacteria develop tuberculosis disease, and this is more likely if the immune system is weakened.
There are two types of tests to determine whether people are carrying the TB bacteria. One is the TB skin test (also known as PPD), which requires the person to return to the clinic 2-3 days after the skin test is placed for the test to be interpreted. The other is a blood test called an interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) (QuantiFERON and TSpotTB are two examples of IGRA blood tests).
If a person tests positive for carrying the TB bacteria in their body, tests are done to determine whether it is currently causing infection of the lungs (which is contagious). Anyone with active TB should get an effective combination of medications to be cured. If, however, there is no active infection, antibiotics can be used to prevent trouble in the future. In this setting antibiotics are given for 3-9 months.
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"language_score": 0.9280872941017151,
"url": "https://www.hiv.va.gov/patient/diagnosis/labs-TB.asp"
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The Zapotecs
Zapotec seated figure B.C. 300 - 200 Monte Albain
The Zapotecs dominated the area around Oaxaca with their city of Monte Alban for centuries. Monte Alban was one of the more ancient Classic period city states, with sites there as old as 600 B.C..After 650 A.D. Monte Alban was one of the most powerful cities in Mexico . Around the 800s, the city began to lose its power and by 900 A.D. the city was abandoned . However, the Zapotec culture still remained vigorous and other cities, such as their capital at Zaachila remained .The Zapotec city of Mitla are masterpieces of Classical architecture with dazzling geometric patterns .
wall mural at Mitla
Mitla is a short distance from the home of Porfirio Gutierrez & family in Teotitlán del Valle, Oaxaca, Mexico. The ruins at Mitla give a glimpse of the former glory of the Zapotec civilization and how it lives to inspire the weavers of today.
The Zapotec Empire
The Zapotecs developed a calendar and a logosyllabic system of writing that used a separate glyph to represent each of the syllables of the language. This writing system is one of several candidates thought to have been the first writings system of Mesoamerica and the predecessor of the writing systems developed by the Maya, Mixtec, and Aztec civilizations.
The Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos:
Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico
The history of the rich and complex societies that arose and
flourished in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca.
Video of ruins at Monte Alban
Zapotec funerary urn 300-800 AD, Monte Albain. the Zapotecs built monumental tombs in which they placed urns with offerings, often with the face of the deceased upon them .The headdress is a mask of the eagle and jaguar .
Zapotec rugs
At the present time, there is some debate as to whether or not Olmec symbols, dated to 650 BC, are actually a form of writing preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about 500 BC.The Zapotecs tell that their ancestors emerged from the earth, from caves, or that they turned from trees or jaguars into people, while the elite that governed them believed that they descended from supernatural beings that lived among the clouds, and that upon death they would return to such status. In fact, the name by which Zapotecs are known today resulted from this belief. In Central Valley Zapotec "The Cloud People' is "Be'ena' Za'a."
Terracotta jaguar 300-800 AD, Monte Alban.The Zapotecs were heavily influenced by the Olmecs, who also worshipped the jaguar. The collar around the neck shows that they were worshipped alive and in captivity
The interpretation of the symbols and patterns woven in Zapotec rugs
The Mixtecs
a Mixtec breast ornament, made with the lost wax method
A Mixtec turquoise tile serpent, laid over wood
The term Mixtec (Mixteco in Spanish) comes from the Nahuatl word Mixtecapan, or "place of the cloud-people". The area in which Mixtec is spoken is known as the Mixteca.
The Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus an ritual-calendrical and genealogical document contains lists of Mixtecian rulers and priests. It is not certain where the codex was discovered. Probably it was discovered in Veracruz and sent to Sevilla, together with the other manuscript Codex Zouche-Nuttall, as a gift for Charles V in 1518. See a larger image here .
After the Spanish conquest,Mixtec Indians were important for cochineal production. Cochineal is an insect that yields a red dye, used by the British for their uniforms.
Aztec, Mixtec and Zapotec Armies
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.09431970119476318,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9576762914657593,
"url": "https://mexicanhistory.org/zapotec.htm"
}
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Old English norð- (in compounds) "northern, lying to the north" (adj.); norð (adv.) "northwards, to the north, in the north;" from Proto-Germanic *nurtha- (source also of Old Norse norðr, Old Saxon north, Old Frisian north, Middle Dutch nort, Dutch noord, German nord), which is probably an IE word, but of uncertain origin.
It might be ultimately from PIE *ner- (1) "left," also "below" (source also of Sanskrit narakah "hell," Greek neretos "deeper, lower down," enerthen "from beneath," Oscan-Umbrian nertrak "left"), as north is to the left when one faces the rising sun. The same notion apparently underlies Old Irish tuath "left; northern;" Arabic shamal "left hand; north." Compare Benjamin. Or perhaps the notion is that the sun is at its "lowest" point when in the north.
The usual word for "north" in the Romance languages ultimately is from English: Old French north (Modern French nord), borrowed from Old English norð; and Italian nord, Spanish norte, borrowed from French.
As a noun, "the northern cardinal point or direction," late 12c., from the adjective. From c. 1200 as "the north part of Britain, the region beyond the Humber." Generally, then "a region lying north of some other region." In U.S. history, "the states and territories north of Maryland and the Ohio River" (by 1796).
The geographical North Pole is attested from mid-15c. (earlier the Arctic pole, late 14c.; north pole in astronomy for "the fixed zenith of the celestial sphere" is from late 14c.). North American (n.) was used in 1766 by Franklin; as an adjective from 1770.
Ask where's the North? At York 'tis on the Tweed;
In Scotland at the Orcades; and there
At Greenland, Zembla, or the Lord knows where.
[Pope, "Essay on Man"]
Others Are Reading
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.1598351001739502,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.94134920835495,
"url": "https://www.etymonline.com/word/north"
}
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Hamming Distance between two given strings
Objective: Given two strings with equal lengths, write an algorithm to calculate the hamming distance between the strings.
Hamming Distance: Hamming distance between two strings is the number of positions at which the characters are different.
Hamming distance: 4
There are four positions at which bits are different
X = dogandcat, Y = catanddog
Hamming distance: 6
There are six positions at which bits are different.
• Initialize humming_distance = 0.
• Iterate both strings, one character at a time. If characters are different then increment humming_distance by 1.
• Once the iteration is completed, return the humming_distance.
Complete Code:
x=AABBCCDD, y=AAAACCCC Hamming distance: 4
x=dogandcat, y=catanddog Hamming distance: 6
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.8911514282226562,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8564388751983643,
"url": "https://algorithms.tutorialhorizon.com/hamming-distance-between-two-given-strings/"
}
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All the characters in a fairy tale are alive and animate. An ax, a mirror, or a tower is just as alive as an evil wizard, a donkey, a tree, or a godfather. Every character has a particular point of view, while at the same time, it plays a universal role. A mirror, for example, may be telling an evil queen what she wants to hear, while at the same time it's playing the universal role of all mirrors. It's a reflector.
To do this exercise, use the SEARCH box to find a symbol that you want to explore. For example, type "mirror" into the box and you'll meet a number of mirrors.
Choose the one "mirror" that interests you most. What does the symbol have to say about the particular role it has been made to play? What does it say about its universal role?
After you do the exercise you'll never see a "mirror" quite the same way!
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.796875,
"fasttext_score": 0.780625581741333,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9380268454551697,
"url": "https://wonderlit.com/wonderlit-writing-exercises/2032-role-playing"
}
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1636-37. PEQUOT WAR. A punitive expedition (24 Aug., led by John Endecott of Mass.) against the Pequots (who dominated the area between the Pequot (Thames) River and the present western boundary of Rhode Island, as well as easter Long Island and Long Island Sound) in reprisal for the murder of a New England trader, John Oldham (20 Jul. 1636), led to reprisals the following spring. A Connecticut force under Capt. John Mason destroyed the main Pequot stronghold near the present village of Stonington (26 May). The fleeing remnants were slaughtered near New Haven (28 July) by a combined force from Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. (The Encyclopedia of American History Edited by Richard B. Morris, professor of history, Columbia University, Harper and Brothers, New York, 1953, p. 35-6)
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.703125,
"fasttext_score": 0.04015636444091797,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9306536316871643,
"url": "http://www.montauk.com/history/pw_1636.htm"
}
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DRAFT: This module has unpublished changes.
Science, level: Pre-School
Materials Required:
• Picture (Carabao)
• Picture of every scene in the story.
• Puzzle (picture of a Carabao) • Ac
Activity Time: depends on the childs' interest
A. Motivation
1. Show picture of a carabao.
2. Tell the class that carabao is our national animal.
3. Tell story about the carabao (Teacher would act every verb in the story)
Cona was a cute and naughty carabao. She follows her mom and dad in the field every day. While her parents were busy at work, She would wander around the grassy countryside. "Don't go into the spooky forest Cona," mom would warn.
Cona seldom heeded her mother's warnings. She often lost her way. But she had figured out a great way to grab her mother's attention. "Baah," she would cry in her crystal clear voice. It would echo through the trees and mom would recognize her baby's pleas. And her mom would find her baby by using her ears; she listens to Cona’s baah”.
One day, however, Cona got trapped in her own game. She entered the forest and couldn't find her way home. She tried to Baah out loud and call for help. She had forgotten that she had caught a very bad cold. Her nose was blocked and her throat was itchy. She tried with all her might, but all she could manage was a very weak "Boo." No one in the fields could recognize her voice. . Cona was at her wit's end when she caught sight of Paru, the parrot. Seeing Paru gave her an idea. Cona went up to Paru and said,"Aunty Paru,I am lost. You are the eldest. Please help me".Paru said,"Cona Darling,I've heard you have been a very naughty carabao, but anyways, I will take you home". Paru took Cona home and Cona promised she wouldn't be naughty anymore.
B. Lesson Proper
1. Show picture of a carabao.
“Animals have different body parts”
2. Point the eyes – it helps the cow to see his way and see the things around it.
3. Point the nose – it helps the cow to breath and smell the food.
4. Point the ears - it helps the cow to hear the sounds around him.
5. Point the mouth – it helps the cow to eat the grass and drink.
6. Point the Body – where the heart and other parts of the body are located.
7. Point the tail – it helps the cow to
8. Point the legs – it helps the cow to walk and run.
9. Point the hoofs – it protects the legs of the cow.
10. Point the horns – it protects the cow from their enemy.
C. Generalization
Activity 1: (What’s my name?)
1. Post the picture of a carabao on the board.
2. Point every parts of a carabao and ask the groups what are the names of that body parts.
3. Every group who got a correct answer will get a point.
Group Activity 2: (Make me Whole)
1. Distribute picture puzzles (Carabao) to every group.
2. Tell the class, that they have 30 minutes to complete the puzzle.
3. After completing the puzzle, they will stand up and act like a carabao and copy the sound of the animal.
More Lessons Like This...
Random Five More New
DRAFT: This module has unpublished changes.
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.03774690628051758,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9678424000740051,
"url": "https://kingsborough-cuny.digication.com/edu_portfolio_example/Lesson_Plan_-_Body"
}
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OSHA stands for “Occupational Safety and Health Administration.” This is an agency in the US Department of Labor. The point of OSHA is to protect workers and make sure working conditions are safe. Employers are required by law to protect workers’ safety. The main point of the training is to make workers familiar with what OSHA is and what their rights are under it. Workers have many rights per OSHA, mainly a safe work environment.
This training also covers the responsibilities an employer must fulfill to protect their workers. The topic of OSHA inspections is mentioned a lot in this video, and is explained in one of the sections. Employers should be keeping records of safety concerns in the workplace and have the information available to workers. Workers also have the right to make a complaint to OSHA.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.09896695613861084,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9775629639625549,
"url": "https://www.eleapsoftware.com/e-learning-courses/introduction-to-osha/"
}
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Thomas Jefferson's design for a plow
Thomas Jefferson's design for a plow
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), one of Virginia's largest planters, considered agriculture to be "a science of the very first order," and he studied it with great zeal and commitment. Jefferson introduced numerous plants to the United States, and he frequently exchanged farming advice and seeds with like-minded correspondents. Of particular interest to the innovative Jefferson was farm machinery, especially the development of a plow which would delve deeper than the two to three inches achieved by a standard wooden plow. Jefferson needed a plow and method of cultivation that would help prevent the soil erosion that plagued Virginia's Piedmont farms. To this end, he and his son-in-law, Thomas Mann Randolph (1768–1828), who managed much of Jefferson's land, worked together to develop iron and mould board plows, like the one shown here, that were specifically designed for hillside plowing, in that they turned the furrow to the downhill side. As the calculations on the sketch show, Jefferson's plows were often based on mathematical formulas, which helped facilitate their duplication and improvement.
<img typeof="foaf:Image" src="" width="1064" height="333" alt="Thomas Jefferson's design for a plow" title="Thomas Jefferson's design for a plow" />
Usage Statement:
Public Domain
Add a comment
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.042954444885253906,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9615769982337952,
"url": "https://www.ncpedia.org/media/thomas-jeffersons-design-plow"
}
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World Library
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Supercritical wing
Article Id: WHEBN0000398159
Reproduction Date:
Title: Supercritical wing
Author: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Language: English
Subject: Airbus A300, Einar Enevoldson
Publisher: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Supercritical wing
A supercritical airfoil is an airfoil designed, primarily, to delay the onset of wave drag in the transonic speed range. Supercritical airfoils are characterized by their flattened upper surface, highly cambered (curved) aft section, and greater leading edge radius compared with traditional airfoil shapes. The supercritical airfoils were designed in the 1960s, by then NASA engineer Richard Whitcomb, and were first tested on a modified North American T-2C Buckeye.[1] After this first test, the airfoils were tested at higher speeds on the TF-8A Crusader.[2] While the design was initially developed as part of the supersonic transport (SST) project at NASA, it has since been mainly applied to increase the fuel efficiency of many high subsonic aircraft. The supercritical airfoil shape is incorporated into the design of a supercritical wing.
Research in 1940 by Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt's K.A. Kawalki led to subsonic profiles very similar to the supercritical profiles, which was the basis for the objection in 1984 against the US-patent specification for the supercritical airfoil.[3]
Research aircraft of the 1950s and '60s found it difficult to break the sound barrier, or even reach Mach 0.9, with conventional airfoils. Supersonic airflow over the upper surface of the traditional airfoil induced excessive wave drag and a form of stability loss called Mach tuck. Due to the airfoil shape used, supercritical wings experience these problems less severely and at much higher speeds, thus allowing the wing to maintain high performance at speeds closer to Mach 1. Techniques learned from studies of the original supercritical airfoil sections are used in designing airfoils for high-speed subsonic and transonic aircraft from the Airbus A300 and Boeing 777 to the McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II.
Supercritical airfoils feature four main benefits: they have a higher drag divergence Mach number,[4] they develop shock waves further aft than traditional airfoils,[5] they greatly reduce shock-induced boundary layer separation, and their geometry allows for more efficient wing design (e.g., a thicker wing and/or reduced wing sweep, each of which may allow for a lighter wing). At a particular speed for a given airfoil section, the critical Mach number, flow over the upper surface of an airfoil can become locally supersonic, but slows down to match the pressure at the trailing edge of the lower surface without a shock. However, at a certain higher speed, the drag divergence Mach number, a shock is required to recover enough pressure to match the pressures at the trailing edge. This shock causes transonic wave drag, and can induce flow separation behind it; both have negative effects on the airfoil's performance.
In addition to improved transonic performance, a supercritical wing's enlarged leading edge gives it excellent high-lift characteristics. Consequently, aircraft utilizing a supercritical wing have superior takeoff and landing performance. This makes the supercritical wing a favorite for designers of cargo transport aircraft. A notable example of one such heavy-lift aircraft that uses a supercritical wing is the C-17 Globemaster III.
See also
External links
• Supercritical Airfoils at Aerospaceweb
• Supercritical airfoil - U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9052116274833679,
"url": "http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/eng/Supercritical_wing"
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Appendix: SOCKS — A Basic Firewall
This appendix covers the following topics:
SOCKS is a package consisting of a proxy server, client programs, and a library (libsocks) for adapting other applications into new client programs.
The original SOCKS was written by David Koblas ( The SOCKS protocol has changed over time. The client library shipped as of printing corresponds to SOCKS v4.2. Since the server and the clients must use the same SOCKS protocol, this library doesn't work with servers of previous releases; clients compiled with these libraries won't work with older servers.
How to SOCKSify a client
Note: If your client is using UDP to transfer data, you can't use SOCKS. To see if your client uses UDP, search for the string SOCK_DGRAM in your source.
1. At or near the beginning of main(), you can add a call to SOCKSinit().
You can omit this step; the only reason for calling SOCKSinit() directly is to associate a name with your SOCKS client (rather than the generic “SOCKSclient” default string).
2. Add the following options to your compile commands:
-Dconnect=Rconnect -Dgetsockname=Rgetsockname \
-Dbind=Rbind -Daccept=Raccept -Dlisten=Rlisten \
-Drcmd=Rrcmd -Dselect=Rselect
If you're using a Makefile, add these options to the definition of macro CFLAGS.
These options replace calls to certain functions with versions that use the SOCKS server:
Non-SOCKS function: SOCKS function:
accept() Raccept()
bind() Rbind()
connect() Rconnect()
getsockname() Rgetsockname()
listen() Rlisten()
rcmd() Rrcmd()
select() Rselect()
3. Link against the SOCKS library by adding -l socks to your link line.
If you're using a Makefile, simply add this information to the definition of the macro LDFLAGS.
For most programs, the above steps should be sufficient to SOCKSify the package. If the above doesn't work, you may need to look at things a little more closely. The next section describes how the SOCKS library expects to be used.
What SOCKS expects
Note: You must use TCP; SOCKS doesn't support UDP.
Most client programs fit these assumptions very well and can be SOCKSified without changing the code at all using the steps described in How to SOCKSify a client.”
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"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.033060550689697266,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8537446856498718,
"url": "http://www.qnx.com/developers/docs/6.5.0/topic/com.qnx.doc.neutrino_lib_ref/socksappendix.html"
}
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Science Education Home Home Teachers Students Games Videos VA SOL Programs
Frostbite Theater
Cold Magnets in Pipes!
We've seen what happens when strong magnets are dropped down copper pipes, and we've seen what happens if the pipes are cooled in liquid nitrogen. So... what happens if the magnets are cooled in liquid nitrogen?
Announcer: Frostbite Theater presents... Cold Cuts! No baloney!
Joanna and Steve: Just science!
Joanna: Hi! I'm Joanna!
Steve: And I'm Steve!
Joanna: Earlier, we did an experiment where we dropped a magnet down a copper pipe that had been cooled in liquid nitrogen. A great question came up in the comments: "What happens if you cool the magnet?"
Steve: It's an interesting idea and we would try it if we had some liquid nitrogen.
Oh, wait! We have liquid nitrogen!
Joanna: Duh!
Joanna: In general, cooling a magnet makes it stronger. However, it turns out that neodymium magnets, like ours, get stronger up to a point. Cool them past that point, and they get weaker. At liquid nitrogen temperatures, neodymium magnets lose about 10% of their room temperature strength.
Steve: This is easier to see if we slow things down by using cold pipes. In the first trial, the cold magnet has just been removed from the nitrogen. It's weaker than the room temperature magnet, so it falls faster.
Joanna: 20 seconds later, we try it again. The cold magnet has warmed to the point where it's just as strong as the room temperature magnet, so both magnets fall at the same rate.
Steve: When we try again 10 seconds later, the cold magnet is stronger than the room temperature magnet, so it falls slower.
Joanna: Thanks for watching! I hope you'll join us again soon for another experiment!
Steve: So that was actually way more interesting than we had any reasonable right to expect.
Joanna: This is true.
Steve: Good question. Good job!
It was probably me who asked it.
Joanna: Yeah!
Steve: I hope somebody actually does ask the question!
Joanna: Good job, Steve!
Citation and linking information
For questions about this page, please contact Steve Gagnon.
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"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.6553687453269958,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9186742305755615,
"url": "https://education.jlab.org/frost/cold-magnets-in-pipes.html"
}
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Last updated
An oidor (Spanish pronunciation: [oiˈðoɾ] ) was a judge of the Royal Audiencias and Chancillerías, originally courts of Kingdom of Castile, which became the highest organs of justice within the Spanish Empire. The term comes from the verb oír, "to hear," referring to the judge's obligation to listen to the parts of a judicial process, particularly during the phase of pleas.
The Cortes of Alcalá of 1348 asked that King Henry II of Castile publicly hear cases at least once or twice a week along with his advisors, because under medieval Castilian jurisprudence the king was to personally hear all cases that fell under his jurisdiction, but the caseload was becoming too great. The Cortes also asked the King to delegate some of his powers to his advisors, so that they "could judge in his name." [1] The documents of the Cortes of Alcalá began to refer to these delegates as oidores and the new institution they formed as the audiencia . This early audiencia was still closely tied to the king's personal right to judge. [2] In reviewing the cases before them, oidores relied on summaries prepared by court lawyers known as relatores. [3]
Spanish America and the Philippines
As the Crown of Castile found its territories rapidly expanding half a world away during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Spanish Philippines, it found it necessary to grant its overseas oidores functions and powers, which in the mother country normally fell to other officials. Thus, the oidores of the overseas audiencias functioned not only as judges of the audiencia, but also as magistrates overseeing the sale of the Holy Crusade indulgences (juez de la Santa Cruzada), mortgages and ground rents (juez de censos), probate issues (juez de bienes de difuntos), and legal separation (oidor juez de casados). In the audiencias in which the criminal judges (alcaldes del crimen) met as a separate chamber, as those of Mexico City and Lima, it was not uncommon for one person to serve as both oidor (civil judge) and an alcalde del crimen. Moreover, upon the death or incapacity of a governor or viceroy, either the senior oidor (oidor decano) or the audiencia as a whole would serve as the interim governor or viceroy, depending on the specific law of the territory.
Marriage disputes
The oidor de casados was a special type of judge that arose to deal with the de facto separation of many married couples during the colonization of the New World and the fact that many married men abandoned their lawful wives upon leaving Spain and entered into informal relationships with either native or European women. In order to deal with this, the crown felt it was necessary to create this office to compel, through legal coercion, the reconciliation of the marriage couple. An example of this problem is the notorious case of Pedro de Valdivia. The Audiencia of Lima, under the direction of President (and acting viceroy) Pedro de la Gasca forced Valdivia to repudiate his mistress, Inés de Suárez, and to bring his wife Marina Ortíz de Gaete to Chile. Over time, the powers of the oidor de casados evolved to cover all types of lawsuits between a married couple.
Ecclesiastical judges
Due to the general use of the word oidor, the term was also applied to the clerics who served as judges in ecclesiastical courts, although they had nothing to do with the audiencias.
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Francico Romá y Rosell was a Spanish royal official in Valladolid and New Spain. He was the first regent of the Real Audiencia of Mexico. In this capacity, after the death of Viceroy Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa and before the arrival of his successor, Martín de Mayorga, Romá served as interim governor of the colony from April 9, 1779 to August 23, 1779.
The Real Audiencia of Charcas was a Spanish audiencia with its seat in what is today Bolivia. It was established in 1559 in Ciudad de la Plata de Nuevo Toledo and had jurisdiction over Charcas, Paraguay and the Governorate of the Río de la Plata, today Uruguay and northern Argentina. This court oversaw the incredible silver output of the mines at Potosí. It was part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1776, when it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and began to be referred to as Upper Peru.
Bernardo de Iturriaza was a Spanish judge and colonial official. In his capacity as president of the Audiencia of Lima he twice served as governor of Peru.
Doctor Miguel Núñez de Sanabria was a Spanish official in Peru and an oidor (judge) of the Audiencia of Lima. Twice he was interim viceroy of Peru, in virtue of his office as president of the Audiencia.
Mateo de la Mata Ponce de León was a Spanish colonial official in Peru. He was president of the Audiencia of Quito from 1691 to 1699. From March 2 to August 15, 1716 he served as interim viceroy of Peru.
Real Audiencia of Quito
The Real Audiencia of Quito was an administrative unit in the Spanish Empire which had political, military, and religious jurisdiction over territories that today include Ecuador, parts of northern Peru, parts of southern Colombia and parts of northern Brazil. It was created by Royal Decree on 29 August 1563 by Philip II of Spain in the city of Guadalajara. It ended in 1822 with the incorporation of the area into the Republic of Gran Colombia.
The Real Audiencia of Mexico or high court was the highest tribunal of the Spanish crown in the Kingdom of New Spain. The Audiencia was created by royal decree on December 13, 1527, and was seated in the viceregal capital of Mexico City. The First Audiencia was dissolved by the crown for its bungling and corruption and the crown established the Second Audiencia in 1530. Another Audiencia was created in Guadalajara in western Mexico in 1548.
The Real Audiencia of Guadalajara, was the highest tribunal of the Spanish crown in what is today northern Mexico and the southwestern United States in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It was created by royal decree on February 13, 1548, and was originally located in Compostela and permanently seated in Guadalajara in 1560. Its president was the chief political and executive officer of the district, subordinated only to the Viceroy.
The Real Audiencia de Manila was the Real Audiencia of the Spanish East Indies, which included modern-day Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Micronesia and the Philippines. Similar to Real Audiencias throughout the Spanish Empire, it was the highest tribunal within the territories of the Captaincy General of the Philippines, a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
The Real Audiencia and Chancery of Lima was a superior court in the New World empire of Spain, located in the city of Lima, capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It was created on November 20, 1542 as was the viceroyalty itself, by the Emperor Charles V. The Audiencia began functioning in 1543 and initially had jurisdiction over the entire viceroyalty—virtually all of Spanish-controlled South America and Panama. Later other audiencias were established in the Viceroyalty. The Audiencia functioned until 1821 when the forces of José de San Martín entered Lima.
Real Audiencia y Chancillería de Valladolid
The Royal Audiencia and Chancellería of Valladolid was a judicial body established by Henry II of Castile in 1371, with jurisdiction over the entire territory of the Crown of Castile, except for the characteristics of the Hall of Justice of the Council of Castile. The building was originally called El Palacio de los Vivero.
The Royal Audience and Chancery of Panama in Tierra Firme was a governing body and superior court in the New World empire of Spain. The Audiencia of Panama was the third American audiencia after the ones of Santo Domingo and Mexico. It existed three times under various guises since it first creation in 1538 until its ultimate abolition in 1751.
The Real Audiencia of Santiago de Guatemala, simply known as the Audiencia of Guatemala or the Audiencia of Los Confines, was a superior court in area of the New World empire of Spain, known as the Kingdom of Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas. The Audiencia's presiding officer, the president, was the head of the government of the area. The Audiencia was initially created by decrees of November 20, 1542 and September 13, 1543, and had its seat in Antigua Guatemala.
1. Alonso Romero, María Paz, "La Monarquía castellana y su proyección institucional (1230-1350)” in Historia de España de Ramón Menéndez Pidal: tomo XIII. La expansión peninsular y mediterránea (c. 1212-c. 1350): volumen I. La corona de Castilla (2nd edition). (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe 1990), 558. ISBN 978-84-239-4815-4
2. 33rd plea of the "Cuaderno de Peticiónes" of the Cortes of León and Castile.
3. Kellogg, Susan. Law and the Transformation of Aztec Culture, 1500-1700. (University of Oklahoma Press, 2005), 10.
|
<urn:uuid:375b4505-233e-4732-a872-31a97808eedc>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.02462536096572876,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9478933811187744,
"url": "https://wikimili.com/en/Oidor"
}
|
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Less sin()
The Less sin function is used to calculate the sin value. It returns radians on numbers.
Sin Function Example
Let's take an example to demonstrate the usage of sin function in Less file.
Create a Less file named "simple.less", having the following code:
Less file: simple.less
Now open the node.js command prompt and execute the following code: lessc simple.less simple.css
Less Sin function1
This will compile the "simple.less" file. A CSS file named "simple.css" will be generated.
For example:
Less Sin function2
The generated CSS "simple.css", has the following code:
Less Sin function3
Here, you can see that the font having sin-math function is produced the sin value of a specific radian, degree and gradian.
Next TopicLess asin()
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<urn:uuid:9432678f-d07b-449b-b8b1-7f12069a39f5>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.9993387460708618,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7311118245124817,
"url": "https://www.javatpoint.com/less-sin-function"
}
|
• Fordism and Taylorism
Fordism and Taylorism<o:p></o:p>
The Fordism
The Fordism is named after Henry Ford . It refers to several social theories . Ford ( 1863-1947 ) was an American engineer . He founded the Ford Motor Company at Detroit in 1903 . He was a pioneer of standardization, mass production and the assembly line . By adopting these techniques he was able to produce reliable and low cost cars and other motor vehicles . He made his first “gasoline buggy” in 1893 and produced farm factors in 1915 .
The Fordism production system has 4 key elements :<o:p></o:p>
-The separation of different work tasks between different groups of workers , in witch unskilled workers execute simple , repetitive tasks and skilled workers undertake functions related to research , design , marketinq and quality control .<o:p></o:p>
-Parts and components of the motor vehicles are highly standardized . <o:p></o:p>
-The machines are arranged in the right order to manufacture the product .<o:p></o:p>
-Workers are working on an assembly line .<o:p></o:p>
The main goal of Fordism is to lower the manufacturing cost of the automobile . <o:p></o:p>
The Fordism production system was used again by other firms .<o:p></o:p>
The Taylorism
The Taylorism is named after Frederick Winslow Taylor . It’s also called Scientific Management . Taylor thought that decisions based upon tradition should be replaced by precise procedures developed after studies about a person at work . <o:p></o:p>
The Taylorism consist in : <o:p></o:p>
-developing a standard method to perform each job .<o:p></o:p>
-selecting workers with appropriate capacities for each job .<o:p></o:p>
-training workers for the standard method previously developed ; <o:p></o:p>
-supporting workers by organizing their work .<o:p></o:p>
-giving incentives payment to workers to increase output <o:p></o:p>
But the Taylorism ignores individual differences so it is efficient , but not for all the workers. <o:p></o:p>
=> Thanks to Ford and Taylor , America became an industrial country .<o:p></o:p>
Héliciane Palenzuela , 1èreS10 :)
• Commentaires
Lundi 27 Mars 2017 à 05:26
you made blogging glance easy. The overall glance of your site is excellent,
let alone the content material!
Mardi 3 Octobre 2017 à 09:27
Starfoulavous gérez
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|
<urn:uuid:ac444046-d3e3-41dd-abc8-ecaacaa5de64>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06242179870605469,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7829790115356445,
"url": "http://dnlsaintsernin.kazeo.com/fordism-and-taylorism-a120709664"
}
|
For Each events
A For Each event is a kind of event that will take an object as parameter. Then, during the game, for every instance of the object, the conditions and actions will be repeated.
Usually, you don't need to use “For Each” events. Conditions and actions will automatically run on all of the objects. They are defined by their conditions. However, from time to time, “For Each” events can be useful to run an action that depends on each instance of the object.
When to use it
Consider the example below. When the player is in a collision with an object called “KillAllEnemyBonus”, we set the “life” variable of all enemies to 0. We also want to create a special kind of explosion at the position of each enemy. We need a “For Each” event to accomplish this. Otherwise, a single explosion would be created at the position of only the first enemy:
|
<urn:uuid:9c21976d-b28a-4376-9e7e-190bd5ee5aab>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.020695745944976807,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.946850597858429,
"url": "http://wiki.compilgames.net/doku.php/gdevelop5/events/foreach?rev=1539467791"
}
|
A Landmark Study on the Origins of Alcoholism
By studying rats in a smarter way, scientists are finally learning something useful about why some drinkers become addicted and others don’t.
Gaba is a molecular red light: Certain neurons make and release it to stop their neighbors from firing. Once that’s done, the gaba-making neurons use an enzyme called GAT3 to pump the molecule back into themselves, so they can reuse it. But in the amygdala of alcohol-preferring rats, the gene that makes GAT3 is much less active, and makes just half the usual levels of the pump. Gaba accumulates around the neighboring neurons, making them abnormally inactive.
The consequences of this are unclear, but Heilig thinks that all this extra gaba hampers the rats’ ability to deal with fear and stress. They are naturally more anxious, which might explain their vulnerability to alcohol. He predicts it will take another five years of work to fully close this loop. But for now, his team have definitely shown that GAT3—the gaba-recycling pump—is important. They took rats that prefer sugar and deliberately reduced the levels of GAT3 in their amygdala. This simple procedure was enough to convert those resilient rodents into addiction-prone, alcohol-preferring 15-percenters.
At this point, the team submitted their result to a journal, which agreed to publish them. Good news—but after Heilig’s long history with rat-shaped dead-ends, he wanted to do one more experiment. “Curing alcoholism in rats is not important,” he says. “What’s important is what this looks like in humans with alcohol addiction.”
As it happens, it looks much the same. Heilig’s colleagues examined postmortem tissue samples from people who had donated their brains to research, some of whom had alcohol addiction. As in the rats, they found nothing unusual in five of six brain regions. But in the amygdala, they found low levels of GAT3.
Others scientists have found connections between alcoholism, the amygdala, and gaba-related genes. But by identifying rats that are particularly vulnerable to alcoholism, Heilig’s team has begun fleshing out the details behind these somewhat hazy links. “It is a very significant study that will impact the alcohol research field deeply,” says Jun Wang from Texas A&M University. “Identifying GAT3 is not that important because alcoholism is controlled by multiple genes, but [the team’s new approach] will help to find those genes. It’s a wonderful method for modeling human alcoholism.”
There are other signs that what Heilig found is relevant to humans as well as rats. A decade ago, a French cardiologist named Olivier Ameisen claimed to have cured his own alcoholism by taking a drug called baclofen. “That was met with skepticism, and there was no basic science to support his claims,” says Heilig. But there is now: Baclofen stops neurons from releasing gaba. If individuals with alcoholism aren’t good at recycling this chemical, it might be possible to compensate by producing less of it in the first place.
But baclofen is controversial. It has been tested in several clinical trials, to mixed results. Two recent studies, which analyzed the results from these trials, concluded that the drug’s ability to treat alcoholism is only “slightly above placebo effects” and its growing use is “premature.” It can be harmful, too. People quickly build up a tolerance to it, which prompts them to seek higher doses. They can experience severe side effects, and France has seen more than 100 cases of people inadvertently poisoning themselves with baclofen. “It’s a terrible drug,” Heilig says.
Other drugs like benzodiazepines also exert their effects through gaba, but like baclofen, they’re easily abused themselves. “They’re a good alternative for alcoholism in the short term but they’re not safe in the long term,” says Lara Ray from UCLA.
But Heilig’s study suggests that other chemicals, which could influence gaba levels in more subtle ways, might help people to control their addictions. Several such substances are in development, and Heilig’s team can see if they change the choices of their alcohol-preferring rats.
“It’s just such an impressive breakthrough for the field of alcoholism, with real potential for therapies,” Ray adds.
By ED YONG a staff writer at The Atlantic, where he covers science.
Kevin A Groves is a Clinical Psychologist Dallas, Texas. He graduated with honors in 1989 and has more than 29 years of diverse experiences. Kevin is also a family therapist and group counselor in Irving TX, formerly of Austin TX.
|
<urn:uuid:a5393479-7164-4d4a-9d36-aae323849bcc>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.0329592227935791,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9619026184082031,
"url": "https://undici.com/a-landmark-study-on-the-origins-of-alcoholism/"
}
|
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