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Definition of Hercynian in English:
• 1Relating to or denoting a prolonged mountain-forming period (orogeny) in western Europe, eastern North America, and the Andes in the Upper Palaeozoic era, especially the Carboniferous and Permian periods.
• ‘This makes them very unusual within the western European Hercynian belt and suggests a peculiar orogenic context.’
• ‘They are characteristic of the granitic uplands or moors of south-western England and of other Hercynian massifs in western and central Europe.’
• ‘These late Hercynian faults are generally assumed to be left-lateral strike-slip faults.’
1. 1.1as noun the Hercynian The Hercynian orogeny.
Late 16th century: from Latin Hercynia silva; the ancient name of an area of forested mountains in central Germany; later (from the late 19th century) applied in geology to the Harz Mountains formed in the Hercynian period.
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Teacher Tips and Answers
Analyzing the Meaning of Poetry
Poetry uses different techniques to create different meanings. When you read a poem, watch for these kinds of techniques.
Connotation is the feeling that words create.
Grandma wore denim; mother wore silk.
(Denim has the connotation of being inexpensive, durable, and practical; silk has the connotation of being expensive, delicate, and dressy.)
Denotation refers to the literal meaning of words.
Grandma wore denim; mother wore silk.
(Denim is a cotton fabric; silk is a fabric made from the cocoons of silkworms.)
Imagery refers to what you see, hear, smell, taste, and touch.
In the trees, green leaves murmur.
In the grass dance sunlight stars.
(Imagery includes trees, green, murmur, grass, dance, sunlight stars.)
Metaphor is saying that one thing is another thing, without using like or as.
The speech was a lighthouse beacon,
Guiding me to shore.
(The speech is a beacon.)
Personification is giving human qualities to nonhuman things.
I wrestled the math problem all afternoon.
It pinned me to the mat.
(The math problem acts like a wrestler.)
Simile is comparing two things using like or as.
My dog is like Saturday,
Brimming with adventure and excitement.
(The dog is compared to Saturday, using like.)
Symbol is using one thing to stand for another.
She kept her heart in a safe
Where no one could ever break it.
(Her heart is a symbol of her inner self and her relationships.)
© 2017 Thoughtful Learning. Copying is permitted.
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Lyondell - "Destiny"
Lyondell Destiny 1sm
On April 16, 1836, the Texas Army did something that changed the entire course of history. Coming to a fork in the road, the exhausted column of civilian soldiers, beaten down by the ravages of weather, starvation, and absolute desperation, decided to stop retreating and finally face their enemy. Their destiny, they believed, was choosing that time and place to finally shift the balance of war to their cause. Veering to the right and into the path of conflict, the little army trudged towards Santa Anna's forces. The Texian soldier depicted in the EpicArt mural is pointing to that very place--- the plains of San Jacinto--- where the battle cry "Remember the Alamo!' would become synonymous with Texas Independence. The Lone Star & Stripes in the background was the ubiquitous ensign flown during the most of the Texas Revolution.
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Definition - What does Emulsion mean?
Emulsions are important in many fields, such as:
• Dyeing and tanning industries
• Manufacture of synthetic rubber and plastics
• Preparation of cosmetics such as shampoos, salves and therapeutic products
Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. The terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably.
Corrosionpedia explains Emulsion
An emulsion is a colloid of two or more immiscible liquids where one liquid contains a dispersion of the other liquid(s). Oil and water mixtures are emulsions when shaken together. The oil forms drops and disperses throughout the water.
Emulsions consist of a dispersed and a continuous phase; the boundary between these phases is called the interface. Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance, because the many phase interfaces scatter light that passes through the emulsion. Emulsions are unstable and thus do not form spontaneously.
Emulsifying agents are effective at extinguishing fires on small, thin-layer spills of flammable liquids (class B fires). Such agents encapsulate the fuel in a fuel-water emulsion, thereby trapping the flammable vapors in the water phase.
Emulsions are stabilized by agents that form films at the surface of the droplets (such as soap molecules) or that impart to them a mechanical stability (such as colloidal carbon or bentonite). Unstable emulsions eventually separate into two liquid layers. Stable emulsions can be destroyed by inactivating or destroying the emulsifying agent — by methods like adding appropriate third substances or by freezing or heating.
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Friday, May 18, 2012
Most persons with at least a passing interest in U.S. history would recognize the name of William Tecumseh Sherman, and if you lived in the southeastern part of the country the mention of his name in public might bring on trouble. Likewise, Sherman is not popular among Native Americans. During the U.S. Civil War General Sherman led his men on the infamous, scorched earth, “total war”, march to the sea through Georgia. After the conflict he became Commanding General of the United States Army and as such was responsible for troops engaged in hostile actions with Native Americans in the western U. S.
General Sherman had a brother (actually he had three) by the name of John Sherman who was a successful U.S. Congressman, Senator, Secretary of the Treasury, and Secretary of State. Today people hear his name associated with a law passed in 1890, The Sherman Antitrust Act. This piece of legislation is intended to protect the American public from cartels and monopolies.
In the history of Colorado (and some other western states) Sen. John Sherman, Chair of the Senate Finance Committee, is known as the author of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act enacted in 1890. This legislation stipulated that the U. S. government purchase about 4.5 million ounces of raw silver every month (in addition to silver already being purchased as mandated by the Bland-Allison Act). The Sherman Act was a great boon to Colorado mining companies that had a vast supply of silver at their disposal, both in storage and in the ground, and raised the price of silver to over $1 ounce. But since Sherman was a senator from an agrarian state (Ohio) the act was supposed to help farmers who had accumulated large debts (mostly to due to bad luck and droughts). Supporters thought the law would stimulate the economy, combat deflation, create inflation, and then drop the dollar in value (so the debts could be paid in cheaper dollars---and I thought “voodoo economics” was invented in 1980). Well, the entire scheme backfired and people begin to buy gold with their redeemable notes, rather than holding silver, and the country’s gold reserves became depleted. In 1893 President Grover Cleveland repealed the Act and silver was on its way out and most mines in Colorado suffered. Large scale unemployment was rampant in Colorado and mines all over the state closed down. The “lucky” ones were able to produce gold or copper or lead-zinc.
Today, J. P. Morgan Chase & Co. seems always to be in the news---mostly as the “bad guy”. In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s J. P. Morgan, the financier, always seemed to be in the news---often as the “bad guy”. However, in 1893 the U.S. Treasury had been nearly depleted of gold as banks thought gold a better investment than silver, something the Sherman Act did not anticipate. At any rate, J. P. Morgan, the financier, sold/loaned the U.S. about 3.5 million ounces of gold. Always the shrew banker, he received a long term bond in exchange for the gold and certainly made money. But, his immediate action did perhaps save the nation? Could any individual, today, come up with those sorts of resources?
It is interesting to note that although the Act was repealed in 1893, the debate on the national scene went on for many years. History books in “my era” (a long time ago) spent several pages talking about the “Goldbugs” of the Republicans and Wm. McKinley (a gold standard) vs. the “Silverites” of the Populists and Democrats and Wm. Jennings Brian (free silver) in the presidential election of 1896. The free silver issue really was not settled until the Federal Reserve System was established in 1913. But, hold on. Many of us can remember how two brothers from Texas tried to corner the silver market in the 1970’s and early 1980’s. In the early 1970’s the price of silver on the commodities market was less than $2 per oz. By about 1980 the brothers owned 50% of the disposable silver and prices artificially soared to over $50 an oz. Silver mines all over the west were retooling and share prices of silver mining companies were high (at least out of my reach as a small time investor)! But then, the bubble burst as the Federal Reserve “came to the rescue” and the price of silver collapsed (as did the stock market; remember the prime rate of 22% in 1980?).
Perhaps the political intrigue of that time in history was just as dark and dirty as today? I once read a bibliography of J. P. Morgan and it was simply fascinating. He was an astute businessman involved in a wide range of activities and “older” (read my generation) history books will tell you that he organized over 40 corporations and owned numerous railroads, a true venture capitalist. He was disliked by many but loved by a few.
Morgan collected gemstones, many/most of which later landed in collections of the American Museum of Natural History. George Kunz, the chief jeweler for Tiffany & Co, suggested in 1910/1911 that the pink variety of beryl [Be3Al2(SiO3)6] be named morganite after J. P. Of course, Kunz was the person who curated Morgan’s gemstones. Kunz may be best known for his namesake, the pink variety of spodumene, kunzite [LiAl(SiO3)2]. The pink color in both morganite and kunzite is likely due to manganese ions.
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“The Myth of Sisyphus”: Absurd Hero
Sisyphus was man who was sentenced into a life of rolling a rock up a hill for all eternity after being accused of stealing. In the short story “The Myth of Sisyphus”, by Albert Camus, Camus identifies Sisyphus as an absurd hero because his behavior on earth as well as his view of his punishment; fascinated by Sisyphus who decides to see his punishment in a new light, Sisyphus decides to see the rock as strength instead of punishment. Once Sisyphus decides to make his life other than struggle, he begins to be happier in his life and looks forward to the future. Camus suggests that the fate given to Sisyphus would only be struggle if he had continued to hope, he declares that absurd awareness and happiness is closely connected. Camus does an excellent job in proving how anyone can overcome even the hardest of lives just by accepting fate and that you have the power to make any situation a good one. Camus highlights three very important issues in life; we can never accept any answer in our struggle, we are free to live any way we choose, and we must find passion in our lives.
Many people who read the article may agree that the situation Sisyphus is in is highly intolerable and would make just about anyone go crazy. The gods condemned Sisyphus into a hard, physical, and meaningless labor when found guilty of his crime; rolling up the hill as the rock descends each time, crashing back too earth, having it to do over again. Camus suggests that in life people have conflict with what we want and what we actually find in the world. Throughout times, people have had a very hard time accepting their fate, leading to self destruction. In his essay, Camus explains how a man overcomes his fate and accepts his life and completely changes his whole views on everything. Sisyphus just refuses to accept the fate that is given to him, which is something that may be difficult considering the situation. Camus does a great job in...
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Tai-Pan Fun Activities
Buy the Tai-Pan Lesson Plans
Character Costumes
Design a costume for one male and one female character in the novel. Provide a detailed drawing of the costumes. Be sure to keep in mind the fashions of the time and the culture of the character.
Acting Up
In a group, choose one scene from the play and act it out for the class. Be sure to include costumes and props.
Cast the Movie
Although Tai-Pan has been made into a movie, imagine you are doing it all over again and need to cast it with today's actors. Make a list of all of the major characters and choose actors to play them.
Heroic Poetry
Heroism is a constant presence in this novel. Write a poem about heroism in Tai-Pan. You may use any style you wish.
Research Report
Research the war between China and England and write a report. Include information about what led...
(read more Fun Activities)
This section contains 644 words
(approx. 3 pages at 300 words per page)
Buy the Tai-Pan Lesson Plans
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We will need the following things:
1. An Arduino board connected to a computer via USB
2. A servo motor
3. Jumper wires
Step 1: How to Connect Them
A servo motor has everything built in: a motor, a feedback circuit, and most important, a motor driver. It just needs one power line, one ground, and one control pin.
Following are the steps to connect a servo motor to the Arduino:
1. The servo motor has a female connector with three pins. The darkest or even black one is usually the ground. Connect this to the Arduino GND.
2. Connect the power cable that in all standards should be red to 5V on the Arduino.
3. Connect the remaining line on the servo connector to a digital pin on the Arduino.
Check the image for a view of the servo connected to the Arduino.
Step 2: Code
The following code will turn a servo motor to 0 degrees, wait 1 second, then turn it to 90, wait one more second, turn it to 180, and then go back.
// Include the Servo library
#include <Servo.h> // Declare the Servo pin int servoPin = 3; // Create a servo object Servo Servo1; void setup() { // We need to attach the servo to the used pin number Servo1.attach(servoPin); } void loop(){ // Make servo go to 0 degrees Servo1.write(0); delay(1000); // Make servo go to 90 degrees Servo1.write(90); delay(1000); // Make servo go to 180 degrees Servo1.write(180); delay(1000); }
If the servo motor is connected on another digital pin, simply change the value of servoPin to the value of the digital pin that has been used.
Step 3: How It Works
Servos are clever devices. Using just one input pin, they receive the position from the Arduino and they go there. Internally, they have a motor driver and a feedback circuit that makes sure that the servo arm reaches the desired position. But what kind of signal do they receive on the input pin?
It is a square wave similar to PWM. Each cycle in the signal lasts for 20 milliseconds and for most of the time, the value is LOW. At the beginning of each cycle, the signal is HIGH for a time between 1 and 2 milliseconds. At 1 millisecond it represents 0 degrees and at 2 milliseconds it represents 180 degrees. In between, it represents the value from 0–180. This is a very good and reliable method. The graphic makes it a little easier to understand.
Code breakdown
The code simply declares the servo object and then initializes the servo by using the servo.attach() function. We shouldn't forget to include the servo library. In the loop(), we set the servo to 0 degrees, wait, then set it to 90, and later to 180 degrees.
Step 4: More Things About Servos
Controlling servos is easy, and here are a few more tricks we can use:
Controlling the exact pulse time
Arduino has a built-in function servo.write(degrees) that simplifies the control of servos. However, not all servos respect the same timings for all positions. Usually, 1 millisecond means 0 degrees, 1.5 milliseconds mean 90 degrees, and, of course, 2 milliseconds mean 180 degrees. Some servos have smaller or larger ranges.
For better control, we can use the servo.writeMicroseconds(us) function, which takes the exact number of microseconds as a parameter. Remember, 1 millisecond equals 1,000 microseconds.
More servos
In order to use more than one servo, we need to declare multiple servo objects, attach different pins to each one, and address each servo individually. First, we need to declare the servo objects—as many as we need:
// Create servo objects
Servo Servo1, Servo2, Servo3;
Then we need to attach each object to one servo motor. Remember, every servo motor uses an individual pin:
In the end, we just have to address each servo object individually:
Servo1.write(0); // Set Servo 1 to 0 degrees
Servo2.write(90); // Set Servo 2 to 90 degrees
Connection-wise, the grounds from the servos go to GND on the Arduino, the servo power to 5V or VIN (depending on the power input), and in the end, each signal line has to be connected to a different digital pin. Contrary to popular belief, servos don't need to be controlled by PWM pins—any digital pin will work.
Continuous rotation servos
There is a special breed of servos labelled as continuous rotation servos. While a normal servo goes to a specific position depending on the input signal, a continuous rotation servo either rotates clockwise or counter-clockwise at a speed proportional to the signal. For example, the Servo1.write(0) function will make the servomotor spin counter-clockwise at full speed. The Servo1.write(90) function will stop the motor and Servo1.write(180) will turn the motor clockwise at full speed.
There are multiple uses for such servos; however, they are really slow. If you are building a microwave and need a motor to turn the food, this is your choice. But be careful, microwaves are dangerous!
Step 5: Check Out More
More topics regarding motors such as brushless, transistor drivers ormotor speed control can be found in my Arduino Development Cookbook available here. :D
<p>can i control the speed of the servo if yes how ??</p>
<p>One note, the on-board regulator is only good for up to 3 large servos, before you are drawing too much, that the Arduino mpu itself, begins to brown-out/reset. Then, you'll want to supply the servos externally, say with a 7805 regulator, which can still be fed from the main supply (parallel to the voltage going to the barrel socket. Highly advise against drawing through the VIn pin on the arduino, as this is still a thin trace that could burn/break)</p><p>One odd thing, despite the in-IDE example saying you can only assign 8 servo devices, ALL digital pins, 0 through 13, can be used (without serial I/O), but kinda pushing the limits.</p>
<p>Hello,</p><p>i want to run 48 servo motors with arduino mega. but i am getting lot of issue with power. kindly suggest me better way of power distribution.</p>
<p>i think you need more power but i dont know how you do that, sorry</p>
<p>Can I control multiple servo using single arduino? I want to generate different sweep for each servo.</p>
<p>yes, you must control the servo's with different ports on the arduino. you need a breadboard (big)</p>
<p>Can I use any of the analog pins (A0-A5) to connect a servo?</p>
<p>great for an intro :-)</p>
<p>hello sir.I have a digital servo.my question is how to stop a digital servo completely but i want to hold the position.i have searched on arduino forum but all the topics talk about continuous rotation servos.please if you know help me sir with an example code.</p>
Great tutorial!! Instead of pulse and wait for 1 minute to turn 90 and wait another minute to go 180, how can I make it go manually 90 to 180 and 180 to 90 with me personally pulsing it with a button?
<p>Hey great info for a beginner like me :) Thx!</p>
<p>Can I supply a servo with a 6.5V voltage?</p>
<p>Depends a lot on the Servo!</p><p>There are some which work up to 48 V while some can barely handle 3.3 V.</p><p>Post your model here so we can check.</p>
<p>for some reason the code text didn't appear :(</p>
Thank for a wonderful, simple explanation of servos. My son understood it much better than my feeble attempt
About This Instructable
More by cornelam:Arduino Servo Motors Arduino Distance Sensors Arduino Stepper Motors
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History of Leech Lake, MNThe Leech Lake area was originally settled by the Sioux Indians, who were driven out of the territory by the Chippewa (Ojibwe) in the 1700’s. The first Europeans to settle in the area were French fur traders. The Northwest Company established trading posts on Ottertail Point and Oak Point in 1785 and started an influx of settlers to the area in the 1800’s.
The Army Corps of Engineers built Federal Dam on the Leech River in 1882. It was originally built to control river flows at the lumber and flour mills in Minneapolis. The dam was only the second one built in the federal system and is also has the longest span in the system at 3500 feet bank to bank. The dam raised the water level on the lake approximately four feet and made for easier navigation into Walker Bay. This was also beneficial for floating logs to the railroad in Walker.
The Battle of Sugar Point in 1898 between U.S. Federal troops and the resident Chippewa (Ojibwe) Indians was the last true Indian battle in the United States. This is largely ignored in history, quite likely because the Indians won the battle. The battle began a chain of events that eventually led to government control of national forest lands and the creation of the Chippewa National Forest.
The town of Walker was founded in 1896 after the railroad came to Leech Lake from Brainerd. Walker then supported a booming logging industry until 1925. Hotels were also built when the railroad came to town and camping facilities and a public launching area were provided in 1909. The early 1900’s saw the beginning of tourism in the area. The early resorts and cabins that were built laid the foundation for the tourism industry that still flourishes today, with many generations of visitors continuing to make Leech Lake an annual destination.
Leech Lake’s prominence as a premier vacation destination was highlighted in its hosting of the annual Minnesota Governor’s Fishing Opener in 1968 and 2007.
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green logo jpeg
National Association of Health Unit Coordinators, Inc.
NAHUC History
Prior to World War II, hospitals were staffed by physicians, nurses, specialists such as laboratory technicians, and a few support personnel such as cooks and janitors. World War II brought about massive changes in the staffing of health facilities. These changes were first felt in England in the late 1930s as the immense number of casualties put an intolerable strain on physicians and nurses. First, the nurses took over some of the physicians' "duties," such as taking blood pressures and starting intravenous therapy. This meant that the nurse needed someone to take over some of her duties. (The vast majority of nurses at that time were women.)
It had always been noted by nurses that "desk" duties such as answering the telephone or going on errands frequently interrupted the giving of nursing care. So an individual was added to the staff to do these duties. This person was designated a "floor clerk." As the war went on, more and more responsibilities, such as copying diet lists and condition reports, were assigned to the "floor clerk" position description.
The first recorded unit coordinating history was found in an article, "In Favor of Floor Secretaries," published in 1940 in a journal, The Modern Hospital, written by a hospital administrator. In the article, the author, Abraham Oseroff, outlined the implementation of unit coordinating at Montifiore Hospital in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He described how "a new helper was introduced to the nursing unit to take care of the many details of a secretarial nature that formerly made demands on the limited time of the nurse." The new helper was called a "floor secretary." Mr. Oseroff further said," that the idea of a floor secretary was first met with skepticism, but it proved to be worthwhile from the beginning."
Following World War II, new hospitals were being built and old ones were being enlarged. The shortage of nurses continued and more responsibilities were being placed on the "ward clerk", the name of the 1950s. These new duties, usually head nurse tasks, were ordering supplies, keeping up with time sheets and preparing certain reports. During the 1950s, hospitals began to train their ward clerks to transcribe physicians' orders. About this time, some hospital administrators recognized that these individuals were performing tasks which were not strictly clerical, so more name changing took place and ward clerks also became know as unit clerks or unit secretaries.
By the 1960s, recognition of the need for educational programs took place. An article in Nursing Outlook, August 1966, by Ruth Stryker described the findings from a small hospital study on the functions of the head nurse, ward secretary, and ward manager. The findings resulted in the implementation of a hospital station secretary program in the Minnesota vocational education system. Miss Stryker had suggested the name "station coordinator," because the ward secretary did a great deal of managing in the form of coordination of activities.
In 1977 a national survey was done by Myrna LaFleur (NAHUC founding president and instructor from Phoenix) to determine the number and kind of unit coordinating programs in existence in the United States. Fifty-two programs were located in adult educational centers, community colleges and vocation-technical schools. Not every state had a program. A part of the survey asked if the recipient was interested in the formation of a national association for unit coordinators.
In the spring of 1980, Myrna was asked to speak at the Upper Midwest Hospital Conference in Minneapolis, Minnesota to a group of unit coordinators and unit managers. A state association for unit coordinators had just been formed in Arizona, and realizing the need for a national association, Myrna included the possibility of forming such an association in her talk. Upon Myrna's return home, feeling highly motivated by her trip she dug out the responses from the 1977 survey. She contacted those respondents who said they were highly interested in forming an association and invited them to meet in Phoenix in August 1980. Those people who came and became the founding members of NAHUC included Velma Kerschner from Texas, Kay Cox from California, Jane Pedersen from Wisconsin, Carolyn Hinken from New Mexico, and Helga Hegge from Minnesota. They were joined by Winnie Starr and the officers from AMSCA (Arizona association for unit coordinators). They spent a weekend hammering out the constitution, selecting a title, and declaring NAHUC the National Association of Health Unit Clerks/Coordinators, Inc.
In June of 1982, the first NAHUC annual national convention was held in San Antonio, Texas. At this convention, the Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice for unit coordinating were adopted. Education and recognition as a health profession were two of the main concerns of the founders of NAHUC. Accordingly, a subsidiary Certification Board was established and the first National Certification Examination was given in May 1983. By the end of 1991, approximately 15,000 health unit coordinators had become certified. Two other subsidiary boards, the Education Board and the Accreditation Board, were formed to work toward accreditation of programs and to establish an official listing of unit coordinator competencies.
Today Health Unit Coordinating is a health profession. According to Wilson and Neuhauser in their book, Health Services in the U.S., for a group to become a profession, they must meet the following criteria:
1. Have a national association.
2. Have a formal education.
3. Have certification.
4. Have a code of ethics.
5. Have an identified body of systematic knowledge and technical skill.
6. Have members that function with a degree of autonomy and authority under the assumption that they alone have the expertise to make decisions in their area of competence.
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Definition - What does Petrophysics mean?
Petrophysics is the study of the properties of rock and a brief description about the interactions of liquids. It is mainly used in the hydrocarbon industry to study the behavior of different kinds of reservoirs. It also explains about the chemistry of pores of the subsurface and how they are connected. It helps in controlling the migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons. While explaining the chemical and physical properties, Petrophysics also explains many other related terms such as lithology, water saturation, density, permeability and porosity.
Petropedia explains Petrophysics
The key role of Petrophysics is to evaluate the rock properties by placing measurement tools in the bore hole. The study is useful to the people who work in the hydrocarbon industry and in water and mining industries. It is classified into three major parts namely, rock mechanical properties, ore quality and conventional Petrophysical properties. The properties provide complete description about the rock, for instance, they provide information about the size of the grains present, composition of the rock and the texture of the rock.
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How do Little Britain and Shameless use stereotypes to create comedy?
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How do Little Britain and Shameless use stereotypes to create comedy? A stereotype is a reflection of ideas that people hold about others that are different to them. They can be words or phrases, a picture, or words and pictures. The picture created by the stereotype can be recognised by others who share the same view. For example, "all intelligent people wear glasses". Stereotypes are used in comedy because they provide a quick, recognisable identity for a group or individual that is noticeable for what they are, or what they believe in. Due to the short nature of comedy sketches, stereotypes are excellent to use. They provide a burst of instantly understandable comedy entertainment. An example of film stereotypical comedy is 'The Godfather'. All Italian- Americans are gangsters. We think of Italians as having Mafia connections or organised crime links. Another example of stereotypes in media is 'Eastenders', which stereotypes cockney Londoners. In British television comedy, 'Kevin and Perry' portray teenage stereotypes. Such as teenagers being argumentative and not caring about their appearance. In addition to this, a promiscuous teenage stereotype is also used. 'One Foot in the Grave', is another British comedy that uses many stereotypes such as old people. ...read more.
This shows ignorance towards the teacher. A long, wide shot of the classroom showing Vicky kicking her bag across the floor, the camera slowly pans to the left. Silence is used to build tension, as well as Vicky moving slowly. The stereotype is portrayed, by Vicky's over exaggerated ignorance and hostility towards the teacher. Sequentially, the scene moves on Vicky's explanation of why she has not handed her coursework in- but her reasons are completely unrelated to the coursework. The dialogue spoken by Vicky is informal and she often uses expletives, a mid-shot/over shoulder shot is used to show the Teacher's point of view as he looks at Vicky. The stereotype is clearly used, because teenage slang and expletives are used to create a negative teenager stereotype. Nearing the end of the scene, Vicky makes up excuses in a irrelevant and inappropriate manner. A close up is used, to focus on Vick's facial expression and the dialogue. The way inappropriate language and sexual terminology is used, along with promiscuous language supports the promiscuous stereotype of teenager. The next programme this essay will analyse for stereotypes is Shameless. Shameless is a comedy drama series set in a rough Manchester housing estate. ...read more.
friends or neighbours. Since I don't consider myself to act like the stereotypes of Shameless then it doesn't particularly offend me. On the other hand, I do find some aspects of it amusing. In addition to this I think that audiences outside of Manchester, maybe consider this to be emblematic of Manchester. However, as in any stereotype they are not essentially true, but just reflect or exaggerate widely spreads feeling. In overall conclusion, Little Britain and Shameless use stereotypes to create comedy. For example, Daffyd, " the only gay in the village" and Frank Gallagher the drunken Mancunian. Due to the general length of comedy shows stereotypes give an instantly recognisable burst of entertainment; this is a reason for a use in Little Britain. For Shameless, stereotypes provide grounding for the whole programme about Manchester, they also make the audience laugh because of the shamelessness of it all and that really we know it is all exaggerated, purely for comedy use. Conversely Shameless maybe a stereotypical Manchester set comedy, but some of the comedy aspects do challenge the negative stereotypes of Manchester. For instances the closeness of the community. I am aware that all stereotypes are amusing as they are usually exaggerated. Therefore I fully understand they are a harmless comedy device used to create laughter. Paul Jay G.S.C.E English ...read more.
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In music, harmony is the combining of notes simultaneously, to produce chords, and successively, to produce chord progressions. The term is used descriptively to denote notes and chords so combined, and also prescriptively to denote a system of structural principles governing their combination. In the latter sense, harmony has its own body of theoretical literature.
For lessons on the topic of Harmony, follow this link.
1. Combination or adaptation of parts, elements, or related things, so as to form a consistent and orderly whole; agreement, accord, congruity.
pre-established harmony, in the philosophy of Leibnitz, a harmony between mind and matter, e.g. between the body and soul, established before their creation, whereby their actions correspond though no communication exists between them.
c1532 G. DU WES Introd. Fr. in Palsgr. 1058 Others have sayd that it [the operation of God] is a maner of armonie. 1597 HOOKER Eccl. Pol. V. xxxviii. §1 The soule it selfe by nature is, or hath in it, harmonie. 1605 BACON Adv. Learn. I. iv. §6 (1873) 32 The harmony of a science, supporting each part the other, is..the true and brief confutation..of all the smaller sort of objections. 1745 De Foe's Eng. Tradesman ii. (1841) I. 18 Here is a harmony of business, and everything exact. 1814 SOUTHEY Roderick XXI. 382 To heavenliest harmony Reduce the seeming chaos. 1847 LEWES Hist. Philos. (1867) II. 273 His [Leibnitz's] favourite hypothesis of a Pre-established Harmony (borrowed from Spinoza). 1860 TYNDALL Glac. II. xxiv. 353 Where other forces mingle with that of crystallization, this harmony of action is destroyed.
b. Phr. in harmony: in agreement or accordance, consistent, congruous. So out of harmony.
1816 KEATINGE Trav. (1817) I. 42 He may always be sure of finding nature in harmony with herself. 1849 MACAULAY Hist. Eng. II. 149 This mode of attack..was in perfect harmony with every part of his infamous life. 1853 MAURICE Proph. & Kings i. 11 The vox populi was the vox Dei even when the two voices seemed most utterly out of harmony.
2. Agreement of feeling or sentiment; peaceableness, concord.
1588 GREENE Pandosto (1843) 25 Coveting no other companion but sorrowe, nor no other harmonie but repentance. 1667 MILTON P.L. VIII. 605 Harmonie to behold in wedded pair More grateful then harmonious sound to the eare. 1780 COWPER Progr. Err. 140 Love, joy, and peace make harmony more meet. 1844 H. H. WILSON Brit. India III. 408 The harmony which had thus been re-established with the Court of Baroda.
Historical definition
In Greek music, from which derive both the concept and the appellation, ‘harmony’ signified the combining or juxtaposing of disparate or contrasted elements – a higher and a lower note. The combining of notes simultaneously was not a part of musical practice in classical antiquity: harmonia was merely a means of codifying the relationship between those notes that constituted the framework of the tonal system. In the course of history it was indeed not the meaning of the term ‘harmony’ that changed but the material to which it applied and the explanations given for its manifestation in music.
According to the conception of classical writers, taken over by medieval theorists, harmony was a combining of intervals in an octave scale – a scale understood not as a series but as a structure. Consonances based on simple, ‘harmonic’ numerical proportions – the octave (2:1), the 5th (3:2) and the 4th (4:3 – form the framework of a scale (e′–b–a–e), and in addition to the octave structure resulting from the interlocking of consonances, the consonance itself also qualifies as harmony, as a combining agent (see Consonance, §1).
In the Middle Ages the concept of harmony referred to two notes, and in the Renaissance to three notes, sounded simultaneously. An anonymous writer of the 13th century (CoussemakerS, i, 297) defined the concordantia (the simultaneity employed in polyphonic music, and not merely used to test out the relationship between notes) as ‘the harmony [harmonia] of two or more sounds produced simultaneously [in eodem tempore prolatorum]’. Gaffurius and Zarlino spoke of three-note harmonies, though Gaffurius (A1496, bk 3, chap.10) considered only combinations of octaves, 5ths and 4ths. Zarlino (A1558, bk 3, chap.31) was the first also to include in his concept of harmony triads consisting of 5ths and 3rds; this he was able to do because, besides perfect consonances, he defined imperfect ones – the 3rds – by means of simple, ‘harmonic’ numerical proportions (5:4 and 6:5) rather than by the complicated Pythagorean proportions.
In addition to the simultaneous sounding of two or three notes in isolation, the concept of harmony takes in the relationships between such sounds. In 1412 Prosdocimus de Beldemandis designated the regulated alternation of perfect and imperfect consonances as ‘harmony’ (CoussemakerS, iii, 197); in the 17th century, among other prerequisites for the composition of contrappunto moderno, Christoph Bernhard (ed. Müller-Blattau, A1926, p.40) described ‘harmonic counterpoint’ as an articulated sequence of ‘well-juxtaposed consonances and dissonances’ and d’Alembert, Rameau's commentator and popularizer, defined harmonie, in contradistinction to accord (three or four notes sounded simultaneously, forming a unit), as a progression of simultaneously sounded notes intelligible to the ear: ‘l’harmonie est proprement une suite d’accords qui en se succédant flattent l’organe’ (1766, pp.1–2).
The word ‘harmony’ has thus been used to describe the juxtaposition of the disparate – of higher and lower notes – both in the vertical (in the structure of chords or intervals) and in the horizontal (in the relationship of intervals or chords to one another). There is a widespread tendency, probably too deep-rooted to be corrected, to take harmony as meaning no more than the vertical aspect of music, disregarding the fact that chordal progression is one of the central categories dealt with in the teaching of harmony. This tendency entails a bias that not only misrepresents the terminology but can also influence the listener's way of hearing, which is not wholly independent of a verbal understanding of what is involved in music.
Moreover, the concept of harmony refers less to actual musical structures than to the structural principles underlying intervals and their combinations or chords and their relationships. (In Riemann's theory of harmonic function, a harmony is the essence of all chords having a like function and thus exists at a much more abstract level than chords with their inversions and notes ‘foreign to the harmony’.) However, harmony considered as a structural principle is just as much an intrinsic part of ancient and medieval music as it is of the tonal system of modern times. The two-note consonance constituted the foundation of the old tonal system, the three-note consonance that of the new. From the 18th century onwards, the scale of any key has been explained as being the result of a reduction of the three principal chords, the tonic, dominant and subdominant: C–E–G + G–B–D + F–A–C = C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C.
Carl Dahlhaus
Basic concepts
The chord
The harmonic theory of recent times, which evolved gradually between the 16th and the 18th centuries, is based on the idea that a chord – three or four notes sounded simultaneously – is to be taken as primary, as an indivisible unit. While in earlier counterpoint two-part writing was regarded as fundamental (with four-part writing as a combination of two-part counterpoints), in the later study of harmony a chord was regarded as a primary element rather than as an end-product and was indeed considered as such regardless of the difference between homophonic and polyphonic style. (J.S. Bach's counterpoint, despite the complexity of its polyphony, was undoubtedly based on harmony and not merely regulated by it: the harmonic aspect arises as a foundation, not as a resultant.)
In the idea of the chord as a given entity, it is necessary to distinguish between two aspects: that of psychology and that of musical logic. Stumpf defined or characterized the psychological entity as a ‘fusion’ of the notes in a consonant triad (and to a lesser extent in the chord of a 7th too). The logical factor, however, is to a large extent independent of the psychological, although the conception of a chord as a logical entity could not have arisen in the first place without the psychological phenomenon of fusion. Whether, in terms of logic, a chord presents an entity, and not merely a combination of intervals, depends on the function it fulfils in the musical context. A chord each of whose notes is resolved in contrapuntal fashion will nevertheless be conceived as a primary element in the mind of the composer if – for example as a supertonic preceding the dominant and the tonic – it is intrinsic to the harmonic continuity.
Chordal inversion
The doctrine of chordal inversion, namely the proposition that the root-position chord C–E–G, and 6-3 chord E–G–C and the 6-4 chord G–C–E are different manifestations of an identical harmony and that the bass note of the 5-3 form (C–E–G) must count as the fundamental note, the basis and centre of reference (centre harmonique) of the other notes, was for a long time thought to be the remarkable and epoch-making discovery of Rameau; on the basis of this theorem he was held to have been the founder of harmonic theory. The concept of the inversion had in fact been anticipated by a number of theorists of the 17th and early 18th centuries – by Lippius (A1612) and his follower Baryphonus (A1615), by Campion (Ac1613), by Werckmeister (A1702) and also by the ingenious dilettante Roger North (c1710). It was not anticipated, as Riemann claimed, by Zarlino. What was decisively new in Rameau was not the theorem as such but its incorporation into a comprehensive theory of musical coherence, in which the conception of the chord as a unit, primary and indivisible, the concept of the root note, the doctrine of the fundamental bass (basse fondamentale) and the establishment of a hierarchy between the fundamental degrees were interdependent elements, complementing and modifying each other.
The roots of chords (which are no longer their bass notes when the chords are inverted) link together to give the basse fondamentale. The latter is a purely imaginary line, in contrast to the basso continuo, which is the sequence of actual bass notes. It is a construction designed to explain why a progression can become a compelling, intelligible coherence rather than a mere patchwork of separate chords. According to Rameau (whose theories were further developed in the 19th century by Simon Sechter) the cohesive principle is the fundamental progression, from root to root; in fact, the 5th is reckoned a primary, stronger fundamental progression, the 3rd a secondary, weaker one. A fundamental progression or apparent progression of a 2nd (according to Rameau the 2nd, which as a simultaneity is a dissonance, is also not self-sufficient as a bass progression) is reduced to progressions of a 5th: in the chord sequence G–C–D minor, C is indeed a tonic degree (I), related to G as the dominant (V), but it is also a fragment of the 7th on the submediant (VI7), related to the supertonic (II) – the root A being introduced for the sake of the 5th progression A–D: see ex.1 (Rameau, B1722, p.204). For similar reasons, the chord F–A–C–D in C major is considered as a triad of F major with added 6th (sixte ajoutée) provided that it is followed by the C major triad (fundamental 4th progression); on the other hand it is considered an inversion of the 7th on D if it moves on to G major (fundamental 5th progression): F–A–C–D is a chord with two applications (double emploi).
The idea that a chord presented not a mere combination of intervals but a unit, primary and indivisible, was associated with a far-reaching change in the concepts regarding the nature and the functions of dissonances. In counterpoint before 1600, a dissonance in strict writing was a relation between two voices; and the dissonant note was regarded as being the one that had to advance to the resolution of the dissonance, hence in ex.2a the lower note, in ex.2b the upper. (The second, or ‘reference’, voice could either remain on the same note or move to a new one at the resolution.) A suspension on the strong beat is produced by a step in the ‘reference’ voice (ex.2a), and a dissonant passing note on a weak beat by a step in the voice making the dissonance (ex.2b).
From the 17th century the formation of dissonances in strict counterpoint was complemented by new approaches that extended the system of contrapuntal writing without violating any of its fundamental characteristics. But at the same time it was confronted with phenomena grounded in basic principles of a different kind, relating to other categories of musical listening. Among the new approaches to dissonance that merely extended the system were some that characterized the modern counterpoint of the 17th century, the seconda pratica: for example, changing note quitted by downward leap (ex.3a), the suspension resolved by downward leap (ex.3b), and the accented passing note (ex.3c), which in Palestrina’s style was permitted only in a rudimentary form as a weakly accented passing note of the duration of a semiminima (ex.3d).
These dissonances, which are to be found in contrapuntal practice, in no way invalidate the strict rules of counterpoint. They require, if their intended effect is to be understood, an awareness of the norms with which they conflict. It is precisely as exceptions to the conventional rule, which they infringe and in so doing confirm as valid, that they gain their expressive or symbolic meaning: the downward-leaping suspension (ex.3b) owes its character of pathos to its very deviation from the normal resolution by step.
The modern counterpoint of the seconda pratica may seem in consequence an accumulation of licences, of artificial infringements of earlier rules. On the other hand, the distinction between dissonant chords and notes foreign to the chord (or to the harmony) involved a fundamentally new conception of dissonances. It was this differentiation that gradually came to permeate compositional practice from the 17th century onwards and theory from the 18th. Not only was the stock of approaches to dissonance changed, but at the same time so was the basic idea of what a dissonance actually was.
In harmonically based writing a dissonance is accounted a dissonant chord – that is, a chord of which the dissonance is an essential component – if two conditions apply: if, in the first place, the dissonant chord can be meaningfully explained as a piling up of 3rds (‘meaningfully’ because at a stretch it is possible to reduce absolutely any chord to piled-up 3rds); and if, in the second place, the resolution of the dissonance is associated with a change of harmony (a change of root, which moreover will be in some part the result of the dissonance’s pull towards resolution). According to the modern conception (Kurth, C1920), the dissonance factor is not so much a note (F as an adjunct to the harmony G–B–D) or an interval (the dissonance G–F as distinct from the consonances G–B and G–D) as rather the chord, which as a whole is permeated by the character of dissonance, originally a property of individual intervals.
Notes foreign to the chord (or to the harmony) are distinguished from fundamentally dissonant chords in that, in the first place, they appear as dissonant adjuncts to the chords (Kirnberger spoke of ‘incidental’ dissonances) and, in the second place, their resolution is not dependent on a change of harmony (ex.4). In 16th-century counterpoint there was no essential difference between a suspended 4th (ex.4a) and a suspended 7th (ex.4b). In the 18th and 19th centuries, however, the suspended 4th was regarded as a note foreign to the chord: it is neither intelligible as a result of piling up 3rds (unless one accepts the sort of far-fetched explanation propounded by Sechter in 1853), nor does the resolution of the dissonance correlate with a change of harmony. However, the note C in ex.4b is not free from ambivalence: if, either in the imagination or in musical reality, the root notes D and G are inserted underneath, a fundamental discord (II7) results; but if the C is merely conceived as a suspension to a 6-3 chord on D the dissonance is a note foreign to the chord.
Constructional technique and note relationships
In a composition whose structure is determined by rules governing the progress of the basse fondamentale and the treatment of dissonances, two factors can be distinguished, just as in counterpoint at an earlier date. These factors are in themselves abstract, but their combined effect forms the basis from which actual composition proceeds. One of these is constructional technique, the other the regulation of relationships between the notes.
In earlier, more precise musical terminology, it was the regulated note relationships, as distinct from constructional technique or counterpoint, that were covered by the term ‘harmony’ (in keeping with the ancient and medieval meaning of the term). From the 18th century onwards both aspects of composition became subsumed in the concept of harmony – that is, in addition to the note relationships, the chord progressions built on a basse fondamentale, for which the expression ‘harmony’ was used in an attempt to distinguish it from ‘counterpoint’. This constitutes a linguistic confusion and produces a blurring of the distinction between constructional technique and harmony, in the narrower sense of the word, that has marred many methods of teaching harmony.
The rules of early counterpoint refer not to precise, diastematically defined intervals such as major or minor 3rds but to classes of intervals – 3rds in general. And a distinction must be made between the rules of counterpoint, which are exclusively concerned with abstract musical construction, without regard to the difference between minor, major and augmented 6ths, or between perfect 4ths and tritones, and the directions for a harmonic (in the stricter sense of the word) arrangement of the composition – directions formulated as rules governing the use of mi and fa: a diminished 5th appearing in the place of a perfect 5th did not count as a dissonance, for whose legitimate application there were constructional rules, but as a ‘non-harmonic note relationship’ (relatio non harmonica) which was supposed to be avoided (though could not always be avoided in fact; many of the controversial problems of accidentals are insoluble). Tinctoris spoke of a falsa concordantia in contradistinction to a dissonantia (CoussemakerS, iv, 124b) in order to indicate the discrepancy between the contrapuntal (concordantia) and the harmonic (falsa) import of the interval. The essence of the ‘true concords’ (verae concordantiae), the relationes harmonicae, is represented by the hexachord that excludes both the chromatic intervals and the tritone.
Constructional technique and note relationships, which normally work together in perfect agreement, can sometimes get out of proportion with one another: in technical terms, the mannerism of Gesualdo depends on the device of clothing what is in abstract thoroughly regular, even conventional, counterpoint in an excess of chromaticism. A similar divergence between simplicity of constructional technique and complexity of note relationships can occasionally be observed in late Baroque tonal structure, in sequences of 5ths in the bass: for instance, the C major chord progression I–IV–VII–III–VI–II–V–I can be realized chromatically as C major–F major–B major–E minor–A major–D major–G♯ major–C♯ minor; and it is to the simplicity of the basse fondamentale, made up of steps of a 5th, that the tonally extremely complicated chord progression (a headlong modulation from C major via E minor and D major to C♯ minor) owes its compelling, intelligible effect.
Since the 17th century, keys have been constituted by note relationships as well as by constructional means. Taken in itself, a major or minor scale is not sufficient to define a key; the fact that a chord progression remains within the bounds of a major scale in no way precludes the possibility of its remaining tonally indeterminate. Conversely, as has already been demonstrated, a sequence of 5th steps (which in its tonally self-contained form is often spoken of in German parlance as a ‘Sechter cadence’) can lead into remote and alien areas of tonality rather than circumscribe a particular key. It is only by correlating a given scale with a fundamental bass relying primarily on steps of a 5th that a key can be unmistakably defined.
The cadence I–IV–V–I, or tonic–subdominant–dominant–tonic, relies first on the wholeness of the scale, second on the clear effect of the 5th progressions in the fundamental bass and third on the effect of ‘characteristic dissonances’ (Riemann) in establishing continuity: these would include the 7th on V and also the 6th on IV (related to I, the 6-5 chord is a subdominant with sixte ajoutée, and with respect to V it is an inversion of II7, in which the 6th emerges as the root and the 5th as a dissonance requiring resolution). Individual features, since they alone do not define the cadence, may be altered or even omitted without the sense of the whole being lost; the scale may be chromatically altered, the subdominant replaced by a double dominant or a Neapolitan 6th, and the characteristic dissonances may be dropped.
Rival theories maintain either that the key is founded on the scale or that the scale is founded on the key. What is known as the theory of Stufen, or degrees, ascribes intrinsic importance to the scale. It asserts that seven chord degrees coalesce into a key by virtue of the fact that they form a unique scale. It sees the sequence of 5ths (I–IV–VII–III–VI–II–V–I), which passes through all the degrees of the scale, as a paradigm of the comprehensive realization of a key. (The emphasis on the gamut as the foundation of a key would have impeded the explanation of chromatic alterations as tonal phenomena if the theory of Stufen had not been linked by Sechter with a theory of fundamental steps; the alteration of the supertonic degree to a chord of the Neapolitan 6th, which does not fall within the scale, is accordingly justified by the fact that the altered degree, like the unaltered one, is usually associated with a step of a 5th leading to the dominant, thereby integrating the degree into the tonality.)
In contrast to the theory of Stufen, Riemann’s theory of function starts from the tonic–subdominant–dominant–tonic cadence in order to establish the key, and deduces the scale by analysing the three principal chords (C–E–G, F–A–C, G–B–D = C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C). The chords and their relationships to each other are taken as given; the scale results from them. Furthermore, as the derived phenomenon, the secondary product, the scale is susceptible to virtually unlimited alteration without the key becoming unrecognizable; by interpolations and chromatic inflections in the chords, hence by modifications whose consequence is an extension of the scale, the cadence is in no way restricted in its function of defining the key, but rather it is aided.
Tonality and key
The term ‘tonality’ has now become widespread in addition to the older term ‘key’. It was first used by Choron in 1810 to describe the arrangement of the dominant and subdominant above and below the tonic. In 1844 it was defined by Fétis as the essence of the ‘rapports nécessaires, successifs ou simultanés, des sons de la gamme’. Its currency during the long and complex history of the concept is due to a variety of causes. In the first place the expression ‘tonality’ designates the intrinsic governing principle of key (Fétis: ‘le principe régulateur des rapports’) as distinct from its outward aspect, the individual key. In the second place, the concept of key is usually associated with the idea of a given diatonic scale; but tonality also covers chords with notes foreign to the scale (and even with roots foreign to the scale) provided that they are integrated into the tonal context and do not bring about any impression of a change of key. And in the third place, tonality can be taken to mean a complex of several related keys, a broad key-area.
Thus on the one hand the term refers to the principle that governs a key from within, instead of to the key’s audible exterior. On the other hand it refers to broader relationships, the consequence of carrying the intrinsic principle a stage further and transcending the bounds of the key as it is defined in material terms. Thus Réti (1958), in order to emphasize the specific relation of the notes to a centre, a basic note or chord, in place of the general ‘rapports des sons’, distinguished between the concept of tonality and that of ‘tonicality’ (see Tonality).
Carl Dahlhaus
Historical development
To the end of the Baroque
That modern tonal harmony began about 1600 has been a commonplace since Fétis, who extolled certain spectacular dissonances in Monteverdi’s madrigal Cruda Amarilli as the beginning of the modern era in music. The standard account of this as the replacement of a contrapuntal ‘horizontal’ style by a harmonic ‘vertical’ way of writing, however, is unsatisfactory. It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony (Bach’s tonal counterpoint is surely no less polyphonic than Palestrina’s modal writing) but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the (‘vertical’) structure of chords but also their (‘horizontal’) movement. Like music as a whole, harmony is a process. (For discussion of the principles of consonance underlying medieval counterpoint see Discant; see also Organum and Counterpoint.)
To be understood from a historical point of view, tonal harmony must be seen in the context of compositional technique in the 15th and 16th centuries, a technique founded first on the opposition between imperfect and perfect consonances, second on the principle of the semitone as a means of connecting consonance with consonance (the leading note), and third on the treatment of dissonances as relationships between two voices. The progression from an imperfect to a perfect consonance – from a 6th to an octave, or from a 3rd to a 5th or unison – was experienced as a tendency comparable to that ‘instinctual life of sounds’ of which Schoenberg spoke in tonal harmony. And intervallic progressions that contain movement by a semitone in one of the voices were reckoned specially intelligible or compelling (ex.5).
As a means of effecting semitone steps, chromatic alteration, or Musica ficta, often (though not always) led to progressions that in retrospect look like anticipations or prefigurations of tonal harmony. The consonance with the leading note (ex.5a) can be heard as a dominant. But the Phrygian cadence (ex.5b) was understood as a self-contained progression and not as a fragment (subdominant–dominant) of a D minor cadence; and the fact that in spontaneous chromatic alteration the Dorian (and also the Aeolian) form of the progression 6th-to-octave (ex.5a) could be exchanged for the Phrygian (ex.5b) is just as alien to tonal feeling (which tends towards harmonic unambivalence) as the alteration of the 3rd before the 5th (ex.5c–d).
That dissonances were treated as relationships between two voices means that they were neither integrated into chords nor contrasted with chords as notes foreign to the harmony. The 7th, C, in ex.6 is neither a component of a chord (II7) which is in itself dissonant nor a dissonant suspension preceding a 6–3 chord on the seventh degree of the scale; it is a dissonance in relation to D and a consonance in relation to F.
Tonal composition using chords, as it gradually evolved during the 17th and 18th centuries, can be distinguished from modal composition using intervals, first (as already mentioned) by its conception of the chord as a primary, indivisible unit, second by its referral of every chord to a single tonal centre and third by its segregation of intervallic dissonances into the categories of dissonant chords and notes foreign to the harmony. In modal composition using intervals the penultimate chord of the Dorian cadence (ex.7a) was conceived as a secondary combination of two intervallic progressions (ex.7b–c); and the progression could be specified as cadential by altering the 3rd, G, to G♯. In tonal harmony the chord of the 6th (ex.7a) presents itself as an indivisible unit and as a fragment of a dominant 7th chord on A, whose root has to be supplied by the imagination if the tonal coherence (dominant–tonic) is to become discernible. The 3rd, G, thus becomes a dissonant 7th which is resolved downwards on to the 3rd of the tonic chord. The change in quality between the penultimate chord and the final chord, perceived tonally, no longer lies in the antithesis of imperfect and perfect consonances but in the contrast between the chord of the 7th and the triad. This change is experienced not merely as a juxtaposition but as a logical sequence in which the second chord forms the goal of the first.
The integration of all the chords, and not merely some of them, in a tonal context related to a single centre was a new principle in the 17th century. While in the modal use of intervals in the 15th and 16th centuries the cadence points (properly clausulas) represented one of the means of defining a modal centre, the intervallic progressions that occurred elsewhere in the context than at cadence points remained on the whole modally neutral.
The relationship of the practice of figured bass to the development of tonal harmony was an ambivalent one. On the one hand, figured bass encouraged the conception of the chord as the primary unit by designating vertical structures; the simultaneity was thought of as a tactile gesture rather than as the result of interwoven melodic parts. On the other hand, the experiencing of chords as based on roots, and the perceiving of the relationships between roots that build harmonic cohesion, were obstructed by the practice of figured bass: the emphasis on the actual basso continuo discouraged the awareness of the imaginary fundamental bass that was essential to the harmonic logic. Those theorists who in the 17th century formulated the principle of chordal inversion and root (Lippius in 1612 and Baryphonus in 1615) did not indeed concern themselves with figured bass but rather with the technique of Lassus; and Rameau’s decisive establishment of the concept of inversion is more a symptom of the end of the figured-bass era than one of its typical manifestations.
The relationship of contrappunto moderno (‘licentious’ counterpoint) to tonal harmony was similarly complex in the 17th century. The dissonant structures that deviate from the norms of classical counterpoint can certainly often be interpreted from the point of view of tonal harmony, though by no means always. The 7th on the subdominant (ex.8a) soon became established as a dissonant chord that did not have to be prepared in order to be understood. (In Monteverdi, IV7 is an even more frequent 7th than V7.) But the irregularity at the downward-leaping suspension (ex.8b) does not give it independent status as a harmonic phenomenon; it is rather a case of a dissonant figure which is understood in terms of intervallic writing and whose pathos derives from the fact that it forms a striking exception to the conventional resolution.
The old and the new ways of conceiving music were inextricably interlinked in the minds of many contemporaries. Bernhard, who sought to codify ‘licentious’ counterpoint about 1660 (ed. in Müller-Blattau, A1926, pp.84–5), described in his explanation of the passage in ex.9a the dissonant 4th (c–f″) as the result of an ‘ellipsis’ – an omission of the preparatory consonance d–f″ on the first beat. Thus, in keeping with the 16th-century way of listening, f ″ is a dissonant suspension leading to a resolution on the consonance c–e″. However, Bernhard made his own reduction (ex.9b), intended to demonstrate the real sense behind the unreal outward manifestation. This shows how the traditional interpretation has become coloured, or even overshadowed, by an interpretation based on tonal harmony. Since the underlying progression II–V–I, consisting of two steps of a 5th, is stronger and more intelligible than II–I–V–I, the bass note c should be heard as a passing note (and is thus omitted in the reduction). Thus f″, as the 3rd on the supertonic, is a consonance and e″ a dissonant passing note; and the fact that it forms a consonance with the equally dissonant transitional c in the bass is secondary.
By about 1600 chromaticism had reached a culmination that it is difficult to distinguish from excess. During the 17th century this became both simplified and tonally integrated, the simplification being a necessary part of the integration. Gesualdo’s technique, which in historical terms represents an end and not a beginning, was virtually without consequence for the development of tonal harmony. It relied on the use of extreme chromaticism to render a contrapuntal sequence ‘strange’ while completely obeying the rules of traditional intervallic writing by, for instance, displacing a ‘reference note’ chromatically by a semitone in the course of resolving a dissonance over it.
Chromaticism can qualify as being tonally integrated when the directional pulls of the leading notes, which arise through chromatic alteration, are in agreement with the fundamental progression. The sense of the plagal cadence in a major key (IV–I) is underlined by chromatic alteration of the subdominant chord to a minor triad, just as the sense of the perfect cadence in a minor key (V–I) is underlined by converting the dominant chord to a major triad. And the indeterminate direction of the 5th on the chord of the dominant can be resolved by raising or lowering (G–B–D♯–F or G–B–Dâ™–F) or by both at once (what Kurth termed Disalteration: G–B–Dâ™–D♯–F; see ex.11 below). Chromatic alteration gives the note a directional tendency.
Carl Dahlhaus
The Classical era
Among the most striking features that distinguish harmony after about 1730 from that of the Baroque era are the slowing down of harmonic rhythm, the change in function of the bass and the presence of a formally constructive harmonic technique leaning on the principle of correspondences. The fact that the rate of harmonic rhythm (measured as the average distance between changes of harmony) became slower was associated with the stylistic ideal of noble simplicité as opposed to Baroque ostentation; at the same time, it was necessary if the tonal outline of larger-scale form was to be accessible to a public comprising more ordinary music lovers than connoisseurs. In instrumental music above all, where the music’s unity had to be conveyed without the assistance of a text, it was necessary to provide a view of the tonal layout of any movement that was intended to be a closed form, so that it should not appear to be a mere jumble of ideas.
The music of the Baroque era was undoubtedly tonal, but it evolved a type of tonal harmony different from the Classical or Romantic. In contrast to Rameau’s doctrine, the real basso continuo could by no means always reasonably be reduced to a basse fondamentale; many of the harmonic procedures were determined by genuine melodic movement in the bass rather than by an imaginary fundamental progression. (In the 17th-century bass formulae the melodic formula itself appears as the primary factor, and the harmonic elaboration, which is variable, as the secondary factor.) On the other hand, after the decline of figured bass, which represented not only an aspect of performing practice but also a form of musical thought in its own right, it was the tonal functions that established harmonic continuity serving in the background of the music as an abstract regulative force. It was only in the pre-Classical and Classical eras that harmony was moulded into the system that Riemann described. The bass, expressed with emphasis, took the guise of an audible signal of the intended tonal functions, and not, or only occasionally, that of a part on whose individual progress the harmonic sequence depends.
The harmony of the Viennese Classical composers, if it is to be properly understood rather than merely identified by chord names, must be analysed in relation to metre, syntax (i.e. the laws by which musical phrases combine to make larger units) and form. The metrical relationship between anacrusis and termination, or between weak and strong beats, and also the syntactical relations between statement and answer, or between antecedent and consequent, are all relationships of tonal harmony: syntax is founded on, or partly determined by, harmony, and conversely harmony derives its meaning from the syntactical functions it fulfils. Tonal functions do not exist in their own right. They arise as a result of chords of differing tonal strengths – some prominent, some fleeting. And the strength with which a chord fulfils the function of, for example, the dominant depends on its position within the surrounding metrical and syntactic schemes. These factors determine whether it is simply a passing chord or a half-close marking the end of an antecedent phase. The fact that musical forms spanning hundreds of bars are sustained in their effect as a unity primarily through a comprehensible layout of keys was well known to 19th-century theorists such as A.B. Marx. But harmonic theory has still not really accepted the idea that Classical harmony, whose theory it purports to be, cannot be adequately understood other than in relation to musical form.
The meaning of any sequence of chords must depend on where, formally, it occurs. The widespread theory that in Classical music all harmonic relationships can be seen as expansions or modifications of the cadence is thoroughly mistaken. It is necessary to distinguish between closing sections, whose harmony constitutes a cadence, and opening and middle sections. The astonishing harmony at the beginning of Beethoven’s Waldstein Sonata op.53, for example, would be out of place at the end of a movement: its effect as a beginning is compelling and forward-driving. And harmonic sequences characteristic of development sections cannot convincingly be traced to the cadence; nor could they be used as beginnings or endings.
Moreover, the force of a harmonic model is not independent of the formal level on which it appears. The cadence I–IV–V–I, taken as a sequence of chords, cannot be reversed to form I–V–IV–I without some loss of effect; yet as an arrangement of keys, a harmonic outline for an entire movement, the reversed form is commoner than the original. The fact that the dominant key must be arrived at and established in spite of the conflicting pull of the dominant chord back towards the tonic – a goal generally achieved via the dominant of the dominant – imbues the harmonic process with a tension that it would not have if it were merely a reiteration of the same cadential model on different levels of formal organization.
Carl Dahlhaus
The Romantic era
The development of harmony in the 19th century reflected in its ideas the thinking of the age as a whole: the idea of continuous progress, the postulate of originality and the conception of an organism as a self-contained network of functions. In the 17th and 18th centuries the proportion of chromaticism and unusual dissonant figures that seemed admissible or adequate for any one composition depended largely, together with the emotional content of a text, on the genre to which the work belonged. The notion that harmony at any one point was in a single ‘general state of evolution’ is a 19th-century idea that has been applied retrospectively to earlier times. Theatrical style was in reality sustained by criteria different from those applicable to ecclesiastical or chamber style, and the harmony of a recitative or of a fantasia was hardly comparable with that of an aria or a sonata movement. In contrast to this, it is possible (as shown by Kurth, C1920) to describe the history of harmony in the 19th century as a totally interconnected development, propelled by the conviction that every striking dissonance and every unusual chromatic nuance was another step forward in musical progress, towards freedom, provided that the discovery could somehow be successfully integrated into a musical structure. What was of decisive importance about the ‘Tristan chord’ was not the simultaneity as such, which as II7 in D♯ minor would have been a mere trifle, but Wagner’s clever discovery that it could be interpreted as an inversion of a chord of the 7th on the dominant of the dominant (B), with a lowered 5th (Fâ™®) and a suspended 6th (G♯) leading to the 7th (ex.10a).
The idea of originality, which imposed itself as the dominant aesthetic principle in the late 18th century, combined the demand that in ‘authentic’ music the composer should express the emotions of his inner self with the postulate of novelty. Alongside melodic ideas, what the 19th century valued most as ‘inspirations’ were chords that were surprising and yet at the same time intelligible. Such chords were felt to be expressive – the word ‘expression’ being used in a strong sense to refer to the representation of out-of-the-ordinary inner experience by the use of unusual means – and were expected to take their place in the historical evolution of music, an evolution that was seen as a chain of inventions and discoveries. Thus, for instance, the chord of the dominant 7th with raised 5th (see ex.11a), otherwise viewed as the transferring of the augmented triad to the chord of the 7th, provoked as its antithesis the construction of a chord of the dominant 7th with lowered 5th (ex.11b); later the two chords were combined to form a 7th with doubly altered (disalteriert) 5th that could be complemented with a 9th (ex.11c); and finally, by a transposition (forbidden in harmonic doctrine) of the 9th to a lower octave (ex.11d), the tonal phenomenon of the chromaticized dominant chord was transformed into a metatonal phenomenon, the whole-tone scale (ex.11e)
The interpretation of a musical structure as an organism was one of the arguments used to justify the principle of aesthetic autonomy, that is the claim of music to be listened to for its own sake. The orientation to the organism model means that the harmonic as well as the motivic structure of a work represents a self-contained network of functions in which, ideally, there is not a single superfluous note. One particular problem arose for the composer: if he accepted the principle of autonomy, he committed himself to finding new ways of refining the chords on the various degrees of the scale, the types of chromaticism and the uses of dissonance, such as was demanded by the idea of originality and progress, and at the same time to making all these elements appear integrated increasingly closely into the tonal context. The multiplicity of chords on the degrees of the scale that Schoenberg praised in Brahms was intended to consolidate rather than to loosen the tonal articulation. The more comprehensive a supply of chords a key has, the more emphatically must its gravitation round a tonal centre be experienced. Thus the opening of Brahms’s G minor Rhapsody op.79 no.2 for piano contains in its first four bars (ex.12) the harmonies D minor–Eâ™–C–F–C–D9–G. The underlying key of G minor is implied but never explicitly stated; and yet it is the common denominator among the fragmentary key centres of D minor (I–IIâ™ Neapolitan), F major (V–I) and G major (IV–V–I), in that the listener, because of the thematic character and the formal position of the opening bars, feels impelled to look for tonal unity among so many harmonic steps.
Similarly, Wagner’s chromaticism was not designed to achieve merely momentary effects of harmonic colour. It also served to link chords more closely together. For example, the progression in the opening bars of Götterdämmerung may at first seem wayward, but even though it cannot be heard as a basic tonal progression the ear can (if it is not prejudiced) recognize it as a strong harmonic movement (ex.10b).
Carl Dahlhaus
Early 20th century
Since the 19th century there has been an alternative to chromatic harmony as a means of extending tonality, namely modal harmony. It arose as part of a general interest in the past, in folk music and in oriental music and served to introduce ‘foreign’ elements into tonal harmony by drawing from other historical and cultural areas. It was not so much a system of harmony in itself as a way of deviating from the normal functions of tonal harmony to achieve particular effects. It was unlike the modality of the 16th century in that it was the relationships between chords, rather than melodic considerations, that determined the key centre. In the 19th century the modes came to be thought of as variants of major and minor, and this is implied by phrases such as ‘Mixolydian 7th’ and ‘Dorian 6th’. The Mixolydian 7th, with the chords of D minor and F major, for example, in the key of G major, is not ‘modal in character’ in the medieval and Renaissance modal system (where the 3rd and 4th were just as much determinants of the modal centre as was the 7th); only against the background of major and minor did it become significant. Modal harmony, for all its apparent dependence on the past, was thus a 19th-century innovation.
The most significant aspects of 20th-century harmony (if indeed harmony is still the appropriate term) include, first, its decline in importance as a factor in composition; second, the ‘emancipation’ of the dissonance, leading directly to atonality; and third, the construction of individual systems.
Whereas in the 19th century harmony appeared to be the central factor by whose evolution the progress of music as a whole was measured, in the new music of the 20th century rhythm, counterpoint and timbre came to the fore, since the structural function of harmony was either too indistinct or too difficult to perceive for it to be capable of establishing musical continuity for long stretches. Harmony, which in a good deal of 20th-century music is regulated solely by negative rules (instructions about what to avoid), became both more intractable and less significant.
The emancipation of the dissonance was something that Schoenberg resolved upon in the years 1906–7 – not in any spirit of iconoclasm, in fact rather reluctantly but with a sense of inner inevitability. What is meant by it is that a dissonance no longer needed to be resolved since it could be understood in its own right; it no longer needed to rely on a consonance as its goal and its justification. The obverse of this was that the dissonance became isolated; its pull towards resolution and forward movement may indeed have been a restraining force, but it had also been a force for coherence, for the relationship of parts. Schoenberg felt the inconsequentiality of the emancipated, self-sufficient dissonance as a deficiency. To counter this isolation he adopted in particular two procedures: the principle of complementary harmony, and the conception of a chord as a motif. By complementary harmony is meant the procedure of relating chords to one another through the number of notes by which they differ. Thus in ex.13 (no.5 of Das Buch der hängenden Gärten op.15) the two four-note chords in bar 1 of the accompaniment have only one note in common, and those in bar 2 no note at all (with the exception of the second bass note, sounded a beat later). The conception of a chord as a motif means that it can present in vertical form a configuration of notes or a structure that can also be presented in horizontal form without losing its identity. The fact that that configuration exists as a common denominator between the different presentations establishes a musical coherence that brings the chord – the emancipated dissonance – out of its isolation. Inherent in the techniques that provide a solution to the problem of emancipation is the change to dodecaphony: complementarity tends towards the 12-note principle; equivalence of horizontal and vertical is a basic feature of serial technique.
In free atonality and 12-note writing the borderline between consonance and dissonance was considerably higher than in tonal music. The emancipation of the dissonance by no means implies, however, that the degrees of dissonance between different intervals had lost their significance. On the contrary, the combining of sounds continued to be governed by what Hindemith called the ‘harmonic fluctuation’ (i.e. the graph of harmonic intensity from chord to chord in a progression).
12-note harmony moves between two extremes: at one extreme, the principle of ‘combinatoriality’ (Babbitt), the bringing together of fragments from the different forms of a row that make up the material of the 12-note system, so that any undue predominance of individual notes (which might suggest tonality) is avoided; at the other, overt or latent association with tonal chord structures and progressions, such as is found in Berg’s Violin Concerto and the beginning of the Adagio of Schoenberg’s Third String Quartet op.30 (ex.14). The idea of stating all or part of a row in vertical form presents problems: in simultaneous presentation the notes of a row are interchangeable, because the vertical order of the row (upwards or downwards) has to follow not only the succession of pitch classes of that row, which are fixed, but also their octave register, which is not.
Harmonic tonality, which broke down about 1910, had dominated the scene for three centuries. It had been a universal system of reference, marking out the boundaries within which a composition had to move in order to correspond with the European concept of what music was. In contrast, none of the systems projected in the early 20th century, apart from the 12-note technique as such, extended beyond specific validity for any individual composer. Skryabin based his later works on a central sound that determined both vertical and horizontal structures – the ‘mystic chord’, which has been interpreted first as a piling-up of 4ths (C–F♯–Bâ™–E–A–D), second as a chord of the 9th with lowered 5th (C–E–Gâ™–Bâ™–D) with unresolved suspension of the 6th (A), and third as a section of the natural harmonic series (upper partials 8–11 and 13–14 imprecisely pitched). The first interpretation is prompted by Skryabin’s way of using the chord in his late works, the second has regard for the chord’s historical provenance, and the third adopts the premise on which scientific rationalizations of harmonic phenomena were based during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Stravinsky frequently used the technique of overlaying triads, for example the chords of C major and Eâ™ major in the third movement of the Symphony of Psalms (ex.15a). By this means (a manifestation of his wider use of the Octatonic collection) he created bitonal effects and an ambiguity between major and minor (C major and C minor) and gained the possibility of further transformations by interchanging major and minor 3rds, so that, for example, C♯–E–G♯ may appear in place of C–E–G. ex.15b, from the same movement, shows D major and F major alternately superimposed on C♯ major/minor.
Bartók, continuing certain ideas explored by Liszt, developed a harmonic system based primarily on the principle of symmetrical octave division (C–f♯–C′, C–e–g♯–C′, C–eâ™–f♯–a–C′): a region of harmony that had lain at the edge of traditional tonality or beyond it was established as the centre by Bartók and subjected to systematic organization. The tonal organization that Hindemith developed from the natural harmonic series (using methods that were sometimes idiosyncratic) was intended as a comprehensive system equally valid for Machaut and Bach as for Schoenberg. Seen in perspective it was a projection of Hindemith’s own stylistic peculiarities into a natural scheme that did not have the universality that Hindemith claimed for it. Nonetheless, it was in principle one that sought to measure dissonance level in complex chords and make possible the controlled gradation of dissonance in chord progressions. It used a type of abstracted fundamental bass comparable, though not identical, with that of Rameau.
Carl Dahlhaus
Late 20th century
By the mid-20th century many composers and commentators no longer regarded harmony as a discrete musical category in its own right, independent of more general questions of pitch organization. Certainly it seemed difficult, above all in 12-note and serial music, to conceive of harmony in diachronic terms, as regulating the succession of simultaneities over time. But still there was a recognition among a number of postwar serial composers that Schoenbergian 12-note technique, in which pitch classes had been ordered at least predominantly in the horizontal dimension, had left the vertical dimension underdetermined. Two possible ways of compensating for this perceived arbitrariness were widely explored: on the one hand, techniques that sought to assert more direct control over the construction of chords or pitch-class simultaneities; and, on the other, attempts to create greater harmonic definition through the distribution of pitches in register.
Stravinsky’s sensitivity to questions of harmony and intervallic polarity by no means lessened with his turn to serialism in the 1950s. In a number of later works, including the Variations (Aldous Huxley in memoriam) for orchestra, he employed the technique of hexachordal rotation pioneered by Krenek in his Lamentatio Jeremiae prophetae, which involves splitting the 12-note row into two hexachords each of which is then successively rotated, the rotations being transposed each time back onto the same initial pitch (see Twelve-note composition, §7). By forming successions of chords from the homophonic superimposition of these rotated forms, Stravinsky created a highly personal form of serially generated harmony, often incorporating the split octaves and simultaneous major and minor 3rds which had been prominent features of his middle period. These rotation techniques have been adapted by a number of younger composers, including Wuorinen and Knussen.
Boulez, likewise convinced of the inadequacy and arbitrariness of complementary harmony, developed from 1951 onwards the technique of multiplication. This involves partitioning the series into unequal segments (blocs sonores), each of which is then taken and in turn transposed onto each of the component pitch classes of another segment, the product of the ‘multiplication’ consisting of all the pitches of each of these transpositions combined (see Boulez, pierre, §3). In practice the distinctiveness of the harmonic results obtained from multiplication depends on the intervallic constitution, and above all the density, of the harmonic objects in question. Where the sonorities being multiplied share a concentration of the same interval class, that concentration will be reinforced in the sonority that results. Elsewhere, however, multiplication results in dense aggregates approaching full chromatic saturation, in which such individual intervallic characteristics are neutralized.
The products of multiplication are groups of pitch classes whose articulation in both time and in register remains unspecified. Hence Boulez, along with other composers of his generation such as Stockhausen and Berio, also explored the potential of pitch register for creating a sense of harmonic definition within a chromatically saturated texture. The device, observable in Webern’s late works, of fixing each pitch class in a single registral position over a substantial number of bars, features in a number of serial works of the 1950s and beyond (such as Stockhausen’s Kontra-Punkte), while the third cycle of Boulez’s Le marteau sans maître (see L. Koblyakov, Pierre Boulez: a World of Harmony, Chur, 1990) systematically exploits the transposition of a ‘vertical row’, in which the 12 notes are ordered in register rather than time. Within these fixed-register ‘harmonic fields’ the hard and fast distinction between horizontal and vertical textures is transcended. Such a field can be articulated as pure simultaneity (12-note chord), pure succession (12-note row) or as part-simultaneity and part-succession. While a row or similar ordering might regulate the horizontal dimension (the temporal succession of pitches), the vertical dimension (the registral distribution of pitches) can be structured according to quite different criteria: such pitch fields, for instance, might display the kind of inversional symmetry around a central pitch or interval found earlier in the century in works of Bartók (Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, Piano Concerto no.2) and Webern (Symphony op.21, Cantata no.2, op.31), where its function had often resided in the harmonic control of canon or other forms of imitative polyphony.
Often associated with this kind of symmetrical harmony is the attempt to give 12-note chords or pitch fields a distinctive harmonic identity by restricting the number of interval types occurring between registrally adjacent pitches. Such limited interval (or interval class) construction had been adumbrated by Schoenberg (B1911, p.454), who had not only observed that the chord of 4ths employed to notable effect in the Kammersymphonie no.1 could be extended to produce a 12-note chord, but had created further 12-note chords whose adjacent intervals consisted solely of major and minor 3rds (ibid., 456–7). Textures dominated by such ‘characteristic intervals’ interested both Pousseur and Stockhausen in the mid-1950s, while independently LutosÅ‚awski developed his own rich vocabulary of 12-note chords based on limited interval-class construction. Many of these chords restrict themselves to just two adjacent interval types (such as perfect 4ths and minor 3rds, or tritones and semitones). Other composers meanwhile have gravitated to all-interval chords, in which the 11 pitch intervals within the octave each occur only once between pairs of registrally adjacent pitches. In the music of Elliott Carter, these prove ideally suited to controlling the vertical superimposition of separately evolving musical layers, enabling each to be defined by its own tessitura and limited repertory of intervals.
The global effect created by such fixed-register distributions is that of a static articulation of space rather than a dynamic movement through time. This view of harmony as an essentially synchronic phenomenon was not restricted to composers of a serialist persuasion. A similar sense of stasis is provided by harmonic fields based on the omnipresence not of the total chromatic but of a more limited pitch-class collection. What Slonimsky termed ‘pandiatonicism’, the free, non-functional employment of diatonic modes as neutral pitch ‘collections’ rather than as scales with a hierarchy of degrees, had been a prominent feature of mid-century neo-classicism, but it equally came to characterize the minimalist works of Reich, Glass and later Adams. The harmonic consequence of Reich’s phasing processes, in which unison statements of diatonic (but generally non-triadic) melodic fragments move gradually out of synchronization, is often this kind of static modal field. Likewise the later works of Pärt, while often homophonic in texture, are characterized by unpredictable harmonic encounters generally within a closed modal or diatonic collection.
The reintegration of consonance was, from around 1970, perhaps the most noticeable harmonic development in the work of composers of almost any stylistic persuasion. The harmonic taboos characteristic of serial music (such as the avoidance of octaves and triadic formations) started to be abandoned in the 1960s even by such composers as Berio and Pousseur who still saw their work as belonging broadly within the serial tradition. Many composers reintroduced the materials of functional tonality in the context of non-functional syntaxes: the use of triads linked by conjunct motion between voices (a combination of common tones and stepwise progession by tone or semitone) characterizes works as diverse in sound and aesthetic as John Adams’s Phrygian Gates and Scelsi’s Anahit. In the work of neo-Romantic composers such as Rihm or Holloway, the rehabilitation of consonance involved explicit reference to Romantic harmony, even at times outright quotation, but often in a way that fostered a sense of historical distance from the model, resulting in a sense of rupture and dislocation rather than an overarching harmonic unity. In his symphonic works of the 1970s onwards Peter Maxwell Davies has attempted to reinvent a directional harmonic syntax capable of sustaining large-scale tonal structures: such attempts, however, encounter the problem of adequately affirming points of harmonic arrival in the absence of communally recognized criteria of tonal stability.
Electronic transformation has proved an especially fruitful way of exploring the continuum between acoustic consonance and dissonance. In each of the 13 cycles of Stockhausen’s Mantra the sounds of the two pianos are ring-modulated by sine tones whose frequency corresponds to the ‘fundamental’ of that cycle. The degree of dissonance of the modulated complex consequently depends on the dissonance of each piano note in relation to the fundamental note. The simulation of techniques of ring-modulation in the instrumental domain became just one of the techniques associated with Spectral music, especially in the 1980s. This movement evolved under the influence of the work of Messiaen and Stockhausen, as well as the new possibilities opened up by the computer analysis of timbre. Murail, a leading spectralist, compared the many dense harmonic complexes found in Messiaen’s later work to inharmonic resonances of bell sounds, whose spectra can be replicated by means of frequency modulation. Spectral music takes such complex inharmonic spectra as a unifying model for both harmonic and temporal structuring. At the end of a century in which harmonic theory had been sparing in its appeals to science or ‘nature’, spectral music seemed to revive, in principle at least, the acoustic rationalizations that had been central to harmonic thinking from its very beginnings.
Julian Anderson, Charles Wilson
Theoretical study
The difference between the theoretical and the practical study of harmony consists not so much in a divergence between the reasons for rules and their application but rather in dissimilarities that arise out of the differing historical origins of the two disciplines. The theoretical study of harmony owes its inception to a remodelling of musica theoretica – that is, of mathematical speculations on the foundations and structures of the tonal system. The practical study of harmony proceeded from the doctrine of figured bass, which was expanded at the beginning of the 18th century and elevated into a theory of free composition, as opposed to counterpoint, the theory of strict composition (see §6 below). Part of the legacy of musica theoretica is the claim of harmonic theory to be scientific, a claim that has constantly shifted its ground but has never been abandoned. Harmonic theory affects to be a ‘theory’ in the strongest sense of the word instead of being merely a collection of rules for musical craftsmanship.
On the philosophical assumption that numbers and numerical proportions, conceived of in the Platonic sense as ideal numbers, represent founding principles and not mere measurements, the numerical demonstration of intervals and intervallic complexes was taken to be the mathematical basis of musical phenomena up to the 17th century (and in peripheral traditions up to the present day). Zarlino (A1558, bk 3, chap.31), who took ‘harmonic proportion’ (15:12:10) as the basis of the major triad and ‘arithmetical proportion’ (6:5:4) as that of the minor triad (from measurements of string lengths), propounded the musical priority of the major triad by virtue of the mathematical and philosophical prestige of the concept of ‘harmonic’. The same result, the exalting of the major triad, was arrived at two centuries later by Rameau but in a different way. First, his measurements were made by reckoning vibrations instead of string lengths, so the proportion 4:5:6 shifted from the minor triad to the major and the proportion 10:12:15 shifted from the major to the minor. Second, following contemporary natural science rather than humanism, he gave precedence to the simple (hence the proportion 4:5:6) rather than the ancient (the term ‘harmonic’, which was saturated in ideas). Third, he sought to discover the scientific foundations of musical actualities not in Platonically interpreted mathematics but in physics, the most advanced discipline of his times: the Platonic idea of number had lost its force and had sunk from a scientific status to a poetic or sectarian one. The basis of musical phenomena was henceforth discovered in the physically determinable nature of the note, that is, in the natural harmonic series. There was one fundamental fact which from the 18th century on was invoked by authors of textbooks on harmony in order to claim scientific legitimacy: this was that the major triad is contained within, or prognosticated by, the natural harmonic series (in the upper partials 1–6, C–c–g–c–e′-g′, notably as partials 4–6).
As opposed to a physical foundation for musical theory, Hauptmann (B1853) presented a foundation that was dialectical and idealistic. He construed such phenomena as the triad or the cadence as instances of the Hegelian model of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. According to Hauptmann, in the cadence I–IV–I–V–I the tonic is first ‘set up as a direct entity’ (as if it were being stated unquestioningly rather than being argued); it is then ‘divided in itself’ (as the dominant of IV and sub-dominant of V), finally to be ‘reinstalled as a result’ and thus confirmed (retrospectively, IV and V appear no longer as tonics to which I relates but as subdominant and dominant of I: I’s ‘existence as dominant’ turns to ‘possession of dominant’). This dialectic, which he evolved in detail, Hauptmann thought of as an active dialectical process, an intellectual process in the subject matter itself, not a mere mode of description. He saw dialectical construction as a valid theoretical representation of a principle that was active in music and that established it as ‘logic in sound’ and to that extent as a science.
Riemann made various attempts to forge a link between the physical explanation and the dialectical. He gradually came to minimize the importance of the former and finally almost to deny it altogether. In accordance with the philosophical tendencies of his times, he transformed Hauptmann’s Hegelianism into a kind of Kantianism in his later writings, above all in the ‘Ideen zu einer “Lehre von den Tonvorstellungen”’ of 1914–15. But the prevailing means by which the theory of harmony was given a scientific basis in much of the 20th century was the explanation of harmonic phenomena in historical terms. It was no longer Nature (physically definable) but History that constituted the final court of appeal. After mathematics, physics, Hegelian dialectics and psychology (Kurth, B1913, C1920), it was the role of history to guarantee the scientific character of music theory. The next step, in recent years, has been a psychological approach dealing with musical cognition and perception (see §5 below). The mathematical, physical and idealistic dialectical theorems have indeed not been forgotten; but, in spite of important efforts to restore them (Handschin’s ‘Pythagoreanism’, 1948), they have become peripheral.
Since Rameau there has been a constant endeavour to explain the historical phenomenon of tonal harmony during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries by reference to the physical properties of the single note, and thus to establish harmonic theory as a strict science. This has involved music theory in problems that would have been less difficult to solve were it not for this fixation on the natural harmonic series. Above all, the minor triad presented this approach through physics with a challenge that it expanded to meet only with difficulty and with some questionable theorizing.
None of the endeavours to discover an acoustical explanation for the minor triad analogous to the rationalization of the major triad (by means of the natural harmonic series) met with success. Significantly, the one physicist among music theorists, Hermann von Helmholtz, forwent any reduction to physical terms. The repeated attempts that were made, persistently and futilely, from Rameau’s postulation (B1737) of a sympathetically vibrating f and Aâ™ beneath c″ through to Riemann’s idea of a series of lower partials (as a symmetrical inversion of the series of upper partials) all started with certain assumptions. They took for granted on the one hand that the major triad derived from the physical properties of the single note, and on the other that the minor triad enjoyed a status equal to that of the major; from these it followed logically that there must be a physical explanation for the minor triad. The notion that the minor was a shading of the major, an artificial variant of the natural triad (Helmholtz), was not really taken as a satisfactory explanation. It was regarded as no more than a description, and an admission of defeat in the face of the impossibility of explanation.
A third hypothesis, or group of hypotheses, proceeded from the idea that the 5th and the major 3rd were the only ‘directly intelligible’ intervals, that is, intervals essential for note relationships. The major triad C–E–G would thus be a combination of C–G and C–E with C as the common point of reference (centre harmonique) of the intervals, and the minor triad C–Eâ™–G would be a combination of C–G and Eâ™–G with G as the common point of reference (Hauptmann, B1853) or with C and Eâ™ as a double root. The assertion that the minor triad must be read from the top downwards contradicts the musical fact that it attempts to rationalize. The division of the root, if it is to be empirically valid, must be perceived as an ambivalence and not as a simultaneous appearance of two roots: in other words, as the possibility of allowing either C or Eâ™ to become alternately the centre harmonique (Helmholtz, E1863). A variant of Hauptmann’s theory of the minor triad appears in Oettingen’s thesis (C1866) that the unity of the chords resides in the fact that the notes of a major triad (c′–e′–g′) have a ‘tonic’ root (C) and those of a minor triad (c–eâ™–g) have a ‘phonic’ overtone (g″) in common. As a rationalization of the unity of sound the principle of ‘tonicity’ is complemented by that of ‘phonicity’.
According to Kurth (B1913), who substituted psychological for physical explanations, the major and minor triads are to be regarded not as stable, self-contained structures but as states of tension: the 3rd, E, in the (dominant) major triad on C pushes towards F (as the root of the major triad on F), while the 3rd, Eâ™, of the (subdominant) minor triad on C pulls towards D (as the 5th of the G major triad). Rationalization is sought no longer in the nature of things, definable in physical terms, but in the nature of people, interpretable in psychological terms.
The understanding of a theory does not merely mean the grasping of the principles from which it derives. It also particularly means the apprehension of the questions that prompted it in the first place. The difficulty of explaining the minor chord through physical premises – the conviction that acoustics must form the foundations of music theory – represents one of the challenges that harmonic ‘dualism’, most clearly exemplified in Riemann’s theory of harmonic functions, set out to meet. A second objective that was in Riemann’s mind was to formulate a theory of the secondary degrees II, III and VI which would establish their differences from the primary degrees I, IV and V more precisely than had the theory of degrees. The term ‘mediant’ is not an explanation but merely a descriptive label without any theoretical content; and the idea that primary degrees are connected to the tonic by direct relationships of a 5th whereas secondary degrees are indirectly so connected may do justice to some applications of the secondary degrees (for example, their role in the sequence of 5ths, I–IV–VII–III–VI–II–V–I, the prime harmonic model in the early 18th century) but cannot do justice to all their functions.
Riemann proceeded from the observation that the secondary degrees can sometimes appear as ‘representatives’ of primary degrees. Thus, in major keys II can fulfil the function of IV, III that of V or I, and VI that of I or IV. (VII, except in sequential passages where the bass moves by 5ths, is an incomplete form of the dominant 7th.) Riemann failed to take into account, or else his system led him to suppress, the affinity or intrinsic proximity of II to the dominant of the dominant. Impressed by the musical experience of functional similarities between the degrees, Riemann attempted to rationalize them through his theory of ‘apparent consonances’ or ‘understood dissonances’. Here, IV can be represented by II (so that II appears as a relative minor to the subdominant – Subdominantparallele, abbreviated as ‘Sp’) since II has its basis in IV, having arisen from it by a substitution of the 5th on the subdominant (in C major, C) by the 6th (D). The note D, regarded by the theory of fundamental progressions as the root of the chord on the supertonic, is according to Riemann only apparently a consonance. For its true importance for the harmonic context to be recognized it must be perceived as a dissonant adjunct to the subdominant. Thus in Riemann’s system the terms ‘consonance’ and ‘dissonance’ refer less to phenomena of actual perception than to categories in musical logic. Indeed it might be asked whether the speculative theory of ‘apparent consonances’, which flatly contradicts the usual empirical perception of the supertonic degree, is necessary at all in order to explain the functional similarity between degrees II and IV: that two structures fulfil the same or an analogous function in no way presupposes that the one must be materially derivable from the other.
The theories of function and of fundamental progressions, which are generally presented as alternatives, can in large part be understood as contrary but complementary. In the first place the distinction made by the theory of fundamental progressions between primary and secondary steps is certainly not stated as such by proponents of functional theory, but neither is it ignored or actively denied. And modern proponents of the fundamental progression, like Kurth, have not found the explanations attempted by functional theory superfluous; rather they find them too speculative on the one hand and too narrow on the other to do justice to all the functional differentiations between the degrees of the scale. In the second place it is obvious that the theory of fundamental progressions is primarily orientated to early 18th-century harmony (namely to the harmonic model of the sequence of 5ths), while the theory of functions, in common with Riemann’s doctrine of metre and rhythm, is developed from the music of Beethoven. It is thus to some degree not a case of competitive theories dealing with the same matter in hand, but of theses concerning different stages of a historical development. Third, the fundamental progressions described or reconstructed by that theory and the direct and indirect relationship of chords to the tonic conceptualized in the theory of functions are factors in composition that are perfectly capable of existing side by side. The description of the degree of relatedness between individual chords and the tonal centre, and the delineation of the path followed by the basse fondamentale within the chord sequence, are not mutually exclusive but complementary. Similarly, the different stages of historical development mentioned above represent not a total change of principles but merely a shift of emphasis between progression from chord to chord, and the relationship of chord to tonal centre.
Carl Dahlhaus
Theory since 1950
Since the mid-20th century theoretical approaches to harmony have developed in several new directions, particularly in the anglophone world. Of primary importance is the inflence of heinrich Schenker, whose theory of harmony is ultimately absorbed into a thorough-going account of tonal structure (see Analysis and Tonality). Schenker assigns to a vertical formation the status of a harmony only if it is heard to represent a Stufe (scale-step, from Sechter) that is prolonged through a (finite) span of time. Formations that fail this criterion are interpreted as an amalgam of conjunct melodic lines, whose interaction is constrained by principles of counterpoint rather than harmony. Furthermore, a vertical formation that achieves the status of a harmony when considered within the context of its own time-span of prolongation dissolves into linear motion when considered beyond those boundaries. With a single exception, every formation thus ultimately fails the Stufe criterion and reverts to prior linear and contrapuntal processes. The exception is the Ursatz-generating tonic triad, whose time-span of prolongation is co-extensive with the entire piece. It alone is generated by harmonic rather than contrapuntal principles. Thus although harmony, represented by the tonic triad, is the foundation of the Schenkerian view of tonality, the status of individual harmonic structures is nonetheless attenuated. Those aspects of music that traditionally count as harmonic – chord and chord progression – are subsumed by, and inseparable from, the broader concept of tonality. In this sense, ‘harmony’ reclaims the earlier sense of the Greek harmonia (see §1 above).
A similar absorption of harmony is evident in recent analytic approaches to atonal repertories, but for entirely different reasons. Once the diatonic gamut gives way to the set of 12 equal-tempered pitch classes, the distinction between the diatonic step and leap that underwrites the dichotomy of tonal melody and harmony is altered. Harmonic formations are composed of the same materials and relationships as pitch categories (scales, melodies, motifs, contrapuntal conjunctions) from which they are traditionally held distinct. Each of these categories is considered, rather, as a specific mode of projecting (or formatting) a more abstract category, the pitch-class set, the properties, potentials and interrelations of which exist independently of its realization in time and in register. Consequently, although atonal theory, in the tradition of Forte, Perle and Morris, furnishes a descriptor for all harmonic formations, the study of harmony now warrants different treatment. It is for this reason that there is no distinction in subject matter between books entitled Harmonic Materials of Modern Music (Hanson, D1960), The Book of Modes (Vieru) or The Structure of Atonal Music (Forte, D1973), although each of these works pursues its subject in a different way.
Where ‘harmony’ (as a category designating the description and interpretation of simultaneously attacked or perceptually fused pitches) most retains its categorical integrity is in the analysis of the chromatic repertories of the later 19th century, specifically those connecting consonant triads and dominant-7th and half-diminished-7th chords via semitonal part-writing. While some such chromatic events elaborate or replace diatonic ones and are readily interpreted in terms of linear generation along Schenkerian lines, others resist a determinate diatonic interpretation, and are a hybrid of tonality and atonality. They maintain the leap/step and hence harmony/melody distinction of diatonic tonality, but reinterpret it in reference to the tempered 12-note gamut that also underlies atonal music: semitones are melodic, all other intervals harmonic. In this larger, symmetric gamut, tonics are mercurial and Stufen lack identity, so the distinction between prolonged and prolonging events is occluded. Vertical formations are thus safeguarded against absorption into a linear-generated framework at higher structural levels. At the same time, the leap/step and harmony/melody demarcation protects harmony from subsumption under the context-free pitch-class-set umbrella of atonal theory: because harmony and melody are made up of different intervals, each retains its categorical autonomy.
In 12-note triadic and 7th-chord chromaticism, then, harmony retains the primary cognitive status that it bears in the approaches of Rameau and Riemann to classical tonality. Yet the ontology and behaviour of harmonic objects in a symmetric, tempered chromatic universe are different from those in a (conceptually) just or Pythagorean diatonic universe, and these differences warrant distinct interpretative strategies. The tonal indeterminacy of chromatic harmony leads to two classes of interpretation: individual harmonies are orientated either towards multiple tonics simultaneously or towards no tonics at all. The first approach (multiple tonics) traces its origin to early 19th-century notions of Mehrdeutigkeit (Vogler, Weber), leads through Schoenberg’s notion of hovering tonality, and is represented by theories of double tonality (Bailey, C1977–8) and functional extravagance (Smith, C1986). The second approach (no tonics) traces its origin to Fétis’s observation (B1844) that diatonic sequences suspend a listener’s sense of tonality; leads through writings of Capellen (C1902) and Kurth (C1920); is represented by more recent work (e.g. Proctor, C1978) on transposition and symmetric division, and has achieved a particularly systematic synthesis in the neo-Riemannian transformational theory arising from the writings of David Lewin.
The fundamental insight of neo-Riemannian theory is that the relationships of the harmonic structures of 12-note chromaticism are direct, unmediated by the tonal centres inherent to both functional and Stufen theories. The connection to Riemann is not through his influential theory of harmonic functions but rather to his development, in Skizze einer neue Methode der Harmonielehre (1880), of the system of Schritte (triadic transpositions) and Wechsel (exchanges of major for minor triads) first introduced by von Oettingen in 1866. Initially conceived in the context of just intonation, the Schritte and Wechsel are translated by neo-Riemannian theory into equal temperament, with particular attention to the characteristic 19th-century transformations that maximize common tones and semitonal motion. The Table of Tonal Relations developed by Leonhard Euler (E1739) and appropriated by Oettingen and Riemann furnishes an elegant geometric model for triadic progressions consisting of such transformations. When conceived in equal temperament, the geometry of the table is circularized in multiple dimensions, yielding a torus. Analogous transformations and geometrical representations are available for progressions involving various species of 7th chords.
The torus, as a model of harmonic relations, also turns up in empirical studies of musical cognition and perception, a branch of scholarship with a methodological and conceptual legacy quite independent from that of music theory. Recent work in these areas merges the traditional concerns of Tonpsychologie (Helmholtz, Stumpf) with the epistemology of contemporary cognitive science, which emphasizes learning and memory and hence affords a role for style and culture as well as for phenomena characteristically associated with ‘nature’. Cognitive and perceptual work includes psychoacoustic studies of harmonic similarity; strategies for modelling assignments of tonal centres to harmonic progressions and for assessing their closural strengths; and probes of the psychological reality of concepts of historical significance to music theorists. Harmony figures heavily as a primary category in such studies, which are generally more concerned than analytically orientated approaches with well-defined atomic musical relationships, and less with their absorption into an integrated vision of the artistic masterwork. (See Psychology of music, §II, 1.)
Richard Cohn
Writings on harmony are practical rather than speculative if they satisfy purposes other than the theorist’s passion for explanation. The distinction is porous, if not flimsy: there is a clear pragmatic value when ‘laws’ of harmony are pressed into service as aesthetic filters in support of political or nationalist agendas (as in post-Revolutionary France or Stalinist Russia), for example. In standard usage, however, ‘harmonic practice’ refers more narrowly to writings that place harmonic knowledge at the service of the education of performers and composers. It has an unbroken history whose origin roughly coincides with that of harmonic tonality, reinforced, during the 19th and 20th centuries, by a robust institutional framework of conservatories, universities and preparatory academies that continue to place harmony at the core of the elementary training of performers, composers and musical amateurs.
All works of practical musicianship project, perhaps only implicitly, a theory of harmonia (in its original sense – see §1 above). If the focus is limited to the subset of writings that take ‘chord’ and ‘chord progression’ as primary lexical and syntactic categories, the boundary that divides theory from practice is still difficult to locate. Explicitly speculative tomes such as Lippius’s Synopsis (A1612) offer compositional instruction in part-writing, while classroom primers develop concepts that eventually migrate into the mainstream of speculative writings (e.g. the seminal treatments, in the Lehrbücher of E.F. Richter (B1853) and Mayrberger (B1878), of passing chords, which were to become conceptually crucial to Schenker’s theories of Schichten and Ursatz).
Practical harmony has served largely as preparatory training for three activities – improvisation, composition and analysis – that are distinct in principle but frequently overlap. Most practical works on harmony in the 17th century were aimed primarily at training continuo players in the improvisational art of thoroughbass realization, while the greatest thoroughbass treatise of the 18th century, by Heinichen, was entitled Der General-Bass in der Composition. On the other hand, the most influential of all practical writings in the years between Rameau and Riemann, Gottfried Weber’s Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tonsetzkunst (B1817–21), has a primarily analytical purpose, despite its title (‘Attempt at a systematic theory of composition’): to give the reader a means ‘to conceive and communicate a rational idea of the good or ill effect of this or that combination of tones and of the beauty or deformity of this or that musical passage or piece’.
The origins of practical training in harmony may be traced to Italian and German counterpoint treatises of the early 16th century that enumerate the combinations usable in four-voice composition. A century later, the concept of triadic invertibility stimulated an emerging awareness of such combinations as primary categories. Although this awareness is adumbrated in German composition manuals (e.g. Baryphonus, A1615) that focus on principles of four-part writing, it is in contemporary improvisation primers that chords are first fully hypostasized. The new chordal autonomy is more evident in guitar treatises from the Iberian peninsula (notably Amat, A1639) than in the better-known thoroughbass manuals of central and southern Europe, which only began to integrate principles of traidic invertibility around the mid-17th century.
In 18th-century Germany, thoroughbass realization was increasingly cultivated not only by continuo players but also as part of composition training. C.P.E. Bach reported that his father’s composition pupils ‘had to begin their studies by learning pure four-part thorough bass. From this he went to chorales; first he added the basses to them himself, and they had to invent the alto and tenor. Then he taught them to devise the basses themselves’. The more advanced of these tasks required understanding not only of part-writing but also of harmonic syntax, a topic that had first been addressed in thoroughbass manuals of the late 17th century dealing with the realization of unfigured basses (e.g. Penna, A1672). As the role of the basso continuo waned in the later 18th century, improvisation ceased to be a primary goal of harmonic training. Although isolated passages on ‘preluding’ (e.g. Friedrich Wieck, B1853) attest that a thorough understanding of harmony was prerequisite to the improviser’s art in the 19th century, there is no continuing tradition of improvisation primers again until the 1950s, when jazz musicians began to codify their methods.
Rameau’s theory of fundamental bass, which has constituted a nearly universal foundation of harmonic training since 1800, was initially disseminated in his own writings for composers and accompanists. It was only after Rameau’s death in 1764 that his ideas became the basis of a standard pedagogical practice. During the second half of the 18th century several other core concepts of harmonic teaching began to appear in a form resembling current usage. In the 1750s, Marpurg developed a taxonomy of non-harmonic tones. In his Two Essays, published in 1766, John Trydell indicated fundamentals as scale degrees in relation to a tonic, representing them by Arabic numerals; this system subsequently reappeared, with Roman numerals, in Vogler’s writings. Perhaps most importantly, the composition treatises of Kirnberger (B1771–9) and H.C. Koch (B1782–93) began to consider the role of harmony as a formal articulator on the scale of phrases and movements. Each of these concerns (non-harmonic tones, scale-degree root representation, and form) was put to analytical as well as compositional purposes in the following century. (See also Analysis.)
Harmonic analysis, in the form of fundamental basses laid under existing compositions, is already present, albeit sparsely, in the writings of Rameau and Kirnberger. Vandermonde (1778) advocated fundamental bass analysis as part of preparatory training in composition, and by the turn of the 19th century analysis had become a central concern of writings on music. In the empirical compendia of Momigny, Weber and Reicha, fragments from 18th-century works provide exemplars of all manner of musical phenomena, and stimulate nuanced formulations of harmonic principles in place of the coarse normative pronouncements that often dominated composition pedagogy of the era. Harmonic analysis is recommended to students as a fruitful activity for its own sake. Reicha suggests the following procedure: "First, all the inessential notes of the piece are eliminated, and the essential notes alone are entered; then the fundamentals of the chord are entered on a separate staff; the piece in its original form is compared with that giving just the essential notes; then the succession of fundamentals is examined so as to see how the chord successions form progressions."
Reicha’s procedure has endured since, although the fundamentals entered on a staff were soon replaced by Roman numerals, which were disseminated in Weber’s influential treatise and put to more scholasticist ends in the didactic harmony writings of Jelensperger (E1830) in France, Sechter (B1853–4) in Austria and Richter (B1853) in Germany, Richter’s Lehrbuch der Harmonie staying in print for a full century, through 36 editions, and being translated into ten European languages. These three textbooks are among the earliest or most influential representatives of a stream, eventually a raging torrent, of prescriptive, ahistorical harmony textbooks created to fill the demand created by the institutionalization of advanced musical training during the first half of the century in northern and western Europe and the British Isles, and by 1860 in North America and Russia. Such primers typically offered lessons in figured-bass realization and Roman-numeral analysis of synthetic examples, without reference to any particular repertory.
Roman-numeral analysis was challenged at the end of the 19th century by Riemann, who proposed the theory of dual principles, together with the theory of tonal functions, in a series of pedagogical writings. In 1917 Riemann wrote that ‘the Roman numeral method is being more and more marginalized as outmoded’, and that dualism and functional theory ‘ever more certainly takes its place’. His vision of universal monopoly, however, failed to materialize. After Riemann’s death, functional theory was divorced from dualism, which has found few advocates among modern writers (an exception is Levarie, E1954). The theory of harmonic functions has dominated harmonic pedagogy in Germany, Scandinavia and eastern Europe, but even there it has not totally supplanted the Roman numeral method. Riemann’s influence in southern Europe and in the anglophone world has been minimal.
The Harmonielehren of Schenker (B1906) and of Louis and Thuille (C1907) marked the revival of a thoroughly empirical attitude toward practical harmony for the first time since Weber. These are not exclusively, or even primarily, works of practical harmony, despite their titles: each presents an original conceptual synthesis, bolstered by presentation and discussion of abundant examples from the German tradition since 1700. The repertorial orientation represented by these writings soon took hold in didactic works, particularly in the United States. Of central importance are the harmony textbooks of Mitchell (E1939) and Piston (B1941), both of which are explicitly empirical and analytical rather than normative and pre-compositional. Almost every page of Piston’s Harmony includes at least one illustrative score fragment from the musical canon, while Mitchell’s Elementary Harmony, the first harmony text influenced by Schenker’s theory of tonality, leads the reader through a set of rudimentary linear-graphic analyses of movements from Beethoven’s sonatas.
Since the mid-20th century, Schenker’s influence on tonal theory in North America has had an increasing impact on practical harmony. Sessions (E1951) analyses a progression from Brahms’s Violin Concerto, which uses a variety of diatonic harmonies, as an ‘elaboration of a tonic triad’, and suggests that the prolongational attitude behind this claim is broadly applicable. Forte’s Tonal Harmony (E1962) advances a view of harmonic progression as dynamic motion towards a cadential goal, and generates local harmonic formations via linear motion or temporal displacement. The first page of the ambitious and widely used textbook of Aldwell and Schachter (E1978) reproduces the opening of a Mozart piano sonata; its second page introduces a two-voice reduction that serves as a platform from which to explore and express some rudimentary observations. And in Gauldin (E1997), linear reduction of examples from the literature sits alongside Roman numeral analysis as an activity that develops the student’s sense for the inner workings of tonality.
In retrospect, the most significant articulation point in the history of practical harmony was its separation from contemporary compositional practice in the early 19th century, a development that roughly coincided with the rise of harmonic analysis and institutional musical training, the waning of improvisational primers and the consolidation of the western musical canon. The first stage of this isolation was marked by a synthetic, scholastic and arepertorial approach to elementary compositional training; the second stage, a century later, sought to overcome the limitations of the first by reorientating harmonic knowledge towards the development of an analytical practice directed at classical repertories, and whose explanatory power wanes as chromatic writing is liberated from diatonic tonality. Several developments in the late 20th-century academy – notably a suspicion of historicizing teleologies and the re-evaluation of the distinction between classical and vernacular – stimulated a recognition of diatonic tonality as a living tradition. Perhaps the most important trend in practical harmony at the beginning of the 21st century is the reintroduction of contemporary music, in the form of folk music, jazz, show-tunes, rock and so on into manuals of practical harmony, in both Europe and North America, in the service of compositional and improvisational as well as analytical training.
Richard Cohn
A Harmony before 1700. B Diatonic and functional tonality. C Triadic and post-Tristan chromaticism. D Harmony in 20th-century music. E Speculative, empirical, pan-historical and pedagogical writings. A: Harmony before 1700
F. Gaffurius: Practicae musicae (Milan, 1496, 2/1497; Eng. trans., in MSD, xx 1968)
G. Zarlino: Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558/R, 3/1573/R; Eng. trans. of pt iii, 1968/R, as The Art of Counterpoint; Eng. trans. of pt iv, 1983, as On the Modes)
J. Lippius: Synopsis musicae novae omino verae atque methodicae universae (Strasbourg, 1612); ed. and trans. B.V. Rivera (Colorado Springs, CO, 1977)
T. Campion: A New Way of Making Fowre Parts in Counter-Point, by a most Familiar, and Infallible Rule (London, c1613)
H. Baryphonus: Pleiades musicae (Halberstadt, 1615, rev. 2/1630 by H. Grimm)
J.C. Amat: Guitarra española (Valencia, 1639/R)
L. Penna: Li primi albori musicali (Bolgona, 1672, 4/1684/R, 5/1696)
A. Werckmeister: Harmonologia musica, oder Kurtze Anleitung zur musicalischen Composition (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1702/R)
G. Adler: Studie zur Geschichte der Harmonie (Vienna, 1881)
K. Jeppesen: Palestrinastil med saerligt henblik paa dissonansbehandlingen (Copenhagen, 1923; Eng. trans., 1927, 2/1946, as The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance)
J.M. Müller-Blattau, ed.: Die Kompositions lehre Heinrich Schützens in der Fassung seines Schülers Christoph Bernhard (Leipzig, 1926, 2/1963)
F.T. Arnold: The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass (London, 1931/R)
G. Haydon: The Evolution of the Six-Four Chord (Berkeley, 1933/R)
R.O. Morris: Figured Harmony at the Keyboard (London, 1933/R)
H. Besseler: Bourdon und Fauxbourdon: Studien zum Ursprung der niederländischen Musik (Leipzig, 1950, rev., enlarged 2/1974 by P. Gulke)
J. Smits van Waesberghe: ‘Zur Entstehung der drei Hauptfunktionen in der Harmonik’, GfMKB, Lüneburg 1950, 209–10
H. Besseler: ‘Tonalharmonik und Vollklang’, AcM, xxiv (1952), 131–46
H. von Zingerle: Die Harmonik Monteverdis und seiner Zeit (Zürich, 1952)
G. Reaney: ‘Fourteenth-Century Harmony and the Ballades, Rondeaux and Virelais of Guillaume de Machaut’, MD, vii (1953), 129–46
A. Machabey: Genèse de la tonalité musicale classique des origines au XVe siècle (Paris, 1955)
C. Dahlhaus: ‘War Zarlino Dualist?’, Mf, x (1957), 286–90; xi (1958), 91
A. Haigh: ‘Modal Harmony in the Music of Palestrina’, Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison (Cambridge, MA, 1957), 111–210
E.E. Lowinsky: Tonality and Atonality in Sixteenth-Century Music (Berkeley, 1961/R)
E. Apfel: ‘Die Klangliche Struktur der spätmittelalterlichen Musik als Grundlage der Dur-Moll-Tonalität’, Mf, xv (1962), 212–27
R. Crocker: ‘Discant, Counterpoint, and Harmony’, JAMS, xv (1962), 1–21
L. Finscher: ‘Tonale Ordnungen am Beginn der Neuzeit’, Musikalische Zeitfragen, x (1962), 91–6
R. Hoppin: ‘Tonal Organization in Music before the Renaissance’, Paul A. Pisk: Essays in his Honor, ed. J.M. Glowacki (Austin, 1966), 25–37
C. Dahlhaus: Untersuchungen über die Enstehung der harmonischen Tonalität (Kassel, 1968; Eng. trans., 1990)
C. Dahlhaus: ‘Tonsystem und Kontrapunkt um 1500’, JbSIM 1969, 7–18
B. Meier: ‘Alte und neue Tonarten: Wesen und Bedeutung’, Renaissance-muziek 1400–1600: sonum natalicium René Bernard Lenearts, ed. J. Robijns and others (Leuven, 1969), 169–77
D. Randel: ‘Emerging Triadic Tonality in the Fifteenth Century’, MQ, lvii (1971), 73–86
G. Nutting: ‘The Logic of Renaissance Harmony’, IRASM, v (1974), 251–63
T.J. Mathiesen: ‘Problems of Terminology in Ancent Greek Music Theory’: APMONIA’, Festival Essays for Pauline Alderman, ed. B.L. Karson (Provo, UT, 1976), 3–17
S. McClary: The Transition from Modal to Tonal Organization in the Works of Monteverdi (diss., Harvard U., 1976)
M. Bent: ‘Some Factors in the Control of Consonance and Sonority: Successive Composition and the Solus Tenor’, IMSCR XII: Berkeley 1977, 625–34
R. Isgro: ‘Sixteenth-Century Conception of Harmony’, College Music Symposium, xix/1 (1979), 7–52
B.V. Rivera: ‘Harmonic Theory in Musical Treatises of the Late Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries’, Music Theory Spectrum, i (1979), 80–95
J. Caldwell: ‘Some Aspects of Tonal Language in Music of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries’, PRMA, cx (1983–4), 1–24
B.V. Rivera: ‘The Seventeenth-Century Theory of Triadic Generation and Invertibility and its Application in Contemporaneous Rules of Composition’, Music Theory Spectrum, vi (1984), 63–78
S. Fuller: ‘On Sonority in Fourteenth-Century Polyphony: some Preliminary Reflections’, JMT, xxx (1986), 35–70
B.J. Blackburn: ‘On Compositional Process in the Fifteenth Century’, JAMS, xl (1987), 210–84
B.V. Rivera: ‘The Two-Voice Framework and its Harmonization in Arcadelt's First Book of Madrigals’, MAn, vi (1987), 59–88
H.M. Brown: ‘Verso una definizione dell'armonia nel sedicesimo secolo: sui “madrigali ariosi” di Antonio Barrè’, RIM, xxv (1990), 18–60
E. Randi: ‘Armonia: Musica e teodicea fra XIII e XIV secolo’, Le verità dissonanti: Aristotele alla fine del Medioevo, ed. L. Bianchi and E. Randi (Rome, 1990), 151–81
W. Beierwaltes: ‘Der Harmonie-Gedanke im frühen Mittelalter’, Zeitschrift für philosophische Forschung, xlv (1991), 1–21
E. Chafe: Monteverdi’s Tonal Language (New York, 1992)
T. Christensen: ‘The Spanish Baroque Guitar and Seventeenth-Century Triadic Theory’, JMT, xxxvi (1992), 1–42
S. Fuller: ‘Tendencies and Resolutions: the Directed Progression in Ars Nova Music’, JMT, xxxvi (1992), 229–58
M. Jans: ‘Modale “Harmonik”: Beobachtungen und Fragen zur Logik der Klangverbindungen im 16. und frühen 17. Jahrhundert’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis 1992, 167–88
C.C. Judd: ‘Modal Types and Ut, Re, Mi Tonalities: Tonal Coherence in Sacred Vocal Polyphony from about 1500’, JAMS, xlv (1992), 428–67
H. Powers: ‘Is Mode Real? Pietro Aron, the Octenary System, and Polyphony’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis 1992, 9–52
M. Bent: ‘The Grammar of Early Music: Preconditions for Analysis’, Tonal Structures in Early Music, ed. C.C. Judd (New York, 1998), 15–59
S. Fuller: ‘Exploring Structure in French Polyphonic Song of the Fourteenth Century’, Tonal Structures in Early Music, ed. C.C. Judd (New York, 1998), 61–86 B: Diatonic and functional tonality
J. Mattheson: Das neu-eröffnete Orchestre (Hamburg, 1713/R)
J.-P. Rameau: Traité de l’harmonie réduite à ses principes naturels (Paris, 1722; Eng. trans., 1971)
J.-P. Rameau: Nouveau système de musique théorique (Paris, 1726/R)
J. Heinichen: Der General-Bass in der Composition (Dresden, 1728/R)
J.C. Pepusch: A Treatise on Harmony (London, 1730, 2/1731/R)
J.-P. Rameau: Génération harmonique, ou Traité de musique théorique et pratique (Paris, 1737/R)
J. Le Rond d’Alembert: Elémens de musique théorique et pratique suivant les principes de M. Rameau (Paris, 1752/R, enlarged 2/1762)
J.-A. Serre: Essais sur les principes de l’harmonie (Paris, 1753/R)
G. Tartini: Trattato di musica secondo la vera scienza dell’armonia (Padua, 1754/R); Eng. trans. in F.B. Johnson: Tartini’s ‘Trattato di musica secondo la vera scienza dell’armonia (diss., Indiana U., 1988)
J. Riepel: Anfangsgrunde zur musikalischen Setzkunst, ii: Grundregeln zur Tonordnung insgemeun (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1755)
F.W. Marpurg: Handbuch bey dem Generalbasse und der Composition mit zwey-drey-vier-fünf-sechs-sieben-acht und mehreren Stimmen (Berlin, 1755–81/R, suppl., 1760/R; 2/1762/R [vol.i only])
F.W. Marpurg: Systematische Einleitung in die musicalische Setzkunst, nach den Lehrsätzen des Herrn Rameau (Leipzig, 1757)
J. Trydell: Two Essays on the Theory and Practice of Music (Dublin, 1766)
J. Kirnberger: Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, aus sicheren Grundsätzen hergeleitet und mit deutlichen Beyspielen erlaütert, i (1771/R; with new title-page, Berlin and Königsberg, 1774); ii (Berlin and Königsberg, 1776–9/R); both vols. (2/1793; Eng. trans., 1982, as The Art of Strict Musical Composition)
J.B. Mercadier de Belesta: Nouveau système de musique théorique et pratique (Paris, 1776)
G.J. Vogler: Tonwissenshcaft und Tonsetzkunst (Mannheim, 1776/R)
H.C. Koch: Versuch einer Anleitung zur Composition (Rudolstadt, 1782–93/R)
J.-J. Momigny: Cours complet d’harmonie et de composition (Paris, 1803–5)
E.A. Forster: Anleitung zum General-Bass (Vienna, 1805)
A.F.C. Kollmann: A New Theory of Musical Harmony, according to a Complete and Natural System of that Science (London, 1806)
G. Weber: Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tonsetzkunst (Mainz, 1817–21, 3/1830–32; Eng. trans., 1851)
A. Reicha: Cours de composition musicale, ou Traité complet et raisonné d’harmonie pratique (Paris, 1818; Eng. trans., 1854)
A.B. Marx: Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition, praktisch-theoretisch, i (Leipzig, 1837, rev., 10/1903; Eng. trans., 1852; ii (Leipzig, 1838, rev. 7/1890); iii (Leipzig, 1845, 5/1879); iv (Leipzig, 1847, 5/1888; Eng. trans., 1910)
S.W. Dehn: Theoretisch-praktische Harmonielehre (Berlin, 1840, 2/1860)
F.J. Fétis: Traité complet de la théorie et de la pratique de l’harmonie (Paris and Brussels, 1844, 20/1903)
M. Hauptmann: Die Natur der Harmonik und der Metrik (Leipzig, 1853, 2/1873; Eng. trans., 1888/R)
E.F. Richter: Lehrbuch der Harmonie (Leipzig, 1853, 36/1953; Eng. trans., 1912)
F. Wieck: Clavier und Gesang: Didaktisches und Polemisches (Leipzig, 1853/R; Eng. trans., 1875/R)
S. Sechter: Die Grundsätze der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig, 1853–4)
F. Hiller: Uebungen zum Studium der Harmonie und des Contrapunkts (Cologne, 1860, 16/1897)
J.C. Lobe: Vereinfachte Harmonielehre (Leipzig, 1869)
M. Mayrberger: Lehrbuch der musikalischen Harmonie (Leipzig, 1878)
O. Hostinsky′: Die Lehre von den musikalischen Klängen: ein Beitrag zur aesthetischen Begründung der Harmonielehre (Prague, 1879)
C. Kistler: Harmonielehre (Munich, 1879, 2/1898)
Y. Kurdyumov: Klassifikatsiya garmonicheskikh soyedineniy (St Petersburg, 1896)
F.-A. Gevaert: Traité d’harmonie théorique et pratique (Paris and Brussels, 1905–7)
H. Schenker: Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, i: Harmonielehre (Stuttgart, 1906/R; Eng. trans., 1954/R)
R. Münnich: ‘Von der Entwicklung der Riemannschen Harmonielehre und ihren Verhältnis zu Oettingen und Stumpf’, Riemann-Festschrift (Leipzig, 1909/R), 60–76
A. Schoenberg: Harmonielehre (Vienna, 1911, 3/1922; Eng. trans., abridged, 1948, complete, 1978)
E. Kurth: Die Voraussetzungen der theoretischen Harmonik und der tonalen Darstellungssysteme (Berne, 1913/R)
H. Schenker: ‘Vom Organischen der Sonatenform’, Das Meisterwerke in der Musik, ii (Munich, 1926; Eng. trans., 1996), 45–54
H. Schenker: Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, iii: Der freie Satz (Vienna, 1935, rev. 2/1956 by O. Jonas; Eng. trans., 1979)
K. Jeppesen: ‘Zur Kritik der klassischen Harmonielehre’, IMSCR IV: Basle 1949, 23–34
A. Dommel-Diény: L’harmonie vivante, i: L’harmonie tonale (Neuchâtel, 1963)
E. Seidel: ‘Die Harmonielehre Hugo Riemanns’, Beiträge zur Musiktheorie des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. M. Vogel (Regensburg, 1966)
R. Imig: Systeme der Funktionsbezeichnung in den Harmonielehren seit Hugo Riemann (Düsseldorf, 1970)
P. Williams: Figured Bass Accompaniment (Edinburgh, 1970)
C. Rosen: The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (New York, 1971, rev.2/1997)
D.W. Beach: ‘The Origins of Harmonic Analysis’, JMT, xviii (1974), 274–307
M. Wagner: Die Harmonielehren der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts (Regensburg, 1974)
P. Rummenhöller: ‘Eine Bezeichnungsweise tonaler Harmonie’, Zeitschrift für Musiktheorie, vi/1 (1975), 28–47
B. Simms: ‘Choron, Fétis, and the Theory of Tonality’, JMT, xix (1975), 112–38
D. de la Motte: Harmonielehre (Kassel, 1976; Eng. trans., 1991)
H.M. Krebs: Third Relation and Dominant in Late 18th- and Early 19th-Century Music (diss., Yale U., 1980)
D.M. Thompson: A History of Harmonic Theory in the United States (Kent, OH, 1980)
M. Federhofer: Akkord und Stimmführung in den musiktheoretischen Systemen von Hugo Riemann, Ernst Kurth und Heinrich Schenker (Vienna, 1981)
A. Keiler: ‘Music as Metalanguage: Rameau's Fundamental Bass’, Music Theory: Special Topics, ed. R. Browne (New York, 1981), 83–100
R. Groth: Die französische Kompositionslehre des 19. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1983)
F. Lerdahl and R. Jackendoff: A Generative Theory of Tonal Music (Cambridge, MA, 1983/R)
C. Deliège: Les fondements de la musique tonale: une perspective analytique post-schenkerienne (Paris, 1984)
R.W. Wason: Viennese Harmonic Theory from Albrechtsberger to Schenker and Schoenberg (Ann Arbor, 1985)
F.K. and M.G. Grave: In Praise of Harmony: the Teachings of Abbé Georg Joseph Vogler (Lincoln, NE, 1987)
T. Christensen: ‘Nichelmann Contra C.Ph.E. Bach: Harmonic Theory and Musical Politics at the Court of Frederick the Great’, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach und die europäische Musikkultur: Hamburg 1988, 189–220
E. Narmour: ‘Melodic Structuring of Harmonic Dissonance: a Method for Analysing Chopin's Contribution to the Development of Harmony’, Chopin Studies (Cambridge, 1988), 77–114
C.M. Gessele: The Institutionalization of Music Theory in France, 1764–1802 (diss., Princeton U., 1989)
J. Lester: Between Modes and Keys: German Theory, 1592–1802 (Stuyvesant, NY, 1989)
J. Lester: Compositional Theory in the Eighteenth-Century (Cambridge, MA, 1992)
T. Christensen: Rameau and Musical Thought in the Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1993)
B. Hyer: ‘Sighing Branches: Prosopopoeia in Rameau's Pigmalion’, MAn, xiii (1994), 7–50
E. Agmon: ‘Functional Harmony Revisited: a Prototype-Theoretic Approach’, Music Theory Spectrum, xvii (1995), 196–214
C. Schachter: ‘The Triad as Place and Action’, Music Theory Spectrum, xvii (1995), 149–69
T. Christensen: ‘Fétis and Emerging Tonal Consciousness’, Music Theory in the Age of Romanticism, ed. I. Bent (Cambridge, 1996), 37–56
C. Schachter: Unfoldings: Essays in Schenkerian Theory and Analysis, ed. J.N. Straus (Oxford, 1999) C: Triadic and post-Tristan chromaticism
G.J. Vogler: Handbuch zur Harmonielehre und für den Generalbass (Prague, 1802)
C.F. Weitzmann: Der übermässige Dreiklang (Berlin, 1853)
C.F. Weitzmann: Der verminderte Septimen-Akkord (Berlin, 1854)
H.J. Vincent: Die Einheit in der Tonwelt (Leipzig, 1862)
A.J. von Oettingen: Harmoniesystem in dualer Entwicklung: Studien zur Theorie der Musik (Dorpat and Leipzig, 1866, enlarged 2/1913 as Das duale Harmoniesysteme)
B. Ziehn: Harmonie- und Modulationslehre (Brunswick, 1888, 2/1910; Eng. trans., 1907, as Manual of Harmony)
G. Capellen: Ist das System Simon Sechters ein geeigneter Ausgangspunkt für die theoretische Wagnerforschung? (Leipzig, 1902)
R. Louis and L. Thuille: Harmonielehre (Stuttgart, 1907, 10/1933 by W. Courvoisier and others); Eng. trans. in R.I. Schwarz: An Annotated English Translation of ‘Harmonielehre’ of Rudolf Louis and Ludwig Thuille (diss., Washington U., 1982)
G. Capellen: Fortschrittliche Harmonie- und Melodielehre (Leipzig, 1908)
R. Mayrhofer: Die organische Harmonielehre (Berlin, 1908)
B. Ziehn: Fünf- und sechsstimmige Harmonien und ihre Anwendung (Milwaukee and Berlin, 1911)
E. Kurth: Romantische Harmonik und ihre Krise in Wagners ‘Tristan’ (Berne, 1920, 2/1923/R); partial Eng. trans. in Ernst Kurth: Selected Writings, ed. L.A. Rothfarb (Cambridge, 1991), 97–147
D.F. Tovey: ‘Tonality’, ML, ix (1928), 341–63
S. Karg-Elert: Polaristische Klang- und Tonalitätslehre (Harmonologik) (Leipzig, 1931)
T.W. Adorno: Versuch über Wagner (Berlin and Frankfurt, 1952, 2/1964; Eng. trans., 1981)
A. Schoenberg: Structural Functions of Harmony (New York, 1954, rev. 2/1969 by L. Stein)
W.J. Mitchell: ‘The Study of Chromaticism’, JMT, vi (1962), 2–31
M. Vogel: Der Tristan-Akkord und die Krise der modernen Harmonie-Lehre (Düsseldorf, 1962)
C. Dahlhaus: Zwischen Romantik und Moderne: vier Studien zur Musikgeschichte des späteren 19. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1974; Eng. trans., 1980)
R.P. Morgan: ‘Dissonant Prolongation: Theoretical and Compositional Precedents’, JMT, xx (1976), 49–91
R. Bailey: ‘The Structure of the Ring and its Evolution’, 19CM, i (1977–8), 48–61
G. Proctor: Technical Bases of Nineteenth-Century Chromatic Tonality (diss., Princeton U., 1978)
R.R. Subotnik: ‘Tonality, Autonomy and Competence in Post-Classical Music’, Critical Inquiry, vi (1979), 153–63
L. Kramer: ‘The Mirror of Tonality: Transitional Features of Nineteenth-Century Harmony’, 19CM, iv (1980–81), 191–208
D. Lewin: ‘A Formal Theory of Generalized Tonal Functions’, JMT, xxvi (1982), 23–60
E. Lendvai: Workshop of Bartók and Kodály (Budapest, 1983)
D. Lewin: ‘Amfortas's Prayer to Titurel and the Role of D in Parsifal: the Tonal Spaces of the Drama and the Enharmonic Câ™/B’, 19CM, vii (1983–4), 336–49
R. Taruskin: ‘Chernomor to Kaschei: Harmonic Sorcery or, Stravinsky's “Angle”’, JAMS, xxxviii (1985), 72–142
M. Brown: ‘The Diatonic and the Chromatic in Schenker's Theory of Harmonic Relations’, JMT, xxx (1986), 1–33
C.J. Smith: ‘The Functional Extravagance of Chromatic Chords’, Music Theory Spectrum, viii (1986), 94–139
C. Lewis: ‘Mirrors and Metaphors: Reflections on Schoenberg and Nineteenth-Century Tonality’, 19CM, xi (1987–8), 26–42
L. Rothfarb: Ernst Kurth as Theorist and Analyst (Philadelphia, 1988)
R.W. Wason: ‘Progressive Harmonic Theory in the Mid-Nineteenth-Century’, JMR, viii (1988), 55–60
J. Blume: ‘Analysen als Beispiele musiktheoretischer Probleme: auf der Suche nach der angemessenen Beschreibung chromatischer Harmonik in romantischer Musik’, Musiktheorie, iv (1989), 518–39
B. Shamgar: ‘Romantic Harmony through the Eyes of Contemporary Observers’, JM, vii (1989), 518–39
J. Maegard: ‘Zur harmonischen Analyse der Musik des 19. Jahrhunderts: eine theoretische Erwägung’, Musikkulturgeschichte: Festschrift für Constantin Floros, ed. P. Petersen (Wiesbaden, 1990), 61–86
P. McCreless: ‘Schenker and Chromatic Tonicization: a Reappraisal’, Schenker Studies, ed. H. Siegel (Cambridge, 1990), 125–45
D.W. Bernstein: ‘Symmetry and Symmetrical Inversion in Turn-of-the-Century Theory and Practice’, Music Theory and the Exploration of the Past, ed. C. Hatch and D. Bernstein (Chicago, 1993), 377–407
I. Bent, ed.: Music Analysis in the Nineteenth-Century, i: Fugue, Form, and Style (Cambridge, 1994)
D. Harrison: Harmonic Function in Chromatic Music: a Renewed Dualist Theory and an Account of its Precedents (Chicago, 1994)
B. Hyer: ‘Reimag(in)ing Riemann’, JMT, xxxix (1995), 101–38
D. Kopp: A Comprehensive Theory of Chromatic Mediant Relations in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Music (diss., Brandeis U., 1995)
R. Cohn: ‘Maximally Smooth Cycles, Hexatonic Systems, and the Analysis of Late-Romantic Triadic Progressions’, MAn, xv (1996), 9–40
W. Kinderman and H. Krebs, eds.: The Second Practice of Nineteenth-Century Tonality (Lincoln, NE, 1996) [incl. P. McCreless: ‘An Evolutionary Perspective on Nineteenth-Century Semitonal Relations’, 87–113]
M.K. Mooney: The ‘Table of Relations’ and Music Psychology in Hugo Riemann’s Harmonic Theory (diss., Columbia U., 1996)
R. Cohn: ‘Neo-Riemannian Operations, Parismonious Trichords, and their Tonnetz Representations’, JMT, xli (1997), 1–66
R. Cohn: ‘Introduction to Neo-Riemannian Theory: a Survey and a Historical Perspective’, JMT, xlii (1998), 167–80
P.J. Telesco: ‘Enharmonicism and the Omnibus Progression in Classical-Era Music’, Music Theory Spectrum, xx (1998), 242–79
V.F. Yellin: The Omnibus Idea (Warren, MI, 1998) D: Harmony in 20th-century music
D. Alaleona: ‘L'armonia modernissma: le tonalità neutre e l'arte di stupore’, RMI, xxviii (1911), 769–838
R. Lenormand: Etude sur l'harmonie moderne (Paris, 1913; Eng. trans., 1915, enlarged 2/1940–42/R by M. Carner)
A.E. Hull: Modern Harmony: its Explanation and Application (London, 1914/R)
E.L. Bacon: ‘Our Musical Idiom’, The Monist, xxvii (1917), 560–607
A. Gentili: Nuova teorica dell’armonia (Turin, 1925)
H. Erpf: Studien zur Harmonie- und Klangtechniker neueren Musik (Leipzig, 1927, 2/1969)
A. Hába: Neue Harmonielehre (Leipzig, 1927)
H. Cowell: ‘New Terms for New Music’, MM, v/4 (1927–8), 21–7
H. Cowell: New Musical Resources (New York, 1930, rev. 1996 by D. Nicholls)
H.A. Miller: New Harmonic Devices: a Treatise on Modern Harmonic Problems (Boston, 1930)
E. van der Nüll: Moderne Harmonik (Leipzig, 1932)
H.K. Andrews: Modern Harmony (London, 1934)
P. Hindemith: Unterweisung im Tonsatz, i: Theoretischer Teil (Mainz, 1937, 2/1940; Eng. trans., 1942 as The Craft of Musical Composition, 2/1948)
J. Schillinger: The Schillinger System of Musical Composition, ed. L. Dowling and A. Shaw (New York, 1941/R, 3/1946/R)
J. Schillinger: Harmony (New York, 1947)
F. Reuter: Praktische Harmonik des 20. Jahrhunderts (Halle, 1952)
G.A. Russell: The Lydian-Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Improvisation (New York, 1959)
H. Hanson: Harmonic Materials of Modern Music: Resources of the Tempered Scale (New York, 1960)
V. Persichetti: Twentieth-Century Harmony (New York, 1961)
K. JaneÄek: Základy moderní harmonie [Bases of modern harmony] (Prague, 1965)
V. Dernova: Garmoniya Skryabina (Leningrad, 1968; Eng. trans., 1979)
A. Forte: The Structure of Atonal Music (New Haven, CT, 1973)
G. Perle: Twelve-Tone Tonality (Berkeley, 1977, rev. and enlarged, 2/1996)
J. Samson: Music in Transition: a Study of Tonal Expansion and Atonality, 1900–1920 (London and New York, 1977)
A. Chapman: A Theory of Harmonic Structures for Non-Tonal Music (diss., Yale U., 1978)
S. Strunk: ‘The Harmony of Early Bop: a Layered Approach’, JJS, vi (1979), 4–53
H. Martin: Jazz Harmony (diss., Princeton U., 1980)
J. Rahn: Basic Atonal Theory (New York, 1980/R)
R. Morris: Composition with Pitch Classes (New Haven, CT, 1987)
J. Straus: ‘The Problem of Prolongation in Post-Tonal Music’, JMT, xxxi (1987), 1–21
J. Roeder: ‘Harmonic Implications of Schoenberg's Observations of Atonal Voice Leading’, JMT, xxxiii (1989), 27–62
S. Block: ‘Pitch-Class Transformations in Free Jazz’, Music Theory Spectrum, xii (1990), 181–202
M. Delaere: Funktionelle Atonalität: analytische Strategien für die frei-atonale Musik der Wiener Schule (Wilhelmshaven, 1993)
A. Forte: The American Popular Ballad of the Golden Era, 1924–1950 (Princeton, NJ, 1995)
W. Gieseler: Harmonik in der Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts: Tendenzen, Modelle (Celle, 1996)
J.W. Bernard: ‘Chord, Collection, and Set in Twentieth-Century Theory’, Music Theory in Concept and Practice, ed. J.M. Baker, D.W. Beach and J.W. Bernard (Rochester, NY, 1997), 11–51
Speculative, empirical, pan-historical and pedagogical writings
MGG2 (P. Rummenhöller: ‘Harmonielehre’)
L. Euler: Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, ex certissimis harmoniae principiis dilucide expositae (St Petersburg, 1739; Eng. trans., 1960); repr. in Opera omnia, iii/1, 197–427
J.-J. de Momigny: Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, 1791–1818)
C.S. Catel: Traité d’harmonie (Paris, 1802, enlarged 2/1848 by A. Leborne)
A. Choron: Sommaire de l’histoire de la musique (Paris, 1810; Eng. trans., 1825)
F.H.J. Castil-Blaze: Dictionnaire de musique moderne (Paris, 1821, 2/1825)
P. de Geslin: Cours d’harmonie (Paris, 1826)
D. Jelensperger: L’harmonie au commencement du dix-neuvième siècle et méthode pour l’étudier (Paris, 1830)
J.A. André: Lehrbuch der Tonsetzkunst (Offenbach, 1832–40)
A. Day: A Treatise on Harmony (London, 1845); ed. G.A. Macfarren (London, 1885)
H. Helmholtz: Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen (Brunswick, 1863, 6/1913/R; Eng. trans., 1875, as On the Sensations of Tone, 2/1885/R)
F.-J. Fétis: Histoire générale de la musique (Paris, 1869–76/R)
P.I. Chaykovsky: Rukovodstvo k prakticheskomu izucheniyu garmonii [Guide to the practical study of harmony] (Moscow, 1872)
L. Bussler: Praktische Harmonielehre in vierundfünfzig Aufgaben (Berlin, 1875, rev. 10/1929 by H. Leichtentritt)
S. Jadassohn: Lehrbuch der Harmonie (Leipzig, 1883, 23/1923; Eng. trans., 1884–6, 7/1904)
C. Stumpf: Tonpsychologie (Leipzig, 1883–90/R)
N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov: Uchebnik garmonii [Textbook of harmony] (St Petersburg, 1884–5, 2/1886 as Prakticheskiy uchebnik garmonii, 19/1949; Eng. trans., 1930)
S. Jadassohn: Explanatory Remarks and Suggestions for the Working of the Exercises in the Manual of Harmony, with Special Consideration for Self-Instruction (Leipzig, 1886)
E. Prout: Harmony: its Theory and Practice (London, 1889, 20/1903)
S. Jadassohn: Die Kunst zu moduliren und zu präludiren: ein praktischer Beitrag zur Harmonielehre in stufenweise geordnetem Lehrgange dargestellt (Leipzig, 1890, 2/1902)
S. Jadassohn: Aufgaben und Beispiele für die Harmonielehre (Leipzig, 1891, 8/1918)
H. Riemann: Vereinfachte Harmonielehre oder die Lehre von den tonalen Funktionen der Akkorde (London and New York, 1893, 2/1903; Eng. trans., 1896)
H. Riemann: ‘Ideen zu einer “Lehre von den Tonvorstellungen’, JbMP 1914–15, 1–26; Eng. trans., in JMT, xxxvi (1992), 69–117
H. Riemann: ‘Neue Beiträge zur einer Lehre von den Tonvorstellungen’, JbMP 1916, 1–21
M. Shirlaw: The Theory of Harmony (London, 1917, 2/1955/R)
R.O. Morris: Foundations of Practical Harmony and Counterpoint (London, 1925/R)
C. Koechl: Tratié de l’harmonie (Paris, 1927–30)
W. Maler: Beitrag zur Harmonielehre (Leipzig, 1931, rev. 6/1967 by G. Bialas and J. Driessler as Beitrag zur durmolltonalen Harmonielehre)
W. Piston: Principles of Harmonic Analysis (Boston, 1933)
W. Mitchell: Elementary Harmony (New York, 1939, 3/1965)
H. Distler: Funktionelle Harmonielehre (Kassel, 1941)
W. Piston: Harmony (New York, 1941, 2/1948, rev. 5/1987 by M. DeVoto)
P. Hindemith: A Concentrated Course in Traditional Harmony (New York, 1943, 2/1949; Ger. trans., 1949); ii (New York, 1948, 2/1953; Ger. trans., 1949)
A. Katz: Challenge to Musical Tradition: a New Concept of Tonality (New York, 1945/R)
J. Handschin: Der Toncharakter: eine Einführung in die Tonpsychologie (Zürich, 1948)
D.F. Tovey: ‘Musical Form and Matter’, The Mainstream of Music and other Essays, ed. H.J. Foss (Oxford, 1949), 160–82
J. Rohwer: Tonale Instruktionen und Beiträge zur Kompositionslehre (Wolfenbüttel, 1951)
R. Sessions: Harmonic Practice (New York, 1951)
F. Salzer: Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music (New York, 1952/R)
S. Levarie: The Fundamentals of Harmony (New York, 1954, 2/1962)
J. Mehegan: Jazz Improvisation (New York, 1959–65)
A. Forte: Tonal Harmony in Concept and Practice (New York, 1962, 3/1979)
E. Terhardt: ‘Pitch, Consonance, and Harmony’, JASA, lv (1974), 1061–9
W. Mickelsen: Hugo Riemann’s Theory of Harmony: a Study (Lincoln, NE, 1977)
E. Aldwell and C. Schachter: Harmony and Voice Leading (New York, 1978, 2/1989)
R. Browne: ‘Tonal Implications of the Diatonic Set’, In Theory Only, v/6–7 (1981), 3–21
E.D. Carpenter: ‘Russian Music Theory: a Conspectus’, Russian Theoretical Thought in Music, ed. G.D. McQuere (Ann Arbor, 1983), 1–81
D. Lewin: ‘Music, Theory, Phenomenology, and Modes of Perception’, Music Perception, iv (1986–7), 327–92
D. Lewin: Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations (New Haven, CT, 1987)
F. Lerdahl: ‘Tonal Pitch Space’, Music Perception, v (1987–8), 315–49
R. Parncutt: Harmony: a Psychoacoustical Approach (Berlin, 1989)
C.L. Krumhansl: Cognitive Foundations of Musical Pitch (Oxford, 1990)
Z. Gardonyi and H. Nordhoff: Harmonik (Wolfenbüttel, 1990)
E. Agmon: ‘Linear Transformations between Cyclically Generated Chords’, Musikometrika, iii (1991), 15–40
J. Clough and J. Douthett: ‘Maximally Even Sets’, JMT, xxxv (1991), 93–173
B. Rosner and E. Narmour: ‘Harmonic Closure: Music Theory and Perception’, Music Perception, ix (1991–2), 383–411
M. Beiche: ‘Tonalität’ (1992), HMT
W. Thomson: ‘The Harmonic Root: a Fragile Marriage of Concept and Percept’, Music Perception, x (1992–3), 385–415
M. Ernst: Harmonielehre in der Schule: Überlegungen zu einem handlungs- und schülerorientierten Musikunterricht in der Sekundarstufe I (Essen, 1993)
R. Gauldin: Harmonic Practice in Tonal Music (New York, 1997)
J. Douthett and P. Steinbach: ‘Parsimonious Graphs: a Study in Parsimony, Contextual Transformations, and Modes of Limited Transposition’, JMT, xlii (1998), 241–63
Richard Cohn, Brian Hyer
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fiscus, ( Latin: “basket”, ) also called Purse, the Roman emperor’s treasury (where money was stored in baskets), as opposed to the public treasury (aerarium). It drew money primarily from revenues of the imperial provinces, forfeited property, and the produce of unclaimed lands.
Vespasian created the fiscus Alexandrinus and fiscus Asiaticus to receive Egyptian and Asian revenues, formerly directed to the aerarium. The fiscus thereafter became independent of the aerarium and controlled most of the income of the empire. The fiscus supplied funds for the army and fleet, official salaries, and postal subsidies.
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Post-Contact Social Organization of Three Apache Tribes.
© 1999 by James Q. Jacobs
Apachean is the only Athapaskan language found in the Southwest. The Southern Athapaskans migrated from Northern Canada and were well established in the Southwest during the 1500's. Southern Athapaskan culture was probably uniform before this time. Today there are seven Southern Athapaskan speaking tribes with closely related Apachean dialects.
While little was known about the cultural evolution of these tribes during the post-contact Spanish and Mexican periods, their territories were well defined. Although the Spanish and the successive Mexican governments claimed the Apachean territories, numerous military forays failed to dominate them. Despite centuries of conflict the Spaniards never subdued the Apaches. The Apache tribes were the preeminent military powers in their respective regions until after 1856. The War on Mexico affected all the Apache tribes. With the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the 1853 Gadsden Purchase Mexico ceded and then sold the majority of the Apache territories to the United States. Spain, Mexico and the Unites States have never recognized Indian titles to their aboriginal territories.
After 1850 Anglo miners and ranchers invading the Apache territories clashed with the indigenous occupants. Numerous military forts were established by the United States. Most of the Apaches were confined to reservations by 1872, when General Crook ordered that any Indians not on the reservations be hunted and killed. In 1873 300 Indian men were executed for leaving the Fort San Carlos Reservation. By 1877 over 5,000 surviving Apaches were confined. Some Apaches still refused to capitulate. Most opposition was crushed by 1883. Military conflict ended with the 1886 surrender of Geronimo.
By this time the customs described herein were disrupted. Most information about the Apaches dates from after these events. Reliable ethnographic data on the Western Apaches dates from the early 1900's, when information on pre-reservation life was collected from elders. This paper addresses what is understood about Chiricahua, Mescalero and Western Apache social organization before the conquest of their territory and the consequent disruption of their life ways.
The Apachean speaking peoples can be distinguishes into two broad groups which share kinship systems. Morris E. Opler divided the Southern Athapaskan kinship systems into two types, Chiricahua and Jicarilla. The three linguistic tribes considered herein, the Chiricahua, Mescalero and Western Apaches, share the kinship system classified as the Chiricahua, where it was first studied by Opler. The early or proto-Apachean system from which these derived was most probably matrilineal, matrilocal, and characterized by the sororate, sororal polygyny, the levirate, sister exchange and bi-lateral cross-cousin marriage.
In the Chiricahua system matrilineal marriage groups are organized by generations, with matrilineal relatives being important. Sororate, levirate and sororal polygyny was practiced. The Chiricahua kinship is bilateral and organized in generational terms. Except the parent-child terms, all terms are self-reciprocal. Parental siblings are distinguished by side but otherwise are classified together without regard for sex and with terms extended to their children. In ego's generation the two gender determined terms siblings, parallel cousins and cross-cousins are used reciprocally. Grandparent terms are extended to their siblings. Male relationship with a female sibling is restrained, yet very caring towards her offspring. In-law avoidance is common.
The Chiricahuas, Mescaleros and Western Apaches were, in all probability, derived from a single Athapaskan migration. They shared many common features of social organization. The extended matrilineal and matrilocal family, their basic social unit, was ideally composed of a couple, their unmarried children and the families of their married daughters. Extended family dwellings formed clusters with each nuclear family in a separate dwelling. The principal obligations of a married man were to the family of his wife. Women were the anchors of these basic social units. The matrilocal grouping endured for the lifetimes of the members. As a result of these characteristics, women enjoyed high status.
Extended families provided suitable-sized units for many activities, including hunting and food gathering and preparation. Division of labor by gender ordered these activities. Women gathered and preserved foods, preserved hides, built homes, gathered firewood, prepared food, cared for children, and wove baskets. Men were responsible for hunting, security, horses, making weapons and conducting warfare or raiding. With survival dependent on collective activity personal wishes were often subordinate to the extended family.
Local groups were the next order of social organization. The local groups consisted of several units of extended families occupying a given territory. The Chiricahua and Mescalero local groups had as many as 30 extended families. Among the Western Apaches the local groups were comprised of from two to six large, extended family units with three to eight nuclear families each and as many as 200 people.
Each local group had a headman or leader. Local group leaders were invariably men. Typically the leader was the most respected extended family head in the settlement and the most influential member of the local group. Leadership was informal and advisory rather than compulsive. The headman exercised little arbitrary or coercive power over individuals and yet was the arbiter of disputes. An important chiefly role was prevention of disharmony. Leaders were called upon to speak at public occasions and were expected to be eloquent. The office of chief was not hereditary, though a tendency for sons to replace fathers existed.
Among the Chiricahuas and the Western Apaches local groups comprised loose confederations called bands. The bands were ephemeral territorial units, not formal political groups. Nonetheless the bands had distinct names and leadership.. The Mescalero did not have bands. No leadership existed for any of the tribes as a whole. The three tribes considered here are culture and language tribes, rather than political groups. Tribal cohesion was minimal in the sparse desert environment and no formal tribal or local group governments ever existed. This is exemplified by the absence of true native tribal names, at least no self-referencing ones.
The Chiricahua Apache were divided into three to five regional bands (depending on the source). Their total estimated population was 3,000. The Chiricahua were hunters and gathers with a limited amount of agriculture. The Eastern Chiricahuas territory was roughly southwestern New Mexico west of the Rio Grande. The Central Chiricahua band inhabited southeast Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico and a small range in Mexico. This group was also known as the Cochise Apaches, after their famous leader. The Southern Chiricahua band ranged in Mexico and a small area in southwestern New Mexico. Geronimo was their best known leader. Spanish accounts place Chiricahua Apache bands in these territories by the eighteenth century.
Each Chiricahua band consisted of from three to five local groups. The majority of marriages were intra-local group and families related by marriage supported each other. Typically the most well spoken person ascended to band leadership. Band rank adhered to family heads. Local group leaders gained prominence due to personal esteem and ceremonial knowledge. No peace or war determined leadership roles existed. Ceremonial experts and great fighters had higher prestige.
The Mescalero Apaches territory was east of the Rio Grande in New Mexico, along both sides of the Rio Grande in Mexico to below the Pecos confluence and along both sides of the Pecos River north to near Fort Sumner and Belen. Spanish slave trafficking prompted hostilities early in the contact era. The Spanish and Mexican eras were predominantly periods of hostilities, with only intermittent peace. There were probably around 2,500 to 3,000 Mescaleros in 1850. In 1881, at the end of hostilities with the United States, only 431 survived.
With the Mescaleros, unlike the Chiricahuas and Western Apaches, culture was uniform throughout, without notably distinct bands or moieties. The practice of hunting buffalo, available only in the eastern part of their territory, required a fluid spatial arrangement. By comparison, the Chiricahuas and Western Apaches could complete their annual rounds in distinct territories.
The Mescaleros were also hunters and gathers. Only a little agriculture was practiced by some families. From their settlements small groups exploited surrounding resources, and rarely would the entire population be in residence. During agave harvests and buffalo hunts most of the population would be absent. Unlike the Chiricahuas or Western Apaches, the Mescaleros adopted the tepee. Advantage attached to having large local groups. Many people were required for buffalo hunts and agave harvesting and large groups served as deterrence to attacks.
The Western Apaches were established in their Eastern Arizona territory during the 1700's. By the middle of the eighteenth century they had, by means of the addition of horses to their cultural inventory, established a far reaching network of trading or raiding relationships with a dozen other groups, spanning from Northern Arizona to Central Sonora. Aspects of their culture were influenced by these contacts. There territory was remote from Spanish intrusions. They were not as affected by hostilities as the Chiricahuas and Mescaleros, a fact perhaps reflected on their greater sedentism and established horticultural traditions.
Western Apache sub-tribes were the White Mountain, Cibecue, San Carlos and Tonto. Some modern authors distinguish between the Southern and Northern Tontos. These groups were autonomous and had distinct territories, separate identities and minor dialect differences that did not interfere with communication. Each group had two to five bands with separate hunting territories. The 1880 mean size of these bands has been computed at 387 individuals, with considerable variation. Within the local groups family clusters had a headman who led daily affairs, with the best headman as local group chief.
The Western Apaches led a uniform leafy. Their subsistence was about 75 percent wild food and 25 percent horticulture. Older members tended mountain gardens in the summer. Their adoption of horticulture was of sufficient extent to produce seasonal sedentism. A unique feature of the Western Apache kinship pattern seems to have developed in connection with the management and transmission of claims to horticultural lands, that being a system of matrilineal clan designations. There are 62 Western Apache clans. These derive from three archaic clans, on which basis they are grouped into phratries. Clans are associated with the clan mother's garden site. The clan name is related to this place of its origin.
Clans, unlike bands and local groups, are not spatially defined and create networks of relations that transcend bands. Clan relationships provided bonds with distant groups, enhancing cohesion for the larger groups and promoting peaceful relations. Clans are distinguished as closely related, related or distantly related. Closely related and related clan marriage is taboo. A limited amount of intermarriage took place between the regional bands. Local groups were named after their territorial location while matrilocal families bore the name of the clan of its core lineage.
In these three Apache tribes we see both the communality of their origins as expressed in their similarity, and their subsequent differentiation in response to distinct territories and environments, both physical and political. Today they have been forced to readapt by new circumstances, the forced reduction of their territory to several small reservations by the United States government. In the future these changes too will be reflected in their social organization.
Sources in: Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 10, Southwest. Alfonso Ortiz, Volume Editor. Smithsonian Institution, Washington D. C., 1983.
Next on the Southwest Web Ring:
A History of Havasupai Political Organization
Mesa Verde National Park
Spruce Tree House
Canyon de Chelly
Chaco Culture National Historical Park
Aztec Ruins
Salmon Ruins
Hovenweep National Monument
Trail of the Ancients
Pecos National Historical Park
Canyons of the Ancients
Edge of the Cedars
Coronado State Monument
Bandelier National Monument
Blythe Intaglios
Salinas Pueblo Missions
Montezuma Castle
Water Politics and the History of
the Fort McDowell Indian Community
Social Organization of
Three Apache Tribes
A History of Havasupai
Political Organization
Diabetes: Thrifty Genotype
or Thrifty Phenotype?
Southwest Archaeology
Lecture Notes
Pueblo Grande Mound
A Labor Analysis
Rattlesnakes of Arizona
The Chaco Meridian
Southwest Anthropology and Archaeology Pages
© 2007 by James Q. Jacobs. All rights reserved. Photo Stock.
Latest News:
Mound Builders of
the Eastern Woodlands
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Early Thai literature was primarily concerned with religion and until the mid-19th century was in verse form. Thai verse was written exclusively by the aristocracy or royalty, the only educated classes able to do so. The tradition of authorship by kings can be seen in all periods of the country's history, from Sukhothai up to Bangkok. Two Chakri monarchs, King Rama II (1809-1824) and King Rama VI (1910-1925), were distinguished poets and stalwart patrons of Thai arts.
One of the most important Thai literary works is the Ramakian, a uniquely Thai version of the Indian epic, the Ramayana. Early Thai version of the Ramakian were lost in the destruction of Ayutthaya. The longest of the three present versions was written in 1798 by the first Chakri King, Rama I, and a group of intimates, who incorporated Thai and Buddhist elements into it to preserve oral knowledge of Ayutthaya state rites and traditions. Indeed, King Rama I's Ramakian is the major historical source of medieval Thai courtly traditions.
King Rama II composed two episodes of the Ramakian for classical drama purposes and wrote several other epic poems, including the Inao , a romance with a Javanese background. The Inao is a treasure trove of historical information on early 19th century Thai customs, habits, and manners and figures prominently in the repertoire of classical drama.
Another major Thai literary figure was Sunthon Phu (1786-1855), a poetic genius and well-beloved commoner. Sunthon Phu's enduring achievement (apart from his legendary personal adventures) was to write superbly well in common language about common feelings and the common folk. Easily understood by all classes, his work became widely accepted. His major works were Phra Aphai Mani, a romantic adventure, and nine Nirats mostly written during a pilgrimage, associating romantic memoried with the places he visited in central and eastern Thailand.
Both King Rama V and Rama VI were also distinguished writers whose creativity contained the rich intellectual heritage in several prose and verse forms. Among outstanding literary works of King Rama V were Ngo Pa and the well-known collection of Klai Ban or Far Away from Home, on his journey to Europe in 1906-7. Those well-known works of King Rama VI were Matthana Phatha, Phra non Kham Luang , and several patriotic articles entitled, Muang Thai Chong Tun Thoet or Wake up-all Thais, etc.
An outstanding writer and scholar was Phya Anuman Rajadhon, who was born in 1888 and died in 1969. Interested in all aspects of Thai culture, from language to folklore, Phya Anuman wrote dozens of books on such subjects and served as an inspiration to numerous younger Thais who are now prominent in academic fields.
Moving into the modern age about 1900 onward, most of the Thai readers are well acquainted with the work of Dokmaisod whose real name is M.L. Boobpha Nimmanhaemindha. She was a novelist in the pioneering age. Her best known works were for example, Phu Di, Nung Nai Roi, Nit, Chaichana Khong Luang Naruban, etc. Many of her works have been assigned as books for external reading for students at the secondary and tertiary levels of education today.
Malai Choopinij, in his pen name Mae Anong and Noi Intanon, was an expert in his own right in both full length and short stories. Thung Maharat, a novel based on rural life, and Long Phrai, which is about the adventure in the forest, are some of his best-known literary works.
Mai Muang Doem the pen name of Kan Phungbun Na Ayudhya, whose novel Khun Suk, won much admiration during his time and was on several occasions adapted for television drama
Yakhop, a pen name of Chot Praephan, whose most popular work is Phu chana Sip Thit, a legend of Burmese royal court, which has been adapted by many script writers for television drama as well as stage drama enjoyed by nationwide audiences.
Sri Burapha, a popular novelist, whose real name was Kularb Sai Pradit. His most famous work is a love story entitled Khang Lang Phap, or literally Behind the Portrait.
Another leading literary figure is former Prime Minister M.R. Kukrit Pramoj, whose works have been prolific. They appeared in various forms including short stories, articles, columns and critiques. He is generally regarded as the best Thai short story author. His collection of short stories, the so-called Lai Chiwit, is considered an exemplary work embodying the finest Thai prose, an appreciation of which is essential for the appraisal of Thai contemporary literature. His most outstanding novel, Si Phandin , or Four Reigns, revolves around the court life from the reign of King Rama V to Rama VIII offering a vivid portrait of Thai society in those long years of the four interesting reigns.
Krisna Asokesin, or Sukanya Cholasuk, is another very successful and famous novelist. She has written a collection of over one hundred novels on love and complexities of family life. She has won both domestic and international awards. Her well-known novels, Rua Manut and Tawan Tok Din, won the SEATO Literary Awards. She was also awarded the National Artist status.
Seni Saowaphong or Sakdichai Bamrungphong is the doyen of modern writers. His novels and short stories deal with class conflicts, exploitation, and urban society. Pisat, Evil Spirits, his most popular novel, is about the conflict between new and old generations. He also won the National Artist status.
The late Suwanee Sukhnotha, a former painter, was a highly successful woman writer. Her best novel, Khao Chu Kan, His Name is Kan, won a SEATO Literary Award. It is about a young doctor who sacrifices a brilliant career in one of the nation's leading hospitals to work in a rural area where peasants have no access to modern medicines.
Suwat Woradilok, a novelist under the pen name Rapeeporn, whose work under the title of Phandin Mai is well-known among novel readers. Kamsing Srinok, who is also known under the pen name of Lao Kam Hom, is a low-profiled but powerful writer, whose short stories recreate northeastern village life. His most acclaimed short story, Fa Bo Kan is about the hardship the Northeasterners must face during a cruel drought. Both Suwat Woradilok and Kamsing Srinok won the National Artist status.
Kampoon Boonthavi, who wrote Luk Isan; Chart Korbjitti, whose works are Kham Phiphaksa, The Judgement, and Wela; Vanich Charungkichanand, with his collection of short stories entitled Soi Dieo Kan, are all awardees of the Southeast Asian Writers Award (SEAWRITE).
Other well-known contemporary female novelists whose names are worth mentioning here are : the late Supa Devakul, who was not only a popular known novelist but also a stage and television playwright; Wimol Siripaibul, with her well-known pen names Thomayanti and Rose- la-rain, Penkae Wong Sa-Nga or her real name Penkae Vajanasuntorn, Nopakun Jittayasotorn, under her pen name Man Supiti, and Winita Dithiyon, under her pen name Wor Winichaikul.
Angkarn Kalayanapong is a leading Thai contemporary poet whose language is most eloquent and impressive. One of his distinguished works, Lamnam Phu Kradung draws great admiration as its literary work paints the beauty and vitality of nature and campaigns against environmental degradations. He has won both the SEAWRITE Award and the National Artis status.
Another popular Thai contemporary poet, Naowarat Phongpaiboon, writes in a traditional style although his topics are current. His odes to such emotions as love, despair, and hope are laced with beautiful lyrics. He has won both the SEAWRITE Award and the National Artist status. His most famous work, entitled Khian Phaendin, is the fruit of his journey to all corners of Thailand from where he recorded the beauty and admiration of local landscapes in words and wins utmost popularity among the Thais.
The transformation of the world by science and technology is one of the things that separates present day literary works from those of the pase. Writers depend not only upon a general public perception of reality, as in the past, but also upon their own instincts and insights which they express as a kind to personal vision, sometimes to make their readers see and think in a new way.
It was inevitable that Thai artists in the age of technology would find new subjects and forms of expression in addition to more foreign influences, the arts have begun to move in different directions which modern Thais can relate to. Yet the beauty of the old has not lost its ability to inspire, and despite the inroads made by modern culture, it continues to hold its own and even to show signs of revival in many areas.
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Science Fair Projects Ideas - Aleut language
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Aleut language
Aleut is a language of the Eskimo-Aleut language phylum. It is the tongue of the Aleut people living in the Aleutian, Pribilof and Commander Islands. In 1995 there were 305 speakers of Aleut.
Aleut is alone with Eskimo in the Eskimo-Aleut group. The two main dialect groupings are Eastern Aleut and Atkan. Within the Eastern group are the dialects of Unalaska, Belkofski , Akutan , the Pribilof Islands, Kashega and Nikolski . Within the Atkan grouping are the dialects of Attu, Bering Island and Copper Island (or Mednyy).
The first contact of people from the Eastern Hemisphere with the Aleut language occurred in 1741, as Vitus Bering's expedition picked up place names and the names of the Aleut people they met. The first recording of the Aleut language in lexicon form appeared in a word list of the Unalaskan dialect compiled by Captain James King on Cook's voyage in 1778. At that time the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg became interested in the Aleut language upon hearing of Russian expeditions for trading.
In Catherine the Great's project to compile a giant comparative dictionary on all the languages spoken in what was the spread of the Russian empire at that time, she hired Peter Simon Pallas to conduct the fieldwork that would collect linguistic information on Aleut. During an expedition from 1791 to 1792, Carl Heinrich Merck and Michael Rohbeck collected several word lists and conducted a census of the male population that included prebaptismal Aleut names. Explorer Yuriy Feodorovich Lisyansky compiled several word lists. in 1804 and 1805, the czar's plenipotentiary, Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov collected some more. Johann Christoph Adelung and Johann Severin Vater published their Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachkunde 1806-1817, which included Aleut among the languages it catalogued, similar to Catherine the Great's dictionary project.
It wasn't until 1819 that the first professional linguist, the Dane Rasmus Rask, studied Aleut. He collected words and paradigms from two speakers of Eastern Aleut dialects living in St. Petersburg. In 1824 came the man who would revolutionize Aleut as a literary language. Ioann Veniaminov, a Russian Orthodox priest who would later become a saint, arrived at Unalaska studying Unalaskan Aleut. He created an orthography for this language (using the Cyrillic alphabet; the Roman alphabet would come later), translated the Gospel according to St. Matthew and several other religious works into Aleut, and published a grammar of Eastern Aleut in 1846. The religious works were translated with the help of Veniaminov's friends Ivan Pan'kov (chief of Tigalda) and Iakov Netsvetov (the priest of Atka), both of whom were native Aleut speakers. Netsvetov also wrote a dictionary of Atkan Aleut. After Veniaminov's works were published, several religious figures took interest in studying and recording Aleut, which would help these Russian Orthodox clerics in their missionary work.
The first Frenchman to record Aleut was Alphonse Pinart, in 1871, shortly after the United States purchase of Alaska. Shortly after, in 1878, American Lucien M. Turner began work on collecting words for a word list. Benedykt Dybowski, a Pole, began taking word lists from the dialects the Commander Islands in 1881, while Nikolai Vasilyevich Slyunin, a Russian doctor, did the same in 1892.
From 1909 to 1910, the ethnologist Waldemar Jochelson traveled to the Aleut communities of Unalaska, Atka, Attu and Nikolski. He spent nineteen months there doing fieldwork. Jochelson collected his ethnographic work with the help of two Unalaskan speakers, Aleksey Yachmenev and Leontiy Sivstov. He recorded many Aleut stories, folklore and myth, and had many of them not only written down but also recorded in audio. Jochelson discovered much vocabulary and grammar when he was there, adding to the scientific knowledge of the Aleut language.
In the 1930s, two native Aleuts wrote down works that are considered breakthroughs in the use of Aleut as a literary language. Afinogen K. Ermeloff wrote down a literary account of a shipwreck in his native language, while Ardelion G. Ermeloff kept a diary in Aleut during the decade. At the same time, linguist Melville Jacobs picked up several new texts from Sergey Golley, an Atkan speaker who was hospitalized at the time.
John P. Harrington furthered research into the Pribilof Island dialect on St. Paul Island in 1941, collecting some new vocabulary along the way. In 1944, the United States Department of the Interior published The Aleut Language as part of the war effort, allowing World War II soldiers to understand the language of the Aleuts. This English language project was based on Veniaminov's work. Knut Bergsland published a complete Aleut dictionary in 1994.
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Tuesday, May 20, 2008
Apalachicola River, Part Eighteen
South of Ricco's Bluff, the Apalachicola River once flowed through a winding series of curves that were known to riverboat pilots as "the Narrows."
In 1863, deciding that the defenses at Ricco's Bluff were too far upstream and perhaps not placed well to provide a suitable defense, the Confederates set about building new fortifications and batteries at the Narrows.
The task was extremely difficult. The land around the Narrows was low and swampy. At high water, the swamps overflowed. At low water, the location was covered with a mosquito population so thick that clouds of them often darkened the sky.
Despite these hardships, the Confederates constructed two batteries at the Narrows. Known as Battery Gilmer and Battery Cobb, these installations were created by taking pre-built frames downstream and then filling them with earth. Two large mounds were created, atop which the artillery batteries were constructed.
In addition, the Confederates obstructed the river at the Narrows, by placing similar pre-built frames in the river and allowing the river itself to pile driftwood against them until finally a mass so thick was created that the soldiers could walk back and forth across the river on the tangle of driftwood.
The Confederate warship Chattahoochee came down to guard the work crews as they built the batteries. It was bittersweet duty for the officers and men on the ship, however. The same obstructions that would prevent Union ships from coming upstream also doomed the Chattahoochee to a career of service in the river.
The batteries at the Narrows never came under fire and the location proved so unhealthy that the Confederates soon abandoned it. In addition, it was quickly realized that the batteries could be bypassed using a series of smaller streams and sloughs. As a result the guns were removed and taken upriver to Alum Bluff.
The Apalachicola River has since been straightened and no longer flows by the battery site at the Narrows. The mounds still exist, but are far back in the river swamp and very difficult to reach today. Curiously, one of Florida's top archaeologists mistook them for a major Native American mound complex, despite the fact that no significant Native American artifacts have been found there. Another group of archaeologists, also thinking they were investigating a Native American mound complex, learned the truth when they found a few rusty nails and recognized the pattern of the earthworks atop the mounds as fortifications.
Our series will continue.
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Kingdom of Colchis
კოლხეთის სამეფო (Georgian)
550 BC–164 BC
Map of the Georgian kingdom of Colchis (600BC)
Capital Aia (XVIII-X BC)
Ildamusha (IX-VI BC)
Phasis (VI-II BC)
Languages Colchian
Religion Fire worshipper
Government Feudal Monarchy
- XVII-XVI BC Aeëtes
- Established 550 BC
- Disestablished 164 BC
Today part of
Part of a series on the
History of Georgia
Bronze Age
Classical antiquity
Early Middle Ages
Medieval monarchy
19th century onwards
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In ancient geography, Colchis or Kolkhis (Georgian and Laz: კოლხეთი, ḳolkheti or "ḳolkha"; Ancient Greek: Κολχίς, Kolkhís) was an ancient Georgian[1][2][3][4] state[5][6] kingdom and region[7] in Western Georgia, which played an important role in the ethnic and cultural formation of the Georgian nation.[4][8][9]
The Kingdom of Colchis contributed significantly to the development of medieval Georgian statehood after its unification with the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Iberia.[10][11] The term Colchians is used as the collective term for early Georgian tribes which populated the eastern coast of the Black Sea.[12]
In Greek mythology, Colchis was the home of Aeëtes and Medea and the destination of the Argonauts; Colchis is also thought to be the possible homeland of the Amazons. Its geography is mostly assigned to what is now the western part of Georgia and encompasses the present-day Georgian provinces of Samegrelo, Imereti, Guria, Adjara, Abkhazeti, Svaneti, Racha; the modern Turkey’s Rize, Trabzon and Artvin provinces (Lazistan, Tao-Klarjeti); and the modern Russia’s Sochi and Tuapse districts.[13] The Colchians were probably established on the Black Sea coast by the Middle Bronze Age.[14]
Geography and toponyms [edit]
The kingdom of Colchis, which existed from the sixth to the first centuries BC is regarded as the first early Georgian state and the term Colchians was used as the collective term for early Georgian tribes which populated the eastern coast of the Black Sea.[2][3][4][4][5][6][12][15]
According to the scholar of the Caucasian studies Cyril Toumanoff:
A second South Caucasian tribal union emerged in the 13th century BC on the Black Sea coast under creating the Kingdom of Colchis in the western Georgia. This kingdom was a first state formation of the early Georgian tribes (including other Kartvelians such as Laz).[17][18] According to most classic authors, a district which was bounded on the southwest by Pontus, on the west by the Black Sea as far as the river Corax (probably the present day Bzyb River, Abkhazia, Georgia), on the north by the chain of the Greater Caucasus, which lay between it and Asiatic Sarmatia, on the east by Iberia and Montes Moschici (now the Lesser Caucasus), and on the south by Armenia. There is some little difference in authors as to the extent of the country westward: thus Strabo makes Colchis begin at Trabzon, while Ptolemy, on the other hand, extends Pontus to the Rioni River. Pitsunda was the last town to the north in Colchis.
Physical-geographic characteristics [edit]
The climate is mild humid; near Batumi, annual rainfall level reaches 4000 mm, which is the absolute maximum for the continental western Eurasia. The dominating natural landscapes of Colchis are temperate rainforests, yet degraded in the plain part of the region; wetlands (along the coastal parts of Colchis Plain); subalpine and alpine meadows.
History [edit]
Earliest times [edit]
The eastern Black Sea region in antiquity was home to the well-developed bronze culture known as the Colchian culture, related to the neighboring Koban culture, that emerged towards the Middle Bronze Age. In at least some parts of Colchis, the process of urbanization seems to have been well advanced by the end of the second millennium BC, centuries before Greek settlement. The Colchian Late Bronze Age (15th to 8th century BC) saw the development of significant skill in the smelting and casting of metals that began long before this skill was mastered in Europe. Sophisticated farming implements were made, and fertile, well-watered lowlands and a mild climate promoted the growth of progressive agricultural techniques.
Colchis was inhabited by a number of related but distinct tribes whose settlements lay along the shore of the Black Sea. Chief among those were the Machelones, Heniochi, Zydretae, Lazi, Chalybes, Tabal/Tibareni/Tubal, Mossynoeci, Macrones, Moschi, Marres, Apsilae, Abasci,[20] Sanigae, Coraxi, Coli, Melanchlaeni, Geloni and Soani (Suani). These Kartvelian tribes differed so completely in language and appearance from the surrounding Indo-European nations that the ancients provided various wild theories to account for the phenomenon.
Qulha (Kolkha) [edit]
Colchian necklace from Vani, Georgia, 5th century BC.
Ancient Colchian golden earrings, 4th century BC.
Colchian coins, 2nd century BC.
In the 13th century BC, the Kingdom of Colchis was formed as a result of the increasing consolidation of the tribes inhabiting the region. This power, celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of the Argonauts, the home of Medea and the special domain of sorcery, was known to Urartians as Qulha (aka Kolkha, or Kilkhi). The kingdom of Tabal was conquered by the Assyrian emperor Shalmaneser III in the 830's BC. Being in permanent wars with the neighbouring nations, the Colchians managed to absorb part of Diauehi in the 750s BC, but lost several provinces (including the “royal city” of Ildemusa) to the Sarduri II of Urartu following the wars of 750-748 and 744-742 BC. Overrun by the Cimmerians and Scythians in the 730s-720s BC, the kingdom disintegrated and came under the Achaemenid Persian Empire towards the mid-6th century BC. The tribes living in the southern Colchis (Tibareni, Mossynoeci, Macrones, Moschi, and Marres) were incorporated into the 19th Satrapy of Persia, while the northern tribes submitted “voluntarily” and had to send to the Persian court 100 girls and 100 boys every five years. The influence exerted on Colchis by the vast Achaemenid Empire with its thriving commerce and wide economic and commercial ties with other regions accelerated the socio-economic development of the Colchian land. Subsequently the Colchis people appear to have overthrown the Persian Authority, and to have formed an independent state[citation needed]. According to Ronald Suny: This western Georgian state was federated to Kartli-Iberia, and its kings ruled through skeptukhi (royal governors) who received a staff from the king.[23]
Greek colonization [edit]
The advanced economy and favorable geographic and natural conditions of the area attracted the Milesian Greeks who colonized the Colchian coast establishing here their trading posts at Phasis, Gyenos, and Sukhumi in the 6th-5th centuries BC. It was considered "the farthest voyage" according to an ancient Greek proverbial expression, the easternmost location in that society's known world, where the sun rose. It was situated just outside the lands conquered by Alexander the Great. Phasis and Sukhumi were the splendid Greek cities dominated by the mercantile oligarchies, sometimes being troubled by the Colchians from the hinterland before seemingly assimilating totally. After the fall of the Persian Empire, a significant part of Colchis locally known as Egrisi was annexed to the recently created Kingdom of Iberia (Kartli) in ca. 302 BC. However, soon Colchis seceded and broke up into several small princedoms ruled by sceptuchi. They retained a degree of independence until conquered (circa 101 BC) by Mithridates VI of Pontus.
Under Pontus [edit]
Mithradates VI quelled an uprising in the region in 83 BC and gave Colchis to his son Mithridates, who was soon executed being suspected in having plotted against his father. During the Third Mithridatic War, Mithridates VI made another his son Machares king of Colchis, who held his power but for a short period. On the defeat of Mithridates VI of Pontus in 65 BC, Colchis was occupied by Pompey, who captured one of the local chiefs (sceptuchus) Olthaces, and installed Aristarchus as a dynast (65-47 BC). On the fall of Pompey, Pharnaces II, son of Mithridates, took advantage of Julius Caesar being occupied in Egypt, and reduced Colchis, Armenia, and some part of Cappadocia, defeating Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus, whom Caesar subsequently sent against him. His triumph was, however, short-lived. Under Polemon I, the son and heir of Zenon, Colchis was part of the Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom. After the death of Polemon (8 BC), his second wife Pythodorida of Pontus retained possession of Colchis as well as of Pontus itself, though the kingdom of Bosporus was wrested from her power. Her son and successor Polemon II of Pontus was induced by Emperor Nero to abdicate the throne, and both Pontus and Colchis were incorporated in the Province of Galatia (63) and later in Cappadocia (81).
Under Roman rule [edit]
Despite the fact that all major fortresses along the seacoast were occupied by the Romans, their rule was relatively loose. In 69, the people of Pontus and Colchis under Anicetus staged a major uprising against the Romans which ended unsuccessfully. The lowlands and coastal area were frequently raided by fierce mountain tribes, with the Soanes and Heniochi being the most powerful of them. Paying a nominal homage to Rome, they created their own kingdoms and enjoyed significant independence. Christianity began to spread in the early 1st century. Traditional accounts relate the event with Saint Andrew, Saint Simon the Zealot, and Saint Matata. The Hellenistic, local pagan and Mithraic religious beliefs would however remain widespread until the 4th century. By the 130s, the kingdoms of Machelones, Heniochi, Egrisi, Apsilia, Abasgia, and Sanigia had occupied the district from south to north. Goths, dwelling in the Crimea and looking for new homes, raided Colchis in 253, but were repulsed with the help of the Roman garrison of Pitsunda. By the 3rd-4th centuries, most of the local kingdoms and principalities had been subjugated by the Lazic kings, and thereafter the country was generally referred to as Lazica (Egrisi).
Rulers [edit]
Little is known of the rulers of Colchis;
• Kuji, a presiding prince (eristavi) of Egrisi under the authority of Pharnavaz I of Iberia (ca 302-237 BC) (according to the medieval Georgian annals).
• Akes (Basileus Aku) (end of the 4th century BC), king of Colchis; his name is found on a coin issued by him.
• Saulaces, "king" in the 2nd century BC (according to some ancient sources).
• Mithridates (fl. 65 BC), under the authority of Pontus.
Note: During his reign, the local chiefs, sceptuchi, continued to exercise some power. One of them, Olthaces, is mentioned by the Roman sources as a captive of Pompey in 65 BC.
• Aristarchus (65-47 BC), a dynasty under the authority of Pompey.
Colchis in mythology [edit]
The statue of Medea in the center of Batumi, Georgia, one of the main Colchian cities.
See also [edit]
References [edit]
1. ^ Ronald Grigol Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, p 9
2. ^ a b Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562, David Braund Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Pp. 359
3. ^ a b The Making of the Georgian Nation, Ronald Grigor Suny, p. 13
4. ^ a b c d Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War, Stuart J. Kaufman, p. 91
5. ^ a b Cyril Toumanoff, Studies in Christian Caucasian History, p 69
6. ^ a b One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups, James Minahan, p. 282
7. ^ Marc Van de Mieroop, A History of the Ancient near East, C. 3000–323 BC, p 265
9. ^ Oliver Wardrop, The Kingdom Of Georgia: Travel In A Land Of Women, Wine And Song (Kegan Paul Library of History and Archaeology)
12. ^ a b The Great Soviet Encyclopedia:Значение слова "Колхи" в Большой Советской Энциклопедии
13. ^ Andrew Andersen, History of Ancient Caucasus, p. 91
14. ^ David Marshal Lang, the Georgians, Frederich A. Praeger Publishers, New York, p 59
16. ^ CToumanoff. Cyril Toumanoff, Studies in Christian Caucasian History, p 69,84
19. ^ Apollonius, Argonautica, II.417.
Further reading [edit]
External links [edit]
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Image Gallery
DOE Microbial Genome Program Report
Super Survivor Deinococcus radiodurans
Although the ability of the lowly cockroach to withstand radiation has long been admired, it is far surpassed by that of the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans. Scientists are eager to learn how D. radiodurans thrives in massive amounts of radiation and how to exploit this property to clean up mixed-waste sites around the world, a legacy resulting from nuclear weapons production between 1945 and 1986. Researchers are adding genes from other species to D. radiodurans to increase its ability to remediate radioactive sites containing such metallic and organic contaminants as mercury and toulene.
Electron photomicrograph of D. radiodurans (sequenced in the DOE Microbial Genome Program, typically found as a cluster of four cells (a tetrad). D. radiodurans and related species have been identified worldwide, including in Antarctic granite and in water-shielding tanks of powerful 60Cobalt irradiators in Denmark. [Image and graph data by the Deinococcus team (Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences]
The radiation-resistance profile of D. radiodurans compared to such other organisms as the common intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli, cockroaches, and humans. When older colonies of D. radiodurans are used, their survival extends much farther, to around 17kGy (1.7 million rads). Scientists believe this extreme radiation resistance may be a side effect of D. radiodurans' ability to survive severe dehydration, which also fragments DNA. [Nature Biotechnology 18, 85-90 (January 2000)] [Image and graph data by the Deinococcus team (Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences]
Deinococcus radiodurans: The Ultimate Assembly Machine
The upper panel depicts DNA fragments extracted from D. radiodurans cells after high doss of radiation. The lower panel shows an intact, repaired DNA molecule hours later. Both panels depict "optical maps" of molecules viewed on a slide through an optical light microscope. Understanding the remarkable DNA-repair mechanisms of D. radiodurans may offer insights into some human cancers caused by DNA damage. [photos provided by David Schwartz (University of Wisconsin, Madison)]
D. radiodurans 1.75 million rads, 0 h
D. radiodurans 1.75 million rads, 24 h
Ordered restriction map (colored circle) and optical of a single circular 415,000-base (415-kb) DNA molecule snipped apart using a special DNA-cutting protein, the restriction enzyme Nhe I. Circular DNA elements are difficult to identify using nonoptical approaches, since these molecules break and become linear elements. Optical mapping generates a picture of the entire genome's architecture, revealing the number of chromosomes and the existence of extrachromosomal elements. This technique was critical to the discovery that D. radiodurans has four chromosomal elements rather than just one.
The online presentation of this 2000 publication is a special feature of the Human Genome Project Information Web site.
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To sob is to cry uncontrollably and loudly, often with gasps for breath.
An example of to sob is to get overcome with sadness at a funeral.
The definition of a sob is the sound one makes when crying loudly.
An example of a sob is the sound of a very upset person as they try to fall asleep after a terrible experience.
The definition of an abbreviation for the vulgar slang expression son of a bitch.
An example of sob is the name that one person might use to describe another person who is a difficult to deal with; "He's an sob."
See sob in Webster's New World College Dictionary
intransitive verb sobbed, sobbing
1. to weep aloud with a catch or break in the voice and short, gasping breaths
2. to make a sound like that of sobbing, as the wind
Origin: ME sobben
transitive verb
1. to bring (oneself) into a given state, esp. sleep, by sobbing
2. to utter with sobs
the act or sound of one that sobs
Related Forms:
or SOB
noun pl. sob's or SOB's
Slang son of a bitch (sense )
often written s.o.b. or S.O.B.
See sob in American Heritage Dictionary 4
verb sobbed sobbed, sob·bing, sobs
verb, intransitive
1. To weep aloud with convulsive gasping; cry uncontrollably. See Synonyms at cry.
2. To make a sound resembling that of loud weeping.
verb, transitive
1. To utter with sobs.
2. To put or bring (oneself) into a specified condition by sobbing: sob oneself to sleep.
The act or sound of sobbing.
Origin: Middle English sobben
Origin: , perhaps of Low German origin
Related Forms:
• sobˈbing·ly adverb
A son of a bitch.
Learn more about sob
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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
Mexico, 1000–1400 A.D.
Central Mexico
Gulf Coast
Western Mexico
Southern Mexico
Regional cultures, ca. 650–1200
Toltec city-state, ca. 1000–1200
Northern emigrant cultures, ca. 1200–1350
Aztec state, ca. 1350–1521
El Tajin city-state, ca. 600–1150
Huastec cultures, ca. 1150–1521
Cempoala city-state, ca. 1000–1521
Tarascan culture, ca. 900–1250
Tarascan state, 1250–1532
Mixtec and Zapotec kingdoms, ca. 1000–1521
Countless cities and small city-states exist in central Mexico; populations increase substantially. The city-states engage in constant warfare while trying to expand their political and economic base. Most are unable to establish themselves in larger domains or empires. Long-distance trade grows, and traveling merchants have an important place in the social hierarchy, as do professional soldiers. Stylistic features and symbols spread throughout large areas. About 1200, numerous Nahuatl-speaking groups from northern Mexico migrate to central Mexico, where the Aztec culture will coalesce. One of the northern groups, the Mexica, rises to prominence in the fifteenth century as rulers of the Aztec empire.
• ca. 1000 Tula, at the height of its cultural and political influence, is the largest city in central Mexico, covering some five square miles with a population of about 60,000 persons. At its center, the sacred precinct features two large ballcourts and two stepped pyramids. One, known as Pyramid B, is decorated with carved relief panels showing feathered serpents, prowling jaguars and coyotes, and eagles with human hearts in their talons.
• ca. 1070 A small Mixtec city-state in the Mixteca Alta of highland Oaxaca—the Tilantongo kingdom—expands under the rulership of Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (died early twelfth century at age fifty-two). A warrior, he conquers several towns and forges alliances through marriage. His spectacular exploits are subsequently recorded in pictorial manuscripts. Three survive today: the Codex Bodley, the Codex Zouche-Nuttall, and the Codex Colombino-Becker.
• ca. 1100 Nahuatl-speaking peoples begin migrating toward central Mexico. They are led by their tribal god Huitzilopochtli ("Hummingbird on the Left"), his image borne on a priest's shoulders. Aztlán ("Place of the Herons"), an island in a lake in west or northwest Mexico, is said to be their point of origin.
• ca. 1150 In the far north, the city of Casas Grandes (also known as Paquimé) is an important exchange center for luxury materials from both the north and the south. Casas Grandes' own distinctive ceramic wares are traded throughout the region.
• ca. 1175 The violent destruction of the central Mexican city of Tula coincides approximately with the arrival of Nahuatl-speaking peoples from northern Mexico.
• ca. 1200 The Huastec people of the northern Gulf Coast, linguistically related to the Maya, create highly individual forms of stone sculpture and ceramics.
• ca. 1225 West Mexican metalworkers produce bells, rings, and tweezers in copper-tin bronze and copper arsenic bronze.
• ca. 1250 Cholula to the east of the Basin of Mexico is conquered by the northern Tolteca Chichimeca people and a new ceremonial precinct is built around the Pyramid of Quetzalcoátl. Cholula's Great Pyramid was the focal point of religious activity for over a thousand years.
• ca. 1300 A new geometric, vividly colored painting style—possibly originating in Cholula—appears, primarily used on ceramic vessels and in pictorial manuscripts. Named Mixteca-Puebla for the regions of its greatest concentration, depictions include gods, religious rituals and symbols, as well as events relating to dynastic histories. It is widely disseminated throughout central Mexico.
• ca. 1300 In the west, the Tarascan people of the Pátzcuaro Basin assume control of some northern trade routes. Talented craftsmen, they produce fine ornaments of gold, silver, and paper-thin obsidian (a volcanic glass).
• ca. 1325 The Mexica people settle on a marshy island in the Basin of Mexico's Lake Texcoco after almost 200 years of wandering. Naming their city Tenochtitlan, they build a sanctuary dedicated to their tribal/war god Huitzilopochtli and to the ancient rain god Tlaloc.
• ca. 1350 In the Oaxaca Valley, Mixtecs marry into Zapotec royalty, increasing their local power. Mixtec metalsmiths produce exquisite gold ornaments valued throughout Mexico.
• ca. 1371 In the Basin of Mexico, Tezozomoc (r. 1371–1426) becomes king at Azcapotzalco, then the most powerful city-state in the region. He assumes control of neighboring Tenochtitlan and names Acamapichtli its king.
• ca. 1372 Acamapichtli (r. 1375–95) enlarges Tenochtitlan's main sanctuary, building two temple pyramids side by side. He forges political alliances through strategic marriages.
• ca. 1391 Huitzilihuitl (r. 1396–1417), son and successor of Acamapichtli in Tenochtitlan, expands the economic and political power of the Mexica in the Basin of Mexico, while remaining subordinate to Azcapotzalco.
• ca. 1400 The Tarascan state expands rapidly, stretching between two of Mexico's great rivers, the Lerma-Santiago in the north and the Balsas in the south. The region is rich in resources, including copper, gold, silver, obsidian, and onyx marble. The capital, Tzintzuntzan, has a population of approximately 35,000 persons.
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Humidity increases odour perception in terrestrial hermit crabs
Jul 04, 2012
Adult Coenobita clypeatus hermit crab using a discarded snail shell for protection: Both pairs of antennae are clearly visible. Olfactory receptors are located on the inner pair of antennae, which are bent upwards. The crabs’ sense of smell is still underdeveloped in comparison to insect olfaction. © MPI for Chemical Ecology/ Krľng
( -- Max Planck scientists have found out that the olfactory system in hermit crabs is still underdeveloped in comparison to that of vinegar flies. While flies have a very sensitive sense of smell and are able to identify various odour molecules in the air, crabs recognize only a few odours, such as the smell of organic acids, amines, aldehydes, or seawater. Humidity significantly enhanced electrical signals induced in their antennal neurons as well as the corresponding behavioural responses to the odorants. The olfactory sense of vinegar flies, on the other hand, was not influenced by the level of air moisture at all. Exploring the molecular biology of olfaction in land crabs and flies thus allows insights into the evolution of the olfactory sense during the transition from life in water to life on land.
Crabs and flies are arthropods. Like many other life forms, they made a transition from water to land life in ancient times. The ancestors of the family of terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobitidae) probably took this step about 20 million years ago. Today, hermit crabs live their entire lives on land, except for the larval stage. Odour signals are important cues for the crabs’ search for food. In order to detect odour molecules outside the water on land, the sensory organs of arthropods had to adapt to the new, terrestrial environment. How did sensory perception evolve during the transition from sea to land?
“The land hermit crab Coenobita clypeatus is an ideal study object to answer this question,” says Bill Hansson, director of the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at the Institute for Chemical Ecology in Jena, Germany. The animals live in humid regions close to the sea and regularly visit water sources. Females release the larvae into the sea, where they grow into young crabs. These young crabs look for empty snail shells and live on land. They eat fruits and plants. This way of life suggests that the in crabs is still at an early stage of development.
In a series of experiments, Anna-Sara Krång, who worked on an EU-funded Marie Curie Project, tested 140 odour substances with different chemical properties, such as acids, , amines, alcohols, esters, aromatic compounds, and ethers. She measured the excitation in the neurons of the crabs’ antennae in response to single substances. The results were so-called “electroantennograms” (EAGs) which measured tiny voltage changes across the cell membranes in the microvolt range.
A striking feature of the subsequently performed bioassays was that the crabs’ to odorants were more obvious and much faster at a significantly increased humidity, assumingly due to an enhanced electrical excitability of their antennal neurons. The EAG showed in fact a reaction at the neurons which was three to ten times stronger if active were applied at a higher humidity. In contrast, antennal neurons of vinegar flies did not show any differences and responded evenly and independently of the degree of humidity.
More information: Anna-Sara Krång, Markus Knaden, Kathrin Steck, Bill S. Hansson, Transition from sea to land: olfactory function and constraints in the terrestrial hermit crab Coenobita clypeatus, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, June 6, 2012, online first. Doi: 10.1098/rspb.2012.0596
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History of the Universe - This diagram traces the evolution of the universe from the big bang to the present. Two watershed epochs are shown. Not long after the big bang, light from the first stars burned off a fog of cold hydrogen in a process called re-ionization. At a later epoch, quasars, the black-hole powered cores of active galaxies, pumped out enough ultraviolet light to re-ionize the primordial helium. Credit: NASA/ESA/STScI-A. Feild
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Library of Congress
The Library of Congress > Teachers > Classroom Materials > Collection Connections > Traveling Culture
[Detail] Filipino Varsity Four.
The materials in Traveling Culture: Circuit Chautauqua in the Twentieth Century, can be used for a variety of interesting projects involving research and analysis. Through a chronological examination of documents pertaining to foreign relations, researchers can better understand the connections between the foreign and domestic spheres of politics. The materials can also be used to better understand the role and debated value of Circuit Chautauqua in national culture. The collection also lends itself well to research into the history of advertising.
Chronological Thinking: Russo-American Relations
Portrait of Ludvig Dale and Symbols of Russia and the U.S.
Cover of "Ludvig Dale."
The advertising materials that form the bulk of the collection afford a unique perspective for examining change in a particular subject over time. Because promotional literature tends toward sensationalized rhetoric that reinforces an audience's expectations, researchers can use these documents to form impressions of popular tastes and culturally significant political trends. Of particular use are documents that deal with foreign relations and public opinion.
For example, the Subject Index heading, Communism and Russia, yields numerous documents from three decades that form a picture of the rise of the Soviet Union and evolving U.S. sentiments.
In 1912, Count Alexander M. Lochwitzsky offered to deliver his lecture "A Russian Nobleman's Story of Siberian Escape and Exile," which detailed the abuses in czarist Russia. By 1920, however, with the communists in power, audiences were offered an appearance by Princess Radziwell, an exiled member of the Russian royal family who could speak with authority on the deplorable political situation in her homeland as well as on the personalities and mannerisms of European royalty.
• What changes had taken place between the time of Lochwitzsky and Radziwell's experiences?
• How might Lochwitzsky's and Radziwell's opinions of Russian monarchy differ? How might the opinions of their audiences have differed with respect to the Russian Revolution and the rise of Bolshevism?
• Why would democracy-loving Americans be interested in Lochwitzsky's criticisms of monarchy? Why would the same audiences be interested in Princess Radziwell's intimate knowledge of European aristocrats?
In the 1930s, former Russian premier Alexander Kerensky was available to audiences to explain the disastrous ramifications of the pro-democracy position that he took while head of Russia's provisional, revolutionary government. In 1940, audiences could engage Freda Utley for her lecture "The Dream We Lost: Soviet Russia Then and Now." Utley offered to explain her early love of communism, her move to Russia, her marriage to a communist, and her life in that country for six years before her husband's arrest and her own disillusionment with Stalin's regime. And, in the 1950s, with the Cold War in full swing, Hede Massing the former Soviet spy and intelligence expert, was a featured speaker.
Woman in Suit, Seated, Leaning Forward with Spectacles in Hand.
"Hede Massing," from the Cover of "Hede Massing : the Spy in Our Midst."
• What precipitated the establishment of a provisional, revolutionary government?
• What events might have caused Utley to equate Soviet Russia with a lost dream?
• How might the experiences of Kerensky, Utley, and Massing be similar?
• Would Chautauqua audiences expect certain types of programs durring certain political developments?
• Of what interest would an ex-communist speaker be to a pro-democracy audience? What about an ex-spy?
• What sorts of people deliver opinions of Russia in today's news programs? Does firsthand knowledge of that country have the same significance today as it did in 1912 or 1950?
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The definition of a relay is a race, or the act of passing something along from one person or group to another.
1. An example of a relay is a race during a school field day.
2. An example of relay is the act of getting a message to someone.
To relay is defined as to pass along.
An example of to relay is to get a message to someone.
See relay in Webster's New World College Dictionary
1. a fresh supply of dogs, horses, etc. kept in readiness to relieve others in a hunt, on a journey, etc.
2. a crew of workers relieving others at work; shift
1. relay race
2. any of the legs, or laps, of a relay race
3. an act or instance of conveying or transmitting by or as by relays
4. servomotor
5. Electronics an electromagnetic or electronic switching device activated by a signal and usually used to control a large current or to activate another device or circuit
Origin: ME relai < MFr relais, pl., orig., hounds kept as reserves at points along the course of a hunt < relaier, to leave behind < re- (see re-) + laier, to leave, let: see delay
transitive verb relayed, relaying
1. to convey by relays
2. to convey as if by relays; receive and pass on (a message, news, etc.)
3. to supply or replace with a relay or relays
4. Elec. to control, operate, or send on by a relay
See relay in American Heritage Dictionary 4
2. Sports
a. A relay race.
b. A division of a relay race.
4. A crew of workers who relieve another crew; a shift.
transitive verb (rēˈlā, rĭ-lāˈ) re·layed, re·lay·ing, re·lays
2. To supply with fresh relays.
3. Electronics To control or retransmit by means of a relay.
Origin: Middle English relai, fresh team of dogs for a hunt
Origin: , from Old French
Origin: , from relaier, to relay
Origin: : re-, re-
Origin: + laier, to leave (of Germanic origin; see leip- in Indo-European roots)
Learn more about relay
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Mount Tambora
Article Free Pass
Alternate titles: Gunung Tambora
Mount Tambora, Indonesian Gunung Tambora , dormant volcanic mountain on the northern coast of Sumbawa island, Indonesia. It is now 2,851 metres (9,354 feet) high. It erupted violently in April 1815, when it lost much of its top. The blast, pyroclastic flow, and moderate tsunamis that followed caused the deaths of at least 10,000 islanders and destroyed the homes of 35,000 more. Some 80,000 people in the region eventually died from starvation and disease related to the event. Before its eruption Mount Tambora was about 4,300 metres (14,000 feet) high.
Many volcanologists regard the eruption as the largest in recorded history; it expelled roughly 100 cubic km (24 cubic miles) of ash, pumice, and aerosols into the atmosphere. As this material mixed with atmospheric gases, it prevented substantial amounts of sunlight from reaching Earth’s surface, eventually reducing the average global temperature by about 3 °C (5.4 °F). The immediate effects were most profound on Sumbawa and surrounding islands; many tens of thousands of people perished from disease and famine since crops could not grow. In 1816, parts of the world as far away as western Europe and eastern North America experienced sporadic periods of heavy snow and killing frost through June, July, and August. Such cold weather events led to crop failures and starvation in these regions, and the year 1816 was called the “year without a summer.”
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Article Free Pass
Alternate titles: heterozygous allele
Thank you for helping us expand this topic!
The topic heterozygote is discussed in the following articles:
autosomal dominant inheritance
• TITLE: human genetic disease
SECTION: Autosomal dominant inheritance
A disease trait that is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner can occur in either sex and can be transmitted by either parent. It manifests itself in the heterozygote (designated Aa), who receives a mutant gene (designated a) from one parent and a normal (“wild-type”) gene (designated A) from the other. In such a case the...
combination of alleles
• TITLE: allele (biology)
...alleles affecting the expression (phenotype) of a particular trait. If the paired alleles are the same, the organism is said to be homozygous for that trait; if they are different, the organism is heterozygous. A dominant allele will override the traits of a recessive allele in a heterozygous pairing. In some traits, however, alleles may be codominant—i.e., neither acts as...
contrasted with homozygote
• TITLE: homozygote (biology)
...the two gametes (sex cells) that fuse during fertilization carry the same form of the gene for a specific trait, the organism is said to be homozygous for that trait. In a heterozygous organism, or heterozygote, the genes for a specific trait are different.
gene frequencies
• TITLE: heredity (genetics)
SECTION: Population genetics
...AA = 0, Aa = 0, aa = 1 Intuitively it seems that, in the intermediate stages, there must be more-complex proportions, including some heterozygotes. One possible intermediate stage is as follows:AA = 0.30, Aa = 0.20, aa = 0.50 The allele frequencies at such an...
• TITLE: heredity (genetics)
SECTION: Selection
...dominant alleles is relatively efficient, because these are by definition expressed in the phenotype. Selection against recessive alleles is less efficient, because these alleles are sheltered in heterozygotes. Even though populations under selection technically are not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the proportions of the formula can be used as an approximation to show the relative...
relationship to consanguinity
• TITLE: consanguinity (kinship)
SECTION: Homozygosity and heterozygosity
In genetics an allele that is carried at the same position in both of a pair of chromosomes is called homozygous. An allele may be rare in the general population, but, if the parent possesses it, it is transmitted from parent to child with the same probability as any common allele. Therefore, the chance of receiving a rare allele in the chromosomes derived from both mother and father—that...
structure of genes
• TITLE: evolution (scientific theory)
SECTION: Measuring gene variability
...and finding out how many are variable and how variable each one is. One simple way of measuring the variability of a gene locus is to ascertain what proportion of the individuals in a population are heterozygotes at that locus. In a heterozygous individual the two genes for a trait, one received from the mother and the other from the father, are different. The proportion of heterozygotes in the...
• TITLE: heredity (genetics)
SECTION: Discovery and rediscovery of Mendel’s laws
...instance, both having come from white-flowered parents (rr)—the plant is termed a homozygote. The union of gametes with different genes gives a hybrid plant, termed a heterozygote (Rr). Since the gene R, for purple, is dominant over r, for white, the F1 generation hybrids will show purple flowers. They are phenotypically...
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• Published : October 27, 2012
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The Agoge is designed to prevent the importance of family life, and to emphasise the importance of the needs of the state and Sparta as a community. In the early stages of the Agoge, Spartiates were sent away from their mothers to prevent any family affection. According to Plutarch, one of the aims of the agoge was to produce prompt obedience towards the state. As the training progresses, spartiates will learn to abide by the will of the state. In regards to Pericles view of Athens being a more superior state to Sparta due to their ability to induce bravery and courage without the issue of a labourous system such as the agoge. I oppose this argument as I believe that the Athenians were not totally equipped and were not well prepared for war as Sparta had been. State Induced courage was essentially more effective than natural courage. “Their whole education was aimed at developing smart obedience, perseverance under stress and victory in battle.” Plutarch states that the agoges purpose was to produce the ability to endure through hardship and pain, and courage to determine victory in battle.
Another statement of Paul Cartledge was that the aim of the Agoge was to convert Spartan youths into Spartan men in such a way that they adapted and learnt the values of Spartan manhood, I agree with this statement as the one of the most crucial functions of the agoge is to ensure that youths internalise the values of the adult citizen warriorhood. H.Michell states that the strict agoge system was introduced slowly after the second Messenian war, this is true as after this war the Spartans realised the risk of another Helot attack, so they slowly developed a new disciplinary system with the purpose of containing the huge Helot population.
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What are Buffer Zones?
A buffer zone is, in fact, a higher order of frontier. States and dependences in such zones provide a reduction of the impact of contact between power blocs and also provide physical separation.
These zones may face the risk of either absorption by one power block or demands for settlement including shifts of boundary, e.g., absorption of Poland, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria by the Soviet power block as these separated the latter from the western bloc. Similarly, Austria and Yugoslavia in Europe and Laos in South-East Asia acted as buffers between the two power blocs during the Cold War (Figures 9.7 and 9.8).
Austria and Former Yugoslavia as buffers Between Two Power Blocs During the Cold War
Some Countries in Asia Which have Acted as Buffers at One Time or the Other
Buffer states survive because they separate potentially powerful neighbours and any attempt to absorb them is met with hostility from the other side.
Buffer zones are not unique to the twentieth century. Some have come up on their own while others have been created. Some of the buffer zones have been discussed below.
Increasing ideological conflict between China and erstwhile Soviet Union made a buffer zone of Mongolia. The Russian attempt to move eastwards towards Siberia and propaganda in Mongolia and the Chinese assertion on ethnic links with the population in border areas led to attempts by both the powers to gain control over the buffer area.
The McMahon Line between India and China could be one of the few remaining frontiers in the classic sense which never actually performed the functions of an international boundary because both countries have failed to reach a mutual acceptance of the boundary as a legitimate one (Fig. 9.9). China obviously sought shifts in boundary delimitation further South of the McMahon Line, simply because it required a buffer area for the continuance of Tibet as a Chinese region, so that Chinese sovereignty over Tibet could be unchallenged.
Part map Showing The Position of McMahon Line
In the nineteenth and early twentieth century’s, Thailand became one of the largest ‘natural’ buffer areas, separating the British Empire in Asia from French realm in the Indo-China-Pacific region. But it was never subjugated (Fig. 9.8).
Afghanistan, Persia were maintained as buffers by the British against the Russian empire after the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1897.
Laos in South-East Asia acted as a buffer between the Eurasian continental communist powers in the North and the non-communist maritime powers in the South in the mid-twentieth century till the end of the Cold War.
In the post-Cold War period, a large number of nation-states emerged in East-Central Europe after the disintegration of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. A unified Germany emerged. Political geographers consider the string of nation states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, and Slovak Republic) that emerged post-Cold War, along with the older states of Finland, Austria and Hungary, as tending to perform the function of a board buffer zone between Germany and Russia, particularly. This buffer zone could be considered a natural buffer zone as its evolution has been spontaneous, not involving either Germany or Russia in its creation.
In the year after the Cold War, buffer zones have lost much of their relevance.
This is because of:
(i) A growing detente between potential rivals and neighbouring nations;
(ii) The gradual demise of totalitarian systems and imperialism of the old order;
(iii) The emergence of many independent states and federations/confederations;
(iv) The emergence of regional and multi-lateral cooperation on political and economic fronts (WTO, EU, ASEAN, SAARC); and
(v) The end of the Cold War.
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WHAT IS 'Oil Pollution Act Of 1990'
The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was passed by the U.S. Congress in response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989. It is one of the most wide-reaching and exacting pieces of environmental legislation ever passed.
BREAKING DOWN 'Oil Pollution Act Of 1990'
The Oil Pollution Act of 1990, or OPA, was passed by the the U.S. Congress as an amendment to the Clean Water Act of 1972 following the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989. It was designed to establish a comprehensive federal framework which would prevent future spills and establish cleanup procedures in the case of spill-related emergencies. It is largely enforced and administered by the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Prior to the passage of the OPA, federal pollution legislation had been an ineffective web of weak enforcement and insufficient liability for polluters. The OPA sought to remedy this problem by establishing stricter standards for the maritime transportation of oil:
• New requirements for constructions of vessels and training of personnel
• Contingency planning requirements
• Enhanced federal response capability
• Broadened enforcement authority
• Increased penalties for polluters
• New research and development programs for cleanup and storage technology
• Increasing potential liabilities
• Increased financial responsibility requirements
Liability under the OPA
A major emphasis of the OPA is the liability, financial and otherwise, which the Act imposes on any party found to be responsible for a destructive oil spill. Any firm identified as a responsible party is subject to virtually unlimited cleanup costs. Any claimant seeking reimbursement for cleanup costs must first seek it directly from the responsible party. If the responsible party refuses, a claimant can take legal action against the firm or seek it directly from a federally-established Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund. This fund had been established in 1986, prior to the Valdez incident.
The Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund was funded by a tax on both domestic production and imports of petroleum products into the United States. It was established to finance clean-up efforts and damage assessments, and to cover unmet private liability on the part of a responsible party.
Since the enactment of the OPA, oil spills have declined in frequency and severity across the United States. This can be credited to the Act’s requirement of improved storage and transportation technologies, along with the threat of financial consequences for any responsible party. The OPA has been the target of numerous legal challenges from the oil industry since its passage, but has largely survived intact. It has played an important role in the fallout from the Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010, and has been under a new set of strains as the U.S. has become a net exporter of oil in recent years.
1. Tier 2 Spill
A Tier 2 spill is the second of three levels of response capability ...
2. BP Oil Spill
The BP Oil Spill in April 2010 released more than 4.9 million ...
3. Tier 3 Spill
Tier 3 spills are the most serious of the spills categorized ...
4. Water Pollution Liability
5. Civil Damages
Civil damages are monetary awards granted when a person suffers ...
6. Control of Well Insurance
Control of well insurance provides coverage to companies operating ...
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Who Are Exxon’s Main Competitors? (RDS.A, XOM)
Learn about some of the main competitors to Exxon Mobil in the energy sector, and find out how their businesses are different from that of Exxon.
5. Financial Advisor
Exxon Mobil Stock: A Dividend Analysis (XOM)
Learn about Exxon's strong history of paying and growing dividends. Understand how the company's revenues are hurt by low commodity prices.
6. Investing
BP Earnings Slide as Gulf Spill Cost Rises (BP)
BP earnings miss estimate as the costs from the 2010 oil spill mount.
7. Investing
Exxon, Chevron, and Oil Are Breaking Out
As the price of WTI crude oil has climbed, so have many energy stocks.
8. Insights
Who Is Driving Exxon Mobil's Management Team? (XOM)
Three key members of the Exxon Mobil management team drive the most important business and corporate governance issues at the company.
9. Investing
Why Exxon Mobil May Fall From Grace Like GE
Despite maintaining earnings and returning value to shareholders, Exxon's free cash flow problems are starting to conjure memories of General Electric.
10. Investing
The Top 3 Exxon Mobil Shareholders
Learn about the three largest individual shareholders of Exxon Mobil stock, Rex Tillerson, and the largest institutional & mutual fund holders.
1. How long do oil and gas producers need to go from drilling to production?
Discover the process of oil well production and learn how long it typically takes an oil producer to move from drilling to ... Read Answer >>
2. Why are stocks and oil so correlated right now?
3. What are some examples of current liabilities?
Examine some common examples of current liabilities a company may owe within a year or less in order to accurately assess ... Read Answer >>
4. How much influence does OPEC have on global oil prices?
Discover the influence OPEC, which supports the price of oil by coordinating supply cuts when the price is deemed too low. Read Answer >>
Hot Definitions
1. Economies of Scale
2. Quick Ratio
3. Leverage
4. Financial Risk
5. Enterprise Value (EV)
6. Relative Strength Index - RSI
Trading Center
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"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.02504819631576538,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9394561648368835,
"url": "https://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/oil-pollution-act-of-1990.asp"
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This is a pectoral of a winged scarab that belonged to King Tut. Howard Carter discovered the scarab in the tomb of Tutankhamen, in 1992. The piece is made up of gold, carnelian, turquoise, green feldspar, lapis lazuli, and calcite. It measures 9 cm high and 10.5 cm wide. Line had been used thoughtfully throughout the ornate artefact. The patterns across the wings of the scarab create movement through the piece and draw the viewer’s eyes around its entirety, creating a form of balance. Additionally, the colours implemented complement each other very well: greens and reds, blues and orange. Such vibrant colours would indicate a high degree of wealth in Ancient Egyptian times. Made in the 18th Dynasty, during the reign of King Tut, the intention behind the piece was to display the pharaoh’s name across his chest. Throughout Egyptian history, pharaohs were commonly given multiple names during their lifetime. This included a name at birth and a name once enthroned. In this case, Tutankhamen was the king’s birth name, and Nebkheperure was the name given once he became pharaoh. The pectoral depicts the king’s throne name. From both a historical and linguistic standpoint it is very interesting to see how the different forms and movements of the piece make up the spelling of his name. First, “Neb”, represented by the semi-circle Earth gem, means, “lord”. Next, the scarab, “Kheper”, can mean “being”, “form”, or “manifestation”, and the three plural strokes below the scarab change the spelling to “Kheperu”. Finally, the sun supported by the scarab, “Re”, is delineative of the sun god; Ra. King Tut’s throne name translates to “The Lordly Manifestation of the Sun.” To this untrained eye, this would be a hidden secret in the puzzle of precious materials. Citations:’sscarabpectoral&f=false
Shared by: Sydney Askeland, Kalene Michalovsky, Sayge Fiscer
Reuse License:
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"language_score": 0.9358890652656555,
"url": "https://imagery.trubox.ca/1242/"
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You should KNOW
1. The definitions of the tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions.
2. The domains, ranges, and periods of these functions and the appearance of their graphs, especially the location of asymptotes, without a calculator.
You should be ABLE TO
1. Determine values of tan,cot,sec and csc without a calculator for multiples of 30, 45, or 60 degrees, and with a calculator for
other angles.
2. Sketch the graph of the tangent and secant functions over several periods.
3. Determine the periods, domains and ranges for functions obtained from tan ,cot, sec, or csc by stretching and shifting.
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"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.856095016002655,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7888354659080505,
"url": "http://www.math.uri.edu/~dobrush/mth111/supplement/LRN22.htm"
}
|
The act of attaching, uniting, or joining together in a physical sense; consolidating.
The term is generally used to signify the connection of a smaller or subordinate unit to a larger or principal unit. For example, a smaller piece of land may be annexed to a larger one. Similarly, a smaller document may be annexed to a larger one, such as a codicil to a will.
Although physical joining is implied, actual contact is not always necessary. For example, an annexation occurs when a country acquires new territory even though the new territory is not immediately adjacent to the existing country.
In the law of real property, annexation is used to describe the manner in which a chattel is joined to property.
See: accession, accretion, addendum, addition, appendix, appurtenance, assumption, attachment, boom, coalescence, codicil, distraint, distress, garnishment, increase, sequestration, taking
ANNEXATION, property. The union of one thing to another.
2. In the law relating to fixtures, (q.v.) annexation is actual or constructive. By actual annexation is understood every movement by which a chattel can be joined or united to the freehold. By constructive annexation is understood the union of such things as have been holden parcel of the realty, but which are not actually annexed, fixed, or fastened to the freehold; for example, deeds, or chattels, which relate to the title of the inheritance. Shep. Touch. 469. Vide Anios & Fer. on Fixtures, 2.
3. This term has been applied to the union of one country, to another; as Texas was annexed to the United States by the joint resolution of Congress of larch 1, 1845., See Texas.
References in periodicals archive ?
Caye Hauser said they also have livestock and fear annexation could force urban codes on a rural setting.
Fillon has vowed to lift the European sanctions imposed on Moscow following the annexation.
Typically, the city requires annexation before businesses can build in unincorporated areas within the urban growth boundary and before they can hook up to public water and sewer lines.
The annexation process usually takes up to 120 days, said Fairborn City manager Deborah McDonnell.
Paul Brotzman, Santa Clarita's director of community development, told council members annexation would take time.
This sub-sample is labeled "Cordova 1990 Annexation Area"; but one area was annexed in 1977, while another area was annexed in 1990.
Occasionally there is some fear expressed that Canada will become Americanized, and that the influence of the vast swarm of Americans into this western country will eventually result in an annexation sentiment.
The main part of the book covers the one and a half years between Austria's annexation to Germany and the beginning of the war.
But I am rather disturbed that as a city we do not look closely at capital improvement costs associated with annexation.
For Ross, this anecdote would be one more small piece of the long story of annexation.
Local journalist Chris Lawrence, curator of the Memphis Watch Web site, offers two examples: "The recent annexation of the Wolfchase Galleria area has reduced police coverage to one police car per shift; the area's fire coverage is two Memphis firefighters in a pickup track followed by a county crew to do the actual work.
While Texas annexation law allows MUDs to request negotiations for a SPA, no MUD or municipality has ever invoked arbitration since the SPA law was passed in 1999.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9326018691062927,
"url": "https://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/annexation"
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Marco Polo was born #onthisday in history in 1254 A.D. September 15th and died on January 8-9 1324 A.D. he was a Famous Venetian Merchant traveller who was recorded in “Livres des Merveilles Du Monde” “Book of the marvels of the world”. because he travelled and introduced Europeans to central Asia and China.
Polo learned the Mercantile trade from his uncle and father who were Maffeo and Niccolo, through Asia and he met the Kublai Khan. He returned and met Marco for the first time in 1269 A.D. three of them, went on a epic journey through Asia, after 24 years they returned to find Venice at war with Genoa. Upon which Marco returned he was imprisoned and he spent his time telling stories to his cell mate. Realised in the year of 1299 A.D. he became a wealthy merchant and married with three kids, Died in 1324 A.D.There have been various sources and tales been told about….
The Journey he took …..
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"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.4585554599761963,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9772192239761353,
"url": "https://groovy-historian.com/2016/09/14/15th-september-1254-a-d-the-birth-of-marco-polo-onthisday/"
}
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What is your superpower?
When asked which superpower they could select, most people would choose the ability to fly, to see through walls, to have the power of invisibility or some other enhanced physical ability like Superman or Wonder Woman. But some of the most powerful superpowers come in a very different form.
What if there was a superpower we all possess in our pockets and use every day without realising it? That superpower is information, or more specifically the ability to find and discover the world’s knowledge quickly and easily on our devices and tablets. Each time you search Google, Amazon or another website, the technology that powers that search is the humble taxonomy.
Classifying resources into categories and collections is nothing new, as humans have been doing this with resources for millennia. What has changed in recent years is the volume of information which is available and the difficulty we would have finding the relevant information without a robust taxonomy categorising and sorting the information behind-the-scenes.
From our time at school most of us will be familiar with the classification system used to describe the animal kingdom, with its branches defining different species and classes of animals. Consider the gorilla. The gorilla is a Hominid of the order Primate, of the class Mammal, represented as a tree of life. But, gorillas are also herbivores, are ground-dwelling and nurture strong family groups. These properties of the gorilla could easily apply to another mammal within the tree structure, perhaps a rabbit, a kangaroo or a cow. So, how do we distinguish and group these properties into a meaningful structure?
Think about the word Apple. Are we referring to the technology, the fruit or a celebrity’s daughter? Without a robust taxonomy, it is difficult to make this distinction. Grouping similar properties such as colour, texture or modality can help us to make distinctions between species, between objects or between pieces of information.
The graph taxonomy has revolutionised the way in which we search and categorise information. Perform a search on Google or Bing for renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci and you will be presented with a panel of information about the artist, including links to his most famous works, notable personal relationships, places he lived and famous quotes. This panel is powered by an open graph taxonomy which shows relationships between seemingly disparate objects and contexts. So, Leonardo da Vinci is not just related to art, he is also related to Anchiano in Italy (the place where he was born), the Louvre (where the Mona Lisa painting is displayed) and slightly further removed, Leonardo DiCaprio (they share the same first name).
Everything has multiple properties and everything has multiple relationships and it is these similarities that are used in a taxonomy to make information more easily searchable and discoverable.
Health Education England’s (HEE) Technology Enhanced Learning programme is working with industry experts to identify the most effective way to organise and categorise our learning and educational resources. A prototype taxonomy has been developed in the Smartlogic management tool which helps sort and organise terms and create synonyms of common words. We’re taking the best elements of many different taxonomies, vocabularies and lists of values, such as SNOMED to create a taxonomy that works for everyone and makes finding information easier. The prototype draws content from the HEE e-Learning for Healthcareportal and the NHS eLearning Repository, indexing it and linking it to the taxonomy terms. The results of the prototype work will be published in a further blog post once the work is complete. The taxonomy will ultimately power many of the education and learning tools you use every day and will be a key component on the new HEE learning solution.
Taxonomies may not be as exciting a superpower as invisibility or the ability to fly but this unassuming technology has transformed the world we live in and turned information into an everyday superhero!
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"fasttext_score": 0.10477608442306519,
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"language_score": 0.9419302940368652,
"url": "https://telblog.hee.nhs.uk/2017/06/26/what-is-your-superpower/"
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Show Summary Details
Quick Reference
A series of elements in the periodic table, generally considered to range in proton number from cerium (58) to lutetium (71) inclusive. The lanthanoids all have two outer s-electrons (a 6s2 configuration), follow lanthanum, and are classified together because an increasing proton number corresponds to increase in number of 4f electrons. In fact, the 4f and 5d levels are close in energy and the filling is not smooth. The outer electron configurations are as follows: 57 lanthanum (La) 5d16s258 cerium (Ce) 4f5d16s2 (or 4f26s2)59 praseodymium (Pr) 4f36s260 neodymium (Nd) 4f46s261 promethium (Pm) 4f56s262 samarium (Sm) 4f66s263 europium (Eu) 4f76s264 gadolinium (Gd) 4f75d16s265 terbium (Tb) 4f96s266 dysprosium (Dy) 4f106s267 holmium (Ho) 4f116s268 erbium (Er) 4f126s269 thulium (Tm) 4f136s270 ytterbium (Yb) 4f146s271 lutetium (Lu) 4f145d16s2Note that lanthanum itself does not have a 4f electron but it is generally classified with the lanthanoids because of its chemical similarities, as are yttrium (Yt) and scandium (Sc). Scandium, yttrium, and lanthanum are d-block elements; the lanthanoids and actinoids make up the f-block.
57 lanthanum (La) 5d16s2
58 cerium (Ce) 4f5d16s2 (or 4f26s2)
59 praseodymium (Pr) 4f36s2
60 neodymium (Nd) 4f46s2
61 promethium (Pm) 4f56s2
62 samarium (Sm) 4f66s2
63 europium (Eu) 4f76s2
64 gadolinium (Gd) 4f75d16s2
65 terbium (Tb) 4f96s2
66 dysprosium (Dy) 4f106s2
67 holmium (Ho) 4f116s2
68 erbium (Er) 4f126s2
69 thulium (Tm) 4f136s2
70 ytterbium (Yb) 4f146s2
71 lutetium (Lu) 4f145d16s2
The lanthanoids are sometimes simply called the rare earths, although strictly the ‘earths’ are their oxides. Nor are they particularly rare: they occur widely, usually together. All are silvery very reactive metals. The f-electrons do not penetrate to the outer part of the atom and there is no f-orbital participation in bonding (unlike the d-orbitals of the main transition elements) and the elements form few coordination compounds. The main compounds contain M3+ ions. Cerium also has the highly oxidizing Ce4+ state and europium and ytterbium have a M2+ state.
The 4f orbitals in the atoms are not very effective in shielding the outer electrons from the nuclear charge. In going across the series the increasing nuclear charge causes a contraction in the radius of the M3+ ion – from 0.1061 nm in lanthanum to 0.0848 nm in lutetium. This effect, the lanthanoid contraction (or lanthanide contraction), accounts for the similarity between the transition elements zirconium and hafnium.
Subjects: Chemistry.
Reference entries
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8033900856971741,
"url": "http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100051388"
}
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Interlace Format
The "i" and the "p" that follow the format designation have specific meanings. In the "i" or Interlaced Format, "p" stands for Progressive Format.
In Interlaced format pictures are first drawn using the odd numbered resolution lines (1, 3, 5, etc.) followed by the even numbered lines (2, 4, 6, etc.). Thus, there are two fields (odd and even) drawn on the monitor for each frame. This scheme is referred to as interlaced video and commonly operates at rates of 50 or 60 fields per second. This odd/even drawing pattern is called interlacing (i), and was developed to improve picture quality without increasing transmission bandwidth (the data rate capacity of a given network connection).
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"fasttext_score": 0.9717646837234497,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9137852787971497,
"url": "http://taranginfotech.com/technical/networking/interlace_format.htm"
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Wild and Domesticated Oats
One or the other or both wild species, common (Avena fatua) or slender (A. barbata) wild oats are extremely widespread all along the Pacific Coast. They can be found in vacant lots, roadsides, pastures, and yes, even in our beautifully kept native plant gardens. This doesn’t mean that we’re bad gardeners, just that this genus produces very effective weeds.
Identifying Wild Oats
Wild oats are members of the grass family (Poaceae or Gramineae). Oats have some of the largest flowers in this family of otherwise tiny to minute flowers.
Parts of Oats (Avena spp.)
Parts of Oats (Avena spp.)
Their parts are almost large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Individual grass flowers are aggregated into tiny clusters (spikelets). The spikelets are the readily visible units hanging down in the photograph and drawing.
Each oat spikelet consists of two large scales (bracts or more specifically glumes) surrounding two to three small flowers called florets. Each floret contains the 3 male organs (stamens) and a single pistil consisting of a basal ovary and two feathery stigmas. The stamens and pistils can’t be seen in the drawings or photo as they are totally hidden between to additional bracts.
The outer (and the only one visible) is the canoe-shaped lemma and a totally surrounded, thin palea. There are no recognizable sepals or petals. In the wild oat species, a stout bristle arises from the back of the lemma. This bristle is known as an awn. After the pistil is pollinated, its single seed matures and fuses to the inner ovary wall to become the unique fruit produced only by the grasses (caryopsis or grain).
The seed coat and ovary walls, when removed from the grain, are the bran we can buy at grocery and health food stores. In oats, the outside of the developing grain adheres to the inside of lemma and palea. This means that seed dispersal in oats (as well as most other grasses) is actually floret dispersal. The awn plays a vital role in this dispersal. The long, stout awns are bent in the middle; they bend or straighten depending on moisture availability. When it is moist, the awns absorb water and straighten at the bend. This causes the floret body (including enclosed seed) to be pushed forward. When it is dry, the awn flexes at the bend. Why doesn’t it pull the floret back? Notice the short, backward oriented “hairs” at the base of the floret. As the floret dries, these flip out and prevent it from being pulled backwards. Thus the floret is consistently pushed forward until it buries itself under a clod or it falls into a crack in the soil. Either way, the process both disperses and plants the oat seed.
Local Oats
There are three species of oats listed in Hoover’s SLO County flora. Two of the species possess a moderate to stout awn. These are the slender oat (Avena barbata) and the common oat (A. fatua). The third species in found occasionally along road sides and in fields where it had been grown. It is the domesticated oat (A. sativa). Domesticated oats produce larger grains and either totally lack an awn or if awns are present, they are weak. The lack of an awn would make the domesticated oats much better for animal feed.
The origin of oats is somewhat controversial. It is for sure, Old World and domestication most likely took place somewhere in the area surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is rarely mentioned in literature of the early cultures of this area and then only as animal feed. It probably didn’t stack up well against the dominate grains of the area, wheat and barley. It seems to have had better acceptance further north and east in Central Eastern Europe and adjacent Western Asia. Here it became quite important, but not much as a human food but the mainstay of horse diet. It is from this area that the first mounted soldiers arose and horses allowed them readily to conquer the surrounding “horseless” peoples.
The conquering of horseless cultures by horse-mounted armies was repeated whenever it occurred. It even was a factor in Spain’s defeat of the Aztecs and Incas. Interestingly, the re-introduction of the feral horses into North America apparently caused the then agricultural Great Plains Native Americans to become mobile buffalo hunters. Why all this discussion of the horse? Because it was probably the need to bring grain on ships to feed the horses that introduced oats into California and beyond.
Uses of Oats by the Chumash
According to Jan Timbrook, the Chumash used the grains of wild oats and chia (Salvia colunbariae) seeds in a concoction. Wild oats (along with any native grasses growing with them) were beaten or striped into baskets. The chaff was beaten off with a mallet against rocks. The flour was separated from the chaff by winnowing. The flour was mixed with water and chia was added. It provided both energy and protein.
Controlling with Herbicides
There’s one more human-wild oat interaction worth mentioning. The July 2, 2011 Science News reports that herbicide resistant wild oats infects at least 4.9 MILLION hectares. This is over 1 million hectares more area than the second place plant water hemp.
First off, wild oats are not particularly “naturally” resistant to herbicides. Second, the article discusses herbicide resistance that is transferred to wild (weedy) plants from genetically modified crops. The way emphasized in the article, is via transfer of the herbicide resistant genes from genetically engineered crops to the weed via ordinary transfer of pollen. The crops are engineered to have a high tolerance for a specific herbicide. Then the farmer is assured that he may use large amounts of the herbicide to kill weeds without affecting the crop.
Unfortunately, many plant species can transfer pollen BETWEEN DIFFERENT species. Once the gene for herbicide resistance is in the weed, then it will spread rapidly via ordinary natural selection processes. When herbicides are applied wholesale as they are in modern monoculture agriculture, a few individuals that received the genetically modified gene are more likely to survive and produce seedlings that also carry the gene and are therefore resistant also. These seedling grow up and produce more and more resistant plants at an ever increasing rate. If you remember much about evolution, you can see that farmers are both supplying the source of the gene as well as applying a strong selection pressure for the spread of the resistance gene. The last is the same process, by the way, that creates antibiotic resistant microbes when we over use antibiotics. Only microbes often do it in a shorter time due to their faster reproductive rate.
The article talks primarily about a class of herbicides known as glyphosates which is found in a wide variety of herbicides including Roundup. It is this component that crop breeders have been adding to the genome of crops. The article talks primarily about resistance in and around crop fields, especially around grain fields. I suspect Roundup and Fusilade work in your garden because resistance is not universal. It just hasn’t reached isolated areas like your garden. Let’s hope it never does! But I hope it does raise a red flag about over use of any chemical pesticide. There is no genetic resistance to mechanical pulling of weeds!
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What’s My Line?: Activity 5.4
Native American Culture Curriculum Unit 5.4
Task Author: Bob Valiant
Task Title: What’s My Line?
Grade Level: 3-5 Activity # 5.4
Geography Grade 5 Benchmark
Brief Overview of Task:
Students will be given a supply of long grass or other fiber-rich material (cattail leaves, corn husks, etc.) and instructed to use it to create cordage (string, thread, or rope) that could be used to fasten objects together by sewing or tying. After they attempt this they will research Native American techniques for making cordage and practice the technique to construct a display of cordage from different materials.
Targeted Benchmark:
Understand how human activities are affected by the physical environment.
Understand how the physical environment presents opportunities for economic activity.
Recommended Prerequisite Student Knowledge and Skills:
Knowledge of the local area
Research on the Internet
Materials Needed:
Materials Generally Available:
Special Items: (Teacher must provide)
Long grass
Cattail leaves and stems
Corn husks
Lily leaves
Other fiber-rich local material
Citation and Helpful Resources: (i.e. books, web sites, etc.)
Internet: http://www.ncesd.k12.or.us/native/native.htm
Technology: Native Tech (Go to the bottom of the page, click “home”, then look for weaving and cordage).
Do a “Google Search” on “cordage making”
Recommended Classroom Time: (in hours)
3-5 hours
Detailed Description of Task for Teachers:
1. The teacher passes out examples of thread, string, twine, and rope then leads a discussion on the uses of this type of material. Attributes of “good” cordage can be listed. Have the students describe the material the cordage is made of and look for similarities in the appearance across the range of products.
2. Native Americans needed cordage too. List some of the uses they might have had.
3. Since Native Americans had to rely on the local environment for all of their needs, what sources might be used that match up with the attributes of the commercial materials just examined? List on the board.
4. The class is divided into small groups and each is given a supply of dry local material (long grass, cattail leaves, milkweed, corn husks, lily leaves, etc.) from which they are to attempt to make cord. The teacher should not be directive at this point. Students should explore possibilities. If a group succeeds at the task it is okay to have them share what they learned with others in the class.
5. Each group shares their results with the class and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of each material.
6. Students use the internet to research Native American cordage manufacture and attempt to refine their own process based on what they have learned.
7. Students create a display of the various types of cordage they have made. They include a written description of the raw materials, the process they used, possible applications of the cordage produced, and its strengths and weaknesses.
Additional Contexts and /or Possible Extensions of Task:
Students can research various tribes across the continent to see what materials are used in various places. A written report can be prepared.
%d bloggers like this:
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Friday, 17 October 2014
Capital letters
WALT: Write an explanation telling people what capital letters are and when you use them in writing.
Introduction: If you were to write a capital letter on a lined paper the letters should be touching the top line so there much bigger than the other letters.
Names: Capital letters are always used when typing or handwriting someones name, if I were to type my name it would start with a capital letter like this (Brooklyn). Capital letters are very important to use for names because they aren't just anything that word are people’s names. For example My friends Khaia, Ariana and Lucy.
Holidays: Holidays are also capital letters for sentences, the reason why the have capital letters is because Christmas it’s not just any ordinary word it is a celebration most people do with their families and friends. Christmas is also to celebrate jesus birthday. Here is an example of a capital letter sentence Tomorrow my family and friends are coming over to celebrate Christmas.
Places: If at anytime naming a country or city you must always have a capital letter because countries and cities are places. They are not just a random made up word it is a real word. The city and country I live in is called Auckland New Zealand. Alot of people come from many different countries like India, China, Russia, Mexico, Fiji and more. Did you see how I named every country with a capital letter?
Dates: Dates must always have a capital letter because it is a day of the week like Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,Thursday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday they are all days of the week So you should always put a capital letter at the start.
Conclusion: Capitals are very important so use them!!!
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Pluto's 'Hulk-like' Moon Charon: A Possible Ancient Ocean?
Explanation: Images from NASA's New Horizons mission suggest that Pluto's largest moon, Charon, once had a subsurface ocean that has long since frozen and expanded, pushing out on the moon's surface and causing it to stretch and fracture on a massive scale. Charon's outer layer is primarily water ice. When the moon was young this layer was warmed by the decay of radioactive elements, as well as Charon's own internal heat of formation. Scientists say Charon could have been warm enough to cause the water ice to melt deep down, creating a subsurface ocean. But as Charon cooled over time, this ocean would have frozen and expanded (as happens when water freezes), pushing the surface outward and producing the massive chasms we see today.
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CloverClover or trefoil are common names for plants of the genus Trifolium (Latin, tres “three” + folium “leaf”), consisting of about 300 species of plants in the leguminous pea family Fabaceae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution; the highest diversity is found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, but many species also occur in South America and Africa, including at high altitudes on mountains in the tropics. They are small annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants. The leaves are trifoliate (rarely quatrefoiled, cinquefoil, or septfoil), with stipules adnate to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple, white, or yellow flowers; the small, few-seeded pods are enclosed in the calyx. Other closely related genera often called clovers include Melilotus (sweet clover) and Medicago (alfalfa or ‘cavalry clover’).
In many areas, particularly on acidic soil, clover is short-lived because of a combination of insect pests, diseases and nutrient balance; this is known as “clover sickness”. When crop rotations are managed so that clover does not recur at intervals shorter than eight years, it grows with much of its pristine vigor. (Source: Wikipedia)
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In feudal society, the court was the centre of government as well as the residence of the monarch, and social and political life were often completely mixed together. Prior to the Renaissance, courtesans served to convey information untrusted to servants to visiting dignitaries. In Renaissance Europe, courtiers played an extremely important role in upper-class society. As it was customary during this time for royal couples to lead separate lives — commonly marrying simply to preserve bloodlines and to secure political alliances — men and women would often seek gratification and companionship from people living at court. In fact, the verb “to court” originally meant “to be or reside at court”, and later came to mean “to behave as a courtier” and then “to pay amorous attention to somebody”.[2] The most intimate companion of a ruler was called the favourite.
In Renaissance usage, the Italian word “cortigiana”, feminine of “cortigiano” (courtier) came to refer to “the ruler’s mistress”, and then to a well-educated and independent woman of free morals, eventually a trained artisan of dance and singing, especially one associated with wealthy, powerful, or upper-class men who provided luxuries and status in exchange for companionship.[3] The word was borrowed by English from Italian through the French form “courtisane” during the 16th century, especially associated to the meaning of “court-mistress” and “prostitute”.[1]
A male figure comparable to the courtesan was the Italian cicisbeo, the French chevalier servant, the Spanish cortejo or estrecho. It actually seems that the figure of the chevalier servant (French, lit. serving cavalier, lady’s escort) of a married lady was quite common in Europe up to the 18th century.[4]
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Investigating the forces acting on a trolley on a ramp
Extracts from this document...
Physics coursework
Investigating the forces acting on a trolley on a ramp
Page 3 -> Method
Page 4 -> Theory
Page 7 -> Results
Page 9 -> Error
Page 18 -> Appendixes
The aim of the investigation was to investigate the forces acting on a trolley as it rolled down a ramp, and also to investigate the factors which may contribute to the results. To do this, a trolley and a ramp set at a variety of angles of incline were used, and then, using a light gate, the speed at which the trolley was moving when it passed through the light gate was calculated. The variables were the starting distance of the trolley in relation to the light gate and the angle of the ramp.
Firstly, the equipment was set up as in fig. 1. The trolley was then run down the ramp with a piece of card attached to the side. This card was of a known length and could hence be used to calculate the velocity at which the trolley was moving. While the light gate did actually calculate the velocity, it only gave the answer to 2 decimal places, whereas it gave the time to 2 decimal places. Furthermore, the light gate calculated the velocity with the assumption that the card was exactly 100mm, whereas when the card was actually measured, this was a value closer to 102mm (±0.5mm). Next, after the trolley had passed through the light gate, the information from that ‘run’ appeared on the LCD of the light gate, and this was noted down. Three readings were taken for each distance from the light gate so that an appropriate average could be taken. These were taken across a range of seven distances between 250mm and 1750mm inclusive.
...read more.
A further random error was introduced into the results by the accuracy of the 5mm LEDs on which the light gates work. Between the ‘gate’ of the light gate, there are two IR LEDs, which maintain a beam between them. Simply put, when the beam is broken, this sends a signal to the main processor, which starts the timing. The signal from the LED which is detecting the IR radiation sends its signal when the intensity of IR reaching it reaches a certain point. Without doing a complicated experiment, there is no way to determine at what level or intensity of IR the light gate will start or stop timing. Furthermore, because the experiment was done in a room which was lit by natural light (in this case, the main source of IR), the background intensity of IR will have fluctuated from each result. This means that for each time the card passed through the light gate, timing could have started at a different point. While this difference would be minute, the value is used to calculate v2, and hence any error which the calculation of v incorporates is squared, and made more significant. To further improve accuracy of the results, it would be necessary to do the experiment again in a place that suffers from less IR light pollution.
Another factor which contributes to the uncertainty associated with light gate is the position of the emitter and receiver within the LED and furthermore, the position of the LED. The distance measured from the starting point and where the beam actually is in the light gate could differ by a few millimetres. This could be due to the position of the LEDs within the gate or the point at which the beam is ‘fired’.
...read more.
If the experiment was to be repeated, the following things would be changed. All of these aim to further reduce error which could be only be accounted for in the write up, rather than in experimental practice.
• The trolley would be held in place with an electromagnet which could be remotely turned off so as to remove the possible random error of the initial velocity not being equal to 0.
• The light gate would be attached to the ramp, so as to make sure the two pieces of equipment were perfectly perpendicular. this would reduce the error induced by the light gate measuring a distance that is more than the actual length of the card.
• The piece of card would be screwed or held firmer in place in the slot in which it was supposed to be held. This would reduce the chance of the card being skewed as it passed through the light gate.
• More accurate measuring equipment (mainly rulers) would be used to reduce the systematic errors contributed when key measurements were being taken.
• The experiment would be done under controlled environmental conditions; the amount of IR radiation falling onto the apparatus would be kept constant.. This would keep the response time of the light gate consistent.
• More values for the measurement of the angle at which friction balanced the acceleration would be taken, leading to a more accurate result for μ, which, in this experiment, was the biggest contributor of error.
• A ramp that was perfectly flat would be used; this would reduce the chance that bowing of the wood could induce possible error into the values for acceleration.
If most of these improvements were made, the expected result would be that the values of g would become more precise, with less uncertainty associated to them.
Investigating the forces on a trolley down a ramp
...read more.
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Response to the question
The author’s response to the question is very good – they have explained the experiment clearly, discussed their results, and evaluated the uncertainties. They have calculated a range of possible values for the acceleration due to gravity on the trolley, ...
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Response to the question
The author’s response to the question is very good – they have explained the experiment clearly, discussed their results, and evaluated the uncertainties. They have calculated a range of possible values for the acceleration due to gravity on the trolley, which is close to the true value of g. They have shown an excellent understanding of the physics and a good mathematical ability. They have provided a detailed evaluation of the experiment and a conclusion, in which they summarised their experiment. However, I would have worked out an average calculated value for the acceleration due to gravity and stated this in the conclusion, mentioning how close it is to the accepted value of 9.81 as this clearly shows you have found an answer to the original question.
Level of analysis
The author has carried out the experiment well and produced some good results. They have then used graphs and maths to calculate the value of the acceleration due to gravity on the trolley. S/he has evaluated all the uncertainties in their measurements, and suggested improvements to the experiment. However, they have not carried out the improved experiment, which may be necessary for some exam boards to gain full marks as you can compare results and discuss whether the improvements actually worked. They have shown their workings throughout, explaining in detail the thought behind all of the derived formulae, which is essential to gain good marks (it shows you actually understand what you’re doing rather than copying some formulae out of a textbook).
Quality of writing
Their spelling and grammar is very good throughout. The report is very clearly presented, with subtitles and a contents page – this makes it much easier both for a teacher to mark it and someone to read. However, usually a report should be presented fairly chronologically, to make it clear to the reader the steps and thought processes involved – but in places the author has discussed things a bit early, for example “because the angles that were worked with were all less than 12˚, it is especially noticeable in the results and is be the single most prominent source of systematic error.†was in the theory section (near the beginning) when I would not have mentioned it until the sources of error section. However, this is a fairly minor issue, and probably unlikely to have an effect on the marks. They have used diagrams and graphs throughout, which helps to illustrate their method and workings-out, although we were advised to include a ‘working graph’ with gradient lines drawn on (in pencil) in order to gain more marks.
Reviewed by dragonkeeper13 21/03/2012
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"url": "http://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/science/investigating-the-forces-acting-on-a-trolley-on-a-ramp.html"
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Battle of Lepanto
Battle of Lepanto
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The Battle of Lepanto. Image from Wikimedia Commons by Christie’s, LotFinder: entry 5367968, PD-US.
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Defeated in naval and land campaigns, today’s descendants of Mohammed are carrying out their long-range plan to win the West with immigration, population increases, and an undermining of Western culture. Western leaders would be wise to understand this development. There is less a need for military giants like Austria’s Don Juan and Poland’s Jan Sobieski. There is, instead, a need for realism.
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CTS Apptitude placement paper-2
CTS Apps Model Question paper
To download this Click here
1. A says " the horse is not black".
B says " the horse is either brown or grey."
C says " the hoese is brown"
At least one is telling truth and atleast one is lying. Tell the colour of horse.
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3 A+B+C+D=D+E+F+G=G+H+I=17 where each letter represent a number from 1 to 9. Find out what does letter D and G represent if letter A= 4.(8marks)< /FONT>
Ans:D= 5 G=1
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Following are conditions:
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Tell the number of families.(5 marks)
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8. There are 6 people W,H,M,C,G,F who are murderer , victim , judge , police, witness, hangman. There was no eye-witness only circumtancial witness. The murderer was sentenced to death. Read following statement and determine who is who. ( 8 marks)
1. M knew both murderer and victim.
2. Judge asked C to discribe murder incident.
3. W was last to see F alive.
4. Police found G at the murder site.
5. H and W never met.
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Lesson 24: Equilibrium
You've actually already learned about equilibrium, you just didn't know that we were talking about it!
Figure 1
Each of these situations shown in Figure 1 could be solved by you back in "Net Forces", but we can also do problems that you will have to use vectors for.
Example 1: A 10 kg sign is being held up by two wires that each make a 30° angle with the ground. Determine the tension (force) in each of the wires.
The diagram to the right shows what this would look like. The tension is a force in the wires that acts along the length of the wires.
Fg = mg
= (10) (9.81)
Fg = 98.1 N
sinΘ = opp / hyp
sinΘ = 1/2 Fg / FT
FT = (1/2 Fg) / sinΘ
= (49.05) / sin 30° = 98.1 N
The tension in each wire of the sign is 98 N [30° from the horizontal].
In some situations you may already have a couple of forces acting on an object and want to know what third force would cancel them out.
Example 2: Two forces are pushing an object along the ground. One force is 10 N [W] and the other is 8.0 N [S]. Sketch a diagram showing the equilibrant of these two forces, and determine the equilibrant.
If you look at the sketch you'll see that the equilibrant is the exact opposite of what you would draw for a resultant.
The equilibrant takes you right back to where you started. The net force... zero!
It would almost be the same if you went for a walk and followed this as a path. You'd end up back where you started and your displacement would be zero.
Calculate the equilibrant...
c2 = a2 + b2 = 102 + 82
c = 13 N
Calculate the angle where the 8.0 N force and the equilibrant touch...
tanΘ = opp/adj = 10 / 8
Θ = 51°
The equilibrant is 13 N [N51°E].
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Whatever Pulls Your Sled
Whatever Pulls Your Sled by Jeanine Wolf
Students will test determine if the surface of an object will effect how much force it takes to pull that object. They will then determine the most efficient way to attach the string to the object to reduce the necessary force and finally they will adjust the take off and pull velocities to determine if they affect the force of the object. This lesson was designed and aligned to standards for 7 – 8th grade students, but can be adapted and used at any grade level.
Lesson Plan
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The Full Wiki
Carbon monoxide detector: Wikis
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Carbon Monoxide detector connected to a North American power outlet
A carbon monoxide detector or CO detector is a device that detects the presence of the carbon monoxide (CO) gas in order to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning. CO is a colorless and odorless compound produced by incomplete combustion. It is often referred to as the "silent killer" because it is virtually undetectable without using detection technology.[1] Elevated levels of CO can be dangerous to humans depending on the amount present and length of exposure. Smaller concentrations can be harmful over longer periods of time while increasing concentrations require diminishing exposure times to be harmful.[2]
While CO detectors do not serve as smoke detectors and vice versa, dual smoke/CO detectors are also sold. Smoke detectors detect the smoke generated by flaming or smoldering fires, whereas CO detectors go into alarm and warn people about dangerous CO buildup caused, for example, by a malfunctioning fuel-burning device. In the home, some common sources of CO include open flames, space heaters, water heaters, blocked chimneys or running a car inside a garage.[3]
The devices, which retail for $20-$60USD and are widely available, can either be battery-operated or AC powered (with or without a battery backup). Battery lifetimes have been increasing as the technology has developed and certain battery powered devices now advertise a battery lifetime of over 6 years. All CO detectors have "test" buttons like smoke detectors.
CO detectors can be placed near the ceiling or near the floor because CO is very close to the same density as air[4][5].
Since CO is colorless, tasteless and odorless (unlike smoke from a fire), detection in a home environment is impossible without such a warning device. It is a highly toxic inhalant and attracts to the hemoglobin(in the blood stream) 200x faster than oxygen, producing inadequate amounts of oxygen traveling through the body. In North America, some state, provincial and municipal governments have statutes requiring installation of CO detectors in construction - among them, the U.S. states of Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin and West Virginia, as well as New York City and the Canadian province of Ontario.[6]
When carbon monoxide detectors were introduced into the market, they had a limited lifespan of 2 years. However technology developments have increased this and many now advertise up to 7 years. [7] Newer models are designed to signal a need to be replaced after that time-span although there are many instances of detectors operating far beyond this point.
According to the 2005 edition of the carbon monoxide guidelines, NFPA 720 [8], published by the National Fire Protection Association, sections and, all CO detectors “shall be centrally located outside of each separate sleeping area in the immediate vicinity of the bedrooms,” and each detector “shall be located on the wall, ceiling or other location as specified in the installation instructions that accompany the unit.”
Early designs were basically a white pad which would fade to a brownish or blackish colour if carbon monoxide were present. Such chemical detectors are cheap and widely available, but only give a visual warning of a problem. As carbon monoxide related deaths increased during the 1990s, audible alarms became standard.
There are four types of sensors available and they vary in cost, accuracy and speed of response.[10] The latter three types include sensor elements that typically last up to 10 years. At least one CO detector is available which includes a battery and sensor in a replaceable module. Most CO detectors do not have replaceable sensors.
The detector consists of a pad of a coloured chemical which changes colour upon reaction with carbon monoxide. They only provide a qualitative warning of the gas however. The main advantage of these detectors is that they are the lowest cost but are also offer the lowest level of protection.
A biomimetic (chem-optical or gel cell) sensor works with a form of synthetic hemoglobin which darkens in the presence of CO, and lightens without it. This can either be seen directly or connected to a light sensor and alarm. Battery lifespan usually lasts 2-3 years. Device lasts on the average of about 10 years. These products were the first to enter the mass market but have now largely fallen out of favour.
This is a type of fuel cell that instead of being designed to produce power, is designed to produce a current that is precisely related to the amount of the target gas (in this case carbon monoxide) in the atmosphere. Measurement of the current gives a measure of the concentration of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere. Essentially the electrochemical cell consists of a container, 2 electrodes, connection wires and an electrolyte - typically sulphuric acid. Carbon monoxide is oxidised at one electrode to carbon dioxide whilst oxygen is consumed at the other electrode. For carbon monoxide detection, the electrochemical cell has advantages over other technologies in that it has a highly accurate and linear output to carbon monoxide concentration, requires minimal power as it is operated at room temperature, and has a long lifetime (typically commercial available cells now have lifetimes of 5 years or greater). Until recently, the cost of these cells and concerns about their long term reliability had limited uptake of this technology in the marketplace, although these concerns are now largely overcome. This technology is now the dominant technology in USA and Europe.
Thin wires of the semiconductor tin dioxide on an insulating ceramic base provide a sensor monitored by an integrated circuit. This sensing element needs to be heated to approximately 400 deg C in order to operate. Oxygen increases resistance of the tin dioxide, but carbon monoxide reduces resistance therefore by measurement of the resistance of the sensing element means a monitor can be made to trigger an alarm. The power demands of this sensor means that these devices can only be mains powered although a pulsed sensor is now available that has a limited lifetime (months) as a battery powered detector. Device usually lasts on the average of 5-10 years. This technology has traditionally found high utility in Japan and the far east with some market penetration in USA. However the superior performance of electrochemical cell technology is beginning to displace this technology
House builders in Colorado will be required to install carbon monoxide detectors in new homes in a bill signed into law in March 2009 by the state legislature.
House Bill 1091 requires installation of the detectors in new and resold homes near bedrooms as well as rented apartments and homes. It takes effect from July 1, 2009. The legislation was introduced after the death of Denver investment banker Parker Lofgren and his family. Lofgren, 39; his wife Caroline, 42; and their children, Owen, 10, and Sophie, 8, were found dead in a multimillion-dollar home near Aspen, Colorado on Nov. 27, 2008, victims of carbon-monoxide poisoning.
In New York State, Amanda's Law,” (A6093A/C.367) requires one- and two-family residences which have fuel burning appliances to have at least one carbon monoxide alarm installed on the lowest story having a sleeping area, effective February 22, 2010. Although homes built before Jan. 1, 2008 will be allowed to have battery-powered alarms, homes built after that date will need to have hard-wired alarms. In addition, New York State contractors will have to install a carbon monoxide detector when replacing a fuel burning water heater or furnace if the home is without an alarm. The law is named for Amanda Hansen, a teenager who died from carbon monoxide poisoning from a defective boiler while at a sleepover at a friend's house.[11]
1. ^ Underwriters Laboratories, Protect Your Family from the ‘Silent Killer',, retrieved 2009-09-24
3. ^ U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Carbon Monoxide Detectors Can Save Lives (CPSC Document #5010),, retrieved 2007-07-29
4. ^ Metropolitan Utilities District, Carbon monoxide detectors,, retrieved 2007-07-29
5. ^ CO Alert, Placement of Carbon Monoxide Detectors Important,, retrieved 2009-01-11
6. ^, retrieved on 2009-01-28
7. ^,8070,pageId%3D4641%26siteId%3D384,00.html, retrieved on 2010-03-14
10. ^ Guide to Prevent Carbon Monoxide Poisoning,, retrieved 2007-07-29
11. ^ "Welcome Page". New York State Office of Fire Prevention & Control. Retrieved 2010-03-18.
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Science Worksheets and Study Guides Fifth Grade. Newton's Laws of motion
The resources above correspond to the standards listed below:
Massachusetts Standards
T/E.1. Materials and Tools
T/E.1.3. Identify and explain the difference between simple and complex machines, e.g., hand can opener that includes multiple gears, wheel, wedge gear, and lever.
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Johannes Kepler is now chiefly remembered for discovering the three laws of planetary motion that bear his name published in 1609 and 1619). He also did important work in optics (1604, 1611), discovered two new regular polyhedra (1619), gave the first mathematical treatment of close packing of equal spheres (leading to an explanation of the shape of the cells of a honeycomb, 1611), gave the first proof of how logarithms worked (1624), and devised a method of finding the volumes of solids of revolution that (with hindsight!) can be seen as contributing to the development of calculus (1615, 1616).
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Supersonic Flight And Sonic Booms
Water vapor cone created just as F/A Hornet breaks the speed of sound
As incredible as the Concorde was, the sonic booms created by its supersonic flights were so disruptive that most countries restricted or completely prohibited the aircraft from flying over land.
The sonic boom, at its worst, would be heard as a very loud thunder clap that was right overhead. The force of the boom rattled windows and loosened roof tiles. But even when the sonic boom sounded like a “softer” distant thunder clap, it was distracting to people and caused disruption of sleep and interruptions in activity.
Imagine that you are driving on your way to work, and with clear skies overhead, you suddenly hear the sound of thunder. Your immediate responses are most likely surprise, shock, and an instinctive search for the source. Being caught by surprise in certain situations is rather annoying, and in others, potentially dangerous.
In 1964, the FAA and NASA conducted a six-month sonic boom research project in Oklahoma City – without warning residents beforehand. The experiment consisted of eight sonic booms, every day, for six months. 15,000 complaints and a class action lawsuit were filed. The government lost on appeals. Great idea, guys, just brilliant.
When the Concorde was originally designed, in the early 1960s, governments and airlines around the world lined up to place orders. The plane did an around-the-world publicity trip, and was well-received. But as awareness of the sonic boom effect grew, almost every country banned the aircraft. Only the US, Great Britain, and France allowed the Concorde to enter their airspace, and then only to cities in close proximity to the ocean – NYC, London, Paris, and Washington, DC.
The Concorde was specifically designed for supersonic flight (specifically, Mach 2) and was very fuel-inefficient at subsonic speeds (less than Mach 1). Unfortunately, it was thus not feasible to fly at supersonic speed over water and then at subsonic speed over land.
So, two questions. First, what causes a sonic boom? Second, how do we eliminate it?
What causes a sonic boom?
When any object moves, it creates waves in front of and behind it. Think of the waves that a boat creates at its bow and stern. In front, the waves are compressed together as the boat sails forward. Behind, the waves spread out away from the boat. In this case, you only see the waves on the surface of the water, and it appears two-dimensional.
Similar principles are at play with aircraft. In front of the nose of a plane, air is pushed together and compressed as the aircraft flies forward. Behind the plane, the air creates waves that radiate out and away in the shape of a cone – three-dimensionally.
Illustration of an aircraft producing shock waves
When an aircraft flies at subsonic speeds, the nose of the aircraft is always behind the waves in front of the plane – much as the front of a boat is always behind the waves ahead of its bow.
Things get interesting, and complicated, when you fly faster than the speed of sound – supersonic flight. The nose of a supersonic aircraft pushes ahead of its forward waves. These waves get in the way of the airplane, causing compression which results in a shock wave. Actually, this creates two shocks, one forming as the aircraft passes the front of the wave and then another as it leaves the wave. The shock wave generated stays mostly behind the aircraft, and radiates out in a cone.
When that shock wave reaches the ground, any person within earshot will hear a double thunder clap. This shock wave will follow the plane as long as it flies at supersonic speeds. The effect doesn’t just occur once as the plane reaches and passes the speed of sound. Observers on the ground, along the plane’s entire flight path, will hear the sonic boom one to 60 seconds after the aircraft passes overhead.
Surprisingly, it doesn’t matter how high the plane flies – a shock wave will still be heard and felt on the ground. It becomes slightly less perceptibly intense the higher the aircraft travels, but not by much.
The intensity and range of a sonic boom depends on a lot of factors, including speed of the aircraft, temperature, humidity, and ground surface conditions. It is also affected by what the aircraft is doing: climbing, descending, turning, accelerating, etc.
For aerospace engineers, this is a serious and rather annoying problem, er, challenge.
How do we eliminate the sonic boom effect?
NASA, the US Air Force, and a number of private companies have researched sonic booms for the last 40+ years. While they have found some ways to reduce the boom, the products of their efforts are still too loud, and do not meet FAA regulations regarding sonic booms. Some innovations that have come from this research include:
• Extending a plane’s nose far ahead of the fuselage, which seems to stretch out waves and thus reduce sonic booms
• A longer, thinner fuselage, or a specially-shaped fuselage, which also seems to reduce the shock wave slightly
• Adding grooves along the bottom of the aircraft, which was found to reduce shock waves by 1/3 – but still not enough to meet regulations
• Research currently being done on redesigning air inlets to jet engines
Eliminating sonic booms or reducing them to acceptable levels is a huge challenge. Solving this problem is necessary before supersonic aircraft can fly to populated areas, like those between NYC and Los Angeles or Paris and Rome. Some companies are predicting that we won’t see supersonic airliners again before 2030 or 2040.
However, there are a number of significant efforts underway to build supersonic business jets, which – due to their smaller size – is believed to create far less of a sonic boom. This is the opportunity on which Spike Aerospace is focused.
1. thiers January 14, 2014 at 7:08 am - Reply
Not sure, but I think Concorde was allowed to fly to Brasil too , for a while.
Dassault has been researching a lot on similar AC concepts, and was mising an engine. No engine, no plane, and there is no civilian engine available so far.
Great project, keep on guys !
2. Duncan Mills February 20, 2014 at 2:57 am - Reply
The then as now will be environmental groups from one source or another will complain and the noise standards will tighten again. I think we are at Stage III now and regular aircraft are having difficulty meeting the noise restrictions and the airlines are paying fines, if I am not mistaken. The question of the sonic boom is big enough without having the target moving on you. Once the politicians are involved it will get extremely difficult because as we saw in the last mess (read Concorde) there where protests by a very loud minority that had political clout. I sure would like to see this happen, but I am not holding my breath.
Leave a Reply
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Adal b1
(born 1959). Guatemalan human rights activist Rigoberta Menchú was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1992 for her efforts to achieve social justice for indigenous peoples and victims of government repression in her native country.
Menchú was born near San Marcos, Guatemala, on January 9, 1959. A Mayan Indian of the Quiché group, she grew up in rural poverty and for a time worked as a domestic servant in Guatemala City. In 1981, after most of her family was killed by Guatemalan security forces, Menchú fled to Mexico, where she was cared for by members of a liberal Roman Catholic group. She soon joined international efforts to make the Guatemalan government cease its brutal counterinsurgency campaigns against Indian peasants. She became a skilled public speaker and organizer in the course of her efforts.
In 1983 Menchú gained international prominence with the publication of I, Rigoberta Menchú, a book based on recorded interviews that Menchú gave to anthropologist Elisabeth Burgos-Debray. The book—in which Menchú tells the story of her impoverished youth and recounts in horrifying detail acts of violence perpetrated by government forces—was widely translated. After a controversy arose over the book’s credibility, Menchú acknowledged that she had relied on both personal experience and the testimony of others in telling her story, but defended the work as an accurate portrayal of the sufferings of Guatemalan Indians.
With the money award she received from her Nobel Prize, Menchú established a foundation to help promote the rights of indigenous peoples worldwide. In 1993 she served as Goodwill Ambassador for the International Year of the Indigenous Peoples and later was a personal adviser to the general director of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Menchú created the Indian-led political movement Winaq (Mayan: “The Wholeness of the Human Being”) in February 2007. That September, as the candidate of a coalition between Winaq and the left-wing Encounter for Guatemala party, she ran for president of Guatemala but earned less than 3 percent of the vote. The following year Menchú began the legal process of creating a formal Winaq political party. If formed, it would be the first Guatemalan political party to represent indigenous groups directly.
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Medical quality assurance by Dr. Albrecht Nonnenmacher, MD at August 25, 2016
Achondroplasia is the most common form of dwarfism, and it involves the arms and legs being shorter than normal while the torso remains an average size. The condition can cause several other minor health problems or risks, but people with achondroplasia usually have a normal life expectancy. With some treatments and lifestyle choices, they can manage their symptoms and reduce their risk for other illnesses.
Definition & Facts
Achondroplasia is a type of dwarfism in which the body struggles with ossification, or converting cartilage into bone. During early development, a large portion of the skeleton is made up of cartilage, which is a flexible tissue. Over time, the cartilage should convert into bone.
The word achondroplasia means "without cartilage formation," and the condition especially causes trouble with ossification in the arms and legs. People with the condition tend to have a short stature, short arms and legs, and an average-sized torso.
Achondroplasia affects 1 in 15,000 to 40,000 people. The average height of a male with the condition is 4 feet and 4 inches, and the average height of a female is 4 feet and 1 inch.
Symptoms & Complaints
A short stature and short limbs are the most common and visible effects of achondroplasia. People with the condition also often have short fingers and trident hands, a large head, and a flattened nasal bridge.
Achondroplasia can cause spinal kyphosis, which is an outward curvature of the spine, or lordosis, which is an inward curvature of the spine. Infants with the condition often have hypotonia, or weak muscle tone, which can cause a delay in the development of gross motor skills like walking.
In some rare situations, children with achondroplasia can be born with hydrocephalus, or the buildup of fluid in the brain. The condition is usually accompanied by other health complications, including sleep apnea, where a person's breathing stops for short time periods.
People with achondroplasia also tend to get ear infections more frequently than people without the condition. On rare occasions, achondroplasia can cause spinal stenosis, the narrowing of the spinal canal that results in compressing the spinal cord. This can cause pain, weakness in the legs, and difficulty walking.
Achondroplasia is caused by a genetic mutation in the fibroblast growth factor receptor, or FGFR3 gene. This gene is responsible for creating a protein that helps develop bone tissue and brain tissue, and the genetic mutation leads to shortened bones.
Achondroplasia is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, meaning that one copy of the genetic mutation can cause the disorder. If the child receives the genetic mutation from both parents, it is called homozygous achondroplasia. In this situation, the child usually dies before or shortly after birth.
Although the condition can be passed on from parent to child, about 80 percent of people with the condition are born to parents without dwarfism. This can happen as a result of a new mutation in the gene.
Children with a father older than 35 are more likely to be born with the condition. Parents of normal height who have one child with achondroplasia are very unlikely to have another child with the condition.
Diagnosis & Tests
Achondroplasia can often be diagnosed before birth by using a prenatal ultrasound. If the baby shows signs of the condition during an ultrasound, doctors can perform a DNA test before the baby is born by testing a sample of amniotic fluid for the mutated FGFR3 gene. They can also use genetic testing to determine whether the baby will be born with homozygous achondroplasia, which is fatal.
After a baby is born, doctors can consider many factors to determine whether they have achondroplasia. Doctors can look for a short stature, shortened arms and legs, a limited ability to extend the elbow, bow legs, or curvature of the spine.
They also may use a skeletal survey to diagnose the condition. During this test, doctors observe the size and shape of the skull, the vertebrae, the ribs, and the bones in the hands, arms, and legs. Genetic testing after birth (newborn screening) is accurate in about 99 percent of individuals with the condition.
Treatment & Therapy
There isn't a cure of achondroplasia, but people with the condition can undergo treatments to relieve or fix complications. Doctors have tried using growth hormone therapy, but it is not effective as a long-term treatment. People with the condition should visit a doctor regularly for checkups in order to prevent common complications like sleep apnea and ear infections.
Some surgical treatments are available that help with some of the symptoms of achondroplasia. These surgeries can correct the direction of bone growth and correct the shape of the spine. If a baby is born with hydrocephalus, doctors can perform a surgery to remove the excess fluid from the brain.
People with achondroplasia also sometimes to decide to have a limb lengthening surgery, but this is a controversial procedure. There are many risks to the surgery, and it usually takes multiple procedures to complete the treatment.
Many small lifestyle changes and home remedies can ease the symptoms or complications of the condition as well. Children with the condition should always use car seats that have firm support of the back and neck, and they should avoid carriers or play equipment like strollers or swings that cause the back to be curved into a C shape. Many people with achondroplasia struggle with weight gain, so a healthy diet and activities like swimming and bicycling can prevent obesity.
Prevention & Prophylaxis
Although doctors can diagnose achondroplasia before birth, there is no way to prevent the condition. People with the condition who are considering having children can see a genetic counselor to talk about the chances of their child having the condition as well.
Doctors advise that people with achondroplasia carefully consider the health risks associated with the condition before deciding to have children, especially if their partner has the condition as well.
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The Molad
Etymologically the word “Molad” is about birth. The moon is reborn each month after its disappearance at the end of the previous month. That birth is the appearance of the Crescent New Moon.
Far removed from that birth by over 2800 years is the Molad of today which is simply the result of a mathematical expression.
The start of the series of Moladot was Fri, July 16, 791 BCE 18:00, Shabbat, zero hours, zero parts.
For every lunar month afterwards 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (out of 1080) were added. This brought the Molad of Tishrei for Hebrew Year 5775 (2014-2015) to Wed, Sep 24, 2014 AD 8:14:00, 14 hours , 339 parts.
The time constant added each month came from ancient Babylonian Science. The Babylonians had been recording astronomical data for thousands of years and recording in on clay tablets which have been found in the sands of Iraq. In the 8th Century BCE patterns had begun to emerge that let the Chaldeans come to the conclusion that the average period of the Synodic Month was 29;31:50:08:20 days sexagesimal. That is the same as the Moladic Constant — 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts.
Because this Moladic Constant is 532 milliseconds greater that the actual value of an average Synodic Month as determined by present day astronomy over the 2804 years the average Molad has become closer to when the New Moon is actually seen by 5 hours and 7 minutes. This still represents a phenomenal level of accuracy.
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Pass Over & Passover
The term 'Passover' is a technical term which is a rendering of a unique word in both the Hebrew and the Greek. The combination 'pass over' is a rather broader expression and can be rendered from five different Hebrew expressions (four of them word-pairs) and two different Greek words. The aim of this brief essay is to describe some of the details involved.
Possibly one of the most famous of the Old Testament feasts is the Passover. It is, of course, related to the famous Ten Plagues of Egypt and it is the feast around which the death of our Lord was set. In the Hebrew this feast is called pesach(H6453). This is a derivative of pâsach (H6452) which literally means 'to hop' and thus to 'skip over' or spare[1]. We thus see that the primary focus of the feast from the Hebrew mind-set was that this was the time when they were excluded from the death of the first born. On the forty nine occasions the word is used it is always rendered 'Passover'. The Greek word for Passover is pascha (G3957); it occurs twenty-nine times is always rendered 'Passover' and Strong's confirms what is visible to the naked eye: that it is a derivative of the Hebrew term pesach[2].
Moving from proper nouns one of the Hebrew words rendered 'pass over' either individually or in combination is ‛âbar (H5674). This is a primitive root meaning 'to cross' and can really apply to any transition dependent upon the context. There are 27 occasions upon which this word alone is rendered as pass over[3]. Other common renderings of this word are pass (appx 250), over(appx 150), go(52), went(39), passeth(28) etc.
There are two common word combinations which include ‛âbar and are rendered 'pass over'. The first is ‛âbar 'êth(H853) occurring 10 times[4]. Strong's describes as a demonstrative entity properly rendered 'self' but usually not represented in English. Thus this longer expression really means to 'pass myself over' 'êth itself (when rendered) becomes: what(46), even(25), whom(19), whose(10), whatsoever(3) and who(2).
The second word combination is ‛âbar ‛al (H5921). It actually provides the first Biblical use of 'pass over' in Gen 8:1. The pattern occurs on one other occasion: Pro 19:11. ‛al is a very common preposition meaning above, over on or against[5]. It therefore emphasizes the 'over' nature of the transition ‛âbar. The word is otherwise rendered: against(541), over(414), on(355), therefore(132), because(93), concerning(84), at(81), off(70), above(69), before(54), into(50) etc.
‛al occurs on two other occasions rendered 'pass over' this time in the expression pâsach ‛al. The two occurrences are Exo 12:13 and Exo 12:23. They are the prototypical descriptions of the Passover before it became a proper noun. As discussed previously the expression really means to 'hop over' or 'skip over'. pâsach is also rendered became(2), lame(1), leaped(1), halt(1) and passed(1).
The Aramaic form of ‛al occurs four times in a combination rendered as 'pass over'; all in the fourth chapter of Daniel. The phrase is chălaph ‛al. Here chălaph(H2499) refers to the passing of time[6] and thus the expression is showing that time will 'pass someone by'.
The Greek only has two other words rendered as pass over both occurring once. Parerchomai (G3928) really means to approach or go away[7]. In Luke 11:42 the Lord uses it to describe the way that the Pharisees treat judgment. The word is usually rendered as just 'pass' (22) or away(5).
The other is dierchomai (G1330) which means to traverse[8]. It is used in Mar 4:35 to describe the cross of a sea to get to the other side. The word is variously rendered: pass(18), through(8), went(6), go(5) etc.
We therefore see that by far the dominant meaning of 'pass over' in the Bible is the Passover itself. As such a major event it has been granted its own proper noun which is used consistently in both the Hebrew and Greek. The Hebrew however grants us two prototypical usages of the term which show into to mean to 'hop over' or 'skip over' something; it describes the way God was over the doors of the Israelites preventing harm. The other occasions 'pass over' has been rendered are rather more mundane and simply show a transition either through space or time.
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The Christian Counter
The Fundamental Top 500
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The three laws below constitute Kirchoff's Laws:
1. A hot solid object produces light with a continuous spectrum
2. A hot tenuous gas produces light at discrete wavelengths which depend on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas
3. A hot solid object surrounded by a cool tenuous gas will produce an almost continuous spectrum which has gaps at discrete wavelengths depending on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas
Using Kirchoff's Laws to Explain Line BroadeningEdit
Kirchoff's Laws can be used to explain line broadening
Natural BroadeningEdit
We could see naturally broadened absorption lines when a cool gas cloud is in front of a continuum source such as a star, which is the case of kirchoff's 3rd law.
Doppler BroadeningEdit
We could see Doppler broadened emission lines when a hot gas is at low pressure, in the case of Kirchoff's 2nd law. The randomly moving hot gas particles will produce the Doppler Broadening
Collisional BroadeningEdit
We can see collisional broadening with a hot gas at high pressure, the case of Kirchoff's 1st law. This hot gas will emit a continuum because collisional broadening can broaden lines so much that they blend together into a continuum (although hot gas at high pressure also produces radiation through mechanisms other than electron de-excitation)
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About Pearls
Pearls are formed inside the shell of certain molluscs as a defence mechanism against a potentially threatening irritant, such as a parasite inside the shell, or an attack from outside that injures the mantle tissue. The mollusc creates a pearl sac to seal off the irritation. Pearls are thus the result of an immune response to capture the foreign body. The mollusc coats the particle with layer after layer of a substance called nacre, or mother-of-pearl, which eventually becomes thick enough to form a pearl.
2.) All pearl oysters are born male and transform into females at around three years of age.
3.) The earliest record of pearls as precious objects are artefacts from Mesopotamia dated to around 2300 B.C.
4.) Recently, a two thousand year old pearl was found in an Australian Aboriginal archaeological dig in Kimberley region of Western Australia.
5.) Le Peregrina (Spanish for ‘the incomparable’) is one of the most famous pearls in the world. The 500-year-old pearl is pear shaped and the size of a large pigeon’s egg. Its previous owners include a King pf Spain, Napolean Bonaparte and Elizabeth Taylor.
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Theme “Lighthouse”: Art Activities For Preschool Kids
Here is a collection of lighthouse art activities for preschool kids. Also included are some templates that you can print and use. Use these activities to teach kids all about lighthouses and lots more.
Make a Lighthouse:
Cut a rectangular piece of thick card paper. Draw horizontal lines on it about an inch apart. Then draw vertical lines to make bricks. Color the entire paper in red for a brick wall effect. Roll this piece of card paper to form a cylinder. Similarly, make a small cone and glue it on top. Decorate it to form a little brick lighthouse.
Sea in the Tub Art Project:
Collect some sand and color it blue by mixing it with dilute blue watercolor or poster paint, and dry it in the sun. In a plastic tub, collect some pebbles and stones and pile up one side to form a rocky shore. Fill the rest of the tub with blue colored sand. Make paper boats, color them, and put them in the sea. Make a lighthouse as described above, and place it on the rocky cliff.
Lighthouse Mosaic Art:
lighthouse tower
On a large piece of paper, Draw out a lighthouse as shown, or enlarge and print out this picture and use it as a template. Cut a large number of small squares in red and keep in advance. Get the children to color the lighthouse window, and sea around it. Then, the children can glue the little red squares all over the lighthouse. It will look like little bricks or a mosaic art.
Light House Bookmark:
lighthouse bookmark colored
Make a lighthouse bookmark like shown in this picture. All you need is some paper, colors and some ribbon. Draw an outline of a lighthouse on a thick piece of paper. Punch a hole on the top where the black dot is. Tie a piece of ribbon through the hole. Color and decorate the rest of the bookmark. Write this quote in the center " Be a shining light". Children can learn to use a bookmark, or give it as a gift to an adult.
Torch Light Lighthouse:
Make a lighthouse similar to the one described in the first paragraph of this article. Make sure you use thick chart paper. On the top of the lighthouse, cut out a little window. Make a small torch (flashlight) stand and place the lighthouse on top of it, so that the torch is inside the hollow of the lighthouse. The light of the torch (flashlight) will shine through the little window in the tower. Switch off the lights of the room and enjoy the torch lighthouse.
Hope these lighthouse art activities for preschool kids were useful. Here are some more ideas around a lighthouse theme that you can use for your classroom. For activities related to a beach and the sea theme for preschool, read this.
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The Spanish language came into being in the early Middle Ages. It is based on Latin, the language of the Romans who ruled Spain in ancient times. The standard dialect, or form, of Spanish is Castilian. It is the chief language of Spain’s literature. (For information on writing in the Spanish language by Latin Americans, see Latin American literature.)
The earliest important work in Spanish literature is Poema de mío Cid (Song of My Cid). Written in about 1140 by an unknown author, it is an epic poem telling the story of El Cid. This noble and military leader of the 1000s is a national hero of Spain.
The earliest Spanish poet who is known by name was Gonzalo de Berceo, who lived in the 1200s. He wrote hundreds of poems telling of Christian saints and miracles. His work led up to one of the early milestones of Spanish literature, Libro de buen amor (1330, expanded 1343; Book of Good Love), a collection of poems about earthly and divine love. The author, Juan Ruiz, was influenced by Christian, ancient Roman, and Muslim writings.
The Spanish language was promoted in the 1200s by King Alfonso X of Castile and Leon. The king and his scholars used Castilian to write Crónica general (General Chronicle), a history of Spain. With this work and the world history General estoria, Alfonso founded Spanish historical writing. In the late 1300s Pedro López de Ayala used prose as well as poetry to chronicle the lives of the important persons of his time.
Poetry was revived in the 1400s, when Spanish writers fell under the influence of Italian poets. The Spanish statesman Iñigo López de Mendoza, the marqués (prince) of Santillana, wrote sonnets in the Italian style. He had a great influence on later writers.
In the late 1400s historic events encouraged a rebirth of Spanish literature. In 1479 the Christian kingdoms of Spain were united under the rule of Ferdinand and Isabella. After the monarchs backed Christopher Columbus’ 1492 voyage, Spain’s influence stretched across the Atlantic Ocean. As Spain developed as a great power, Spanish literature flourished. The period lasting from the early 1500s to the late 1600s is known as the Siglo de Oro, or Golden Age.
During the Golden Age writers began using prose to create works of fiction. An early masterpiece is the Comedia de Calixto y Melibea (1499), credited to Fernando de Rojas. This novel is commonly known as La Celestina after one of its characters, a matchmaker who brings together two lovers. The work brought to Spanish literature a new style called realism. In a realistic work, the writer tries to present accurate and detailed depictions of life and its problems.
Despite the introduction of realism, escapist forms of fiction continued to be popular. Romances told tales of gallant knights during the Middle Ages, and pastoral novels related stories about the sweetness of country life. These forms were borrowed from other literatures. Spain’s own gift to world literature was the picaresque tale. Such stories told of the adventures of a picaro—a rascal who is low-born but wily and resourceful. The form was introduced by an unknown author in Lazarillo de Tormes (1554). The title character is a young servant who lives by his wits as he is passed from master to master. The picaresque tradition influenced masterpieces in other countries, including Tom Jones (1749), by the English novelist Henry Fielding, and Huckleberry Finn (1884), by the U.S. novelist Mark Twain.
Writers also began developing a truly Spanish form of drama. As in other European countries, Spanish drama was rooted in the church. Early plays taught stories from the Bible. During the early 1500s Spanish drama was freed from these religious ties. The dramatist Juan del Encina wrote on religious topics in his early works, but later he turned to nonreligious themes. Bartolomé de Torres Naharro was the first playwright to create genuinely Spanish characters in his plays.
The first major poet of the Golden Age was Garcilaso de la Vega. He was a master of short poetry on romantic themes. Garcilaso was killed in 1536 at the age of only about 33, but his works were immediately recognized as classics.
Spain’s greatest single literary achievement is Don Quixote, a novel written in two parts (1605 and 1615) by Miguel de Cervantes. It marked the high point of the Golden Age and is the forerunner of the modern novel. The long narrative tells the story of an elderly rural landowner who reads too many romances and then sets out on his own knightly quest, accompanied by his down-to-earth servant Sancho Panza.
Spanish drama also achieved its high point during the 1600s. The outstanding playwrights were Lope de Vega, Tirso de Molina, and Pedro Calderón de la Barca. Lope wrote many plays and also set down his ideas about drama. He wanted plays to be judged by their effect on audiences, not by how well they conform to rules of structure. Tirso is best known for Burlador de Sevilla (1630; The Trickster of Seville), which introduced to world literature the legendary romantic figure Don Juan. Calderón is considered among the world’s finest playwrights. One of his best-known plays is La vida es sueño (1635; Life Is a Dream).
In the 1700s Spain fell behind other nations as a European power, and its literature also suffered. Spanish drama’s glory faded after Calderón’s death in 1681. Poetry and prose saw only limited accomplishment as well.
For political reasons, many of Spain’s liberals were forced to spend the years between about 1823 and 1833 in France and other countries. When the exiles returned, they brought back with them fresh ideas about literature.
In fiction, a spirit of romanticism took over, with authors emphasizing feelings over logic and reasoning. They wrote regional works that were rich in local color. The novel was reawakened by such writers as Fernán Caballero, a woman whose works include La gaviota (1849; The Seagull), and Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, author of El Sombrero de tres picos (1874; The Three-Cornered Hat). Benito Pérez Galdós wrote a series of 46 novels imaginatively re-creating 70 years of Spanish history.
The drama was also revived in the 1800s. The first successful Spanish romantic play was La conjuración de Venecia (1834; The Conspiracy of Venice), written by Francisco Martínez de la Rosa. Later in the century realism dominated the stage. José Echegaray y Eizaguirre, who wrote serious plays about social problems, shared the Nobel prize for literature in 1904.
In poetry, the romantics wrote freely about their own experiences. For example, Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer expressed his own tortured emotions in his Rimas (Rhymes) and José de Espronceda wrote lyrical verses based on his own life.
Spain’s modern literature began abruptly after the nation’s defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898. After reigning as an imperial power for nearly 400 years, Spain was now left without any possessions in the New World. The nation’s stature on the world stage was lowered.
A new seriousness was seen in literature in this period. The poet, novelist, and philosopher Miguel de Unamuno dominated the literary scene for a generation. He helped regain international respect for Spanish literature. In his varied writings Unamuno struggled with the conflict between faith and reason, studied Spain’s problems, and expressed his strong interest in individualism. His most famous work is Del sentimiento trágico de la vida (1913; The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Peoples).
Many novelists turned their attention to social problems and philosophy. Among them was Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, who won international fame for Los quatro jinetes del apocalipsis (1916; The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse), a novel about World War I. Like Unamuno, novelist Ramón Pérez de Ayala struggled with the conflict between faith and reason.
The outstanding dramatist of the modern period was Federico García Lorca. He wrote poetic plays in which the characters represent humankind’s basic passions. He borrowed from folk traditions to write a trilogy of plays ending with La casa de Bernarda Alba (1936; The House of Bernarda Alba). He was also an acclaimed poet.
During the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) many of Spain’s writers fled the country. After the fighting ended, a new generation matured. Much postwar literature dealt with the isolation and lack of communication between people in the modern world. An outstanding writer of the period was Camilo José Cela. His novel La familia de Pascual Duarte (1942; The Family of Pascual Duarte) gave new life to Spanish literature. He was awarded the Nobel prize for literature in 1989. Theater declined in the postwar era, but one bright spot was the work of Antonio Buero Vallejo. He wrote plays about the daily trials and tragedies of the poor. In poetry, one of the greatest writers of the time was Jorge Guillén. His works show a keen awareness of the suffering and disorder of modern life.
After the death in 1975 of dictator Francisco Franco, Spanish writers felt freer to experiment with various styles. Two notable women authors of the period were Carmen Martín Gaite and Ana María Matute. Martín Gaite wrote in a realistic style during the Franco years, but she also used elements drawn from folk legends, fables, and fairy tales in her work. Matute, another realistic novelist from the Franco years, published the folk epic Olvidado Rey Gudú in 1996. Set in the Middle Ages, the novel spans four generations in the story of rulers, gnomes, witches, and other creatures in the mythical kingdom of Olar.
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German Expressionism
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German Expressionism refers to a number of related creative movements beginning in Germany before the First World War that reached a peak in Berlin during the 1920s. These developments in Germany were part of a larger Expressionist movement in north and central European culture in fields such as architecture, dance, painting, sculpture, as well as cinema. This article deals primarily with developments in German Expressionist cinema before and immediately after World War I.
Mary Wigman, pioneer of Expressionist dance (left)
The extreme anti-realism of Expressionism was short-lived, fading away after only a few years. However, the themes of Expressionism were integrated into later films of the 1920s and 1930s, resulting in an artistic control over the placement of scenery, light, etc. to enhance the mood of a film. This dark, moody school of film making was brought to the United States when the Nazis gained power and a number of German filmmakers emigrated to Hollywood. These German directors found U.S. movie studios willing to embrace them, and several German directors and cameramen flourished there, producing a repertoire of Hollywood films that had a profound effect on film as a whole.[4] Nazi film theorist Fritz Hippler though was a supporter of expressionism. Two further films produced in Nazi Germany using the expressionist style were “Das Stahltier” (The Animal of Steel) in 1935 by Willy Zielke and “Michelangelo. Das Leben eines Titanen” (Michelangelo. The Life of a Titan) in 1940 by Curt Oertel.[5]
Influence and legacy
The German silent cinema was arguably far ahead of Hollywood during the same period.[6] The cinema outside Germany benefited both from the emigration of German film makers and from German expressionist developments in style and technique that were apparent on the screen. The new look and techniques impressed other contemporary film makers, artists and cinematographers, and they began to incorporate the new style into their work.
In 1924, Alfred Hitchcock was sent by Gainsborough Pictures to work as an assistant director and art director at the UFA Babelsberg Studios in Berlin on the film The Blackguard.[7] The immediate effect of the working environment in Germany can be seen in his expressionistic set designs for that film. Hitchcock later said, "I...acquired a strong German influence by working at the UFA studios [in] Berlin".[6]
German expressionism would continue to influence Hitchcock throughout his career. In his third film, The Lodger, Hitchcock introduced expressionist set designs, lighting techniques, and trick camera work to the British public against the wishes of his studio. His visual experimentation included the use of an image of a man walking across a glass floor shot from below, a concept representing someone pacing upstairs,[6] This influence continued through the highly successful movie Psycho in 1960, wherein Norman Bates' blurred image, seen through a shower curtain, is reminiscent of Nosferatu shown through his shadow. Hitchcock's film-making in turn influenced many other film makers, and so has been one of the vehicles that propelled the continued use of German expressionist techniques, albeit less frequently.
Werner Herzog's 1979 film Nosferatu: Phantom der Nacht was a tribute to F. W. Murnau's 1922 film. The film uses expressionist techniques of highly symbolic acting and symbolic events to tell its story.[8] The 1998 film Dark City used stark contrast, rigid movements, and fantastic elements.[9][10]
Stylistic elements taken from German Expressionism are common today in films that need not reference contemporary realism, such as science fiction films (for example, Ridley Scott's 1982 film Blade Runner, which was itself influenced by Metropolis).[citation needed] Woody Allen's 1991 film Shadows and Fog is an homage to German expressionist filmmakers Fritz Lang, Georg Wilhelm Pabst and F. W. Murnau.[citation needed]
Ambitious adaptations of the style are depicted throughout the contemporary filmography of director Tim Burton. His 1992 film Batman Returns is often cited as a modern attempt to capture the essence of German expressionism. The angular building designs and severe-looking city squares of Gotham City evoke the loom and menace present in Lang's Metropolis. Burton's expressionistic influences are most apparent in the fairy-tale suburban landscape of Edward Scissorhands. The appearance of the titular Edward Scissorhands (not accidentally) reflects Caligari's somnambulist servant. Burton casts unease in his candy-colored suburb, and the tension is visually unmasked through Edward and his Gothic castle, a last holdout from the past at the end of a suburban street. Burton subverts the Caligari nightmare with an inspired narrative, casting Edward, the outsider, as the hero, and the villagers as the villains.[citation needed] Similarly, Dr. Caligari was the inspiration for the grotesque, bird-like appearance of the Penguin in Burton's 1992 film Batman Returns.[citation needed] The familiar look of Caligari's main character can also be seen in the movie The Crow. With the tight, black outfit, white make-up and darkened eyes, Brandon Lee's character is a close relative to both Cesare, and to Burton's film Edward Scissorhands.[citation needed] Burton was also reportedly influenced by silent films and German Expressionism for his film adaptation of the musical Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, describing the musical as a "silent film with music".[citation needed]
Cinema and architecture
German Expressionist painters rejected the naturalistic depiction of objective reality, often portraying distorted figures, buildings, and landscapes in a disorienting manner that disregarded the conventions of perspective and proportion. This approach, combined with jagged, stylized shapes and harsh, unnatural colors, were used to convey subjective emotions.
A number of artists and craftsmen working in the Berlin theater brought the Expressionist visual style to the design of stage sets. This, in turn, had an eventual influence on films dealing with fantasy and horror.
The prime example is Robert Wiene's dream-like film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) which is universally recognized as an early classic of Expressionist cinema. Hermann Warm, the film's art director, worked with painters and stage designers Walter Reimann and Walter Röhrig to create fantastic, nightmarish sets with twisted structures and landscapes with sharp-pointed forms and oblique, curving lines. Some of these designs were constructions, others were painted directly onto canvases.
See also
1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 Roger Manvell. Henrik Galeen - Films as writer:, Other films:. Film Reference. Retrieved 2009-04-23.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
2. 2.0 2.1 Thompson, Kristin. Bordwell, David. Film History: An Introduction, Third Edition. McGraw Hill. 2010, p.87
3. Thompson, Kristin. Bordwell, David. Film History: An Introduction, Third Edition. McGraw Hill. 2010, p.91
5. Michaela Rethmeier: Die Funktion und Bedeutung Fritz Hipplers für das Filmschaffen im „Dritten Reich“. Page 67 (dissertation, University of Münster, 2006)
6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Paul Merton Looks at Alfred Hitchcock", BBC Television 2009, Broadcast- 28th Feb 2009
8. Nosferatu: The Vampyre. Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2009-04-23. Stark, symbolic cinematography and intensely stylized performances<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
9. Don Kornits (1999-06-02). "Alex Proyas - Director, Dark City". eFilmCritic. Retrieved 2007-07-06.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
10. Rob Blackwelder (1998-02-13). "Vision of Strangers Dance in His Head". SPLICEDwire. Retrieved 2007-07-06.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
12. Kracauer, Siegfried. “Ca bla bkah ligari.” From Caligari to Hitler. Princeton: Princeton U P, [1947] 2004. 61–76.
External links
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Far Flung Flora and Fauna
German biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel dedicated his life studying far flung flora and fauna, drawing each of their peculiar specificities with an immense scientific detail. Haeckel made hundreds of such renderings during his lifetime, works which were used to explain his biological discoveries to a wide audience. In addition to these visual masterpieces, Haeckel also discovered many microbes, and coined several scientific terms commonly known today, such as ecology, phylum, and stem cell.
A new book from Taschen titled The Art and Science of Ernst Haeckel outlines the 19th-century artist-biologist’s most important visual works and publications across a hefty 704 pages. The compendium includes 450 drawings, watercolors, and sketches from his research, which was in large support of Darwin’s theory of evolution. Most notably the book contains the Kunstformen der Natur (Art Forms in Nature), a collection of 100 prints of varying organisms originally published between 1899 and 1904.
You can learn more about the collection of illustrations and Haeckel’s discoveries on Taschen’s website. (via Fast Co. Design) (via Colossal)
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Sanfilippo syndrome
Sanfilippo syndrome is an inherited disease that belongs to a group of diseases called mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS). Specifically, it is known as MPS type 3. Mucopolysaccharides are complex sugar molecules that are constantly used and broken down in the body. In 1963, Dr. Sylvester Sanfilippo was one of the first doctors to describe Sanfilippo syndrome.
In individuals with Sanfilippo syndrome, one of the enzymes that break down heparan sulfate, a carbohydrate, or complex sugar molecule, that inhibits blood clotting, is missing or malfunctioning. This causes heparan sulfate to buildup to abnormally high levels in lysosomes, which are the compartments in the cell responsible for breaking down and disposing of cell waste. Waste products that buildup in lysosomes are excreted in the urine, so individuals with Sanfilippo syndrome tend to have high levels of heparan sulfate in their urine.
Because of the buildup of heparan sulfate, cells do not function properly. Symptoms of Sanfilippo syndrome include problems with the heart, bones, joints, and lungs. As the disease progresses, this buildup of heparan sulfate in nerve cells causes serious problems resulting from the failure of the nervous system.
It is estimated that Sanfilippo syndrome affects one out of every 80,000 births. Males and females are affected in equal numbers. The disease may not be apparent at birth. Signs and symptoms progress with age as heparan sulfate accumulates and damages cells and organs. Most people with Sanfilippo syndrome live into their teenage years. Some patients live longer, while others with severe forms die at an earlier age from complications.
There are four types of Sanfilippo syndrome: types A, B, C, and D. Each type is caused by mutations in one of the four genes that provide instructions for making enzymes involved in breaking down heparan sulfate. Depending on the type of Sanfilippo syndrome, the mutation could occur in the gene for heparan sulfate sulfatase (type A), alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase (type B), acetyl-CoA alpha-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase (type C), or N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfatase (type D).
Related Terms
Acetyl-CoA alpha-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase deficiency, glycosaminoglycans, heparan sulfate, heparan sulfate sulfatase deficiency, lysosomal storage disease, MPS III, MPS type 3, mucopolysaccharides, mucopolysaccharidosis III, mucopolysaccharidosis type 3, N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfate sulfatase deficiency, N-acetylglucosaminidase deficiency.
types of the disease
There are four main types of Sanfilippo syndrome, which is also called mucopolysaccharidosis type 3 (MPS III). There are four different genes that, when mutated or defective, provide incorrect instructions for making enzymes that break down heparan sulfate. These incorrect instructions result in enzymes that cannot adequately break down heparan sulfate. The gene and enzyme that are affected determine the type of Sanfilippo syndrome.
Sanfilippo type A: Type A is the most severe form of Sanfilippo syndrome. In this type of the disease, the enzyme heparan sulfate sulfatase is altered or absent.
Sanfilippo type B: In type B Sanfilippo syndrome, the enzyme alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase is absent or deficient. Type B is generally milder than type A. On average, symptoms of type B start to appear between 40 and 60 years of age and may include heart disease, arthritis, skin blistering, swallowing problems, seizures, and behavioral problems (restlessness, screaming, and hitting). One study in the Netherlands showed that type B is the most common subtype of mucopolysaccharidosis in that country. It is believed that type B is underdiagnosed in adults with mental disabilities.
Sanfilippo type C: In type C Sanfilippo syndrome, the enzyme acetyl-CoA alpha-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase is absent or inadequate.
Sanfilippo type D: In type D Sanfilippo syndrome, the enzyme N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfatase is absent or deficient.
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Header image of books
The motor car is a handy device to have around but one which is polluting and profligate of natural resources, not only in the fuel it consumes but also in the raw materials and energy needed to construct and maintain it. Some experts argue that the car has reached a design plateau and that the only way to make significant improvements to its efficiency is to radically rethink it.
This has led to the concept of the hypercar, a term invented and popularised by the futurist Amory Lovins and his Rocky Mountain Institute. It has been much in the news recently because the concept is discussed at length in a report to the Club of Rome which he has co-authored. The hypercar would be made of ultralight plastics, be heavily streamlined, and would have a hybrid propulsion system in which fuel is burnt to generate electricity that drives the motors. The motors would also be used in regenerative braking as generators to claw back some of the energy that would otherwise be lost.
Amory Lovins claims that putting these improvements together could make the hypercar about ten times as efficient as cars are now, so it could in theory cross the United States on one tankful of fuel. The word is formed from car by prefixing the Greek hyper-, meaning “over, beyond, above measure”, which is now a common superlative prefix.
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Homework Help: Couloumb's Law Problem
1. Apr 12, 2012 #1
Two identical particles, each having charge +q, are fixed in space and separated by a distance d. A third particle with charge −Q is free to move and lies initially at rest on the perpendicular bisector of the two fixed charges a distance x from the midpoint between those charges (see figure below).
(a) Show that if x is small compared with d, the motion of −Q is simple harmonic along the perpendicular bisector. (Do this on paper. Your instructor may ask you to turn in this work.)
There is more to this problem but the first question I dont even know what is asking.
2. Relevant equations
3. The attempt at a solution
2. jcsd
3. Apr 12, 2012 #2
Also, just looked at the second two questions, don't know where to start...
(b) Determine the period of that motion. (Use the following as necessary: π, q, Q, m for the mass of charge Q, d, and ke.)
T =
(c) How fast will the charge −Q be moving when it is at the midpoint between the two fixed charges if initially it is released at a distance a << d from the midpoint? (Use the following as necessary: π, q, Q, m for the mass of charge Q, d, and ke.)
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Second Grade News
The second graders are building walls! Last month, they learned about sand, soil, and clay through hands-on investigations. Miss Pomada read a story about a girl who built a wall to keep a rabbit from eating her plants. The students have ASKED what the problem is and IMAGINED solutions by testing the strength of sand, soil, and clay. They PLANNED the mortar they want to use and began to CREATE their walls this week! They will then test their walls with a “demolition ball” and redesign their walls to IMPROVE them and make them stronger!
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"url": "https://stmonicasea.org/second-grade-news/"
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Dinosaur footprint
Dinosaur footprint
Rights Managed
Dinosaur footprint. Woman crouching by the fossilised footprint of a sauropod dinosaur. Such footprints were generally formed in marine coastal environments, when a print left in sand or mud was baked dry by the sun and filled with other material. When this material later eroded away, the print was revealed. This footprint may have been made by an Apatosaurus, a huge, long-necked herbivore that lived during the Jurassic period, approximately 150-140 million years ago. Apatosaurus reached a length of 20 metres and weighed around 30 tonnes. Photographed in Portugal.
Release details
Model release available. Property release not required.
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• Similar {{ mediaType(i) }}
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"url": "http://www.sciencephoto.com/media/172658/view"
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Gnathostoma spinigerum
Human gnathostomiasis is caused by several species of parasitic worms (nematodes) in the genus Gnathostoma. The disease is found and is most commonly diagnosed in Southeast Asia, though it has also been found elsewhere in Asia, in South and Central America, and in some areas of Africa. People become infected primarily by eating undercooked or raw freshwater fish, eels, frogs, birds, and reptiles. The most common manifestations of the infection in humans are migratory swellings under the skin and increased levels of eosinophils in the blood. Rarely, the parasite can enter other tissues such as the liver, and the eye, resulting in vision loss or blindness, and the nerves, spinal cord, or brain, resulting in nerve pain, paralysis, coma and death.
Image: Left/Right: Third-stage larva of Gnathostoma spinigerum, head and whole larva respectively. Center: Scanning electron micrograph of a Gnathostoma spinigerum female worm’s head bulb. Credit: DPDx
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"url": "https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/gnathostoma/"
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Learning Exercise
The Leopold Loeb Trial
Leopold Loeb were two very bright young men who committed an heinous crime after graduating from college. The substance of the case and the verdict reflect on whether or not American justice is shaped by the ability to pay for the best attorneys.
Course: U.S. History
Instructions; CLICK "go to material." SCROLL down to the bottom of the page. CLICK "Famous Trials." CLICK "Leopold-Loeb." READ "An Introduction." Answer the following questions: 1. Who were Richard Loeb, Nathan Leopold, Clarence Darrow, and Bobby Franks?, 2. What was the crime?, 3. How was it committed and why?, 4. What role did a pair of glasses play as evidence?, 5. Did Leopold and Loeb contest their guilt?, 6. If they didn't what was the trail about?, 7. Summarize Darrow's defense for Leopold and Leob, 8. Summarize the State's positon, 9. What was the verdict?, 10. What happened to both Leopold and Loeb?, 11. Was the trial fair?, 12 Why did this trial interest so many Americans?
Technical Notes
Leopold-Loeb; American Justice.
Learning Objectives
To evaluate whether or not wealth determines the outcome in the American Criminal Justice System.
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Alternative Title: Salpida
Salp, any small, pelagic, gelatinous invertebrate of the order Salpida (subphylum Tunicata, phylum Chordata). Found in warm seas, salps are especially common in the Southern Hemisphere. They have transparent barrel-shaped bodies that are girdled by muscle bands and open at each end. For propulsion, muscle contractions can rapidly expel jets of water from the body and drive the animals forward. They are filter feeders that consume microscopic planktonic plants and animals. The life cycle of salps is complex, with alternating sexual and asexual phases. In the latter phase, long chains of individuals are formed. Many salps are luminescent.
More About Salp
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Saturday 23 March 2019
'How we made the Chernobyl rain'
Russian military pilots have described how they created rain clouds to protect Moscow from radioactive fallout after the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986.
Major Aleksei Grushin repeatedly took to the skies above Chernobyl and Belarus and used artillery shells filled with silver iodide to make rain clouds that would "wash out" radioactive particles drifting towards densely populated cities.
More than 4,000 square miles of Belarus were sacrificed to save the Russian capital from the toxic radioactive material.
"The wind direction was moving from west to east and the radioactive clouds were threatening to reach the highly populated areas of Moscow, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod, Yaroslavl," he told Science of Superstorms, a BBC2 documentary to be broadcast today.
"If the rain had fallen on those cities it would've been a catastrophe for millions. The area where my crew was actively influencing the clouds was near Chernobyl, not only in the 30km zone, but out to a distance of 50, 70 and even 100 km."
In the wake of the catastrophic meltdown of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor, people in Belarus reported heavy, black-coloured rain around the city of Gomel. Shortly beforehand, aircraft had been spotted circling in the sky ejecting coloured material behind them.
Moscow has always denied that cloud seeding took place after the accident, but last year on the 20th anniversary of the disaster, Major Grushin was among those honoured for bravery. He claims he received the award for flying cloud seeding missions during the Chernobyl clean-up.
A second Soviet pilot, who asked not to be named, also confirmed to the programme makers that cloud seeding operations took place as early as two days after the explosion.
Alan Flowers, a British scientist who was one of the first Western scientists allowed into the area to examine the extent of radioactive fallout around Chernobyl, said that the population in Belarus was exposed to radiation doses 20 to 30 times higher than normal as a result of the rainfall, causing intense radiation poisoning in children.
Mr Flowers was expelled from Belarus in 2004 after claiming that Russia had seeded the clouds. He said: "The local population say there was no warning before these heavy rains and the radioactive fallout arrived."
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The exterior walls of the Colosseum in Rome
The ancient Colosseum in Rome sustained damage during a fifth-century earthquake, which has now been attributed to a fault that unleashed a series of quakes in 2016. Credit: Massimo Lama/EyeEm/Getty
Quake that battered ancient Rome is traced to its lair
A fault in the Apennine Mountains wreaked damage on structures including the Colosseum.
The geological fault responsible for a series of Italian earthquakes in 2016 might also have caused a quake mentioned in ancient accounts of fifth-century Rome.
Until 2016, scientists had considered the 30-kilometre-long Mount Vettore fault in the central Apennine Mountains to be dormant. But between August and October that year, it generated three big earthquakes; the first killed nearly 300 people.
To explore the fault’s history, a team led by Paolo Galli at the Department of Civil Protection in Rome dug trenches across it to look for soil disturbances caused by past earthquakes. The researchers found evidence of 6 big quakes in the past 9,000 years.
One of those probably occurred in the middle of the fifth century ad. It could be the same earthquake that, according to medieval historians, damaged the Colosseum and other buildings in Rome in ad 443.
On average, the Mount Vettore fault has generated quakes greater than magnitude 6.5 every 1,800 years. In retrospect, the authors write, the 2016 earthquakes shouldn’t have been so surprising.
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Lesson #1: Re-interpreting a Photograph
Part of the unit: Creating a Portrait Print |
Why might an artist re-interpret a familiar image?
Students will be able to:
Discuss why Andy Warhol and Shephard Fairey re-interpreted photographic portraits into screen prints.
Reduce a photograph to flat planes.
Students will understand that:
Artists can be inspired by significant cultural and historical figures.
Artists often re-interpret a familiar image.
9"x12" drawing paper, colored markers, black sharpie markers, 8.5"x11" tracing paper, ebony pencils
Andy Warhol's silkscreen prints of Marilyn Monroe and Mao
Shephard Fairey's Obama Hope poster with the photograph on which it was based (theage.com.au/news/entertainment/arts/obama-poster-designers-lie/2009/10/19/1255891765913.html)
8.5x11" images of notable people (from the arts, history, politics, science...) gathered from magazines and the internet
Optional: Students can be told in advance to bring in an 8.5"x11" photograph of a notable person.
Display Andy Warhol's Marilyn Monroe and Mao. Explain that these are silkscreen prints based on photographs. Briefly desribe the silkscreen process.
• Who are the subjects of these portraits?
• Why do you think Warhol selected these people as subjects?
Briefly discuss the Pop Art Movement of the 1960's. Indicate that much of the art was commentary on popular culture. Include some visuals of Andy Warhol's Soup Cans, Roy Lichtenstein's prints and other iconic pieces of work.
• How are these images different from photographs?
• What is similar about the way Wahrol has portrayed Marilyn and Mao? (discuss composition and color) might he select to memorialize in a portrait?
Display Shephard Fairey's Obama Hope poster and the photograph it was based on.
• In what ways is this image of President Obama similar to Andy Warhol's portraits?
• How has Shephard Fairey re-interpreted the image in the photograph?
• Why is this an effective poster for a political campaign?
Explain that in this printmaking unit, students will be selecting a photograph of a notable person to re-interpret into a new image, similar to what Warhol and Fairey have done. Starting with a photograph from the internet or a magazine, students will create a four-color sketch in preparation for making a four-color reduction print.
Using an ebony pencil, the teacher will demonstrate how to
1. 1. outline the planes of the face (or the shadows) to create flat shapes
2. 2. use tracing paper to trace the image
3. 3. re-trace it on the reverse side
4. 4. place the tracing on 9x12 drarwing paper
5. 5. go over the lines to transfer the image onto the drawing paper
6. 6. outline the contours using a Sharpie marker.
Students will use the photos they have brought to class or will select one from the teacher's collection.
They will ouline the planes of the face to create flat shapes. Tracing paper will be used to trace the image, retrace it on the reverse side, and transfer it to 9"x12" drawing paper. The drawing will be outlined used a Sharpie marker.
Display student work. Ask students to identify the subjects.
• How are these traced images different from a photographic image?
Use MoMA's website (www.moma.org) to find Andy Warhol's Self-Portrait,1966, on nine canvases. In writing, answer the following question:
• Why do you think Warhol displayed the self-portraits in a group rather than individually?
• Which one do you like the best? Explain.
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Government officials say jade has replaced rubies as the main attraction at a state-run auction held in Yangon with the majority of the buyers being Chinese. The Chinese have revered jade since Neolithic times. Archeological data shows that the ancient Chinese were using nephrite jade to make ornaments and weapons between 7000 and 8000 years ago. According to an ancient Chinese proverb: "You can put a price on gold, but jade is priceless."[Source: Fred Ward, National Geographic, September 1987; Timothy Green, Smithsonian magazine, 1984]
The Chinese word "yu which we translate as "jade" actually refers to any rock that is carved. Some 30 or 40 different kinds of mineral in China are called yu. Nephrite is known as "lao-yu" (“old jade”) or "bai-you" (“white jade”) and jadeite is known as "fei-cui-yu" (“kingfisher jade). John Ng, a jade specialist and author of Jade and You, told Smithsonian magazine, " The Chinese or Japanese have no hesitation in buying good pieces to give their families or friends for good luck. To the Asian, giving jade conveys a special feeling."According to the Chinese creation myth, after man was created he wandered the earth, helpless and vulnerable to attacks from wild beasts. The storm god took pity on him and forged a rainbow into jade axes and tossed them to the earth for man to discover and protect himself with.
Some scholars have suggested that Chinese civilization was built around jade. Known as the "Stone of Heaven," it was more valuable than gold or gems in imperial China and was considered a bridge between heaven and earth. Prized for both its beauty and symbolic value, jade has traditionally been worn as talisman by Chinese and shaped into a variety of objects. Jade was also prized by the Olmec and Mayan civilizations in America and by the Maori in New Zealand.
Jade comes in two forms: nephrite and jadeite, both of which are prized for their hardness, firmness and ability to be carved and the luster they generate that creates an appearance of transparency. Nephrite and jadeite are two chemically different and distinct materials. Both are technically rocks not gems, since they are mineral aggregates rather than crystals. Natural stones passed off as jade include chrysoprase, jasper, serpentine and soapstone.
Jade Symbolism in China
Revered for its hardness and texture, jade symbolizes the cosmos, wealth, political power, security, good health and strength. In China, jade cicadas have been placed on the tongue of the dead to speed resurrection; jade pigs symbolize prosperity, jade disks represent heaven and a piece of jade enclosed within a square signifies the earth.
According to Reuters: Chinese have prized jade for its beauty and symbolism for millennia. Many believe wearing jade jewellery brings good fortune, prosperity and longevity. It is also viewed as an investment, a major factor driving China's appetite for Burmese jade. "Gold is valuable, but jade is priceless," runs an old Chinese saying.
Confucian scholars compared the 11 virtues of jade as models for human behavior. Confucius himself equated the stone with intelligence, truth, loyalty, justice, purity and humanity, and he used the stone to symbolize the idea of junzi, the noble or superior man. Taoist alchemists mixed up elixirs with powdered jade that they hoped would make them immortal.
The emperors communicated with the gods through jade disks; and Chinese poets called the skin of beautiful woman "fragrant jade" and the part of her body which men love so much to enter, her "jade gate." A jade donut has traditionally been given as a gift to newborns. Jade gifts were commonly given as bribes to corrupt Chinese officials. In athletic events second and third place contestants were given trophies of gold and ivory, while the winners were awarded jade. Jade is prescribed as a medicine and credited with having miraculous powers and the ability to ward off evil and bad luck. A villager in Xinjiang told the Los Angeles Times, “I believe it will cure everything. I have heard when it touches your skin, it sucks out the poisons.”
Jade as a Mineral
Nephrite is a silicate of calcium and magnesium. What distinguishes nephrite from other rocks with the same chemical composition is its needle-shaped grains and tightly interwoven, fluted, fibrous structure. Nephrite is stronger than most steels and has waxy, fibrous texture. Nephrite comes in a variety of colors, including its most prized color yellowish-white "mutton fat," long cherished by Chinese carvers and collectors. Without impurities nephrite is snowy white. The presence of magnesium and iron produce a bluish white color. Yellow is produced by ferric ion, brown by hematite and grey and black by graphite.
Nephrite is more abundant than jadeite and is found mostly in dolomitic marbles and serpentised ulramfics. It was first discovered by Chinese, who regarded it as very rare material and went through great trouble to obtain it. Today, it is found in many places, including China, Siberia, Taiwan, New Zealand, Alaska, California and Wyoming. Boulder-size deposits exist in British Columbia and Australia. The only expense is transported them. According to the Guinness Book of Records, the largest piece of jade is a piece of nephrite found in the Yukon Territory of Canada that weighed 636 tons.
Jadeite is a silicate of sodium and aluminum. It is generally shinier and slightly heavier and harder than nephrite but not as tough. Jadeite rates 7 on Mohr scale of hardness compared to 6½ for nephrite and 10 for a diamond. About 90 percent of the worlds jadeite comes from Myanmar. There are additional small deposits of the stone in Russia, China, Japan, and North and Central America. The first shipments of the stone from Burma to China arrived in 1784, and has been greatly valued since then.
The ancient Chinese did not make a fine distinction between true jade and jade simulates. Common jade simulates fall into four classes: 1) serpentine 2) feldspar, 3) carbonate and 4) quartz groups. Quartz group specimens, such as the transparent colorless rock crystal known to the ancient Chinese as "aquajade," are the most observed form of jade stimulant. Carnelian, known as "red jade" in antiquity, is ideal for carving.
Jade Colors
Most jade has a bright green color associated with jade jewelry, though it comes in a host of other colors such as white, black, yellow, red, blue, and lavender—depending on the chemical composition of the stone. Variations of iron content in jadeite can produce brownish-red, dark green or lavender hues. White translucent jade is highly prized.
Green jadeite gets its green color from the element chromium. The most prized jadeite is translucent, emerald green jade known as "Imperial jade." Devious sellers can dye jade a richer color of green by heating it slowly to 212 degrees F and soaking it in chromium salts for two hours. The dye penetrates the cracks between the jade crystals and buyers are easily fooled. Good “dye jobs” are hard to detect. With bad ones the color seems to 'float' on the surface of the stone, indicating the dye has not penetrated deeply.
The Chinese character for jade, "fei-ts'ui, "represents two species of kingfisher with feathers whose colors are similar to those of brownish-red and emerald green jadeite.
Jade Business
The jade world is hard for outsiders to understand. Jade lacks clear, well-understood standards of quality as is the case with diamonds. A rating system exists that evaluates jade on scale from "A" for "exceptional" to "E" for "acceptable" based on tone, texture, translucence and color but it is not widely followed or recognized.
Many aspects of the traditionally jade business are like a guessing game. "Rough jade," wrote Timothy Green in Smithsonian magazine, "has an opaque skin, rather like the shell of a nut, caused by oxidation. To the untutored eye it looks just like any other large stone and the true contents is very hard to detect. That uncertainty is the very essence of the jade game...The logical approach would be to cut open the [rough jade boulder] immediately, but that would spoil the fun—and the potential for profit. The trick, for both buyer and seller, is to stake their judgement on three crucial points: How true is the color throughout the stone? How translucent is it? And are there cracks and flaws within?"
To determine the value of the jade a small "window" is cut into the skin of the boulder. Buyers use flashlights and spotlights to try and determine the depth and translucence of the color. One buyer told Smithsonian magazine, "Even the best appraiser can see only 70 percent of the value of the stones. He can see the quality of color but not quantity of the color.” Another buyer, with 21 years experience, said, “You need a good memory, because you must study every piece you buy and remember how the crust of the rough looked, and the color distribution when it was cut. Then, if you see a similar stone, you apply that knowledge. I often recall a stone I saw ten years ago."
In many places jade is still changed hands using an ancient Chinese ritual to keep the bidding price secret in which the buyer holds the jade he is bidding for in one hand and holds hands with the seller underneath a cloth with his other hand. The buyer only speaks the words for "hundred" or "thousand" and makes a signal with his hand under the cloth to express a number between one and ten. If a buyer extends two fingers under the cloth, for example, and shouts "thousand" he is making a bid for "2000."
Jade Carving
Up until about fifty years ago most carvers used the traditional method of drawing a bowstring back and forth to propel a drill with water and abrasive. Unlike ivory, jade is to hard to carve. It is shaped through cutting, grinding and polishing. Some craftsmen use electric tools, others use traditional tools such as pedal-operated treadle grinder, which has remained essentially unchanged for over a thousand years. One craftsman who prefers traditional tools told Smithsonian magazine, "We could use a diamond saw, but this traditional method gives him more control. There is less wastage, because you can cut a very thin slice."
Master jade craftsmen, like diamond cutters, take their time sizing up their pieces of jade. "It's an expensive material," one carver told Green, "and you've go to be careful, can't make mistakes. We think about it for a few weeks." One scholar told Green, "Ideally the shape you are looking at should be as close as possible to the original boulder. The craftsman is asking himself, 'How little can I do and still make it a pleasing piece?'" "Sometimes we just enjoy ourselves," a Chinese carver told Green. "But jade carving is very slow, and it takes a long time to sell, because the market for jade carving is narrow: just a few collectors here and in Japan and America.”
The workshops that mass produce simple jade jewelry are a different story. Green wrote: "A young craftsman in T-shirt and shorts uses a treadle cutter with a rope attached to a steel blade to saw through a five-pound piece of jade. His bare feet made a relentless patter on the treadle, and he regularly fed the blade with a mixture of abrasive grit and water."
The first step in making a bangle is carving an outline on the on the jade. Then the jade is cut into slices about half an inch thick and the holes are drilled out. "Drills like those of a dentist...punch out the center and shape the bangles," wrote Green, ", which are finally ground and polished on diamond wheels." The retail price for a jade bangle is usually about three times the wholesale price. Quality pieces have a fine grain, good color and translucency."
Paul Watson wrote in the Los Angeles Times, “Child labor is an essential part of production at the bottom end of outdoor factories that surround Mandalay's jade market. Children huddle on their haunches around glowing embers in metal braziers, melting doping wax on the end of dop sticks, plucking small pieces of jade from a cup, and carefully placing them on the wax blobs. They blow gently to harden the seals and then hand the sticks up the line to other children. [Source: Paul Watson, Los Angeles Times, December 24, 2007]
Burmese Jade, Hong Kong and China
Most of the world’s jadite is made into finished products in Hong Kong or Taiwan, mostly easy to replicate jewelry such as bangles and rings. Carving delicate figurines is time- consuming and expensive and there are only a few collectors that can afford the prices which often can be as high as $100,000 to $250,000. The highest price ever paid for jade jewelry was $9.39 million for necklace with 27 beads of emerald green jadeite. It was sold at a Christie's auction in Hong Kong.
The relation between the jade merchants of the Kachin State and the craftsman in the Yunnan Province endured for centuries but was broken by the Communist Revolution, when jade merchant set up shop in Hong Kong and carvers and crafts men migrated to Hong Kong from Beijing and Shanghai. Today, the quality of jade craftsmanship is much better in Hong Kong than it is in China or Taiwan.
Of the jadeite that reached China from Myanmar in the 1980s, about 40 percent of it was bought legitimately from auctions in Burma, 40 percent was smuggled through Thailand, and the remainder came directly from Burma to China's Yunnan province.
These days Chinese in Yunnan are buying more and more jade directly from the Kachin State. Much of the jade is purchased by buyers from China's National Arts and Crafts Import and Export Corporation in Beijing and the Guangdong Arts and Crafts Company in Guangzhou
Burmese Jade in Kachin State
The best jade deposits are located in the Kachin State, a semi-autonomous area in northern Myanmar. Most of jade here is found between the Burmese provinces of Chindwin and Uyu. Some of the jade is sold at government sponsored markets for "ridiculously high prices" but most of it is smuggled out." In the 1980s the top nephrite colors sold for $50 to $100 a kilogram, while a brilliant green, translucent jadeite cabochon (weighing little more than an ounce) could fetch more than $50,000. [Source: Fred Ward, National Geographic, September 1987, ╝].
The jadeite deposits are scattered over a large area between the Uyu and Chindwon rivers near the small town of Hpakan, about 200 miles north of Mandalay. The world's foremost deposit of jadeite is found in the bed of the Uru river and on the Tawmaw plateau.
The Kachin tribe has long felt that had the rights to the jade in their homeland, not the Myanmar government. Revenues from the jade mines once was the main source of income for the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO), an insurgent group still active in the fight for independence from the Myanmar government even though it has a long-running ceasefire with the Myanmar government. [Source: Timothy Green, Smithsonian magazine]
The jade mines of Kachin State were controlled by Kachin chiefs until they were displaced by the KIO and its military faction, the Kachin Independence Army. Anyone who wants to jade from the region had to get a license from the KIO.
Describing a jade operation in Kachin state in the 1980s, Timothy Green wrote in Smithsonian magazine, "The mine owner, armed with his KIO license, employs a few miners and supplies them with food. They either work a small quarry—hauling out the jade boulders, which weigh anything from a couple of pounds to many tons, with the aid of water buffalos or oxen—or they scour streambeds. A small sector of the stream is dammed and then the diggers ferret through the exposed boulders for jade."
Burmese Jade Trade
The jadeite trade begins at the mines in Kachin, were low quality boulders are sold by the mines themselves to small time traders who go from to mine. Valuable boulders are taken from the mines to Hpakan, where the money from the sale is dived equally among the owner and miners, who in turn divide their share among themselves. The owner has to pay a five percent tax to the KIO, who mark the boulder as taxed. The price of the jade at this juncture is only ten percent of what it eventually becomes in Hong Kong. [Source: Timothy Green, Smithsonian magazine]
From Hpakan the jadeite is transported by ox or bullock cart to Mogaung, a larger town which has been the center of the jade for 200 years, when the Chinese in Yunnan began sending representatives here to buy jade for the Chinese Emperor's craftsmen. In Mogaung, the rough jade is sold to major traders who, for the most part, transport the jade along smuggling routes out of the country.
From Mogaung the jade can be taken about 70 miles to China, but much travels to Thailand, usually across 400 miles of rough country, occupied by warlords and hill tribe insurgents, who often exact tolls like petty Medieval lords. The jade couriers and armed caravans often pay for an escort by insurgent groups such as the Shan United Army, the Karen National Union, the Wa National Army or the remnants of the Kuomintang that came to Myanmar from China after the Chinese Revolution.
In the 1980s Most of the jade at the annual Burma Gems, Jade and Pearl Emporium came from two deposits in the Kachin State. The emporium accounts for only about 25 percent of the jade mined each year in Myanmar. The majority of it is smuggled out the country to Thailand—and more and more to China—on the backs of mules.
Jade Smuggling
"Smuggling," says Ward, "is more than the national pastime in Burma, albeit technically punishable by death. Most experts say that more than half the socialist's country's gross national product is black market. One U.S. Embassy official familiar with the problem jokes, 'Burma grows the tallest teak trees in the world. Not matter which way you cut one, it falls in China.' With jade, smuggling is the norm, even though it means lugging heavy boulders through the mountains and jungles to Thailand, at least a 12-day trek, using human porters. Everyone I saw agreed that well over half of the natural tonnage from the Mogaung area...is clandestinely carried from the Kachin State, through Shan State (where drug-snuggling warlords levy 15 percent safe-passage taxes) to northern Thailand." [Source: Fred Ward, National Geographic September 1987]
Shan tribesmen smuggle jade from Myanmar into Thailand along jungle trails on mules each packed with about 100 pounds of rough jade. It is estimated that $25 million worth of jade was smuggled from Myanmar in the 1980s into Thai border towns such as Mae Sot, Mae Hong Son or Mae Sai, where the jade is loaded into trucks and taken to Chiang Mae. [Source: Timothy Green, Smithsonian magazine]
In the 1980s Chinese in Yunnan province are buying more and more jade directly from the Kachin State. Much of the jade is purchased by buyers from China's National Arts and Crafts Import and Export Corporation in Beijing and the Guangdong Arts and Crafts Company in Guangzhou (Canton).
$8 Billion Jade Empire in Dominated by the Military and Chinese Tycoons
Reporting from Hpakant, the center of Myanmar’s jade trade, Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo of Reuters wrote: “Rare finds by small-time prospectors Tun pale next to the staggering wealth extracted on an industrial scale by Myanmar's military, the tycoons it helped enrich, and companies linked to the country where most jade ends up: China.[Source: Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo, Reuters, September 29, 2013 >>>]
“Jade is not only high value but easy to transport. "Only the stones they cannot hide go to the emporiums," said Tin Soe, 53, a jade trader in Hpakant, referring to the official auctions held in Myanmar's capital of Naypyitaw. The rest is smuggled by truck to China by so-called "jockeys" through territory belonging to either the Burmese military or the Kachin Independence Army (KIA), both of whom extract tolls. The All China Jade Trade Association, a state-linked industry group based in Beijing, declined repeated requests for an interview. >>>
After sending researchers to the area this year, the Harvard Ash Center published a report in July 2013 that put sales of Burmese jade at about $8 billion in 2011. That's more than double the country's revenue from natural gas and nearly a sixth of its 2011 GDP. "Practically nothing is going to the government," David Dapice, the report's co-author, told Reuters. "What you need is a modern system of public finance in which the government collects some part of the rents from mining this stuff."
“In a rare visit to the heart of Myanmar's secretive jade-mining industry in Hpakant, Reuters found an anarchic region where soldiers and ethnic rebels clash, and where mainland Chinese traders rub shoulders with heroin-fuelled "handpickers" who are routinely buried alive while scavenging for stones. >>>
“At the top of the pecking order in Hpakant are cashed-up traders from China, who buy stones displayed on so-called "jade tables" in Hpakant tea-shops. The tables are run by middleman called laoban ("boss" in Chinese), who are often ethnic Chinese. They buy jade from, and sometimes employ, handpickers” who actually look for and find the jade. >>>
Billions from “Unofficial Jade” from Myanmar Disappears
Reuters reported: “Almost half of all jade sales are "unofficial" - that is, spirited over the border into China with little or no formal taxation. This represents billions of dollars in lost revenues that could be spent on rebuilding a nation shattered by nearly half a century of military dictatorship. Official statistics confirm these missing billions. Myanmar produced more than 43 million kg of jade in fiscal year 2011/12 (April to March). Even valued at a conservative $100 per kg, it was worth $4.3 billion. But official exports of jade that year stood at only $34 million. [Source: Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo, Reuters, September 29, 2013 >>>]
“Official Chinese statistics only deepen the mystery. China doesn't publicly report how much jade it imports from Myanmar. But jade is included in official imports of precious stones and metals, which in 2012 were worth $293 million - a figure still too small to explain where billions of dollars of Myanmar jade has gone. “Such squandered wealth symbolizes a wider challenge in Myanmar, an impoverished country whose natural resources - including oil, timber and precious metals - have long fuelled armed conflicts while enriching only powerful individuals or groups.
Since a reformist government took office in March 2011, Myanmar has pinned its economic hopes on the resumption of foreign aid and investment. Some economists argue, however, that Myanmar's prosperity and unity may depend upon claiming more revenue from raw materials. There are few reliable estimates on total jade sales that include unofficial exports.
The United States banned imports of jade, rubies and other Burmese gemstones in 2008 in a bid to cut off revenue to the military junta which then ruled Myanmar, also known as Burma. But soaring demand from neighbouring China meant the ban had little effect. After Myanmar's reformist government took power, the United States scrapped or suspended almost all economic and political sanctions - but not the ban on jade and rubies. It was renewed by the White House on August 7 in a sign that Myanmar's anarchic jade industry remains a throwback to an era of dictatorship. The U.S. Department of the Treasury included the industry in activities that "contribute to human rights abuses or undermine Burma's democratic reform process."
Hpakant, the Center of Myanmar’s Jade Mining
Reuters reported: “Hpakant lies in Kachin State, a rugged region sandwiched strategically between China and India. Nowhere on Earth does jade exist in such quantity and quality. "Open the ground, let the country abound," reads the sign outside the Hpakant offices of the Ministry of Mines. In fact, few places better symbolize how little Myanmar benefits from its fabulous natural wealth. The road to Hpakant has pot-holes bigger than the four-wheel-drive cars that negotiate it. During the rainy season, it can take nine hours to reach from Myitkyina, the Kachin state capital 110 kilometers (68 miles) away. [Source: Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo, Reuters, September 29, 2013 >>>]
“There are also "obvious" links between jade and conflict in Kachin State, said analyst Richard Horsey, a former United Nations senior official in Myanmar. A 17-year ceasefire between the military and the KIA ended when fighting erupted in June 2011. It has since displaced at least 100,000 people. "Every Kachin feels passionately that their state's resources are being taken away," a leading Myitkyina gem trader told Reuters on condition of anonymity. "But we're powerless to stop them." "Such vast revenues - in the hands of both sides - have certainly fed into the conflict, helped fund insurgency, and will be a hugely complicating factor in building a sustainable peace economy," Horsey said. >>>
Jade Mining in Hpakant
Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo of Reuters wrote: “Foreign companies are not permitted to extract jade. But mining is capital intensive, and it is an open secret that most of the 20 or so largest operations in Hpakant are owned by Chinese companies or their proxies, say gem traders and other industry insiders in Kachin State. "Of course, some (profit) goes to the government," said Yup Zaw Hkawng, chairman of Jadeland Myanmar, the most prominent Kachin mining company in Hpakant. "But mostly it goes into the pockets of Chinese families and the families of the former (Burmese) government." [Source: Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo, Reuters, September 29, 2013 >>>]
“Other players include the Union of Myanmar Economic Holdings Ltd (UMEHL), the investment arm of the country's much-feared military, and Burmese tycoons such as Zaw Zaw, chairman of Max Myanmar, who made their fortunes collaborating with the former junta. Soldiers guard the big mining companies and sometimes shoot in the air to scare off small-time prospectors. "We run like crazy when we see them," said Tin Tun, the handpicker. >>>
Twenty years ago, Hpakant was controlled by KIA insurgents. A 1994 ceasefire brought most of Hpakant back under government control, and large-scale extraction began, with hundreds of backhoes, earthmovers and trucks working around the clock. "Now even a mountain lasts only three months," said Yitnang Ze Lum. Many Kachin businessmen, unable to compete in terms of capital or technology, were shut out of the industry. Non-Kachin workers poured in from across Myanmar, looking for jobs and hoping to strike it rich. >>
“When operations are in full swing, the road to Hpakant is clogged with vehicles bringing fuel in and jade out. Such is the scale and speed of modern extraction, said Yitnang Ze Lum, Hpakant's jade could be gone within 10 years. >>
Life of Myanmar Jade Pickers: Heroin, Hope and Danger
Reuters reported: “Tin Tun picked all night through teetering heaps of rubble to find the palm-sized lump of jade he now holds in his hand. He hopes it will make him a fortune. It's happened before. "Last year I found a stone worth 50 million kyat," he said, trekking past the craters and slag heaps of this notorious jade-mining region in northwest Myanmar. That's about $50,000 (30,975 pounds) - and it was more than enough money for Tin Tun, 38, to buy land and build a house in his home village. [Source: Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo, Reuters, September 29, 2013 >>>]
“The handpickers are at the bottom of the heap - literally. They swarm in their hundreds across mountains of rubble dumped by the mining companies. It is perilous work, especially when banks and slag heaps are destabilized by monsoon rain. Landslides routinely swallow 10 or 20 men at a time, said Too Aung, 30, a handpicker from the Kachin town of Bhamo. "Sometimes we can't even dig out their bodies," he said. "We don't know where to look." In 2002, at least a thousand people were killed when flood waters inundated a mine, Jadeland Myanmar chairman Yup Zaw Hkawng told Reuters. Deaths are common but routinely concealed by companies eager to avoid suspending operations, he said. >>>
“Official figures on heroin use in Hpakant are hard to get. The few foreign aid workers operating in the area, mostly working with drug users, declined comment for fear of upsetting relations with the Myanmar government. But health workers say privately about 40 percent of injecting drug users in Hpakant are HIV positive - twice the national average. Drug use is so intrinsic to jade mining that "shooting galleries" operate openly in Hpakant, with workers often exchanging lumps of jade for hits of heroin. >>>
China Companies Make a Killing on Myanmar Jade
“UMEHL is notoriously tight-lipped about its operations. "Stop bothering us," Major Myint Oo, chief of human resources at UMEHL's head office in downtown Yangon, told Reuters. "You can't just come in here and meet our superiors. This is a military company. Some matters must be kept secret." This arrangement, whereby Chinese companies exploit natural resources with military help, is both familiar and deeply controversial in Myanmar. [Source: Andrew R.C. Marshall and Min Zayar Oo, Reuters, September 29, 2013 >>>]
In 2012, “protests outside the Letpadaung copper mine in northwest Myanmar triggered a violent police crackdown. The mine's two operators - UMEHL and Myanmar Wanbao, a unit of Chinese weapons manufacturer China North Industries Corp - shared most of the profits, leaving the government with just 4 percent. That contract was revised in July in an apparent attempt to appease public anger. The government now gets 51 percent of the profits, while UMEHL and Myanmar Wanbao get 30 and 19 percent respectively. >>>
“China's domination of the jade trade could feed into a wider resentment over its exploitation of Myanmar's natural wealth. A Chinese-led plan to build a $3.6 million dam at the Irrawaddy River's source in Kachin State - and send most of the power it generated to Yunnan Province - was suspended in 2011 by President Thein Sein amid popular outrage. The national and local governments should also get a greater share of Kachin State's natural wealth, say analysts and activists. That includes gold, timber and hydropower, but especially jade. >>>
“A two-week auction held in the capital Naypyitaw in June sold a record-breaking $2.6 billion in jade and gems. But jade tax revenue in 2011 amounted to only 20 percent of the official sales. Add in all the "unofficial" sales outside of the emporium, and Harvard calculates an effective tax rate of about 7 percent on all Burmese jade. It is, on the other hand, highly lucrative for the mining companies, whose estimated cost of production is $400 a ton, compared with an official sales figure of $126,000 a ton, the report said. "Kachin, and by extension Myanmar, cannot be peaceful and politically stable without some equitable sharing of resource revenues with the local people," said analyst Horsey. >>>
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© 2008 Jeffrey Hays
Last updated May 2014
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Fig. 1 Sandia National Laboratories
Sandia National Laboratories researchers use a blast tube to demonstrate how well nuclear weapons could survive the shock wave of a blast from an enemy weapon and to help validate the computer modeling.
Simulating Shock Waves for Testing Nuclear Weapons
Blast-tube tests at Sandia simulate shock wave conditions nuclear weapons could face. The researchers use synthetic schlieren photography to capture images of those shockwaves for analysis.
Sandia National Laboratories researchers are using a 120-ft long blast tube to see how nuclear weapons would react to the shock wave of a blast from an enemy weapon and to help validate the modeling of that test. Sandia recently completed a two-year series of blast-tube tests for a nuclear weapon program and started tests for another.
Each series starts with calibration shots that let team members verify blast wave parameters and validate the computer model of the process. The team hangs an explosive charge at one end of the 6-ft diameter tube and mounts pressure transducers along its length that detect the strength of the blast pressure moving through the tube—higher pressure closer to the charge, falling off farther away.
In each test, the pressure drives how big a charge is needed and how the test sample is placed in the tube, and that determines the loading (or amount of force) applied to the sample. In turn, the loading determines the sample’s structural response. The team does end-to-end calculations to simulate the explosive going off, the shock wave through the tube, the shock propagation over the sample, and then the structural response of the sample to the shock wave. All that data determines the right orientation and shock level to validate the models.
One software program simulates the explosive going off and the shock wave moving through the tube. A second calculates the shock moving over the sample. A third computes the sample’s response to shock and vibration. The fourth simulates how the sample will fly from the tube so the researchers can estimate where it’s going, how fast it’s moving, and how they’re going to catch it safely. Each software package helps determine the response of the overall test process to validate the models and helps design the test.
Sandia National Laboratories researchers use synthetic schlieren photography to capture images of a wave front taken at 35,000 frames per second and analyze blast wave dynamics (pressure, temperature, and density) invisible to the eye. The purpose is to determine how well nuclear weapons could survive a shock wave. (Photo courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories)
Software that simulates the explosive going off, for example, tells engineers the size of the charge. They do several shots in the tube to calibrate that—conducting enough to build a calibration curve that reveals how much explosive is needed to get a specific target pressure.
More than a hundred channels of data might be collected on pressures, strains, and acceleration responses from the tests. Analysts process experimental data using embedded information, apply identical signal processing methods to the experimental and analysis data, and compare responses to assess the credibility of the model.
The objective is to develop validated analytic models for predicting responses to blast loads with a high degree of confidence. Researchers then use the validated model to help qualify a weapon to withstand harsh conditions, such as a nuclear blast, that cannot be directly simulated with ground-level blast tube tests.
Instrumentation is critical. Tests that last mere milliseconds require months of planning, and there’s only one chance at getting data from the extreme environment of a blast. To streamline testing, Sandi build a mobile instrumentation unit, a large-data acquisition device that mounts inside a hardened trailer that will be placed closet to the blast test and-checks the accuracy and “health” of connections before and after testing. It stores up to 16 million samples per channel and records about 1 gigabyte per second at the maximum sample rate. For comparison, this equates to more than 70 hours of digital music or about 1,100 songs.
The engineers also rely on high-speed imaging that measures pressure changes, which also helps assess a shock wave’s impact. In the past, researchers used streak cameras that viewed images through a quarter-inch by 6-in. slit. Streak cameras are like document scanners, imaging a column of pixels and generating an image by the object moving rapidly past the scan. They now use a photographic technique called synthetic schlieren which has been upgraded to withstand harsh environments and to take much larger views.
Synthetic schlieren detects changes in the atmosphere’s optical index induced by changes in pressure, temperature, and density. The schlieren effect is comparable to seeing ripples from heat on a road. Regular schlieren (a German word that means streak in the singular) techniques require large optics, special lighting, and other complex, sensitive optics that aren’t practical for large-scale tests. Synthetic schlieren requires no special setup other than an optional background and has no size limit because it looks for subpixel shifts in the background to detect optical index changes.
The team combines synthetic imaging algorithms with image stabilization codes developed to image a blast wave front. Sandia’s 50-year history of extreme testing has given it a huge code base to solve these problems.
Synthetic schlieren can be used for everything from pressure to temperature imaging. But the most value comes when it undergoes data fusion techniques Sandia developed to show pressure wave fronts with instrumentation and model data. That’s when researchers say the full picture really emerges.
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Threshinginstrument - Biblical Cyclopedia
was a sledge for driving over the sheaves and separating the grain. These sledges, called among the Hebrews by the general term בִּרקָנַי, badrkanim, rendered "briers" inJudges 8:7, 16, were of two kinds, corresponding respectively with two words, the first of which alone is rendered as above in the, A.V. SEE THRESHING.
1. Morag (מוֹרִג, so called from triturating; 2Sa 24:22; 1Ch 21:23; Isa 41:15; by ellipsis charults, pointed. Job 41:22; Ps 28:9; Am 1; Am 3) was a threshing instrument still in use in the north of Palestine. Prof. Robinson, who frequently saw this rustic threshing-sledge, says, "It consists chiefly of two planks fastened together side by side, and bent upwards in front; precisely like the common stone- sledge of New England. Many holes are bored in the bottom underneath, and into these are fixed sharp fragments of hard stone. The machine is dragged by oxen as they are driven round upon the grain; sometimes a man or a boy sits upon it. The effect of it is to cut up the straw quite tine" (Researches, 2, 306).
2. Agalah (עֲגָלָה, rendered "cart" or "wagon") was a threshing-sledge with wheels or rollers of wood, iron, or stone, made rough and joined together in the form of a sledge (Isa 28:27-28). Mr. Lane found it still in use in Egypt, perhaps somewhat improved. He says, For the purpose of separating the grain of wheat or barley, etc., and cutting the straw, which serves as fodder, the Egyptians use a machine called morag, in the form of a chair, which moves upon small iron wheels, or circular plates, generally eleven, fixed to three thick axle-trees; four to the foremost, the same number to the hindmost, and three to the intermediate axle-tree. This machine is drawn in a circle, by a pair of cows or bulls, over the corn" (Mod. Egyptians, 2, 33).
Threshold is the rendering in the A.V. of three Heb. words.
1. Saph (סִŠ,so called perhaps from the attrition there, Jg 19:27; 1Ki 14:17; Eze 40:6-7; Eze 43:8; Zep 2:14; elsewhere door" or "door-post"), the-sill, or bottom, of a door-way. See GATE.
2. Miphtan (מַפתָּן, so called apparently from its firmness or stretch), obviously to be interpreted of the sill, or bottom beam, of a door (1Sa 5:4-5; Zep 1:9; Eze 47:1); but perhaps meaning sometimes, as the Targum explains it, a projecting beam, or corbel, at a higher point than the threshold properly so called (Eze 9:3; Eze 10:4,18). See DOOR.
3. Asoph (אָסֹŠ, only in the plur. Asuppim, אֲספַּים, collections; Sept. σιναγαγεῖν; Vulg. vestibula; Ne 12:25), a storehouse or depository ("Asuppim," 1Ch 26:17), especially as connected with the western gates of the Temple, hence called beth-Asuppim (ver. 15). SEE ASUPPIM.
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Research team evaluates the impact of human civilization on the common striped skunk
Skunks may not be the friendliest of visitors, but their role in society is bigger than most know. From eating insects and rodents to foraging on old plant materials, the popular mammals serve a very good purpose.
Yet, while these animals hang out under porches or even stroll through town, little research looks at their everyday living patterns. That is why a team of researchers at Southern Illinois University Carbondale are conducting a detailed study on striped skunks in the southern Illinois region to build a better understanding of the habitats and behaviors of the small creatures.
Examining the human impact on striped skunks
The research starts with Clay Nielsen, professor in the forestry degree program and the cooperative wildlife research laboratory at SIU, and Augustin Jimenez, associate professor in the zoology degree program. As a second-year PhD. student in agricultural sciences, Katelyn Amspacher also works closely on the project.
After noticing the hole in research surrounding the common striped skunk in the Midwest, the team set out to trap local skunks and monitor their habitats and behaviors. Starting last fall they began trapping on the SIU campus, in local Carbondale neighborhoods and streets, at Giant City State Park and at the Touch of Nature Environmental Center.
“Specifically, our goals are to examine striped-skunk survival across that range,” Amspacher said. “We are really interested in learning about what types of habitats they are using, where they are going and just more about their life in general. We are also evaluating how their behaviors might change between more urban areas and national forests.”
The team also looks at the impact humans have on skunks and their natural habitats. As a generalist animal that can be found anywhere from Canada to Texas, striped skunks have adapted to human presence and have incorporated themselves well into civilization.
“Skunks have great personalities,” Amspacher said. “They even used to be popular as pets.”
Tagging striped skunks to examine their habitats and patterns
The trapping started last spring and will commence again in the upcoming warmer months, with the goal of trapping 20-30 skunks this semester. The team will be trapping for the next 12-18 months, watching the animals in both Carbondale and those closer to protected parks and forests.
“We have traps set in places that skunks might pass through, such as game trails,” Amspacher said. “Once we have a skunk trapped, we put it under anesthesia for a few minutes to place a radio collar on the animal.”
The group then monitors the skunk’s activities and visits them between three and five times a week, both during the day and at night.
Since the skunks normally sleep during the day, the researchers are able to see where they are denning up and even put game cameras on them periodically. At night, when the skunks are active, the group uses triangulation to evaluate and track the skunks without disturbing their normal behaviors.
The triangulation works by taking a GPS point and a baring to the direction of the skunk in at least three different points. The group then plots those points and estimates where the skunks will be. Once the team determines where the skunks are and how they travel, they can develop an understanding of the skunk’s home ranges, along with their feeding and mating locations.
Working with the skunks
Katetlyn Amspacher with a local striped skunk (photo provided).
Skunks often get a bad reputation due to their smelly nature. However, when a skunk is startled, their first reaction is not to spray, Amspacher explained.
They usually hunker down and watch the intruder to evaluate the threat. This gives the team time to carefully handle and mark the skunks without everyone leaving the field in need of a strong bath.
“We work really hard to keep the skunks as calm as possible through the whole process,” Amspacher said. “We don’t want to disturb them, we just want to watch and observe their behaviors.”
Skunks each have unique coloring and markings, which helps the researchers identify them in the tracking and monitoring process. In the few brief minutes a skunk is under anesthesia, the researchers take pictures, basic measurements and place a small collar on the animals. When finished, they create a human barricade to ensure the skunks safely exit back into their natural environment.
Examining the prevalence of Canine Distemper Virus
In addition to studying the habitats of these skunks, the group is looking at the frequency of Canine Distemper Virus across the area. This common disease can be present in variety of animals, from skunks and raccoons, to domesticated cats and dogs.
“Typically, about 55 percent of striped-skunks in northern Illinois have this virus,” Amspacher said.
The team is working with local veterinarians to see if there is a transfer of the virus from striped skunks to dogs.
“We would also like to sequence the genome of the virus in the skunks, along with a study on local dogs who are coming down with the virus,” Amspacher said. “We are doing this to see if there is a transfer going on between the animals.”
For dogs, this type of virus usually goes in cycles, with outbreaks occurring every few years. The effects vary animal to animal, but for striped skunks, it is often fatal and can be deadly in dogs if left untreated.
Ongoing project
This research project fits under SIU’s Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, and is funded through the Illinois Department of Natural Resources. The trapping is set to continue until 2020, and then the team will analyze the data and publish their findings.
Coming from a background of research with a variety of small animals, Amspacher hopes this project serves as a foundation for understanding the human impact on animal life and builds a better base for others who encounter the often-underrated creatures.
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Surviving The Conquistadors
Built in the 15th century Machu Picchu was one set of the great Incan ruins that remained veiled from the eyes of the Conquistadors and such remained unspoiled from the destruction that they reigned down upon all other ruins and relics.
In an intriguing turn of events this massive, astronomically aligned city was built and then abandoned a hundred years later. The reasons remain unknown, one belief is that small pox may have wiped out the people of Inca.
The Incas believed that using mortar to build their building amounted to “shoddy” workmanship and this style was only used in the construction of less important buildings. Their important buildings were built only from stone blocks that were carved and cut to match each other perfectly. Thus resting on one another to such perfection that not even a blade of grass can grow between the blocks. This laborious and pain staking style of building also protected the buildings from the considerable seismic activity that occurs in the area.
The Incas had learnt to map the movement of the celestial bodies as well and the Intihuatana (Hitching post of the Sun) was used to map the movement of the sun. It is so accurate that on November 11 and January 30 the sun is directly overhead the Intihuatana and casts no shadow at all.
Heritage, lost civilisation, masonic wonder whatever be your reason for visiting Machu Picchu once there the incredible impact of the skill of this ancient people will leave you in awe.
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UWL Website
Originally, Millerelix simpsoni was put into the genus, Polygrya. It was classified as Polygyra dorfeuilliana sampsoni. This species was actually a subspecies of a broader snail called Polygyra dorfeuilliana (Leonard, 1959). The major reason scientists named is as a subspecies was because all the physical characteristics were the same yet; it was about 7.2 to 8.5 millimeters smaller than Polygyra dorfeuilliana. (Leonard, 1959). Since Millerelix simpsoni was originally a subspecies to that larger species, its ecological niche seems to be more specific. (Leonard, 1959). Moreover, Millerelix simpsoni is a terrestrial snail found in Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma and Missouri. Specifically, it is prominent in the following places: Ozarks, Arkansas, Wyandotte, Oklahoma, Waco, Texas, and the Miami and Cherokee counties of Kansas (Pilsbury, 1940; Leonard, 1959). Millerelix simpsoni’s ecological niche is in temperate climates with humidity (Leonard, 1959). In general, the terrestrial snails can be spotted in various types of grasses, underneath tree limbs (both dead and alive), stones, leaf litter and even moss (Leonard, 1959). Yet it is observed that the snails from Kansas prefer rocky and forested areas (Leonard, 1959; Franzen, 1944). Many terrestrial snails that lie in these areas are nocturnal. (Leonard, 1959). Still, on cloudy days, one may see Millerelix simpsoni moving about the land (Leonard, 1959).
As for all living things, water is an essential part of life. However, since Millerelix simpsoni lives in primarily dry regions it is critical for their reproduction and livelihood that species are near a water source (Leonard, 1959). For this reason, terrestrial snails can be seen roaming in various types of grasses, which are partially submerged in water (Leonard, 1959). Additionally, during times of rain, scientists believe that the terrestrial snails such as Millerelix simpsoni will begin to use this opportunistic time for development and reproduction (Leonard, 1959).
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Thames Barrier
Duration:8 years
Cost:£583m (around £1.6bn today)
Country: London, UK
What did this project achieve?
Protect London from flooding with a massive steel barrier that works like a tap
Recorded history of the River Thames flooding goes back a long way. In 1663 diarist Samuel Pepys wrote of "the greatest tide that was ever remembered in England… all White Hall having been drowned, of which there was great discourse".
In January 1928 flooding hit Victoria and Chelsea in central London – 14 people drowned and thousands had to leave their homes. A huge tide surge in 1953 killed 307 people in eastern England and sent high waters up the Thames to spill into the streets of London's East End and thousands had to flee.
Until the early 1970s the main flood defence for the capital meant building higher and stronger river walls and embankments.
Although walls are permanent and easy to maintain, making them higher and higher would eventually block out the Thames from view.
Research led the government to decide that the best long-term solution would be a flood barrier with moveable gates built across the Thames.
The former Greater London Council coordinated the barrier project with different contractors building the gates, shore machinery and upstream bank raising works.
Construction began in 1974. The barrier was finished by 1982 and first used in 1983. It was officially opened by the Queen in 1984.
Difference the barrier has made
The Thames Barrier is part of a system of flood defences in London. Without the barrier, frequent tidal flooding of the Thames would submerge buildings along the river as well as the underground.
The barrier is credited with having helped London grow into a global capital – transforming the lives of millions of people who have worked, lived in or visited London since it opened.
How the barrier was installed
The barrier was built over a 520m wide stretch of the Thames near Woolwich in south London. It divides the river into 4 spans - each span is 61m across.
Engineers chose the location as the banks were relatively straight at this point and the chalk river bed was strong enough to support the barrier.
Charles Draper came up with the concept for the barrier's flood gates, basing their design on the taps on his gas cooker.
The flood gates are circular segments and move into the raised position by rotating. The gates are hollow – they fill with water as they sink and empty as they emerge from the river.
At 20.1m high and each weighing 3,700 tonnes, they were made by Cleveland Bridge UK on the River Tees.
Without the Thames Barrier, London's flood defence walls… would have to be as high as the Victorian streetlamps - effectively depriving Londoners of their river.
From 'Flooding in London'
published by the Greater London Authority in 2002
Fascinating facts
The Thames Barrier is the second largest flood defence barrier in the world. The Oosterscheldekering Barrier in the Netherlands is the largest.
Without the barrier London landmarks such as the Houses of Parliament, the O2 arena and Tower Bridge would be submerged by flood water.
The barrier is frequently mentioned in popular culture. It's appeared in BBC TV series 'Doctor Who' and the 2007 British disaster movie 'Flood'. It's also been used in music videos, including one for the 2010 Take That single 'The Flood.'
People who made it happen
• Commissioned by the UK government
• Managed by the Greater London Council
• Designed by Charles Draper and engineering company Rendel, Palmer and Tritton
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Development of Ovarian Follicle
Anatomy (Embryology) sqaToons
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Lecture´s Description
Development of ovarian follicle starts when oogonium gets covered by a single layer of flat follicular cells to form primordial follicle that proliferate to form multilaminar (maturing) primary follicle. Small fluid filled cavities appear between follicular cells that fuse together to form antrum. Antrum increases in size. Granulosa cells that surround oocyte are called cumulus oophoricus and those that attach oocyte to wall of the follicle are called discus proligerus. As follicle expands, theca interna and theca externa appears. Matured ovarian follicle is called Graafian follicle.
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Image Processing Reference
In-Depth Information
2.7 Touchup Work 2—Removing
Spots, Dust, and Scratches
Older images or slides often have blemishes, such as creases, dog-ears, spots,
dust, scratches, and missing edges. Also when you scan slides, lint and dust
often end up on the image. Even digital images can have disturbing elements
that need retouching, such as overhead wiring in the picture or dust on the
camera chip. The touchup work involved to fix such images is called constructive
touchup since it involves “reconstructing” image elements. Constructive
touchups also include removing image elements, such as unwanted text.
Formerly, photographers armed themselves with brushes, maskers, and
airbrushes when fixing damaged images. Nowadays, images are scanned
“as is” and the photographer's repair tools are supplied by the image editing
program. But the techniques are similar, the main difference being that the
tools are now in digital form. It seems as if every new version of a digital
editing program introduces new tools for correction and stylization of images.
2.7.1 Why You Need Smooth
Brushes—the Clone Tool
The Clone Tool uses image data and patterns to “draw” not only colors, but also
color structures. These structures are actually pieces of your image that you
previously copied from a defined area in the same image. This tool is capable
of doing more than just working with “normal” opacity. Since you can set the
tool's opacity from opaque to transparent, you can use this glazing technique
to create smooth transitions, using a soft, feathered pointer. The Clone Tool is
considered “the” touchup tool.
The Clone Tool uses the same brush pointers available to the drawing
tools. Choosing Windows > Dockable Dialogs > Brushes , you will find brush
pointers with hard, sharp edges that draw like pens with fixed widths as well
as pointers with soft edges or feathering that draw more like a paint brush,
with rich color in the center that fades as it moves toward the edges. Moreover,
there are brush pointers in the form of patterns that apply color in structures.
For this exercise, you will use the Clone Tool with “soft” pointers. Brushes
with hard edges will create image patterns with sharp edges: this may be
acceptable for a single color, but if you are working with structures, even
similar structures, the image would appear as if it had been strewn with
confetti. A softer brush pointer creates a smooth transition.
Because GIMP doesn't come with a large array of brushes, it provides
a simple way to create new brushes. You should create a certain choice of
additional brush pointers in advance so that you can change a pointer quickly
when you're working. Once you have created a brush, you can save and reuse it.
Search WWH ::
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Other Articles
November 24, 1945
JAMA. 1945;129(13):849-853. doi:10.1001/jama.1945.02860470009003
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The practice of early rising of parturient women dates back to ancient times. Although it was recently stimulated by the wartime shortage of obstetric beds, it did not arise from that emergency. The puerperium, or time of rest given to women in childbed, has varied more widely in the customs of different peoples than any other feature of that great physiologic function of woman.The biblical Israelites considered the puerpera unclean for seven days after the birth of a male child and for fourteen days after the birth of a female child, during which period she was required to remain at home.1 The longer period of isolation after a female child has been attributed to their belief that the female sex, being inferior, require a longer period to restore cleanliness. In Athens the puerpera was considered unclean, and whoever touched the mother was forbidden to visit an
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NCERT Solution for Class 10 History Chapter 5 - The Age of Industrialisation
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NCERT Textbook Solutions are considered extremely helpful when preparing for your CBSE Class 10 History board exams. TopperLearning study resources infuse profound knowledge, and our Textbook Solutions compiled by our subject experts are no different. Here you will find all the answers to the NCERT textbook questions of Chapter 5 - The Age of Industrialisation.
All our solutions for Chapter 5 - The Age of Industrialisation are prepared considering the latest CBSE syllabus, and they are amended from time to time. Our free NCERT Textbook Solutions for CBSE Class 10 History will strengthen your fundamentals in this chapter and can help you to score more marks in the examination. Refer to our Textbook Solutions any time, while doing your homework or while preparing for the exam.
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NCERT Solution for Class 10 History Chapter 5 - The Age of Industrialisation Page/Excercise 126
Question 1 a)
Explain why women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny?
Solution 1 a)
The Women workers attacked the Spinning Jenny because:
1. Many women in rural areas helped out in augmenting family income by working on the spinning wheel.
2. They feared that the Spinning Jenny, which was introduced in woolen manufacture, if generally adopted would lessen the demand for manual labour.
3. Also, the Spinning Jenny came at a time when already the cottagers and poor peasants were facing economic hardships due to disappearance of open fields and enclosure of common lands. Many women used to survive on hand spinning. Hence, fear of unemployment led them to attack the Spinning Jenny.
Question 1 b)
In the 17th century, merchants from towns began employ peasants and artisans within the villages. Explain the reasons.
Solution 1 b)
In the 17th century, merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within villages because:
1. Demands for goods began to increase with the expansion of world trade and the acquisition of colonies in different parts of the world.
2. Despite increased demands, merchants could not expand production within towns, since urban crafts and trade guilds had a stranglehold over that market. The guilds expressly controlled over trade in towns and restricted the entry of new players in the market.
Question 1 c)
The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century. Explain why.
Solution 1 c)
The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century because:
1. As European companies gradually consolidated their power in India, they began to export their goods from the ports of Bombay and Calcutta in European ships.
2. As a result, exports from the port of Surat fell sizably. The credit that financed trade began drying up and local bankers slowly went bankrupt. This resulted in the decline of the port of Surat.
Question 1 d)
The East India Company employed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India. Explain why.
Solution 1 d)
The East India Company employed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India because:
1. The East India company wanted to ensure regular supply of fine Indian silk and cotton textiles that were in great demand in Europe.
2. Through the gomasthas, the Company intended to develop a system of management that would eliminate competition from existing traders and buyers and assert monopoly rights of trade.
3. Through the gomastha system, the Company started a system of advances to the weavers. This way, the Company controlled the costs and eliminated the bargaining power of the weaver.
Question 2
Write True or False against each statement:
1. At the end of the 19th century, 80% of the total workforce in Europe was employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.
2. The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the 18th century.
3. The American civil resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.
4. The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to improve their productivity.
Solution 2
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
Question 3
Explain what is meant by the term 'proto-industrialisation'.
Solution 3
Proto-industrialisation refers to that phase of industrialisation when there was large scale industrial production in England and Europe for an international market not based on factories. During proto-industrialisation period of 17th and 18th century, a close relationship developed between the town and the countryside. The merchant supplied money to the artisans living in the rural and encouraged them to produce for the international market. A merchant clothier purchased wool form a wool stapler, carried it to the spinner, the yarn was taken in stages to weavers, fullers and dyers. The process of finishing was done in London before export. During this time, London became known as 'the finishing centre'. At each stage of this commercial exchange system, 20 to 25 workers were employed by each merchant. Each clothier was thus controlling the work of hundreds of weavers.
Question 4
Why did some industrialists in the 19th century prefer hand labour over machines?
Solution 4
In 19th century Europe, industrialists preferred hand labour over machines because;
1. In 19th century Europe, there was no shortage of labour. Peasants and vagrants moved in large numbers to cities in order to find work. The industrialists could engage this labour with low wages and hence weren't keen on machine production which entailed big capital investment.
2. Many of the industries like gas works, breweries, binding, printing etc had a seasonal production process. Hence, industrialists preferred employing human labour just for the seasonal requirement.
3. There was a large demand for intricate handicrafts in Europe. This could, as is obvious, be produced only by hand and not by machines which were geared for producing uniform, standardized goods for mass consumption rather than class consumption. For example, in Britain, handmade goods symbolized class and refinement and hence fetched more value.
Question 5
Solution 5
Following are the conditions that were helpful for the East India Company to ensure a regular supply of cotton and silk textiles from Indian weavers:
1. After consolidating itself politically, the company began to assert monopoly rights over textiles trade and took steps to eliminate competition from French, Dutch, Portuguese and local traders in securing woven cloth from the market.
2. The Company actually developed a management system and established direct control over the weavers by appointing paid supervisors called 'gomasthas' for the collection of supplies and quality control.
3. It controlled costs and eliminated existing traders and brokers from dealing with Company weavers by adopting a system of advances.
4. The new gomasthas were outsiders with no long term social links with the village. They acted only and only in the interest of the Company and controlled the lives of weavers through coercion, often beating and flogging them in case of default.
Question 6
Solution 6
Reference Points:
Inventions -
1. James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny in 1764, cut short the time required for spinning work.
2. John Key invented the 'flying shuttle' which speeded up weaving.
3. Arkwright improved Hargreaves invention in 1769 and conditioned it to run on water power. The new machine was called 'water frame'.
4. Crompton invented the powerloom in 1785, which used steam power for spinning and weaving.
5. Eli Whitney invented the Cotton Jin in 1793. It could separate seeds from cotton 300 times faster than hand.
Hints -
1. The link between history of cotton production and the textile industry.
2. Cotton textile import of India.
3. The English East India Company and the gomasthas.
4. Cotton industry/new era/first phase of industrialisation.
5. Inventions
6. Raw cotton/USA
7. Manchester mills/pressure groups
8. The American Civil War/disruption of cotton supply/India becomes the major exporter of raw cotton.
9. Condition of labour/employment.
10. World War I/Decline of Britain as en economic power/effect on the cotton mills of Manchester
11. Indian national movement/Swadeshi/boycott/Gandhi's insistence on khadi.
Question 7
Why did industrial production in India increase during the First World War?
Solution 7
Industrial production in India increased during the First World War due to following reasons:
1. With the British industrial sector geared to provide for the British war effort, Manchester exports of India dropped dramatically and the Indian mills had access to the home market.
2. As the war prolonged, Indian mills were called upon to provide for British war needs, e.g., jute bags, cloth for uniforms, tents, leather and other items. This gave a much needed boost to the local industrial units and increased the operation capacity of Indian factories.
3. Manchester could never regain its old position in the Indian market as after the war, Britain's economy completely crumbled under the financial ruin and international competition. As a result, Indian mills further got the chance to consolidate their position in the Indian market.
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The Surprising Origins of the Word Orange
Picture of Matthew Keegan
Updated: 9 March 2018
In terms of the history of colours, it’s only recently that the colour orange got its own name. Surprisingly, the fruit came first, originating in China, and the English word ‘orange’ to describe the colour, followed thereafter.
It’s thought that the orange fruit originally came from China – the German word Apfelsine and the Dutch sinaasappel (Chinese apple) reflect this. Historians believe the fruit made its way to Europe either by Italian traders or Portuguese navigators around 1500. In fact, ‘China apple’ is still a synonym for orange in a number of languages, including Dutch and Ukrainian.
Before orange (the fruit) made its way from China to Europe, yellow-red was called simply that: yellow-red, or even just red.
The English word ‘orange’, to describe the colour, ultimately comes from the Sanskrit term for the orange tree: nāraṅga. It’s thought that early Persian emperors collected exotic trees for their gardens, which likely included orange trees. Arabs later traded the fruit and spread the word all the way to Spain; the Spanish word for orange is naranja. In Old French, the fruit became orenge, and this was adopted into English, eventually becoming ‘orange’, to describe the fruit as well as the colour.
Oranges beat the likes of pumpkins and carrots to name the shade of the colour itself. This most likely has to do with timing. Pumpkins weren’t discovered until later, and carrots didn’t become orange until the 16th century when Dutch farmers bred them that way. Before that, they were various other colours, including yellow, white, purple, and red, but rarely orange.
Today, orange trees have become the most commonly grown fruit trees in the world. It’s a popular crop from the Far East to the Mediterranean area. However, Florida, in the United States, leads in world production of the fruit, having an annual yield of more than 200 million boxes.
So there you have it, the orange fruit originated in China, was brought to Europe by traders, and via Sanskrit, Spanish and Old French evolved into the English word we now use to describe both the fruit and the colour.
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Syracuse: History
Founded (734 BC) by Greek colonists from Corinth, Syracuse grew rapidly and soon founded colonies of its own. Its democratic government was suppressed by Gelon , tyrant of Gela, who took possession of the city in 485 BC Under his rule, marked by a great victory (480 BC) over Carthage at Himera, Syracuse took the lead among the Greek cities of Sicily. Gelon's successor, Hiero I, made it one of the great centers of Greek culture; the poet Pindar and the dramatist Aeschylus lived at his court. Soon after Hiero's death a democracy was again established; it lasted from 466 BC to 406 BC During this period Syracuse extended its control over E Sicily and defeated an Athenian expedition (begun in 415 BC by Alcibiades) in a great land and sea battle (414 BC). In 406 BC, Dionysius the Elder became tyrant. Under his long rule Syracuse reached the high point of its power and territorial expansion.
After the death of Dionysius there followed a period of bitter internal struggle in which Dionysius the Younger , Dion of Syracuse , and Timoleon were the chief protagonists. There were several decades of democratic government until tyranny was reestablished by Agathocles and Hiero II (4th–3d cent. BC). Hiero's reign was relatively peaceful and prosperous, but after his death Syracuse suffered catastrophically when it abandoned its traditional ally Rome in favor of Carthage, in the second of the Punic Wars . After a long siege by the Roman consul Marcellus, the city fell in 212 BC and was sacked; Syracuse thence was reduced to the status of a provincial town. The period from Dionysius the Elder to 212 BC was brilliant in terms of culture. The philosopher Plato visited Syracuse several times, and the poet Theocritus probably lived at the court of Hiero II. The mathematician and physicist Archimedes, born (287 BC) in Syracuse, directed the defense of the city against the Romans and was killed during the sack of the city. Syracuse suffered another major setback in the late 9th cent. AD, when it was badly damaged by Arab conquerors. It was captured by the Normans in 1085.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Italian Political Geography
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The Donner Party: Was It Fate?; A Historiographical Assessment of the Donner Party Tragedy and its Implications upon the West
Publication Year
Donner Party, American West, American Frontier, social history
Family, Life Course, and Society | Place and Environment | Social History | United States History | Women's History
"Nearly a century and a half after it happened, the story of the Donner Party remains one of the most riveting tragedies in U.S. history. The Donner Party began as just another nameless trek to California, but it came to symbolize the Great American Dream gone awry," wrote Jared Diamond in his essay "Living Through the Donner." Historians have just recently begun to understand why a greater number of females survived the western tragedy of the 87 member Donner Party than did males. Since the very young and the very old members were at the greatest risk, and because most of the males fit into these categories, age was certainly an important component for those who survived and for those who did not. Gender was also a determinant factor that separated many of the survivors from the victims. Females had certain physiological advantages over males. Because they tended to have more fat reserves than males and because they were typically much smaller than males, they did not need as much food for sustenance. In fact, males in the Donner Party began to starve almost two months earlier than females. Also, since men were more prone to physical violence than women, and since men most likely exerted more energy than women by hunting and building shelters, gender was a critical element to understanding why more Donner Party females outlived males. As integral as age and gender components were to the survivorship of the Donner Party, kin groups were an intrinsic factor that particularly helped to explain why females survived the Donner tragedy more than males. Two-thirds of the males in the Donner Party perished, yet two-thirds of the females managed to stay alive. Age, gender, and family relationships were determinant factors that gave females advantages over males, ultimately distinguishing the victims from the survivors.
Department 1 Awarding Honors Status
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Easy Explanation Notes with Examples
Acclimation and Acclamation
What is the Difference between Acclimation and Acclamation?
Acclimation and acclamation both words are pronounced almost the same and are spelled similarly. But, they have different meanings. They are homophones. There is only a one-letter difference between both. Let’s find out how they differ from each other.
When to Use Acclimation
Acclimation means to adapt to a new situation or climate (altitude, temperature or environment). To acclimate means to become used or accustomed to a new situation. It is a noun which typically has to do with getting used to a new climate but it can also refer to getting used to a new situation. For example,
• An organism has to acclimate to the changing climate for survival.
• My acclimation to my new school was just because of my new friend Laura.
• The two new pandas are going through acclimation in the Zoo.
• Acclimation to a new working environment will take some time.
As you can clearly see here, acclimate and acclimation both have to do with being accustomed to a new climate, place or environment etc.
When to Use Acclamation
Acclamation is just a noun and it does not in any way function as a verb unlike acclimation which functions both as a noun and a verb. However, acclamatory is the adjective form of acclamation. Acclamation is an enthusiastic approval of something. No matter how similar it sounds to acclimation it has a quite different meaning. It means a loud or shout approval or honor of something or someone. For example,
• Her new novel met with a lot of acclamation from the peers.
• The coach of the team gave a shout of acclamation to the players on their win.
• The young artist received acclamation from all over the world.
To cut it short, acclimation stands for getting adapted/ accustomed to a new climate or situation. Whereas, acclamation refers an enthusiastic approval or someone or something.
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pipes in angular 4 - Tutorial
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What is Angular 4 pipes:
1.A pipe is to format the value of an expression displayed in the view.
2.The framework comes with multiple predefined pipes, such as date, currency, lowercase, uppercase, and others.
3.Syntax: {{expression | pipeName:inputParam1}}
4.If the pipe takes multiple inputs, they can be placed one after another separated by a colon
5.Example : {{fullName | slice:0:20}}
6.pipes is that they can be chained, wherein the output from one pipe can serve as the input to another pipe.
7.We can create custom pipes also.
Commonly used pipes
• date: As we just saw, the date filter is used to format the date in a specific manner.
• uppercase and lowercase: These two pipes, as the name suggests, change the case of the string input.
• decimal and percent: decimal and percent pipes are there to format decimal and percentage values based on the current browser locale.
• currency: This is used to format numeric values as a currency based on the current browser locale. {{14.22|currency:”USD” }} {{14.22|currency:”USD”:true}}
• json: This is a handy pipe for debugging that can transform any input into a string using JSON.stringify.
Example of date pipe operator:
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What was a ‘peltast’?
In the battles of Ancient Greece, a special type of light infantry was used as skirmishers – meaning they ran ahead of the main battle line and fired the first shots at the enemy
These infantry soldier were known as peltasts and they formed a part of most Greek armies from around 650 BC to about 250 BC. The type of equipment and style of tactics used by peltasts varied over the centuries, but the key feature was that they were lightly armed infantry used to scout ahead of the main army.
The earliest peltasts seem to have been men from Thrace who were hired as mercenaries by the various city states of Greece. They came equipped with a wicker shield made in a crescent shape and held by a metal grip on the rim or in the centre. As weapons, the men carried light javelins, and short swords or daggers for use in close combat.
The peltasts would skirmish forward, hurling their javelins into the massed ranks of the enemy’s heavily armoured infantry phalanx in an effort to thin the ranks and disrupt the formation. Then their own phalanx would charge forward for the decisive clash.
By 400 BC, most Greek states were recruiting their own peltasts as well as, or instead of, hiring mercenaries. Gradually, the peltasts gained heavier equipment, including a metal helmet and a thrusting spear in addition to the throwing javelins.
Around the year 250 BC, references to peltasts cease and their place was taken by another type of light infantry called the ‘thureophoroi’, who had conventional weaponry but no armour.
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How places are named
Consistent and accurate place names are the basis of a number of vital activities, including map production, communication services, population censuses and statistics, and emergency services.
Because of this, Queensland follows strict place naming guidelines and processes. Place naming is primarily the responsibility of the Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy, which administers the Place Names Act 1994.
How places are named Guide
In this guide:
1. What can be named?
2. Naming processes
3. Suggesting a place name or boundary change
4. Naming principles
5. Defining boundaries and extent
6. History of Queensland place naming
Print entire guide
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Charleston Expedition of Clinton in 1780
Charleston Expedition of Clinton in 1780
CHARLESTON EXPEDITION OF CLINTON IN 1780. Charleston (called Charles Town in 1780), South Carolina, the most significant port in the southern colonies and one of the wealthiest cities in America, played a role in British strategy throughout the war. Although the 1776 attempt on Sullivan's Island failed, Howe considered an expedition against Charleston in the winter of 1777–1778, and Prevost's feint in the spring of 1779 conceivably could have taken the city. Recognizing its economic and strategic significance, Clinton determined by August 1779 to make another attempt on Charleston.
Delayed by the French move north for operations against Savannah, preparations began in earnest in November 1779. The expeditionary force, numbering eighty-seven-hundred men, embarked from New York on 26 December 1779. The force was conveyed by a fleet of over one hundred transports and warships, commanded by Arbuthnot. Cooperation between the army and the Royal Navy would be critical to reducing Charleston, but the relationship between Clinton and Arbuthnot threatened its success from the start. Receiving word that French ships were wintering in Chesapeake Bay, Arbuthnot suggested attacking them before moving south. Clinton, aware of the Chesapeake region's importance to the rebel war effort, wished to take Charleston first and return to the mid-Atlantic theater later. Arbuthnot abandoned the idea of moving against the French, but this difference of opinion foreshadowed future disagreements between the two commanders.
The winter of 1779–1780 was one of the worst of the eighteenth century, and severe storms buffeted the British fleet as it sailed toward the rendezvous point at Savannah. The weather damaged and sank ships; caused the loss of provisions, horses, and ordnance; and lengthened the voyage. A journey that normally lasted ten days took some vessels five weeks to complete.
Off Savannah, Clinton sent Brigadier General James Paterson ashore to make a feint toward Augusta, while Tarleton was sent to Beaufort to replace cavalry horses lost at sea. Clinton and Arbuthnot haggled over where to land the army, but the question was settled when the admiral sent Captain George Keith Elphinstone to handle the disembarkation. Elphinstone performed to Clinton's satisfaction throughout the Charleston operations.
Sailing into the North Edisto River on 11 February 1780, Elphinstone put ashore Clinton's grenadiers and light infantry that night on Simons (now Seabrook) Island, and the remaining troops landed the following day. Over the next several weeks, Clinton's army encamped on Johns Island, seizing Stono Ferry, and then crossed to James Island on 24 February 1780, where they established positions at Wappoo Bridge on Wappoo Cut and at Fort Johnson.
With the 1776 attempt on Sullivan's Island on his mind, Clinton moved cautiously against Charleston. He preferred the landing in the North Edisto River region because it put an appropriate distance between his army and the rebels in Charleston. The American general Benjamin Lincoln, who had learned of British intentions against the city from captured Royal Navy sailors, declined to sortie against the British, however, deciding instead to mass his force within Charleston's defenses. Rumors of a smallpox epidemic kept South Carolina militia from joining Lincoln, and he believed he lacked adequate numbers to attack the British on their march. He feared that if he sallied forth from the town, the British would attack it in his absence. Instead, he sent Brigadier General William Moultrie and Lieutenant Colonel Francis Marion to hold Bacon's Bridge on the Ashley River, while his cavalry harassed the British as they moved toward Charleston.
Clinton could advance no further until Arbuthnot crossed Charleston Bar, a large sandbank that ran from Sullivan's Island, above the harbor entrance, to Lighthouse Island several miles below it. The Bar represented a strong natural defensive obstacle to enemy warships since vessels could only cross it via a few shallow channels; the primary avenue for larger ships, the Ship Channel, was only twenty feet deep at high tide. The British men of war drafted too deeply to clear this channel, and even the forty-four-gun ships would have to have stores and guns removed before they could sail through it.
Lincoln, recognizing the Bar's strategic importance, urged Commodore Abraham Whipple, who commanded American naval forces in Charleston, to take up a position to defend it. Lincoln argued for a station inside the Bar blocking the Ship Channel. By keeping the Royal Navy outside the harbor, he was confident that the Americans could limit the British to a landside assault on the town. The cautious Whipple, outclassed by Arbuthnot in number and size of warships and uncertain of the tricky currents in the waters surrounding the Bar, was reluctant to do so. Backed by his captains, he argued that his ships would be more effective acting in concert with Fort Moultrie on the southern end of Sullivan's Island. Lincoln was displeased, but he consented to a station near the fort.
Arbuthnot took advantage of this opportunity on 20 March 1780, crossing the Bar uncontested with the Renown (fifty guns), the Roebuck (forty-four guns), the Romulus (forty-four guns), four frigates, a sloop of war, and several smaller vessels. When Whipple recognized that the Renown was inside the Bar, he insisted to Lincoln that his vessels could not maintain their current station and asked that he be allowed to moor them in the Cooper River instead. Frustrated, Lincoln again consented to the change in position, and Whipple's forces were effectively removed from action for the remainder of the campaign. The Renown's ability to clear the Bar should not have surprised Whipple, since the British had sailed a fifty-gun ship over it for operations against Sullivan's Island in 1776. In any event, this failure to properly defend the Bar and harbor was a critical error in the American defense of Charleston. Whipple not only surrendered Charleston's key natural defensive obstacle without a fight, but he freed the Royal Navy to send more direct assistance to Clinton.
The crossing of the Bar enabled Arbuthnot to send boats and sailors to Clinton's army for the advance to Charleston. Clinton, meanwhile, ordered Paterson to join him from Georgia so they would have sufficient men to maintain the line of communication with James Island and the Royal Navy when the move was made to the Charleston Peninsula. As with the initial landing, Clinton wished to cross the Ashley River, where his troops would be least vulnerable to attack by the rebels. He chose Drayton Hall, thirteen miles from the city. There, on 29 March 1780, Royal Navy flatboats under Elphinstone carried them over the river. On the opposite bank, they met only a few scattered shots from American horsemen.
The following day, the British army advanced toward Charleston; in the vanguard were the light infantry and jägers, who would play a crucial role in the siege. Lincoln sent his own light troops, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens, to reconnoiter and prevent the British from approaching the city too quickly. The two sides skirmished throughout the day before Laurens withdrew to the American lines, each side suffering a few casualties. Encamping two miles from the city, Clinton's army opened its siegeworks on Charleston Neck on the night of 1 April 1780, from eight hundred to one thousand yards from the American defenses.
On 8 April 1780, Arbuthnot in the Roebuck led the Romulus, the Renown, his frigates, the sloop of war Sandwich, and two transports past Fort Moultrie. Although a third transport was lost when it ran aground and some vessels received damage from the fort's guns, in ninety minutes Arbuthnot sailed his flotilla safely to the waters off Fort Johnson on James Island. There, they had an anchorage out of range of American guns in the city and on Sullivan's Island. The Royal Navy had now cut off Charleston by sea, and the British were in position to surround the garrison.
Clinton and Arbuthnot summoned the garrison on 10 April 1780. When Lincoln immediately rejected their demand for surrender, they pressed on with the siege, and their batteries on the neck opened on 13 April.
Clinton wished to completely invest Charleston. Securing the Cooper River and the region east of it would box in the Americans. Clinton sent a corps under Lieutenant Colonel James Webster across the Cooper while Arbuthnot, he hoped, would push ships into that river.
Reaching Goose Creek by 13 April, Webster detached Tarleton to attack the rebel cavalry. Lincoln had posted his cavalry, under Brigadier General Isaac Huger, outside Charleston to harass the British and keep open the line of communication with the South Carolina backcountry. Huger's force consisted of several regiments of horse, all commanded by Lieutenant Colonel William Washington, and a detachment of North Carolina militia. The cavalry arm was one of the few advantages that Lincoln held over Clinton at the outset of the campaign. Not only did the American cavalry outnumber the British, but many of the British dragoon horses had been lost on the stormy voyage from New York, and the mounts collected since were inferior to those of the rebels. Tarleton ambushed the Americans at Biggin's Bridge near Moncks Corner on 14 April and inflicted a severe defeat on them. The British success opened the door to the region east of the Cooper River, providing the opportunity to cut off the garrison.
Reinforcements from New York arrived on 18 April, allowing Clinton to send additional troops east of the Cooper. He also appointed Cornwallis to command this strengthened corps. He anticipated that Cornwallis would block routes in and out of Charleston and cooperate with the Royal Navy when Arbuthnot brought vessels into the Cooper River. Arbuthnot, despite promises to Clinton, did not act vigorously to make such an attempt. Clinton became increasingly frustrated as no action was taken despite his pleas to the admiral. Arbuthnot was reluctant to risk ships for the endeavor. The Americans sank hulks in the main channel leading into the Cooper River to prevent British access, while the Hog Island Channel on the Mount Pleasant side, though open, was narrow and difficult to navigate. Lincoln's men, meanwhile, constructed a battery at Haddrell's Point specifically to cover the entrance to Hog Island Channel.
In addition to the Haddrell's Point battery, the Americans held Fort Moultrie and a strong redoubt at Lempriere's Point. Fort Moultrie's significance had lessened when the Royal Navy pushed into the harbor on 8 April, but Lempriere's, located near the confluence of the Wando and Cooper Rivers, kept open the door to the South Carolina backcountry, providing an avenue of escape for the American army. Although the British had a substantial force east of the Cooper, Cornwallis admitted that it would be relatively easy for an evacuating American force without cannon or baggage to slip by them.
Clinton feared that the garrison could escape via Lempriere's Point, but he believed it too formidable for Cornwallis to assault. Arbuthnot's foot-dragging made assistance from the Royal Navy doubtful. Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Francois Malmedy, the position consisted of a redoubt with six eighteen-pounders and a number of smaller fieldpieces. With Malmedy were one hundred Continentals and two hundred North Carolina militia. Lincoln at one point sent Laurens and the light infantry to Lempriere's but withdrew them as the British pushed their siegeworks closer to the American defenses on the neck.
On 27 April, information reached Malmedy that Cornwallis was approaching his position at Lempriere's Point in force, and the French officer hastily spiked his guns and evacuated the garrison to Charleston. Ironically, Cornwallis was making no such move, having contented himself with patrolling the region east of the Cooper River to forestall an American escape. The Royal Navy took possession of the fort the next day.
Encouraged by Lincoln to leave Charleston to ensure the continuance of "civil authority" and to raise the back-country militia, Governor John Rutledge had departed on 13 April. Although the loss of Lempriere's Point made it more difficult to approach the city, Lincoln still hoped that reinforcements could reach the garrison. Rutledge met with little success in South Carolina, but a detachment of Virginia Continentals under Colonel Abraham Buford was marching to assist the garrison. Moreover, the American cavalry, now commanded by Colonel Anthony Walton White, who arrived in the state with a few additional dragoons, had regrouped after the disaster at Moncks Corner.
White crossed the Santee River on 5 May; four miles north of Awendaw Bridge on the road leading to Charleston, they captured eighteen men from a British foraging party. Falling back toward the Santee the following day, White's cavalrymen were ambushed by Tarleton at Lenud's Ferry. As Cornwallis accurately pointed out, "this stroke will have totally demolished their cavalry." The British now faced little threat outside the American siegeworks.
Despite close investment by the British, Lincoln and his officers resolved to continue the defense. Clinton rejected their request for much too generous terms on 21 April, and he now anxiously believed his troops would be forced to storm the rebel works. Arbuthnot, who had repeatedly ignored Clinton's requests to push vessels into the Cooper River, moved against Fort Moultrie, which he captured on 7 May. This success and the victory over the American cavalry at Lenud's Ferry gave the British commanders another opportunity to summon the garrison.
Making note of these defeats, Clinton and Arbuthnot again offered Lincoln an opportunity to surrender on 8 May. Virtually surrounded and with no hope of reinforcement, Lincoln acceded to negotiations. Talks broke down over the prisoner-of-war status of the American militia and the siege continued until 11 May, when Lincoln capitulated. The garrison marched out on 12 May.
The victory at Charleston was the greatest of the war for the British. They took possession of the most important city in the southern colonies and captured six thousand men, four hundred cannon, and over five thousand muskets with minimal losses. That is not to say the campaign had been easy. Vicious winter weather upset the expedition at the outset, the relationship between army and Royal Navy commanders was tenuous, and the British faced a determined enemy.
Much could have gone wrong. Had the American navy stopped Arbuthnot at Charleston Bar as Lincoln hoped, it is doubtful that operations would have continued. The cautious Arbuthnot, who had lost a man of war to a sandbar off Savannah early in the expedition, might have balked at further attempts had he lost additional vessels or faced greater enemy resistance. Cooperation between land and sea forces was critical for success. One branch of service could not have succeeded at Charleston without the other. Likewise, had Lincoln taken the initiative and escaped into the backcountry, his army would have provided a rallying point for the state's numerous militia, who would soon have harassed Cornwallis when his troops pushed inland. More skillful handling of the American cavalry and the retention of Lempriere's Point, meanwhile, could have prevented the British from cutting off the city east of the Cooper River and kept open communication with the South Carolina backcountry.
The British avoided these calamities, however, and celebrated the victory. Clinton believed that he had conquered both Carolinas with the capture of the city, but as Cornwallis found, the provinces were far from conquered. Although a tremendous victory for the British, the Charleston expedition, in kicking off major operations in the South (those in Georgia not withstanding), set them on a road that led to Yorktown just seventeen months later.
Clinton departed New York with 8,700 men. A small contingent of these were blown so far off course that they never reached Savannah, and others remained in Georgia. Clinton utilized the remainder in operations against Charleston. The 18 April reinforcement from New York City added 2,600 troops. By the end of the campaign the British army operating against Charleston numbered 10,100 men. Returns showed 76 men killed and 189 wounded from the landing in the North Edisto to the close of the siege.
American strength is more difficult to gauge, since the makeup of Lincoln's army fluctuated throughout the campaign. On the eve of the British landing in South Carolina, Lincoln reported 1,400 Continental infantry and cavalry fit for duty plus 2,250 militia. Many of the North Carolina militia returned home prior to the commencement of the siege, however. Washington sent Lincoln the North Carolina brigade and Virginia line from the main army, but each numbered only just over 700 men by the time they reached Charleston. Clinton reported to Germain that they captured 6,618 men (including 1,000 sailors who had come ashore from rebel ships), but Lincoln's total force was probably closer to 6,000. A July 1780 return of prisoners, which makes allowances for soldiers who joined the British ranks, shows far fewer Continentals accounted for than noted at the end of the siege. Lincoln reported 89 men killed and 138 wounded during the siege. These figures do not include 15 killed and 18 wounded at Moncks Corner and 41 killed and wounded at Lenud's Ferry.
With regard to naval forces, Arbuthnot initially commanded five ships of the line, a fifty-gun ship, two forty-fours, four frigates, and two sloops of war. One ship of the line, the Defiance, was destroyed in a storm off Savannah. British naval personnel numbered forty-five hundred men. Operations against Charleston cost the Royal Navy twenty-three killed and twenty-eight wounded.
Whipple brought with him to Charleston three frigates of the Continental Navy and a sloop of war. Of the frigates, the Queen of France was in such poor shape that she was sunk to block the channel between Charleston and Shutes Folly. The South Carolina state navy contributed a frigate, two French transports that had been converted into warships, two brigs, and several smaller vessels. A number of these shared the same fate as the Queen of France. The Royal Navy captured those not sunk.
SEE ALSO Charleston Siege of 1780; Fort Moultrie, South Carolina (7 May 1780); Lenud's Ferry, South Carolina; Monck's Corner, South Carolina.
Borick, Carl P. A Gallant Defense: The Siege of Charleston, 1780. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003.
Clinton, Henry. The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton's Narrative of His Campaigns, 1775–1782, with an Appendix of Original Documents. Edited by William B. Willcox. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1954.
Ewald, Johann. Diary of the American War: A Hessian Journal. Edited and translated by Joseph P. Tustin. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979.
Gordon, John W. South Carolina and the American Revolution: A Battlefield History. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2003.
Hough, Franklin B., ed. The Siege of Charleston by the British Fleet and Army under the Command of Admiral Arbuthnot and Sir Henry Clinton which Terminated with the Surrender of the Place on the 12th of May, 1780. 1867. Reprint, Spartanburg, S.C.: Reprint Company, 1975.
Mattern, David B. Benjamin Lincoln and the American Revolution. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.
Moultrie, William. Memoirs of the American Revolution, So Far As It Related to the States of North and South Carolina, and Georgia. 1802. Reprint, New York: New York Times and Arno Press, 1968.
Pancake, John S. This Destructive War: The British Campaign in the Carolinas, 1780–1782. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985.
Peebles, John. John Peebles' American War: The Diary of a Scottish Grenadier, 1776–1782. Edited by Ira D. Gruber. Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books; Gloucestershire, UK: Sutton Publishing, 1998.
Uhlendorf, Bernhard A., ed. and trans. The Siege of Charleston with an Account of the Province of South Carolina: Diaries and Letters of Hessian Officers from the von Jungkenn Papers in the William L. Clements Library. University of Michigan Publications on History and Political Science, vol. 12. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1938.
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Why most battlefield hauntings aren't real
Soldiers fighting in the trenches during WW1 were the first to popularize the idea of haunted battlefields. In France, the region known as "No Man's Land"-- the geographical area between the trenches of opposing armies-- was said to be plagued by ghosts. Soldiers from both sides described the phantoms of No Man's Land similarly; as luminous cloud-like forms that slowly rose from the ground and then hovered and danced above it.
Stories about the ghosts of the battlefield were so common during the war that the United States government actually investigated the claims. One expert who researched the hauntings was Professor Charles E. Munroe, of George Washington University, who was also the government's chief expert on explosives.
Munroe's chemical analysis of the human body revealed that the body of a man of average size contained approximately 55 ounces of phosphorus, seven-eighths of which are in the bones. Munroe concluded that phosphorus was the secret to the hauntings which hundreds of soldiers claimed to have experienced in the trenches of France.
As the unburied body of a dead soldier decomposes, the calcium from the bones reacts with the phosphorus and, if enough moisture is present, creates a gas that is luminescent. On still, damp evenings, when there isn't enough of a breeze to disperse the gas, it rises from the ground and lingers in the air. Munroe speculated that the highly excited imaginations of stressed-out soldiers were responsible for interpreting the clouds of glowing gas as human forms.
A 1917 newspaper illustration of battlefield ghosts
Munroe proved his theory by performing an experiment. He manufactured a "corpse light" by placing a scrap of phosphide of calcium into a saucer filled with ordinary water. A weird and spectacular effect was produced, virtually identical to the strange objects seen over No Man's Land.
Prof. Munroe also discovered that there are three other substances in the human body that could create spooky effects when released into the atmosphere: nearly two ounces of magnesium, and two and a half ounces each of sodium and potassium. Munroe estimated that a single human body, in total, contains sixty ounces of substances that could produce glowing apparitions similar to those seen by the soldiers.
Munroe was not the first to theorize that ghosts were composed of glowing gases, however. That distinction goes to a professor named Washington Jefferson McGee. Dr. W.J. McGee was a well known ethnologist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and once served as the president of the National Geographic Society (he was also the magazine's associate editor). Dr. McGee was fascinated with stories of graveyard hauntings, and resolved to solve the mystery with science.
McGee encountered many graveyard ghosts during his research, but was puzzled why these "phantoms" always seemed to disappear whenever he attempted to approach them. McGee never solved this part of the riddle, but observed that the same "disappearing act" took place whenever people approached a will-o'-the-wisp, which is nothing more than luminous gas produced by decaying vegetation.
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Article | Open | Published:
Nature Communications volume 5, Article number: 4956 (2014) | Download Citation
Angiosperms are the most successful plants and support human livelihood and ecosystems. Angiosperm phylogeny is the foundation of studies of gene function and phenotypic evolution, divergence time estimation and biogeography. The relationship of the five divergent groups of the Mesangiospermae (~99.95% of extant angiosperms) remains uncertain, with multiple hypotheses reported in the literature. Here transcriptome data sets are obtained from 26 species lacking sequenced genomes, representing each of the five groups: eudicots, monocots, magnoliids, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae. Phylogenetic analyses using 59 carefully selected low-copy nuclear genes resulted in highly supported relationships: sisterhood of eudicots and a clade containing Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae, with magnoliids being the next sister group, followed by monocots. Our topology allows a re-examination of the evolutionary patterns of 110 morphological characters. The molecular clock estimates of Mesangiospermae diversification during the late to middle Jurassic correspond well to the origins of some insects, which may have been a factor facilitating early angiosperm radiation.
Angiosperms, that is, flowering plants, are one of the most diverse and species-rich groups on Earth and are the major components of the current terrestrial ecosystems1. The geologically sudden appearance of diverse angiosperm fossils could not be explained by Darwin’s evolutionary theory of gradual changes and prompted his reference of ‘abominable mystery’2. Such angiosperm diversity has since been extended by recent fossil discoveries of the now extinct early angiosperm Archaefructus, waterlilies (Nymphaeales) and a relative of buttercup (Ranunculales, sister to all other eudicots) in the Early Cretaceous (~125 million years ago) or even earlier3,4,5. Decades of efforts have produced an angiosperm phylogeny that defines major groups and identifies small sister lineages to the vast majority of angiosperm diversity6. Among the estimated 350,000 angiosperm species (, only ~175 species form three small successive sister groups to other groups, Amborellales (a single species of understory bush found in New Caledonia, the South Pacific), Nymphaeales (waterlilies and related plants) and Austrobaileyales (star anise and relatives), collectively named the ANITA grade7. The remaining 99.95% of extant angiosperms form Mesangiospermae, a highly supported monophyletic group composed of five major lineages: eudicots, monocots, magnoliids, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae8. Therefore, after a few early divergent branches in the ANITA grade, the highly diverse and species-rich Mesangiospermae represent the rapid expansion of early angiosperms and account for nearly all extant angiosperm diversities.
Within Mesangiospermae, eudicots and monocots are the two largest and diversified groups, containing ~75% and 20% of angiosperm species, respectively. Eudicots include many familiar fruits (for example, apple, orange and melons), beans, nuts (walnut and chestnut), vegetables (for example, tomato, lettuce and cabbage), spices and flowers (roses and carnations), whereas monocots include major grains (maize, rice and wheat) and flowers (orchids, tulip and lilies), as well as palm trees. Magnoliids, the third major group with ~9,000 species, contains some of the most ‘early angiosperms’ defined in earlier studies, such as magnolia, as well as black pepper and avocado9. The other two groups, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae, are small and morphological unusual with only 77 and 6 species, respectively; however, they represent separate ancient lineages with evolutionary significance. Chloranthaceae has the simplest flowers and was once considered as the most ‘primitive’ group because of its extensive and early fossil records9,10. Ceratophyllaceae is a group of cosmopolitan aquatic plants with unusual morphologies, including inconspicuous flowers and greatly reduced roots, with an ancient origin supported by related fossils since the early Cretaceous11.
Resolving the relationships among these five groups will inform the order of their divergence and identify the sister groups of eudicots and monocots, the two largest angiosperm groups. The divergence order is crucial for estimating the time of the rapid angiosperm radiation and identifying possibly relevant contributing factors; moreover, knowledge of the sisters of eudicots and monocots is vital for understanding the origin and evolutionary patterns of characters. In the widely accepted Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III (APG III) system6, Ceratophyllaceae is sister to eudicots and they together are sister to monocots; then, Chloranthaceae and magnoliids form a clade that is sister to the (eudicots–Ceratophyllaceae)–monocots clade (Fig. 1a)6. According to this hypothesis, monocots separated from the clade of eudicots and Ceratophyllaceae after the divergence of a series of small lineages (that is, the ANITA grade, magnoliids and Chloranthaceae)12. However, the relationships among the 5 mesangiosperm groups are far from resolved, with 15 proposed topologies having low-to-moderate support, including those hypothesizing sisterhood of monocots with either eudicots or magnoliids7,12,13,14,15,16,17,18 (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 1). Therefore, the relationship of the five mesangiosperm groups has long been regarded as one of the most difficult problems remaining in angiosperm phylogeny19. In addition, the analyses of the order and relative time of divergence of major angiosperm groups have mainly relied on organellar genes and the results are still uncertain20,21. However, knowledge on divergence time plays important roles in understanding the evolution of angiosperms per se and their relation to other groups, such as ferns22, insects23, even dinosaurs24.
Figure 1: Five recently published representative topologies among eudicots (Eud), monocots (Mon), magnoliids (Mag), Ceratophyllaceae (Cer) and Chloranthaceae (Chl).
Figure 1
Shown are topologies derived from: (a) refs 6, 12 and 16; (b) ref. 17; (c) ref. 40; (d) ref. 43; and (e) ref. 15. Out stands for the outgroup, an asterisk indicates a BS value of 100%.
Previous angiosperm phylogenetic markers were mainly chloroplast and mitochondrial genes, as well as nuclear genes for ribosomal RNAs, with only a few protein-coding nuclear genes having been used in plant molecular phylogeny, especially above the family level15,25,26. Organellar genes are generally inherited uniparentally; in addition, recombination and gene conversion that have occurred in the plastid genome might also introduce biases and errors to phylogenetic reconstruction19. In contrast, nuclear genes are numerous and biparentally inherited; therefore, through extensive searches and selection, the use of sufficient number of appropriate nuclear genes can provide alternative evidence for relationships among early divergent angiosperms27. With the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies, nuclear gene sequences can be acquired cost-effectively from non-model species, as recently applied in phylogenomic studies of metazoan and fungal evolution28,29,30. Therefore, in this study, to resolve the relationships among the five lineages of Mesangiospermae, 26 transcriptome data sets were newly generated for phylogenetically critical species. Using a moderate number (59) of carefully selected low-copy nuclear genes, a topology with high statistical support was obtained. With this hypothesis, the divergence time of angiosperms and the evolutionary patterns of 110 morphological characters were assessed. Moreover, single-copy genes and genes from inverted repeated region (IR) of 86 plastid genomes were reanalysed extensively to identify possible causes of different topologies when using different datasets.
Transcriptomes generated for new marker identification
Sequenced genomes of 30 angiosperm species are available (Supplementary Table 1), but they have uneven phylogenetic distribution, being concentrated in a few eudicot and monocot groups. Here, to provide a better representation of the five mesangiosperm lineages, 25 new angiosperm transcriptome data sets were generated (Table 1), including those of representatives for the three smaller groups (magnoliids, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae), which lack sequenced genomes. In addition, representatives of small sister lineages of the majority of eudicots or monocots were especially selected because they are thought to be helpful for minimizing long-branch attraction (LBA)31. A transcriptome data set of the gymnosperm Ginkgo biloba was also generated as the outgroup. Combined with 30 angiosperms with sequenced genomes and 5 other angiosperms with large expressed sequence tag (EST) data, in total 61 species were sampled in this study, covering all or most orders of magnoliids (3/4), monocots (10/12), Chloranthaceae (1/1) and Ceratophyllaceae (1/1) (Supplementary Table 1).
Table 1: Information of 26 transcriptome data generated in this study.
Orthologue identification and gene selection
Angiosperms have experienced several rounds of whole-genome duplications (WGDs)32,33 and subsequent gene losses, rendering some single-copy nuclear genes non-orthologous (that is, hidden paralogues) and thus possibly unsuitable for resolving the relationship among the five major groups. To identify orthologous genes and exclude potential ‘hidden paralogues’, >4,000 orthologous groups (OGs) were used as the starting gene sets for identification of phylogenetic markers. To reduce the possible effects of missing data on phylogenetic accuracy34, OGs were selected with putative orthologues found in ≥80% of the 26 species with newly generated transcriptome data sets (Table 1); in addition, only sequences of coding regions with the length ≥80% of the Arabidopsis thaliana homologue were retained for further analyses, ultimately resulting in 349 OGs (Supplementary Fig. 2). Next, 349 single-gene trees of 20 representative species with well-supported relationships (Fig. 2) were further used to determine the suitability of the genes as phylogenetic markers (Supplementary Fig. 3) and finally 54 nuclear genes were selected (Supplementary Table 2) (see details in Methods). In general, only one copy was found in the 30 sequenced angiosperm genomes, except for a few recent lineage-specific duplications (Supplementary Data 1). Orthologues of these 54 and 5 previously analysed genes (SMC1, SMC2, MCM5, MSH1 and MLH1)15 were identified from 26 transcriptome data sets using HaMStR35 and verified by single-gene trees of the 61 species studied here. Genes with unusually long branches in single-gene trees, possibly due to sequencing errors, translation frameshift or other factors, were removed from the single-gene alignment manually. After concatenation, the aligned 59-gene supermatrix reached 25,589 amino acids and had gene coverages for species with transcriptomic and genomic data between 68.7% and 97.7% with an average of 90.9% (Supplementary Data 2).
Figure 2: A cladogram depicting established relationships of 20 representative species.
Figure 2
This tree was used as the reference for selecting suitable nuclear gene markers, with uncertain relationships collapsed.
Mesangiosperms are divided into monocots and a dicot clade
Phylogenetic analyses produced identical topology with strong support using RAxML36 and MrBayes37 regardless of gene partition and evolutionary models (Fig. 3 and Supplementary Figs 4,5). In agreement with most previous studies, the lineages in the ANITA grade, that is, Amborellales, Nymphaeales and Austrobaileyales, were successive sisters to Mesangiospermae with strong support (Fig. 3)7,16. Furthermore, Mesangiospermae, each of its five major lineages and core eudicots were all recovered as monophyletic groups with 100% support. Most relationships within eudicots or monocots were congruent with previous studies, except for a few that were uncertain in earlier studies (such as the position of Vitaceae16,38 and the relationships among Liliales, Asparagales and the combined clade of Dioscoreales and Pandanales39,40).
Figure 3: A highly supported hypothesis for relationships among the five major groups of Mesangiospermae.
Figure 3
(a) A phylogeny of 61 taxa using 59 genes. Numbers associated with nodes are the bootstrap value (BS, on the left) obtained by RAxML and the posterior probability (PP, on the right) obtained by MrBayes based on concatenated 59 genes. Asterisks indicate either BS of 100% or PP of 1.0. Diamonds indicate both BS of 100% and PP of 1.0. Taxa with transcriptome data specifically generated for this study are shown in bold. (b) An abbreviated tree showing the relationship of the five lineages of Mesangiospermae, with associated support values (BS/PP).
Unlike previous studies, four of the five major mesangiosperm lineages, except monocots, form a strongly supported monophyletic clade, which we propose to be tentatively named ‘Mesodicots’ for its inclusion of 99.94% of extant dicot species (Fig. 3). Among Mesodicots, Chloranthaceae is sister to Ceratophyllaceae; then these two together are sister to eudicots, with magnoliids being the next group, with 99%, 98% and 94% bootstrap values, respectively, and 1.0 Bayesian posterior probability (PP) (Fig. 3). This topology is different from the widely recognized one in APG III, but was once previously recovered using the highly conserved plastid inverted repeat regions17 (Fig. 1b), albeit with low-to-moderate supports and not emphasized there. In addition, a recent study based on EST data sets from 101 taxa lacking both Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae also supported a topology with monocots being sister to a clade containing eudicots and magnoliids41. Furthermore, approximately unbiased test analyses of all 105 potential topologies for these 5 groups suggested that all 13 other previously reported topologies inferred by other molecular markers were rejected significantly (Table 2)42, although 6 alternative topologies could not be rejected significantly (Supplementary Data 3); one of these 6 was from an analysis of morphological characters43 and the others have not been well supported by previous analyses.
Table 2: AU test and the minimum steps of 110 characters required by 15 published topologies.
Using <50 genes could resolve the deep angiosperm phylogeny
To investigate the minimal number of genes required to resolve the mesangiosperm relationships, we sampled various numbers of genes from 2 to 58 with increments of 2; for each number, 20 replicates of randomly selected genes were performed and a total of 580 matrices were generated. Next, the proportion of gene trees supporting the above hypothesis as shown in Fig. 3 was determined (see details in Methods). The proportion of gene trees that recovered the Chloranthaceae–Ceratophyllaceae (CC), eudicots–(CC) and magnoliids–(eudicots–(CC)) (that is, Mesodicots) relationships increased steadily with increasing gene numbers (Fig. 4a). The minimal numbers of genes required for 100% recovery of the CC, eudicots–(CC) and Mesodicots clades were 34, 40 and 48, respectively (Fig. 4a), suggesting that the most difficult angiosperm phylogenetic problems could be resolved by using fewer than 50 genes instead of hundreds of or more genes often used in many phylogenomic analyses.
Figure 4: The effect of the number of genes on the phylogenetic topology.
Figure 4
(a) percentages (y axis) of trees with the same topology as that in Fig. 3, when 20 trees were generated using the number (x axis) of randomly selected genes. The minimal number of genes required for 100% recovery of the (Chlor, Cerato), ((Chlor, Cerato), Eud) and (((Chlor, Cerato), Eud), Magnoliids) clades was 34, 40 and 48, respectively, as indicated by arrows. (b) A cladogram inferred by different numbers of ranked genes. Numbers associated with nodes are the bootstrap value (BS, above the line) obtained by RAxML and the posterior probability (PP, below the line) obtained by MrBayes with 55, 50, 46, 41, 33, 25 and 16 genes (right to left), respectively. BS of 100% or PP of 1.0 is indicated by asterisk. Chlor, Cerato, Eud, Magno, Mon and Out represent Chloranthaceae, Ceratophyllaceae, eudicots, magnoliids, monocots and outgroup, respectively.
As the amount of phylogenetic information varied among these 59 genes, we also ranked them based on the extent of the congruence between the single-gene tree of 20 representative species and the corresponding species tree (Fig. 2). Starting from the highest ranked gene (Supplementary Data 4), more genes were concatenated successively. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that only 16 genes (8,977 amino acids) were needed to resolve the mesangiosperm relationships, with the bootstrap value (BS) and PP for these 5 groups being at least 82% and 1.0, respectively (Fig. 4b and Supplementary Fig. 6). Therefore, even fewer carefully selected genes from sufficiently large taxon sampling can resolve some of the most difficult problems in angiosperm phylogeny. Furthermore, the use of low-to-moderate number of genes for phylogenetic analyses can decrease the time and cost of analysis, and is thought to reduce the chance of systematic errors44.
The newly proposed topology is robust to sequence biases
It is possible that highly supported phylogeny could be in part due to artificial signals from species or genes with long branches and genes with saturated mutation45. To investigate effects of possible sequence biases in our phylogenomic data set on the topology, several related tests were performed using a software of the TreSpEx package46, which was recently developed for detecting possible sequence biases, including LBA and saturation. To detect long branches, this programme defined a measure called Long Branch (LB) score, which is calculated from patristic distance (PD) values between taxa in a gene tree (see Methods), where PD is the sum of lengths of branches that link two nodes in a tree47.
To detect possible genes with long branches in our data set, gene-specific LB scores were calculated for each taxon and used to determine two additional parameters, which are the mean value of upper quartile and the s.d. of these LB scores. The distribution of these parameters appeared nearly normal, with a few additional small peaks (Supplementary Fig. 7). In the distribution of the mean value of upper quartile of LB scores, the skewed part contains two small peaks (marked in red; Supplementary Fig. 7a), corresponding to four genes; similarly, the distribution for the s.d. of LB scores had several small peaks in the skewed part (marked in red; Supplementary Fig. 7b), matching eight genes, which included the four genes identified in distribution shown in Supplementary Fig. 7a. The removal of only the shared four or all eight long-branch genes from the 59-gene data set resulted in the same topology as that in Fig. 3, with only slightly decreased BS values at some nodes (Supplementary Fig. 8).
To identify genes that behaved as long branches in specific taxon, a heatmap of taxon-specific LB scores for each gene was generated. Three gene sequences, one from each of three taxa (Carica papaya, Amborella trichopoda and G. biloba), were found to have the highest LB scores (above 150) and considered most likely to exhibit long-branch characteristics (Supplementary Fig. 9). After pruning these three sequences, the topologies of angiosperms obtained by RAxML and MrBayes were completely identical with that shown in Fig. 3 (Supplementary Fig. 10). BS values of Mesodicots and for the sisterhood between eudicots and Chloranthaceae/Ceratophyllaceae declined, respectively, from 94% to 90% and from 98% to 96%. However, BS values for the sisterhood of Chloranthaceae/Ceratophyllaceae and A. trichopoda being sister to all other angiosperms increased from 99% and 87% to 100% and 96%, respectively. Moreover, BS values increased for four nodes in eudicots and monocots. These results suggested that the genes or taxa with long-branch characteristics were not the primary cause of our topology.
Fast-evolving sites in gene sequences are likely to have repeated substitutions during evolution, resulting in mutational saturation, which could affect phylogenetic reconstruction45,48. The degree of gene saturation can be determined based on the linear regression of PD and uncorrected distance p46. The p distance counts the number of differences in sequences without considering multiple changes47. The linear regression of each gene was analysed either by the slope or R2 values, yielding a nearly normal distribution of the slope and R2 values of 59 genes with small peaks on the left-hand side. The two small peaks for the distribution of slopes contained five genes and the skew part of R2 comprises two genes, which were among the five genes (Supplementary Fig. 11). In addition, these two genes identified as being saturated by both the analyses of slope and R2 values were also among the four genes that exhibited long-branch characteristics in both analyses as described above (Supplementary Fig. 7). Matrices after excluding all 5 or only 2 genes from the 59-gene data set produced the same topology as the one in Fig. 3, with slightly altered BS values of the 5 major angiosperm groups (Supplementary Fig. 12).
The topology is robust to sampling
To evaluate the influence of sampling on phylogenetic reconstruction, several analyses were performed using concatenated 59-gene from different subsets of taxa. Small sister lineages of other larger lineages within major groups are known to be crucial for phylogenetic reconstruction, as illustrated here by the removal of three Piperales species in magnoliids (Supplementary Fig. 13a) or three basal monocot species (Supplementary Fig. 13b). The matrices after such exclusions generated the same topology as shown in Fig. 3, with Bayesian PP values remaining at least 0.99. However, the BS values associated the sisterhood between eudicots and Chloranthaceae/Ceratophyllaceae decreased from 98% to 65%, indicating that sufficient taxon sampling, especially those smaller sister lineages, was vital to obtain a well-resolved phylogeny. Adding three eudicot species (Nelumbo necifera, Eschscholzia californica and Meliosma arviflora), which are sister to major eudicot groups also resulted in the same topology as shown in Fig. 3 (Supplementary Fig. 13c). Moreover, three Pinaceae species (Picea sitchensis, Picea glauca and Pinus taeda), representatives of the largest gymnosperm clade, were added to the outgroups and the topology of angiosperm species was identical with the one in Fig. 3, with slightly decreased BS values associated with the five major groups in Mesangiospermae (Supplementary Fig. 13d).
Conflicting signals detected from plastid genome datasets
To investigate possible factors for the difference between the APG III topology from chloroplast markers for the five major groups and the hypothesis presented in this study, we re-examined the data sets from 83 plastid genes of 86 species16 and 40 genes from the plastid IR of 244 species17. As mentioned above, topologies inferred by these two plastid data sets were different, with the former (83 genes of 86 species) (Supplementary Fig. 14a) congruent with the APG III one and the latter (40 IR genes of 244 species) identical to the one in this study. To facilitate the comparison between these two data sets, the matrix composed of the 40 IR genes of the same 86 species sampled in the study of 83 plastid genes was analysed. First, the percentage of parsimony informative (PI) sites of each gene was estimated and found to vary dramatically, ranging from 2.8% (trnl.GAU) to 64.3% (ycf1) for the 40 IR genes (Supplementary Table 3) and from 11.2% (rrn16) to 77.3% (matK) for the 83 plastid genes (Supplementary Table 4). The average percentage of PI of IR gene (34.9%) was lower than that of single-copy plastid genes (46%), suggesting that IR genes as a group were more conservative than single-copy plastid genes and might be less affected by mutational saturation17.
We then tested whether different topologies could result from the use of plastid genes with different evolutionary rates. The 40 IR genes were classified into slower genes and faster genes using three different cutoff percentages of PI, that is, 30%, 40% and 50% (Supplementary Table 5), generating six matrices: IR_less_30, IR_greater_30, IR_less_40, IR_greater_40, IR_less_50 and IR_greater_50. We found that for IR genes, in spite of large differences between the average percentages of PI of slower versus faster genes, that is, 16.6% versus 47.9% (IR_less_30 versus IR_greater_30), 21.1% versus 51.2% (IR_less_40 versus IR_greater_40) and 26.6% versus 54.6% (IR_less_50 versus IR_greater_50), the topologies are completely identical with the one using all 40 IR genes regarding the relationships among the 5 major groups (Supplementary Table 5 and Supplementary Fig. 14b), suggesting that the single-gene percentage of informative sites did not affect the topology. Nevertheless, the supporting values generally increased when more PI sites were included (Supplementary Table 5).
Similarly, 6 matrices were generated from 83 plastid genes using 3 cutoff values of the percentage of PI of 40%, 50% and 60%, respectively, and were named SC_less_40, SC_greater_40, SC_less_50, SC_greater_50, SC_less_60 and SC_greater_60. For these 83 plastid genes, the topology changed when using different gene sets. Specifically, when conserved genes (with lower PI values) were used, eudicots, Ceratophyllaceae and monocots grouped together with moderate support values (77% to 88% BS), but the relative positions of Chloranthaceae and magnoliids varied (Supplementary Fig. 14c–e). However, relatively rapidly evolving genes (higher PI values) gave different results: 17 (SC_greater_60) and 37 (SC_greater_50) genes yielded a sisterhood of Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae with the BS values of 25% and 79%, respectively (Supplementary Fig. 14f,g), but 49 genes (SC_greater_40) resulted in Chloranthaceae being sister to magnoliids with the BS value of 50% (Supplementary Fig. 14h). These results suggested that conflicting phylogenetic signals exist among these 83 genes.
To further investigate the source of conflicting signals, two new data sets were generated and were named SC_40_PI_50 (for genes with PI values between 40 and 50) and SC_50_PI_60. The SC_40_PI_50 matrix yielded a topology with eudicots, Ceratophyllaceae and monocots in a clade with 69% BS support (Supplementary Fig. 14i), but the SC_50_PI_60 matrix grouped Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae together with a BS value of 85% (Supplementary Fig. 14j). We also concatenated 40 IR genes and 72 plastid single-copy genes obtained by excluding 11 overlapping IR genes from 83 plastid gene data set; the length of the alignment reached 76,014 bp, yielding a topology of the 5 major groups that was congruent with that was generated using the 83 plastid genes (Supplementary Fig. 14k), but the BS values decreased slightly, again suggesting that conflict signals exist between single-copy genes and IR genes, and that IR genes and single-copy plastid genes possibly have different evolutionary histories. Therefore, when conflicting signals exist, simply increasing the number of genes could not resolve the difficult question of mesangiosperm phylogeny.
Morphological characters revisited using the new topology
Recently, Endress and Doyle43 reconstructed the angiosperm phylogeny using a morphological data set composed of 110 characters, and they proposed that Ceratophyllaceae might be sister to Chloranthaceae (Fig. 1d). The topology with high support values uncovered here provides a new opportunity to examine the evolution of morphological characters. Compared with the minimum (775) steps required for the Endress and Doyle’s43 topology obtained by morphological analyses (Fig. 1d), 777 steps were needed for our best maximum likelihood (ML) tree (Table 2), suggestive of the strong agreement between our topology and the morphological data set, whereas 785 steps were required for the topology accepted by APG III (Fig. 1a), 10 more steps than the most parsimony one. The sisterhood of Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae was supported by six characters originated before their diversification (Fig. 5 and Supplementary Fig. 15) in the context of our topology. In contrast, only one (dry fruit wall) supported the alternative hypothesis of Ceratophyllaceae and eudicots being sisters43 and only the loss of cambium associated Ceratophyllaceae with monocots. The Chloranthaceae–Ceratophyllaceae sisterhood was also uncovered using other molecular data sets, albeit with low support values15,17,40. In addition, seven characters including absence of cambium (4), parallel major venation (17), boat-shaped pollen (61) and one cotyledon (110), originated before the origin of monocots but after the diversification of monocots from Mesodicots, enabling relatively easy differentiation between these groups (Fig. 5 and Supplementary Fig. 16) and consistent with the well-known distinctive morphologies of monocots. Two, three and nine morphological characters could be interpreted as novel before the origin of, respectively, the eudicots, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae (Fig. 5 and Supplementary Figs 17–19). In contrast, no novel character was found for the magnoliids, providing an explanation for the previous idea that magnoliids were early angiosperms in classical taxonomy mainly according to morphological characters.
Figure 5: Estimated divergence times of Mesangiospermae and shared morphological characters.
Figure 5
(a) The estimated divergence time for each node is shown relative to the geological time scale below the cladogram. Numbers in the rectangles on some branches indicate the numbers of morphological characters shared by the corresponding lineages. (by) Plant photographs show the diversities of angiosperms; (Rosids: A. thaliana (b), Chaenomeles cathayensis (c), Wisteria sinensis (d), Juglans regia (e); Asterids: Coreopsis basalis (f), Solanum wrightii (g), Scutellaria baicalensis (h), Pharbitis purpurea (i); Chloranthaceae: Chloranthus japonicus (j), Hedyosmum orientale (k), Sarcandra glabra (l); Ceratophyllaceae: Ceratophyllum demersum (m); Magnoliids: Magnolia denudata (n), Aristolochiae heterophyllae (o), Houttuynia cordata (p), Chimonanthus praecox (q); Monocots: Paphiopedilum henryanum (r), Cocos nucifera (s), Hippeastrum rutilum (t), Setaira viridis (u); Basal angiosperms: A. trichopoda (v), Nuphar advena (w), Cabomba caroliniana (x), Schisandra sphenanthera (y).
The plicate and completely sealed postgenital carpel (75 and 76) (Supplementary Fig. 20) might have originated before the origin of mesangiosperms, which could have enabled mesangiosperm species to produce more seeds or better protect the developing seeds when compared with most ANITA species with only ascidiate and not postgenitally sealed carpels. On the other hand, in the context of the topologies obtained from morphological data (Fig. 1d) or plastid genome data sets (Fig. 1a), this morphological novelty would have originated not before but after the origin of mesangiosperms (Supplementary Figs 21 and 22). These differences suggest that the phylogenetic relationship is critical for inferring ancestral characters and the topology here provides a potential new framework to investigate the evolution of these and other morphological, developmental and physiological characters.
Possibly early origins of angiosperms and mesangiosperms
According to the well-supported mesangiosperm topology and other deep relationships, a framework is proposed for estimating the divergence times of angiosperms, particularly for the five mesangiosperm groups, providing possible geological contexts of their rapid radiation. In general, times inferred by r8s49 were somewhat earlier (~10 million years, hereafter Myr) than those obtained by BEAST50 and only small differences were detected when using different codon positions (Supplementary Table 6), suggesting that time estimations were robust to methodology and data used. The origin of angiosperm was estimated to be 225–240 Myr, that is, in the Late-to-Middle Triassic (Figs 5 and 6, and Supplementary Table 6), considerably earlier than the previously accepted 140–180 Myr21, but in agreement with those recently reported independently20,51. An earlier angiosperm origin further expands the large gap between the origin of angiosperm and the earliest undisputed angiosperm fossil found in Hauterivian52; thus, possibly the oldest crown angiosperm fossils are yet to be discovered. Recently, angiosperm-like pollen grains were found in the Middle Triassic, consistent with our hypothesis of earlier origin of flowering plants; however, such an early origin is still controversial because of the lack of unequivocal meso-macro fossils (for example, fossilized flowers) at that time53. The diversification of Mesangiospermae was estimated to have initiated in the Jurassic (154–191 Myr) (Figs 5 and 6, and Supplementary Table 6), ca. 60 Myr after the angiosperm origin, consistent with an early origin of Mesangiospermae tentatively proposed by Smith et al.20 and Magallon51, but earlier than the 144 Myr estimated using whole plastid genome data12. Since the origin of Mesangiospermae, during an ~20-Myr period (instead of the 4 Myr based on plastid genomes12), the five major groups diversified successively as indicated by the well-resolved topology here, making the radiation less rapid than previously thought.
Figure 6: A chronogram showing the angiosperm divergence times as estimated by the BEAST using 59 genes.
Figure 6
Two fossil calibration points: (1) the earliest gymnosperm fossils (ca. 290–310 Myr) and (2) the earliest fossil tricolpate pollen (~125 Myr) were marked with two solid circles.
Strikingly, the time of angiosperm origin estimated here overlaps with the origin of several insect lineages. Curculionoidea (weevils and bark beetles) and Chrysomeloidea (leaf beetles and long-horned beetles), two important groups of plant feeders, were estimated to have originated ~230 Myr; meanwhile, fossils of Diptera (flies) and Hymenoptera (bees and wasps), the most important pollinators, were also found in Late Triassic20,54. Moreover, the rapid expansion of Mesangiospermae is congruent with the radiation of Lopidoptera (butterflies and moths), Hymenoptera (bees, ants and pollen wasps) and many kinds of flies from Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous20,23,54. The coincidence in geological time of the mesangiosperm lineages and pollinating insects might provide opportunities for investigating the diversification of Mesangiospermae. We also noted that the extant crown eudicots diversified since ~35 Myr after their separation from the clade of Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae, suggesting potential extinctions of the stem relatives or a relatively long period of ‘stasis’ before their rapid diversification into the most successful plant group.
In this study we showed that the combination of a moderate number of carefully evaluated nuclear genes with appropriate sampling could provide robust and highly supported relationships among deep lineages of Mesangiospermae. These relationships differed substantially from those accepted by the APG III system. The topology here provides a new phylogenetic framework for ancestral character reconstruction, molecular clock estimates of divergence times and other studies, suggestive of the necessity and importance of conserved low-copy nuclear genes for evolutionary studies.
The topology obtained here is different with the one inferred by using single-copy plastid genes but congruent with the one obtained by highly conserved genes from the plastid IR region, indicating that the evolutionary histories of IR and single-copy plastid genes might be different. The evidence presented here for conflicting signals among single-copy plastid genes and between single-copy and IR plastid genes further suggests that some of the single-copy plastid genes might be unsuitable for resolving the deep relationships of angiosperms, as almost all single-copy genes have been used and conflicting signals exist. Conflicts between plastid and nuclear genome about the position of Malpighiales, Cornales and Ericales also suggested that evidence from nuclear genes is necessary15. With rapid advances in sequencing technologies and decreasing cost, nuclear genes will probably be used more and more in molecular phylogeny.
The early origin and diversification of angiosperms proposed here were also supported by two other recent independent studies20,51; all of these proposed origins were earlier than previous estimates, providing a new temporal framework for the evolution of angiosperms and ecologically related organisms. The possible coincidental origins and divergence of major angiosperm lineages with those of major pollinator insects provide a possible environmental factor that might have contributed to the rapid diversification of mesangiosperm lineages referred to by Darwin as the ‘abominable mystery’. In addition, our results demonstrate that ‘bushes’ in the tree of life from rapid radiations can be resolved by using a moderate number of nuclear genes55, which can be identified by careful screening of probable orthologues from transcriptomes of representative taxa, a strategy generally applicable to other phylogenetic questions.
Taxon sampling and data collection
Young leaves or flower buds of 26 species (see details in Supplementary Tables 1 and 2) were collected and frozen at −80 °C. Total RNA was extracted by a modified CTAB method15 and then paired-end reads of 2 × 100 were generated using the Illumina technology with HiSeq2000 (Table 1). Short reads were assembled into longer contigs de novo using Trinity56 (trinityrnaseq_r2012-06-08) with default parameters. For longer and more complete complementary DNA sequence, TGICLv2.1 (ref. 57) was also used with the parameter being –P=0.98, −l=40 and −v. Thirty sequenced genomes and five EST data sets were respectively retrieved from and (Supplementary Table 1).
Orthologue identification and gene selection
To identify probable orthologous genes for phylogenetic analyses HaMStR was used, as it performs well in identification of orthologues from EST and RNA-seq data35, and its utility has been tested in previous phylogenomic studies of plants32 and animals30. First, we downloaded from the Deep Metazoan Phylogeny ( 4,180 OGs, which were previously generated by comparing 9 angiosperm species with sequenced genome (A. thaliana, Glycine max, Medicago truncatula, Populus trichocarpa, Solanum lycopersicum, Vitis vinifera, Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor and Zea mays)35. These 4,180 OGs were then compared with 1,989 OGs identified from the analysis of seven whole-sequenced genomes using OrthoMCL (A. thaliana, P. trichocarpa, Prunus persica, Mimulus guttatus, V. vinifera, S. bicolor and O. sativa), resulting in 931 OGs that overlapped between these two data sets. HMM files of 931 OGs distributed with HaMStR were used to search for corresponding orthologues from other species with the parameter being -est, -hmmset=magnoliophyta_hmmer3, -relaxed, -eval_limit=0.01. To identify marker genes with sufficient coverage among the taxa, OGs were selected with putative orthologues found in 80% of the 26 species with newly generated RNA-seq datasets (Table 1); in addition, only sequences of coding regions with the length 80% of the A. thaliana homologue were retained for further analyses, ultimately resulting in 349 OGs.
Angiosperms have probably experienced a number of WGDs and subsequent gene losses32,33, making it difficult to identify orthologues. Because of the recently identified WGD before the divergence of all extant angiosperms and all seed plants, strictly defined orthologues that never experienced any duplication probably do not exist in angiosperms. Nevertheless, those genes that experienced rapid loss of one paralogue before the divergence of the species of interest can be considered as orthologues operationally. Therefore, we searched for low-copy genes and follow well-supported established organismal history. To minimize the effect of hidden paralogues58 and identify the most probable orthologues, 349 single-gene trees were reconstructed using RAxML36 with protein sequences of 20 representative species with well-supported relationships (Fig. 2), with the evolutionary model for each gene estimated by ProtTestv2.4 (ref. 59). Next, these gene trees were compared with the species tree.
As the informative sites of one gene are limited, it was difficult to resolve relationships among low-level taxonomic hierarchies using only one gene. Therefore, if genes of the same OG from species of a monophyletic organismal group (that is, eudicots, monocots and magnoliids) form a monophyletic gene clade, as they should, the gene was selected for further analyses; in contrast, if genes of the same OG from species of different monophyletic groups are in a supported gene clade, then this OG was excluded (see examples of ‘selected’ and ‘excluded’ genes in Supplementary Fig. 3). After careful examination, 54 genes were selected for further analyses. Combined with five genes (SMC1, SMC2, MCM5, MSH1 and MLH1) effectively used previously15, a total of 59 genes was used for investigating the relationship among Mesangiospermae. Characteristics of these 59 genes, including functional annotation and percentages of PI sites are shown in Supplementary Table 2. Gene copy number detected in each species with whole sequenced genomes is listed in Supplementary Data 1; in species with more than one copy, the paralogues were found to represent terminal branches from recent duplications. The length of protein sequences encoded by orthologous genes in each species is listed in Supplementary Data 2.
Phylogenetic analyses
Amino acid sequences of each OG were aligned using MUSCLE v3.8.31 (ref. 60) with default settings, the alignments were manually inspected to delete sequences of low quality, then the poorly aligned regions were further trimmed by using trimAl v1.2 (ref. 61). Single-gene trees were reconstructed with RAxML using the fittest evolutionary model inferred by ProtTest v2.4 (ref. 59). In species with two or more copies in one OG, the paralogues from recent duplication formed adjacent terminal branches in the gene tree; thus, only the gene with the shortest branch was retained for further analyses. Finally, amino acid sequences of 59 genes from 61 species were concatenated by SeaView62 and the length of the concatenated 59-gene amino acid matrix reached 25,589 amino acids.
ML and Bayesian trees based on the 59 protein sequences of 61 species were inferred by RAxML and MrBayes 3.2.1 (ref. 37), respectively. For ML analysis, the model was specified as JTT+I+G based on the results of ProtTest and fast BS analyses were replicated for 100 times. For Bayesian analysis, one cold and three incrementally heated Markov chain Monte Carlo chains were run simultaneously with the JTT model. The Markov chain Monte Carlo convergence in Bayesian phylogenetic inference was monitored by AWTY ( Trees were sampled per 100 generations. The first 25% trees were discarded as burnin, with the remaining trees being used for generating the consensus tree.
To determine statistic support for other possible alternative relationships among the five major groups of Mesangiospermae (eudicots, monocots, magnoliids, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae), all 105 potential topologies were tested using our data set (Table 2 and Supplementary Data 3). First, per site log likelihoods for each topology were estimated by RAxML under the JTT+I+G model, and then approximately unbiased test was conducted using CONSEL v1.20 (ref. 42).
To explore the minimal number of genes needed to resolve the relationship among the five major clades of Mesangiospermae, the relationship between the number of genes and the proportion of gene trees supporting the topology shown in Fig. 3 was studied. The number of genes ranged from 2 to 58, with increments of 2; for each number, 20 replicates of randomly selected genes were performed using the sample function implemented in R, generating a total of 580 matrices. Gene tree was inferred by RAxML with the model being JTT+I+G and the fast bootstrap replicate was set to 100.
As the phylogenetic information varies among the 59 genes, we also ranked them based on the extent of the congruence between the single-gene tree of 20 representative species and the corresponding species tree (Fig. 2). First, these single-gene tree was treated as condensed tree with the cut-off BS values being 50%; if the position of one species in single-gene tree is congruent, conflict or uncertain with the species tree, it was scored as 1, −1 and 0, respectively. Then, scores of all nodes from one single-gene tree were summed up and then 59 single-gene trees were ranked by their scores, with the gene with the highest being considered the best (Supplementary Data 4). Starting with 16 genes that had the highest scores, additional genes were added successively with total scores from high to low, resulting in matrices composed of 16, 25, 33, 41, 46, 50 and 55 gene sequences (Supplementary Data 4); finally, ML and Bayesian trees were inferred using RAxML and MrBayes, respectively, with same settings as described above.
To evaluate the effects of different evolutionary models on the species topology, ML trees using models other than the fittest one (that is, JTT+CAT, JTT+G, WAG+CAT and DAYHOFF+CAT) were inferred by RAxML.
Detection of possible sequence biases
To investigate possible effects of sequence biases in our phylogenomic data set on the phylogenetic reconstruction, several related tests were performed using TreSpEx, which was recently developed for detection of possible sequence biases, including LBA and saturation46.
To detect long branches, this programme defined a parameter called LB score based on PD values between taxa in a gene tree, where PD is the sum of lengths of branches that link two nodes in a tree. For each gene, the mean pairwise PD of taxon i to all other taxa and the average pairwise PD across all taxa in the single-gene tree were estimated. The LB score of taxon i (LBi) in each gene was then determined by the relative value of the mean PD of taxon i to the average PD across all taxa. Fifty-nine single-gene trees were used as input files for TreSpEx. TreSpEx then provided two parameters derived from LB score for each gene: the average of upper quartile of LB scores and the s.d. of LB scores for comparisons between genes. Density plots (distribution) of these two parameters of 59 genes were generated with the R programme and shoulder areas deviated from the normal distribution were filled with red. Genes whose mean values of upper quartile or the s.d. of LB scores were found in right shoulders were considered as having long branches. Next, these long-branch genes were excluded from the 59-gene amino acid matrix and the ML tree was inferred by RAxML as mention above. In addition, to identify genes that behaved as long branches in a specific taxon, taxon-specific LB scores for each gene were calculated and a heatmap of these scores was generated with hierarchical clustering. Genes with the highest LB scores (above 150), were pruned from our data set and the remaining sequences were used to reconstruct the ML tree using RAxML with the model being JTT+I+G.
The degree of saturation of each gene can be determined using the linear regression of PD and uncorrected distances p. The p distance is the number of difference in sequences without considering multiple changes47. The linear regression of each gene was estimated either by the slope or R2 values. Fifty-nine single-gene trees and alignments of 61 species were used as input files for TreSpEx. First, PD matrix and p matrix of each gene were respectively calculated and the linear regression of them was generated for each gene. Second, distributions of the slope or R2 values were plotted with the aid of R. The rationale of TreSpEx is that the better the fit to linear regression, or in another way, the larger the slope or R2 value, the less saturated the data. Genes located in left shoulders of the slope or R2 graphs, respectively, were pruned from the 59-gene data set and the ML tree was reconstructed with RAxML.
Taxon sampling analyses
To evaluate the influence of taxa sampling on phylogenetic reconstruction, several analyses were performed using concatenated 59 genes from different subsets of taxa. Basal lineages of major groups are known to be crucial for reconstructing phylogeny31,64; hence, three Piperales species in magnoliids or three basal monocot species were deleted. ML and Bayesian trees using the pruned matrices were reconstructed. To test whether additional representatives of small eudicot groups that are sisters to major eudicot groups could affect the topology, we added orthologous genes from the recently sequenced genome of N. necifera (Proteales)65, publicly available transcriptome of E. californica (Ranunculales) from NCBI ( and the transcriptome of M. arviflora (Sabiaceae) that we recently obtained.
Moreover, three Pinaceae species (P. sitchensis, P. glauca and P. taeda), representatives of the largest clade of gymnosperms, were included. EST data sets of these three species were downloaded from NCBI ( Orthologues of 59 genes from these three species were obtained by HaMStR as described above, then ML and Bayes tree were inferred using RAxML and MrBayes, respectively.
Reconstruction of angiosperm phylogeny using plastid genomes
To investigate possible factors on the difference between the APG III topology from chloroplast markers for the five major groups and the hypothesis presented in this study, we re-examined the data sets from 83 plastid genes of 86 species and 40 genes from the plastid IR of 244 species. First, the percentage of PI sites of each gene was estimated by PAUP66. Next, ML trees using plastid genes with different percentage of informative sites were inferred by RAxML with the model being GTRCAT, and the BS analysis was repeated 100 times.
Re-analysis of 110 morphological characters
One hundred and ten morphological characters sorted by Endress and Doyle43 were reinvestigated with Mesquite (version 2.75)67. As the five major groups of Mesangiospermae were also sampled in their study, we simply tested alternative relationships among the five major lineages based on their samplings. First, the minimum step required for each of 105 possible topologies was inferred using the parsimony model. Second, ancestral states of each character were inferred using the likelihood model in the context of our topology (Fig. 3) to detect potential synapomorphies. As polymorphic or uncertain taxa are not supported by likelihood model, those taxa with uncertain character and missing data were removed from the matrix for each character. Then, ancestral states with probabilities were obtained. To detect the novel character specific to one group, for example, the ancestral state of the eudicots was compared with the one of the upper node connecting both eudicots and the clade of Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllaceae. If the ancestral states of these two nodes are supported significantly and represent different state, then there was a novel character before the origin of eudicots. To test whether different topologies could affect the ancestral reconstruction of morphological characters, the ancestral state of each character was also inferred in the context of other two topologies, that is, the one obtained by Endress and Doyle43 based on morphological data (Fig. 1d) and the one accepted by APG III (Fig. 1a).
Divergence time estimation
For divergence time estimation, besides 61 species used for phylogenetic analyses, Selagenella moellendorffii, a basal vascular plant with a sequenced genome, was also included. S. moellendorffii is helpful for determining the crown node of seed plants, which is critical as a deep fossil constrained node and has been widely used in previous dating analyses12. The S. moellendorffii orthologues of the 59 genes were retrieved using HaMStR as described above.
We estimated the divergence times based on three sets of data partitions, data consisting of the first codon positions, the first and second positions and all three codon positions, respectively. Penalized likelihood (PL) implemented in r8s (v.1.7.1)49, and Bayesian relaxed clock in BEAST (v.1.7.5)50 were used to estimate the divergence times of extant angiosperm lineages, as constant substitution rate across the phylogenetic tree was rejected (P<0.01) for all three data partitions by likely ratio test conducted in PAUP 4.0 beta10 (ref. 66).
For the PL method, the ML tree with branch length generated by RAxML was used as the input tree. The topologies inferred by these three nucleotide matrices are different from the one shown in Fig. 3 (data not shown) regarding the relationships among the five major clades of Mesangiospermae, possibly because of mutation saturation and homoplasy. Therefore, when inferring the ML tree by RAxML, the constraint tree was given, which forced the relationships among the five major clades of Mesangiospermae as shown in Fig. 3.
The outgroup Selagenellia was pruned as required by r8s. Cross-validation was tested to determine the best smoothing value for our data. After testing a range of smoothing parameters from 0.01 to 320 (cvstart=−2; cvinc=0.5; cvnum=10), the smoothing parameter of all three codon positions, the first and second positions and the first codon position was set to 3.5, 10 and 10, respectively. These low smoothing values also indicate a large deviation from the strict molecular clock hypothesis. One hundred BS trees with branch length were also generated using RAxML, which were used as input trees to calculate the confidence time intervals. The s.e. and 95% confidence time interval of a few nodes of interest were estimated and summarized across the 100 BS trees. The algorithm of TN was used and all other parameters were set as default in all above PL analysis.
For the BEAST analysis, (UCLN) was used with nucleotide substitution model being GTR+I+Γ and Yule speciation was specified for all three matrices. Two independent replications each with 60,000,000 generations were run with sampling every 5,000 generations. The stationary of the chains and convergence of the two runs was monitored by Tracer (v. 1.5), determining whether the effective sample size of all parameters was larger than 200 as recommended. The files from two independent runs were combined using LogCombiner (v. 1.7.5). The chronogram with nodal heights and 95% confidence time intervals was generated with TreeAnnotator (v. 1.7.5), with the first 5,000 trees being discarded as burnin; finally, the chronogram was displayed by Figtree (v. 1.0).
The earliest gymnosperm fossils (ca. 290–310 Myr) assigned to cycads68 and conifers69, and the earliest fossil tricolpate pollen (~125 Myr) associated with eudicots70 were used as two calibration points. For the PL analysis, the node of crown seed plants was constrained with minimum age of 290 Myr and maximum age of 310 Myr, while the crown eudicots was treated as the fixed and the minimum age of 125 Myr, respectively. For the BEAST analysis, the crown seed plants was constrained using uniform distribution with lower bound of 290 Myr and upper bound of 310 Myr; the node for crown extant eudicots was constrained using a prior of exponential distribution with offset of 125 Myr and mean value of 1, respectively. Our major fossil constraints are comparable to those used for calibrating the chloroplast genome data in previous studies, except that several different additional internal fossils were also included in previous studies12,16.
Additional information
Accession Codes: The nucleotide sequences of the 59 genes used in this study have been deposited in GenBank nucleotide database, with the accession codes KM397373 to KM400584. In addition, the nucleotide and amino acid sequence alignments of 59 genes have been deposited in the TreeBASE under accession code S16175.
How to cite this article: Zeng, L. et al. Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times. Nat. Commun. 5:4956 doi: 10.1038/ncomms5956 (2014).
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This work was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation of China (91131007 and 31100156) and a Smithsonian Postdoctoral Fellowship to N.Z. We are grateful to Lianming Gao, Dezhu Li, Qingfeng Wang and Xuejun Ge for their assistance in material collection; Ji Qi for help in transcriptome sequence assembly; Haifeng Wang for assistance in sequence analysis; Liang Zhao, Sangtae Kim and Yi Hu for providing plant photographs; Peter K. Endress, Ji Yang, Blair Hedges and Michael Axtell for valuable comments on the manuscript; and Michael Moore for sharing the alignments of plastid genes with us.
Author information
1. State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Collaborative Innovation Center for Genetics and Development, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Sciences and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Plant Biology, Institute of Biodiversity Science, Center for Evolutionary Biology, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, 220 Handan Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200433, China
• Liping Zeng
• , Renran Sun
• , Ning Zhang
• & Hong Ma
2. Guangxi Institute of Botany, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guilin 541006, China
• Qiang Zhang
• Hongzhi Kong
4. Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, MRC 166, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC 20560, USA
• Ning Zhang
5. Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
• Hong Ma
1. Search for Liping Zeng in:
2. Search for Qiang Zhang in:
3. Search for Renran Sun in:
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N.Z. and H.M. designed this study. N.Z. and L.Z. collected plant materials, extracted total RNA for next-generation sequencing and drafted the manuscript. L.Z., Q.Z., R.S. and N.Z. performed phylogenetic reconstruction and morphological analyses. H.M. and H.K. revised the manuscript. All authors contributed and approved the final manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Corresponding authors
Correspondence to Ning Zhang or Hong Ma.
Supplementary information
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1. 1.
Supplementary Figures and Tables
Supplementary Figures 1-22 and Supplementary Tables 1-6
Excel files
1. 1.
Supplementary Data 1
Gene copy numbers of 59 OGs in 30 species with sequenced genomes.
2. 2.
Supplementary Data 2
The length of predicted proteins encoded by the 59 genes from each species.
3. 3.
Supplementary Data 3
AU tests for 105 alternative topologies among the five major clades of Mesangiospermae, p values > 0.05 are in bold.
4. 4.
Supplementary Data 4
Information of single gene trees and the genes used for reconstructing trees based on different number of ranked genes.
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Cactus are as evocative of the West as Sagebrush; the two even often grow near each other. Cactus are indigenous to the Western Hemisphere, are found in their greatest concentration along the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and are native to every American state except Vermont and Maine. They are found in deserts, on seashores, in mountains, on plains, balds, and glades.
Cactus come in a number of shapes, their flowers are often very large and attractive, their fruits are edible (some delicious, some not so), and they have evolved a number of structures and processes that make them perfectly at home in what we humans usually call "a hostile environment": They have a tough, waxy outer layer that reduces moisture loss; they produce chlorophyll not in leaves but in the outer cells of the stems; they convert absorbed water into a mucilaginous liquid that can be stored in large quantities in tissues capable of expanding; many Cactus root easily into new plants from broken pads/stems of older plants.
"Cactus" is Greek for "prickly plant"; the word was used by Linnaeus in the 18th century to describe a prickly, thistle-like member of the Asteraceae Family found in Italy. "Cactus" was then used in the 19th century for the newly discovered spiny, drought resistant plants of the Western Hemisphere.
The name "Opuntia" was used by Theophrastus for a plant, not in the Cactus Family, which grew near the Greek town of Opus. Somehow "Opuntia" was centuries later applied to this genus of Cacti.
Click for more Opuntia.
Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia fragilis ( Brittle Prickly Pear Cactus)
Cactaceae (Cactus Family)
Semi-desert, foothills. Sandy and rocky openings. Summer.
Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, May 4, 2009 and
March 20, 2007; Sanborn Park Road, Uncompahgre National Forest, May 31, 2013; western San Juan National Forest, June 21, 2013; and (first and last photographs) Can Do Trail, June 20, 2014.
These low-growing, clump-forming Opuntia often spread in circles three to five feet in diameter. Pads of Opuntia fragilis break off very easily, commonly attach themselves to animals (including human animals), and are thereby widely disseminated. Pads can be plump like potatoes, flattened somewhat, or nearly cylindrical. Opuntia fragilis commonly hybridizes with other Opuntia and this accounts for its myriad of forms.
This is an easily overlooked plant until it flowers yellow in late June -- or until you inadvertently pick up a segment on your trousers, shoes, or hands -- or have to pull a pad from your dog's fur.
The third photograph from the top of the page shows new flower bud growth at the top of the pads and also shows five new pads with new, light red, small spines.
Opuntia fragilis is easily confused with Cylindropuntia whipplei, for in our area the two are often low and spreading with long and narrow stems (pads) that can look very similar. Older plants can be easier to identify, for Opuntia fragilis stays low (to only 5 inches tall), whereas old Cylindropuntia whipplei plants can be more than a meter tall.
Several characteristics help to separate the two species no matter what age they are. The most easily observed difference is in the bumps on the surface of the stems. These bumps are called "tubercles", from the Latin for "a bump or swelling", as in "tuber" and "tuberculosis".
The pads of the two often can assist in identifying the plants: pads of O. fragilis are often somewhat flattened and broad whereas the pads of C. whipplei are narrow and cylindric.
Cylindropuntia whipplei spines have a detachable, deciduous sheath.
Opuntia fragilis spines do not have a sheath.
Thomas Nuttall collected Opuntia fragilis in Minnesota, probably in 1810. He named it Cactus fragilis in his 1818 Genera of North American Plants (click the title to read), but the plant was renamed Opuntia fragilis by Adrian Haworth in 1819.
Range map © John Kartesz,
Floristic Synthesis of North America
State Color Key
Species present in state and native
Species present in state and exotic
Species not present in state
County Color Key
Species present and not rare
Species present and rare
Species extirpated (historic)
Species extinct
Species noxious
Species exotic and present
Native species, but adventive in state
Questionable presence
Range map for Opuntia fragilis
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Heraldry in Ireland, part 6. Modern day heraldry.
O'Neill chieftain circa 1680
When Edward Mac Lysaght was appointed to the newly created position of Chief Herald of Ireland in 1943 he also became head of Genealogy for Ireland and the old office of Ulster King of Arms in Dublin became the Genealogical Office, which is now part of the National Library of Ireland. Just as Scottish Clans share a common bond and crest, so Irish Septs share a common ancestor and common bloodlines. Edward Mac Lysaght set
about recording the principal Irish Septs and illustrated their Coats of Arms in part three of Mac Lysaght’s Irish Families. The essay on Heraldry that accompanies it is fascinating because Mac Lysaght was in the unique position of defining the rules of modern Irish Heraldry. Having the same surname as a sept is not enough to bear the sept’s Coat of Arms. If you can prove that your ancestors belonged to the sept , or you can show decent from somebody that bore the Arms historically ( and therefore by right of blood), irrespective of how many generations had passed, then the Coat of Arms “ may be displayed without any impropriety”. If you want to bear the Arms with recognized authority, you can seek a Confirmation of Arms from the Chief Herald of Ireland.
Since Ireland’s Independence in 1922 the old Gaelic Septs have been reforming. By the Tudor period ( 1485 - 1603 ) much of Ireland beyond the Pale ( the area surrounding Dublin ) was still ruled by local chieftains. Many were of ancient Gaelic descent but some had been displaced by Norman families who had arrived from France but had adopted Irish ways. In the ensuing century however the Gaelic order was destroyed . Some chieftains submitted to the English in exchange for titles from the Crown, others fled to France and Spain in what became know as the flight of the Wild Geese. Many who resisted the English had their land taken forcibly and were impoverished and fell into obscurity. The descendants of chieftains, however, were often remembered and recognized by descendants of their Septs, on an unofficial basis though as they had no legal function. In 1956 under Edward Mac Lysaght the Genealogical Office started tracing the senior male-lineal descendants of the last officially inaugurated 16th or 17th century Gaelic chieftains. Tracing the true chieftains was not an easy task, but eventually the following were found and officially recognized as Chiefs of the name.
v O’Brien of Thomond
v O’Callaghan
v O’Connor Don
v MacDermot, Prince of Coolavin
v MacDermot Roe
v O’Donnell of Tirconell
v O’Donoghue of the Glens
v O’Donovan
v Fox
v MacGillyduddy of the Reeks
v O’Grady of Kilballyowen
v O’Kelly of Gallagh and Tycooly
v O’Morchoe
v MacMorrough Kavanaugh
v O’Neill of Clannaboy
v O’Toole of Fer Tire
A further seventy 16th century chieftains were identified using state papers and other old records and in most cases senior descendants could not be traced.
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(noun, adjective, verb)
1. being neither at the beginning nor at the end in a series
- the middle point on a line
Similar word(s): intermediate, mediate
2. equally distant from the extremes
Similar word(s): central, center, halfway, midway
3. of a stage in the development of a language or literature between earlier and later stages
- Middle English is the English language from about 1100 to 1500
- Middle Gaelic
4. between an earlier and a later period of time
- in the middle years
- in his middle thirties
Similar word(s): intervening, mid
Sentences with middle as an adjective:
- the middle point
- middle name, Middle English, Middle Ages
1. an area that is approximately central within some larger region
Similar word(s): center, centre, eye, heart
Definition categories: location, area, country
2. an intermediate part or section
- A whole is that which has beginning, middle, and end
Definition categories: thought, division, part, section
3. the middle area of the human torso (usually in front)
Similar word(s): midriff, midsection
Definition categories: body, area, region
4. time between the beginning and the end of a temporal period
- the middle of the war
- rain during the middle of April
Definition categories: time, point
Sentences with middle as a noun:
- I woke up in the middle of the night.
- In the middle of the marathon, David collapsed from fatigue.
1. put in the middle
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print version
Middle School
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Lesson 4
Lesson 5
Lesson 6
High School
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Lesson 4
Working Abroad
Lies vs. Reality
Helpful Info
True Stories
High School
Lesson Plan #1
Introduction to the Problem of Human Trafficking
(45 minutes)
Objectives: Students will have a better understanding of the danger and consequences of trafficking, will be able to describe the stages of the trafficking process, and will become aware of issues that make one vulnerable to exploitation.
I. Verbal Quiz as “Icebreaker” (5 minutes)
1. Ask students to choose the best definition of a “trafficked person.”
a. Someone who has left his/her country of origin by their own will, and has crossed a border without direct documentation.
b. Someone who has left his/her country of origin because his/her life was in danger.
c. Someone who was taken away from his/her country and do a job in which they were exploited.
d. Someone who is assisted to cross borders without the correct documentation in exchange for money.
[The answer is “c” : someone who was taken away to leave his/her country and do a job in which he/she was exploited
“a” = “irregular migrant”
“b” = “asylum seeker”
“d” = “smuggled person”]
Explain that the exploitation can take the form of enforced prostitution and can occur through means of force, threat, fraud, or deceit. In English, the buying and selling of women for sexual purposes is sometimes referred to as “white slavery.”
1. Who can name some Albanian organizations which help victims of trafficking?
[IOM (International Organization for Migration)
ICMC (International Catholic Migration Commission)
The Hearth (run by Save the Children) ]
2. How many Albanian women are currently victims of trafficking?
[around 6000 – 7000]
3. What’s the average age of the victim? [18 but decreasing. Traffickers want their victims to be younger and younger so that they will be virgins and AIDS - free]
Age of oldest victim? [late thirties]
Youngest? [some children as young as 8 or 9 are trafficked to beg]
4. Who is most vulnerable: someone who is male or female? [female]
Someone who has a low or high level of education? [low]
Someone from a city or a village? [village]
5. What is the most common way girls are made victims of trafficking in Albania? You choose the best answer.
a. They are lured by promises of big money if they prostitute themselves.
b. They are kidnapped.
c. They are deceived into thinking that if they prostitute themselves for a short while, they will get a better job later.
d. They are deceived into a false marriage, believing that they are leaving the country to have a better life with their new “husband.”
[Answer is “d.” Although “a”, “b,” and “c” are also true, “d” is the most common right now in Albania. Most victims initially have no idea prostitution will be involved at all. Deceit is a common tool to recruit victims. Often, the girl’s family is deceived, too.]
6. Are most victims of trafficking willing or unwilling participants?
[unwilling. They do not leave the country intending to become prostitutes. It is crucial to make the point that this was not their choice.]
7. Name a few other countries in which traffickers exploit young women.
[Moldova, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Bulgaria, Thailand, China, Turkey, Cambodia, and others]
II. Small Group Activity (20 minutes)
1. The class is divided into small groups of 5 students each. The leader is decided at random by the teacher and given a packet of materials (a series of statements and copies of a true story)*. The group members decide who in the group will play which roles. Each person in a group must have a role.
*The teacher will have to assemble the packets before class, decide how many he/she needs, and make copies as necessary. Each packet will contain a copy of the questionnaire (below) as well as copies of the same true story for each small group member. Each group gets a different true story. (For example, one group of five students gets an envelope with one copy of the questionnaire and give copies of true story number one. The next group gets an envelope with one copy of the questionnaire and five copies of true story number two. If a class has 30 students, that means six groups of five students each. In this example, the teacher would need to make six copies of the questionnaire and five copies of six true stories for the packets.)
a. The “Leader” has already been determined at random.
b. One person is the “Timekeeper” (whose responsibility is to keep the group on track and make sure the group finishes the entire task in the amount of time given)
c. One person is the “Facilitator” (who makes sure everyone in the group participates and actively contributes)
d. One person is the “Notetaker” (who takes notes of the discussion for the “Presenter”)
e. One person is the “Presenter” (who presents the small group’s findings to the class)
2. The “Leader” opens the packet and takes out the piece of paper with the “Leader’s” directions. On a piece of paper (ideally in a notebook), students write “Opinions” at the top of the page. The “Leader” reads each statement, and each group member decides how much he/she agrees or disagrees with each one using a scale of 1 – 10. The “Leader” should read one statement, pause to let group members decide for themselves and write down their answers, and only read the next statement until everyone is ready. Each person writes down her number choice, 1 = strongly agree and 10 = strongly disagree for each statement. Students should not share their answers at this time.
Statement #1: People who get involved with trafficking could escape if they really wanted to.
Statement #2: Victims of trafficking know what they are getting themselves into.
Statement #3: Girls who are trafficked are immoral because they have become prostitutes.
Statement #4: Victims of trafficking deserve the help of the government and Albanian citizens.
Statement #5: Girls who are trafficked must somehow be a little stupid to get involved with a pimp.
Statement #6: Girls who are trafficked get involved because they need the money and have no other way to get it.
Statement #7: Girls who are trafficked have brought their fate upon themselves; nothing can be done for them, and the government should not waste money trying to help them.
Statement #8: If someone I was attracted to fell in love with me and promised me a great job far away, I would believe him/her.
Statement #9: Girls who are trafficked are victims; it’s the traffickers who are guilty of committing crimes.
Statement #10: I could never be trafficked.
[Optional: Teachers can add their own statements on the board.]
Members of the group now put their responses away and do not share them at this time. The “Leader” tells them not to throw them away because they will need them later.
3. Next, the “Leader” distributes to each group member the true story of a real victim, telling group members that a victim of trafficking wrote the story but that her name has been changed, that group members have as much time as they need to read the story, and that they should look up when they are ready to discuss it. The members of each group have the same story. Each small group in the class has a different story. After everyone in the group has read the story, the teacher gives the groups a time limit for discussion (at least 15 minutes) and reminds the class that the “Facilitator,” “Timekeeper,” and “Notetaker” will be playing their roles. The “Leader” leads the small group with the following questions:
a. What is your reaction to this story?
b. How does this story make you feel?
c. Which part of the story affected you the most?
d. Who is the trafficker in the story?
e. How did this happen to her? Why did she become trafficked?
f. What options/alternatives does she have?
g. Is she at fault for what happened to her? Explain your viewpoint.
h. What would you do if you were her?
i. If she were a member of our class, what would you want to say to her?
III. Presentations (20 minutes)
When the time limit is up, the teacher explains that each “Presenter” will give a short presentation on their group’s story and that students should look for any similarities in the stories. The “Presenter” of group one, relying on notes from the “Notetaker,” summarizes the story for the class as well as the group’s reaction to it.
When all the presentations are over, the teacher asks the class, “What similarities do you see?” and writes students’ responses on the board. Similarities may include methodology of the recruiter, characteristics of the victim, characteristics of the recruiter, reasons for the victims’ decision to accept the recruiter, etc.
IV. Homework
Students need to finish writing about the similarities in the stories if they were not able to finish the task in class. Students are also given two reading assignments about trafficking and told they will discuss their reactions at the next class. {The following story is the first assignment; the other should be a recent newspaper article about trafficking, and this reading assignment needs to be chosen.}
The Story of V.
My name is V, and I am fifteen years old. I have a mother, a stepfather, a younger sister, and two younger step-brothers. I come from a small village in southern Albania.
My real father died when I was four, and my mother married my stepfather a year later. My stepfather works only occasionally. He is an alcoholic and beats my mother, me, and the other children when he gets drunk.
When I was thirteen, one of my friend’s brothers introduced me to his cousin, a twenty-one year old boy named B. who was from another village. B. and I started spending time together, and he told me he loved me. He took me to restaurants for dinner, and one day he bought me a necklace with a heart on it. I still have it.
A few weeks later, B. brought me flowers and proposed to me. It was the happiest day of my life. When I told him I wanted to tell my parents, he said that there was no need for making known this relationship we have. He said that he wanted to leave to go to Italy the next day. He said that he had relatives there who could get him a good job and that I wouldn’t have to work. He told me about how beautiful our life would be together there.
He got illegal documents, and I left with him the next day. He told me to tell my mother that I was going to the house of a friend, so I did. We arrived in Italy that night, and that night my life changed forever. He locked me in a hotel room and told me I couldn’t leave; I never saw him again. I was alone in the room for three hours and didn’t know what to do. At around 2:30 am three men came in and began beating me. They all raped me. The main one, called L., told me that B. had “sold” me and that now I belonged to him. I had to do what he said, or he would kill me. This treatment lasted for about a week. I was only given food once a day. When he told me at first that I would have to become a prostitute, I resisted, but he continued this treatment.
I was then “sold” to another trafficker who treated me even worse. Once he beat me so hard that I could not see out of one eye for two days. He told me that he paid money for me and that I would have to work to pay him back. His name was A. and he told me that if I would not do this thing that he knew where my family lived and would rape my sister and kill my mother. I was alone and scared. I didn’t care anymore about my life, but I was afraid for my family.
Another girl came to train me. I started to work in this way and sometimes couldn’t even believe that it was me doing such a thing. Sometimes I had to beg from my clients soap and toothpaste. I wanted to get out, but I knew that my trafficker controlled all the streets in this area. He even controlled the police.
After three weeks like this I was arrested and deported to Albania. It was only later that I discovered what had happened to me. B. was never the cousin of my friend’s brother. He lied to me and cheated me just like everyone else. He was my doom. Sometimes I curse myself and what has happened to me. When I think about what has happened to me I am sick. I tell my story to prevent this for others. Now I am trying to find a new path.
Comments & Questions: aagwmail@gmail.com
Education Muse © All Rights Reserved
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