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American Authors
Christopher Columbus’s initial description of the Americas featured rivers of gold and man-eating monsters. From the moment settlers and conquistadors first encountered its endless frontiers, abundant nature, and alien cultures, the New World has often stood as otherworldly counterpart to European worldliness. This course will examine how contemporary North and Latin American authors have reflected on their national identities through horror, magical realism, and science fiction.
Our first unit will consider hauntings and ghosts stories as attempts to make sense of the hemisphere’s violent past. In the second, we will explore divergent worlds, geographies, and timelines that reimagine otherness and cultural plurality. The final unit will study genetic and cybernetic splicings that blur the carefully guarded lines between man, animal, and machine.
Some of the texts we will read include Margaret Atwood’s Oryx and Crake, Gabriel García Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude, Philip K Dick’s The Man in the High Castle, and Toni Morrison’s Beloved, as well as short stories by Borges, Poe, Lovecraft, and Ocampo. We will also analyze the Brazilian graphic novel Daytripper, the Canadian television series Orphan Black, the film Jupiter Ascending, and the music of Janelle Monáe.
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"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.05129730701446533,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9108864068984985,
"url": "https://lit.mit.edu/subject_term/american-authors-2-fall-2019/"
}
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Modern Innovations by Leonardo, Day 3
This morning we journeyed farther south in the city than we had been yesterday to see the Universita Cattolica and the Museum of Science and Technology. The museum had a large part of it dedicated to the inventions and drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, so as an engineer I was fascinated to see what parts of his scientific legacy are most important today. Leonardo’s most lasting ideas in my mind were not specific inventions like the helicopter, but the themes of the power of man, the value of scientific measurement, and the importance of practicality over beauty. Each of these themes represented a change from the pre-Renaissance state of mind toward the attitude that enabled the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, and eventually the modern world.
The first drawing of Leonardo (one does not refer to him as “da Vinci”) we saw was a representation of the Vitruvian Man. The picture of this is shown below, and it depicts a man inscribed in both a square and a circle to show the ideal proportions of a man posed in two different ways. Historically the circle represented God as it is infinite and perfect, and the square represented the material world. The Vitruvian man is meant to suggest that man in the center of both the spiritual and material worlds. This departed from the idea common in the Middle Ages that God was the center of the spiritual and the earthly worlds. This suggestion of the power of man over both realms symbolized the Renaissance Era, leading more scientists and artists to have confidence in their methods. Thus I feel this is one of Leonardo’s most lasting legacies: encouragement for other people to continue his innovative work.
Some of Leonardo’s most important inventions were devices to measure physical properties like strength, density, and pressure. An example of this was a device that held a bucket on a wire and slowly added sand to the bucket until the wire broke. The device could show how much sand was added to the bucket before the wire broke, and thus tell the strength of the wire. This scientific measuring device allowed a standard to be set for wire strength as well as a standard for the replicability of scientific measurements. Leonardo also designed a device to measure the density of steam by putting steam into a closed container, heating it with fire, and recording how the container responds to weights on top of it. Both the steam density and wire strength measurement devices showed the scientific community that measurements are useless unless they can be replicated to attest to their accuracy. From that point, scientists improved the accuracy of their devices, allowing precise measurements to be recorded. This advanced engineering and education greatly, and since this affects me as an engineering student today, I feel it is one of his most important legacies.
Building upon the new Renaissance standard of beauty, Leonardo emphasized the practicality of his inventions in addition to their external appearance. The museum featured a replica of Leonardo’s ideal city which he designed in response to disease outbreaks. Leonardo planned canals and sewer systems moving throughout the city to keep refuse moving. He also designed elaborate buildings to house the government and aristocrats that lies above the part of the city inhabited by the merchant and peasant classes. This design is an example of how Leonardo combined the beauty of classical building styles and multilayered cities with the usefulness of drainage and sanitation. While many other architects and artists created works of art only notable for their external beauty, Leonardo’s new method of making the art serve a purpose propelled creators into technological revolution.
Leonardo da Vinci has many iconic designs: the helicopter, the loom, and the Mona Lisa. However, many of his greatest legacies come in the form of ideas and creative strategies. His realization that humans could control their own lives and learn about the physical world inspired many other scientists to begin their work. In addition, Leonardo’s inventions of scientific measuring devices improved the standards of scientific discovery. Finally, his inclusion of practicality with beautiful designs allowed the Renaissance to improve society as well as beautify it. As an engineer, I can appreciate that these innovative ideas had an indescribable positive impact on the advancement of science.
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"url": "https://pittplus3.blog/2017/05/09/modern-innovations-by-leonardo-day-3/"
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Use English
On 3 August 1990, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 600 condemning the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and demanding that Iraq unconditionally withdraw all forces deployed in Kuwait. After a series of failed negotiations between major world powers and Iraq, President George H.W. Bush conducted a one way negotiation, in front of the full support of Congress and the Senate, stating the requirements for a peaceful resolution to the invasion. Please watch the terms of the negotiation as presented in the video.
Watch the video mentioned in Chapter 1 of the text titled, “President George H.W. Bush – Address Before Congress on Iraq”, (6m 03s), located at
Write a two page paper in which you:
1. Discuss the specific negotiation skills that President Bush utilized in his one-way negotiation session with Saddam Hussein that he addressed in front of Congress. Provide specific examples of these negotiation skills to support your rationale.
2. Debate whether or not you believe President Bush’s approaches to the negotiation process were effective or ineffective in achieving his desired results. Justify your response.
3. Indicate who you believe was in control of the outcome of the negotiation attempts—Bush or Hussein. Provide concrete examples of this control to support your position.
Use at least three (3) quality resources in this assignment. Note:Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.Do you similar assignment and would want someone to complete it for you? Click on the ORDER NOW option to get instant services at
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.859375,
"fasttext_score": 0.06639134883880615,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9452129006385803,
"url": "https://blog.essayloop.com/united-nations-security-council/"
}
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Describe 3 distinct cultural differences associated with the lifest...
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Describe 3 distinct cultural differences associated with the lifestyle of early modern humans and 2 anatomical differences that set anatomically modern humans apart from archaic Homo sapiens. These should be characteristics specific to moderns – not characteristics of previous hominids.
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This material may consist of step-by-step explanations on how to solve a problem or examples of proper writing, including the use of citations, references, bibliographies, and formatting. This material is made available for the sole purpose of studying and learning - misuse is strictly forbidden.
Socially, the early modern Homo sapiens had distinct differences from the previous hominids, thanks to a larger and well developed brain. Art is an example of a distinct social characteristic that was common among the early modern humans and not among he earlier hominids, including the Neanderthals. Cave art began around 40,000 years ago...
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<urn:uuid:40c0c526-aae4-428b-99b6-55461b7dc25c>
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"fasttext_score": 0.8765544295310974,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9076017737388611,
"url": "https://www.24houranswers.com/college-homework-library/Anthropology/Archaeology/35686"
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How do quasars form?
1 Answer
Nov 27, 2015
When a supermassive black hole at the centre of a galaxy has enough material to form a continuously supplied accretion disk.
A quasar forms, or ignites, when there is an abundant supply of gas and dust around a supermassive black hole at the centre of a galaxy. The material (the gas and dust) starts spiralling into the black hole to form an accretion disc.
As additional material falls into the accretion disc it gets heated by gravitational effect of the black home and friction with other particles in the accretions disc. This results in a massive output of energy which we call a quasar.
Quasars are thought to occur in young galaxies which have a lot of material to fuel a quasar. These quasars "go out" when the material supply is exhausted.
A quasar can reignite is sufficient material becomes available, for example as the result of a collision with another galaxy.
The quasars we are observer are very distant galaxies as they existed billions of years ago as they are billions of light years away.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.40625,
"fasttext_score": 0.9037123322486877,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9205962419509888,
"url": "https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-quasars-form"
}
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About Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a common condition affecting nearly three percent of the general population. There are many different subtypes of glaucoma, but they all have two common features: 1) Damage to the optic nerve in the back of the eye and 2) loss of the visual field (peripheral vision). Central vision is usually spared until the late stages of the disease. It has generally been accepted that once the optic nerve has incurred damage that damage is irreversible. Treatment is aimed at trying to prevent further optic nerve damage and further vision loss.
You can think of glaucoma and intraocular pressure like a sink. In order to lower eye pressure one can either slow down the rate of water coming out of the faucet or increase the rate of water that drains from the sink. We are able to accomplish this at first with eye drops. Certain eyedrops work by decreasing the rate of aqueous humor formation while others work by opening the drainage system of the eye to allow more outflow of aqueous humor. If intraocular pressure cannot be managed with medications alone, laser or surgery may be recommended.
While treatments, both medical and surgical, have been traditionally geared towards lowering the intraocular pressure, current research is more centered on how to protect the optic nerve from further damage or even how we may be able reverse this damage in the future.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.07849293947219849,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9456335306167603,
"url": "https://airalaeye.com/en/other-services/glaucoma/about-glaucoma"
}
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Orangutans Plan Their Future Route and Communicate It to Others (Science Daily)
Male orangutans face the direction they plan to travel and emit ‘long calls’ in that direction. (Credit: UZH)
Orangutans communicate their plans
Orangutans generally journey through the forest alone, but they also maintain social relationships. Adult males sometimes emit loud ‘long calls’ to attract females and repel rivals. Their cheek pads act as a funnel for amplifying the sound in the same way as a megaphone. Females that only hear a faint call come closer in order not to lose contact. Non-dominant males on the other hand hurry in the opposite direction if they hear the call coming loud and clear in their direction.
“To optimize the effect of these calls, it thus would make sense for the male to call in the direction of his future whereabouts, if he already knew about them,” explains Carel van Schaik. “We then actually observed that the males traveled for several hours in approximately the same direction as they had called.”
In extreme cases, long calls made around nesting time in the evening predicted the travel direction better than random until the evening of the next day.Carel van Schaik and his team conclude that orangutans plan their route up to a day ahead. In addition, the males often announced changes in travel direction with a new, better-fitting long call. The researchers also found that in the morning, the other orangutans reacted correctly to the long call of the previous evening, even if no new long call was emitted.
“Our study makes it clear that wild orangutans do not simply live in the here and now, but can imagine a future and even announce their plans. In this sense, then, they have become a bit more like us,” concludes Carel van Schaik.
Journal Reference:
1. Carel P. van Schaik, Laura Damerius, Karin Isler. Wild Orangutan Males Plan and Communicate Their Travel Direction One Day in AdvancePLoS ONE, 2013; 8 (9): e74896 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074896
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<urn:uuid:69c6cdf4-eba9-4e6b-83c7-aab423d80e98>
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8984314799308777,
"url": "https://umaincertaantropologia.org/2013/09/13/orangutans-plan-their-future-route-and-communicate-it-to-others-science-daily/"
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Sir Walter Raleigh (born 1552 (or 1554) – 29 October 1618) was an English landed gentleman, writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy and explorer. He was cousin to Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era.
In 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of "El Dorado". During the expedition, men led by his top commander ransacked a Spanish outpost, in violation of both the terms of his pardon and the 1604 peace treaty with Spain. Raleigh returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, he was arrested and executed in 1618.
More Info:
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"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.03468960523605347,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9893222451210022,
"url": "https://quizzclub.com/games/welcome/sir-walter-raleigh-led-two-expeditions-in-search-of-which-land/answer/715319/"
}
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Center Focus
Candy Heart Count
1. You will need to bring in several bags of candy hearts for this activity.
2. Have your students sort the candies by phrase (i.e. "Be Mine" "I Love You") and write down the phrases on this worksheet.
3. They will need to come up with a total number for each phrase on the candies. There is a place on the worksheet for them to tally the candies. As an alternative, you may choose to tell them the phrases rather than having them sorting through the candy.
4. After totaling each type, they will then come up with the percentage of the total number of candy hearts for each type (phrase).
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.703125,
"fasttext_score": 0.8738216161727905,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9498762488365173,
"url": "https://innovativeclassroom.com/Teaching-Idea/Center+Focus/Candy+Heart+Count"
}
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An A-Z Guide To The Search For Plato's Atlantis
Latest News
• Joining The Dots
Joining The Dots
Recent Updates
Isostatic Rebound
Isostatic Rebound (Post-Glacial Rebound) is the term used to describe the ‘springing back’ of the Earth’s crust following deglaciation. Even today, many thousands of years after the last Ice Age we can detect this ‘rebound’ continuing. In parts of North America this has been measured at up to half an inch per year although this must be seen as somewhat exceptional. After the last Ice Age, parts of what is now southern and western Finland were under water but as the crust began to rise land rose above sea level and is still doing so today. Since the rate of rebound is known, archaeologists have been able to use the process to date prehistoric sites in the region. There are a number of useful website that explain the process(a)(b).
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"fasttext_score": 0.07290375232696533,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9426329135894775,
"url": "https://atlantipedia.ie/samples/isostatic-rebound/"
}
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Clio Logo
This marker tells the story of what was a small, but vibrant African American village called Fazendeville. The site is located in what is now the Chalmette Battlefield Park, which is owned and operated by the National Park Service as part of the Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve. The Battle of New Orleans took place here in January 1815, resulting in an American victory over the British.
• The village as it appeared in the early 1960s.
Sometime after the war, a free black man named Pierre Fazend inherited the land, which comprises a portion of the battlefield site. After the Civil War, his son founded the village—naming it after his father—and sold parcels to former slaves. At its peak, the village had a population of 200. In the mid-1960s, the National Park Service bought the village site after a long and bitter negotiation process, forcing the residents to move to the Ninth Ward or the the community of Violet downstream. The purpose of this displacement was to connect two separate parts of the battlefield to make the site more historically accurate. Some viewed this situation as a way to preserve history, while others, particularly the residents themselves, saw it as a way to discriminate against a black community.
"Fazendeville: Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve." The Historical Marker Database. Accessed January 30, 2017.
Langenhennig, Susan. "150 years after the Battle of New Orleans victory, Chalmette suffered two 1965 cultural defeats." Times Picayune. January 7, 2015.
"Places - Fazendeville." National Park Service: Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve. Accessed January 30, 2017.
Photo: US Marine Corps, via the National Park Service.
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"fasttext_score": 0.029831290245056152,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9597549438476562,
"url": "https://www.theclio.com/entry/30695"
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CSS Padding
Padding in CSS is the term given to the inner space of an element around its content. CSS allows you to control all the padding of an element; top, bottom, left and right.
The corresponding properties for each side are:
A general example for the padding can be:
The values allowed for these properties are:
Length values
The values given in the above example come under this category. Along with px we can also give the length in pt, cm etc.
The padding is given in percentage of the width of the containing element. For example:
Here, the 5% of the horizontal space will be acquired by top and bottom padding and similarly case for horizontal space by left and right.
Inherits the padding from the parent element. Example:
Here, the div that belongs to class ex2 will inherit the top padding from its containing element. Therefore if it is contained inside another div of class ex1, the top padding would be 10px.
The shorthand order for padding is:
But here are some interesting cases that you must know.
In general, if you give all the four values, the above sequence will be followed. Therefore, if
Here, top is 20px right is 40px and so on.
In case you give only 3 values, then the first and last values go to top and bottom paddings. The right and left paddings take the middle value each. Example:
So, left and right paddings are 40 px each.
In case of two values, the first value is taken by top and bottom paddings and the second value is for left and right ones.
In case of a single padding value, all the four paddings take that same single value
Another interesting feature about Padding is with the element width. The width of the element is gets rendered as the sum of the actual specified width along with the horizontal margin, horizontal padding and borders. Therefore if following is the case:
The total width would be 240 (i.e. 200+20 for left + 20 for right).
To avoid this and retain the specified width, we use the box-sizing property as:
In this case, the width is retained. Althoug, the content space for the element will change as per the left and right padding.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7725131511688232,
"url": "https://www.ebhor.com/tag/padding/"
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kids encyclopedia robot
Accipitriformes facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Temporal range: Eocene-present, 47–0Ma
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Accipitrimorphae
Order: Accipitriformes
Vieillot, 1816
Diversity map of Accipitriformes (258 species). The colour gradient (from light to dark) indicates species richness.
Accipitriformes is an order which includes most of the diurnal birds of prey: hawks, eagles, vultures, and many others, about 225 species in all.
For a long time, the majority view was to include them with the falcons in the Falconiformes. However, a recent DNA study has shown that falcons are not closely related to the Accipitriformes. Instead, they are related to parrots and passerines.
Since then putting the falcons next to the parrots in taxonomic order has been adopted by most ornithologists. The DNA-based proposal includes the New World vultures in the Accipitriformes, but the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) classifies the New World vultures as a separate order, the Cathartiformes.
kids search engine
Accipitriformes Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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"url": "https://kids.kiddle.co/Accipitriformes"
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In part 1, we looked at the role of Cleisthenes. Now, in part 2, we look at the re-establishment of democracy by Thrasybulus.
Thrasybulus crowned
Thrasybulus played an instrumental part as a general in Athens’ victories in the “Ionian War” during the years 411–407 BCE as well as the (temporary) return of Alcibiades to Athens. However, after the defeat of Alcibiades’ fleet at Notium in 406 and the departure of that loved and hated general, Thrasybulus’ association with Alcibiades meant he was no longer elected general in subsequent years. After the Athenian victory at Arginusae, Thrasybulus (although he had not been a general) became embroiled in the controversy over the failure of the fleet to rescue drowning seamen, and did not play a part in Athens’ final defeat at Aegospotami.[1]
When Athens was finally defeated in the Peloponnesian War by Sparta in 404 BCE, the Spartan general Lysander imposed an oligarchic government on Athens. Known as the government of “The Thirty Tyrants”, this oligarchic group disenfranchised large swathes of the Attic population, and restricted the franchise to the 3,000 most wealthy citizens, organized as the Assembly. The Thirty imposed a reign of terror on the population, murdering up to 1,500 of the most democratically-inclined citizens.[2] Additional citizens fled into exile or were banished.
Thrasybulus was among the many Athenian democrats who fled the tyranny of the Thirty. He took refuge in Thebes and in 403 began to organize a rebellion against the oligarchic government in Athens. According to Xenophon:
Presently Thrasybulus, with about seventy followers, sallied out from Thebes, and made himself master of the fortress of Phyle. The weather was brilliant, and the Thirty marched out of the city to repel the invader; with them were the Three Thousand and the Knights. When they reached the place, some of the young men, in the foolhardiness of youth, made a dash at the fortress, but without effect; all they got was wounds, and so retired. 3The intention of the Thirty now was to blockade the place; by shutting off all the avenues of supplies, they thought to force the garrison to capitulate. But this project was interrupted by a steady downfall of snow that night and the following day. Baffled by this all-pervading enemy they beat a retreat to the city, but not without the sacrifice of many of their camp-followers, who fell a prey to the men in Phyle.
4The next anxiety of the government in Athens was to secure the farms and country houses against the plunderings and forays to which they would be exposed, if there were no armed force to protect them. With this object a protecting force was dispatched to the “boundary estates,” about two miles south of Phyle. This corps consisted of the Lacedaemonian guards, or nearly all of them, and two divisions of horse. They encamped in a wild and broken district, and the round of their duties commenced.
5But by this time the small garrison above them had increased tenfold, until there were now something like seven hundred men collected in Phyle; and with these Thrasybulus one night descended. When he was not quite half a mile from the enemy’s encampment he grounded arms, 6and a deep silence was maintained until it drew towards day. In a little while the men opposite, one by one, were getting to their legs or leaving the camp for necessary purposes, while a suppressed din and murmur arose, caused by the grooms currying and combing their horses. This was the moment for Thrasybulus and his men to snatch up their arms and make a dash at the enemy’s position. Some they felled on the spot; and routing the whole body, pursued them six or seven furlongs, killing one hundred and twenty hoplites and more… 7Returning from the pursuit, the victors set up a trophy, got together all the arms they had taken, besides baggage, and retired again to Phyle. A reinforcement of horse sent from the city could not discover the vestige of a foe; but waited on the scene of battle until the bodies of the slain had been picked up by their relatives, when they withdrew again to the city.
The Thirty then retreated, and massacred the male population of Eleusis, turning it into what they thought was a safe location for retreat.
But now Thrasybulus at the head of his followers, by this time about one thousand strong, descended from Phyle and reached Piraeus in the night. The Thirty, on their side, informed of this new move, were not slow to rally to the rescue, with the Laconian guards, supported by their own cavalry and hoplites. And so they advanced, marching down along the broad carriage road which leads into Piraeus. 11The men from Phyle seemed at first inclined to dispute their passage, but as the wide circuit of the walls needed a defense beyond the reach of their still scanty numbers, they fell back in a compact body upon Munychia. Then the troops from the city poured into the Agora of Hippodamus. Here they formed in line, stretching along and filling the street which leads to the temple of Artemis and the Bendideum. This line must have been at least fifty shields deep; and in this formation they at once began to march up. 12As to the men of Phyle, they too blocked the street at the opposite end, and facing the foe. They presented only a thin line, not more than ten deep, though behind these, certainly, were ranged a body of targeteers and light-armed javelin men…
After a rousing speech by Thrasybulus the men of Phyle:
…were victorious, and pursued the routed enemy down to the level ground. There fell in this engagement, out of the number of the Thirty, Critias himself and Hippomachus, and with them Charmides, the son of Glaucon, one of the ten archons in Piraeus, and of the rest about seventy men. The arms of the slain were taken; but, as fellow- citizens, the conquerors forbore to despoil them of their coats. This being done, they proceeded to give back the dead under cover of a truce, when the men, on either side, in numbers stepped forward and conversed with one another. 20Then Cleocritus (he was the Herald of the Initiated, a truly “sweet-voiced herald,” if ever there was), caused a deep silence to reign, and addressed their late combatants as follows: “Fellow-citizens–Why do you drive us forth? why would you slay us? what evil have we wrought you at any time…?[3]
The next day, the remnants of the Thirty lost the support of their fellow-oligarchs and retired to Eleusis. The Spartan king Pausanias managed to depose the pro-oligarchic general Lysander, and brought an army to Attica. After the men of Piraeus refused Pausanias’ order to disperse, the Spartans attacked. After some skirmishing…
“…Thrasybulus began his advance with the whole of his heavy infantry to support his light troops and quickly fell into line eight deep, acting as a screen to the rest of his troops. Pausanias, on his side, had retired, sorely pressed, about half a mile towards a bit of rising ground, where he sent orders to the Lacedaemonians and the other allied troops to bring up reinforcements. Here, on this slope, he reformed his troops, giving his phalanx the full depth, and advanced against the Athenians, who did not hesitate to receive him at close quarters, but presently had to give way; one portion being forced into the mud and clay at Halae, while the others wavered and broke their line; one hundred and fifty of them were left dead on the field, whereupon Pausanias set up a trophy and retired. Not even so, were his feelings embittered against his adversary. On the contrary he sent secretly and instructed the men of Piraeus, what sort of terms they should propose to himself and the ephors in attendance. To this advice they listened. He also fostered a division in the party within the city. A deputation, acting on his orders, sought an audience of him and the ephors. It had all the appearance of a mass meeting. In approaching the Spartan authorities, they had no desire or occasion, they stated, to look upon the men of Piraeus as enemies, they would prefer a general reconciliation and the friendship of both sides with Lacedaemon. 36The propositions were favorably received… Thus the authorities were quite ready to dispatch to Lacedaemon the representatives of Piraeus, carrying their terms of truce with the Lacedaemonians… The ephors and the members of assembly at Sparta gave audience to these several parties, and sent out fifteen commissioners to Athens empowered, in conjunction with Pausanias, to discover the best settlement possible. The terms arrived at were that a general peace between the rival parties should be established, liberty to return to their own homes being granted to all, with the exception of the Thirty, the Eleven, and the Ten who had been governors in Piraeus; but a proviso was added, enabling any of the city party who feared to remain at Athens to find a home in Eleusis.[4]
Thrasybulus addressed the Athenians convincingly:
39And now that everything was happily concluded, Pausanias disbanded his army, and the men from Piraeus marched up under arms into the acropolis and offered sacrifice to Athena. When they were come down, the generals called a meeting of the [oligarchic] Ecclesia [made up of the 3,000 richest citizens], and Thrasybulus made a speech in which, addressing the city party, he said: 40“Men of the city! I have one piece of advice I would tender to you; it is that you should learn to know yourselves, and towards the attainment of that self-knowledge I would have you make a careful computation of your good qualities and satisfy yourselves on the strength of which of these it is that you claim to rule over us. Is it that you are more just than ourselves? Yet the people, who are poorer–have never wronged you for the purposes of plunder; but you, whose wealth would outweigh the whole of ours, have wrought many a shameful deed for the sake of gain. If, then, you have no monopoly of justice, can it be on the score of courage that you are warranted to hold your heads so high? 41 If so, what fairer test of courage will you propose than the arbitrament of war–the war just ended? Or do you claim superiority of intelligence?–you, who with all your wealth of arms and walls, money and Peloponnesian allies, have been paralyzed by men who had none of these things to aid them! Or is it on these Laconian friends of yours that you pride yourselves? What! when these same friends have dealt by you as men deal by vicious dogs. You know how that is. They put a heavy collar round the neck of the brutes and hand them over muzzled to their masters. So too have the Lacedaemonians handed you over to the people, this very people whom you have injured; and now they have turned their backs and are gone. But” (turning to the mass) “do not misconceive me. It is not for me, sirs, coldly to beg of you, in no respect to violate your solemn undertakings. 42I go further; I beg you, to crown your list of exploits by one final display of virtue. Show the world that you can be faithful to your oaths, and flawless in your conduct.” By these and other kindred arguments he impressed upon them that there was no need for anarchy or disorder, seeing that there were the ancient laws ready for use. And so he broke up the assembly.[5]
43At this auspicious moment, then, they reappointed the several magistrates; the constitution began to work afresh, and civic life was recommenced… they introduced to the others their friends and connections, and so persuaded them to come to terms and be reconciled. The oath they bound themselves by consisted of a simple asseveration: “We will remember past offences no more;” and to this day the two parties live amicably together as good citizens, and the democracy is steadfast to its oaths.[6]
Thrasybulus’ role in organizing the rebellion against the Thirty and leading an initial seventy men against them, shows a high level of courage; his ability to defeat the army of the Thirty on numerous occasions demonstrates a high level of generalship and leadership ability. After defeating the Thirty and then giving the Spartans a very tough fight, Thrasybulus’ negotiation with Pausanias and convincing speech to the remaining oligarchs and the democrats allowed for reconciliation of the democratic and aristocratic factions, and led to a restored democracy. The institution of amnesty (“the oath”) demonstrates an understanding of the means necessary to reforge trust among a diverse citizen body.
Very few civic leaders, ancient or modern, have played a more important role in a critical period in a nation’s history. Yet Thrasybulus’ name is now known only to the specialist in Athenian history.
In part 3 we will look at some theories about why Cleisthenes and Thrasybulus lacked historical recognition.
[1] Xenophon, Hellenica, 1.4.13–16; 1.7.18–31
Xenophon’s collected works, translated by H.G. Dakyns 1891, digitized by Project Gutenberg 1998. via Wikisource.
[2] Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.3.11–21
[3] Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.4.6–11
[4] Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.4.34–35
[5] Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.4.39–42
[6] Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.4.43
Image credit
Engraving from Alciati, Andrea, 1492-1550; Rouillé, Guillaume, 1518-1589, printer: 1548. Emblemata, page 110: “Honor: Optimus ciuis.” depicting Thrasybulus receiving a crown or garland. Venice. Reproduced online at archive.org
Ian Joseph is a member of the Kosmos Society.
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Oct 7, 1806: Ralph Wedgwood secured the first patent for carbon paper, which he described as an “apparatus for producing duplicates of writings.” In his process, thin paper was saturated with printer’s ink, then dried between sheets of blotting paper.
His idea that became “carbon paper” was a byproduct of his invention of a machine to help blind people write. The “black paper” was intended as a substitute for ink. A blind person would have trouble with a dip pen and ink, and unable to see the resulting writing. So, a system was needed that allowed the person to write “blind” and know that the result would always appear. In its original form, Wedgwood’s “Stylographic Writer” provided a metal stylus instead of a quill for writing, with the carbon paper placed between two sheets of paper in order to transfer a copy onto the bottom sheet.
Oct 7, 1822: Rudolf Leuckart, German zoologist and teacher, was born. Leuckart founded the modern science of parasitology. As a youth, he showed an early interest in zoology and in insects in particular. While attending medical school at the University of Gottingen he studied under the renowned zoologist, Rudolph Wagner, who encouraged him to research in this branch of science. In 1847, he was appointed a zoology lecturer.
Leuckart described the complicated life cycles of various parasites including tapeworms and the liver fluke. He demonstrated that some human diseases such as trichinosis are caused by multicellular worm-like animals.
Oct 7, 1856: The first practical folding machine to fold book and newspaper sheets was patented by Cyrus Chambers of Pennsylvania, US #15,842. It made three right angle folds to produce a sixteen page folded result. The machine was installed in the Bible printing house of Jasper Harding & Son, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Accuracy of early folding machines was poor, with hand folding still predominating for high quality work. Development of the folding machine after 1862 was rapid, and in 1873 a machine was patented that would fold a 16-page section and one of 8 pages, inset the latter, and paste it in place. That same year devices to cut and slit paper as it went through the machine were introduced.
Oct 7, 1858: American meteorologist and inventor, Charles Marvin, was born. Marvin invented the clinometer that measures the height of clouds. These became standard equipment at airports. He was Chief of the US Weather Bureau from 1913 to 1934. He worked on and wrote about the Robinson cup anemometer.
For early systematic investigations of the upper air, he designed and constructed kites and kite mounted instruments. He also devised the Marvin pyrheliometer and inaugurated the regular measurement of solar radiation intensity by the Weather Bureau. Marvin designed a seismograph operated by the Weather Bureau. He was also particularly interested in the application of mathematical statistics to meteorological problems.
Oct 7, 1885: Niels Henrik David Bohr, Danish physicist, and one of the most brilliant minds of the 20th Century, was born. He was the first to apply the Quantum Theory, which restricts the energy of a system to certain discrete values, to the problem of atomic and molecular structure. For this work he received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He developed the so-called Bohr theory of the atom and liquid model of the nucleus.
At Los Alamos, Bohr was such a towering intellect that nearly everyone at the laboratory was afraid of him, with the exception of Richard Feynman, an equally towering intellect.
Oct 7, 1931: The first short-exposure infrared photograph taken of a large group of people in apparent total darkness was taken in Rochester, NY at the Eastman Kodak Research Laboratories. The people were in a room that was flooded with invisible infrared light (700 to 900 nanometers, beyond the red end of the visible spectrum). A group of 50 people visiting the laboratory were photographed on a new photographic emulsion sensitive to infrared.
Since then, scientists have made much use of infrared imagery in medical applications, aerial photography, and thermal analytics. Since plant chlorophyll reflects infrared rays more intensely than other green materials, infrared photos yield a precise indication of where vegetation is present on the ground, a fact used by satellites such as Landsat.
Oct 7, 1939: English chemist, Harold W. Kroto, was born. He shared, with Richard E. Smalley and Robert F. Curl, Jr., the 1996 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for their joint discovery of the carbon compounds called fullerenes. These new forms of the element carbon contain 60 or more atoms arranged in closed shells. The number of carbon atoms in the shell can vary, and for this reason numerous new carbon structures have become known. Formerly, six crystalline forms of the element carbon were known, namely two kinds of graphite, two kinds of diamond, chaoit (1968) and carbon (VI) (1972). Fullerenes are formed when vaporised carbon condenses in an atmosphere of inert gas. The carbon clusters can then be analysed with mass spectrometry.
Oct 7, 1954: In Poughkeepsie, New York, IBM displayed the first all-transistor calculator. It needed only 5 percent of the power of comparable electronic calculators based on vacuum tubes. Three years later, in 1957, IBM introduced the IBM 608, the first all-transistor commercial calculator. The 608 was plugboard programmable.
Oct 7, 1959: The dark far side of the Moon was photographed for the first time and pictures relayed back to Earth by Russia’s Luna 3 spacecraft. After passing the moon, the Luna 3 looked back from a distance of 63,500 km to take 29 photos of the sunlit far side of the moon. The film photos, taken over a period of 40 minutes, were developed onboard and radioed back to earth on October 18, 1959. The photos covered 70 percent of the far side. The photographs were very noisy and of low resolution, but many features could be recognized. Despite the poor quality, they provided the first view in history of the far side of the moon. (Note that the far side of the moon cannot be viewed from Earth because the moon rotates and revolves at the same rate, so the same part always faces Earth.)
Oct 7, 1970: British Petroleum (BP) made the first big oil find in the British sector of the North Sea. The Sea Quest drilling platform found a 170 meter layer of oil 2,135 meters below the seabed, in water depth of 128 meters. This was the first major oilfield discovered in the British sector of the North Sea. The oil was a valuable light crude with low wax and low sulphur content. Production was inaugurated on November 3, 1975 by the Queen.
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"url": "https://today.shuttersparks.net/tag/infrared-photography/"
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The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, is a pesky beetle. It is thought to destroy $500M of coffee crop annually, affecting some 20M small farms worldwide. The borer spends most of its life cycle buried inside of the coffee berry, feeding on the sacred bean held within. How it is able to do this has been a mystery because caffeine, a bitter tasting alkaloid, is a naturally produced pesticide that is toxic to insects.
A team of researchers found that the beetle is actually unable to tolerate caffeine on its own. Instead, it houses a community of symbiotic gut bacteria that metabolize the toxic molecule on the insect’s behalf, providing a source of carbon and energy for the microbes and detoxified food for the beetle. When given a cocktail of antibiotics, the beetle’s friendly bacteria died and, along with them, the ability to detoxify caffeine. As a result, the caffeine laid waste to the insects, cutting eggs and larvae by 95 percent and preventing the survivors from emerging into pupae or adults. When Pseudomonas fulva, the predominant caffeine-eating microbe found in the borer’s gut, was reintroduced to the insects treated with antibiotics, caffeine was once again metabolized, but the beetle’s reproductive abilities were not restored.
The authors suggest that targeting the coffee berry borer’s microbiome may be a productive method of pest control.
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"url": "https://www.science20.com/cool-links/targeting_coffee_berry_borer_microbiome_could_reduce_its_peskiness-156553"
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Message Size
Another rule of communication is size. When people communicate with each other, the messages that they send are usually broken into smaller parts or sentences. These sentences are limited in size to what the receiving person can process at one time, as shown in Figure 1. An individual conversation may be made up of many smaller sentences to ensure that each part of the message is received and understood. Imagine what it would be like to read this course if it all appeared as one long sentence; it would not be easy to read and comprehend.
Likewise, when a long message is sent from one host to another over a network, it is necessary to break the message into smaller pieces, as shown in Figure 2. The rules that govern the size of the pieces, or frames, communicated across the network are very strict. They can also be different, depending on the channel used. Frames that are too long or too short are not delivered.
The size restrictions of frames require the source host to break a long message into individual pieces that meet both the minimum and maximum size requirements. This is known as segmenting. Each segment is encapsulated in a separate frame with the address information, and is sent over the network. At the receiving host, the messages are de-encapsulated and put back together to be processed and interpreted.
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"url": "http://cisco.teknokrat.ac.id/ccna1/course/module3/3.1.1.5/3.1.1.5.html"
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This Was One of the Hottest Days in Canadian History
Before the record-breaking heat experienced in B.C. this June, the highest temperatures in Canadian history dated back to July 5, 1937. Here's what it was like on that scorching summer day.
The year was 1937. Canada was in the midst of the Great Depression, which saw the national unemployment rate peak at 40 per cent. On top of that devastating economic catastrophe, the Canadian and American prairies were also experiencing nearly a full decade of extreme drought, which further threatened the livelihood of farmers.
That summer’s unbearably hot weather would peak on July 5th, when two small towns southeast of Regina recorded the highest temperatures in Canada up to that point. On that scorching day, the inhabitants of Midale and Yellowgrass watched the mercury reach 45.5 degrees Celsius, or about 113 degrees Fahrenheit. That record wouldn’t be topped until June 27, 2021, when Lytton, B.C., reached 46.6 degrees Celsius, or about 116 degrees Fahrenheit.
Highest temperature in Canada - dust storm in 1936Photo: Everett Collection /
Life in the dust bowl
Dry spells had been a persistent feature of the prairies since settlement and homesteading began in in the 1870s, but the dry spells of the 1930s were notorious for the scale—both in terms of duration, and area affected. The dust bowl, as the period (and region) is often called, coupled with the worldwide economic downturn, meant that times were tough for the Canadians who called it home—a marked change from the decade prior.
In the 1920s, western Canada was prosperous, and their good fortune was bolstered by wheat exports. Suddenly, both the abundance of wheat and the price of the crop plummeted, leading to an especially harsh existence for those who remained. The drying winds whipped up loose soil and created massive dust storms that made outdoor activity uncomfortable, if not impossible. The dust would settle everywhere: homeowners got in the habit of hanging wet sheets over doorways and setting tables with the cups upside-down until needed, but the dust got in nonetheless and covered everything with a thick film.
Even in places that were spared dust storms, the heat stunted the crops and prevented the bountiful yields that farmers in the Canadian breadbasket had become accustomed to. The situation was so dire that two-thirds of farmers in Saskatchewan lined up for monthly aid from the government. An account in Ten Lost Years, a collection of oral histories from the Great Depression in Canada, described the dust bowl as “survival of the fittest, and I read my Bible more now than I ever did and I never read of hard times like that, like we had in the middle of the Thirties. They was Dirty Thirties all right.”
highest temperature in canada - 45.5 degrees CelsiusPhoto: Tomas Ragina /
How hot is hot?
It’s hard to imagine exactly how hot 45 degrees Celsius is—especially in a country that’s at least partly defined by its tolerance to extreme cold. According to the Regina Leader-Post, which recorded first-hand accounts of the extreme heat event, the asphalt streets turned gooey, candles began to go limp on mantles, gramophone records melted in storefront displays, car radiators boiled over and rubber tires softened in the heat. As for the classic heat test, whether it was hot enough to fry an egg on the sidewalk, a resident from Weyburn, Saskatchewan (another southern Saskatchewan town experiencing extreme heat that day) reportedly tried and told the Leader-Post, “it evaporated and dried up before it had a chance to cook.”
Aside from cooking eggs and melting tires, extreme heat can also be deadly for humans. In scorching conditions such as those as witnessed on July 5, 1937, the human body goes into overdrive trying to cool down, which can lead to heat stroke. These days, once the mercury rises to potentially hazardous levels, health advisories are issued, warning Canadians to stay indoors and drink plenty of water.
If the hottest temperature in Canada has you breaking a sweat, cool down with this look back at what happened in 1816—the year Canada didn’t have a summer.
Popular Videos
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"url": "https://www.readersdigest.ca/travel/canada/hottest-temperature-in-canada/"
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Date of this Version
Narrow-row spacing of soybeans may be a profitable practice with modern herbicides and new lodging-resistant varieties. This NebGuide describes considerations for producing narrow-row soybeans. Early in this century crop row spacing was determined by the breadth of the animals used to work the fields. Spacing had an impact on methods of weed control and the varieties of soybeans developed. Even a decade ago row spacing was determined by tractor tire size since cultivation was required. Also, the tall varieties of soybeans lodged severely in narrow-row systems. However, the broad spectrum of herbicides now available and lodging-resistant soybean varieties have made narrow-row soybeans more practical. Narrowing soybean row spacing can increase yields if light utilization is the yield-limiting factor. The main purpose of narrow rows is to intercept more light. Unlike fertilizers and water which can use the soil as a reservoir, light falling on bare soil cannot be used. Decreasing row spacing results in more rapid canopy closure and increased light interception. Canopy closure at or shortly after flowering will maximize yields in ideal conditions. However, Nebraska's growing seasons are rarely ideal. Any yield limiting factor like lodging, weed growth, moisture stress, soil compaction, high soil pH, or nutrient deficiency will reduce soybean yield responses in narrow rows.
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"url": "https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extensionhist/747/"
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The Gunas
No one knows for sure when they arrived in Panama from South America, but in the 16th century, they had already occupied the 360 islands that we know today as the San Blas archipelago, pushed towards the Caribbean coast by enemy native tribes and Spanish conquerors. Today, the gunas are found mainly on the islands of San Blas, but also in the jungle of Chucunaque and Bayano.
The Guna people have fought for centuries to keep their culture and traditions alive. During the colonial period, they joined European corsairs and pirates in a series of successful attacks against the Spanish, who had vowed to eliminate them. As the Spanish empire dwindled, they settled in the present-day Darien and San Blas regions, in Panama, and in western Colombia, which granted them land and legal recognition towards the end of the 19th century. Panama, which at that time It was then a Colombian province, it declared its independence in 1903 and the agreements were ignored.
The resentments reached a climax in 1925, when Richard O. Marsh, a Canadian adventurer, motivated the Gunas to declare the independence of Panama by creating the “Republic of Tule.” A peace treaty was later signed, and the Guna agreed to recognize Panamanian sovereignty only after the “wagas” (the no-guna) granted them a good deal of autonomy. Today, the Panamanian authorities rarely interfere with the Guna government and have created three special “comarcas” for themselves.
Guna women wear hand-sewn skirts and blouses known as “molas.” The ¨Mola¨ is an intricately stitched pattern made of layers of fabric in a reverse appliqué technique. The men wear a traditional Guna shirt and less traditional pants like jeans, or shorts. Guna women also paint their faces with a homemade blush made from achiote seeds. They also usually wear a nose ring and paint a line on their nose.
The Guna have the most advanced political system of any other indigenous group in Latin America.
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"url": "https://www.nativatours.com/los-gunas/"
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SharedGeo Magnetic Declination Diagram Service
This free utility will generate a PNG or SVG file representing a properly formatted declination diagram for a specific map.
In cartography, a declination diagram is used to provide a graphic representation of the variations between true north, grid north, and magnetic north on a map. True north is the center of the earth’s rotation. Grid north is the orientation of the map projection coordinate system. Magnetic north is the point at which the earth’s magnetic field points vertically downward in the northern hemisphere; a compass north needle points to this location. Magnetic north changes over time due to changes in the magnetic field of the core of the Earth. Thus, a properly drawn declination diagram is not only unique to each map, but it also changes over time for the depicted area. It follows then that having a correctly drawn declination diagram on a current map is critical for anyone using a map and compass to navigate.
Although many utilities exist for calculating the declination angles, creating a suitable declination diagram manually can be tedious, especially when creating a map series that spans a large area. This is because, as previously mentioned, the declination diagram will be unique to each map, representing the differences between the three norths at the center of the map at a specific point in time. However, the SharedGeo web service creates a declination diagram automatically, returning a scalable image that can be inserted into a map layout using mapping software. This utility uses the NOAA World Magnetic Model (
SharedGeo offers two versions of this free magnetic declination diagram service.
Dynamic Declination Diagram Service
This version can be used in two different ways.
1. A properly formatted URL in a web browser returns the declination image as a PNG or SVG file, which can be saved and added to a map, and
2. As a dynamic image using the URL directly, if the mapping software supports that. Further, when generating a map series using desktop GIS or automation scripting, the extents of each map can include the URL with the coordinates for the center of the map to dynamically generate the declination diagram for each map as it is automatically created.
The base URL is:, but that URL requires several additional arguments to work, including date, lat, lon, and zone where:
Two additional arguments are supported to adjust the size of the output image; width and height. Requesting a larger image effectively creates higher resolution images and, therefore, finer line widths and text characters when the image is reduced in size.
Full documentation of the service can be found here:
Single Declination Diagram Service
This web form allows a user to directly enter values to produce a single declination diagram. The direct URL is: Entries as described above apply.
Parameter Name Input Value
Date (decimal years) :
(ex. 2020.5)
Latitude :
(ex. 45.123237)
Longitude :
(ex. -93.124354)
UTM Zone :
(ex. 15)
Output Format :
Width (px) :
(ex. 450)
Height (px) :
(ex. 600)
About SharedGeo
Founded in 2008, SharedGeo is a 501(c)3 Minnesota based nonprofit with the mission of helping government, nonprofit, education, and corporate entities use mapping technologies and share geographic data for the public good.
Our past and current projects span:
Creation of unique and affordable approaches to the nation's most difficult geospatial challenges.
Learn more:
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"url": "http://mdd.sharedgeo.org/"
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Acoma Massacre
Encyclopedia Article
Acoma Pueblo is a community built on top of a mesa in the Rio Grande Valley. At the end of the 16th century it was an area of tension between the Pueblo people and the conquering Spanish. Spanish settlers hoped to claim the lands for the Spanish crown, but were unsuccessful in penetrating the natural stronghold that was Acoma. Then, in 1595, the Acoma people decided to give Juan de Oñate, soon to be the first governor of Nuevo Mexico, food and provisions for his group of explorers and settlers. Later, the nephew of Oñate, Juan de Zaldívar, returned and attempted to take provisions, and women, by force. Zaldívar fell to his death during the struggle, and in retaliation, in January 1599, Oñate took the pueblo by siege. This battle led to the massacre of 800 - 1,000 Acoma people, and the survivors were either mutilated, by having a foot cut off, or sold into slavery for a period to extend beyond 20 years. A later trial found Oñate's behavior to be cruel and severe beyond the parameters of his duty as a representative of the King of Spain, and he returned to Spain after being stripped of the land, title, and wealth he had attempted to accrue at the northern edge of the New Spanish Empire.
SEE ALSO: Acoma (pueblo)
Photo Credit:
"Acoma Pueblo New Mexico postcard, circa 1930" by uploaded by born1945 is licensed under CC BY.
Published Works:
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Ruffed Grouse Fact Sheet
Ruffed Grouse
Bonasa umbellus
Ruffed grouse standing on the snow.
Background: The ruffed grouse is a native species of Connecticut and a longtime resident of the state's landscape. The agriculture that was once intensive in Connecticut is now largely abandoned and farmland that reverted to forests provided excellent habitat for grouse. However, as the state's forests have matured, their value to grouse has decreased. Without forest management practices that create young forest stages (seedlings and saplings), grouse habitat will continue to decline.
Range: Ruffed grouse populations are widespread, ranging from the woods of Alaska and northern Canada south to the mountains of Georgia and California. The birds are non-migratory, spending their entire life within a small area.
Description: The ruffed grouse is a medium-sized, fowl-like game bird best known for its courtship displays and thunderous takeoffs. It is distinguished by the dark ruff-like feathers on the neck region. The broad tail is marked with a prominent dark band near the end. Ruffed grouse exhibit two color phases, reddish brown and grayish brown. This difference in color is most evident in their tails. Gray-phased birds predominate in the northern areas of their range, while red-phased birds predominate to the south. In Connecticut, both color phases are common.
Adults weigh between 16 and 28 ounces and measure from 16 to 19 inches. The wingspan is 22 to 25 inches.
Habitat and Diet: Ruffed grouse inhabit diverse forest habitats containing trees with a mixture of age classes and forest openings.
They feed on seeds, buds, and fruits of many plants. Newly-hatched chicks depend almost entirely on insects as a food source. Adults may supplement their diet with up to 30% insects. Fruits and berries become important in summer, and grouse feed heavily on acorns in fall. During winter, they will feed primarily on catkins, twigs, and buds.
Life History: The ruffed grouse breeding season begins in April in Connecticut. Males begin drumming (a sound created by beating the air with their wings) to advertise their presence to females. Other males are also alerted, and during this time considerable strutting and fighting may occur to determine who will breed with the females.
After breeding, the female is left to nest and raise the young on her own. The nest is a slight depression scratched out at the base of a tree or rock, or alongside an old log. It is usually lined with dry grass, leaves, pine needles, or other materials available near the nest site. The female lays about 2 eggs every 3 days. After all the eggs (9-14) are laid, she begins incubation, usually a period of 23-24 days that may be lengthened by cold or wet weather or prolonged absences from the nest. The natural camouflage of the hen’s coloration and nest makes it almost impossible to see her while she is sitting on the nest. If the nest is destroyed during early incubation, the hen will usually renest. Renests are rare if the nest is destroyed late in the incubation process.
Within a few hours of hatching, the grouse chicks are able to run and scurry about. They are able to fly in about 10-12 days. By 6 weeks of age, the young have well developed plumage and resemble the adult in color. The average brood size by fall is about 5 birds. Young chicks are very sensitive to dampness, and a period of rain in late May or early June may affect brood survival.
Ruffed grouse roosting in a tree.
Interesting Facts: Ruffed grouse have several common names, including partridge, ruffled grouse, drummer, woodpile guawkie, and woods pheasant.
In early fall, many grouse exhibit a dispersal behavior commonly referred to as “crazy flight.” At this time of year, grouse are often seen in unusual habitats or are victims of collisions with trees, cars, houses, etc. This strong urge to disperse is largely exhibited by young birds, whereas adults tend to remain within the previous year’s home range.
Evergreen trees are an important source of winter cover for grouse in Connecticut. During periods of heavy powdery snow, grouse will use snow roosts for cover.
Many animals prey on grouse. Foxes, bobcats, coyotes, bird-eating hawks, and falcons, among others, will take grouse. Grouse rely on their cryptic coloration and remain still to avoid detection when predators are about. If sufficiently frightened, they will thunder into the air to escape, although they are capable of near silent flight. When with young, hens will attempt to lead potential predators away by feigning a broken wing.
Ruffed grouse are an important game bird in Connecticut and throughout their range. The hunting season for grouse is held in the fall. Specific hunting season dates and information can be found in the current Connecticut Hunting and Trapping Guide.
Management: Connecticut’s ruffed grouse population exists at a low abundance, primarily across the northern third of the state. The main factor that has led to the decline of this species is the loss of habitat. Although Connecticut is nearly 60% forest, less than 5% is in young forest habitats, which are mandatory for grouse survival. The key to managing grouse populations is to maintain young forests through timber harvest operations. The removal of overstory trees allows sunlight to reach the forest floor, enabling seedlings and saplings to take the place of large mature trees. Grouse habitat is ephemeral. Post timber harvest, it takes about 5 to 7 years before forest regeneration is suitable for grouse and, at best, this habitat only lasts for a maximum of 20 years. Long-term grouse population survival depends on careful timber harvest planning. Forest management plans must create a mosaic of timber harvests with corridors and proximity allowing for grouse dispersal. As one forest cut matures beyond suitable grouse habitat, another planned cut is there to take its place. This forest patchwork creates a variety of forest age classes necessary for grouse to complete their life cycle.
Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration logo and tagline.
Content last updated in May 2021.
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Answered By: James Whitmer
Last Updated: Jun 04, 2020 Views: 0
As the linked handout explains, "A modifier is a word, clause, or phrase that modifies, or further describes, another word or group of words in a sentence. A modifier is best placed directly next to the word or phrase for which it gives more information. When a modifier is misplaced, the reader is unsure about the meaning of the sentence." This means that most modifier mistakes can be corrected by moving the modifier next to what it describes, which might require some rewording of the sentence.
For more specific explanations and examples of various modifier mistakes, please see the linked handout:
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Face masks have been a matter of intense debate during the COVID-19 pandemic. Early on, several government officials and health authorities were discouraging healthy people from wearing masks—noting that there was little evidence for the practice’s ability to prevent spread among the general public and citing concerns that protective face coverings, which were desperately needed by healthcare workers, were in short supply. Gradually, however, governments began to either require or recommend that their citizens wear face masks in public. In June, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended widespread mask-use as a way to prevent coronavirus transmission. One model estimates that if at least 95 percent of people wear masks in public between June and October, approximately 33,000 deaths could be avoided in the US.
There are three broad categories of face coverings: tight-fitting masks known as N95 respirators that are designed to filter out both aerosols (often defined as particles that are smaller than 5 micrometers in diameter) and larger airborne droplets, loose-fitting surgical masks that are fluid resistant and capable of filtering out the bigger particles, and cloth masks, which vary widely based on how they’re made.
Different Types of Masks
N95 respirator: Tight-fitting single-use masks typically made with synthetic materials such as polyester and polypropylene. These masks are able to filter out at least 95 percent of both large airborne droplets and aerosols.
Surgical/medical masks: Loose-fitting single-use masks made with three or more layers of synthetic materials. These can filter out large airborne particles, but some aerosols can leak through, and particle-containing air is able to flow around the edges.
Fabric masks: These often-homemade masks vary widely in their construction and effectiveness. Aerosols are likely to leak through, and particle-containing air is able to flow around the edges. With appropriate washing or a couple of days to decontaminate, fabric masks are reusable.
A growing body of research supports the use of all three types of masks, though the quality of evidence varies. One of the most comprehensive examinations to date, published in The Lancet in early June, systemically assessed 172 observational studies—mostly conducted in healthcare settings—looking at the effect of physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection on the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and two related coronaviruses. The results revealed that N95 respirators provided 96 percent protection from infection and surgical masks (or comparable reusable masks made with 12 to 16 layers of cotton or gauze) were 67 percent protective.
While research on cloth masks is much more limited, one group of researchers demonstrated that, in the lab, multilayer masks made of hybrid materials (cotton and silk, for example) could filter up to 90 percent of particles between 300 nanometers and 6 micrometers in size. However, it’s important to note this is only the case when there are no gaps around the edges of the mask, which are often present when people wear cloth or surgical masks. Indeed, the researchers’ findings suggest that gaps around any mask can reduce filtration by 60 percent or more. Still, scientists using computational models have reported that, in general, widespread use of facemasks, when combined with lockdowns, may help prevent future waves of infection.
“We’re recommending that N95s still be primarily saved for the healthcare situation,” says Kirsten Koehler, a professor of environmental health and engineering at Johns Hopkins University. “For individuals in the public, wearing a fabric mask is probably still the way to go.”
There are several factors, including the number of layers and type of material they are made from, that contribute to how effective a mask will be, explains Raina MacIntrye, a professor of global biosecurity at the University of New South Wales in Australia. According to the WHO, fabric masks should ideally have at least three layers: an inner layer made with absorbent material (e.g., cotton), an outer layer with water-resistant material (e.g., polyester), and a middle layer (made with absorbent or water-resistant material) to act as a filter. In addition, MacIntrye adds, “the design should fit around the edges of the face because air will flow down the path of least resistance.” In other words, if there are gaps on the sides of your mask, your breath will slip through those cracks instead of being filtered through the mask itself.
Although evidence is building to support the use of masks to stem the coronavirus’ spread, many questions remain, such as whether the coronavirus spreads through aerosols or just through larger respiratory droplets. There is also little research on the efficacy of face masks, particularly cloth ones, in stopping the spread of COVID-19 in community settings, Julii Brainard, a senior research associate at Norwich Medical School in the UK, tells The Scientist in an email.
Amidst the uncertainty, what is clear is that mask wearing is not the only action people should take to slow the spread of COVID-19, Koehler says. “None of these masks are going to be perfect, especially against the aerosols. You want to continue to encourage people to work from home, avoid being crowds—things like that are going to work, regardless of how good your mask is.”
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Open House
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In recent years, caffeine’s approval rating has been rising among the medical community.
The substance has been shown to relieve pain, reduce the risk of more than a few cancers and lower blood pressure, among many other benefits. Of course, too much of a good thing can have consequences and it is important to be mindful of how the drug affects you.
What is caffeine?
Believe it or not, caffeine is the most commonly consumed psychoactive drug according to Mary M. Sweeny, a researcher and instructor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at the Johns Hopkins University School of medicine. She goes on to say that, just like any drug, “when we consume caffeine, it has positive effects… and people like these beneficial effects.”
It works by binding to adenosine receptors located in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in various organs such as the heart and blood vessels. Adenosine is a molecule that plays a part in energy transfer and signaling, and is also used in medication to treat irregular heartbeats and during heart stress tests. Like any molecule in the body, too much or too little can be a bad thing, so it is important to maintain an amount that your body reacts safely to.
Because caffeine is a drug, the body reacts and adjusts to the increased adenosine receptor bindings by creating less molecules that organically do so. In its balancing act, the body becomes dependent on the caffeine molecules to participate in the energy transfer and signaling that adenosine naturally does. Because of this, tolerance and symptoms of withdrawal are very real with caffeine consumption.
“Caffeine is so ingrained in our day-to-day habits that we don’t think of it as a source of a potential problem,” says Sweeny, “but it’s important to be aware that it has psychoactive affects, and can interfere with things in ways we don’t expect.”
How does caffeine affect different people?
An 8-ounce cup of brewed coffee can contain 75 to 165 milligrams of caffeine, depending on the source, says a study published in Food and Toxicology. Another study supported consumption of about 400 milligrams daily in adults as not being associated with overt or adverse effects. But of course that varies from person to person. An intake of under 300 milligrams daily was deemed appropriate for pregnant women and an intake of under 2.5 milligrams per kilogram daily in children and adolescents was deemed acceptable.
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, however, cautions pregnant women to limit caffeine intake to 200 mg/day.
As it turns out, the half-life of caffeine is anywhere between 8.3 to 16 hours longer during pregnancy. This means that the effects of caffeine on the body will be longer lasting and since caffeine may impact brain development, it should be taken into account when considering safety issues. While there will be no damaging effects on a growing fetus, contraceptives can have the same effect on the molecule’s half-life and is important to note.
Other factors that may increase the effects of caffeine on the system are steroid hormones and substantial alcohol intake. Cigarette smoking actually increases the rate that caffeine is metabolized and therefore decreases its effects on the body.
When might it be wise to cut back?
An estimated 90% of the US population regularly consume caffeine, and while it has been enjoyed by many cultures for thousands of years, there may be reasons for you to cut back on your intake, and even cut it completely out of your daily routine.
Dr. Vince Bufalino, a spokesperson for the American Heart Association and senior vice president and senior medical director of Cardiology-AMG, Advocate Health Care, in Naperville, Illinois says that because caffeine can aggravate and accelerate one’s heart rate, it can be a problem for those with an existing heart condition. And if you are sensitive to caffeine, you should cut it out completely.
If you are looking to decrease your daily caffeine consumption or even remove it from your life entirely, there are a few tips CNN Health recommends:
1. Keep a caffeine diary.
2. Know all of the sources of caffeine in your diet.
3. Gradually cut back on the number of cups of coffee you have a day.
4. Try coffee alternatives, such as green or black tea.
5. Anticipate when caffeine cravings may occur.
When it comes to your daily caffeine intake, simply be smart and aware of your consumption, know how it affects you personally, and react accordingly.
• Stay Connected
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The Universal Theme, Order, is typically given to our younger students (Grades 1-2) however this theme is also very applicable to our older students.
Before you start the year, prime your brain to think thematically about order.
Envision Gifted. Think Thematically Order
You can start the year by examining the need for order in our lives, in the classroom, etc. Where do we see order? Why is order necessary? Even our youngest students are able to address these questions.
Envision Gifted. Universal Theme Order
Envision Gifted. Universal Concept Order in School
Universal Theme – Order in Language Arts
Below are some questions that can be integrated into a variety of stories throughout the year. Although they are tied to a grade level for the purposes here, there is no reason you can’t use them across grade levels. This is perfect for a multi-grade class, because both grade levels can use it with the story they are reading.
Image of 2nd Grade Universal Theme - Order with questions
Image of 1st grade Big Idea questions Order
Image of Universal Theme - Order with questions for Order.
A Lack of Order Leads to Chaos
See how one of my teachers lead her 2nd graders through exploring how a lack of order leads to chaos.
Universal Theme – ORDER in Math
The Universal Theme Order is a great fit for math. Consider how order helps us to better understand place value. When studying place value, what happens when we change the order of a number? Be sure to have students speaking like mathematicians and using the academic language to explain their thinking.
Image of Universal Themes in Math- Order
Universal Themes in Math- Order has a purpose.
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Abwab is the plural form of the Arabic term bab which means a door, a section, a chapter, a title. In Mughal India all temporary and circumstantial taxes and impositions levied by the government over and above regular taxes were called abwabs. More specifically, abwab meaning all irregular impositions on raiyats above the established assessment of land in the pargana. Land tax was established by Todar Mal after a field-to-field survey. The standard of rent thus established has hardly been changed since 1582. To meet unforeseen exigencies, the government used to levy temporary taxes, cesses, and imposts, all collectively known as abwab. During nawabi period a variety of abwabs were imposed on zamindars, who conveniently transferred them on to their raiyats. In addition to zamindari abwabs, there were also many other abwabs, which were imposed by faujdars and kotwals.
Under the Regulations of the permanent settlement (1793) all abwabs were consolidated with rent and subsequently, further impositions of abwabs were strictly prohibited. Under the permanent settlement Regulations, zamindars were required to give patta to raiyats specifying to them the exact amount of rent demanded from them. It was made a punishable offence to impose abwab under any pretext over and above the rent recorded in the patta. But because of existing socio-political conditions, such a rule did not take any effect at the village level where zamindari agents always collected abwabs under many pretexts, such as, marriage, pilgrimage, shraddha, festivals, punya, chandas, and so on and without any interventions from the concerned authorities.
According to the revenue survey of the 1860s and the Rent Commission of 1880, most zamindars levied abwabs on their raiyats with impunity. The Rent Commission revealed that abwabs were so much a customary affair that raiyats had little or no objections to zamindari abwabs, which they considered to be their duty to pay. But, they had tremendous aversion to enhancement of rent. They tended to resist any demand beyond the pargana rate established by custom. In fact, most agrarian disturbances in the nineteenth century originated from the issues of the enhancement of rent rather than from collecting abwabs.
The practice of collecting abwabs began to decline from the 1920s. Factors like the rise of a rural middle class, the beginning of electoral politics, the socialist movement, peasant parties and peasant movements and the like had made the raiyats increasingly conscious of their position in relation to their landholders. To win village support, public leaders organized peasants against the oppressive landlords. The peasants also declared solidarity with one or another party to protect their class interests. Under the Tenancy Act of 1939, all sorts of abwabs and salamis were banned. [Sirajul Islam]
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Broken on All Sides
After watching the film Broken on All Sides, answer the following questions.
What is the central point of the documentary?
What is the social problem the film addresses?
How does the film define the New Jim Crow?
How does this film present the reproduction of racial inequality? Provide a specific example.
Using your sociological imagination, describe how the issue of mass incarceration needs to be examined in a historical context.
Sample Solution
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1. uncharted Salt merchandise port native procession Open Court 4th Grade - Dollars & Sense Unit 2 Lesson 6 Melissa Lape – Wilson Elementary
2. Uncharted “Use context clues” They sailed together for a day or two, until a strong wind came up and blew Ivan’s ship away into uncharted seas. Explorers, like Magellan or Lewis and Clark, went into uncharted, or unexplored, territory. uncharted - unknown, not on the map Melissa Lape – Wilson Elementary
3. merchandise “Use context clues” Ivan went into the city to bow before the king and request permission to trade his merchandise. Department stores sell different kinds of merchandise. merchandise - something that is bought or sold Melissa Lape – Wilson Elementary
4. port“Use context clues” Attended by her maidservants, she went down to the port to see the Russian ship. The sailors waved goodbye as their boat pulled out of the port. Port - a place or town where ships come to load or unload Melissa Lape – Wilson Elementary
5. native “Use context clues” Soon Ivan could see his native land ahead, and moments later they arrived. Jorge left Mexico four years ago, and he misses his native country. Native - belonging to someone by birth Melissa Lape – Wilson Elementary
6. procession “Use context clues” He arrived just as the wedding procession was about to enter the church. Cars waited for the procession of ducklings to cross the street. procession - a line of people moving forward in an orderly and ceremonial manner Melissa Lape – Wilson Elementary
7. These words contain the /ow/ sound spelled ou. without scoundrels mountains aloud
8. Each of the following words ends with the –cious spelling pattern. delicious precious conscious ferocious
9. Each of these words are position words. Position words show where events or actions in the story take place, tell where a character or object is, or describe something. ahead nearby inside before
10. These words contain digraphs; a digraph is a single sound that can be spelled using two letters. minnows merchant share sauces riches
11. adjectives Identify the two adjectives in this sentence as well as the noun they describe. Once he loaded two ships with precious furs.
12. possessive pronoun Point out the possessive pronoun and identify the noun to which the pronoun refers. Then Ivan was brought before the king.
13. digraph Which words contain a digraph? A person who buys goods and sells them for profit is called a merchant.
14. A Digraph is a pair of letters representing a single speech sound, such as the ph in pheasant or the ea in beat. Consonant Digraphs wheat phone cheese clock wreath sock trunk Vowel Digraphs sauces drawing minnow cousin boot head hawk
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Why are They Named Silverfish?
Silverfish’s name is derived from the insect’s silvery, metallic appearance and fish-like shape and movements. Because of their three long, bristle-like or tail-like appendages on the rear end of their body, Silverfish are also known as “bristletails”.
What is a Silverfish?
A silverfish is in the order of Zygentomas. They are a small, wingless insect. However, the scientific name indicates the Silverfish’s diet consists of carbohydrates such as sugar or starches. They are a chiefly nocturnal silvery bristletail that frequents houses and other buildings, feeding on starchy materials.
They are a silver-colored fish, especially a variety of goldfish. The easiest way to identify a silverfish infestation is by seeing them with your own eyes.
Silverfish Features:
• No wings
• Able to run very fast
• Body length of about ½-3/4” (12-19 mm) not including the tail
• Flattened body
• Shape is compared to a teardrop, carrot or fish
• Covered with scales
• Long, threadlike antennas
• Small compound eyes that are widely separated
While Silverfish may prefer humid environments such as bathrooms, they can often be found in kitchens as well. Check any containers of cereal, pasta, or rice, as they are drawn to the starchy foods inside.
Silverfish are found throughout the U.S. They are seen in humid, moist areas of your home, such as basements, bathrooms, kitchens, and attics.
How do they get in your home?
Silverfish enter homes through foundation cracks, torn screens, or gaps around doors. They can also be brought inside the house through cardboard boxes and plastic containers recently stored in infested areas that allow the pests to spread. Warm and moist spaces, like basements, crawl spaces, kitchens, and bathrooms attract Silverfish. Silverfish can drop on your from a wall or ceiling.
Do they cause damage?
Silverfish are harmless to humans. They do cause damage to books, papers, clothing, food in pantries and wallpaper. Silverfish bite, leave small holes in materials and may also cause yellow staining.
Silverfish prefer foods that are high in starches, proteins, and sugars and, if inside a home, can often be found feeding on fabrics, paper, wallpaper, vegetables, pasta, sugar, toothpaste, cardboard, or even dead insects.
Might indicate a bigger problem
If you see Silverfish in your home, it could mean you have a water issue such as standing water or a water leak. When rain water gets into places it shouldn’t, it can cause mold, mildew, fungi, algae, and other things to grow. These natural organisms can soften wood and make it more susceptible to bugs and rodents. As these gaps form and areas are chewed, it gives access to Silverfish.
Silverfish have a lifespan ranging from two to eight years, and they generally reproduce through eggs laid by female Silverfish. The average female Silverfish lay up to 100 eggs during her life.
Silverfish are nuisance pests and some time may require experts help. If you are facing silverfish infestation, you should take care of it before it can get out of control. Removal of Silverfish can be a time-consuming and challenging process and in many cases require expert and professional knowledge.
Contact Houseman Services at 866-964-PEST as soon as possible so we can treat your property?
Houseman Services is the only complete service company in the Athens, GA area. We provide Weed control, fertilization, shrub care, mulch & pine straw, sod, annual plantings, irrigation, and commercial & residential lawn maintenance. We are also state certified and licensed in wood destroying organisms (termite control), household pest control, public health, and turf & ornamental weed control. We are licensed to control and treat mosquitoes, termites, all pest problems and turf & ornamental weed control. Contact the professionals at Houseman Services and set up a free inspection of your yard. We have been servicing homes and businesses in the Athens, Clarke County area since 1985!
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Step Wells
• Stepwells are a distinctive form of subterranean water resource and storage systems on the Indian subcontinent, and have been constructed since the third millennium BC. They also may be multi-storied, having a bullock to turn the water wheel (“rehat”) to raise the water in the well to the first or second floor.
• A basic difference between stepwells on the one hand, and tanks and wells on the other, was to make it easier for people to reach the ground water, and to maintain and manage the well.
• The majority of surviving stepwells originally served a leisure purpose as well as coping with seasonal fluctuations in water availability. This was because the base of the well provided relief from daytime heat, and this was increased if the well was covered. Stepwells also served as a place for social gatherings and religious ceremonies.
• Artificially construed reservoirs can be found in the sites of Indus Valley Civilization such as Dholavira and Mohenjo-daro. Mohenjo-daro has cylindrical brick lined wells which may be the predecessors of the stepwell. The first rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200-400 AD.
• Stepwells have influenced many other structures in Indian architecture, especially many that incorporate water into their design.
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This wiki's URL has been migrated to the primary domain.Read more here
A family name (in Western contexts often referred to as a last name) is a type of surname and part of a person's name indicating the family to which the person belongs. The use of family names is widespread in cultures around the world. Each culture has its own rules as to how these names are applied and used.
In many cultures (notably Euro-American, Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African) the family name is normally the last part of a person's name. In other cultures, the family name comes first. The latter is often called the Eastern order because Europeans are most familiar with the examples from East Asia, specifically China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
In an English-speaking context, family names are most often used to refer to a stranger or in a formal setting, and are often used with a title or honorific such as Mr, Mrs, Ms, Miss, Dr, and so on. Generally the given name, first name, forename, or personal name is the one used by friends, family, and other intimates to address an individual. It may also be used by someone who is in some way senior to the person being addressed. This practice also differs between cultures, see T-V distinction.
In this article, family name and surname both mean the patrilineal (literally, father-line) surname, handed down from or inherited from the father's line or patriline, unless explicitly stated otherwise. Thus, the term "maternal surname" means the patrilineal surname which one's mother inherited from either or both of her parents. In contrast, the "matrilineal surname" or "mother-line surname", handed down from or inherited from the mother's line, is treated in its own section of a totally separate article, to avoid complicating this large Family name article—see Matrilineality's Matrilineal surname section.
Research on individual names[]
The oldest use of family names or surnames is unclear. Surnames have arisen in cultures with large, concentrated populations where single, personal names for individuals became insufficient to identify them clearly. Many cultures use additional descriptive terms in identifying individuals. These terms may indicate personal attributes, location of origin, occupation, parentage, patronage, adoption, or clan affiliation. These descriptors often developed into fixed clan identifications which in turn became family names as we know them today.
In China, according to legend, family names started with Emperor Fu Xi in 2852 BC[1][2] His administration standardised the naming system in order to facilitate census-taking, and the use of census information. For scientific documentation that matrilineal surnames existed in China before the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BC) and that "by the time of the Shang Dynasty they (Chinese surnames) had become patrilineal", see Matrilineality's China section.
Modern era[]
Family names sometimes change or are replaced by non-family-name surnames under political pressure to avoid persecution. Examples are the cases with Chinese Indonesians and Chinese Thais after migration there during the 20th century, or the Jews who fled to different European countries to avoid persecution from the Nazis during World War II.
UN Convention, CEDAW[]
In its 1979 "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women", or CEDAW, the UN officially adopted the following provision: "States ... shall ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women: The same personal rights as husband and wife, including the right to choose a family name, a profession and an occupation."[5] (Italics added.) For a further description of and treatment of this Convention, see Matrilineality's Matrilineal surname section.
By language[]
English-speaking countries[]
Most surnames of British origin fall into seven types:
• Occupations e.g. Archer, Bailey, Baker, Brewer, Butcher, Carter, Chandler, Clark, Collier, Cooper, Cook, Carpenter, Dyer, Faulkner, Fisher, Fletcher, Fowler, Fuller, Glover, Hayward, Hawkins, Head, Hunt or Hunter, Judge, Knight, Miller, Mason, Page, Palmer, Parker, Porter, Sawyer, Slater, Smith, Taylor, Thatcher, Turner, Shoemaker, Walker, Weaver, Wood or Woodman and Wright (or variations such as Cartwright and Wainwright).
• Geographical features e.g., Bridge, Camp, Hill, Bush, Lake, Lee, Wood, Holmes, Forest, Underwood, Hall, Brooks, Fields, Stone, Morley, Moore, Perry
• Place names e.g., Washington, Everingham, Burton, London, Leighton, Hamilton, Sutton, Flint, Laughton
• Estate For those descended from land-owners, the name of their holdings, manor or estate
• Patronymics, matronymics or ancestral, often from a person's given name. e.g., from male name: Richardson, Stephenson, Jones (Welsh for John), Williams, Jackson, Wilson, Thompson, Benson, Johnson, Harris, Evans, Simpson, Willis, Fox, Davies, Reynolds, Adams, Dawson, Lewis, Rogers, Murphy, Nicholson, Robinson, Powell, Ferguson, Davis, Edwards, Hudson, Roberts, Harrison, Watson, or female names Molson (from Moll for Mary), Madison (from Maud), Emmott (from Emma), Marriott (from Mary) or from a clan name (for those of Scottish origin, e.g., MacDonald, Forbes, Henderson, Armstrong, Grant, Cameron, Stewart, Douglas, Crawford, Campbell, Hunter) with "Mac" Scottish Gaelic for son.[7]
• Patronal from patronage (Hickman meaning Hick's man, where Hick is a pet form of the name Richard) or strong ties of religion Kilpatrick (follower of Patrick) or Kilbride (follower of Bridget). (Kil may come from the Gaelic word 'Cill' which means Church. This would certainly support the claim that the surname is tied to the religion.)
Spanish-speaking countries[]
Depending on the country, the family names may or may not be linked by the conjunction y ("and"), i ("and" in Catalonia), de ("of"), del ("of the", when the following word is masculine) or de la ("of the", when the following word is feminine). Sometimes a father transmits his combined family names, thus creating a new one e.g., the paternal surname of the son of Javier (given name) Reyes (paternal family name) de la Barrera (maternal surname) may become the new paternal surname Reyes de la Barrera. De is also the nobiliary particle used with Spanish surnames.
In Hispanic American countries, married women usually keep their first family name followed by "de" (denoting property: "'s" or "of") and then the husband's last name. For example María Martínez López when married to Josué Vásquez Hernández would then be María Martínez de Vásquez. However, this usage is falling into disuse. In Peru and the Dominican Republic, women normally conserve all family names after getting married. For example, if Rosa María Pérez Martínez marries Juan Martín de la Cruz Gómez, she will be called Rosa María Pérez Martínez de la Cruz, and if the husband dies, she will be called Rosa María Pérez Martínez Vda. de la Cruz (Vda. being the abbreviation for viuda, "widow" in Spanish).
The law in Peru changed some years ago, and all married women can keep their maiden last names or if they want, they can use also their husband's last name after their own maiden name, adding the "de" before their husband's last name.
In villages in Catalonia, Galicia and Asturias (Spain) and in Cuba, people are often known by the name of their dwelling or collective family nickname rather than by their surnames. For example, Remei Pujol i Serra who lives at Ca l'Elvira would be referred to as "la Remei de Ca l'Elvira"; and Adela Barreira López who is part of the "Provisores" family would be known as "A Adela dos Provisores".
French-speaking countries[]
For more details on this topic, see French name.
For more details on this topic, see Wallonian name.
For more details on this topic, see Canadian name.
German-speaking countries[]
For more details on this topic, see German family name etymology.
There are about 1,000,000 different family names in German. German family names most often derive from given names, geographical names, occupational designations, bodily attributes or even traits of character. Hyphenations notwithstanding, they mostly consist of a single word; in those rare cases where the family name is linked to the given names by particles such as von or zu, they usually indicate noble ancestry. Not all noble families used these names (see Riedesel), while some farm families, particularly in Westphalia, used the particle von or zu followed by their farm or former farm's name as a family name (see Meyer zu Erpen).
Changing one's family name for reasons other than marriage, divorce or adoption is possible only if the applicant can prove that they suffer extraordinarily due to their name.
Portuguese-speaking countries[]
Dutch-speaking countries[]
The Netherlands
For more details on this topic, see Dutch name.
For more details on this topic, see Flanders name.
South Africa
For more details on this topic, see Afrikaner name.
By country[]
Arab Countries - in general[]
See Arab World
The given name is always followed by the father's first name, then the father's family surname. Some surnames have a pre-fix of ibn- meaning son of (ould- in Mauritania) The surnames follow similar rules defining a relation to a clan, family, place etc. Some Arab countries have differences due to historic rule by the Ottoman Empire or due to being a different minority.
Arab States of the Persian Gulf
Names mainly consist of the person's name followed by the father's first name connected by the word "ibn" or "bin" (meaning son of). The last name is either refers to the name of the tribe the person belongs to, or to the region, city, or town he/she originates from. In exceptional cases, members of the royal families or ancient tribes mainly, the title (usually H.M./H.E., Prince, or Sheikh) is included in the beginning as a prefix, and the first name can be followed by four names, his father, his grandfather, and great - grandfather, as a representation of the purity of blood and to show the pride one has for his ancestry.
Traditional Azeri surnames usually end with "-lı", "-lu", (Turkic for 'with' or 'belonging to'), "-oğlu", "-qızı" (Turkic for 'son of' and 'daughter of'), "-zade" (Persian for 'born of'). Azerbaijanis of Iranian descent traditionally use suffixes such as '-pour' or '-zadeh', meaning 'born of' with their father's name. It is, however, more usual for them to use the name of the city in which their ancestors lived (e.g. Tabrizpour for those from Tabriz) or their occupation (e.g. Damirchizadeh for blacksmiths). Also, due to it being a part of the Russian Empire, many last names carry Slavic endings of "-ov" for men and "-ova" for women.
Bulgarian names usually consist of three components - given name, father's name, family name.
Given names have many variations, but the most common names have Christian/Greek (e.g. Maria, Ivan, Christo, Peter, Pavel), Slavic (Ognyan, Miroslav, Tihomir) or Protobulgarian (Krum, Asparukh) (pre-Christian) origin. Father's names normally consist of the father's first name and the "-ov" (male) or "-ova" (female) or "-ovi" (plural) suffix. Family names usually also end with the "-ov", "-ev" (male) or "-ova", "-eva" (female) or "-ovi", "-evi" (plural) suffix.
The meaning of the suffixes is similar to the English word "of", expressing membership in/belonging to a family. For example the family name Ivanova means a person belonging to the Ivanovi family. A father's name Petr*ov* means son of Peter.
Regarding the different meaning of the suffixes, "-ov", "-ev"/"-ova", "-eva" are used for expressing relationship to the father and "-in"/"-ina" for relationship to the mother (often for orphans whose father is dead).
Finland has two predominant surname traditions: the West Finnish and the East Finnish. Until the early 20th Century, Finland was a predominantly agrarian society, and the names of West Finns were based on their association with a particular area, farm, or homestead, e.g. Jaakko Jussila ("Jaakko from the farm of Jussi"). On the other hand, the East Finnish surname tradition dates back to the 13th century. There, the Savonians pursued slash-and-burn agriculture which necessitated moving several times during a person's lifetime. This in turn required the families to have surnames, which were in wide use among the common folk as early as the 13th century. By the mid-16th century, the East Finnish surnames had become hereditary. Typically, the oldest East Finnish surnames were formed from the first names of the patriarchs of the families, e.g. Ikävalko, Termonen, Pentikäinen. In the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, new names were most often formed by adding the name of the former or current place of living (e.g. Puumalainen < Puumala). In the East Finnish tradition, the females carried the family name of their fathers in female form (e.g. Puumalatar < Puumalainen). By the 19th century, this practice fell into disuse due to the influence of the West-European surname tradition.
A third, foreign tradition of surnames was introduced in Finland by the Swedish-speaking upper and middle classes, which used typical German and Swedish surnames. By custom, all Finnish-speaking persons who were able to get a position of some status in urban or learned society, discarded their Finnish name, adopting a Swedish, German or (in the case of clergy) Latin surname. In the case of enlisted soldiers, the new name was given regardless of the wishes of the individual.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the overall modernization process, and especially the political movement of fennicization, caused a movement for adoption of Finnish surnames. At that time, many persons with a Swedish or otherwise foreign surname changed their family name to a Finnish one. The features of nature with endings -o/ö, -nen (Meriö < Meri "sea", Nieminen < Niemi "point") are typical of the names of this era, as well as more or less direct translations of Swedish names (Paasivirta < Hällström).[11]
In 21st-century Finland, the use of surnames follows the German model. Every person is legally obligated to have a first and last name. At most, three first names are allowed. The Finnish married couple may adopt the name of either spouse, or either spouse (or both spouses) may decide to use a double name. The parents may choose either surname or the double surname for their children, but all siblings must share the same surname.[12] All persons have the right to change their surname once without any specific reason. A surname that is un-Finnish, contrary to the usages of the Swedish or Finnish languages, or is in use by any person residing in Finland cannot be accepted as the new name, unless valid family reasons or religious or national customs give a reason for waiving this requirement. However, persons may change their surname to any surname that has ever been used by their ancestors if they can prove such claim.[13] Some immigrants have had difficulty naming their children, as they must choose from an approved list based on the family's household language.
In the Finnish language, both the root of the surname and the first name can be modified by consonant gradation regularly when inflected to a case.
Most eastern Georgian surnames end with the suffix of "-shvili", (e.g. Sharmazana'shvili) Georgian for "child" or "offspring". Western Georgian surnames most commonly have the suffix "-dze", (e.g. Laba'dze) Georgian for "son". Megrelian surnames usually end in "-ia" ,"ua" or "ava". Other location-specific endings exist: In Svaneti "-iani", meaning "belonging to", or "hailing from", is common. In the eastern Georgian highlands common endings are "uri" and "uli". Some noble family names end in "eli", meaning "of (someplace)". In Georgian, the surname is not normally used as the polite form of address; instead, the given name is used together with a title. For instance, Nikoloz Sharmazanashvili is politely addressed as bat'ono Nikoloz "My Lord. Nikoloz".
Greece and Cyprus[]
Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics. Occupation, characteristic, or ethnic background and location/origin-based surnames names also occur; they are sometimes supplemented by nicknames.
Although surnames are static today, dynamic and changing patronym usage survives in middle names in Greece where the genitive of the father's first name is commonly the middle name.
Modern practice is to call the same person Giannis Eleftheriou: the proper name is vernacular (and not Ioannis), but the surname is an archaic genitive. However, children are almost always baptised with the archaic form of the name so in official matters the child will be referred to as Ioannis Eleftheriou and not Giannis Eleftheriou.
Other prefixes include Hadji- (Χαντζή- or Χαντζι-) which was an honorific deriving from the Arabic Hadj or pilgrimage, and indicate that the person had made a pilgrimage (in the case of Christians, to Jerusalem) and Kara- which is attributed to the Turkish word for "black" deriving from the Ottoman Empire era. The Turkish suffix -oglou (derived from a patronym, -oğlu in Turkish) can also be found. Although they are of course more common among Greece's Muslim minority, they still can be found among the Christian majority, often Greeks who were pressured to leave Turkey after the Turkish Republic was founded (since Turkish surnames only date to the founding of the Republic, when Atatürk made them compulsory).
Arvanitic surnames also exist. For example, the Arvanitic word for "brave" ("pallikari" in Greek) being "çanavar" and its shortened form "çavar" were pronounced "tzanavar" and "tzavar", giving birth to traditional Arvanitic family names like "Tzanavaras" and "Tzavaras".[14]
• -poulos/-poulou, which has a Latin origin (pullus) and means "the little", representing "the son of ...", so if a man's family name is "Christopoulos", it means that his father was named "Christos". This suffix is very widespread throughout Greece and is originally from the Peloponessus in particular.
• -idis/-idou and -iadis/-iadou used in the Pontus and Asia Minor regions, e.g. "Michailidis", the "clan of Michael"
• -akis/-aki is associated primarily with Crete and the Aegean Islands. It is a patronymic signifying "little" and/or "son"; therefore "Theodorakis" is "little Theodore".
Others, less common, are:
• -atos/-atou (From Cephallonia and other Ionian Islands);
• -as/-a (From Macedonia and Epirus);
• -ellis/-elli (From Lesvos Island);
• -akos/-akou (From Mani in the Laconia region) and -eas/-ea (From Mani in the Messinia region),with the occasional ogkonas being found through out Mani;
• -oglou (From the Turkish suffix for "son of" used by both genders);
• -ou (Genitive, from Cyprus);
• -ou/ides/kos (From Macedonia);
• -ekas/las (From Epirus)
• -akis (From Crete)
The suffix -idis (often transliterated -ides in the English and French languages) is the oldest in use. Zeus, for example was also referred to as Cronides ("son of Cronus").
For more details on Naming conventions of Iceland, see Icelandic name.
India is a country with numerous distinct cultural and linguistic groups. Thus, Indian surnames, where formalized, fall into seven general types. Many people from the southern states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala do not use any formal surnames, though most have one. In spite of hiding their caste discrimination, Tamil people do not use their family or caste names. They use initials in front of their names (example J. John Vimalraj) instead. The initial J stands for the father's name John Peter, though they have a last name such as Muthaliyar or Kounder.
In Northern India, for most of the people, their family name comes after the given names, whereas in Southern India, the given names come after the family name.
Surnames are based on:
• Patronymics and ancestry, whereby the father's name or an ancestor's given name is used in its original form or in a derived form (e.g. Aggarwal or Agrawal or Agrawala derived from the ancestor Agrasen).
• Occupations (Chamar, Patel or Patil, meaning Village Headman, Gandhi, Kamath, Kulkarni, who used to maintain the accounts and records and collect taxes, Kapadia, Nadkarni, Patwardhan, Patwari, Shenoy, etc.) and priestly distinctions (Bhat, Bhattar, Sastry, Trivedi, Shukla, Chaturvedi, Twivedi, Purohit, Mukhopadhyay); Business people: Shetty, Rai, Hegde is commonly used in kshatriya castes of the karnataka coastal belt. In addition many Parsi, Bohra and Gujarati families have used English trade names as last names since the 18th and 19th centuries (Contractor, Engineer, Builder).
• Caste or clan names (Pillai, Gounder, Goud, Gowda, Boyar, Parmar, Sindhi, Vaish, Reddy, Meena and Naidu) are not surnames but suffixes to first names to indicate their clan or caste.
• A few last names originate from names (Juthani)
• The father's first name is used as a surname in certain Southern states, such as Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. However, after the marriage the bride uses her husband's first name instead.
• Muslim surnames generally follow the same rules used in Pakistan. Khan is among the most popular surnames, often signifying Afghan/Central Asian descent.
• Names indicating nobility or feudal associations or honorifics (Chowdary, Naidu, Varma, Singh, Burman, Raja, Reddy, Tagore, Thakur, Rana, Kunwar)
• Colonial Surnames based on tax or after religious conversion, particularly in Goa, which was under Portuguese control (D'Cruz, Pinto). Often, surnames of Portuguese noble families who were accepted as godparents were used as the surnames of the converted. Some families still keep their ancestral Hindu surnames along with their given Catholic Surnames e.g. Miranda-Prabhu and Pereira-Shenoy.
• In Kerala the practice of using the house name before or after the given name is on the rise. For example Asin Thottumkal - Asin is the given name while Thottumkal is the house name.
The modern-day spellings of names originated when families translated their surnames to English, with no standardization across the country. Variations are regional, based on how the name was translated from the local language to English in the 18th, 19th or 20th centuries during British rule. Therefore, it is understood in the local traditions that Agrawal and Aggarwal represent the same name derived from Uttar Pradesh and Punjab respectively. Similarly, Tagore derives from Bengal while Thakur is from Hindi-speaking areas. The officially recorded spellings tended to become the standard for that family. In the modern times, some states have attempted standardization, particularly where the surnames were corrupted because of the early British insistence of shortening them for convenience. Thus Bandopadhyay became Banerji, Mukhopadhay became Mukherji, Chattopadhyay became Chatterji, etc. This coupled with various other spelling variations created several surnames based on the original surnames. The West Bengal Government now insists on re-converting all the variations to their original form when the child is enrolled in school.
Some parts of Sri Lanka, Thailand, Nepal, Burma, and Indonesia have similar patronymic customs to those of India.
Javanese people are the majority in Indonesia, and most do not have any surname. There are many individuals who have only a name, such as "Suharto" and "Sukarno". These are not only common with the Javanese but also with ethnic groups who do not have the tradition of surnames. If, however, they are Muslims, they might opt to follow Arabic naming customs.
Ireland, Isle of Man, and Scotland[]
Gaelic surnames derived from nicknames include Ó Dubhda (from Aedh ua Dubhda—Aedh, the dark one), O'Doherty (from dochartaigh, "destroyer" or "obtrusive"), Garvery (garbh, "rough" or "nasty"), Manton (mantach, "toothless"), Bane (bán, "white", as in "white hair"), Finn (fionn, "fair", as in "fair hair") and Kennedy ("cennedie", as in "ugly head")
Surname prefixes[]
• Bean: "Wife", pronounced [bæn̺].
• Mac: for most purposes, taken to mean "son of", as in Mac Néill (son of Neil). However, literally, the "of" part does not come from the "Mac" prefix but from the patronymic that follows it. E.g., in the case of MacNéill, Mac merely means "son"; "Néill" (meaning "of Neil") is the genitive form of Niall ("Neil"). In some cases if the second word begins with a vowel, Mac then becomes Mag, as in Mag Eocháin. Also "M'c and Mic" (Watery Descendent)
Most Persian (Iranian) last names have the following affixes:
-i (of), -zad and -zadeh (born of), -pur (son of), -nejad (from the race of), -nia (descendant of), -mand, -vand, -far (holder of), -doost (friend), -khah (seeking of), -mannesh, -ian/-yan and -chi (usually referring to a vocation, e.g. Kaghazchi, as a dealer of paper and paper products).
Sometimes names of geographical locations are attached as the last word in the family name such as: Irani, Tehrani, Shirazi, Esfahani, Tabrizi, Bakhtiar, Sistani, Farsi, Khorasani, Kordestani, Kermani.
Last names could also be indicative of belonging to particular religious minorities such as Zoroastrian (Goshtaspi, Zartoshti, Namiranian, Shahzadi, Azargoshasp, Khorshidi), Jewish (Yaghybian, Hayyem, Shaul); or belonging to particular non-Persian ethnicities such as Armenians, Assyrians, Arabs, etc.
Some common Iranian last names—some purely Persian, others a compound of non-Persian words with a Persian suffix: Afshar, Aghassi, Alaghebandian, Alizadeh, Amanpour, Ansari, Arianpur, Amouzgar; Bahar, Bahrami, Bozorgi; Dadgar, Dashti, Davoodi; Ebadi, Emami, Esfahani; Farahani, Farshchi, Farshchian (example of the combination of both -chi and -ian suffixes), Farooqui, Farzamfar, Ferdowsi; Ghassemi, Golzar, Golshani; Heidari, Homayuni, Hosseini; Irani, Irandust, Imanpour; Jamalzadeh, Javaheri, Jenab; Kaghazchi, Ketabchi, Khayyam, Kashani, Kiani; Loqmani, Langarani, Lohrasebi; Mahdipur, Mehrandish, Milani, Molavi, Mousavi; Nadooshan, Najafi, [Nezami Ganjavi|Nezami]]; Omid, Oveisi, Ostovar; Paydar, Peyman, Piroozi; Qahremani, Qoreishi, Qorbani; Rahimi, Rostami, Rezazadeh; Sadi, Sattari, Safavi, Shalchi; Tabatabaei, Tahmasbi, Teymourian; Vahabzadeh, Varzandeh, Varamini; Yadegar, Yaghoubi, Yazdani; Zahedi, Zand and Zarafshan.
Many last names that end in "-ian" (or sometimes "-yan") are traditionally Persian last names (though this is also common in Armenian last names). This is similar to the ending "-stan", which is a Persian noun-maker suffix, from the Persian word Ostan meaning "land" or "province". Today the name of a number of Iran's neighbouring countries contain this suffix, since they were once part of the Persian Empire, such as Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, etc.
According to Iranian tradition, the wife does not always take her husband's surname, unlike many countries in the world.
Since 1975 women have kept their surname when married, but since recently they should have added the surname of the husband according to the civil code, although it was not a common practice. In recent years, the husband's surname can be used only in unofficial situations.[16] In these unofficial situations, sometimes both surnames are written (the proper first), sometimes separated by in (e.g. Giuseppina Mauri in Crivelli) or, in case of widows, ved. (vedova).
Latvian male surnames usually end in -s, or -is whereas the female versions of the same names end in -a or -e in both unmarried and married women. Before the emancipation from serfdom (1817 in Courland, 1819 in Vidzeme, 1861 in Latgale) only noblemen, free craftsmen or people living in towns had surnames. Therefore the oldest Latvian surnames originate from German or Low German, reflecting the dominance of German as an official language in Latvia till the 19th century. Examples: Meijers/Meijere (German: Meier, farm administrator; akin to Mayor), Millers/Millere (German: Müller, miller), Šmits/Šmite (German: Schmidt, smith), Šulcs/Šulca (German: Schulze, constable), Ulmanis (German: Ullmann, a person from Ulm), Godmanis (a God-man), Pētersons (son of Peter). Some Latvian surnames, mainly from Latgale are of Polish or Belorussian origin by changing the final -ski/-cki to -skis/-ckis, -czyk to -čiks or -vich/-wicz to -vičs, such as Sokolovkis/Sokolovska, Baldunčiks/Baldunčika or Ratkevičs/Ratkeviča. Most Latvian peasants received their surnames in 1826 (in Vidzeme), in 1835 (in Courland), and in 1866 (in Latgale). Diminutives were the most common form of family names. Examples: Kalniņš/Kalniņa (small hill), Bērziņš/Bērziņa (small birch). Nowadays many Latvians have surnames of Russian or Ukrainian origin, for example Volkovs/Volkova or Antoņenko.
Libya's names and surnames have a strong Islamic/Arab nature with some influence from Ottoman Empire rule of nearly 400 years. Amazigh, Touareg and other minorities also have their own name/surname traditions. Due to its location as a trade route and the different cultures that had their impact on Libya throughout history, one can find names that could have originated inneighboring countries.
Examples: Arabic surnames similar to those found in the Arab peninsula that usually refer to a clan; names derived from the Ottoman Empire Army who come from different countries ruled by the Empire. Examples: names that sound Turkish, usually carrying a symbol of military rank or status, such as Basha and Agha >>> more input required
Lithuanian names follow the Baltic distinction between male and female suffixes of names, although the details are different. Male surnames usually end in -a, , -as, -aitis, -ys', -ius, or -us, whereas the female versions change these suffixes to -aitė, -ytė, -iūtė, and -utė respectively (if unmarried) or -ienė (if married). Some Lithuanians have names of Polish or another Slavic origin, which are made to conform to Lithuanian by changing the final -ski to -skas, such as Sadauskas, with the female version being -skienė.
Different cultures have their impact on the demographics of the Maltese islands, and this is evident in the various surnames Maltese citizens bear nowadays. There are very few Maltese surnames per se: the few that originate from Maltese places of origin include Chircop (Kirkop), Lia (Lija), Balzan (Balzan), Valletta (Valletta), and Sciberras (Xebb ir-Ras Hill, on which Valletta was built). The village of Munxar, Gozo is characterised by the majority of its population having one of two surnames, either Curmi or de Brincat. In Gozo, the surnames Bajada and Farrugia are also common.
• Sicilian and Italian surnames
Sicilian and Italian surnames are common due to the close vicinity to Malta. Sicilian Italians were the first to colonise the Maltese islands. Common examples include Bonello, Cauchi, Farrugia, Gauci, Rizzo, Schembri, Tabone, Vassallo.
Common examples include Depuis, Montfort, Monsenuier, Muscat.
English surnames exist for a number of reasons, but mainly due to migration as well as Malta forming a part of the British Empire in the 19th century and most of the 20th. Common examples include Bone, Harding, Atkins, Mattocks, Smith, Jones, Woods, Turner.
• Sicilian Arabic surnames
Arabic surnames occur in part due to the early presence of the Arabs in Malta. Common examples include Sammut, Camilleri, Zammit, and Xuereb.[17]
Common surnames of Spanish origin include Galdes, Herrera, and Guzman. Another surname that appears to owe its heritage to Spain is Calleja, although Giovanni Francesco Abela, the father of Maltese history, has hypothesised that the surname is either of Greek origin or of Italian/Sicilian origin.
Surnames from foreign countries from the Middle Ages include German,
such as von Brockdorff, Hyzler, and Schranz.
• Greek surnames
Much less common, but examples include Dacoutros, and Trakosopoulos
• Jewish surnames
• Customs
In line with the practice in other Christian, European states, women generally assume their husband's surname after legal marriage, and this is passed on to any children the couple may bear. Some women opt to retain their old name, for professional/personal reasons, or combine their surname with that of their husband.
Since 2000, Mongolians have been officially using clan names - ovog, the same word that had been used for the patronymics before - on their IDs. Many people chose the names of the ancient clans and tribes such Borjigin, Besud, Jalair, etc. Also many extended families chose the names of the native places of their ancestors. Some chose the names of their most ancient known ancestor. Some just decided to pass their own given names (or modifications of their given names) to their descendants as clan names. Some chose other attributes of their lives as surnames. Gürragchaa chose Sansar (Cosmos). Clan names precede the patronymics and given names, e.g. Besud Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj.[18] In practice, these clan names seem to have had no really significant effect, and are not even included in Mongolian passports.
Myanmar (Burma)[]
People from Myanmar or Burmese, have no family names. This, to some, is the only known Asian people having no family names at all. Some of those from Myanmar or Burma, who are familiar with European or American cultures, began to put to their younger generations with a family name - adopted from the notable ancestors. For example, Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi is the daughter of the late Father of Independence General Aung San; Ms. Hemar Ne Win, is the daughter of the famous actor Colleague gin Ne Win etc.
Netherlands (Holland)[]
People claiming Afghan ancestry include those with family names Siddiqui, Suri etc.
People claiming Iranian ancestry include those with family names Agha, Firdausi, Ghazali, Hamadani, Isfahani, Kashani, Kermani, Khorasani, Farooqui, Mir, Montazeri, Nishapuri, Noorani, Kayani, Qizilbash, Saadi, Sabzvari, Shirazi, Sistani, Yazdani, Zahedi, and Zand.
Tribal names include Abro Afaqi, Afridi, Khogyani(Khakwani), Amini, Ashrafkhel, Awan, Bajwa, Baloch, Barakzai, Baranzai, Bhatti, Bhutto, Ranjha, Bijarani, Bizenjo, Brohi, Bugti, Butt, Detho, Farooqui, Gabol, Ghaznavi, Ghilzai, Gichki, Gujjar, Jakhrani, Jamali, Jamote, Janjua, Jatoi, Jutt Joyo, Junejo, Karmazkhel, Kayani, Khar, Khattak, Khuhro, Lakhani, Leghari, Lodhi, Magsi, Malik, Mandokhel, Mayo, Marwat, Mengal, Mughal , Palijo, Paracha, Panhwar, Popalzai, Qureshi, Rabbani, Raisani, Rakhshani, Sahi, Swati, Soomro, Sulaimankhel, Talpur, Talwar, Thebo, Yousafzai, and Zamani.
So and so, son of so and so, of such and such tribe or clan and religion and resident of such and such place. For example, Amir Khan s/o Fakeer Khan, tribe Mughal Kayani or Chauhan Rajput, Follower of religion Islam, resident of Village Anywhere, Tehsil Anywhere, District.
A large number of Muslim Rajputs have retained their surnames such as Chauhan, Rathore, Parmar, Janjua, Bargujar, etc.
The Philippines[]
In practice, the application of this decree varied from municipality to municipality. Some municipalities received only surnames starting with a particular letter. For example, the majority of residents of the island of Banton in the province of Romblon have surnames starting with F such as Fabicon, Fallarme, Fadrilan, and Ferran. Thus, although perhaps a majority of Filipinos have Spanish surnames, such a surname does not indicate Spanish ancestry.
Naming customs in the Philippines[]
Prior to the establishment of the Philippines as a US territory during the earlier part of the 20th century, Filipinos usually followed Iberian naming customs. However, upon the promulgation of the Family Code of 1987, Filipinos began to adopt the American system of using their surnames.
In some Tagalog regions, the norm of giving patronyms, or in some cases matronyms, is also accepted. These names are of course not official, since family names in the Philippines are inherited. It is not uncommon to refer to someone as Juan anak ni Pablo (John, the son of Paul) or Juan apo ni Teofilo (John, the grandson of Theophilus).
In Romania, like in most of Europe, a child inherits his father's family name, and a wife takes her husband's last name. There are, however, exceptions.
Although given names appear before family names in most Romanian contexts, official documents invert the order, ostensibly for filing purposes. Correspondingly, Romanians occasionally introduce themselves with their family names first, e.g. a student signing a test paper in school.
Romanians bearing names of non-Romanian origin often adopt Romanianised versions of their ancestral surnames, such as Jurovschi for Polish Żurowski, which preserves the original pronunciation of the surname through transliteration. In some cases, these changes were mandated by the state.[19]
In Turkey, following the Surname Law imposed in 1934 in the context of Atatürk's Reforms, every family living in Turkey was given a family name. The surname was generally selected by the elderly people of the family and could be any Turkish word (or a permitted word for families belonging to official minority groups).
The most common family names in Turkey are 'Yılmaz' (means "undaunted"), 'Doğan' (falcon), 'Şahin' (hawk), 'Yıldırım' (thunderbolt), 'Şimşek' (Lightning), Öztürk (means "genuinely Turkish"). Some surnames include patronymic suffixes like 'oğlu' (meaning "son of"). However, these do not necessarily refer to ancestry or in most cases can not be traced back historically. 'ov/ova', 'yev/yeva' and 'zade' can be found as a suffix in the surnames of Azeri or other Turkic descendants.
Official minorities like Armenians, Greeks, and Jews have surnames in their own mother languages. The Armenian families living in Turkey usually have Armenian surnames and generally have the patronymic 'yan' ('ian'). Likewise, Greek descendants usually have Greek surnames which might have Greek patronyms like 'oglou' (from the Turkish suffix for "son of", used for both genders), 'ou', 'akis/aki', 'poulos/poulou', 'idis/idou', 'iadis/iadou' or prefixes like 'papa'. The Sephardic Jews who were expelled from Spain and settled in Turkey in 1492 have both Jewish/Hebrew surnames, and Spanish surnames, usually indicating their native regions, cities or villages back in Spain, like 'De Leon' or 'Toledano'.
However these minorities increasingly tend to "Turkicize" their surnames or replace their original surnames with Turkish surnames altogether to avoid being recognized and discriminated against.
In Scandinavia family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic. Later on, people from the Scandinavian middle classes, particularly artisans and town dwellers, adopted surnames in a similar fashion to that of the gentry. Family names joining two elements from nature such as the Swedish Bergman ("mountain man"), Holmberg ("island mountain"), Lindgren ("linden branch"), Sandström and Åkerlund ("field meadow") were quite frequent and remain common today.
By region[]
Regions of the Sinosphere[]
Chinese family names have many types of origins, dating back as early as pre-Qin era (i.e., before 221 BCE):
• from the land or state that one lived in or awarded: Chen 陳 after the state of Chen, Cai 蔡 after the state of Cai;
• from the given name or Posthumous name of one's ancestor: Zhuang 莊 after King Zhuang of Chu;
• from the nobility status or officer status of one's ancestor: Wang 王 (a king) or Shi 史 (a history-recording officer);
• and some other origins.
In Macau, some people have their names in Portuguese spelt with some Portuguese style, such as Carlos do Rosario Tchiang.[20]
In Scandinavia family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic In Denmark and Norway, the corresponding ending is -sen, as in Karlsen. Names ending with dotter/datter (daughter), such as Olofsdotter, are rare but occurring, and only apply to females. Today, the patronymic names are passed on similarly to family names in other Western countries, and a person's father does not have to be called Karl if he or she has the surname Karlsson. However, in 2006 Denmark reinstated patronymic and matronymic surnames as an option.[21] Thus, parents Karl Larsen and Anna Hansen can name a son Karlssøn or Annasøn and a daughter Karlsdatter or Annasdatter.
Basque Country[]
For more details on this topic, see Basque surnames.
Slavic countries[]
Slavic countries are noted for having masculine and feminine versions for many (but not all) of their names. Most of their surnames have suffixes which are found in varying degrees over the different nations. (Of course, many other names do not have suffixes at all.)
• -ov / -ev (-ova/-eva): Russia, Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Serbia (especially frequent in Vojvodina), Croatia (rare) (sometimes as -iv in Ukraine); this has been adopted by many non-Slavic peoples of Central Asia who are or have been under Russian rule, such as the Tatars, Chechens, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, etc. Note that -ev is the soft form of -ov, found after palatalized consonants or sibilants. In English, -ev is also erroneously written after ch, even though it is pronounced -ov (Gorbachev, Khrushchev, etc.)
• -sky (-ska), -ski (-ska), -skiy (-skaya): Poland, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Russia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Serbia (especially in Vojvodina), Croatia.
• Note that these first two can be combined: -ovsky (-ovska), -owski (-owska): Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, Serbia, Croatia.
• -ich, -vich, -vych, -ovich, -owicz: Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, Russia, Republic of Macedonia (rare), occasionally Bulgaria. Yugoslav ex.: Petrović, means Petar's son. In Russia, where patronyms are used, a person would have two -(ov)ich names in a row; first the patronym, then the family name (see Shostakovich).
• -in (-ina): Russia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia (rare)
• -ak/-ek/-ik (-akova/-ekova/-ikova): Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Belarus, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, very rarely in Bulgaria.
• -uk, -yuk: Ukraine
• -ac/-ec: Slovenia (only -ec), Croatia (both versions), Serbia (only -ac), Czech Republic (only -ec), Slovakia (only -ec).
Czech Republic[]
Names of Czech people consist of given name (křestní jméno) and surname (příjmení). Usage of the second or middle name is not common. Feminine names are usually derived from masculine ones by a suffix -ová (Nováková) or for names being originally adjectives (Veselá), sometimes with a little change of original name's ending (Sedláčková from Sedláček or Svobodová from Svoboda). Women usually change their family names when they get married. The family names are usually nouns (Svoboda, Král, Růžička, Dvořák, Beneš), adjectives (Novotný, Černý, Veselý) or past participles of verbs (Pospíšil). There is also a couple of names with more complicated origin which are actually complete sentences (Skočdopole, Hrejsemnou or Vítámvás). The most common Czech family name is Novák / Nováková.
In addition, many Czechs and some Slovaks have German surnames due to mixing between the ethnic groups over the past thousand years. Deriving women's names from German and other foreign names is often problematic since foreign names do not suit Czech language rules, although most commonly -ová is simply added (Schmidtová; umlauts are simply dropped), or the German name is respelled with Czech spelling (Šmitová). Hungarian names, which can be found fairly commonly among Slovaks, can also be either left unchanged (Hungarian Nagy, fem. Nagyová) or respelled according to Czech/Slovak orthography (masc. Naď, fem. Naďová).
• Ivanov (son of Ivan),
• Petrov (son of Petr),
• Sidorov (son of Sidor).
Feminine forms of these surnames have the ending -a:
• Ivanova (daughter of Ivan),
• Petrova (daughter of Petr),
• Sidorova (daughter of Sidor).
• kuznets (smith) → KuznetsovKuznetsova
• portnoi (tailor) → PortnovPortnova
• pastukh (shepherd) → PastukhovPastukhova.
Places of origin:
• Moskva (Moscow) → MoskvinMoskvina, MoskovskyMoskovskaia,
• SmolenskSmolenskySmolenskaia,
• RiazanRiazanovRiazanova.
Personal characteristics:
• tolsty (stout, fat) → TolstovTolstova, TolstoyTolstaya,
• nos (nose) → NosovNosova,
Great Orthodox Feasts:
• rozhdestvo (Christmas) → RozhdestvenskyRozhdestvenskaia,
• voskresenie (Resurrection) → VoskresenskyVoskresenskaia,
• uspenie (Assumption) → UspenskyUspenskaia.
Christian virtues:
• philosophos (one who loves wisdom) → LubomudrovLubomudrova,
• theophilos (one who loves God) → BogolubovBogolubova.
Today's Russian names are derived from Bulgaria's Eastern Orthodox church from when Christianity was spread throughout Russia.
South Slavs[]
Surnames of some South Slavic groups such as Serbs, Croats, Montenegrins, and Bosniaks traditionally end with the suffixes "-ić" and "-vić" (often transliterated to English and other western languages as "ic", "ich", "vic" or "vich". The v is added in case the name to which "-ić" follows ends on a vowel, to avoid double vowels with the "i" in "-ić".) which are a diminutive indicating descent i.e. "son of." In some cases family name was derived from a profession (e.g. blacksmith - "Kovač" → "Kovačević").
Children usually inherit fathers family name. In older naming convention which was common in Serbia up until mid-19th century a person's name would consist of three distinct parts: the person's given name, the patronymic derived from father's personal name, and the family name, as seen in for example in the name of language reformer Vuk Stefanović Karadžić.
Official family names do not have distinct male or female forms. The somewhat archaic unofficial form of adding suffixes to family names to form female form exists, with -eva, implying "daughter of" or "female descendant of" or -ka, implying "wife of" or "married to".
Bosniak Muslim names follow the same formation pattern but are usually derived from proper names of Islamic origin, often combining archaic Islamic or feudal Turkish titles i.e. Mulaomerović, Šabanović, Hadžihafizbegović etc. Also related to Islamic influence is prefix Hadži- found in some family names. Regardless of religion, this prefix was derived from the honorary title which a distinguished ancestor earned by making a pilgrimage to either Christian or Islamic holy places. Hadžibegić, being Bosniak Muslim example.
Slovenes have a great variety of surnames, most of them differentiated according to region. Surnames ending in -ič are less frequent than among Croats and Serbs. There are typically Slovenian surnames ending in -ič, such as Blažič, Stanič, Marušič. Many Slovenian surnames, especially in the Slovenian Littoral, end in -čič (Gregorčič, Kocijančič, Miklavčič, etc.), which is uncommon for other South Slavic peoples. On the other hand, surname endings in -ski and -ov are rare, and are usually of foreign (mostly Czech) origin. One of the most typical Slovene surname endings is -nik (Rupnik, Pučnik, Plečnik, Pogačnik, Podobnik). Many Slovenian surnames are linked to Medieval rural settlement patterns. Surnames like Novak (literally, "the new one") or Hribar (from hrib, hill) were given to the peasants settled in newly established farms, usually in high mountains. Peasant families were also named according to the owner of the land which they cultivated: thus, the surname Kralj (King) or Cesar (Emperor) was given to those working on royal estates, Škof (Bishop) or Vidmar to those working on ecclesiastical lands, etc. Many Slovenian surnames are named after animals (Medved - bear, Volk, Vovk or Vouk - wolf, Golob - pigeon, Lisjak - fox, Orel - eagle, Zajc or Zajec - rabbit, etc.). Many are named after neighbouring peoples: Horvat, Hrovat, or Hrovatin (Croat), Furlan (Friulian), Nemec (German), Lah (Italian), Vogrin, Vogrič or Vogrinčič (Hungarian), Vošnjak (Bosnian), Čeh (Czech), Turk (Turk), or different Slovene regions: Kranjc, Kranjec or Krajnc (from Carniola), Kraševec (from the Kras), Korošec (from Carinthia), Kočevar or Hočevar (from the Gottschee county).
Ukraine and Belarus[]
In Burundi and Rwanda, most, if not all surnames have God in it, for example Hakizimana (meaning God cures), Nshimirimana (I thank God) or Havyarimana/Habyarimana (God gives birth). But not all surnames end with the suffix -imana. Irakoze is one of these (technically meaning Thank God, though it is hard to translate it correctly in English or probably any other language). Surnames are often different among immediate family members, as parents frequently choose unique surnames for each child, and women keep their maiden names when married. Surnames are placed before given names and frequently written in capital letters, e.g. HAKIZIMANA Jacques.
By ethnic group[]
These groups of people make up a similar ethnic body with deep and long roots in the Middle East, mainly present-day Iraq. Surnames come from the Aramaic languages of these Chaldean, Assyrian, and Syriac people. Some surnames are connected to Christianity, the religion Chaldeans, Assyrians, and Syriacs currently follow and have followed since its beginnings.
Tibetan people are often named at birth by the local Buddhist Lama or they may request a name from the Dalai Lama. They do not often use family name though many have one. They may change their name throughout life if advised by a Buddhist Lama, for example if a different name removes obstacles. The Tibetans who enter monastic life take a name from their ordination Lama, which will be a combination of the Lama's name and a new name for them.
North Caucasian Adyghe family surnames[]
In the case of Circassians, especially Adyges and Kabardians, hereditary surnames have been borne by people for thousands of years. All Circassian people belong to a Clan.
Most surnames of Adyge origin fall into six types:
• Personal characteristics (e.g., short, deaf, beautiful)
• Geographical features (e.g., hill, river, cave, wood, fields etc.)
• Animal names (e.g., bear, horse, snake,Fox, wild boar etc.)
See also[]
2. ^ Danesi, Marcel (2007). The Quest for Meaning. University of Toronto Press. p. 48. ISBN 9780802095145. Retrieved 2008-09-21
3. ^ Gill, N.S. (2008-01-25). "Ancient Names - Greek and Roman Names". In Gill, N.S.. About Ancient / Classical History. The New York Times Company.
5. ^ "Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women", or CEDAW. This quote comes from CEDAW's Article 16 including the latter's item (g).
6. ^ Doll, Cynthia Blevins (1992). "Harmonizing Filial and Parental Rights in Names: Progress, Pitfalls, and Constitutional Problems". Howard Law Journal (Howard University School of Law) 35: pp. 227. ISSN 0018-6813. Note: content available by subscription only. First page of content available via Google Scholar.
8. ^ "Wedding Norms Challenged as Women Question Changing Names", Fox News. Retrieved October 14, 2008.
9. ^ Risling, Greg (2007-01-12). "Man files lawsuit to take wife's name". The Boston Globe ( Associated Press (Los Angeles). Retrieved 2008-09-22. "Because of Buday's case, a California state lawmaker has introduced a bill to put a space on the marriage license for either spouse to change names."
12. ^ Equality in Finland: Information for immigrants
15. ^ Families of County Cork, Ireland: Including English, Scots and Anglo-Norman Settlers, Michael C. O'Laughlin, Irish Roots Cafe, 1999
16. ^
Italian Civil Code, art. 143 bis
17. ^
18. ^ Hans Peter Vietze: Mongolische Namen (in German)
19. ^ Romanian Uprising and Coup
21. ^
22. ^ "Surnames deriving from a farmstead".
23. ^ Norwegian Naming Patterns (Johan I. Borgos)
24. ^ Norwegian Names (Norwegian-American Historical Association)
External links[]
Look up Appendix:Names in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
This page uses content from the English language Wikipedia. The original content was at Family name. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with this Familypedia wiki, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons License.
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Degrees to celsius
How to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius. Celsius or centigrade is a unit of measurement of temperature. Fahrenheit to Celsius (℉ to ℃) conversion calculator for temperature.
Fahrenheit (℉) and the boiling point . Celsius to Fahrenheit (℃ to ℉) conversion calculator for temperature conversions. This puts the boiling and freezing points of water exactly 1degrees apart. Celsius, also known as centigrade, is a metric scale and unit of measurement for temperature.
By international agreement the unit degree Celsius and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures: absolute zero, and . Instant conversions between degrees . Quickly convert degrees Celsius into degrees Fahrenheit (degree Celsius to degree Fahrenheit) using the online calculator for metric conversions and more. C to F: Celsius to Fahrenheit Conversion Formula. To convert temperatures in degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit, multiply by 1. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale used for describing temperatures in Fahrenheit degrees (°F). It is most commonly used in the United States in weather .
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THE263/264: Theatre History (2021): Research Tips
A guide to research for students in Todd Ristau's and Lauren Ellis's classes, created by Librarian Maryke Barber
Maryke's 4 Tips
1. To find a play, do a keyword search – NOT a title search.
Plays are often published in collections (sample title: “25 best plays of 2010”) and if you do a title search, you may not find them. A key word search for the title of a play will find it, even if the play title is only listed in the table of contents.
2. Library catalogs use specific spelling and terminology:
• When searching in a library catalog (including Worldcat) always use theater .(not theatre)
Theater = performance, Drama = literature. When searching for information about a play, don’t forget to do a search using Drama, which will yield different but equally interesting results.
3. Use brainstorming to help you develop search words.
There are many possible search words for finding information about a play.
• Who wrote it? (Sophocles)
• Who performed it? (Greek actors)
• Who wrote about it? (Aristotle)
• What genre is the play a part of? (Greek tragedy, Greek drama)
• When was it written? (5th Century BC).
• What other terms are relevant? (mythology, incest)
• Etc….
And don't forget the suggested subject words list :)
4. If one search word yields bad results, change words.
Example: if you don’t get useful results with a search for “avant-garde theatre”, try searching “experimental theatre” instead.
Database Search Help
Start with keyword search, then adjust your search if you get too many/not enough results.
1. Find a relevant result, and follow the linked subject term to find more materials on exactly that topic. 1. Try using different search terms: substitute women for female, drama for theater, etc. Different search terms can be words that are related to your subject, or words that are exact synonyms.
2. Get specific: add more information, example theater and france and 16th century 2. Try using broader search terms: substitute psychology for alienation, or production for lighting.
3. Try a different place to look: our librarians can help you choose which databases are most appropriate for your research, and which search terms will get the best results.
• Use the "Modify Search" button to limit by material type, language, etc.
• Use the * (asterisk) to truncate your search terms, to search several terms at once.
Example: theat* = "theater"+ "theatre"+ "theaters" + "theatrical", etc.
Note that author search means works by a person, and subject search means works about a person.
Choosing and Narrowing a Research Topic & Question
Need to work on your research question? This videos will help you get started:
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The world's deepest underwater cave is discovered in the Czech Republic by a team of explorers led by a Polish diver, Krzysztof Starnawski.
A Czech-Polish expedition team funded in parts by National Geographic found that the underwater cave, Hranická Propast, is 1,325 feet (404 meters) deep. Hranická Propast is 39 feet deeper than Italy's Pozzo del Merro, the world's second deepest underwater cave. The research team used a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to explore the bottom of the limestone abyss.
Starnawski first explored Hranická Propast, or Hranice Abyss, in 1999. In 2014, the Polish diver reached a depth of 656 feet, which he first mistook to be the bottom of the cave. However, he discovered a narrow "squeeze passage" that lead to another vertical tunnel. Starnawski then used a probe to explore the pitch-black tunnel further but it ran out of line at the depth of 1,260 feet.
In 2015, Starnawski returned to Hranická Propast and found that the passage had widened, allowing him to enter the tunnel by himself. After reaching a depth of 869 feet he lowered another probe, which landed at 1,214 feet - possibly on debris formed from the passage above.
On Sept. 27, Starnawski and his team finally made the historical discovery with the help of an ROV they released at the depth of 197 feet. From there the team navigated the robot to the bottom of the cave at 1,325 feet.
"I scuba dived down to 200 meters just before the ROV's deployment to put in the new line for the robot to follow," said Starnawski in an interview with National Geographic. "I came back to the surface, and then we went down with the robot to a depth of 60 meters (197 feet). From there, the team at the surface navigated it, via fiber-optic cable, down along my new line to 200 meters deep. Then it went down to explore the uncharted territory - to the record-breaking depth of 404 meters."
When Starnawski was asked why he deployed the robot at 656 feet instead of diving deeper by himself, he noted that his intention wasn't to be called as the deepest diver ever but to aid the ROV in exploration. The motive was to explore the cave beyond 400 meters (1,312 feet), which can't be done by a scuba diver.
Starnawski also noted that the depth gauge used in the process is certified by the state commission and therefore the measurements are absolutely accurate. The diver also added that he spent between two and four hours in the underwater decompression chamber located close to the surface after returning from such a depth.
Photo: Erin Khoo | Flickr
ⓒ 2021 All rights reserved. Do not reproduce without permission.
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"url": "https://www.techtimes.com/articles/180476/20161002/polish-explorer-claims-discovery-of-deepest-underwater-cave-in-the-world.htm"
}
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Python-Quizzes | Python Tuples Quiz | Question 8
• Last Updated : 29 Sep, 2020
Question 8: What is the output of the following program?
T = 'geeks'
a, b, c, d, e =
b = c = '*'
T = (a, b, c, d, e)
(A) (‘g’, ‘*’, ‘*’, ‘k’, ‘s’)
(B) (‘g’, ‘e’, ‘e’, ‘k’, ‘s’)
(C) (‘geeks’, ‘*’, ‘*’)
(D) KeyError
Answer: (A)
Explanation: A tuple is created as T = (‘g’, ‘e’, ‘e’, ‘k’, ‘s’), then it is unpacked into a, b, c, d and e, mapping from ‘g’ to a and ‘s’ to e. b and c which are both ‘e’ are equal to ‘*’ and then the existing tuple is replaced by packing a, b, c, d, and e into a tuple T.
Quiz of this Question
Please comment below if you find anything wrong in the above post
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"language_score": 0.8692660927772522,
"url": "https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/python-quizzes-python-tuples-quiz-question-8/?ref=lbp"
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Enforce Laws
Enforcing traffic laws and regulating pedestrians, motorists, and other roadway users is a key element for ensuring a safe and healthy walking environment. Enforcement programs can be used to educate roadway users about the traffic laws that govern them; serve as periodic reminders to obey traffic rules; encourage safer behaviors; and monitor and protect public spaces. They can also help reinforce and support educational programs and messages.
For many communities, the first step for building an enforcement program lies in reviewing and modifying laws and policies affecting pedestrians. It is critical that effective procedures are in place for handling violators and for training law enforcement officers.
The term "enforcement" is not limited to law officers issuing tickets. Enforcement activities can involve a variety of "carrots and sticks" to encourage certain behaviors and deter others. Enforcement activities can be carried out by many different community groups, from parents and employers to neighborhood associations to law enforcement agencies. Developing partnerships for law enforcement is a key component of a successful and lasting enforcement program.
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"fasttext_score": 0.08112990856170654,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9420352578163147,
"url": "https://www.walkinginfo.org/enforcement/"
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What was the difference between the Compluvium and Impluvium?
What was the difference between the Compluvium and Impluvium?
What was the difference between the compluvium and impluvium? The compluvium was a square opening in the roof over the atrium, designed to let in light and rainwater. The impluvium was a rectangular pool directly beneath the compluvium, used to collect the rainwater, which was then stored for family use.
What is a Compluvium?
: a square opening in the roof of the ancient Roman atrium toward which the roof sloped and through which the rain fell into the impluvium.
What does Impluvium mean in Latin?
Latin impluvium, from impluit (rains upon)
What was a peristyle used for?
A major feature of Greek and Roman architecture, a peristyle consists of a central courtyard with porticoes usually on all four sides, stemming from the Greek word peristylos, meaning surrounded by columns. The peristyle was developed in Greek architecture in the course of the fifth century BCE, and soon was used for …
What does peristyle mean?
1 : a colonnade surrounding a building or court. 2 : an open space enclosed by a colonnade.
What is Triclinium mean in English?
1 : a couch extending around three sides of a table used by the ancient Romans for reclining at meals. 2 : a dining room furnished with a triclinium.
Why did the Romans eat lying down?
It was later picked up by the Romans. They ate lying down while others served them. It was a sign of power and luxury enjoyed by the elite. People further down the social ladder copied the laid-back dining style, if they could afford to.
What was the Triclinium used for?
A triclinium (plural: triclinia) is a formal dining room in a Roman building. The word is adopted from the Greek triklinion (τρικλίνιον)—from tri- (τρι-), “three”, and klinē (κλίνη), a sort of couch or rather chaise longue.
Did Romans use knives and forks?
The main utensil used by the Romans for eating was the spoon. They also used their hands a lot. They sometimes used a knife or a fork like utensil for cutting or spearing a piece of food.
What was the main drink of the ancient Romans?
Apart from wine, the Romans drank so-called posca, vinegar mixed with water to the extent that you can drink it. It was a drink drunk mainly by soldiers and slaves (long-lived and simple to receive). Apparently it gave a lot of energy. The now popular sheep’s or goat’s milk was considered uncivilized.
Did Romans eat with their hands?
The Romans ate mainly with their fingers and so the food was cut into bite size pieces. Slaves would continually wash the guests’ hands throughout the dinner. Spoons were used for soup. Rich Romans could afford to eat lots of meat.
Why was fork invented?
The fork was invented quite soon after the table knife was invented, when it was realised that without something to impale and hold the food item in position – the cutting action of the knife was ineffective.
Which country invented spoon?
Ancient Egypt
When was a fork invented?
Although its origin may go back to Ancient Greece, the personal table fork was most likely invented in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, where they were in common use by the 4th century. Records show that by the 9th century in some elite circles of Persia a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use.
When did humans start using forks?
In the eighth or ninth century, some Persian nobility may have used a forklike tool. In the 11th century, forks were in use in the Byzantine Empire. An illustrated manuscript from that period shows two men using two-pronged forklike instruments at a table, and St.
Did the Chinese invent the fork?
We all know that the Chinese use chopsticks to eat, but don’t be mistaken; they also invented the forks! The oldest known traces of forks were found in the Qijia ethnic group (2400 BC -1900 BC) but also under the Xia dynasty (2100 BC – 1600 BC). At a later period, forks were exported to Europe thanks to the Silk Road.
Who invented chopstick?
According to the California Academy of Sciences, which houses the Rietz Collection of Food Technology, chopsticks were developed about 5,000 years ago in China. The earliest versions were probably twigs used to retrieve food from cooking pots.
What was invented first fork or spoon?
The spoon predates the knife and the fork. It exists in every age and culture in a wide variety of shapes. “The use of an object determines its basic form.” A trip through any mid-century home during the postwar years would reveal chairs, woodwork and consumer objects that took that directive seriously.
Why do the British use forks upside down?
Later, the English adopted the continental habit of keeping the fork in the left and knife in the right, not setting either down, and not swapping, and it’s been like that here (UK) ever since. Having the fork “upside down” makes it easier to remove most food from the fork to the mouth.
Why is the fork on the left?
Because the fork was an assisting utensil to the knife, and the knife was already firmly gripped in the right hand, people were forced to navigate the fork with their left hand. It is for this reason that the fork was then laid upon on the left side of the plate.
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"url": "https://boardgamestips.com/word-games/what-was-the-difference-between-the-compluvium-and-impluvium/"
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Himalayan marmot genome provides clues to life at extremely high altitudes
They also serve as a valuable resource for researchers studying marmot evolution, highland disease, and cold adaptation.
As one of the highest-altitude-dwelling mammals, the Himalayan marmot is chronically exposed to cold temperature, hypoxia, and intense UV radiation. They also hibernate for more than six months during the wintertime.
Those striking biological features led a team of researchers to consider the Himalayan marmot as an ideal animal model for studying the molecular mechanisms of adaptation to extreme environments. To begin, they sequenced and assembled a complete draft genome of a male Himalayan marmot.
They also re-sequenced 20 other Himalayan marmots, including individuals living at high and low altitudes, and four other marmot species. Additionally, RNA sequencing was done to compare gene-expression differences between marmots in a state of torpor and awake marmots.
The DNA data show that the Himalayan marmot diverged from the Mongolian marmot about 2 million years ago. The researchers identified two genes, Slc25a14 and ?Aamp (a processed pseudogene), that have been selected in different directions in marmots living at low versus high altitudes, suggesting they are related to survival in high-altitude populations under conditions of extremely low oxygen.
Interestingly, a previous study suggested that because the hibernator's brain is exposed to near-freezing temperatures and has decreased blood flow, there is an increased risk of blood clots, the researchers note. Their brain stem cells may also be better prepared to repair injuries as an adaptation needed to survive extreme environmental stresses.
#Himalayas #Marmot #Life #Altitude
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"language_score": 0.9314815998077393,
"url": "https://www.mindbrunch.com/post/himalayan-marmot-genome-provides-clues-to-life-at-extremely-high-altitudes"
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What is a jackal?
The three species differ mainly in color and choice of habitat. The sandy-colored golden jackal prefers open, grassy plains, while the side-striped jackal lives along waterways with dense undergrowth and is drabber in color, has a white tip on the tail, and had indistinct stripes along the sides of the body. The black-backed jackal is recognized by the mantle of black hair on the back that contrasts with the rust-colored body. The tail is black-tipped, as is that of the golden jackal. The black-backed jackal is usually the most frequently seen, as it is more diurnal than the other two species.
Scientific name
Common jackal (Canis aureus), Side-striped jackal (Canis adustus), Black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas)
8 to 10 kilograms (17 to 25 pounds)
70 to 85 centimeters in length (27 to 33 inches), 25 centimeter long tail (about 10 inches), and 40 centimeter standing height (about 16 inches)
Life span
8 to 9 years in the wild; up to 16 years in captivity
Open and wooded savanna, semi-desert, grasslands, shrubland
About 2 months
Leopards, hyenas, eagles
There are
species of African jackal
Pups are independent at
months old
Jackals have
mate for life
Humans are encroaching on jackals’ living spaces.
Increased habitat loss due to human population growth and resulting expansion of roads, settlements, and agriculture threatens the jackal. The livestock rearing and farming conducive to jackal and wildlife survival, are now being replaced by industrialization and unsustainable agricultural practices.
Human-wildlife conflict is a growing threat.
As habitats are lost, jackals are increasingly infringing on human settlements, where can be viewed as a danger to livestock and poultry and be killed as pests. They are also often persecuted as rabies transmitters.
Our solutions to protecting the jackal:
Prevent livestock loss.
African Wildlife Foundation works with pastoralist communities to develop appropriate preventative measures that prevent loss of livestock. In Tanzania, AWF is building bomas for communities living in close proximity to carnivores. Bomas are predator-proof enclosures where livestock are kept to prevent attacks. By taking proactive steps, we are able to prevent both livestock and carnivore deaths.
Key Landmarks
Save land for wildlife.
AWF engages local communities to set aside land for wildlife to live undisturbed. In the Laikipia region of Kenya—which has no formal protected areas—we brought the Koija community together with a private operator to construct the Koija Starbeds Lodge. Koija Starbeds creates jobs and income for the community members. The revenue is also reinvested into the community and into conservation, and the land is protected for wildlife.
Jackals have family values.
They usually live singly or in pairs but are occasionally found in loose packs of related individuals where their behavior is highly synchronized. They are among the few mammalian species in which the male and female mate for life. Mated pairs are territorial, and both the female and male mark and defend their territory.
Litters average two to four pups. It takes about ten days for the infants' eyes to open, and for the first few weeks of life, they remain in the thickets or holes where they were born. At about three weeks old, they begin to spend time outside playing with their littermates. At first, the games are clumsy attempts at wrestling, pawing, and biting. As they become more coordinated, they ambush and pounce, play tug of war, and chase each other. The mother changes den sites about every two weeks, so the young are less likely to be found by predators.
Jackal pups are suckled and fed regurgitated food until they are about two months old. By six months, they are hunting on their own.
Sometimes pups will stay with their parents and help raise their younger siblings. Most jackal pup deaths occur during the first 14 weeks of life, so the presence of helpers increases the survival rate.
They are cooperative, cunning hunters.
Jackals can best be described as opportunistic omnivores. They cooperatively hunt small antelopes and also eat reptiles, insects, ground-dwelling birds, fruits, berries, and grass. They will pick over kills made by large carnivores and even frequent rubbish dumps in pursuit of food.
Where do jackals live?
Our Call
Poachers can’t get ivory past this nose
Unleash more canine heroes to save elephants. Donate now.
Canines for Conservation dog
Our Work Never Stops
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"url": "https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/jackal"
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Marc Chagall, Russian (1887-1985)
7305192878_0706bdd012Marc Chagall was born in 1887 to a poor Jewish family in Russia. He was the eldest of nine children. Chagall began to display his artistic talent while studying at a secular Russian school and, in 1907 despite his father’s disapproval he began studying art with Leon Bakst in St. Petersburg. It was at this time that his distinct style we recognize today began to emerge. As his paintings began to center on images from his childhood, the focus that would guide his artistic motivation for the rest of his life came to fruition.
In 1910, Chagall moved to Paris for four years. It was during this period that he painted some of his most famous paintings of the Jewish village life, and developed the features that became recognizable trademarks of his art. Strong and bright colors began to portray the world in a dreamlike state. Fantasy, nostalgia and religion began to fuse together to create otherworldly images.
In 1914, before the outbreak of World War I, Chagall held a one-man show in Berlin exhibiting work dominated by Jewish images. During the war, he resided in Russia, and in 1917, he was appointed Commissar for Fine Arts‘ in Vitebsk and then director of the newly established Free Academy of Art. In 1922, Chagall left Russia to settle in France one year later. He lived there permanently except between years 1941-1948 when fleeing France during World War II. During this time, he resided in the United States. Chagall’s horror over the Nazi rise to power is expressed in works depicting Jewish martyrs and refugees.
In addition to images of the Jewish world, Chagall’s paintings are inspired by themes from the Bible. His fascination with the Torah culminated in a series of over 100 etchings illustrating the Bible, many of which incorporate elements from folklore and from religious life in Russia.
Israel, which Chagall first visited in 1931 for the opening of the Tel Aviv Art Museum, is likewise endowed with some of Chagall’s work, most notably the twelve stained glass windows at Hadassah Hospital and wall decorations at the Knesset.
Chagall received many prizes and much recognition for his work. He was also one of very few artists to exhibit work at the Louvre, Paris in their lifetime.
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"url": "http://heritageappraisalsmi.com/marc-chagall-artwork/"
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GRE Reading Comprehension: JiJing 352-GRE阅读机经352篇 - 6V5K51O7953437ZZJ
The force of the evidence cites in the passage is most seriously weakened if which of the following is true? A. For ships on the Ramian Sea during the period, a full load of liquid cargo stored in large ceramic jars was not likely to be significantly heavier than a full load of other kinds of cargo that were typical of the period. B. There are no surviving records dating from the period that detail specific cargoes shipped across the Ramian Sea. C. The ratio of liquid to solid cargo shipped across the Ramian Sea did not vary significantly over the period. D. The presence of a sizable quantity of large ceramic jars on the ocean floor is so visually striking that a shipwreck of a ship carrying such jars is more likely to be noticed and reported than are shipwrecks of ships carrying other cargoes. E. During the period, grain and other solid cargo was shipped across the Ramian Sea in containers made from material other than clay.
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"language_score": 0.9626032710075378,
"url": "http://www.peakgmt.com/web/6V5K51O7953437ZZJ.html"
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The mediators of inflammation are the substances that initiate and regulate inflammatory reactions. The most important inflammation mediators include vasoactive amineslipid products (prostaglandins and leukotrienes), cytokines (including chemokines), and products of complement activation. These mediators induce various components of the inflammatory response typically by distinct mechanisms, which is why inhibiting each has been therapeutically beneficial. However, there is also some overlap (redundancy) in the actions of the mediators.
The inflammation mediators have some common characteristics, like
• Mediators are either secreted by cells or generated from plasma proteins. Cell-derived mediators are normally sequestered in intracellular granules and can be rapidly secreted by granule exocytosis (e.g., histamine in mast cell granules) or are synthesised de novo (e.g., prostaglandins and leukotrienes, cytokines) in response to a stimulus. The major cell types that produce mediators of acute inflammation are the sentinels that detect invaders and damage in tissues, that is, macrophages, dendritic cells, and mast cells, but platelets, neutrophils, endothelial cells, and most epithelia can also be induced to elaborate some of the mediators. Plasma derived mediators (e.g., complement proteins) are produced mainly in the liver and are present in the circulation as inactive precursors that must be activated. When activated a series of proteolytic and protein-protein interactions are initiated that ultimately to acquire their biologic properties.
• Ative mediators are produced only in response to various stimuli. These stimuli include microbial products and substances released from necrotic cells. Some of the stimuli trigger well-defined receptors and signalling pathways.
• Most of the mediators are short-lived. They quickly decay, or are inactivated by enzymes, or they are otherwise scavenged or inhibited. There is thus a system of checks and balances that regulates mediator actions.
• One mediator can stimulate the release of other mediators. The secondary mediators may have the same actions as the initial mediators but may also have different and even opposing activities. Such cascades provide mechanisms for amplifying or, in certain instances, counteracting the initial action off a mediator.
Vasoactive Amines: Histamine and Serotonin
The two major vasoactive amines, so named because they have important actions on blood vessels, are histamine and serotonin. They are stored as preformed molecules in cells and are therefore among the first mediators to be released during inflammation. The richest sources off histamine are the mast cells that are normally present in the connective tissue adjacent to blood vessels. It is also found in blood basophils and platelets. Histamine is stored in mast cell granules and is released by mast cell degranulation in response to a variety of stimuli, including 1.physical injury, such as trauma, cold, or heat, by unknown mechanisms;2.binding of antibodies to mast cells, which underlies immediate hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions; and 3.products of complement called anaphylatoxins (C3a and C5a). Antibodies and complement products bind to specific receptors on mast cells and trigger signalling pathways that induce rapid degranulation. In addition, leukocytes are thought to secrete some histamine-releasing proteins but these have not been characterised. Neuropeptides (e.g., substance P) and cytokines (IL-1, IL-8) may also trigger release of histamine.
Histamine causes dilation of arterioles and increases the permeability of venules. Histamine is considered to be the principle mediator of the immediate transient phase of increased vascular permeability, producing interendothelial gaps in venules. Its vasoactive effects are mediated mainly via binding to receptors, called H1 receptors, on microvascular endothelial cells. Histamine also causes contraction of some smooth muscles.
Serotonin is a preformed vasoactive mediator present in platelets and certain neuroendocrine cells, such as in the gastrointestinal tract, and in mast cells in rodents but not humans. Its primary function is as a neurotransmitter in the gastrointestinal tract. It is also a vasoconstrictor, but the importance of this action in inflammation is unclear.
Arachidonic Acid Metabolites
The lipid mediators prostaglandins and leukotrienes are produced from arachidonic acid (AA) present in membrane phospholipids, and stimulate vascular and cellular reactions in acute inflammation. AA does not occur free in the cell but is normally esterified in membrane phospholipids. Mechanical, chemical, and physical stimuli or other mediators (e.g., C5a) release AA from membrane phospholipids through the action of cellular phospholipases, mainly phospholipase A2. The biochemical signals involved in the activation of phospholipase A2 include an increase in cytoplasmic Ca2+ and activation of various kinases in response to external stimuli. AA-derived mediators, also called eicosanoids are synthesised by two major classes of enzymes: cyclooxygenases (for prostaglandins) and lipoxygenases (for leukotrienes). Eicosanoids bind to G protein-coupled receptors on many cell types and can mediate virtually every step of inflammation, including vasodilation (PGI2, PGE1, PGE2 PGD2), vasoconstriction (TxA2/Thromboxane A2, leukotrienes C4/D4/E4), increased vascular permeability (Leukotrienes C4/D4/E4), Chemotaxis, leukocyte adhesion (Leukotrienes B4/HETE or Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid).
• Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins (PGs) are produced by mast cells, macrophages, endothelial cells, and many other cell types, and are involved in the vascular and systemic reactions of inflammation. They are generated by the actions of two cyclooxgenases, called COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is produced in response to inflammatory stimuli and is also constitutively expressed in most tissues, where it may serve a homeostatic function (e.g., fluid and electrolyte balance in the kidneys, cytoprotection in the gastrointestinal tract). In contrast, COX-2 is induced by inflammatory stimuli and thus generates the prostaglandins that are involved in inflammatory reactions, but it is low or absent in most normal tissues. Prostaglandins include many subtype PGs, such as TxA2, PGI2, PGD2, PGE2, PGF2a etc. These subtype prostaglandins are derived by the action of different enzymes on an intermediate in the pathways, respectively.
TxA2, a potent platelet-aggregating agent and vasoconstrictor is derived by the enzyme thromboxane synthase which locates in the platelets. Prostacyclin synthase in vascular endothelium catalyze the production of PGI2 and PGI2 has functions as vasodilator, a potent inhibitor of platelet aggregation, and markedly potentiates the permeability-increasing and chemotactic effects of other mediators. PS: a thromboxane-prostacyclin imbalance has been implicated as an early event in thrombus formation in coronary and cerebral blood vessels. PGD2 is the major prostaglandin made by mast cells; along with PGE2 (which is more widely distributed), it causes vasodilation and increases the permeability of post capillary venules, thus potentiating edema formation. Also it has a function of chemoattractant for neutrophils. PGF2a stimulates the contraction of uterine and bronchial smooth muscle and small arterioles.
In addition to their local effects, the prostaglandins are involved in the pathogenesis of pain and fever in inflammation. PGE2 is hyperalgesic and makes the skin hypersensitive painful stimuli, such as intradermal injection of suboptimal concentrations of histamine and bradykinin. It is also involved in cytokine-induced fever during infections.
• Leukotrienes
Leukotrienes are produced by leukocytes and mast cells by the action of lipoxygenase and are involved in vascular and smooth muscle reactions and leukocyte recruitment. There are three different lipoxygenases, 5-lipoxygenase being the predominant one in neutrophils. This enzyme converts AA (arachidonic acid) to 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, which is chemotactic for neutrophils, and is the precursor of the leukotrienes. Among leukotrienes, LTB4 is a potent chemotactic agent and activator of neutrophils, causing aggregation and adhesion of the cells to ventral endothelium, generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species), and release of lysosomal enzymes. The LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4 cause intense vasoconstriction, bronchospasm (important in asthma), and increased permeability of venules. Leukotrienes are more potent than is histamine in incresing vascular permeability and causing bronchospasm.
• Lipoxins
Lipoxins are also generated from AA by the lipoxygenase pathway, but unlike prostaglandins and leukotrienes, the lipoxins suppress inflammation by inhibiting the recruitment of leukocytes. They inhibit neutrophil chemotaxis and adhesion to endothelium. They are also unusual in that two cell populations are required for the transcellular biosynthesis of these mediators. Leukocytes, particularly neutrophils, produce intermediates in lipoxin synthesis, and these are converted to lipoxins by platelets interacting with the leukocytes.
Cytokines and Chemokines
• Cytokines
Cytokines are proteins produced by many cell types (principally activated lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, but also endothelial, epithelial, and connective tissue cells) that mediate and regulate immune and inflammatory reactions. They include TNF (tutor necrosis factor) and Interleukin-I (IL-1). These cytokines are produced mainly by activated macrophages and dendritic cells; TNF is also produced by T lymphocytes and mast cells, and IL-1 is produced by some epithelial cells as well. The most important roles of these cytokines in inflammation are the following:
Screen Shot 2015-11-11 at 7.40.44 PM1.Endothelial activation. Both TNF and IL-1 act on endothelium to induce a spectrum of changes referred to as endothelial activation. These changes include increased expression of endothelial adhesion molecules, mostly E- and P-selectins and ligands for leukocyte integrins; increased production of various mediators, including other cytokines and cheekiness, growth factors, and eicosanoids; and increased procoagulant activity of the endothelium.
2.Activation of leukocytes and other cells. TNF augments responses of neutrophils to other stimuli such as bacterial endotoxin and stimulates the microbicidal activity of macrophages, in part by inducing production of NO. IL-1 activates fibroblasts to synthesize collagen and stimulates proliferation of synovial and other mesenchymal cells. IL-1 also stimulates TH17 responses, which in turn induce acute inflammation.
3.Systemic acute-phase response. IL-1 and TNF induce the systemic acute-phase responses associated with infection or injury, including fever. They are also implicated in the syndrome of sepsis, resulting from disseminated bacterial infection. TNF regulates energy balance by promoting lipid and protein mobilisation and by suppressing appetite. Therefore, sustained production of TNF contributes to cachexia, a pathologic state characterised by weight loss and anorexia that accompanies some chronic infections and neoplastic disease.
• Chemokines
Cheekiness are a family of small (8 to 10 kD) proteins that act primarily as chemoattractants for specific types of leukocytes. Inflammatory chemokines stimulate leukocyte attachment to endothelium by acting on leukocytes to increase the affinity of integrins, and they stimulate migration (chemotaxis) of leukocytes in tissue to the site of infection or tissue damage. Also, some chemokines are produced constitutively in tissues and are sometimes called homeostatic chemokines. These organize various cell types in different anatomic regions of the tissues.
Complement System
The complement system is a collection of soluble proteins and membrane receptors that function mainly in host defines against microbes and in pathologic inflammatory reactions. This system of complement functions in both innate and adaptive immunity for defines against microbial pathogens. In the process of complement activation, several cleavage products of complement proteins are elaborated that cause increased vascular permeability, chemotaxis, and opsonization.
Complement system acts as the bridge between innate and adaptive immune system. This concept is due to the fact that complement proteins can be activated directly by antigen-antibody complexes.
Primary Functions
There are three main effects of complement: 1.lysis of cells such as bacteria, allografts, and tumor cells; 2.generation of mediators that participate in inflammation and attract neutrophils; and 3.opsonization – enhancement of phagocytosis.
C3b is the central molecule of the complement cascade. It has two core functions: combines with other complement components to generate C5 convertase, the enzyme that leads to the production of the membrane attack complex (first it adhere to the surface of the targets); and opsonises bacteria because phagocytes have receptors for C3b on their surface.
How to activate?
In the classic pathway, antigen-antibody complexes activate C12 to form a protease and thereafter the complement cascade starts. In the lectin pathway, MBL (mannas-binding lectin/mannose-binding protein) binds to the surface of microbes bearing mannan. This activates proteases associated with MBL that activates complement cascade. In the alternative pathway, many unrelated cll surface substances can initiate the process by binding C3 and factor B. This complex is cleaved by a protease and finally the complement cascade initiates.
Other Mediators
• Platelet-Activating Factor (PAF)
PAF is a phospholipid-derived mediator that was discovered as a factor that caused platelet aggregation, but it is now known to have multiple inflammatory effects. A variety of cell types, including platelets themselves, basophils, mast cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and endothelial cells, can elaborate PAF, in both recreated and cell-bound forms. In addition to platelet aggregation, PAF causes vasoconstriction and bronchoconstriction, and at low concentrations it induces vasodilation and increased ventral permeability.
• Products of Coagulation
Protease-activated receptors (PARs) are activated by thrombin (converting fibrinogen to fibrin), and are expressed on platelets and leukocytes.
• Kinins
Kinins are vasoactive peptides derived from plasma proteins called kininogens, by the action of specific proteases called kallikreins. The enzyme kallikrein cleaves a plasma glycoprotein precursor, high-molecular-weight kininogen, to produce bradykinin, a substance that increases vascualar permeability and causes contraction of smooth muscle, dilation of blood vessels, and pain when injected into the skin. These effects are similar to those of histamine. The action of bradykinin is short-lived, because it is quickly inactivated by an enzyme called kininase.
• Neuropeptides
Neuropeptides are secreted by sensory nerves and various leukocytes, and may play a role in the initiation and regulation of inflammatory responses. These small peptides, such as substance P and neurokinin A, are produced in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Substance P has many biologic functions, including the transmission of pain signals, regulation of blood pressure, stimulation of hormone secretion by endocrine cells, and increasing vascular permeability.
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An A-Z Guide To The Search For Plato's Atlantis
Latest News
• Joining The Dots
Joining The Dots
Recent Updates
Eugène Pégot-Ogier
Identity of the Atlanteans (m)
Basques: William Lewy d’Abartiague, Edward Taylor Fletcher
Phoenicians: Jonas Bergman, Robert Prutz,
Swedes: Johannes Bureus, Olaf Rudbeck
*[Trojans: Eberhard Zangger, Erich vonDäniken?]*
Fortunate Isles (L)
Fortunate Isles or Isles of the Blest is a term that has been applied to many islands over the ages but has been consistently described as being ‘in the west’. It is most commonly believed that the term was originally used to describe the Canary Islands, which in turn are considered by many to be remnants of Atlantis.
Marinus of Tyre, writing around 120 AD wrote of the Fortunate Isles as the western boundary of the known world and he was followed by Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 AD) who used the Fortunate Islands as the prime meridian for his Geographia(a) . However, although there is a general acceptance that the Canaries should be considered the Fortunate Isles, Ptolemy’s prime meridian runs more closely to the Cape Verde Islands!
Peter de Roo identifies Madeira and the Canaries as the Fortunate Islands in a map in his 1900 book History of America before Columbus[0890]..
Macaronesia which is derived from the Greek meaning ‘islands of the fortunate’ is a modern geographical term used to collectively describe the islands of Madeira, Azores, Canaries, Cape Verde and the Savage Islands. The term ‘Fortunate Isles’ is also applied to the Scilly Isles off the coast of Cornwall.
See: HesperidesEugene Pégot-Ogier
Pégot-Ogier, Eugene
Eugene Pégot-Ogier (1824-1895) was the author of The Fortunate Isles translated into English in 1871[651]. He unequivocally identified the Canaries as the Fortunate Isles referred to in antiquity. He went further and offered his view that the aboriginal Guanches of the Canaries had been part of the Atlantean empire, together with the Berber peoples across North Africa.
The Fortunate Isles was republished in 2009[1292], while the 1871 edition can now be read or downloaded online(a).
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MIT Technology Review
What Makes a Violin Powerful
Study identifies features that boost a violin’s sound.
April 21, 2015
Some of the most prized violins in the world were crafted in the Italian workshops of Amati, Stradivari, and Guarneri—master violin-making families from the 17th and 18th centuries, who produced increasingly powerful instruments. These violins, worth millions of dollars today, represent the Cremonese period, considered the golden age of violin making.
Most sound produced by a violin and its ancestors flows through a sound hole’s perimeter, not its interior.
Now MIT researchers and violin makers at Boston’s North Bennet Street School have analyzed measurements from hundreds of Cremonese-era violins, identifying features that contribute to their acoustic power, or fullness of sound.
The researchers acquired technical drawings of violins from museums, collector databases, and books, as well as x-rays and CT scans of the instruments. They compared the dimensions of various features and measurements of acoustic resonances in different instruments.
The researchers found that a key feature affecting a violin’s sound is the shape and length of its “f-holes,” the f-shaped openings through which air escapes: the more elongated these are, the more sound a violin can produce. An elongated sound hole takes up little space on the violin, while still producing a full sound—a more power-efficient design than the rounder sound holes of the violin’s ancestors, such as medieval fiddles and lyres.
The violin’s back plate also contributes to its acoustic power. Violins carved from wood are relatively elastic: as the instrument produces sound, its body responds to the air vibrations. A thicker back plate leads to more sound power at the air resonance frequency.
As violins were crafted first by Amati, then by Stradivari, and finally by Guarneri, they evolved to have longer f-holes and thicker back plates.
But were the design changes intentional? To answer this question, the researchers worked the measurements from hundreds of Cremonese-era violins into an evolutionary model. They found that any change in design could be explained by natural mutation—in this case, craftsman error.
Makris stresses that while all the violin makers inarguably possessed good ears, whether they recognized the particular design elements that contribute to a more powerful sound is still up for debate.
“Mystery is good, and there’s magic in violin making,” he says. “But here, for us, it’s good to understand scientifically as much as you can.”
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• Kindergarten Science and Social Studies
1st - 4th Qtr. Observe weather patterns
1st Qtr. - Compare/Contrast Living and Nonliving things
2nd Qtr. - Observe positions and motions of objects
3rd Qtr. - Classify objects by color, shape, size, texture, weight, and flexibility
4th Qtr. - Compare/Contrast physical properties of materials objects are made from
Social Studies
1st Qtr. - Understand change over time, understanding the roles of a good citizen
2nd Qtr. - Use geographic representations and terms to describe surroundings
3rd Qtr. - Understand the interaction between humans and the environment, understand basic economic concepts
4th Qtr. - Good citizenship, global awareness
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How sand transformed civilization
Preface. No wonder we’re reaching peak sand. We use more of this natural resource than of any other except water. Civilization consumes nearly 50 billion tons of sand & gravel a year, enough to build a concrete wall 88 feet (27 m) high and 88 feet wide right around the equator.
* * *
Vince Beiser. 2018. The World in a Grain. The Story of Sand and How It Transformed Civilization. Riverhead Books.
Riverbeds and beaches around the world are being stripped bare of their precious grains. Farmlands and forests are being torn up. And people are being imprisoned, tortured, and murdered. All over sand.
In 1950, some 746 million people—less than one-third of the world’s population—lived in cities. Today, the number is almost 4 billion,
The overwhelming bulk of it goes to make concrete, by far the world’s most important building material. In a typical year, according to the United Nations Environment Programme, the world uses enough concrete to build a wall 88 feet high and 88 feet wide right around the equator.
There is such intense need for certain types of construction sand that places like Dubai, which sits on the edge of an enormous desert in the Arabian Peninsula, are importing sand from Australia.
Sand mining tears up wildlife habitat, fouls rivers, and destroys farmland.
Thieves in Jamaica made off with 1,300 feet of white sand from one of the island’s finest beaches in 2008. Smaller-scale beach-sand looting is ongoing in Morocco, Algeria, Russia, and many other places around the world.
The damage being done to beaches is only one facet, and not even the most dangerous one, of the damage being done by sand mining around the world. Sand miners have completely obliterated at least two dozen Indonesian islands since 2005. Hauled off boatload by boatload, the sediment forming those islands ended up mostly in Singapore, which needs titanic amounts of sand to continue its program of artificially adding territory by reclaiming land from the sea.
The city-state has created an extra 50 square miles in the past 40 years and is still adding more, making it by far the world’s largest sand importer. The demand has denuded beaches and riverbeds in neighboring countries to such an extent that Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Cambodia have all restricted or completely banned exports of sand to Singapore.
Sand miners are increasingly turning to the seafloor, vacuuming up millions of tons with dredges the size of aircraft carriers. One-third of all aggregate used in construction in London and southern England comes from beneath the United Kingdom’s offshore waters. Japan relies on sea sand even more heavily, pulling up around 40 million cubic meters from the ocean floor each year. That’s enough to fill up the Houston Astrodome thirty-three times.
Hauling all those grains from the seafloor tears up the habitat of bottom-dwelling creatures and organisms. The churned-up sediment clouds the water, suffocating fish and blocking the sunlight that sustains underwater vegetation.
The dredging ships dump grains too small to be useful, creating further waterborne dust plumes that can affect aquatic life far from the original site.
Dredging of ocean sand has also damaged coral reefs in Florida and many other places, and threatens important mangrove forests, sea grass beds, and endangered species such as freshwater dolphins and the Royal Turtle. One round of dredging may not be significant, but the cumulative effect of several can be. Large-scale ocean sand mining is new enough that there hasn’t been a lot of research on it, meaning that no one knows for sure what the long-term environmental impacts will be. We’re sure to find out in the coming years, however, given how fast the practice is expanding.
What is sand?
The average grain of sand is a tad larger than the width of a human hair. Those grains can be made by glaciers grinding up stones, by oceans degrading seashells and corals (many Caribbean beaches are made of decomposed shells), even by volcanic lava chillingand shattering upon contact with air or water.
Nearly 70% of all sand grains on Earth are quartz. These are the ones that matter most to us.
Silicon and oxygen, are the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, so it’s no surprise that quartz is one of the most common minerals on Earth. It is found abundantly in the granite and other rocks that form the world’s mountains and other geologic features.
Most of the quartz grains we use were formed by erosion. Wind, rain, freeze-thaw cycles, microorganisms, and other forces eat away at mountains and other rock formations, breaking grains off their exposed surfaces. Rain then washes those grains downhill, sweeping them into rivers that carry countless tons of them far and wide. This waterborne sand accumulates in riverbeds, on riverbanks, and on the beaches where the rivers meet the sea. Over the centuries, rivers periodically overflow their banks and shift their courses, leaving behind huge deposits of sand
Quartz is tremendously hard, which is why quartz grains survive this long, bruising journey intact while other mineral grains disintegrate.
Over millions of years, sands are often buried under newer layers of sediment, uplifted into new mountains, then eroded and transported once again.
Quartz always comes mixed with bits of other materials: iron, feldspar, whatever other minerals prevail in the local geology. (Pure quartz is transparent,
A certain amount of those other substances need to be filtered out before the sand can be used to make concrete, glass, or other products.
Sand is deployed on its own to make other construction materials like mortar, plaster, and roofing components.
Marine sands—the naval wing of the army, found on the ocean floor—are of similar composition, making them useful for artificial land building, such as Dubai’s famous palm-tree-shaped man-made islands. These underwater grains can also be used for concrete, but that requires washing the salt off them—an expensive step most contractors would rather avoid.
Silica sands are purer—at least 95%. These are the sands you need to make glass. Silica sands are also used to help make molds for metal foundries, add luster to paint, and filter the water in swimming pools, among many other tasks. Some of the unique properties of industrial sands suit them for highly specific jobs. The silica sands of western Wisconsin, for instance, have a particular shape and structure that make them ideal for use in fracking for oil and gas.
Small amounts of extremely high-purity quartz, a tiny, elite group possessed of rare attributes that enable them to perform extraordinary feats. These particles are made into high-tech equipment essential for manufacturing computer chips. Some are also used to create the sparkling sand traps of exclusive golf courses or to line Persian Gulf horse-racing tracks
Underwater sands are easier to mine, since there’s no intervening earth, known as overburden, to scrape away. They also come largely cleansed of dust-sized particles. On land, sand is usually quarried from open pits. Sometimes that requires using explosives and crushing machines to break apart sandstone,
Harvesting sand
Raw sand needs to be washed and run through a series of screens to sort it by size.
In the United States, some 4,100 companies and government agencies harvest aggregate from about 6,300 locations in all fifty states.
The harm done by sand mining
Colossal amounts of more ordinary construction sand is dredged up from riverbeds or dug from nearby floodplains. In central California, floodplain sand mining has diverted river waters into dead-end detours and deep pits that have proven fatal traps for salmon.
Dredging sand from riverbeds, as from seabeds, can destroy habitat and muddy waters to a lethal degree for anything living in the water. Kenyan officials shut down all river sand mines in one western province in 2013 because of the environmental damage they were causing. In Sri Lanka,33 sand extraction has left some riverbeds so deeply lowered that seawater intrudes into them, damaging drinking water supplies.
India’s Supreme Court warned in 2011 that “the alarming rate of unrestricted sand mining” was disrupting riparian ecosystems all over the country, with fatal consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms and “disaster” for many bird species.
In Vietnam, researchers with the World Wildlife Federation believe sand mining on the Mekong River is a key reason the 15,000-square-mile Mekong Delta—home to 20 million people and source of half of all the country’s food and much of the rice that feeds the rest of Southeast Asia—is gradually disappearing. The ocean is overtaking the equivalent of one and a half football fields of this crucial region’s land every day. Already, thousands of acres of rice farms have been lost.
For centuries, the delta has been replenished by sediment carried down from the mountains of Central Asia by the Mekong River. But in recent years, in each of the several countries along its course, miners have begun pulling huge quantities of sand from the riverbed to use for the construction of Southeast Asia’s surging cities. Nearly 50 million tons of sand are being extracted annually. “The sediment flow has been halved,” says Marc Goichot, a researcher with the World Wildlife Fund’s Greater Mekong Programme. That means that while natural erosion of the delta continues, its natural replenishment does not. At this rate, nearly half the Mekong delta will be wiped out by the end of this century.
Sand extraction from rivers has also caused untold millions of dollars’ worth of damage to infrastructure around the world. The stirred-up sediment clogs up water supply equipment, and all the earth removed from riverbanks leaves the foundations of bridges exposed and unsupported. A 1998 study found that each ton of aggregate mined from the San Benito River on California’s central coast caused $11 million in infrastructure damage—costs that are borne by taxpayers. In many countries, sand miners have dug up so much ground that they have dangerously exposed the foundations of bridges and hillside buildings, putting them at risk of collapse.
Fisherfolk from Cambodia to Sierra Leone are losing their livelihoods as sand mining decimates the populations of fish and other aquatic creatures they rely on. In some places, mining has made riverbanks collapse, taking out agricultural land and causing floods that have displaced whole families. In Vietnam in 2017 alone, so much soil slid into heavily mined rivers, taking with it the crops and homes of hundreds of families, that the government shut down sand extraction completely in two provinces.
And in Houston, Texas, government officials say that sand mining in the nearby San Jacinto River—much of it illegal—seriously exacerbated flooding damage during 2017’s Hurricane Harvey. It seems that sand miners stripped away so much vegetation along the river banks that huge amounts of silt were left exposed, and were then washed into the river by Harvey’s rains. That silt then piled up in riparian bottlenecks and at the bottom of Lake Houston, the city’s principal source of drinking water, causing them to overflow into nearby neighborhoods.
River-bottom sand also plays an important role in local water supplies. It acts like a sponge, catching the water as it flows past and percolating it down into underground aquifers. But when that sand has been stripped away, instead of being drawn underground, the water just keeps on moving to the sea, leaving aquifers to shrink. As result, there are parts of Italy and southern India where river sand mining has drastically depleted local drinking water supplies. Elsewhere, the lack of water is killing crops.
In 2015, New York state authorities slapped a $700,000 fine on a Long Island contractor who had illegally gouged thousands of tons of sand from a 4.5-acre patch of land near the town of Holtsville and then refilled the pit with toxic waste.
In Morocco, fully half the sand used for construction is estimated to be mined illegally; whole stretches of beach in that country are disappearing.
India is a vast country of more than 1 billion people. It hides hundreds, most likely thousands, of illegal sand mining operations. Corruption and violence will stymie many of even the best-intentioned attempts to crack down on them. And it’s not just India.
There is large-scale illegal sand extraction going on in dozens of countries. One way or another, sand is mined in almost every country on Earth. India is only the most extreme manifestation of a slow-building crisis that affects the whole world.
Concrete is the skeleton of the modern world, the scaffold on which so much else is built. It gives us the power to dam enormous rivers, erect buildings of Olympian height, and travel to all but the remotest corners of the world with an ease that would astonish our ancestors. Measured by the number of lives it touches, concrete is easily the most important man-made material ever invented.
Cement is not the same thing as concrete. Cement is an ingredient of concrete. It’s the glue that binds the gravel and sand together. Cements (there are many forms) are typically made by crushing up clay, lime, and other minerals, firing them in a kiln at temperatures up to 2,700 degrees, then milling the result into a silky-fine gray powder. Mix that powder with water and you get a paste. The paste doesn’t simply dry, like mud; it “cures,” meaning the powder’s molecules bond together via a process called hydration, its chemical components gripping each other ever tighter, making the resulting substance extremely strong. Reinforced with a platoon of sand, that paste thickens into mortar, the stuff used to hold bricks together.
Concrete is made by adding “aggregate”—sand and gravel—to the mix of cement and water. Typical concrete is about 75% aggregate, 15% water, and 10% cement.
Roman engineers developed sophisticated techniques to improve on basic concrete. Concrete shrinks as it hardens, which can cause it to crack. Water seeping into the cracks expands when it freezes, widening those cracks and further weakening the concrete. Adding horsehair helped with shrinkage, the Romans found, and putting a bit of blood or animal fat in the mix helped the concrete withstand the effects of freezing water.
Today, there are hundreds of formulas for making cement tailored to specific weather conditions, project types, and other variables.
95% of the roughly 83 million tons of cement manufactured in America is Portland cement.
On its own, concrete is basically artificial stone. Reinforced with iron or steel, though, it becomes a building material unlike anything found in nature, one that combines the strengths of both metal and stone. That’s what makes it so useful for so many purposes.
By 1906 there were very few reinforced concrete buildings in California. That was largely thanks to bitter opposition from powerful building trade unions, especially on Ransome’s home turf of San Francisco. Bricklayers, stonemasons, and others, correctly seeing in concrete a mortal threat to their professions, denounced it as unproven and unsafe. Just a few months before the quake, a group of bricklayers and steelworkers in Los Angeles tried to convince the city council to forbid the construction of any more concrete buildings31 within municipal limits. The tradesmen also made a case against concrete on the grounds that it was plain ugly.
Concrete made possible the Panama Canal, begun in 1903, which reshaped an entire nation’s landscape and the world’s shipping routes. It was used to make bunkers for millions of troops in World War I
One million tons of it were deployed to anchor San Francisco’s Golden Gate Bridge.
Every mile of the US interstate highway is made with some 15,000 tons of concrete. Throw in the medians, overpasses, ramps, and road base, and all told, an estimated 1.5 billion tons of gravel and sand went into making the national highway system. That’s more than enough concrete to build a sidewalk reaching to the moon and back—twice.
Modern asphalt pavement is often more than 90% sand and gravel.
One advantage asphalt had over wood was that it didn’t soak up urine from the endless parade of horses that were the primary form of transport at the time. And unlike brick or stone, asphalt had no gaps between blocks for manure to get stuck in, a serious health hazard.
These days, asphalt producers like to boast that 93% of all 2.2 million miles of America’s paved roads are surfaced with their product. They don’t mention that it’s often just an overlay on top of concrete base.
Both asphalt and concrete are basically just gravel and sand stuck together. The difference is the binding agent. In concrete, it’s cement. In asphalt pavement, it’s bitumens.
The basic trade-off is that in general, asphalt is cheaper to lay down and to maintain, and provides a smoother, quieter ride. Concrete, on the other hand, lasts longer and doesn’t need as much repairing in the first place. The choice often comes down to how much money a given government agency has handy.
Both types of pavement began creeping over city streets in the late 1800s, but outside of urban areas at that time, there was almost nothing but dirt to travel on. Roads just weren’t that important. For most of American history, if you wanted to move lots of people or large quantities of goods any significant distance, you did it via water. Rivers, lakes, canals, and seacoasts carried trade and travelers between settlements. Then along came the railroads in the mid-1800s. Trains connected existing centers and made it easier for people to settle further inland.
Roads, such as they were, were for local travel and hauling small loads via horse, wagon, or foot.
By 1912, there were nearly a million cars on American roads—10 percent of them Model T’s. They jostled for space with the new trucks that farmers were investing in to haul their produce, and which businesses were turning to as an alternative to railroads. At the time, there were still 21 million horses hauling people and cargo, but it was clear automobiles were becoming ever more important.
One of the central difficulties in building those first highways was getting the armies of sand to where they were needed. Each mile of paved road required around 2,000 tons of sand and 3,000 tons of gravel. Hauling all that aggregate out to the rural areas where most of the new highways were being built was no small feat; after all, at the time there were hardly any trucks, and no existing roads on which to transport the aggregate from the mines to the new roadbeds. Builders had to rely on horses and wagons, or build special rail lines to bring trains to the roadbeds. Locomotives would haul in carloads of rock, sand, and cement to be mixed on-site.
Roads became a major industry unto themselves. Hundreds of thousands of men worked building them (including chain-ganged prisoners forced to break rocks for roads). More jobs were created in the gas stations, repair shops, restaurants, hotels, and motels that grew up alongside the new highways. Hundreds of other businesses grew fat supplying the raw materials to the road makers—cement, asphalt, gravel, and of course, sand.
11 million tons of sand and gravel were needed to build California’s Shasta Dam. Kaiser figured it would be simple, since he already owned a sizable aggregate mine near the dam site north of Redding; all he had to do was load it up on trains and pay for the transport. But the local railroad quoted a price Kaiser thought too high. So he came up with an audacious work-around. He built a conveyor belt nearly ten miles long, the longest the world had ever seen, to carry a thousand tons of sand and rock per hour up and down rugged hills and across several creeks to the dam site. Later, Kaiser parlayed his expertise with aggregate into a prize gig as one of the main contractors building the Hoover Dam.
The road network is far more resilient compared to rail lines. Trucks can drive around bomb craters, after all, but trains can’t get past damaged track. trucks carry 70% of all US freight, seven times more than trains.
In addition to all the grains embedded in the 11 inches of concrete on the roads’ surface, a further 21 inches of aggregates were needed for the underlying road base.
Consumption of sand and gravel in the US hit a record high of nearly 700 million tons in 1958, a figure almost twice the 1950 total. By then, according to a federal Bureau of Mines report, so much had already been used that “sources of aggregate were limited in some states” and “nearly depleted in other areas.” Entire new types of monster dump trucks, capable of carrying huge loads off-road, were designed to meet the need to move all that aggregate.
Figuring out exactly how to build those roads took some doing. The Bureau of Public Roads set up a testing center near Chicago where researchers experimented with different types and proportions of sand, gravel, cement, and other ingredients to figure out how much of a beating from heavily loaded trucks each paving mixture could stand up to and for how long. They built a series of looping test tracks composed of various asphalt and concrete mixes, and then set a company of soldiers to drive trucks over them—19 hours a day, every day for two years. The bureau used the data to set pavement design standards.
Whatever else you can say about suburbs, their low density and dependence on cars make them an especially sand-intensive form of settlement. Think of all the sand that goes into those wide roads and all those low-slung, spread-out houses, each with its own driveway. Every one of those houses contains hundreds of tons of sand and gravel, from its asphalt driveway to its concrete foundation to its stuccoed walls to the grains on its roof shingles.
The open spaces of suburbia also made possible an explosive proliferation of swimming pools, which require large amounts of sand in the form of concrete.
American sand and gravel production grew in step with the spread of suburbs.
It can be shaped and molded into almost any form, from twenty-ton slabs to strands thinner than a human hair, from delicate crystal to bulletproof shields. It makes fiber-optic cables and beer bottles, microscope lenses and fiberglass kayaks, the skins of skyscrapers and the teeny camera lenses on your cell phone.
Glass is the thing that lets us see everything. Without it, we’d have no photographs, films, or television, “no understanding of the world of bacteria and viruses, no antibiotics and no revolution in molecular biology from the discovery of DNA,
A more refined breed of grain is required than the common construction sand used for concrete. Glass sand belongs to a category called industrial, or silica, sand. The best silica sands also come relatively uniform in size. Grains that are too big won’t melt as easily, and ones that are too small will be blown away by air currents in the furnaces.
Construction sand grains retain their form when made into concrete; they are cemented together with countless legions of their fellow grains and their big brothers, gravel pieces, perpetually working together. The grains that become glass, however, are actually transmuted, losing their individual bodies as they are fused together to form a completely different substance.
Getting them to do that, however, is not easy. It takes temperatures topping 1,600 degrees Celsius to melt silica grains. But mixing sand with additives known as flux, such as soda (aka sodium carbonate), lowers that melting point dramatically. Throw in a little calcium, in the form of powdered limestone or seashell fragments, melt it all together, and when the mixture cools, you have basic glass.
Glassmaking developed into such a profitable art in Venice that in 1291 the city-state’s rulers ordered all of the city’s glassmakers to move to the island of Murano. There they were treated like aristocrats—but not allowed to leave, lest they take their coveted craft secrets to rival nations.
“The invention of spectacles increased the intellectual life of professional workers by fifteen years or more,” write Macfarlane and Martin. Eyeglasses likely abetted the surge of knowledge in Europe from the fourteenth century on. “Much of the later work of great writers such as Petrarch would not have been completed without spectacles. The active life of skilled craftsmen, often engaged in very detailed close work, was also almost doubled,” Macfarlane and Martin maintain. The ability to read into one’s old age became even more important once the printing press came into widespread use from the middle of the fifteenth century.
To manufacture glass profitably, glassmakers need easy access to high-quality sand, cheap energy to run the furnaces, and a transportation network to get the product to market.
It insulated the Alaskan oil pipeline,
In the single year following the introduction of the bottle-making machine, silica sand production in the United States leapt from 1.1 million tons to 4.4 million tons. Clawing all those grains from the earth wreaked considerable damage on the environment. Starting in 1890, sand miners completely dismantled the Hoosier Slide, a 200-foot-tall Indiana dune near Michigan City that was once a tourist attraction, hauling its grains away in wheelbarrows to sell to glassmakers
Lake Michigan shoreline dunes, some as high as 300 feet, were also mined out of existence until public outcry forced the state government to protect them in the 1970s and 1980s.
Elsewhere in Indiana, the Gary Evening Post complained in 1913 that “sand sucker” boats were “stealing the bottom” of Lake Michigan to sell to glassmakers. At the time, no permit or payment was required; anyone was free to dredge as much sand as they liked. (Indiana sand also provided fill for the site of the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair, and to reclaim the land on which Chicago’s famous Lincoln Park was built.)
Owens’s machine quickly and completely wiped out jobs for another class of workers: children. The unions suddenly became crusaders for eliminating child labor—partly because their low pay dragged down wages for everyone, at a time when workingmen’s livelihoods were already in jeopardy. But more important, kids simply were no longer needed in the factories. The dangerous, repetitive tasks that had been given to children were now better handled by machines. In 1880, nearly one-quarter of all glass industry workers were children; by 1919, fewer than 2 percent were.
The irony of all this was that Owens himself didn’t see much wrong with child labor. He always insisted his own early career was a fine one for any stouthearted lad. In a 1922 magazine interview, he expounded: “One of the greatest evils of modern life is the growing habit of regarding work as an affliction. When I was a youngster I wanted to work. . . . A great deal of the trouble to day is with the mothers. Too many boys are being brought up by sentimental women. The first fifteen or twenty years of their lives are spent in playing. . . . When they finally start to work, they are so useless and so helpless that it is positively pathetic. The young man who has begun to work when he was a boy has them handicapped. . . . The hard work I did as a boy never injured me.” He added: “I went through all the jobs the boys performed, and I enjoyed every bit of the experience.
Before 1900, beer and whiskey were distributed in kegs to taverns; if you wanted some to take home, you had to supply your own jug. Milk was stored in metal cans delivered by milk wagons; it was served in pitchers. There was no such thing as a baby bottle. Glass is a near-perfect material for packaging food and beverages. It is nonporous and impermeable, and almost nothing reacts with it chemically, which means a bottle will not interact with whatever is inside it. It won’t rust or leach BPAs or impart a plasticky taste; the liquid inside will retain its aroma and flavor for a very long time. So the sudden availability of cheap high-quality bottles was a colossal gift to makers of soft drinks, beer, medicines, and other bottled consumables.
Owens’s mass-manufactured bottles hit the market at the same time that automobiles were taking over the country and paved roads were spreading. Both developments made it easier than ever to distribute products like bottled drinks far and wide. Trucks loaded with products packaged in sand rolled smoothly from shop to shop on roads made of sand.
By 1916 they had a good enough model to launch a new company selling sheet glass. Its impact was as profound as the bottle machine, turning windows for houses and cars, as well as glass tableware, from luxury items into everyday basics.
Glass-skinned skyscrapers took over city skylines. Plate glass production worldwide mushroomed twenty-five-fold between 1980 and 2010.37 Today, more than 11 billion square yards of flat glass are consumed every year38—more than enough to glaze over the entire city of Houston six times.
Owens-Illinois employees in the 1930s developed a threadlike form of glass that is flexible, strong, lightweight, waterproof, and heat resistant, which they dubbed Fiberglas.
Others had spun glass into threads before, but the new process allowed for the creation of strands as thin as four microns around and thousands of feet long.
To make fiberglass, silica is melted down along with other substances—boron, calcium oxide, magnesia—to make it more workable and give it other properties desired for specific products, such as greater tensile strength. This molten glass is extruded through a metal sleeve set with tiny holes, and the streams are caught on high-speed winders that spin them into filaments. Once cooled and coated with chemical resin, these strands can be used in all kinds of ways.
Owens-Illinois employees in the 1930s developed a threadlike form of glass that is flexible, strong, lightweight, waterproof, and heat resistant, which they dubbed Fiberglas. (Yes, with one s. Later, other companies brought their own versions to market and the stuff became known generically as fiberglass.) Others had spun glass into threads before, but the new process allowed for the creation of strands as thin as four microns around and thousands of feet long. As is true of all glass products, it owes its existence to sand. To make fiberglass, silica is melted down along with other substances—boron, calcium oxide, magnesia—to make it more workable and give it other properties desired for specific products, such as greater tensile strength. This molten glass is extruded through a metal sleeve set with tiny holes, and the streams are caught on high-speed winders that spin them into filaments. Once cooled and coated with chemical resin, these strands can be used in all kinds of ways. Fiberglass pipe insulation to kayaks. Highly efficient insulation made with fiberglass also helped make possible the movement of millions of people into America’s South and Southwest, areas too unpleasantly hot in summer for most folks to consider without a reliable way to keep the heat out. Sand in the form of fiberglass made it easier for people to move to the sand-strewn deserts of Arizona and Nevada.
(Ceramics, incidentally, are also largely composed of sand; ground silica provides the skeleton to which the clay and other additives are attached.)
Glass has long since lost its premier position as the world’s beverage container material of choice; plastic bottles and metal cans now make up 80 percent of the market.
The industry’s center of gravity today is China, which is now both the world’s largest producer and consumer of glass, churning out and gobbling up more than half of all the world’s flat glass. It so thoroughly dominates glass manufacture today
Computer Chips
Spruce Pine, it turns out, is the source of the purest natural quartz ever found on Earth. This ultra-elite corps of silicon dioxide particles plays a key role in manufacturing the silicon used to make computer chips. In fact, there’s an excellent chance the chip that makes your laptop or cell phone work was made using quartz from this obscure Appalachian backwater. “It’s a billion-dollar industry here,” said Glover with a hooting laugh. “Can’t tell by driving through here. You’d never know it.
Mica used to be prized for wood- and coal-burning stove windows and for electrical insulation in vacuum tube electronics. It’s now used mostly as a specialty additive in cosmetics and things like caulks, sealants, and drywall joint compound.
The next step is to melt down the polysilicon. But you can’t just throw this exquisitely refined material in a cook pot. If the molten silicon comes into contact with even the tiniest amount of the wrong substance, it causes a ruinous chemical reaction. You need crucibles made from the one substance that has both the strength to withstand the heat required to melt polysilicon, and a molecular composition that won’t infect it. That substance is pure quartz. This is where Spruce Pine quartz comes in. It’s the world’s primary source of the raw material needed to make the fused-quartz crucibles in which computer-chip-grade polysilicon is melted. A fire in 2008 at one of the main quartz facilities in Spruce Pine for a time all but shut off the supply of high-purity quartz to the world market, sending shivers through the industry.
A 2017 study by the US Geological Survey warned that unless something is done, as much as two-thirds of Southern California’s beaches may be completely eroded by 2100.2 To understand why, you
Massive coastal development—marinas, jetties, ports—blocks the flow of ocean-borne sand.
River dams also cut off the flow of sand that used to feed beaches.
Southern California’s beaches have lost as much as four-fifths of the sediment that rivers used to bring them, thanks to dams.
Louisiana loses an estimated sixteen square miles of wetlands every year—a crucial natural defense against hurricanes—because levees and canals on the Mississippi have reduced the flow of sediment that used to replenish them.6 Egypt’s Aswan Dam has done a similar number on the shore of the Nile Delta. China’s colossal Three Gorges Dam project is expected to have an even greater impact.
Sand mining makes the problem worse. Dams combined with upriver sand mining are decimating the supply of replenishing sediment to Vietnam’s Mekong Delta, home to 20 million people and source of half that country’s food supply.
Illegal beach sand mining has been reported all over the world. In Morocco and Algeria, illegal miners have stripped entire beaches for construction sand, leaving behind rocky moonscapes. Thieves in Hungary made off with hundreds of tons of sand from an artificial river beach in 2007. Five miles of beach was stripped down to its clay foundation in Russian-occupied Crimea in 2016. Smugglers in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia pile beach sand onto small barges in the night and sell them in Singapore.8 Beaches have been torn up in India and elsewhere by
Government officials in Puerto Rico have had to restrict beach sand mining because so many grains were being taken to build tourist hotels that the very beaches those tourists came for were disappearing.
Add rising seas to shrinking beaches and you have a serious problem worldwide.
Beach nourishment, also known as beach replenishment, has become a major industry. More than $7 billion has been spent in the United States in recent decades on artificially rebuilding hundreds of miles of beach nationwide. Almost all of the costs are covered by taxpayers; much of it is overseen by the federal US Army Corps of Engineers. Florida accounted for about a quarter of the total,
Eastman Aggregate would dump a million tons of new sand on Broward’s beaches over the course of several months. The grains are mined from an inland quarry a couple of hours drive away. Trucks haul that sand down the highway, squeeze their way in between the villas and hotels, and dump it on the shore. Excavators load the freshly delivered sand into hulking yellow dump trucks, which ferry it to the edge of the renourishment zone. Small bulldozers then push the grains into place, extending an evenly proportioned beach out into the surf.
Hauling and placing sand with trucks is both considerably slower and far more expensive than the more common method, which is to dredge sand from the sea bottom and blast it onto the shore through floating pipes. The problem is that over the last four decades since beach nourishment began in earnest, Broward County has used up all the sea sand it is legally and technically able to lay its hands on. Nearly 12 million cubic yards13 of underwater grains have been stripped off the ocean bottom and thrown onto Broward’s shores. There are still some pockets of sand on the seabed, but dredging them is forbidden because it could damage the coral reefs they sit next to.
The same goes for Miami-Dade County to the south.
There is lots of sand left off the coasts of three other Florida counties farther north. They haven’t worked their beaches quite as hard as the tourist meccas to the south, and the continental shelf up there extends further out before dropping into the deep ocean, giving them a larger area to dredge from. Miami-Dade has asked for help, but the northern counties have so far refused to share. They don’t want to find themselves in Miami’s position thirty years from now.
Olympic beach volleyball players. To make sure their bare feet come into contact only with grains of just the right size and shape, sand was brought in from Hainan Island for the 2008 Beijing Games, and from a quarry in Belgium for the 2004 Athens Games.
This particular beach is only expected to last about six years before it needs more upkeep.
In Broward County, they make no bones about it. “Beaches are a form of infrastructure,” said Sharp. “You pave your potholes, we pave our beaches with sand.
For most of human history, beaches weren’t places to relax, but to work. The sandy shores were where fishermen launched their boats and cleaned their catch, where small traders unloaded their cargo. Coastal people built their homes a safe distance from the unpredictable weather and waves of the shoreline, often facing away from the sea for added protection.16 “When Europeans and Americans first settled the coasts, they largely ignored, indeed avoided, what are today’s most coveted stretches of shore,” writes historian John R. Gillis in The Human Shore, an account of our changing relationship with our coasts. “The beach was used for landing but not for settlement. Its featureless barrenness was not only inhospitable but repulsive.
“1820s-era England is responsible for a turning point in the history of seaside resorts, as this was when the first major bathing establishments were constructed for the specific purpose of bathing, relaxation, and play,”18 writes University of Florida scholar Tatyana Ressetar in her master’s thesis
The popularity of beaches grew through the late 1800s among the burgeoning middle class, with their newfound leisure time, and as railroads made the shores accessible to lower-class city dwellers who previously had no way to reach them.
The rich began building private seaside mansions, and the middle class copied them on a smaller scale, until by the 1930s there were seaside towns all over Europe and North America. The rise of the automobile and post–World War II prosperity brought unprecedented numbers to the beach, more and more of whom chose to retire there as time went on.
A century ago, Hawaii’s Waikiki Beach was a narrow ribbon of sand fringed by marsh; it was beefed up to its current expansive size with grains barged in from other Hawaiian islands, and at one point in the 1930s with sand shipped from California. Today it still requires regular renourishing.
Many of Spain’s Canary Island beaches were just rocky coastlines until developers dumped tons of sand imported from the Caribbean and Morocco on them.
The glamorization of the sandy beach gave rise to cities like Miami Beach and Fort Lauderdale. Roads built of sand made it possible for people to drive to them. Concrete made it possible to build whole cities in the middle of nowhere to house them all. Later, concrete built the vast theme parks—Walt Disney World, Universal Studios—which attracted even more people. Sand abetting sand abetting sand.
Washington subsidizes local governments and homeowners who build in imperiled coastal areas to the tune of billions of dollars in the form of insurance guarantees, disaster bailouts, and other protections. Taxpayer-funded beach nourishment also has the perverse effect of shoring up property values, a recent study found.
NOTE: to read further, be sure to buy the book, I left a lot out of the above
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Nasturtium 101
COMMON NAME: nasturtium
GENUS: Tropaeolum
SPECIES: T.major; T. minor
FAMILY: Tropaeolaceae
BLOOMS: summer
TYPE: annual
DESCRIPTION: Very colorful, five-petaled blossoms grow on short or trailing plants. The leaves are round and attractive. Blossom colors include red, pink, and yellow and hues in between.
CULTIVATION: Nasturtiums are very adaptable and can grow in poor soils and under drought conditions. They need well-drained soil and plenty of hot sunshine.
The genus name, Tropaeolum, is a Greek word meaning “to twine” and is descriptive of the growth habit of many species within this genus. Another possible explanation for the origin of this name is the Greek word for trophy, tropaion, for to some people the flowers looked like a Roman helmet or round shield.
T. minor, first found growing in Mexico and Peru, has been in cultivation since the middle of the sixteenth century. Nicolas Monardes, a physician from Seville who wrote the first herbal about New World plants {Joyfull Newes Out of the Newe Founde Worlde}, introduced nasturtiums to England in 1574. He called them Flowers of Blood, a translation of their Spanish name. Because of the tartness of the leaves, the English called this new plant Indian cress. Its larger cousin, the T. major, was not introduced to the garden until over a hundred years later. Other common names included canary flower, yellow larkspur, and lark’s heel.
The name nasturtium is from Latin words meaning “nose twister.”
Pickled-nasturtium-seeds-recipe-Poor-Mans-Capers-Decorators-Notebook-blog-5Nasturtiums have been used extensively for their taste and medicinal value. Sailors took barrels of pickled seeds on long voyages and ate them to combat scurvy. The pickled seeds were eaten like capers. Eating nasturtium blossoms was said to soften the muscles, or keep them from getting stiff. Oil from the seeds was rubbed on the body after exercising for this same purpose.
Eating nasturtiums are still popular today. The leaves can be eaten raw in salads, and the blossoms serve as colorful holders for dips or sandwich fillers.
To make Stuffed Nasturtiums, mix together 8 ounces of cream cheese, one small can of drained crushed pineapple, and 1/4 cup of chopped pecans {or walnuts}.
Form this mixture into small balls and carefully stuff each ball into a large, firm nasturtium blossom.
nasturtium cordialNasturtium Cordial
Nasturtium cordial is a stunning and refreshing summer drink when diluted with sparkling water and can also be used as a syrup for flavoring cocktails etc.
200grms of organic caster sugar
225ml of water
50 nasturtium flowers
large sprig of lemon thyme or lemon verbena (a small piece of finely chopped ginger is also a great addition)
a squeeze of lemon juice
Pop all the ingredients (except the lemon juice) into a pan and gently bring to the boil stirring until all the sugar is dissolved. Cover, take off the heat and allow to sit for until completely cold and then strain out the flowers and herbs.
Decanted into a clean sterile bottle and the cordial will keep for up to two weeks in the fridge.
4 thoughts on “Nasturtium 101
1. Another of my very versatile and cheerful. Love your photos. I always think of them as preferring cooler weather. Mine languish when it gets hot and fry if too close to the sidewalk, but perk up when cooler autumn comes.
Liked by 1 person
1. Thank You! One of my favorites too. I have to keep close eye on our’s during the summer as well. Living in the high desert of Utah can take its toll on plants in the summer. I make sure that they receive early morning sun light, then as the day progresses the shade from the house and or barns minimize heat exhaustion.
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Ashikaga Yoshimochi: The 4th Shogun of the Ashikaga Shogunate
There was once a time when families and clans in Japan forged alliances and went into battles against one another. They were in search of prestige and power as they tried to grow their respective clan and lineage. Becoming victorious and pledging allegiances to the clan with the highest power was essential in order to survive in a country that was full of battles and duels. One of the primary clans that were influential and powerful during the Muromachi period would be none other than the Ashikaga clan.
How the Ashikaga Shogunate Began
By Geneast [CC BY-SA 3.0 (], from Wikimedia Commons
More commonly known as the Ashikaga bakufu, the Ashikaga shogunate ruled Japan from the year 1336 to the year 1573. Also known as the Muromachi shogunate, the Ashikaga shogunate reigned and lasted for more than 200 years. This dynasty can be traced back to one of the numerous Japanese daimyos or lords that governed in Japan.
The Ashikaga shogunate only ended upon the deposal of Ashikaga Yoshiaki by Oda Nobunaga. During the reign of the Ashikaga shogunate, the heads of the government were composed of shoguns. Furthermore, each of these shoguns was also a member of the Ashikaga family.
The period in which the Ashikaga clan governed Japan was known as the Muromachi period. This name was derived from the Muromachi district, which can be found in Kyoto. Muromachi first became the residence of the Ashikaga clan during the reign of the third shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu.
His residence was built in Muromachi in the year 1379. One of its many special features was the abundance of flowers that can be found surrounding the residence. Due to this beauty of scenery, this residence of Yoshimitsu became known as the Flower Palace. In Japanese, the residence was called "Hana no Gosho".
Prior to the Ashikaga shogunate, the country was under the Kamakura period, which lasted from the year 1185 to the year 1333. The Hojo clan was the governing family that ruled in Japan. Enjoying absolute power, the Hojo clan monopolized its power and influence over other families.
After defeating the attempted invasions of the Mongols, Hojo vassals were disappointed on the lack of rewards in terms of lands that they would have received. This was despite their efforts in defending the country under the Hojo clan. They began to resent the Hojo clan for not properly giving credit to where it was due.
Finally, the Emperor Go-Daigo could not take it anymore and planned to revolt against the Hojo clan. He ordered the opposition of local governing vassals against the rule of the Hojo clan in the year 1333. They wanted the restoration of Imperial rule in the Kenmu Restoration.
CC BY-SA 3.0,
Having heard of this rebellion, the governing Hojo clan, also known as the Kamakura shogunate, wanted to counter this revolt. Wanting to keep their immense power all to themselves, the Kamakura shogunate gave orders to Ashikaga Takauji to suppress this impending uprising. Unexpectedly, Ashikaga Takauji did not follow the orders of the Kamakura shogunate. Instead, he turned against them.
The reason why he did this remains unclear to this day. However, there were speculations surrounding this decision. Being the de facto leader of the Minamoto clan, Ashikaga Takauji may have felt that it would not be useful to him to fight for a powerful shogunate while his clan remains powerless. In addition, the Hojo clan came from the Taira clan, which were once defeated by the Minamoto clan. Hence, he thought of the possibility of defeating the Hojo clan and restoring power back to his family.
As a result, Ashikaga Takauji fought the Kamakura shogunate on behalf of the Imperial court. His opposition turned out to be a success as the Kamakura regime was overthrown in the year 1336. Following this victory, Ashikaga built his own military government in Kyoto. Establishing himself as the shogun, Ashikaga Takauji had his own plans on how to run the country.
However, these ideas were in conflict with those of Emperor Go-Daigo. With these two heads bumping against each other on how to govern the country, Ashikaga devised a plan. He made the second son of Emperor Go-Fushimi, Prince Yutahito, become Emperor Komyo to counter the power of Emperor Go-Daigo.
This caused Go-Daigo to flee. Because of these opposing forces, Japan was divided into two imperial courts, namely, the northern imperial court and the southern imperial court. The northern imperial court was in favor of Emperor Komyo while the southern imperial court was in favor of Emperor Go-Daigo. These two courts maintained their opposition against each other for a span of 56 years. It only ended in the year 1392 when the southern imperial court finally surrendered during the rule of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu.
The Structure of Governance of This Shogunate
There were three Japanese military governments that existed in the history of Japan. These three were the Kamakura shogunate, the Ashikaga shogunate, and the Tokugawa shogunate. Out of these three, the weakest one was the Ashikaga shogunate. This was probably because of how little personal territory Ashikaga Takauji had when he established his government. Hence, there was little to support him during his reign.
Because of this predicament, the Ashikaga shogunate heavily depended on the prestige, as well as the personal authority, of the shoguns. Instead of using the centralized master-vassal system that was utilized during the Kamakura period, the Ashikaga shogunate made use of a highly de-centralized local lord or daimyo system. Furthermore, due to the lack of direct territories, the military power of the shoguns was also highly reliant on the loyalty of the daimyos.
Despite these many issues in the Ashikaga shogunate, they also enjoyed benefits that they did not have back in the Kamakura period. For one, military rule no longer saw the Imperial court as a credible threat. This was because the court had become weak and subservient following the failure to accomplish the Kenmu Restoration. In addition, Ashikaga also reinforced this idea by maintaining close proximity to the Emperor at Kyoto.
Unlike during the Kamakura period, the authority and power of the local daimyos grew during the Ashikaga shogunate. Aside from holding military and policing responsibilities, the shugos were also appointed to hold other powers of the local Imperial governors. These included justice, taxation, and economy. The government holdings of every province also became part of the personal holdings of either the daimyos or their vassals.
The Imperial court truly lost much of its power as it struggled to still hold on to its political clout as well as its economic base. However, these were lost to the Ashikaga shoguns. This situation became apparent especially during the reign of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, the 3rd shogun of the Ashikaga Shogunate as well as the father of Ashikaga Yoshimochi.
The Life of Ashikaga Yoshimochi
By 日本語: 伝土佐行秀English: Attributed to Tosa Yukihide (see other versions) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
Much had been said about the Ashikaga clan and its governance in Japan. Among the many shoguns that governed Japan during the Muromachi period was Ashikaga Yoshimochi. Born on the 12th of March in the year 1386, Yoshimochi was the 4th shogun of the Ashikaga shogunate. He ruled Japan from the year 1394 to the year 1423. He was also the son of the great Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, who was the 3rd shogun of the Ashikaga shogunate.
The beloved mother of Yoshimochi was Fujiwara no Yoshiko, who lived from the year 1358 to the year 1399. Yoshimochi was married to his wife Hino Eiko, who lived from the year 1390 to the year 1431. With Eiko, Yoshimochi had children including a son named Ashikaga Yoshikazu as well as a daughter who was adopted by Oodaiji family. Yoshimochi also had two concubines, namely, Tokudaiji Toshiko and Kohyoe-dono.
Yoshimochi succeeded his father Yoshimitsu’s throne in the year 1394. Despite still being at a young age, Yoshimochi was already entrusted with the responsibilities of becoming the next Seii Taishogun. However, Yoshimitsu still continued to hold on to his power and maintained authority over Yoshimochi’s reign until his passing in the year 1408. After which, Yoshimochi was able to exercise his full power and potential as shogun.
A diplomatic mission was delivered to Japan in the year 1398, which also happened to be the 6th year of the rule of King Taejong of Joseon. A formal diplomatic letter was presented to the envoy Park Tong-chi and his retinue by Yoshimochi upon their arrival in Kyoto. Yoshimochi also gave them present to sent to the Joseon court as a sign of respect as well as friendship.
There were also other significant events that helped shape the reign of Yoshimochi. A year just after Yoshimochi starts to actually rule on his own as a shogun, Ashikaga Mochiuji became Kanto kubo in the year 1409. Just two years after this, Yoshimochi cut the ties that his father established with China in the year 1411.
Emperor Go-Komatsu then abdicated in the year 1413. At the same time, Emperor Shoko succeeds the throne as per the repudiation of the agreement. Conflict and hostility between the shogunate and the supporters of the southern imperial court were also renewed during this time.
Dissension between Ashikaga Mochiuji and Uesugi Zenshu ensued in the year 1415. Ashikaga Mochiuji was the Kanto Kubo in Kamakura while Uesugi Zenshu was the Kanto Kanrei. A year after, Uesugi began his rebellion but it was quashed by Mochiuji in the year 1417. Another problem arose when the Koreans attacked Tsushima in the year 1419, which was known as the Oei Invasion.
Serious famine occurred in the year 1920, which led to the loss of numerous lives. Support of the southern imperial court also made a resurgence in the year 1422. Finally, Yoshimochi handed down his authority to his son Ashikaga Yoshikazu in the year 1423. Despite his son being young at the time, Yoshimochi felt that it was the right time to cede his authority, similar to what his father did. Finally, Ashikaga Yoshimochi passed away on the 3rd of February in the year 1428.
The Passing of Ashikaga Yoshimochi
The death of Ashikaga Yoshimochi came as a surprise to many people. He just suddenly fell ill, with few people knowing the cause of such illness. At the age of 43, Ashikaga Yoshimochi passed away peacefully. His funeral was held at Tojiin five days after he passed away. Tojiin was a Rinzai Zen temple that was established by Ashikaga Takauji in the 14th century. The temple was located in the northwestern portion of Kyoto.
A courtier by the name of Madenokoji Tokifusa wrote down details of the funeral of Yoshimochi. Even though Tokifusa was not a member of the Ashikaga clan, he served as nanto tenso, which meant that he had close communications with Yoshimochi as well as the Ashikaga family. He also served as a bridge between the court and the bakufu.
Right after Yoshimochi passed away, preparations for his funeral went underway. Following tradition, the body was surrounded by priests who chanted sutras and offered incense to the body. Mourning calls were also made to the residence by relative and officials who have just found out about the saddening news. Specific details about the funeral such as the length and the several roles to be filled were also discussed.
On the day of his passing, a special palanquin called ajirogoshi was used to hold the body of the late shogun. The palanquin was carried to Tojiin, along with a procession composed of family members, feudal lords, and high-ranking priests. The palanquin used to contain the body of Yoshimochi was composed of thin slats of bamboo lacquered in black. The body of Yoshimochi was then transferred to the west chancel of the Buddha Hall of the temple once they have arrived at Tojiin.
The loyal retainers of Yoshimochi also expressed their grief over the loss of their great leader by renouncing the world as an expression. A lot of people were saddened by the loss of Ashikaga Yoshimochi. Eventually, his younger brother Ashikaga Yoshinori succeeded Yoshimochi as the next shogun in the Ashikaga shogunate.
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Absalom, Absalom! | Study Guide
William Faulkner
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Study Guide
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Absalom, Absalom! | Themes
Racism, Miscegenation, and Incest
Absalom, Absalom! begins in 1909 and relates events from the antebellum South through the post-Civil War era. Racism as a legacy of the enslavement of black Africans is a core element of life in the South during this period. For the novel's white characters, racist views affect not only the black people they encounter, but also their own fates.
Narratives by former slaves, such as Harriet Jacobs's Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, have documented the fact many enslaved women were sexually assaulted by their white owners. Generations of black-white sexual contact gave rise to a significant population of light-skinned blacks, some of whom married other light-skinned blacks or even whites. Miscegenation refers to the intermarriage of black and white men and women: in the context of the novel, miscegenation was an ineradicable blot on a white person's reputation. No offspring from such a match could be acknowledged as a true heir. This was Sutpen's motivation for abandoning Eulalia and Charles Bon, and for Henry's murder of Charles Bon. Henry is willing to accept Charles's marriage to Judith, the man's own half sister; but the thought of a mixed-race man marrying Judith is intolerable.
In the story of Sutpen, the novel presents a type of allegory of the South and its "curse" of slavery and racism. Sutpen seems unconcerned with race until he has a humiliating experience at the Virginia plantation. He realizes not only race, but class, determines how a person is treated in the South. Although Sutpen is an overseer on a West Indian sugar plantation where some of the worst abuses of slaves occurred, and though he buys 20 male slaves to build his mansion and work his Mississippi plantation, he personally does not seem to have any deep, inbred racism. He works alongside his slaves and engages in competitive fights with them. He feels responsible for and supports his first part-black wife and child. He seems to treat Clytie well. For Sutpen it is the cultural racism of the South that has the greatest impact on him. He is bound to his "design" by the terms of respectability imposed on him by racist Southern culture.
History and Subjectivity
The story told in Absalom, Absalom! is anchored in the history of the South: a house is built, a plantation is started, cotton is grown, the Civil War is fought and lost, and Reconstruction follows. But this history is revealed not as a set of objective facts, but through the viewpoints of those who received the information, often secondhand.
Miss Rosa is the only narrator in the novel who has had any firsthand experience or participation in the events she describes, and even she narrates events she couldn't actually remember (events that occurred when she was three or four years old, or events for which she was not present). Mr. Compson, Quentin, and Shreve are all retelling the story from received tales. They comment on how they are working from scraps and fragments and conjuring up characters and stories that may or may not be true. Because of this, readers must ask: how can they tell us much about the things they purport to be narrating? How much can these stories tell us, not about their subjects, Sutpen and the rest, but about the characters telling them?
Thus, the same incident may be described one way by one character and in a completely different way by another character. With this technique, William Faulkner presents different aspects of people and events. He also demonstrates how malleable history and the past can be. In some cases the reader cannot know which version of an event is "real" or "true," but sometimes it doesn't really matter. The layers of narrative enrich and reveal the depth of the events and people described. History is what is lived—or is sometimes imagined to be—and the many people who live through it will necessarily construct a multifaceted version of that history.
Innocence versus Ambition
Thomas Sutpen is frequently referred to in the novel as "innocent," even though his actions are often vile, ruthless, self-serving, and demonic. As is made clear in Chapter 7, Sutpen's innocence reflects his ignorance of the social stratifications of race and class and private property and a worldview defined by luck. Sutpen seems to think his innocence is a problem that outlasts his childhood and is underpinned by Southern culture.
Sutpen's innocence in some ways remains intact while he acts out his ambition—his determination to rise above his impoverished childhood and in his pursuit of respectability. After a particularly humiliating experience, a young Sutpen realizes he must gain wealth in order to earn respectability (and never again be humiliated). He decides on, and single-mindedly executes, what some might characterize as a coldhearted and evil plan to ensure he is never humiliated again. Yet some narrators in the novel assert Sutpen retains his innocence even while pursuing the "design" that will help him realize his ambition.
This innocence seems to arise from the belief, expressed by Sutpen himself, that his ambition is good and right because it is sanctioned by Southern culture. That his reasonable, "calculated" design to realize this ambition is heartless and ultimately ruinous to other people and himself is beside the point. In fact Sutpen can't understand why problems keep arising that block him from carrying out his "design." Like the biblical characters Adam and Eve, who eat from the Tree of Knowledge and are cast out of paradise, to understand fully would require the loss of innocence. And in a story where Sutpen's rise and fall parallels that of the South, loss of innocence in his case would require an acknowledgment of the evils of slavery, something Sutpen cannot fathom.
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The bar graph is given ,which shows the amount of time Latisha participated in an exercise program over a four-week period.
If amount of exercising , that is increase over time appear larger
She must use a larger range on the vertical scale.There will be no change in width of bar graph, as coloring the bar graph with different color will make no sense.
Pictorial representation of this problem is depicted below:
Option (B) is true.Use a larger range on the vertical scale.
This answer is correct in the sense that , if time of exercise increases,
Otherwise, if you increase the width between two whole numbers, the graph will appear larger.That is between if width between 0 to 1 is 1 cm than increase it by 1.5 cm or 2 cm, that will make the bar graph larger.
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Not to be confused with the mathematical notion of tetration.
This article is about volumetric titration. For other uses, see Titration (disambiguation).
Titration, also known as titrimetry,[1] is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte. Since volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as volumetric analysis. A reagent, called the titrant or titrator[2] is prepared as a standard solution. A known concentration and volume of titrant reacts with a solution of analyte or titrand[3] to determine concentration.
History and etymology
The word "titration" comes from the Latin word titulus, meaning inscription or title. The French word titre, also from this origin, means rank.
Volumetric analysis originated in late 18th-century France. François-Antoine-Henri Descroizilles (fr) developed the first burette (which was similar to a graduated cylinder) in 1791.[4] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac developed an improved version of the burette that included a side arm, and coined the terms "pipette" and "burette" in an 1824 paper on the standardization of indigo solutions. A major breakthrough in the methodology and popularization of volumetric analysis was due to Karl Friedrich Mohr, who redesigned the burette by placing a clamp and a tip at the bottom, and wrote the first textbook on the topic, Lehrbuch der chemisch-analytischen Titrirmethode (Textbook of analytical-chemical titration methods), published in 1855.[5]
A typical titration begins with a beaker or Erlenmeyer flask containing a very precise volume of the analyte and a small amount of indicator placed underneath a calibrated burette or chemistry pipetting syringe containing the titrant. Small volumes of the titrant are then added to the analyte and indicator until the indicator changes, reflecting arrival at the endpoint of the titration. Depending on the endpoint desired, single drops or less than a single drop of the titrant can make the difference between a permanent and temporary change in the indicator. When the endpoint of the reaction is reached, the volume of reactant consumed is measured and used to calculate the concentration of analyte by
where Ca is the concentration of the analyte, typically in molarity; Ct is the concentration of the titrant, typically in molarity; Vt is the volume of the titrant used, typically in liters; M is the mole ratio of the analyte and reactant from the balanced chemical equation; and Va is the volume of the analyte used, typically in liters.[6]
Preparation techniques
Typical titrations require titrant and analyte to be in a liquid (solution) form. Though solids are usually dissolved into an aqueous solution, other solvents such as glacial acetic acid or ethanol are used for special purposes (as in petrochemistry).[7] Concentrated analytes are often diluted to improve accuracy.
Many non-acid-base titrations require a constant pH throughout the reaction. Therefore a buffer solution may be added to the titration chamber to maintain the pH.[8]
In instances where two reactants in a sample may react with the titrant and only one is the desired analyte, a separate masking solution may be added to the reaction chamber which masks the unwanted ion.[9]
Some redox reactions may require heating the sample solution and titrating while the solution is still hot to increase the reaction rate. For instance, the oxidation of some oxalate solutions requires heating to 60 °C (140 °F) to maintain a reasonable rate of reaction.[10]
Titration curves
Main article: Titration curve
A titration curve is a curve in the plane whose x-coordinate is the volume of titrant added since the beginning of the titration, and whose y-coordinate is the concentration of the analyte at the corresponding stage of the titration (in an acid-base titration, the y-coordinate is usually the pH of the solution).[11]
In an acid-base titration, the titration curve reflects the strength of the corresponding acid and base. For a strong acid and a strong base, the curve will be relatively smooth and very steep near the equivalence point. Because of this, a small change in titrant volume near the equivalence point results in a large pH change and many indicators would be appropriate (for instance litmus, phenolphthalein or bromothymol blue).
If one reagent is a weak acid or base and the other is a strong acid or base, the titration curve is irregular and the pH shifts less with small additions of titrant near the equivalence point. For example, the titration curve for the titration between oxalic acid (a weak acid) and sodium hydroxide (a strong base) is pictured. The equivalence point occurs between pH 8-10, indicating the solution is basic at the equivalence point and an indicator such as phenolphthalein would be appropriate. Titration curves corresponding to weak bases and strong acids are similarly behaved, with the solution being acidic at the equivalence point and indicators such as methyl orange and bromothymol blue being most appropriate.
Titrations between a weak acid and a weak base have titration curves which are highly irregular. Because of this, no definite indicator may be appropriate and a pH meter is often used to monitor the reaction.[12]
The type of function that can be used to describe the curve is called a sigmoid function.
Types of titrations
Acid–base titration
Main article: Acid–base titration
Indicator Color on acidic side Range of color change Color on basic side
Methyl violet Yellow 0.0–1.6 Violet
Bromophenol blue Yellow 3.0–4.6 Blue
Methyl orange Red 3.1–4.4 Yellow
Methyl red Red 4.4–6.3 Yellow
Litmus Red 5.0–8.0 Blue
Bromothymol blue Yellow 6.0–7.6 Blue
Phenolphthalein Colorless 8.3–10.0 Pink
Alizarin yellow Yellow 10.1–12.0 Red
Acid-base titrations depend on the neutralization between an acid and a base when mixed in solution. In addition to the sample, an appropriate indicator is added to the titration chamber, reflecting the pH range of the equivalence point. The acid-base indicator indicates the endpoint of the titration by changing color. The endpoint and the equivalence point are not exactly the same because the equivalence point is determined by the stoichiometry of the reaction while the endpoint is just the color change from the indicator. Thus, a careful selection of the indicator will reduce the indicator error. For example, if the equivalence point is at a pH of 8.4, then the Phenolphthalein indicator would be used instead of Alizarin Yellow because phenolphthalein would reduce the indicator error. Common indicators, their colors, and the pH range in which they change color are given in the table above.[13] When more precise results are required, or when the reagents are a weak acid and a weak base, a pH meter or a conductance meter are used.
Redox titration
Main article: Redox titration
Redox titrations are based on a reduction-oxidation reaction between an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent. A potentiometer or a redox indicator is usually used to determine the endpoint of the titration, as when one of the constituents is the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate. The color change of the solution from orange to green is not definite, therefore an indicator such as sodium diphenylamine is used.[14] Analysis of wines for sulfur dioxide requires iodine as an oxidizing agent. In this case, starch is used as an indicator; a blue starch-iodine complex is formed in the presence of excess iodine, signalling the endpoint.[15]
Some redox titrations do not require an indicator, due to the intense color of the constituents. For instance, in permanganometry a slight faint persisting pink color signals the endpoint of the titration because of the color of the excess oxidizing agent potassium permanganate.[16]
Gas phase titration
Gas phase titrations are titrations done in the gas phase, specifically as methods for determining reactive species by reaction with an excess of some other gas, acting as the titrant. In one common the gas phase titration, gaseous ozone is titrated with nitrogen oxide according to the reaction
O3 + NO → O2 + NO2.[17][18]
After the reaction is complete, the remaining titrant and product are quantified (e.g., by FT-IR); this is used to determine the amount of analyte in the original sample.
Gas phase titration has several advantages over simple spectrophotometry. First, the measurement does not depend on path length, because the same path length is used for the measurement of both the excess titrant and the product. Second, the measurement does not depend on a linear change in absorbance as a function of analyte concentration as defined by the Beer-Lambert law. Third, it is useful for samples containing species which interfere at wavelengths typically used for the analyte.[19]
Complexometric titration
Complexometric titrations rely on the formation of a complex between the analyte and the titrant. In general, they require specialized indicators that form weak complexes with the analyte. Common examples are Eriochrome Black T for the titration of calcium and magnesium ions, and the chelating agent EDTA used to titrate metal ions in solution.[20]
Zeta potential titration
Zeta potential titrations are titrations in which the completion is monitored by the zeta potential, rather than by an indicator, in order to characterize heterogeneous systems, such as colloids.[21] One of the uses is to determine the iso-electric point when surface charge becomes zero, achieved by changing the pH or adding surfactant. Another use is to determine the optimum dose for flocculation or stabilization.[22]
Main article: Assay
An assay is a form of biological titration used to determine the concentration of a virus or bacterium. Serial dilutions are performed on a sample in a fixed ratio (such as 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:8, etc.) until the last dilution does not give a positive test for the presence of the virus. This value is known as the titer, and is most commonly determined through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).[23]
Measuring the endpoint of a titration
Main article: Equivalence point
Different methods to determine the endpoint include:[24]
• Indicator: A substance that changes color in response to a chemical change. An acid-base indicator (e.g., phenolphthalein) changes color depending on the pH. Redox indicators are also used. A drop of indicator solution is added to the titration at the beginning; the endpoint has been reached when the color changes.
• Potentiometer: An instrument that measures the electrode potential of the solution. These are used for redox titrations; the potential of the working electrode will suddenly change as the endpoint is reached.
• pH meter: A potentiometer with an electrode whose potential depends on the amount of H+ ion present in the solution. (This is an example of an ion-selective electrode.) The pH of the solution is measured throughout the titration, more accurately than with an indicator; at the endpoint there will be a sudden change in the measured pH.
• Conductivity: A measurement of ions in a solution. Ion concentration can change significantly in a titration, which changes the conductivity. (For instance, during an acid-base titration, the H+ and OH- ions react to form neutral H2O.) As total conductance depends on all ions present in the solution and not all ions contribute equally (due to mobility and ionic strength), predicting the change in conductivity is more difficult than measuring it.
• Color change: In some reactions, the solution changes color without any added indicator. This is often seen in redox titrations when the different oxidation states of the product and reactant produce different colors.
• Precipitation: If a reaction produces a solid, a precipitate will form during the titration. A classic example is the reaction between Ag+ and Cl- to form the insoluble salt AgCl. Cloudy precipitates usually make it difficult to determine the endpoint precisely. To compensate, precipitation titrations often have to be done as "back" titrations (see below).
• Isothermal titration calorimeter: An instrument that measures the heat produced or consumed by the reaction to determine the endpoint. Used in biochemical titrations, such as the determination of how substrates bind to enzymes.
• Thermometric titrimetry: Differentiated from calorimetric titrimetry because the heat of the reaction (as indicated by temperature rise or fall) is not used to determine the amount of analyte in the sample solution. Instead, the endpoint is determined by the rate of temperature change.
• Spectroscopy: Used to measure the absorption of light by the solution during titration if the spectrum of the reactant, titrant or product is known. The concentration of the material can be determined by Beer's Law.
• Amperometry: Measures the current produced by the titration reaction as a result of the oxidation or reduction of the analyte. The endpoint is detected as a change in the current. This method is most useful when the excess titrant can be reduced, as in the titration of halides with Ag+.
Endpoint and equivalence point
Though equivalence point and endpoint are used interchangeably, they are different terms. Equivalence point is the theoretical completion of the reaction: the volume of added titrant at which the number of moles of titrant is equal to the number of moles of analyte, or some multiple thereof (as in polyprotic acids). Endpoint is what is actually measured, a physical change in the solution as determined by an indicator or an instrument mentioned above.[25]
There is a slight difference between the endpoint and the equivalence point of the titration. This error is referred to as an indicator error, and it is indeterminate.[26]
Back titration
Back titration is a titration done in reverse; instead of titrating the original sample, a known excess of standard reagent is added to the solution, and the excess is titrated. A back titration is useful if the endpoint of the reverse titration is easier to identify than the endpoint of the normal titration, as with precipitation reactions. Back titrations are also useful if the reaction between the analyte and the titrant is very slow, or when the analyte is in a non-soluble solid.[27]
Particular uses
Specific examples of titrations include:
Acid-Base Titrations
• In biodiesel: Waste vegetable oil (WVO) must be neutralized before a batch may be processed. A portion of WVO is titrated with a base to determine acidity, so the rest of the batch may be properly neutralized. This removes free fatty acids from the WVO that would normally react to make soap instead of biodiesel.[28]
• Kjeldahl method: A measure of nitrogen content in a sample. Organic nitrogen is digested into ammonia with sulfuric acid and potassium sulfate. Finally, ammonia is back titrated with boric acid and then sodium carbonate.[29]
• Acid value: The mass in milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize carboxylic acid in one gram of sample. An example is the determination of free fatty acid content. These titrations are achieved at low temperatures.
• Saponification value: The mass in milligrams of KOH required to saponify carboxylic acid in one gram of sample. Saponification is used to determine average chain length of fatty acids in fat. These titrations are achieved at high temperatures.
• Ester value (or ester index): A calculated index. Ester value = Saponification value – Acid value.
• Amine value: The mass in milligrams of KOH equal to the amine content in one gram of sample.
• Hydroxyl value: The mass in milligrams of KOH required to neutralize hydroxyl groups in one gram of sample. The analyte is acetylated using acetic anhydride then titrated with KOH.
Redox titrations
• Winkler test for dissolved oxygen: Used to determine oxygen concentration in water. Oxygen in water samples is reduced using manganese(II) sulfate, which reacts with potassium iodide to produce iodine. The iodine is released in proportion to the oxygen in the sample, thus the oxygen concentration is determined with a redox titration of iodine with thiosulfate using a starch indicator.[30]
• Vitamin C: Also known as ascorbic acid, vitamin C is a powerful reducing agent. Its concentration can easily be identified when titrated with the blue dye Dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) which turns colorless when reduced by the vitamin.[31]
• Benedict's reagent: Excess glucose in urine may indicate diabetes in the patient. Benedict's method is the conventional method to quantify glucose in urine using a prepared reagent. In this titration, glucose reduces cupric ions to cuprous ions which react with potassium thiocyanate to produce a white precipitate, indicating the endpoint.[32]
• Bromine number: A measure of unsaturation in an analyte, expressed in milligrams of bromine absorbed by 100 grams of sample.
• Iodine number: A measure of unsaturation in an analyte, expressed in grams of iodine absorbed by 100 grams of sample.
• Karl Fischer titration: A potentiometric method to analyze trace amounts of water in a substance. A sample is dissolved in methanol, and titrated with Karl Fischer reagent. The reagent contains iodine, which reacts proportionally with water. Thus, the water content can be determined by monitoring the potential of excess iodine.[33]
See also
External links
• Wikihow: Perform a Titration
• An interactive guide to titration
• Science Aid: A simple explanation of titrations including calculation examples
• Titration freeware - simulation of any pH vs. volume curve, distribution diagrams and real data analysis
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Earlier this year, the results of a new study of vaping activity were published in the British Medical Journal. Led by Professor David Hammond of the University of Waterloo, the study — as reported by the Canadian Cancer Society — found that between 2017 and 2018, vaping among teens 16 to 19 years old increased by 74% in Canada alone. The study was conducted twice,once in August/September 2017 and again in August/September 2018.
Clearly, vaping has become a popular activity among a high number of young people as well as many adults, who use devices such as e-cigarettes, vape pens and personal vaporizers known as MODS. These devices are used to heat and inhale flavored “e-liquids” that usually contain propylene glycol or vegetable glycerin, nicotine, and sometimes other chemicals and even some metals.
But there’s no tobacco involved. So does that make it safe? Some people think so. And while in some ways it might be less harmful than smoking cigarettes and other items, it’s definitely not safe from an oral health standpoint.
While there’s a lot of current debate on both sides of the issue, it would appear that there are a number of oral health risks associated with vaping.
For one, we know that propylene glycol, a liquid alcohol used in the manufacture of ice cream, sweeteners and other products, is a hygroscopic product. This means that water molecules in saliva and oral tissue will bond to the propylene glycol molecules, affecting the tissues, leading to dry mouth, which can then cause cavities, gum disease and other oral health issues. Propylene glycol also breaks down into acetic acid, lactic acid and propionaldehyde, all of which can deteriorate tooth enamel and soft tissues. This is not to mention the dry mouth that can occur as a result of having heated vapor in the mouth.
Oral health problems can also be caused by the vegetable glycerin and flavorings that are key components of vaping liquids. Vegetable glycerin, a sweet-tasting liquid used in many medical and pharmaceutical applications, is also used as a solvent and sweetener in food products.
Although it’s not generally considered to cause cavities, studies have shown that the combination of glycerin with flavorings does create increases in microbial adhesion to tooth enamel and biofilm formation. Plus, enamel hardness showed a marked decrease due to the use of added flavorings. And the e-liquid’s viscosity allowed more cavity-causing bacteria to stick to softer teeth, leading to decay.
The presence of nicotine is a huge problem as well. Just by itself, nicotine reduces the amount of blood that can flow through your veins. When this occurs, your gums don’t get the oxygen and nutrients that are needed to keep them healthy. To compensate, nicotine chokes the tissues in the mouth from the blood it needs to survive, causing the gum tissues to die. In addition, nicotine can also cause the teeth to become darker since it sticks to the enamel, making it rougher. This can also cause plaque to build up. Finally, nicotine is a stimulant that can cause you to grind your teeth more intensely. If you don’t already grind your teeth, it’s possible that it can make you start.
If you don’t vape, please don’t start. If you do, consider quitting or at least have a discussion with your dentist. While vaping is trendy, it’s not safe for the teeth, mouth and gums, and it’s possible that other health problems will eventually be attributed to it as well.
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Jessica Shaw
Lorenzs Work in the Chaos Field and Basic Chaos
Edward Lorenz was a mathematical meteorologist during the 1960s. In 1961, an experiment with a primitive weather predicting program lead to the discovery of the theory of chaos. Lorenz defined chaos as “a system that has two states that look the same on separate occasions, but can develop into states that are noticeably different. He started exploring further into the chaos field and performing experiments that lead to his discovery of the Lorenz equations in 1963.
In 1961, Lorenz developed a weather model consisting of twelve non-linear equations. This model included barometric pressure, wind velocity, temperature, etc.. After running it on his computer, it seemed to give good results. He ran this model many times with different starting variables in each equation to see how it behaved and if it did follow the model of real weather. One time, after he completed a particularly long weather sequence, he decided to let it run longer and to start the program over again at the previous sequences mid-point. He entered the information and supposedly went for coffee. When he returned, he was confused to find results of the beginning of the new sequence not matching up with the results of the middle of the last run. The numbers were not very close and growing farther apart as the sequence progressed. Lorenz then thought there was a bug in the system. After much double checking, he found the problem. When he had entered the data into the second run, he had shortened one decimal. He had cut 0.506127 at 0.206 thinking it would not make a difference. Having
understood the importance of one thousandth of a part, Lorenz had understood the basis for a chaotic, non-linear system.
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Another very important experiment of Lorenzs is known as the dueling calculators. Lorenz used two calculators to perform the same iteration. Calculator one had ten significant digits, while calculator two had twelve.
The resulted of this experiment are below.
calculation numbercalc1calc2
After 3- 5 iterations, one minor difference is noted in the eleventh place. However, after 50 iterations, the answers are completely different.
The Lorenz equations were discovered by Ed Lorenz in 1963 as a very simplified model of convection rolls in the upper atmosphere. Later these same equations appeared in studies of lasers, batteries, and in a simple chaotic waterwheel.
Lorenz found that the trajectories of this system, for certain settings, never settle down to a fixed point, never approach a stable limit cycle, yet never diverge to infinity. What Lorenz discovered was unheard of in the mathematical community, and ignored for many years.
One of the most simple physical models of one of the Lorenz equations is a rotating waterwheel. The flow of water into the top cup, which pours into the next, and so on to keep the wheel rotating. If the water flow is too slow, the water leaks out too fast and friction prevents the wheel from rotating. If the water flow is increased a little, the wheel will rotate in one direction forever. If the flow is too fast, then the wheel will not settle into a stable cycle. The wheel will then spin in one direction, then slow down, stop, and start spinning in the other direction. This process will continue infinitely, but without regularity or pattern.
Chaos is defined as Stochastic behavior in deterministic systems, or in laymans terms, Ruleless behavior is governed by rules. Chaos is also the study of nonlinear dynamics. Dynamics sensitive to their initial conditions; if the conditioned change, even a very little bit, the entire equation will be changed a great deal.
Chaotic Systems appear random, but have three defining characteristics.
The first trait is determinability. Something is determining their behavior. Second, they are exceptionally sensitive to initial conditions; one minor change in the beginning leads to a completely different outcome. Third, there exists an orderly sense within all chaotic systems. In fact, truly random systems are not chaotic because they do not have even a slight pattern.
With the rapid new discoveries in the field of Chaos, many old ideas had to be cast out. These new chaotic ideas teach us that Newton and almost all pre-chaos scientists were incorrect in their conclusions of the Universe. Many believe there was a predictable cause and effect system incorporating everything. They also believe everything happened according to physical laws and algebra. The chaos theory introduces the idea of probability. Old science put their trust in certainty; everything was possible to predict if you knew all of the initial conditions. Chaos teaches this is not true. It is impossible to know all the initial conditions because these conditions are constantly changing and there is no way to predict everything. Chaotic systems exist everywhere.
After careful study by respective authorities, the stock market has been declared a chaotic system, since it is a non-linear dynamic system. Much analysis of the market and prices has given way to the conclusion that stock prices are very random, but contain a trend. The strength of this trend does vary, but still exists in all markets and time frames.
The concept of fractals is very closely related to the chaos theory and chaotic systems. Fractals are objects similar to themselves and to the corresponding pieces of themselves. This fractal structure exists in the market. If one was to study the monthly, weekly, daily, and intra day stock prices, one would find the same thread of similarity running through them all.
Sensitive dependence on initial conditions shows up in the stock market, and rightly so. The market is a chaotic system. This trait makes all chaotic systems difficult, or close too impossible to predict. This is because no one can include all of the initial conditions with any sort of accuracy. There are too many nuances in the conditions. Even if a person could predict what was going to happen in the stock market with accuracy tomorrow, in a few days, their predictions would be completely wrong.
One odd characteristic of the stock market, is that short term data (for instance, a five minute report) is just random stock trading and longer term data, (like weekly or daily) is not. This paradox exists but cannot be fully understood yet.
Lorenzs experiments and equations have discovered the chaos theory, explored it, but have not even begun to understand it. Still unable to be proved as fact, chaos theory still needs to be explored further by specialists in the field.
I'm Charlotte
Check it out
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"url": "https://northandsouthdigital.com/jessica-shaw/"
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Chemistry LibreTexts
Laws and Trials of the 1920's
• Page ID
"The business of America is business."
- President Calvin Coolidge
In this assignment you will explore the significant laws and trials that shaped the politics and culture of the 1920's.
• What was Prohibition?
• What is a suffragist?
• Who were Sacco and Vanzetti?
• Why was the Scopes Trial called the "Monkey" Trial?
By the end of your study you will know the answer to these and other questions.
Visit Ohio State University to learn about Prohibition. You will see a table of contents of topics on Prohibition. Click on and read the information titled: "Why was there Prohibition in the United States?"
Complete the Laws and Trials 1920's Worksheet (attached below)
Go to the next page to submit the worksheet.
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"url": "https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Remixer_University/iLearn_Collaborative/Copy_of_DCW-Modern-US-History-A-Semester-1_Curated.imscc/03%3A_Unit_3%3A_The_1920's%3A_Prosperity/01%3A_Unit_3_-_The_1920's_Prosperity_and_Problems/01%3A_Unit_3%3A_Session_1/06%3A_Laws_and_Trials_of_the_1920's"
}
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From Texas Instruments Wiki
Jump to: navigation, search
volatile is a standard C keyword. It indicates to the compiler that an object may affect or be affected by the system in ways the compiler cannot know about.
The C standard
ISO 9889:1999 section 6.7.3 "Type qualifiers" paragraph 6 says:
Understanding volatile
The volatile keyword has several meanings, all of which essentially mean that there is something the compiler cannot know.
The volatile keyword is a hint to the compiler that it should not be overly-clever when trying to optimize expressions involving a particular variable.
The number of volatile reads and writes must be exactly as they appear in the source code; no more and no less, and in the same order. A volatile object may represent a memory-mapped device, for which a read or a write might trigger a side-effect that is not represented in the C code. For example, in the expression "x + x", it may appear to the compiler that it could optimize the expression by reading x only once, but if x is volatile, each read might have a different value, and might trigger changes in the program's state.
If an object is volatile, some other entity might read or write that object at any time.
Easily overlooked properties of volatile
If an object can be modified by an interrupt function (or any other external agent or side effect such as DMA, peripheral device, interrupt, another thread, etc), that variable must be declared volatile. A common example is a polling loop:
extern volatile int semaphore;
while (semaphore == 0)
Because semaphore is volatile, the compiler will read it every time through the loop. If semaphore were not volatile, the compiler would turn this into an infinite loop.
If you have a local variable in a function which calls setjmp, you must declare it volatile if it must retain its value when setjmp returns via longjmp. (This is a requirement of the C standard.)
Fields of a volatile struct are considered volatile.
Using volatile to work around compiler bugs
Using volatile inhibits a wide variety of compiler optimizations, and judicious use may be able to avoid compiler bugs that have no other workaround. However, using volatile can have a drastic negative effect on performance, so volatile should not be used unless it can be shown to be absolutely necessary.
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"url": "https://processors.wiki.ti.com/index.php/Volatile"
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Numerous questions have arisen in terms of what Gustavus Vassa knew, what he did, and what he thought. This section includes a discussion of where Vassa was born, the significance of his name, Igbo scarification and body markings, slavery and trade in Igboland, Vassa's views of slavery and his attitudes toward race and culture. There is also discussion of Vassa's relations with scientists and the industrial revolution, his recognized and unrecognized involvement in the abolition movement, and his connections with the Mosquito Shore of Central America and with Sierra Leone. Finally there are discussions of Vassa's relationship with German anthropologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach and Vassa's legacy today.
Questioning Equiano
Attitudes towards Race and Culture
Equiano addresses prejudices that suggest the black skin colour of Africans was a natural indicator of their inferiority:
Let the polished and haughty European recollect that his ancestors were once, like the Africans, uncivilized, and even barbarous. Did Nature make them inferior to their sons? and should they too have been made slaves? Every rational mind answers, No. Let such reflections as these melt the pride of their superiority into sympathy for the wants and miseries of their stable brethren, and compel them to acknowledge, that understanding is not confined to feature or colour. (Equiano 45)
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"fasttext_score": 0.020032227039337158,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9714474081993103,
"url": "http://equianosworld.org/questioning.php?id=7"
}
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Introduction Boolean algorithm
The input to the boolean operation routines consist of two sets of polygons. One set is the first operand of a boolean operation the other the second operand. What we get is the result of the boolean operation.
boolean operation
The basic idea is to split the whole 2D plane in sections, called enclosed areas. The polygons in both sets divide the 2D plane in areas that are either of group A or group B or of both groups at the same time. A closed area is an area that can be the described by a simple polygon (not selfintersecting, not selfoverlapping). For the above example the enclosed areas would be like this
enclosed areas
The boolean result can be extracted, if we can tell for each enclosed area if it belongs to groupA, groupB are both groups. To be able to generate the enclosed area polygons we need to calculate the intersection of all polygon segments. So there are three major steps:
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"fasttext_score": 0.9516299962997437,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9279456734657288,
"url": "https://boolean.klaasholwerda.nl/algdoc/introduction.html"
}
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Aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration
Respiration using oxygen to break down food molecules is called aerobic respiration. Glucose is the molecule normally used for respiration – it is the main respiratory substrate. Glucose is oxidised to release its energy.
The word equation for aerobic respiration is:
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy released)
You need to be able to recognise the chemical symbols:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Respiration is a series of reactions, but this summarises the overall process.
The first stages of respiration occur in the cytoplasm of cells, but most of the energy released is in the mitochondria. During aerobic respiration 38 ATP molecules of chemical energy are produced.
Anaerobic respiration
Most organisms cannot respire without oxygen but some organisms and tissues can continue to respire if the oxygen runs out. These organisms and tissues use the process of anaerobic respiration.
During anaerobic respiration, the oxidation of glucose is incomplete. The reaction therefore releases much less energy – around a nineteenth of the energy released during aerobic respiration. Only two ATP molecules of chemical energy are produced, in comparison with 38 molecules in aerobic respiration.
Human muscle can respire anaerobically for short periods of time - even though the process is relatively inefficient, it's better to continue respiring and be able to run away from danger - or run a race.
The glucose in muscle is converted to lactic acid:
glucose → lactic acid (+ energy released)
Some plants, and some fungi such as yeast can respire anaerobically – it's preferable to release less energy but remain alive.
Glucose in yeast cells is converted to carbon dioxide and ethanol, which we refer to simply as 'alcohol':
glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy released)
Anaerobic respiration occurs only in the cytoplasm of cells.
Aerobic and anaerobic respiration compared:
Aerobic respirationAnaerobic respiration
Presence of oxygenPresentAbsent or in short supply
Oxidation of glucoseCompleteIncomplete. The products of respiration still contain energy.
Products of respirationCarbon dioxide and water. The products do not contain stored chemical energy which can be used in respiration.Mammalian muscle: lactic acid. Yeast: ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some plants: ethanol and carbon dioxide. The products still contain stored chemical energy which can be used in respiration.
Amount of energy releasedRelatively large amountSmall amount, but quick
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"language_score": 0.8916988968849182,
"url": "https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwghcj6/revision/2"
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Star cursor
Science is how we learn about the world around us. Scientific discovery is based on curiosity, which young children have so much of! Their desire to explore and their constant questions about the world make them natural scientists.
Plays: 2455
Super Grover 2.0: Wheels
Super Grover 2.0 helps penguins in need.
6:2 Runtime
Plays: 4752
Ready, Set, Grow!
Help Abby and Elmo plant a new garden and learn what plants need to grow.
Create your own garden at home! Put soil into the cups of an empty egg carton. Plant one seed in each cup, place the carton near a window, and spray it with water every day. Watch your seeds sprout!
Plays: 811
Elmo and the Butterfly
Can you help Elmo find the butterfly?
0:11 Runtime
Plays: 3781
Elmo in the Sky
Elmo imagines himself in the sky.
1:57 Runtime
With your child, look up at the sky during the day and draw a picture of what you see. Look up at the sky again at night and draw another picture. How is the sky different during the day and at night?
Plays: 456
Super Grover: Magnet
Super Grover uses a magnet to attract metal.
0:35 Runtime
Plays: 60
B is for Butterfly
B stands for beautiful butterflies flying around.
1:0 Runtime
Plays: 402
Baseball Fan
Ernie wants to play catch.
2:5 Runtime
Plays: 76
Earthworm and Tree
An earthworm and a tree depend on one another.
1:4 Runtime
Plays: 4973
Train Track Engineers
Engineer a train track to pick up Grover.
Be engineers at home! Ask, ?What materials in our house could we use to build a fort we can crawl inside?? Encourage your child to design and build an indoor fort using pillows, chairs, and blankets.
Plays: 1143
Going to Outer Space
Elmo, Abby, and Rosita pretend to be astronauts going to outer space.
ScienceSocial Development
1:4 Runtime
1:49 Runtime
Plays: 84
Postcard From Space Camp
Kids show us what space camp is like.
5:11 Runtime
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.20085686445236206,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8626598119735718,
"url": "https://www.sesamestreet.org/parents/learning-areas/science?language=es&page=1"
}
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Mnemonic for EscalationEscalation is derived from the word escalator. Escalator is a set of stairs which moves up or down using electricity and the person can be taken from one floor to another without his having lifted his foot. We all have seen escalators in shopping malls and airports.
Pronunciation: es-kuh-ley-shun
Meanings of Escalation
1.to increase in intensity, magnitude, etc.to escalate a war; a time when prices escalate.
2.to raise, lower, rise, or descend on or as if on an escalator
Master’s Tip to Learn Escalation
the meaning of escalation can be easily recalled if we know what an escalator is. The basic meaning also is to raise or increase in intensity. We can say that a price of commodities is escalating due to the high inflation rate. There was an escalation in the employers of IT companies due to the dotcom bubble.
Sentence examples for Escalation
1. There is an escalation in the protests due to the recent incidents of rape and violence in the country.
2. Lately he is seeking a marked escalation in patients with psychiatric problems due to the rising stress levels of the modern lifestyle
Want to explore more Words?
Explore Our Visual Vocab Section
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"fasttext_score": 0.1348578929901123,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9322211146354675,
"url": "https://wordpandit.com/escalation/"
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Anubis Figure
On display
Anubis was a deity who appeared as either a man with a jackal’s head or as a complete jackal. He was the god of mummification and protector of the dead. He is often shown making a mummy or weighing the heart of the deceased in the Hall of Judgement. The Egyptians knew that jackals fed on the dead at night. To ease their minds, the jackal became Anubis, a guardian of the cemetery rather than a scavenger. The Egyptians called Anubis ‘he who is upon his mountain’ as if he were sitting up high guarding the cemetery. From the 25th Dynasty (after 747 BC) wooden figures of jackals like this were placed upon outermost coffin lids, placing the dead under the protection of Anubis. This wooden figure of a recumbent jackal is painted black and there are signs of previous repair around the neck and the end where there is now no sign of where a separate tail was once attached. There are no obvious signs of how this was once attached to a coffin lid or chest.
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"fasttext_score": 0.041113197803497314,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9816734194755554,
"url": "https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/artifact/anubis-figure-0"
}
|
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#March 30, 1282: when Sicilian’s bells rang out for freedom
On this day, March 30, 1282 Sicilians decided that they had had enough and in a brutal uprising known as the War of the Vespers turned on their oppressors: the result was a conflict lasting 20 years and a balance of power shift that went on for 400 years.
French King Charles I invaded the Italian island of Sicily in 1266 and through conquest became the King of Sicily. As a result, the French imposed a rule of iron with high taxes and the Sicilian population were constantly insulted and treated harshly by French soldiers.
On Easter Monday in 1282, citizens of the capital city, Palermo, were flocking to vespers in the church of Santo Spirito (Church of the Holy Spirit), when, the story goes, a Sicilian woman was dragged from the crowd by a French soldier allegedly to be searched for weapons.
According to Italian scholar, historian and statesman Leonardo Bruni (1370 – 1444) the French used the pretext of searching for weapons to fondle the breasts of Sicilian women. This, he reported, began a riot.
The French were attacked, first with rocks, then weapons, and all were killed. The news spread to other towns leading to revolt throughout Sicily.
A more detailed and slightly different account came from the respected 20th Century historian and author Steven Runciman.
When the other Frenchmen tried to avenge their comrade, the Sicilian crowd fell upon them, killing them all. At that moment all the church bells in Palermo began to ring for vespers. Runciman described the mood of the night:
To the sound of the bells messengers ran through the city calling on the men of Palermo to rise against the oppressor. At once the streets were filled with angry armed men, crying ‘Death to the French.’
The rioters broke into convents and all the foreign friars were dragged out and told to pronounce the word “ciciri”, whose sound the French tongue could never accurately reproduce. Anyone who failed the test was slain.
By the next morning some two thousand French men and women lay dead and the rebels were in complete control of the city.
In any case, King Charles was furious. War was declared and the Sicilians, not having an army of their own, eventually turned for help to the Spanish king known as Peter the Great, or more formally as Peter III, King of Aragon.
He agreed to take Sicily into his kingdom and launched a war against the French that lasted 20 years. And so started 400 years of Spanish domination in Sicily.
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"language_score": 0.9814518094062805,
"url": "https://random-times.com/2020/03/30/march-30-1282-when-sicilians-bells-rang-out-for-freedom/"
}
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8085 program to add numbers in an array
Problem – Write an assembly language program to add hexadecimal numbers stored in continuous memory or in an array.
Assumption – Suppose the size of the array is stored at memory location 2050 and the base address of the array is 2051. The sum will be stored at memory location 3050 and carry will be stored at location 3051.
Example –
Algorithm –
1. Load the base address of the array in HL register pair.
2. Use the size of the array as a counter.
3. Initialise accumulator to 00.
4. Add content of accumulator with the content stored at memory location given in HL pair.
5. Decrease counter on each addition.
Program –
Address Mnemonics Comments
2000 LDA 2050 A <- [2050]
2003 MOV B, A B <- A
2004 LXI H, 2051 H <- 20 and L <- 51
2007 MVI A, 00 A <- 00
2009 MVI C, 00 C <- 00
200B ADD M A <- A+M
200C INR L M <- M+1
200D JNC 2011
2010 INR C C <- C+1
2011 DCR B B <- B-1
2012 JNZ 200B
2015 STA 3050 3050 <- A
2018 MOV A, C A <- C
2019 STA 3051 3051 <- A
201C HLT Terminates the program
Explanation –
1. LDA 2050: load accumulator with content of location 2050
2. MOV B, A: copy contents of accumulator to register B
3. LXI H, 2051: store 20 to H register and 51 to L register
4. MVI A, 00: store 00 to accumulator
5. MVI C, 00: store 00 to register C
6. ADD M: add accumulator with the contents of memory location given in HL register pair
7. INR L: increase address by 1
8. JNC 2011: if not carry, jump to location 2011 otherwise to the location given in PC
9. INR C: increase content of register C by 1
10. DCR B: decrease content of register B by 1
11. JNZ 200B: if not zero, jump to location 200B otherwise to the location given in PC
12. STA 3050: store contents of accumulator to memory location 3050
13. MOV A, C: copy contents of register C to accumulator
14. STA 3051: store contents of accumulator to memory location 3051
15. HLT: terminates the program
My Personal Notes arrow_drop_up
Check out this Author's contributed articles.
Improved By : prakritibharali
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"language_score": 0.7561249136924744,
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Scientists have discovered that the urea present in the human urine could one day be used as a building material to make structures on the Moon. As per new study published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, urea could be used in making concrete for lunar structures. This comes at a time when researchers across the world have already been conducting experiments to determine which materials could be used to build structures on the Moon. Now, why do we need urine to make structures on the moon? Let’s look into it.
The surface of the Moon is a lot harsher than the surface of the Earth. Even the conditions are much more extreme, mainly due to the lack of an atmosphere. From extreme temperatures ranging from 120 degrees Celsius to -130 degrees Celsius, radiation, and the meteorite showers – since there is no atmosphere to burn up any space rocks that might crash, people living on the Moon will have to endure much worse conditions than on Earth. Even the buildings they live in will have to withstand such extreme conditions.
Hence, in this new study, researchers from Spain, Italy, Norway, and the Netherlands, in association with the European Space Agency (ESA), conducted a number of experiments that tested the plasticisers for materials like concrete or lunar regolith (loose material from the Moon’s surface), including urea from human urine. Plasticiser is a substance added to materials like concrete to make it flexible before it hardens. To test urea as a plasticiser, the team 3D printed small cylinders from a material similar to lunar regolith. They tested the material with urea and other plasticisers.
The samples that used urea as a plasticiser were able to support heavy weight, remain stable, and keep their shape. They were soft enough to build a structure and were able to bear heavy loads shortly after being printed without losing shape. Even in terms of compressive strength, scientists said that the samples that used urea as the plasticizer, showed a “continuous slight increase in compressive strength.”
Now, although the experiments have shown urea to be a great plasticiser for building material on the lunar surface, the scientists are still looking at how they will extract urea from urine. They are also looking at other components of urine for being used for this purpose.
“We have not yet investigated how the urea would be extracted from the urine, as we are assessing whether this would really be necessary, because perhaps its other components could also be used to form the geopolymer concrete,” Anna-Lena Kjøniksen, one of the researchers from Norway said in a statement.
“The actual water in the urine could be used for the mixture, together with that which can be obtained on the Moon, or a combination of both,” Kjøniksen said.
Source Article
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"edu_score": 3.6875,
"fasttext_score": 0.029938459396362305,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9648595452308655,
"url": "https://www.mailtheduck.com/future-astronauts-could-use-their-own-urine-to-build-bases-on-moons-surface-study.html"
}
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Polonnaruwa, Polannaruwa, Polonnaruva: 2 definitions
India history and geogprahy
Source: archive.org: Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 1963
Polonnaruwa (Polonnaruva) is the name of an ancient region in Ceylon (Sri Lanka).—The earliest lithic record of human habitation at Polonnaruva is a short cave inscription of the 1st century. The first allusion to the place in the Chronicles is a reference to the construction of the tank Topāvava in the reign of Upatissa I (365-406). But its antiquity goes back to much earlier times because there are good grounds for identifying Polonnaruva, or a place very close to it, with the fortress named Vijitanagara where a decisive battle was fought about B.C. 163 between the forces of Duṭṭhagāmaṇi Abhaya and the foreign ruler Elāra.
The first king to found a Monastery at Polonnaruva was Aggabodhi III (628) who built the Mahāpānadīpa-vihāra there. Aggabodhi IV (667-683) temporarily removed the seat of government from Anurādhapura to Polonnaruva and died at Polonnaruva. This was the first of several occasions on which the kings vacated Anurādhapura and went into temporary residence at Polonnaruva on account of invasion or civil war. Hence, it came to be called Kaṅdavura-nuvara or “the camp-city”.
Source: academia.edu: The Chronological History of Ancient Sri Lanka
The Cholas occupied Polonnaruwa (Anuradhapura) in Sri Lanka in the 36th regnal year of Mahinda V. They took Mahinda V, his wife and all his treasures to Chola country. Mahinda died 12 years later around 200 BCE. According to Rajavaliya, Sena V attacked Tamils and routed them. A Chola king brought an army of 95000 Tamils and landed in Sri Lanka. Finally, Tamils took Mahinda V prisoner in his 36th regnal year. The Kalyani inscriptions and the Polonnaruwa inscription tell us that Siri Sanghabodhi Parakramabahu I was reigning in his 18th regnal year in the 1708th year of Buddha Varsha.
India history book cover
context information
Discover the meaning of polonnaruwa in the context of India history from relevant books on Exotic India
See also (Relevant definitions)
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"language_score": 0.9355605840682983,
"url": "https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/polonnaruwa"
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By Marion Blois Lobstein
Botany Chair, Prince William Wildflower Society (Article adapted from articles published in PWWS’s Wild News); Professor Emeritus, Northern Virginia Community College
Most of the 200 species ofAsclepias are native to the New World. The history of taxonomy or scientific names and classification of this interesting group of plants is complicated and convoluted. Dioscorides, the Greek physician who wrote hisMateria Medica in the first century A.D., first used Asclepias,but he was describing a plant other than milkweed, which does not grow in Europe. Possibly he was describing European dogbane (Vincetoxicum hirundinarie) which is an Apocynum species. True milkweed orAsclepias species were first collected and sent to Europe by French and English explorers in the 1500s and 1600s. In 1585, John White, the English artist who was part of the ill-fated Roanoke Lost Colony, illustrated Asclepias syriaca. The herbalist Gerarde included a description and illustration of Indian swallowwort that may have been a dogbane, but by the 1633 the illustration was that of Asclepias syriaca that was also call Apocynum syriacum. Around 1620, Louis Hebert, a French colonist and pharmacist in New France (Eastern Canada) sent seeds ofAsclepias syriacum to Paris to investigate its medicinal properties. By 1635, Philip Cornut, a doctor and botanist in New France, described both Asclepias syriaca and Asclepias incarnada in Canadensium plantarum historia. He used the genus Apocynum for both species, but was confused about the identification Asclepias syriaca, and used the name syriacum referring to a dogbane for the Mid-East. Linnaeus in 1753 used the genusAsclepias and still used the species epitaph syriaca. Linnaeus is thought to have used a specimen of this species collected by John Clayton and sent to Gronovius, who shared the specimen with Linnaeus. In the Flora Virginica (2nd ed.,1762), the use of both Asclepiasand Apocynum epitaphs seem to be linked closely together.
Since many of the characteristics of Apocynum species are similar to those of Asclepiasspecies, it is easy to see why the two genera were often confused, and the two were in the same family by the end of the 1700s. Species of both genera usually have milky sap with latex and opposite leaves (Butterfly-weed [Asclepias tuberosa] is an exception to both of these characters) as well as similar flower structure in five sepals, five petals, two carpels fused at the top by with the two ovaries free, and similar fruits-follicles or pods. Only the Asclepias species (as well as other genera in formerly in the Asclepidaceae), however, have the stigma of the pistil and stamens forming the gynostegium—described in the general article on butterfly-weed and other milkweeds in our area—and the pollen in pollinia. There are gradations of the pollina formation in some members of the former narrowly defined Apocynaceae.
Michel Adanson in 1763 proposed “Apocyna” as a family that included Apocynum and Asclepias. The accepted family name of Apocynaceae was based on A.L. de Jussieu’s “Apocineae” in 1789. In 1810, however, Robert Brown split Apocynaceae into two families, Asclepiadaceae and Apocynaceae, based on whether or not the pollen is packaged in pollina (only in Asclepiadaceae). During the 1800s, there were various treatments of these two families. In the 1990s and 2000s, the molecular investigation of the DNA of species in these two families has led to combining the two families once again into the Apocynaceae. Members of the former Asclepidaceae are now in the subfamily Asclepiadoideae. It seems molecular data has brought us full circle in re-combining these two families into Apocynaceae.
Some interesting websites dealing with taxonomic change in Apocynaceae and former Asclepidaveae:
Apocynaceae: Brown and now,” by Mary Endress, Royal Botanic Gardens & Domain Trust
The history and use of milkweed (Asclepias Syriaca L.),” by Erika E. Gaertner, inEconomic Botany (April/June 1979: 33, no. 2): pp 119-123.
Nomenclature and Iconography of Common Milkweed,” by Jules Janick and Winthrop B. Phippen, in Chronica Horticulturae, 53, no. 2 (2013)
[References: “The history and use of milkweed (Asclepias Syriaca L.),” by Erika E. Gaertner, in Economic Botany 33, no. 2 (April/June 1979), 119-123; “Nomenclature and Iconography of Common Milkweed,” by Jules Janick and Winthrop B. Phippen, in Chronica Horticulturae, 53, no. 2 (2013).]
Selected glossary of botanical terms
[Source: Alan S. Weakley, J. Christopher Ludwig, and John F. Townsend. Bland Crowder, ed. Flora of Virginia. (Fort Worth: BRIT Press, 2012)]
Androecium Collectively, the stamens of a flower.
Anther The expanded, apical, pollen-bearing portion of the stamen, comprising one or, usually, two pollen sacs and a connecting layer.
Calyx (plural calyxes) The outer whorl of the perianth; collectively, all the sepals of a flower.
Carpel A unit of the gynoecium with a simple pistil formed from on emodified leaf, or that part of a compound pistil formed from one modified leaf; megasporophyll.
Corolla Collectively, all the petals of a flower, whether distinct or connate; the inner whorl of a perianth.
Corona A set of petal-like or crown-like structures between the corolla and the androecium in some flowers, derived by modification of the corolla or androecium.
Gynostemium A compound structure resulting from the union of stamens and pistil.
Perianth Collectively, the calyx and corolla of a flower, especially when they are similar in appearance.
Pollinium (plural pollinia) I n many Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae, a coherent cluster of many waxy pollen grains, transported as a unit during pollination.
Sepal A segment of a calyx.
Stigma The part of a pistil adapted for the reception of pollen.
[Images: Milkweed flower structure accessed at “A NeoTropical Savanna,” by Mary Farmer,; Asclepias syriaca, Deanna LaValle High]
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Cystic Fibrosis - An Introduction
Genetics & Diagnosis
CF is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. Both males and females can have CF or be carriers of the CF gene. If a person has only one copy of a CF gene, they are carriers of the CF gene. This person will not have CF. If a person has two copies of a CF gene, they will have CF.
If both parents carry a CF gene each (carriers) there is a 1 in 4 chance their child will be born with CF, and a 1 in 2 chance their child will be a carrier of the CF gene. This is the case for every pregnancy these parents have. If one parent has CF and one parent has two normal genes, then all of the children will be carriers.
Screening for CF is included in the newborn heel prick test. CF will be the diagnosis if there is a positive heel prick test, if a formal sweat test is positive for CF (the sweat test measures the amount of chloride in the baby’s sweat), and with a blood test to confirm the CF gene.
The common genetic mutation of CF is delta F508. Remember to have CF you need to have a CF gene from your mum, and a CF gene from your dad. They may be the same mutation (homozygous) or you may also have what is called a heterozygous combination which means you have two different mutations. New treatments (called CFTR modulator therapy) are available, and more are on the horizon. CFTR modulator therapy targets the CFTR protein and aims to change how it is working. Your CF mutation determines what is wrong with your CFTR protein so your medical team can work out which of the new medications may work for you.
Important things to note about CF incidence are:
• Males and females are affected equally
• Over 2000 different types of genetic mutations cause CF
In Australia and New Zealand, one in 25 people, or nearly one million in total, are carriers of the CF gene. Approximately one in every 3000 babies are born with CF, with a new diagnosis occurring approximately every 4 days.
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Pipil people
The Pipils or Cuzcatlecs are an indigenous people who live in western El Salvador, which they call Cuzcatlan. The Pipil language, or Nawat, belongs to the Nahuan dialect chain, which stretches from Durango in Mexico to El Salvador, historically also in central Honduras and the Pacific coast of Nicaragua. It is thought that the Pipil, along with the neighbouring Nicarao people, migrated from Central Mexico to their present location around 900 AD, which would make them descendants of the Toltec culture. As they settled in the area, they founded the city-state of Cuzcatlan, absorbed many other pre-existing polities, and intermarried with the native peoples, mostly Ch'orti' people, Poqomam people, and Xinca people.
Their mythology, however, is more closely related to the mythology of the Mayan peoples, who are their near neighbors,[1] and by oral tradition said to have been adopted by Ch'orti' and Poqomam Mayan people during the Pipil exodus in the 9th century CE, led by Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl.
Synonymy and language
The name Pipil is the most commonly encountered term in the anthropological and linguistic literature. This exonym is from the closely related Nahuatl word -pil "son, boy". Archaeologist William Fowler notes that pipil can be translated as "noble" and surmises that the invading Spanish and their Indian auxiliaries used the name as a reference to the population's princely caste, which owned all land and directed and composed the standing army. In this reading, the name "Pipil" only later became associated with the people as a whole. Common Salvadoran belief, however, is that the term pipil translates properly as "childish" and was inspired by the simple form of Nahuatl spoken by the people living at a distance from the core civilization in Mexico.
The Pipil speak the endangered Uto-Aztecan language Nawat, also known as Pipil in English, and as náhuat in Spanish. (The older form nahuate is no longer current).
Nahuatl -pil is cognate with Nahuat pi:pil "boy". The autonym in the Nahuat language is simply Nahuat which is related to the Classical Nahuatl word nahuatl.
For most authors the term Pipil (Nahuat) is used to refer to the language in only Central America (i.e. excluding Mexico). However, the term (along with the synonymous Eastern Nahuatl) has also been used to refer to Nahuatl language varieties in the southern Veracruz, Tabasco, and Chiapas that like Pipil have reduced the earlier /tl/ sound to a /t/. The varieties in these three areas do share greater similarities with Nahuat than the other Nahuatl varieties do (suggesting a closer connection); however, Campbell (1985) considers Nahuat distinct enough to be considered a language separate from the Nahuatl complex, thus rejecting an Eastern Nahuatl subgrouping that includes Nahuat.
Finally, for other authors the term Aztec is used to refer to all closely languages in this region as a single language, not distinguishing Nahuat from Nahuatl (and sometimes not even separating out Pochutec). The classification of Nahuan that Campbell argues for (1985, 1997) has been superseded by newer and more detailed classifications. And currently the widely accepted classifications by Lastra de Suarez (1986) and Canger (1988), see Pipil as a Nahuan dialect of the eastern periphery.
• Uto-Aztecan 5000 BP*
• Shoshonean (Northern Uto-Aztecan)
• Sonoran**
• Aztecan 2000 BP (a.k.a. Nahuan)
• Pochutec — Coast of Oaxaca
• General Aztec (Nahuatl)
• Western periphery
• Eastern Periphery
• Pipil
• Sierra de Puebla
• Isthmus-Mecayapan
• Huasteca
• Central dialects
Dialects of Pipil include the following :
• Ataco
• Tacuba
• Santa Catarina Mazaguat
• Santo Domigo de Guzmán
• Nahuizalco
• Izalco
• Teotepeque
• Jicalapa
• Comazagua
• Chiltiupan
• Cuisnahuat
Today Nahuat is seldom used except in some rural areas and mostly as phrases sustained in households in Sonsonate and Ahuachapán departments. Cuisnahuat and Santo Domingo de Guzmán have the highest concentration of speakers. Campbell's 1985 estimate (fieldwork 1970-1976) was 200 remaining speakers although as many as 2000 speakers have been recorded in official Mexican reports. Gordon (2005) reports only 20 speakers (from 1987). The exact number of speakers is difficult to determine because native speakers do not wish to be identified due to historic government repression of aboriginal Salvadoreños, such as La Matanza ("The Massacre") of 1932.
A cohesive group sharing a central Mexican culture migrated to the southern Guatemalan piedmont during the Late Classic. They settled around the town of Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa, erecting Monument 4 at around the division between the Late and Terminal Classic. The culture lasted until the Spanish conquest, at which time they still maintained their Nahuat language, despite being surrounded by Maya.[2]
The region was rich in natural resources, particularly cacao and fruit.
The Pipil introduced the cults of Xipe Totec, Tlaloc, Quetzalcoatl, Huehueteotl, Ehecatl, and Tlalchitonatiuh. Their architecture is death-obsessed; as in their central Mexican homeland, their religion demanded human sacrifice. The Pipil calendar was also expressed in central Mexican terms.[2]
A third group, designated as the Izalco Pipil, are believed to have migrated into the region late in the 10th century, occupying lands west of the Lempa River during the 11th century. Legend and archaeological research suggest these migrants were refugees from conflict within the Toltec empire to the north.
The Pipil organized a nation known as Cuzcatlan, with at least two centralized city/states that may have been subdivided into smaller principalities. The Pipil were also competent workers in cotton textiles, and developed a wide-ranging trade network for woven goods as well as agricultural products. Their cultivation of cacao, centred in the Izalcos area and involving a vast and sophisticated irrigation system, was especially lucrative and Pipil trade in cacao reached as far north as Teotihuacan.
By the time the Spanish arrived, Pipil and Poqomam Maya settlements were interspersed throughout western El Salvador, from the Lempa River to the border with Guatemala. There were four important branches of the Pipil:
• The Cuzcatlecos, who became the dominant power in the region that is today El Salvador, had their capital in Cuzcatlan (now the town of Antiguo Cuscatlán in greater San Salvador).
• The Izalcos, who were very wealthy due to their great cocoa production.
• The Nonualcos, of the central region, who were renowned for their love of war.
• The Mazuahas, who were dedicated to raising the White Tailed Deer.
Although they were primarily an agricultural people, some Pipil urban centers developed into present-day cities, such as Sonsonate and Ahuachapán. The dominant Pipil cities of Cuzcatlan and Tecpan Izalco in El Salvador were founded in approximately A.D. 1050. Ruins in Aguilares and those close to the Guazapa volcano are considered part of Pipil society. (The ruins of Cihuatán, sometimes attributed to the Pipiles, is actually a Mayan site.)
Migration and legend
Pipil may refer to a branch of the pre-Columbian Toltec civilization, which flourished in Central Mexico around the close of the 1st millennium AD. The Toltec capital, Tula,[3] also known as Tollan and located in the present-day state of Hidalgo is the most significant archaeological site associated with the Toltec. The apogee of Tula's reach post-dates that of the great city of Teotihuacán, which lies further to the southeast and quite close to the modern Mexico City.
Tradition, mythology and archaeology strongly suggest these people arrived in El Salvador around the year A.D. 1000 as a result of the collapse of the Tala. The Tala, apparently a Toltec subgroup or family line, gained power or influence in the Toltec civilization at the fall of Teotihuacan. This group was ultimately defeated in a bloody civil war over succession to the throne of the Toltec capital Tula. The defeated group had little choice but to leave Mexico and emigrate to Central America. Tula fell a short time later, circa A.D. 1170, while under the reign of Huemac-Quetzalcoatl.
The faction that lost the war was led by the celebrated hero Topiltzin, son of Mixcoatl. His followers thought he was a reincarnation of the god Quetzalcoatl, and used the name as a title. According to tradition, Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl founded a sanctuary to the god Nuictlan in the region of 'Guija Lake'. Later, he arrived at the now ruined Maya site of Copán in Honduras and subsequently went to the environs of the present Nicaragua, where he established the people known as Nicarao.
Spanish conquest
In the early 16th century, the Spanish conquistadores ventured into Central America from Mexico, then known as the Spanish colony of New Spain. After subduing the highland Mayan city-states through battle and cooptation, the Spanish sought to extend their dominion to the lower Atlantic region of the Pipiles, then dominated by the powerful city-state of Cuscatlán. Pedro de Alvarado, a lieutenant of Hernán Cortés, led the first Spanish invasion in June 1524. He was accompanied by thousands of Mayan allies, who had long been rivals of Cuscatlán for control over their wealthy cacao-producing region. The Pipil armies met the Spanish forces in two major open battles, but were massacred by the Spaniards' superior weaponry and later by diseases. The surviving Cuscatlán forces retreated into the mountains, where they sustained a guerrilla war against the Spanish who had proceeded to occupy the city of Cuscatlán. Unable to defeat this resistance, and with Alvarado nursing a painful leg wound from a Pipil arrow in the first battle, the Spanish forces returned after a few months to the Mayan cities in the highlands of Guatemala. Two subsequent Spanish expeditions were required to achieve the complete defeat of Cuscatlán: one in 1525 and another in 1528.
Legend has it that a Pipil Cacique or King named Atlacatl and his son Prince Atonal led the Pipil forces against first contact with the Spanish, the most famous battle being the Battle of Acajutla. One variation holds that it was Atlacatl's arrow that injured Alvarado in the thigh. This legend has not been unsupported by scholars, however, who have found no historical confirmation of any king named Atlacatl. (The one Spanish reference appears to have been a misreading of a place name, Atacat.)
After the Spanish victory, the Pipils became vassals of the Spanish Crown and were no longer called Pipiles by the Spanish but simply indios or Indians. The term Pipil has therefore remained associated, in mestizo Salvadoran rhetoric, with the pre-conquest indigenous culture. Today it is used by scholars to distinguish the indigenous population in El Salvador from other Nahuat-speaking groups such as those in Nicaragua. However, neither the self-identified indigenous population nor its political movement, which has revived in recent decades, uses the term "pipil" to describe themselves, but instead uses the term "Nahuat" or simply "indigena".
Modern Pipil
Popular accounts of the Pipil have had a strong influence on the national mythology of El Salvador, with a large portion of the population claiming ancestry from this and other indigenous groups. Some 86% of today's Salvadorans are mestizos (people of mixed indigenous, black African and European descent), with less than ten percent of unmixed European ancestry. A small percentage (estimated by the government at 1%, by UNESCO at 2%, and by scholars at between 2 and 4%) is of pure or mostly pure indigenous ancestry, although numbers are disputed for political reasons. A few Pipil still speak Nahuat and follow traditional ways of life. The traditional groups live mainly in the northwestern highlands near the Guatemalan border, but numerous self-identified indigenous populations live in other areas, such as the Nonualcos south of the capital and the Lenca people in the east.
According to a special report in El Diario de Hoy, due to preservation and revitalization efforts of various non-profit organizations in conjunction with several universities, combined with a post-civil war resurgence of Pipil identity in the country of El Salvador, the number of Nahuat speakers rose from 200 in the 1980s to 3,000 speakers in 2009. The vast majority are young people, giving the language hope of being pulled from the brink of extinction.[4]
There is also a renewed interest in the preservation of the traditional beliefs and other cultural practices of the Pipil, as well as a greater willingness by the communities to perform their ceremonies in public and don traditional clothing[5]
See also
1. Boland, Roy (17 October 2017). "Culture and Customs of El Salvador". Greenwood Publishing Group. Retrieved 17 October 2017 via Google Books.
2. Michael Coe, The Maya (Thames and Hudson) 7th ed 2005 174-6 from 5th ed 1993 137-9
3. "History Reference: Ancient History & World History". Jrank.org. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
4. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-09-28. Retrieved 2012-09-30.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
5. "La Palabra Universitaria – Periódico virtual de la Universidad Tecnológica de El Salvador - Periódico digital con noticias del campus universitario y del acontecer nacional". Lapalabra.utec.edu.sv. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
Further reading
Batres, Carlos A. (2009). "Tracing the "Enigmatic" Late Postclassic Nahua-Pipil (A.D. 1200-1500): Archaeological Study of Guatemalan South Pacific Coast". Carbondale, Illinois, USA: Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
Fowler, William R. Jr. (Winter 1985). "Ethnohistoric Sources on the Pipil-Nicarao of Central America: A Critical Analysis". Ethnohistory. Duke University Press. 32 (1): 37–62. ISSN 0014-1801. JSTOR 482092. OCLC 478130795.
Fox, John W. (August 1981). "The Late Postclassic Eastern Frontier of Mesoamerica: Cultural Innovation Along the Periphery". Current Anthropology. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. 22 (4): 321–346. doi:10.1086/202685. ISSN 0011-3204. JSTOR 2742225. OCLC 4644864425.
Polo Sifontes, Francis (1981). Francis Polo Sifontes and Celso A. Lara Figueroa (ed.). "Título de Alotenango, 1565: Clave para ubicar geograficamente la antigua Itzcuintepec pipil". Antropología e Historia de Guatemala (in Spanish). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Dirección General de Antropología e Historia de Guatemala, Ministerio de Educación. 3, II Epoca: 109–129. OCLC 605015816.
Van Akkeren, Ruud (2005). "Conociendo a los Pipiles de la Costa del Pacífico de Guatemala: Un estudio etno-histórico de documentos indígenas y del Archivo General de Centroamérica" (PDF). XVIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 2004 (edited by J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo and H. Mejía) (in Spanish). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 1000–1014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-14. Retrieved 2012-02-18.
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SCUTES: Students Collaborating to Undertake Tracking Efforts for Sturgeon
June 23, 2020
Lesson plans to help you instruct and inform your students about Atlantic and shortnose sturgeon.
We have created a number of lesson plans to help you instruct and inform your students concerning Atlantic and shortnose sturgeon. The lesson plans are organized by subject and range from grades 3 through 12. The lessons are not labeled by grade, because they can all be adapted to fit your classroom's needs. Each subject list starts with the most basic (elementary-middle) lessons and ends with the most advanced (middle-high school) lessons.
Within each lesson plan you will find an overview of the lesson, objectives, background, necessary materials, procedures, conclusions, and the applicable learning standards.
Lesson Plan Topic Summary
1 Ecosystem in Danger Students will be able to:
• Identify that Atlantic sturgeon live in the ocean.
• Explain several reasons why the ocean is in trouble and how we can help.
• Create a concept map linking how humans, Atlantic sturgeon, and the ocean are connected.
2 Humans and Sturgeon: Great Debate Historical human impact on sturgeon populations
3 Sturgeon Life Cycle Students will be able to:
• Recognize that Atlantic sturgeon go through predictable life cycles that include birth, growth, development, reproduction, and death.
• Correctly order the stages of an Atlantic sturgeon’s life cycle.
• Correctly label the stages of the Atlantic sturgeon’s life cycle.
• Create a life cycle poster with the life cycle pictures in the correct order and accurately labeled.
4 Wampanoag Indians, MCAS Practice/Test Writing Strategies
Students will be able to:
• Identify specific aspects of the Wampanoag way of life.
• Use the strategy of context clues to figure out the meaning of certain vocabulary words within the text.
• Answer multiple choice, short answer, and open response questions accurately using their knowledge of Atlantic sturgeon, the Wampanoag culture, and the included article.
• Use Turn The Question Around (TTQA) to start their open response and short answer questions.
5 Commercial Fisheries Gear Types Fishing methods: nets
6 Sturgeon Sampling Methods Tagging, tissue sampling, and gastric lavage of sturgeon
Last updated by Greater Atlantic Regional Fisheries Office on 07/09/2020
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What Is the Whistleblower Act and Who Does It Protect?
What Is the Whistleblower Act
What Is the Whistleblower ActWhat is the Whistleblower Act? The law was enacted in 1989. The intent to protect anyone working for the federal government who decides to report government agency misconduct.
The Whistleblower Act of 1989 states that only certain offices and judges have the right to hear cases related to whistleblowing. The federal Office of Special Counsel investigates the claims brought under this Act. This counsel is a dedicated legal branch that only reviews federal whistleblowing cases and nothing else.
The Merit System Protection Board is the primary forum in which claims are heard and adjudicated. Administrative law judges make decisions for these claims. The Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit is the authority that reviews any appeals from the Merit System Protection Board. However, the appeals tend to be few and far between.
Recent Changes Redefine the Whistleblower Act
The 1989 Act addressed any disclosure of wrongdoing, particularly material or informational, that the reporting party felt was a violation of not just law but an act of gross resource waste, fraud, inefficiency or a threat to the public. This broad definition covered a wide scope of issues related to whistleblowing and fraud.
Early on, many cases were dismissed or deemed unprotected by the Act in court application of the Law. This triggered eventual revisions to broaden the scope of protection. The 1989 Act was augmented by additional law under the Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act of 2012. This revision added a number of protections for employees, who are involved in the military and intelligence community, and fear retaliation due to their agency’s unique work that tends to be secret, confidential, and restricted. However, this new Act was time-limited through 2014.
Whistleblower Act Protections
In application, a claimant wanting to pursue a whistleblower protection lawsuit first needs to have been an employee of the federal Executive Branch during the time when the incident occurred. There must have been some kind of reporting by the person of perceived wrongdoing, and there needs to be an act of retaliation against the employee due to the reporting. In other words, a person who reported a problem and never experienced retaliation cannot win a claim for injury when one did not occur.
It’s also important to understand, there are other statutory provisions that allow for whistleblower recovery. The Federal False Claims Act allows the ability to sue and recover damages for the government in the case that the government doesn’t want to pursue the claim itself. OSHA also applies whistleblower protections under labor laws, and states have their own statutes for additional rights and recoveries.
If you are wading through information to answer your question “What is the Whistleblower Act?” you don’t have to process through it all alone. Contact our team at Bothwell Law Group to get additional information today.
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Interest rates rarely increase during a recession. Actually, the opposite tends to happen; as the economy contracts, interest rates fall in tandem. Lowering the interest rates as an economy recedes is known as quantitive easing, and was widespread following the 2008 financial crisis.
Role of The Federal Reserve
The Federal Reserve has tools to control interest rates. During a recession, the Fed usually tries to coax rates downward to stimulate the economy. When a recession is on, people become skittish about borrowing money and are more apt to save what they have.
Following the basic demand curve, low demand for credit pushes the price of credit—meaning interest rates—downward.
The Fed knows how to use the fact that people save in a recession, and lower rates to a point where people think it might be stupid to not take advantage of such attractive rates. This is turn leads to an influx in loans, which pumps money back into the system and theoretically jumpstarts an economy.
The Federal Reserve exerts major influence on interest rates. It can push rates upward or downward by adjusting the federal funds rate, which is the interest rate at which banks lend money to each other to meet overnight reserve requirements, and by buying or selling Treasury bonds (T-bonds).
Key Takeaways
• Interest rates almost never rise during an economic slowdown, as it would deter capital from making its way back into the economy.
• Money is more tightly held during a slow economy, so interest rate controllers like the Federal Reserve make rates low as an incentive to reinvest in loans and purchases.
• It is possible to lower interest rates to negative, but that can do damage to an economy instead of jumpstarting it.
A downside of this quantitative easing, or QE, is when countries keep interest rates too low—or even negative—for too long and the economy goes into stagnation, similar to when a car battery doesn't receive an adequate charge and bleeds power as a result. This is the most prevalent in some Eurozone countries in the period between 2008-2018, when the European central bank kept interest rates low for far longer than their bellwether, the United States Federal Reserve.
Supply and Demand
In a bad economy, consumers tend to become more fastidious with household finances. They are more careful about borrowing and more motivated to save the money left over after meeting expenses. This supply and demand dynamic creates an environment for low interest rates to thrive.
When everyone wants to borrow money, interest rates tend to rise; the high demand for credit means people are willing to pay more for it. During a recession, the opposite happens. No one wants credit, so the price of credit falls to entice borrowing activity.
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"url": "https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/102015/do-interest-rates-increase-during-recession.asp"
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The Skylab Legacy — Long Duration Space Flight
Skylab’s May 14, 1973 launch into low-Earth orbit was the nation’s first foray into significant scientific research in microgravity. The three Skylab crews proved humans could live and work effectively for long durations in space. This NASA video recounts the history of the program and showcases Skylab’s legacy as a major stepping stone to the successful construction and operation of the International Space Station and future long-duration human missions to asteroids, Mars and other destinations.
(Visited 29 times, 1 visits today)
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"fasttext_score": 0.055397748947143555,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8822665810585022,
"url": "https://acrosoft.co.uk/the-skylab-legacy-long-duration-space-flight/"
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Beelzebufo ampinga, the so-called "devil frog," may be the largest frog that ever lived. These beach-ball-size amphibians, now extinct, grew to 16 inches (41 centimeters) in length and weighed about 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms). They inhabited the island of Madagascar during the Late Cretaceous, about 65 to 70 million years ago.
These largely terrestrial frogs may have been as ill-tempered and aggressive as their living relatives, the ceratophyrines of South America, scientists say. Ceratophyrines are nasty sit-and-wait predators that are eager to snap at just about anything that happens by, experts note. The ancient devil frogs may have snatched lizards, small vertebrates, and possibly even hatchling dinosaurs with their huge mouths and powerful jaws.
Scientists announced Beelzebufo in February 2008 more than a decade after the first bits of fossilized remains from the species were found. Its name is derived from Beelzebub, Greek for "devil," and bufo, Latin for toad. Ampinga means "armored," describing the prominent cranial shield the species had on its head.
The presence of Beelzebufo on Madagascar poses an important question for biogeographers: How is it that the modern relatives of this gigantic frog are only found halfway around the world in South America?
Most scientists think Madagascar separated from Africa about 160 million years ago during the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, then broke free from India and became an isolated island some 88 million years ago. But Beelzebufo and other Madagascan fossils with South American characteristics suggests a land connection between South America, Madagascar, and possibly Antarctica may have existed as late as 65 to 70 million years ago.
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"url": "https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/prehistoric/devil-frog/"
}
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Alternate Names: Clostridium Botulinum Toxin, Botulin Toxin
Featuring content from MRI Clinic
• About
• The Facts
Most people know that botulism is dangerous, but many are confused about whether it's an infection or a case of poisoning. In fact, it can be both. Clostridium botulinum is a worldwide bacterium that inhabits rivers, soil, and the guts of mammals, fish, and shellfish. It's not an organism that normally makes its living by attacking humans. We most often encounter C. botulinum by accident.
Botulism is rare, but there are still cases every year.
There are four ways to get botulism:
• Infant botulism occurs when infants under 6 months of age eat bacterial spores rather than the toxins. Spores of C. botulinum then grow in the infant's intestines, where they produce toxins. Honey can contain spores of C. botulinum and is associated with infant botulism and should not be given to children under 6 months old. Infant botulism is rare.
Rarely, toxins can be inhaled or absorbed through the eyes.
Ironically, some people intentionally get localized botulism from their doctor these days. The toxin is used to make a medication that is injected into twitching and spasmodic muscles to temporarily paralyze them. It's a treatment used for a variety of nerve disorders and for the cosmetic purpose of removing frown lines, forehead wrinkles, and "crow's feet" around the eyes.
Symptoms and Complications
C. botulinum toxin attacks nerve endings, damaging them and then stopping muscle function. It can't cross the barrier that protects the brain. The heart has its own wiring system and also isn't affected. However, botulin can affect all the other nerves of the body, including the nerves of the muscles that operate the lungs. Botulin toxin kills by shutting down breathing.
Making the Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
The antitoxin works by neutralizing botulin. However, the antitoxin needs to be administered as soon as possible after diagnosis. The medication can't repair nerve endings already damaged. This means that while you may survive, you will be temporarily left in the state you were in at the time the medication was administered. That may mean paralysis, sometimes to the point of being unable to talk or even swallow.
The antitoxin is generally not given for infant botulism.
Botulin toxin has been found in North America in these foods:
• asparagus
• baked potatoes
• beets
• canned corn
• chicken, chicken livers, and liver paté
• garlic-in-oil dressing
• green beans
• ham
• lobster
• luncheon meats
• mushrooms
• peppers
• ripe olives
• sausage
• smoked and salted fish
• soups
• spinach
• stuffed eggplant
• tuna fish
Only highly acidic foods are safe from C. botulinum. Freezing will shut down toxin production, but a fridge isn't cold enough. The following food handling procedures can help you to prevent foodborne botulism:
• Do not feed honey to infants less than 6 months old.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9412035942077637,
"url": "https://www1.shoppersdrugmart.ca/en/health-and-pharmacy/conditions/botulism/21"
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Children's Activities for the Great Banquet Parable
bread image by Maria Brzostowska from
In the parable of the great banquet (Luke 14:15-24), Jesus tells of a man whose friends reject his invitation to a feast. In response, the man opens the invitation to everyone--"the poor, the crippled, the blind and the lame"--just as God welcomes the poorest and most despised to his heavenly feast. Some simple activities can help bring the story to life for children.
Make Invitations to a Feast
For this activity, you will need paper, scissors, pens, pencils, crayons and other craft materials. Ask the children to name the people who suffer from hate and rejection today. Encourage them to think about their own experience and the wider world. Answers might include the poor, people of other races and religions, and victims of bullies in school. The children then make their own invitations, from scratch or from a template you provide, addressing them to the people Jesus would have invited.
Make a Banquet Wall Picture
With craft materials such as paper, scissors and crayons, make a giant wall picture of a feast. Each child can draw and cut out his favourite food. Then talk about what good things God gives people, such as love, peace, joy and forgiveness. You can tie this in with Paul's "fruit of the spirit" (Galatians 5:22-23). Write God's gifts on labels and stick them onto the banquet picture.
Read the Parable with Actions
The teacher or leader needs only a Bible for this activity. Read the parable and tell the children to act out each part as you speak. Go through all the actions in advance, or explain as you go through the story. For example, the children can imitate the servant announcing the invitation or form pairs to be the husband with his new bride. As the poor and lame, they can cheer when they receive the invitation and later pretend to eat a delicious feast.
Plan a Party
You can do this activity with just pens and paper. Each child can plan her own party, or everyone can be responsible for a different aspect of the party. Things to consider include what food and entertainment to have, but draw particular attention to the guest list and their aims for the party. For example, they want people to enjoy the food, make new friends and have fun with old friends. Relate these to what God wants them to enjoy about his feast, such as fellowship with Jesus, closeness to God and a feeling of joy and fulfilment.
Food Gift Exchange
You will need paper and pens and a small food gift, such as candies, for each child. On separate pieces of paper, write down each child's name. Everyone picks a name at random and chooses a food gift to give to that person, giving a positive reason why they think that child deserves the gift. Reasons may include "You're fun to hang out with" or "You're a good friend and always listen to me." Afterward, as the children enjoy their treats, compare their gifts and reasons with the gifts God gives.
Most recent
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"url": "https://www.ehow.co.uk/list_7254056_children_s-activities-great-banquet-parable.html"
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Flatland Chapter 1 Summary & Analysis
A Square, the narrator and protagonist, opens the book with Part I by introducing his readers to his world of Flatland, which he likens to a sheet of paper on which straight lines, triangles, squares, pentagons, and other figures roam about.
The narrator immediately starts the book with an analogy to help the reader compare the paper-like landscape of his world to what will later look a lot like Victorian Britain. This very mathematical world, governed by geometrical concepts and theories, shows that reason and logical thinking will be an important theme throughout the work.
Religion, Divinity, and the Unknown Theme Icon
Reason vs. Emotion Theme Icon
Knowledge and Truth vs. Dogma Theme Icon
Analogy as Satire Theme Icon
A Square says that Flatlanders, lacking the ability to distinguish each other by sight, only see each other as straight lines, much in the way one sees the side of a penny from the edge of a table. He includes three figures that illustrate how a triangle appears from above, close to the level of a table, and at the level.
Abbott’s inclusion of actual images suggests that analogy may be limited if only conducted through words. The fact that Flatlanders all see each other as lines will later prove ironic, since they distinguish each other by more absurd means.
Social Hierarchy and Oppression Theme Icon
Analogy as Satire Theme Icon
Related Quotes
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Experiment Objective: Students will design and construct a catapult and use it as a marshmallow launcher. They will learn the simple mechanics behind the catapult and forces. The purpose of this activity is to introduce students to use simple machine to build a device used for launching purposes. Learning Goals: Students will learn the mechanics of a simple machine catapult and use its properties to construct a marshmallow launcher. They will use their knowledge in physics and engineering to launch marshmallows at a certain distance and angle. Students will be able to explore how they can improve their launcher upon trials.
Introduction: A catapult is a mechanism used to throw missiles in ancient and medieval warfare. At first, catapults were specifically designed to shoot spears or other missiles at a low trajectory. They were originally distinguished from ballistae and trebuchets, both of which were large military engines used to hurl stones and other missiles, but these distinctions later blurred. Soon after, larger catapults mounted on a single arm also hurled stones, pots of boiling oil, and incendiaries at a high trajectory. They were used to attack or defend fortifications. Catapults were widely employed in siege warfare, but with the introduction of artillery they passed from use. In the 20th century catapults using hydraulic pressure were reintroduced to launch aircraft from warships. Lesson Background and Concepts: What Is a Catapult? A catapult is a machine that is similar to a giant slingshot. Objects, such as boulders, can be positioned on the catapult and hurled over distances. Catapults were used in ancient times to attack castles and fortresses by throwing large objects over moats and walls. Modern soldiers have also used catapults: During World War I they were used to propel grenades and gas bombs over long distances. In naval warfare a catapult can be used to launch aircraft from the deck of a ship.
How Does It Work? The catapult has a basket on the end of a movable arm strong enough to hold the weight of object it is intended to hurl. Tension is applied to arm, which is forced down and secured in place; springs and twisted ropes are two ways to provide the necessary tension. After the object is added to the basket, the bindings are cut or removed. The arm then succumbs to the tension and flips to the other side, like pulling a rubber band and then releasing. The object is propelled forward. General definition of a catapult: to hurl an object through the air. There are are three primary technologies that fall into the "catapult" category. Catapult -winched-down bucket. -originally, "catapult" is referred to a dartthrower. In modern times, catapult can be used to describe any machine that hurls a projectile. This can include a slingshot used to hurl pebbles and a machine that launches airplanes off aircraft carriers. Ballista -a very large crossbow. -a weapon developed from earlier Greek weapons. It relied upon different mechanics, using two levers with torsion springs, the springs consisting of several loops of twisted skeins.
Trebuchet -a weighted beam that swings a sling carrying the projectile. -a trebuchet tends to be easier to build because it consists simply of a pivoting beam and a counterweight that rotates the beam through an arc.
Work can be done on the catapult quite slowly, when the elastic is slowly stretched. This provides a store of elastic potential energy, which can be expended quite quickly in accelerating the stone of ball to a reasonably high speed. Three properties can be exemplified in the use of a catapult: elasticity, energy, and force. Elasticity is seen in the measure of the stretch of the spring loaded in the catapult. This will demonstrate the accuracy of the delivery of the object being flung. Second, energy is present in the conversion of it from potential into kinetic energy. This could demonstrate and determine the range of the object. Finally, force can be studied and measured in the projectile motion. Projectile Motion A projectile is an object upon which the only force acting is gravity. There are a variety of examples of projectiles. An object dropped from rest is a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible). An object which is thrown vertically upward is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible). And an object is which thrown upward at an angle to the horizontal is also a projectile (provided that the influence of air resistance is negligible). A projectile is any object which once projected or dropped continues in motion by its own inertia and is influenced only by the downward force of gravity. By definition, a projectile has only one force acting upon it - the force of gravity. If there was any other force acting upon an object, then that object would not be a projectile. Thus, the free-body diagram of a projectile would show a single force acting downwards and labeled force of gravity. Regardless of whether a projectile is moving downwards, upwards, upwards and rightwards, or downwards and leftwards, the free-body diagram of the projectile is still as depicted in the diagram at the right. By definition, a projectile is any object upon which the only force is gravity.
Projectile Motion and Air Resistance If projectiles were only launched from the surface of the moon where there is no atmosphere, then the effects of gravity, as described in the previous section, would be sufficient to determine the flight path. On Earth, however, the atmosphere will influence the motion of projectiles. As opposed to the situation due to purely gravitational effects, projectile motion with air resistance will be dependent on the weight and shape of the object. As one would suspect, lighter objects are more strongly affected by air resistance. In many cases, air resistance will produce a drag force which is proportional to the velocity squared. The effects of increased air drag on an object such as a cannon ball will cause it to fall short of its normal range without air resistance. This effect may be significant. It was realized that cannon balls would travel farther distances if aimed at higher elevations, due to decreased air density and decreased drag.
More subtle effects of air resistance on projectile motion are related to the shape and rotation of the object. Clearly, the shape of an object can have an effect on its projectile motion, as anyone has experienced by wadding up a piece of paper before tossing it into the waste can. The rotation of an object is important also. For example, a good quarterback always puts a spin on a football when making a pass. Lab Activity Instructions: Students will perform the construction of a marshmallow launcher in their groups. Instructors will explain the how a catapult works and the basic physics concepts behind the construction. Students are given different materials and they can choose their supply for making the launcher. Upon completion, they will compete for the greatest launching distance. Allow one instructor for demonstration and other instructors as assistants around the classroom. The Problem and Challenge: Design a catapult that will throw a marshmallow the greatest distance.
Materials: 1 popsicle stick (the double kind, or 2 singles), 2 erasers (3-4cm long), 1 mousetrap (optional), 1 elastic band, 1 spoon, duct tape, heavy book, marshmallows (different sizes) Procedure: 1. You can use the mousetrap to build a catapult or construct the catapult from popsicle sticks. Carefully pull back the mousetrap lever and watch your fingers. Wrap the elastic band around the base of the mousetrap to hold the lever down. 2. Place one eraser against the hinge of the trap and tape it in place. 3. Place the second eraser on top of the first, slightly over the hinge. Tape it in place. 4. Carefully remove the elastic band from around the lever (watch those fingers!). 5. Break one Popsicle stick in half and tape it horizontally across the lever. 6. Tape the other popsicle stick to the lever so that it is perpendicular to the first stick. Tape the spoon to this second stick. This is your catapult, mechanism to used to throw missiles in ancient and medieval warfare. At first, catapults were specifically designed to shoot spears or other missiles. 7. Tape the entire trap to a heavy book to act as your base. Ready, aim and fire. Pull back the spoon and load it with a marshmallow and let it fly. Have a target and shoot in that direction, this is more challenging. Note: A catapult is a lever that not only makes it easier to lift a load, but also moves it faster. In this case, the hinge of the mousetrap is your fulcrum, the marshmallow is the load and the spoon is the load arm. Expected Outcome: The catapult can throw marshmallows out and the distance of throws will be measured. The teams will compete for the greatest distance thrown. Checking for student understanding: Ask students during the catapult construction process how will they design and build the catapult. Encourage them to be creative and use the materials available to construct their unique catapult. Promote their critical thinking and use the concepts from the lesson. Extensions and connections: Students can extend this activity to the making of other simple machines and devices. They can think about where they can use catapult in real life and how they are useful in terms of its mechanism. They can connect to the ancient catapult and explain they
Physics and Engineering-Simple Machines and Catapult References: Home%20page-%20Aaron%20Dhillon.htm
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"fasttext_score": 0.7729864120483398,
"language": "en",
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"url": "https://ro.scribd.com/document/112335223/marshmallow-launcher"
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Lesson 1.5
Rules of Communication
After the Russians launched SPUTNIK into space, the United States government started a research group known as the Advanced Research Projects Agency, or ARPA. Their primary job was to come up with ideas that could make the United States competitive with the Soviet Union. But even though they had nearly two billion dollars to work with, the most intelligent minds of ARPA could not come up with anything. At least not in such a short time. So United States government gave a big portion of that money to a new group that became known as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA.
So what happened to ARPA? Turns out, they built something that would surpass even the greatest achievements of NASA. ARPA would eventually build the Internet. But before they could build the Internet, they had to sit down and figure out how one computer might talk with another computer. They thought about human communication and then applied that to computers to build something they called a network.
LEARNING GOAL #1: The Basics of Web History
Students will understand how the Internet evolved from a classified government research project into a world wide resource with the help of highly educated teachers and students.
Read More
Posted in WD1
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"language_score": 0.9716631770133972,
"url": "https://k12digitalcourses.com/wd1lessons/1_5/"
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FaclairDictionary EnglishGàidhlig
Apostrophes are a frequent occurrence in written Gaelic, consequently knowing when and when not to use an apostrophe can take some getting used to. Watch the video below for some helpful guidelines!
Definite Article
Use an apostrophe when using the definite article (the word “the” in English) before nouns beginning with bh, ph, mh, ch, and gh:
Fhuair mi airgead às a' bhanc.
- I've got money in the bank.
Leum mi dhan a' char.
- I jumped into the car.
Chaidh mi dhan a' bhùth
- I went to the shop.
Verbal Nouns
Additionally, apostrophes are used with verbal nouns that begin with a consonant. It may be helpful to remember that verbal nouns in English end with the suffix ‘ing’.
a' ceannach
- buying
a' coimhead
- looking
a' lorg
- searching
Bha mi a' ceannach còta ùr, agus bha mi a' coimhead air còtaichean fada blàtha.
- I was buying a new coat, and I was looking at long warm coats.
Bha mi a' lorg còta fada blàth.
- I was searhing for a long warm coat.
'S and B'
Occasionally, you may also use apostrophes to replace missing letters in shortened versions of the Gaelic words is, agus, and bu.
Chòrd fear dearg ’s fear gorm rium, ach ’s e fear uaine a b’ fhèarr leam.
- I liked a red one and a blue one, but I would prefer a green one.
Bha mi gu math toilichte nuair a chunnaic mi cho soar ’s a bha e.
- I was well pleased when I saw how cheap it was.
M' and D'
The possessive pronouns mo and do can be shortened with the use of an apostrophe to represent the missing letters when the following noun begins with a vowel or fh followed by a vowel:
Chunntais mi m’ airgead gu faiceallach mus tug mi m’ airgead seachad.
- I counted my money carefully before I handed my money over.
Bha fhios agam gum biodh gàire air d’ aodann.
- I knew there would be a smile on your face.
Replacing A
Apostrophes can be used to replace the ‘a’ in tha or bha for use in words such as bh’ annam.
’S e neach gu math sunndach bh’ annam.
- I was quite a cheerful person.
Finally, an apostrophe is used after dh with verbs that begin with either ‘f’ or a vowel:
Dh’fhàg mi a’ bhùth le mo chòta ùr agus dh’fhalbh mi dhachaigh.
- I left the shop with my new coat and I went home.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.758197009563446,
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Key insights from 's
10 minutes
The human stories behind the periodic table of elements.
Why does the periodic table look the way it does, and how did it come to be? In this Snapshot, you will learn about the origins of the periodic table of elements and the many people who helped put it together, as well as how the periodic table has played a role in shaping medicine, global politics, and literature. Most importantly, you will see how the stories behind the periodic table offer a new perspective on the human experience.
Read this Snapshot if you:
• Are interested in the intersection of anthropology, art, and science
• Care about the people and the discoveries that facilitated modern science
• Want to understand the relationship between humans and their scientific work
What is a Snapshot?Learn More
Read on the Scribd mobile app
Download the free Scribd mobile app to read anytime, anywhere.
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"fasttext_score": 0.6329056024551392,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9141063690185547,
"url": "https://www.scribd.com/snapshot/416444673/The-Disappearing-Spoon-And-Other-True-Tales-of-Madness-Love-and-the-History-of-the-World-from-the-Periodic-Table-of-Elements"
}
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Food consumption
Bed bugs live exclusively on blood. The common bed bug prefers human blood but can suck on other animals. It is photophobic and spends most of his life hidden near places where potential blood donors spend the nighttime. If it lives under optimal conditions, hunger will drive the bed bug out of hiding approx. once a week. It happens at night, and with the help of sensory organs in its antennae, it finds its prey by going after the carbon dioxide we exhale and the humid heat from our body. It will select an appropriate thin-skinned place where the blood vessels are not too far in. Preferably on exposed parts of the body, face, neck, arms and feet if they stick out from under the covers. It is reluctant to seek through the clothes. The proboscis is a rather complex instrument (fig xx?).The two maxillae are connected to form two tubes. A thinner tube where the salivary glands end. The saliva leaking into the wound during suction, contains a substance that prevents blood from clotting as well as a local anesthetic. It is obviously important that the suction can be done without the victim noticing. Through the slightly thicker tube, the blood squeezes up into the bed bug’s digestive system. Along this double tube is a pair of needle-shaped mouth parts which are suitable for piercing and cutting through the epidermis and into an appropriate blood vessel. A sheath, formed by the insect’s labium, when not in use, protects this whole system. It takes bed bugs between 5 and 10 minutes to fill up on blood. Then it withdraws its proboscis and folds it back under its head. On average, it will have spent approx. 20 minutes in contact with its host. At room temperature, a bed bug can live a few months without a blood meal. At 13 degrees Celsius it can survive a season without getting food. With food consumption it will often shed its black, blood-containing excrement, which you then can find on the bedding.
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"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.4402309060096741,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9467970132827759,
"url": "https://www.pestium.uk/bedbugs-bites-stings-and-itches/bed-bugs/food-consumption/"
}
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Page:Origin of Species 1872.djvu/118
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I see no reason to limit the process of modification, as now explained, to the formation of genera alone. If, in the diagram, we suppose the amount of change represented by each successive group of diverging dotted lines to be great, the forms marked to , those marked and , and those marked to , will form three very distinct genera. We shall also have two very distinct genera descended from (I), differing widely from the descendants of (A). These two groups of genera will thus form two distinct families, or orders, according to the amount of divergent modification supposed to be represented in the diagram. And the two new families, or orders, are descended from two species of the original genus; and these are supposed to be descended from some still more ancient and unknown form.
We have seen that in each country it is the species belonging to the larger genera which oftenest present varieties or incipient species. This, indeed, might have been expected; for as natural selection acts through one form having some advantage over other forms in the struggle for existence, it will chiefly act on those which already have some advantage; and the largeness of any group shows that its species have inherited from a common ancestor some advantage in common. Hence, the struggle for the production of new and modified descendants will mainly lie between the larger groups, which are all trying to increase in number. One large group will slowly conquer another large group, reduce its number, and thus lessen its chance of further variation and improvement. Within the same large group, the later and more highly perfected sub-groups, from branching out and seizing on many new places in the polity of nature, will constantly tend to supplant and destroy the earlier and less improved sub-groups. Small and broken groups and sub-groups will finally disappear. Looking to the future, we can predict that the groups of organic beings which are now large and triumphant, and which are least broken up, that is, which have as yet suffered least extinction, will, for a long period, continue to increase. But which groups will ultimately prevail, no man can predict; for we know that many groups, formerly most extensively developed, have now become extinct. Looking still more remotely to the future, we may predict that, owing to the continued and steady increase of the larger groups, a multitude of smaller groups will become utterly extinct, and leave no modified descendants; and consequently that, of the species living at any one period, extremely few will transmit descendants to a remote futurity. I shall have to return to this subject in the chapter on classification, but I may add that as, according to this view, extremely few of the
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The Full Wiki
Diet (assembly): Map
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In politics, a diet is a formal deliberative assembly. The term is derived from Medieval Latin dietas, and ultimately comes from the Latin dies, "day". The word came to be used in this sense because assemblies met on a daily basis which is reflected in the German language use of Tagung (Meeting) and -tag (day, as in Montag—i.e. Monday—or parliament, council or other law-deliberating chamber, as in Bundestagmarker, or Reichstag) .
Historic uses
In this sense, it commonly refers to the Reichstag assemblies of the Holy Roman Empire; see Reichstag , Diet of Augsburg, Diet of Nuremberg, Diet of Regensburg, Diet of Speyer and Diet of Worms.
Since the Second Peace of Thorn of 1466, a German language Prussian dietmarker Landtag was held in the lands of Royal Prussia, a province of Poland in personal union with the King of Poland.
The assemblies of the Hungarianmarker nobility, customarily called together every three years in Pozsonymarker, were also called "Diéta" in the Habsburg Empiremarker before the 1848 revolution.
The Riksdag of the Estates was the diet of the four estates of Swedenmarker, from the 15th century until 1866. The Diet of Finland was the successor to the Riksdag of the Estates in the Grand Duchy of Finland, from 1809 to 1906.
The Swiss Diet was known as Tagsatzung.
In other countries the name of the comparable assembly came from the generality of the States:
Until 1953, the Danishmarker parliament was called the Rigsdag and had two chambers.
Current use
• The modern Germanmarker parliament, called the Bundestagmarker, literally means "Federal Diet"; the derivation is that "-tag" (in that form, only used as a second part of a compositum) in German means "assembly," indicating the Latin-derived meaning. The term is rarely if ever translated into English in English-language texts, even on first reference.
• The parliaments of the German federated states (Länder) are mostly named Landtag, literally means " State Diet".
• The name of the Swedishmarker parliament is the Riksdagmarker, which being cognate to German Reichstag literally means "Diet/Assembly of the Realm".
• The Japanese Parliament (the Kokkai) is conventionally called the Diet in English, indicating the heavy Prussianmarker influence on the Meiji Constitution, Japan's first modern written constitution.
• Some universities refer to the period of formal examination and the conclusion of an academic term as an examination diet.
• In Croatia name of the parliament is Hrvatski sabor ( Croatian diet/assebmbly/parliament, Sabor comes from words: sabrati se/ to gather/to assemble )
See also
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What are the functions of the horn circuit and horn relay?
Horn is a sound creating the device. Electrical horns are used in all the automobile vehicles. When the horn is operated, it creates loud vibrating sound indicating that vehicle is coming so that the passengers or the other slow-moving vehicles may clear off the path to passing it. Horn is also used as a calling well to call the persons when the vehicle is ready to start. Lights, breaks, and horns are devices that prevent the accident. Light flashes the road, horn makes the road clear and breaks stop the vehicle, all the three devices make the driving safe from accident. It also contains the horn relay.
The figure shows a diagram of the horn circuit. It consists of an armature, a diaphragm, a winding and a pair of contact points connected in series. When the horn button is pushed, it connects the horn winding to the battery.
The current passing through the winding produces the magnetic field which pulls the armature down, creating a loud click. The armature is attached to a diaphragm. The movement of the diaphragm opens the contact points, due to which the circuit is broken. The cycle is repeated rapidly. The rapid movement of the diaphragm produces a distinctive noise. The tone pitch of the horn depends upon the size and shape of the diaphragm and also upon the path through which the sound must travel.
horn circuit, horn relay
A relay is also used in some systems to avoid carrying the heavy current required by the horn through the steering column and back. The relay closes its contact points to connect the horn to the battery. This way, the voltage drop in the wiring from the battery to the horn is eliminated and higher voltage is available for operating the horn with better performance.
horn relay
horn relay
The horn relay serves a second purpose also in some cars. It gives a warning that the ignition key has been left in the ignition switch when the car door is opened. When the ignition key is in the ignition switch, a special set of contacts are closed. Now, if the car is opened, the door switch will complete the circuit t through the buzzer (upper) contacts and winding of the relay to the battery.
The current flowing through the winding produces a magnetic field which pulls the armature down. This opens the contacts and the winding loses its magnetism so that the spring closes the contact again. The cycle is rapidly repeated so that the relay emits a buzzing sound to warn the driver that he has forgotten the ignition key in the ignition switch. This prevents the car from being stolen by thefts.
Watch the video for practical experience with the wiring of a horn relay.
Also, Read These Posts
1. What is Headlights Aiming, headlight adjustment or Alignment?
2. What is windshield Wiper Of A Car? Components of Wiper motors.
Creative Blogger And Automobile Engineer.
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a. A revolution in religious belief
b. The rise of the Yuan dynasty
c. Thi rise of the Ming dynasty
d. A resurgence in the power of the Confucian elite
In order to provide new territory for a growing population, the Song rulers
a. Colonized underpopulated areas to the southwest
b. Conquered territories by military force
c. Sent people to unpopulated regions to the north
d. Purchased lands from neighboring peoples
How was China like Western Europe during the 9the and 10th century?
a. They were enjoying a period of tremendous economic development
b. They were winning battles against nomadic invaders
c. Bribery and aggressive diplomacy were meeting with success in keeping nomadic invaders out
d. They were striving to maintain an ancient sense of unity in times of political dissolution.
Get this answer with Chegg Study
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Source: National Association of RC&D Council
Map Description:
Windbreaks are planted to prevent soil erosion and to protect crops, livestock, buildings, work areas, roads, or communities from wind or snow. Living snowfences primarily protect roads but can also harvest snow to replenish soil moisture to fill ponds and reservoirs. There are four basic types of windbreaks: farmstead/community, field, livestock, and living snowfences. Windbreaks were observed in 68% of the RC&D areas (43 states) and 65 RC&D councils were directly involved in projects. Of the RC&D's reporting windbreaks, 82% have farmstead/community windbreaks. The improved living conditions, particularly in the winter, make them popular. Field windbreaks are present in 68% of those reporting windbreaks and livestock windbreaks were observed by 56%. Several RC&D's not reporting windbreaks indicated there was potential. The issues most often addressed by windbreaks are reducing wind velocity, lowering energy costs, habitat for wildlife, livestock protection, and reducing soil erosion.
Cautions for this Product:
For Further Information:
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The main methods of lean production are summarised below:
Cell production
In traditional production, products were manufactured in separate areas (each with a responsibility for a different part of the manufacturing process) and many workers would work on their own, as on a production line. In cell production, workers are organised into multi-skilled teams. Each team is responsible for a particular part of the production process including quality control and health and safety. Each cell is made up of several teams who deliver finished items on to the next cell in the production process.
Cell production can lead to efficiency improvements due to increased motivation (team spirit and added responsibility given to cells) and workers sharing their skills and expertise.
Kaizen is a Japanese word for an approach to work where workers are told they have two jobs to do:
Firstly to carry out their existing task; and
Secondly to come up with ways of improving the task
The concept known as "continuous improvement" therefore implies a process where the overall progress and gains in productivity within a firm, come from small improvements by workers being made all the time.
For example, an employee may simply re-organise the lay out of his work area, which saves 2 minutes looking for and filing paperwork each day. When added up the course of a week, 10 minutes extra productive time is gained, which over a year equates to an extra days work. If other workers also adopt this, then a firm can benefit from a significant increase in output per worker (productivity) over a year.
Just in time
JIT means that stock arrives on the production line just as it is needed. This minimises the amount of stock that has to be stored (reducing storage costs).
JIT has many benefits and may appear an obvious way to organizes production but it is a complicated process which requires efficient handling. For example, JIT relies on sophisticated computer systems to ensure that the quantities of stock ordered and delivered are correct. This process needs to be carried out very accurately or production could come to a standstill.
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© 2015 Shmoop University, Inc. All rights reserved.
Common Core Standards: Math
Grade 6
Geometry 6.G.A.4
Ah, nets. We can use them to catch fish or play sports. In the 90s, some of us actually used our dial-up modems to surf the net until Sandra Bullock scared us out of it. Thanks a bunch, Sandy.
But the nets we're talking about won't help your students catch trout or play badminton. They will, however, help them create 3D solids and calculate surface areas.
We want students to develop that special, spatial, spidey-sense that allows them to break apart a 3D solid into its net. But don't forget that the reverse skill—taking a net and folding it up into a 3D solid—is also something that needs to be honed. Unlike your fishing skills, which are top-notch.
An example never hurts, right? In the figure below, rectangle IJKL is the base of the prism. The four rectangles touching rectangle IJKL fold up at a 90° angle and become the lateral faces of the prism. Finally, rectangle MNUV becomes the top of the prism. This is just one of many ways the net could be folded up to become the rectangular prism.
Other than just looking really cool, nets give students a more concrete way to see the surface area of the solid. They can find the area of each of these surfaces and add them up to find the total surface area. (And hey! They can use what they learned in 6.G.1 to get the job done.)
Keep in mind, though, that students only need to understand the nets of solids whose faces are rectangles and triangles. This means only rectangular prisms, triangular prisms, rectangular pyramids, and triangular pyramids. Anything crazier than that, and your students might give you a stink-eye that stinks worse than pickled herring.
More standards from Grade 6 - Geometry
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The mayor is a person who is in charge of the administration of a city. Sometimes, mayors get elected by the people who live in that city, at other times, a central government body may determine who the mayor of a certain city is.
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The Full Wiki
Republicanism: Map
Wikipedia article:
Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:
Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, where the head of state is appointed by means other than heredity, often elections. The exact meaning of Republicanism varies depending on the cultural and historical context. The sometimes contrary definitions are all covered in this article.
Radicalism emerged in European states in the 19th century. Although most radical parties later came to be in favor of economic liberalism (capitalism), thus justifying the absorption of radicalism into the liberal tradition, all 19th century radicals were in favor of a constitutional republic and universal suffrage, while European liberals were at the time in favor of constitutional monarchy and census suffrage. Thus, radicals were as much Republicans as liberals, if not more. This distinction between Radicalism and Liberalism hasn't totally disappeared in the 20th century, although many radicals simply joined liberal parties or became virtually identical to them. For example, the Left Radical Party in France or the (originally Italian) Transnational Radical Party which exist today have a lot more to do with Republicanism than with simple liberalism.
Thus, Chartism in the UK or even the early Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party in France were closer to Republicanism (and the left-wing) than to liberalism, represented in France by the Orleanists who rallied to the Republic only in the late 19th century, after the comte de Chambord's 1883 death and the 1891 papal encyclicalDe Rerum Novarum. Radicalism remained close to Republicanism in the 20th century, at least in France where they governed several times with the other left-wing parties (participating in both the Cartel des gauches coalitions as well as the Popular Front).
Discredited after the Second World War, French Radicals split into a left-wing party – the Left Radical Party, an associate of the Socialist Partymarker – and the Radical Party "valoisien", an associate party of the conservative Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) and its Gaullist predecessors. Italian Radicals also maintained close links with Republicanism as well as Socialism, with the Partito radicale founded in 1955 which became the Transnational Radical Party in 1989.
Contemporary republicanism
Anti-monarchial republicanism remains a political force of varying importance in many states. In the European monarchies, such as the United Kingdommarker, the Netherlandsmarker, and Swedenmarker there has not been much contemporary popular support for republicanism. In such states republicanism is usually motivated by decreasing popularity of the Royal Family, who may be increasingly embroiled in scandal or conflict. However the classical argument against monarchy versus the egalitarian aspects of republicanism will often remain prominent as well. There are also republican movements of varying size and effect in the Commonwealth nations Australia, Canadamarker, New Zealandmarker, Jamaicamarker and Barbadosmarker. In these countries, republicanism is largely about the post-colonial evolution of their relationships with the United Kingdom.
Republicanism in political science
A different interpretation of republicanism is used among political scientists. To them a republic is the rule by many and by laws while a princedom is the arbitrary rule by one. By this definition despotic states are not republics while, according to some such as Kant, constitutional monarchies can be. Kant also argues that a pure democracy is not a republic, as it is the unrestricted rule of the majority. For some, republicanism meant simply the lack of a monarchy, while for others monarchy was compatible with republicanism.
Antique antecedents
Ancient Greece
A number of Ancient Greek states such as Athensmarker and Spartamarker have been classified as classical republics, though this uses a definition of republic that was developed much later.
Ancient India
A serious claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent "republics" of India, sanghas and ganas, which existed as early as the sixth century BC and persisted in some areas until the fourth century AD. The evidence is scattered and no pure historical source exists for that period. In addition, Diodorus (a Greek historian at the time of Alexander the Great's excursion of India), mentions that independent and democratic states existed in India.
Ancient Rome
In classical meaning, republic was any established political community with government above it. Both Plato and Aristotle saw three basic types of government, democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. However an ideal type was considered mixed government. First Plato and Aristotle, and especially Polybius and Cicero developed the notion that the ideal republic is a mixture of these three forms of government and the writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion.
Renaissance republicanism
In Europe, republicanism was revived in the late Middle Ages when a number of small states embraced a republican system of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Haakonssen notes that by the Renaissance Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics. These included Italian city states like Florencemarker and Venicemarker and the members of the Hanseatic League.
Building upon political arrangements of medieval feudalism, the Renaissance scholars built upon their conception of the ancient world to advance their view of the ideal government. The usage of the term res publica in classical texts should not be confused with current notions of republicanism. Despite its name Plato's The Republic (Πολιτεία) also has little to no connection to the Latin res publica from which derives the more recent historical phenomenon of republicanism.
In England a republicanism evolved that was not wholly opposed to monarchy, but rather thinkers such as Thomas More and Sir Thomas Smith saw a monarchy firmly constrained by law as compatible with republicanism.
Dutch Republic
Anti-monarchism became far more strident in the Dutch Republic during and after the Eighty Years' War, which began in 1568. This anti-monarchism was less political philosophy and more propagandizing with most of the anti-monarchist works appearing in the form of widely distributed pamphlets. Over time this evolved into a systematic critique of monarchies written by men such as Johan Uytenhage de Mist, Radboud Herman Scheel, Lieven de Beaufort and the brothers Johan and Peter de la Court. These writers saw all monarchies as illegitimate tyrannies that were inherently corrupt. Less an attack on their former overlords these works were more concerned with preventing the position of Stadholder from evolving into a monarchy. This Dutch republicanism also had an important influence on French Huguenots during the Wars of Religion. In the other states of early modern Europe republicanism was more moderate.
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Enlightenment republicanism
Oliver Cromwell set up a republic called the Commonwealth of England (1649-1660) and ruled as a near dictator after the overthrow of King Charles I. A leading philosopher of republicanism was James Harrington. The collapse of the Commonwealth of England in 1660 and the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II discredited republicanism among England's ruling circles. However they welcomed the liberalism and emphasis on rights of John Locke, which played a major role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Nevertheless republicanism flourished in the "country" party of the early 18th century. That party denounced the corruption of the "court" party, producing a political theory that heavily influenced the American colonists. In general the ruling classes of the 18th century vehemently opposed republicanism, as typified by the attacks on John Wilkes, and especially by the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
French and Swiss thought
French and Swiss Enlightenment thinkers such as Montesquieu and later Rousseau expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic would be: some of their new ideas were scarcely retraceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Among other things they contributed and/or heavily elaborated notions like social contract, positive law, and mixed government. They also borrowed from and distinguished it from the ideas of liberalism that were developing at the same time. Since both liberalism and republicanism were united in their opposition to the absolute monarchies they were frequently conflated during this period. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. An important distinction is that while republicanism continued to stress the importance of civic virtue and the common good, liberalism was based on economics and individualism. It might be argued that while liberalism developed a view of liberty as pre-social and sees all institutions as limiting liberty, republicanism sees some institutions as necessary to create liberty. It is most vivid in the issue of private property which may be maintained only under protection of established positive law. On the other hand, liberalism is strongly committed to some institutions e.g. the Rule of Law. Jules Ferry, the prime minister of France from 1880 to 1885, also followed these schools of thought and eventually enacted the Ferry Laws which intended to overturn the Falloux Laws, by embracing the anti-clerical thinking of the philosophs. These laws ended the Catholic Church's involvement with many government institutions in late 19th-century France, including education.
Republican ideology in the United States
In recent years a debate has developed over its role in the American Revolution and in the British radicalism of the eighteenth century. For many decades the consensus was that liberalism, especially that of John Locke, was paramount and that republicanism had a distinctly secondary role.
The new interpretations were pioneered by J.G.A. Pocock who argued in The Machiavellian Moment (1975) that, at least in the early eighteenth-century, republican ideas were just as important as liberal ones. Pocock's view is now widely accepted.. Bernard Bailyn and Gordon Wood pioneered the argument that the American Founding Fathers were more influenced by republicanism than they were by liberalism. Cornell University Professor Isaac Kramnick, on the other hand, argues that Americans have always been highly individualistic and therefore Lockean.
In the decades before the American Revolution (1776), the intellectual and political leaders of the colonies studied history intently, looking for guides or models for good (and bad) government. They especially followed the development of republican ideas in England. Pocock explained the intellectual sources in America:
The commitment of most Americans to these republican values made inevitable the American Revolution, for Britain was increasingly seen as corrupt and hostile to republicanism, and a threat to the established liberties the Americans enjoyed.
Leopold von Ranke 1848 claims that American republicanism played a crucial role in the development of European liberalism,:
The ideal of républicanisme, in theory, renders anti-discrimination laws needless, but some critics argue that colour-blind law serve to perpetuate ongoing discrimination.
Modern republicanism
An important influence of republicanism was expressed when Turkeymarker formed a new democratic state in 1923 after the fall of the Ottoman Empire. In the Ottoman Empire an inherited aristocracy and sultinate suppressed republican ideas until the successful republican revolution of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in the 1920s. Atatürk preached six basic principles. His Six Arrows were Republicanism, Populism, Secularism, Reformism, Nationalism, and Statism).
In the 21st century Turkeymarker has sought admission to the European Union on the grounds that it shares common political values with the nations of Europe. This concept shares some of the same classical roots as European republicanism and in modern times this form of government is called "republican" in English, but in pre-modern times it is not generally called republicanism.
United States
Republicanism became the dominant political value of Americans during and after the American Revolution. The "Founding Fathers" were strong advocates of republican values, especially Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, George Washington, Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton.
British Empire and Commonwealth of Nations
Democracy and republic
Constitutional monarchs and upper chambers
See also
Specific countries
European versions
• Castiglione, Dario. "Republicanism and its Legacy," European Journal of Political Theory (2005) v 4 #4 pp 453–65. online version
• Pocock, J. G. A. "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: a Study in History and Ideology.: Journal of Modern History 1981 53(1): 49-72. ISSN 0022-2801 Fulltext: in Jstor. Summary of Pocock's influential ideas that traces the Machiavellian belief in and emphasis upon Greco-Roman ideals of unspecialized civic virtue and liberty from 15th century Florence through 17th century England and Scotland to 18th century America. Pocok argues that thinkers who shared these ideals tended to believe that the function of property was to maintain an individual's independence as a precondition of his virtue. Therefore they were disposed to attack the new commercial and financial regime that was beginning to develop
American versions
• James T Kloopenberg. The Virtues of Liberalism (1998)
External links
1. ^ Dio. 2.39
2. Pocock (1975)
3. See for example, Vernon L. Parrington, Main Currents in American Thought (1927) online at [1]
4. Shalhope (1982)
5. Isaac Kramnick, Ideological Background," in Jack. P. Greene and J. R. Pole, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (1994) ch 9; Robert E. Shallhope, "Republicanism," ibid ch 70.
7. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment p 507
8. Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967)
9. quoted in Becker 2002, p. 128
10. Robert E. Shalhope, "Toward a Republican Synthesis," William and Mary Quarterly, 29 (Jan. 1972), pp 49-80
11. Republicanism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
12. Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (1969)
13. R. R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800 (1959)
15. democracy - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
16. republic - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
17. Novanglus, no. 7, 6 Mar. 1775
18. Republican Government: Introduction
19. Mark McKenna, The Traditions of Australian Republicanism (1996) online version; John W. Maynor, Republicanism in the Modern World. (2003).
Lycurgus G L
Numa Pompilius D G L
D G L
Solon D G L P
Poplicola D G L
D G L
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• T
• H
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• Articulated Tensegrity Systems
A Tensegrity Model for Understanding the Body In Movement and in Stillness
Tensegrity systems consist of pressurized and tension elements.
Pressurized elements (or expansion elements) press outwards or resist being pressed inwards. They float relative to each other to maintain adjustability during change.
Tensioned elements pull inwards or resist being pressed outwards. They are connected in a network that distributes stresses among themselves.
Where pressurized elements give the structure shape and volume, tensioned elements hold the structure together, integrating it, hence the term tensegrity, a combination of the words tension and integrity.
Articulated Tensegrity Systems
Articulated Tensegrity Systems are a special type of tensegrity designed to change shape while maintaining tensegrity at key points in the system. An example of this is our individual bodies.
Tensegrity Systems Allow Growth
An important quality of tensegrity systems is that they allow growth while remaining their integrity.
A balloon is a tensegrity system with air comprising the pressured elements and the rubber skin of the balloon the tension element. Fill a balloon with air and it expands in all directions. Allow the air to escape and the balloon shrinks.
The skin of the balloon, the tensioned element, can freely redistribute stress because the molecules of air inside the balloon can move freely with respect to each other.
Non-Destructive Brain Growth and Birthing
This idea of being able to grow (or simply "change") while retaining integrity is important biologically.
Imagine the brain growing. In order to accommodate the increase in side the bones of the skull have to expand. The sutures (tension elements or T-elements) which hold the bones of the skull (P-Elements) in place are what allow the individual bones to grow and the skull as a whole to expand outwards. The cranial sutures hold the bones in a relatively fixed relationship to each other while at the same time floating them so that they don't come into direct contact with each other.
The pelvis is another structure which can rely on tensegrity to hold it together, particularly during an event like child birth. But even as the pelvis grows it is important that its bones be allowed to adjust to each other to maintain integrity while also allowing growth. The SI joints and to a lesser extent the pubic synthesis maintain the floating relationship between the sacrum and hip bones so that they can maintain their relationship even as they change or are subject to change.
Skeletal articulations, where bone meets bone to form joints, also allow growth. Synovial joints are made up of joint capsules which have an envelope of connective tissue holding the ends of bones together while within the envelope is synovial fluid which presses the bones apart. Bones can grow and the growth can be accommodated by the joint capsule without losing joint integrity.
The Tensegrity Model So Far
In the previous article on tensegrity I talked about modifying a bicycle wheel so that the relationship between the hub and the rim was both controllable (or responsive) and sensible. Smart spokes would have built in tension motors for adding tension as well as stretch sensors for measuring stretch. At any moment in time the information from stretch sensors in the wheel could give the relative position of rim and hub. The tension creating motors controlled tension to allow the relationship between hub and rim to be changed or maintained.
This Smart Wheel (version 1.0a) could be used to approximate the hip joint. Albeit a hip joint that doesn't connect to a lower back, or knee joint. The idea was to show how the the hip joint might be controlled (by the brain), and also how we might be able to consciously interact with the hip joint, directly feeling and controlling the muscles that act on it and the positions of the bones relative to each other at the joint itself.
Types of Change
(Internal Change, External Change and No Change)
To make tensegrity systems easier to understand it may be useful to think in terms of two environments: the external, that is whatever is outside of the tensegrity system, and the internal, what is going on inside the system itself. The system boundary connects the internal to the external environment. It is where the internal environment relates to the external.
Change could be defined as anything that tries to alter a relationship. The relationship being altered could be between parts of the system (within the internal environment) or the relationship between the internal and external environment.
Change could be externally driven (i.e. coming from the external environment) or internally driven (i.e. created by the components of the wheel itself, the internal environment.)
Looking at our smart wheel (1.0a) and assuming no externally driven changes we can assume the following basic scenarios:
the smart spokes might be totally relaxed,
they might be active and maintaining the relationship between hub and rim,
they might be active and shifting the relationship between hub and rim.
These scenarios are very simple and are the equivalent of learning to ride a bicycle in an empty car park. Because there are no external environmental factors to worry about the focus can be on learning to deal with the bicycles systems.
Assuming that now there is externally driven change, we can assume these scenarios:
the smart spokes might be relaxed so that the rim flops around relative to the rim, driven by the external change,
they might be active and maintaining a particular relationship between hub and rim despite the external change,
they might be active and trying to change the relationship despite the external change.
Carrying on with the metaphor of learning to ride a bike, we could first practice dealing with regular predictable changes, then from there move on to dealing with random changes.
When external change is present, a sensitivity to external as well as internal change can be beneficial. Then, when appropriate external change can be used to help drive the change the desired internal change. Less effort is then expended to create the desired change in relationship.
One area in which our smart wheels (version 1.0a) are lacking is direct sensitivity of the external environment. For this it might be helpful to add pressure sensors to the rims to sense what part of the rim is in contact with the ground (or some other object or surface.) This could be used to augment information from the tension sensors. And so now we have an upgrade to smart wheels (version 1.0b)
Where the tension sensors in the smart spokes could help determine the current relationship between hub and rim, pressure sensors in smart rim could help determine the current relationship between the wheel and the earth (or between the wheel and anything else externally contacting it).
Creating a More Complete Model
A regular bicycle wheel is more than just a rim, spokes and a hub. While this structure provides strength and durability while at the same time being light, it doesn't do a lot to absorb the small shocks and jolts of riding (even with smart spokes and rims).
Stick a tire on, inflate it, we not only have a smoother ride, we also have another example of a tensegrity system.
Tire Tensegrity Systems
With a bike that is ridden, and focusing on the rear wheel (since it generally bears more weight than the front wheel), the weight of the rider passes through the frame stays to the hub. The uppermost spokes transfer that weight to the rim, which at it's point of contact with the ground, transfers the weight of the bike and the rider to the earth.
Between the rim and the earth is an air filled tire, a tensegrity system in its own right. Assuming just enough air to keep the rim from contacting the earth, but not enough air to make the tire rigid, the tire will bulge near the point of contact with the earth. The air molecules inside redistribute and the rubber in this part of the tire bulges to accommodate the weight of the rider and bike pressing down into the earth. As the wheel rolls the bulge moves around the tire following the point of contact.
If the tire doesn't have enough air pressure, or the rider is too heavy, the tire bulges to the point that the rim contacts the earth. The result is a rougher, potentially damaging ride. If the tire has alot of pressure, the rim is in no danger of contacting the earth but the ride becomes less comfortable and the tire itself could conceivably wear out faster because of the high pressure.
With just the right amount of pressure the ride is comfortable, tire life is potentially longer and the rim is in no danger of bouncing on the ground. (There can be other considerations, more tire pressure gives better handling and less rolling resistance, lower tire pressure can give better grip, particularly with knobbly tires.)
Smart Tires
Ideal tire pressure will depend on the weight of the rider. For a heavier rider we need more tire pressure, for a lighter rider, potentially less. For smart tires we need a mechanism for sensing weight, or changes in weight. We could build stretch sensors into the walls of the tire.
So that changes in weight could be acted upon we could have a mechanism within the tire to increase tire pressure when the stretch sensors are activated. This could be some sort of pump and reservoir that could both add air to the tire and extract it again. Of course then the whole tire would be stretched by the increase in pressure. And so sensors would have to be differentiated. In addition some protocol would have to be in place to signal when to reduce pressure.
Another means of making the tire smart would be having some means of varying the flexibility of the tire itself so that for a heavier rider the tire become less flexible (stiffer) and for a lighter rider, more flexible. The tire could be designed in such a way that only the area that bulges is induced to become stiffer. So as the wheel rolls, the part of the tire that is most bulge prone becomes stiffer (while parts less bulge prone become less stiff). Note that this could work as a pressure sensor. Now we can potentially upgrade our smart wheels (version 2.0a beta).
How is this relevant to understanding the body?
In two words (describing one idea): joint capsules.
Articulated Tensegrity Systems
Joint capsules consist of an envelope that holds the ends of two or more bones together. Within the envelope is synovial fluid. The envelope could be thought of as a tensioned element and the fluid the pressurized element. The two together could be used to prevent the ends of bones pressing into each other. The envelope maintains the relationship of the bones while the fluid helps them to float relative to each other.
How would the joint capsule as a whole adjust to handle changes in weight?
Probably not with the equivalent of a device inside the tire that varies the pressure of the fluid. More likely is some method of adjusting the flexibility and/or tension of the joint capsule envelope. An increase in overall tension could be used to increase synovial fluid pressure, resisting the tendency of bones bumping into each other when they are subjected to greater forces. A decrease in overall tension could be used to decrease synovial fluid pressure in the cases where forces acting on the bones is less.
This would be equivalent to the whole tire of a smart wheel (version 2.0a beta) being compressed.
If, during bending of the hip joint part of the joint capsule bulged, tension would have to be added to reduce the bulge. What mechanism could be used to reduce joint capsule bulging (or more specifically, bulging of the joint capsule envelope)?
We turn to the Dutch for the answer.
The Dynament
A Fundamental Architectural Building Block
Traditionally ligaments are viewed as passive structures. They tend to be thought of as activating only at extreme positions to protect the joint. But what if they are directly affected by muscle tension? This would make them active structures!
The Dutch and Dynaments
Almost 30 years ago, a Dutch doctor, Jaap van der Wal PhD, did some anatomic dissections which where aimed at keeping the connective tissue at the joints intact. He noted that ligaments, as we often see them in anatomy texts, are fabrications. The actual ligaments as we see them are created by the anatomists knife. In reality ligaments don't exist as separate structures, much the way each individual transistors aren't separate structures in an integrated circuit. While their function is present, actual ligaments as separate and easy to discern structures within the connective tissue network don't exist.
And so part of the problem with anatomic dissections as they normally tend to be done is that they remove connections between muscle and ligaments while leaving connections between muscles and tendons intact. With this in mind Jaap van der Wal suggests a basic functional building block called a dynament that includes the muscle belly and at either end of the muscle, the ligaments and tendons. The important aspect of this functional building block, particularly with respect to articulated tensegrity systems, is that when a muscle is activated it directly adds tension to both tendons and ligaments.
Ligaments are Active Structures
Based on this understanding, ligaments are not passive structures as we tend to generally think of them. They experience increases in tension as muscle tissue is activated and decreases in tension as muscle tissue is relaxed. And since ligaments form part of the joint capsule envelopes (and in some cases tendons do also), muscle activity can thus affect joint capsule envelope tension via the ligaments (and possibly the tendons).
Thus muscle activation causing a joint to bend can also stiffen a joint capsule envelope to eliminate bulging which in turn adds pressure to the fluid inside the joint capsule causing it to push outwards against bones with greater force.
Maintaining Tensegrity (at the Joints)
Why would it be so important for the joint capsules to keep the bones from contacting? To maintain tensegrity. If the bones are prevented from contacting each other, or at the least from strongly pressing into each other, they can then adjust or float relative to each other. This in turn allows the joint capsule envelope to freely redistribute stress.
This in turn could help explain injury muscle mechanics. If a muscle is injured, the brain might reprogram the body not just to keep the muscle safe, but to help keep the joint capsule itself safe.
Assembling the Model
Looking at what is possible in movement and in stillness it can be difficult to reconcile what the body does with tensegrity, particularly if we look at just tension in the muscles and connective tissue. However if we focus on the joints instead, with the idea that tensegrity is maintained at the joints, then the idea of tensegrity makes sense.
With an articulated tensegrity system, the priority is on maintaining tensegrity at the joints so that the structure as a whole can be positioned freely. This gives the option of creating postures or movements that act like tensegrity systems or don't. In either case tensegrity is maintained at the joints.
The brain varies muscle action so that joint capsules have just enough tension to keep the bones from pressing against each other. At the same time it controls muscle tension to create or maintain the desired movement or posture.
These two jobs can be simplified to one job, assuming that the body isn't damaged in any way. A particular muscle action not only creates a desired movement, it also creates the required tension in the joint capsule envelope at the same time.
If there are problems, the brain might limit movement not just to protect a muscle, but to protect the joint capsule. And it might call other muscles into play to simulate the affect of the damaged muscle on the joint capsule, to help keep the joint capsule intact.
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Gumroad, Yoga for your shoulders, available in epub, pdf and mobi. Neil Keleher, Sensational Yoga Poses.
Basic Awareness
Coordination and Concentration
Balance and Stability
Yoga Routines
Dealing with Pain and Poor Posture
Muscle Control for Strength and Flexibility
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An Exercises for Knee Stability, The Seated Get Up
The seated get up is a way of getting into the one legged squat from a seated position. Even if you aren't interested in one leg squats this video does include tips on stabilizing the knees (at about the 5 minute mark.) Usual muscle activations for knee stability might include the quads, the hamstrings or any of the glutes. This looks at another set of muscles all together. If you like the video or find it helpful, please do share it! Thanks!
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Deep Squats
Some tips for learning how to do deep squats (without weight). The first tip is on how to stay balanced while squatting.
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Learning The Body Weight Squat
How do you learn the body weight safely? How do you work towards this pose even if you aren't sure if you are capable of doing it.
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Basic Yoga Poses
Basic yoga poses: standing, sitting, arm balances, binds, twists, inversions, back bending, front bends.
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Scapular Awareness
Scapular stabilization becomes a little bit harder when working agains the weight of the body. It can be easier to learn if you gradually increase the amount of body weight the scapular stabilizer muscles are working againsts..
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Hip Flexor Strengthening Exercises
Some hip flexor strengthening exercises.
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Arm Strengthening Exercises
These yoga poses can be used as arm strengthening exercises.
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Leg Strengthening Exercises
Turn yoga poses into leg strengthening exercises using floor pressing actions, leverage and friction.
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Hip Strengthening Exercises
One way of finding and fixing hip problems is to do standing hip strengthening exercises while balancing on one leg.
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Knee Anatomy for Yoga Teachers
Knee anatomy for yoga teachers looks at the bones and muscles that comprise the back of the knee in simple terms.
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Kneeling Quadriceps Stretch
Working towards a kneeling quadriceps stretch you first need to be able to kneel. If you have difficulty kneeling, you may find it helps to activate your quadriceps.
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Quadriceps Stretching Yoga Poses
When doing quadriceps stretching it may help to activate and then relax your quadriceps in these standing, lunging, pigeon and supine yoga pose variations.
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Lying Quadriceps Stretch
Some exercises and yoga poses for working towards a lying quadriceps stretch one leg at a time.
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Benefits of The Dance of Shiva
What are the benefits of the Dance of Shiva? Arm strength and balance, learning to learn and improving creativity.
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Yoga Routine Video for Strengthening Arms and Legs Via Friction and Pressure
This yoga routine video is designed to help you strengthen your arms and legs via the use of friction and pressure. It also teaches you how to become more aware of your body.
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Transverse Abdominis Exercises
The transverse abdominis muscle can be broken down into three parts. Transverse abdominal exercises can thus affect the SI Joint, lumbar spine and the lower portion of the ribcage.
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Knee Strengthening Exercises
To improve the resiliency of your knees it can help to exercise them in a variety of positions. The following yoga poses can be used as knee strengthening exercises. The trick is to activate your knees while doing them.
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Quads and Superficial Hip Flexors
Learn to consciously control your quads and hip flexors with Conscious Muscle Control: Quads and Superficial Hip Flexors. This downloadable video course teaches you how to feel and activate your quadriceps (the vastus muscles) as well as the rectus femoris, tensor fascae latae and sartorius muscles.
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Calf Stretches
For any calf stretch you have to bend your ankle forwards to stretch the soleus and/or gastrocnemius. How you bend the ankle forwards can make the stretch more or less effective.
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Yoga for Flexibility
Yoga for flexibility with stretches for the hips, quads, hamstrings, glutes, psoas, shoulders and arms. These yoga stretches are designed to improve flexiblity.
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In medicine, what are the different types of immunity?
Quick Answer
The different types of immunity are active immunity, passive immunity, natural immunity and artificial immunity, according to Austin Peay State University. Active immunity refers to an immune response that results from exposure to a particular antigen.
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Full Answer
When the body is exposed to an antigen and responds by activating the immune system, the resulting immune response is called active immunity, APSU explains. The immune system generates clones of antigen-specific B and T lymphocytes. In contrast, passive immunity develops when a person receives immune molecules or immune cells from another individual who was previously exposed to a specific antigen. The response is not the product of the activation of the body's own immune system. Natural immunity is an immune response that occurs due to exposure to an antigen in an external environment without the interference of medical therapy or practice. Artificial immunity involves medical therapy or practice intervention that results in exposure to a particular antigen, causing the development of an immune response.
APSU states that natural and artificial immunity are either active or passive. Natural active immunity develops due to exposure to foreign toxins, allergens, drugs or venoms, whereas artificial active immunity develops from exposure to a vaccine that provides protection against disease organisms.
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lecture (n.) Look up lecture at Dictionary.com
c. 1300, "written works, literature;" late 14c., "learning from books," from Medieval Latin lectura "a reading," from Latin lectus, past participle of legere "to read," originally "to gather, collect, pick out, choose" (compare election), from PIE *leg- (1) "to pick together, gather, collect" (source also of Greek legein "to say, tell, speak, declare; to count," originally, in Homer, "to pick out, select, collect, enumerate;" lexis "speech, diction;" logos "word, speech, thought, account;" Latin lignum "wood, firewood," literally "that which is gathered;" Albanian mb-ledh "to collect, harvest;" Gothic lisan "to collect, harvest," Lithuanian lesti "to pick, eat picking;" Hittite less-zi "to pick, gather"). To read is, perhaps, etymologically, to "pick out words."
The sense "a reading aloud, action of reading aloud" (either in divine worship or to students) in English emerged early 15c. That of "a discourse on a given subject before an audience for purposes of instruction" is from 1530s. Meaning "admonitory speech given with a view to reproof or correction" is from c. 1600. Lecture-room is from 1793; lecture-hall from 1832.
lecture (v.) Look up lecture at Dictionary.com
1580s, "to read or deliver formal discourses," from lecture (n.). Transitive sense "instruct by oral discourse" is from 1680s. Meaning "to address severely and at length" is from 1706. Related: Lectured; lecturing.
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flash animation
The student is shown a graph of the spectrum of white light (a straight line on a spectrum plot), is told that a beam of light passes through a cloud and into a detector, and is asked to determine which plot represents the light seen in the detector after scattering has occurred.
keywords: spectrum, white, cloud, detector, scattering
swf file: ca_ismstarform_wavelengths.swf
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A Scientific History of Oysters in Chesapeake Bay
By Nicole Suren, SRC intern
Oysters are not only a preferred dish of much of the human population, but they are also very important parts of the ecosystems they inhabit. As ecosystem engineers, or organisms that significantly modify their habitat, they do not just participate in the habitat they settle in but improve it by filtering large volumes of water and forming reefs that other organisms can use as shelter. Unfortunately, the estuary systems that they prefer have been in steep decline for some time due to negative effects of human activity, and scientists are currently attempting to quantify how much these ecosystems have declined by examining the average sizes of oyster populations over time. Here, Rick et al. (2016) focused on Chesapeake Bay in the northeastern United States.
Oyster Paper, Figure 1
Change in oyster size over time
There is an important relationship between the size of the oysters and how healthy their populations are. Generally speaking, larger average oyster size correlates with a healthier and more abundant oyster population. With this in mind, scientists examined fossilized oysters ranging from 1,500-3,000 years ago, oysters from Native American archaeological sites, and modern oysters to see how the introduction of humans and later new fishing technologies would affect the oyster populations. They found that the prehistoric oysters were the largest, and that the introduction of harvesting by Native American populations did not affect the average size of the oysters. However, the introduction of new fishing technology resulted in an increase in oyster size, but this then decreased to a much smaller average size than the prehistoric samples today.
Measurements of Chesapeake Bay oysters taken by NOAA
Measurements of Chesapeake Bay oysters taken by NOAA
What do these changes mean?
Several things about these results are important. First, the increase in oyster size upon the advent of new fishing technology can be attributed to people having access to parts of the oyster population that they had not had access to previously. The Native Americans were believed to harvest oysters by hand, so this would have limited them to slightly smaller oysters in shallow waters. In contrast, new fishing techniques such as trawling would have harvested the larger oysters in deeper waters, so the size increase is likely due to a difference in sample areas between the two time periods. Second, since there was no size difference between the oyster populations before and after Native American settlement in Chesapeake Bay, it can be concluded that the Native American oyster fishery was very sustainable. This is hypothesized to be due to their aforementioned harvesting methods, low population density, broad-spectrum diets (that are not completely dependent on oysters), and lack of a significant oyster trade.
Implications for current management
While it would be impossible to fully emulate the sustainability of the Native Americans of that time, we can use the same principles to modify our own activities to make the modern oyster fishery more sustainable. For example, fishing limits on larger oysters in deeper waters, decreased harvests of all oysters, and restoration techniques can be implemented, all of which mirror Native American sustainability strategies in a modern world. The implications of this study show that science is deeply rooted in cultural phenomena, and can incorporate the best of culture and sustainability to better the planet.
Oyster Paper, Figure 2
Rick TC, Reeder-Myers LA, Hofman CA et al. (2016) Millennial-scale sustainability of the Chesapeake Bay Native American oyster fishery. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 6568–6573.
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Chinese Heritage Stories
These brief vignettes are but a few of the stories that shed light on Chinese life, culture and contributions in the Lower Columbia River Basin.
TongTongs | See the video
Tongs were a social organization that also served to provide order for the Chinese community. Tongs did not exist in China and were unique to the Chinese immigrant society. They have had both positive and negative connotations — either as a protective social organization that looked after and protected the Chinese immigrants, or as a center for organized crime whose income was made largely from the “vice” industry.
Tongs in Astoria formed as early as the 1870s, and there grew to be as many as eight or nine. Large amounts of money were made by some of the Tongs, and around the turn of the century violence was often the result of struggle for control over gambling, drugs and prosititution. By the 1930s, as the Chinese population declined in number, the Astoria tongs began to disappear. The remaining Tongs became known more for their benevolence than violence.
Sing HeeThe Barber Lady | See the video
Born in 1902, Sing Hee Leong emigrated from China to Seattle, eventually making her way to Astoria in the 1920s. In interviews with Chinese elders, it was discovered that some did not even know or remember her given name. She is affectionately remembered as “Jin Mo Sum” (The Barber Lady) because she was most noted for her role in the community as the woman who gave haircuts to the Chinese immigrants.
Many admire her for her ability to raise her son under difficult conditions, as a single mother in a male dominated society and during a time when being of Asian descent was a significant social obstacle. She was able to accomplish this through hard work, determination, and perseverence.
Not only was she a barber, she was known throughout the community for her laundry and cooking skills. In later years, after the barber shop was closed, she became known for her almond cookies and would bake them by the box load for family and friends.
Sing Hee Leong is surived by her son Victor Kee and her grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Victor Kee, his son Robert Kee and their families still reside in Astoria.
Lum Quing GroceryLum Quing Grocery | See the video
Lum Quing emigrated from a village south of Canton, China during the 1890s. He started out as a gardener but longed to have his own store. His brother, Lum Sue from California, joined Quing in Astoria to open the business.
The original store was built in 1908 and was located around 9th and Bond. It was destroyed by the fire of 1921 and was rebuilt in 1922 at a new location on 6th and Bond. During this time, the store was owned and operated by Lum Sue and it served the community well. In the mid-1930s Mr. Lum suffered a stroke and the store was run by his son Johnny and wife Clara, with help from a relative named Peter. The store continued to operate even after the Chinese population dwindled and larger stores moved into town. Lum Quing grocery finally closed in 1964 after 42 years in operation. This store's final location eventually became the home for Toyota of Astoria with David Lum a founding partner.
Astoria Chinese SchoolAstoria Chinese School | See the video
Education was very important to the Chinese immigrants, and while they believed strongly in assimulating to the American education system, they also believed in the preservation of their own culture.
The Astoria Chinese School was established and located at 6th and Bond across from the Bing Kung-Bo Leong Tong. Astoria'a public schools served as the primary means of education, while the Astoria Chinese School was open to students in the evenings and on Saturdays. The school's first and only teacher was Mrs. Jeanette Lee. She was the sister-in-law to Wong Lam, one of Astoria's Chinese labor contractors. She is remembered as a very good but strict teacher The school operated continuously from 1913-1923.
Lee SingLee Sing | See the video
This is a story of a Chinese immigrant who, like many other immigrants of this time period, came to America hoping to make his fortune and return to his wife and family in China. Unfortunately, this never happened.
For years the local Chinese supplied the community with produce. Lee Sing was noted for his gardening skills and is known locally as the last “Chinese Gardener.” He had a small store where he also lived with his pets and raised his chickens. He often had to clear his counter of the fowl to serve his customers.
Lee Sing was a very talented man, and was probably most noted for his craftmanship, hand carvings, and ability with clocks. He repaired clocks with great skill and often built coo-coo clocks using everyday materials for the frame and paper for the bellows. Harry and Margaret Miller knew Sing well, and to this day have an operating clock that he fixed for Margaret's family in the 1920s. The repair features a wooden dowel hand-carved to replace the original part that was missing or broken.
Lee Sing was equally popular with all the locals. Although he lived a simple life, he was very generous, good natured and enjoyed many friends. He was featured in a story, published in the Summer of 2009 Cumtux magazine, inspired by many past neighbors and friends. He passed away in 1972 but is still well remembered today.
Iron ChinkCanneries | See the video
Working in the salmon canneries was one of the best-known activities of the Chinese in Astoria. Their ability to handle butcher knives and work long hours were quickly recognized by the salmon packers, who in turn hired Chinese contractors to put together Chinese crews for the jobs. When the fish came in, these crews worked rapidily and efficiently to butcher and clean the salmon for canning. When the Salmon runs were at their peak in the early 1900s, the population of Chinese workers could swell to 3000.
The use of Chinese labor in canneries dwindled for several reasons. First, it mirrored the decline in the salmon runs through the early 20th century. Second, the constant desire to economize production brought the advent of automated packing equipment, often referred to as the “iron chink.” The machine was invented in the early 1900s, and earned its derogatory name for the workers it would displace.
The declining labor pool was also the result of federal legislation. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 made Chinese immigration difficult, so by the early 1900s the pool of first generation immigrants was aging while the second generation was beginning to find jobs in professional fields. By World War II, Chinese contract labor was nearly non-existent.
FrogsBull Frogs | See the video
Few people have heard the story of how the Lousianna Bull Frog was introduced to Clatsop County.
The story that has been passed down takes place in the mid-1930s, when Edward Yim Lee hoped to make his fortune trying to raise and sell this delicacy to restaurants and fine food stores. Afterall, the legs of this amphibian taste like chicken and had a lot less bone.
He imported six pairs of frogs from Louisiana, and set out to build his frog farm along the shores of the Knowland Slough where it crosses Youngs River Road (approximately 1/8 mile east of Miles Crossing). He attempted to keep his pen secure, but within two years his stock of frogs dwindled and all the tadpoles had escaped. Shortly after, his plan of raising frogs was abandoned. Years later it became natural to hear the familiar sound of these honking frogs, from dusk to dawn, near every local lake and slough in Clatsop County.
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"url": "http://gardenofsurgingwaves.org/garden-of-surging-waves_chinese-heritage-stories.html"
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The isnad (Arabic) are the citations or "backings" that establish the legitimacy of the hadith, which are the sayings of Muhammad, Prophet of Islam.
After Muhammad's death in 631, Islam began to divide into factions based on different interpretations of his views. It became important to trace narrators to the source, and to investigate the reputation and reliability of that source for transmitting evidence - this developed into Ilm ar-rijal or the "science of biography".
An isnad is in the form "A said that B said that C wrote (in a lost work) that D read in (a work known to exist but also lost) E that Muhammad had said...", where A, B, C, D, E were known figures with known histories. The focus of these scholars was to determine if in fact these individuals could have met, under what circumstances or social pressures, if translation were involved, if lost records are involved were they actually likely to have been lost, etc., and therefore to come to their own conclusions about the validity.
Scholars emerged who devoted their lives to checking each link in the chain. Questions they asked about the isnah included:
• are these individuals reliable reporters?
• could these individuals have met, given where they were in time and space?
• is there any record of their meeting or collaborating or having any common interests?
• are the individuals of sound morals and not motivated by politics or factional concerns of sects?
• is the reported tradition logically consistent? is it actually rational?
• does it linguistically reflect the words of the Prophet, in his vocabulary?
• does the reported tradition agree with the Qur'an?
• is it the kind of matter or thing which we can reasonably believe Muhammad to have said?
These scholars categorized literally millions of hadith as authentic, agreeable, weak, narrated by a weak source, missing a transmitter, provably false, etc.. There are six well-known collections of authentic hadith, each named after its compiler:
• Sahih Bukhari, 7275 authentic out of six million reportedly reviewed by Imam Bukhari (d. 870)
• Sahih Muslim, 9200 authentic out of three million reported reviewed by Imam Muslim (d. 875)
• Sahih Tirmidhi
• Sahih Ibn Majah
• Sahih Abu Dawud
• Sahih An-Nisai
Although each scholar came to different conclusions about authenticity or did not review all the same reported traditions, the ability to compare them has been useful in itself. Since the hadith and sira, Muhammad's life of moral example, constitute the sunnah or "path" Muslims are to take in this world, the ability to validate what he really said is taken seriously - minor differences in authenticity claims do not matter as much as removing a huge quantity of misleading or doubtful information, in the view of Muslims.
Isnad was influential in the development of disciplined scientific citation as early Muslim philosophy developed and applied Muslim disciplines like isnad and ijtihad and ijma to the natural world. Some claim this resulted in the breakthroughs in early Muslim medicine and the Mutazilite school of scientists. However, the capacity to cite prior authority so reliably was probably also influential in the rise of the Asharite school, which led to the classical fiqh and taqlid "blind imitation" of prior jurists, and ultimately limited Muslim sciences.
See also: sira, sunnah, ijtihad, ijma, fiqh, Qur'an
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"url": "http://pheeds.com/info/guide/i/is/isnah.html?"
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T.E.R:R.A.I.N - Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network
Meadow argus (Junonia villida)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Nymphalidae
Genus: Junonia
Species: J. villida
Binomial name: Junonia villida
Common name: Meadow argus
Junonia villida (Meadow argus) is a butterfly commonly found in Australia but it is only a casual visitor to New Zealand.
The Meadow argus has two brownish wings, each covered with two distinctive black and blue eyespots as well as white and orange marks that appear on the edge of the wings. The eyespots are a defence mechanism that are not only used to frighten predators away, but also to confuse the predators into thinking that the eyespots are the target, allowing the butterfly to escape with only a small part of the wing being lost. The undersides of the wings are mainly unmarked, except the lower part of the fore wing has similar markings as the upper side. The wingspan measures 4 centimetres in males and 4.3 centimetres in females.
These positions include:
If the sun is not shining the butterfly will close its wings.
If danger approaches while there is no sunlight the butterfly will raise its frontwings revealing hidden eyespots. (Wikipedia)
The underside of the wing.
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"language_score": 0.9107385277748108,
"url": "http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/local-butterflies-moths/meadow-argus-junonia-villida.html"
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