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What might happen to a person born without a thymus gland? Expert Answers An illustration of the letter 'A' in a speech bubbles The thymus gland is a small organ in the neck which produces thymosin, which stimulates the production of T-cells for the immune system. The thymus is only active until puberty, when it begins to shrink and become replaced by fat. Though the thymus gland isn't active for a whole lifetime, it has a very important job while it is active. If someone were born without a thymus gland, they would not have the capability to produce thymosin or T-cells. This would leave someone at much greater risk of infection, as there would be none of these specialized white blood cells helping to defend the body. This is described as an immunodeficiency, and means that someone may be more likely to catch infections and have a harder time fighting off and surviving the infection. A thymus transplant is possible, granted there is a tissue match between donor and recipient. Approved by eNotes Editorial Team We’ll help your grades soar • 30,000+ book summaries • 20% study tools discount • Ad-free content • PDF downloads • 300,000+ answers • 5-star customer support Start your 48-Hour Free Trial	<urn:uuid:cd377a01-284a-4c26-912e-62584304f4d2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.1385347843170166, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9560137987136841, "url": "https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-might-happen-person-born-without-thymus-gland-613591" }
The History of the Middle East Start Free Trial Why is Muhammad Ali sometimes called the "father of modern Egypt"? Expert Answers An illustration of the letter 'A' in a speech bubbles Muhammad Ali, also known as Mehmed Ali, was born in 1769 in Kavala, Macedonia—an area that is nowadays part of Greece. He moved to Egypt in 1801, as second in command of an Albanian regiment, tasked with fighting the French in order to make them retreat from Egypt. In 1805, Muhammad Ali rose to even more power, when he became the sultan’s viceroy in Egypt. From this position, Muhammad Ali was beginning to undertake a restructuring of Egypt in an attempt to modernize it. This is the reason, why Muhammad Ali is often called “the father of modern Egypt": his efforts significantly helped moving Egypt into the modern era. For example, Muhammad Ali got rid of the current rulers, the Mamluks, and reorganized the government’s administration. He also changed the economic structure of the country, such as by limiting the rights of the big landowning classes, as he instead nationalized big parts of the land: agricultural land now became state owned, thus creating more revenue for the country, rather than just for the rich land owners. He further tried to make Egypt more modern by engaging in weapon production and creating a textile industry. Following the example of Western civilizations, he also established an education system, in order to produce well-qualified citizens, such as doctors. He also invested a lot of time in creating a more effective and reliable army. Approved by eNotes Editorial Team We’ll help your grades soar • 30,000+ book summaries • 20% study tools discount • Ad-free content • PDF downloads • 300,000+ answers • 5-star customer support Start your 48-Hour Free Trial	<urn:uuid:8f00bbba-7a5e-4989-8084-b47f79592113>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.24355489015579224, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9619548916816711, "url": "https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/why-is-muhammad-ali-sometimes-called-the-father-2087397" }
A column is a group of three brain cells, with each cell responding to a different aspect of a visual stimulus. For example, when presented a thick, vertical, blue line, one cell interprets the thickness of the line, the second cell interprets the orientation of the line, and the third cell interprets the blue color. They work together to enable you to see a thick, vertical, blue line. A column receives information from either the left eye or the right eye. See also: Hypercolumn Add flashcard Cite Random	<urn:uuid:61e1e4ed-46aa-4ffa-8e2e-a3a46a9fd42a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.3952174782752991, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7836191058158875, "url": "https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Column" }
The Basic Numbers: Ann Arbor, MI Why Don't We Take A Look At Chaco National Monument In New Mexico Via Ann Arbor Lets visit New Mexico's Chaco Canyon National Monument from Ann Arbor. Based from the use of similar buildings by current Puebloan peoples, these rooms had been areas that are probably common for rites and gatherings, with a fireplace in the middle and room access supplied by a ladder extending through a smoke hole in the ceiling. Large kivas, or "great kivas," were able to accommodate hundreds of people and stood alone when not integrated into a housing that is large, frequently constituting a center location for surrounding villages made of (relatively) little buildings. To sustain large buildings that are multi-story held rooms with floor spaces and ceiling heights far greater than those of pre-existing houses, Chacoans erected gigantic walls employing a "core-and-veneer" method variant. An core that is inner of sandstone with mud mortar created the core to which slimmer facing stones were joined to produce a veneer. These walls were approximately one meter thick at the base, tapering as they ascended to conserve weight--an indication that builders planned the upper stories during the original building in other instances. While these mosaic-style veneers remain evident today, adding to these structures' remarkable beauty, Chacoans plastered plaster to many interior and exterior walls after construction was total to preserve the mud mortar from water harm. Starting with Chetro Ketl's building, Chaco Canyon, projects for this magnitude needed a huge number of three vital materials: sandstone, water, and lumber. Employing stone tools, Chacoans mined then molded and faced sandstone from canyon walls, choosing hard and dark-colored tabular stone at the most effective of cliffs during initial building, going as styles altered during later construction to softer and bigger tan-colored stone lower down cliffs. Liquid, essential to build mud mortar and plaster combined with sand, silt and clay, was marginal and accessible only during short and summer that is typically heavy. Rainwater was caught in wells and dammed areas formed in the arroyo (an intermittently running creek) that shaped the canyon, Chaco Wash, as well as ponds to which runoff was diverted by a system of ditches. Timber sources, which were necessary for the building of roofs and story that is upper, were formerly abundant in the canyon but vanished around the period of the Chacoan fluorescence owing to drought or deforestation. As a result, Chacoans went 80 kilometers on foot to coniferous woods to the south and west, cutting down trees, peeling them, and drying all of them for an period that is extended of to minimize weight before returning and lugging them back to the canyon. This was no undertaking that is easy given that hauling each tree would have taken a multi-day travel by a team of folks, and that more than 200,000 trees were utilized throughout the three centuries of building and renovation of the canyon's roughly dozen major great house and great kiva sites. Chaco Canyon's Pre-Planned Landscape While Chaco Canyon had a top density of construction on a scale never seen previously in your community, it ended up being just a tiny component in the heart of a wide linked area that created the Chacoan civilisation. Outside the canyon, there were more than 200 settlements with large mansions and kivas that is great used the same characteristic brick style and design as those found within the canyon, but on a lesser scale. Although these sites were most abundant in the San Juan Basin, they covered an certain area of the Colorado Plateau greater than England. Chacoans built an extensive system of roadways to connect these settlements to the canyon and to one another by digging and leveling the ground that is underlying, in some instances, adding clay or masonry curbs for support. These roads usually began at huge buildings inside and beyond the canyon, expanding outward in wonderfully straight parts. Ann Arbor, Michigan is located in Washtenaw county, and includes a population of 322267, and exists within the higher Detroit-Warren-Ann Arbor, MI metro region. The median age is 27.5, with 7.3% of the population under ten years old, 14.9% are between 10-19 years old, 33% of town residents in their 20’s, 12.4% in their 30's, 8.1% in their 40’s, 8.2% in their 50’s, 8.4% in their 60’s, 4.8% in their 70’s, and 2.9% age 80 or older. 49.8% of inhabitants are men, 50.2% women. 33.8% of citizens are recorded as married married, with 7% divorced and 56.5% never wedded. The percentage of women and men recognized as widowed is 2.6%. The typical household size in Ann Arbor, MI is 2.82 household members, with 45.2% owning their own residences. The average home cost is $323542. For those people leasing, they pay on average $1237 monthly. 58.8% of homes have two sources of income, and a median household income of $65745. Average individual income is $32412. 22.3% of residents live at or below the poverty line, and 7.1% are handicapped. 2.8% of residents are ex-members for the armed forces. The labor pool participation rate in Ann Arbor is 61.5%, with an unemployment rate of 3.9%. For all located in the labor pool, the common commute time is 20 minutes. 45.7% of Ann Arbor’s residents have a graduate diploma, and 30.2% posses a bachelors degree. For all without a college degree, 14.2% attended at least some college, 7.1% have a high school diploma, and just 2.7% have an education significantly less than senior school. 2.7% are not included in medical health insurance.	<urn:uuid:e6b63a1b-8caa-410b-a234-4cb8c12bb355>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.04021179676055908, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9745000004768372, "url": "https://dadassohbet.com/chaco-canyon-book-and-program-ann-arbor-michigan.html" }
The Role of Freshwater Crabs in Neotropical Streams Freshwater crabs play an important role in the breakdown of nutrients from natural materials that fall into streams, but few studies have looked into exactly how their relationships with other detritivores and the leaf litter itself impacts ecosystems. River Basin Center graduate student Carol Yang shed light on these relationships in neotropical streams in two recently published papers. In a paper published in Freshwater BiologyYang did an in-stream experiment in Monteverde, Costa Rica to examine the leaf litter in enclosures that contained crabs as compared to enclosures without crabs. One dynamic that Yang and colleagues hoped to learn more about was the relationship between crabs and other detritivores—which contribute to leaf breakdown, but that crabs frequently prey upon. Throughout the study, Yang and collaborators regularly sampled the leaf litter. They found that enclosures with crabs had faster rates of breakdown than those without, indicating that their manipulation and consumption of leaves had a larger impact than their consumption of other detritivores and shredders. In a follow up study published in Nauplius, Yang used a laboratory setting to gain a more in-depth understanding of the crab behaviors that most impacted leaf litter. The crabs were collected from Monteverde, Costa Rica, and transported to aquariums along with unfiltered stream water and leaves from a common subcanopy tree. Yang and colleagues found that the leaf mass was significantly higher in tanks with crabs than those without. They also used visual observations and recordings to watch as the crabs used their claws to grasp and shred the leaves, which aided in ingestion. At the end of the experiment, they observed that leaves in tanks with crabs were broken up into multiple pieces, whereas leaves in tanks without them remained whole. These studies suggest that crabs play an important role in helping to process the detritus that accumulates in neotropical streams, especially given their abundance in tropical streams.	<urn:uuid:2748c3f0-3642-4336-a2c9-151dc5047a94>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.036259472370147705, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9579745531082153, "url": "https://rivercenter.uga.edu/the-role-of-freshwater-crabs-in-neotropical-streams/" }
Entity Modelling Reference Relationships Reference relationships are a second class of relationships and are distinguished from composition relationships by being depicted connecting to the sides of the boxes representing entity types rather than to the upper and lower edges. Without distinction, connection to the left or right sides of the boxes can be made; the side can be chosen for the convenience for the drawing. A text label at one end of a relationship line serves to describe the relationship from the point of view of the subject entity at that end. For example, we can say a chicken lays an egg or that an egg is laid by a chicken. Though there is a single relationship between chicken and egg there are two ways of articulating it and accordingly the relationship is shown labelled at each end: For convenience of the diagramming we can, without changing the meaning, turn this about so: A chicken hatches from an egg too and we can add this to the diagram: Of course, what we see here represented on the diagram are types of things not actual things — so the diagram does not express that a chicken lays the very same egg that it hatches from: rather that a chicken lays things of the type egg and that it is hatched from a thing of the same type.	<urn:uuid:7e21d8a5-babd-4918-a65b-6b365e565c5d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4, "fasttext_score": 0.06554001569747925, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9163103699684143, "url": "http://entitymodelling.org/tutorialone/referencerelationships.html" }
Buildings have two major classes of systems: Structural and Non structural systems. A structural system by its intrinsic nature, composition, position, or arrangement, provides a whole that stays stable, in equilibrium, or constant (yet may be mobile like a ship, spacecraft etc.). The structural subsystems of a building system must exist in the required location or be available at the required moment and duration to achieve the distinctive constancy. The stability of a building is disturbed, when the structural subsystems are repositioned or removed. Structural systems of a building are conceived for a range of behaviour, of combined profiles of stresses for Tension, Compression, or Torque. Structural systems of the building seem to be well integrated, because by being together they achieve constancy, which is fundamental to a structure’s being. Non structural systems of a building apparently have no or very little role to play in the constancy of the building. Subsystems within a building that do not affect the constancy of a building may be called non-structural systems, such as the partition walls, doors, windows, finishes, etc. Non structural systems though useless in structural sense, are not totally dispensable. Many non-structural systems protect the structural elements, like plaster, walls, claddings etc. Some non=structural systems achieve their own stability by depending or subsisting on the structural systems, such as tensile forms like the stretched net or a sail. Non=structural systems need not be integrated with the structure, so are replaceable or relocatable. 1 Protective systems: Ones that cover the structural systems and non structural systems, e.g. plasters, waterproofing, roofing. 2 Filler systems: Those that fill up the gaps or spaces between structural subsystems, e.g. non load-bearing walls, joints. 3 Independent systems: These are complete systems by themselves that independently provide peculiar functionality, e.g. air conditioning, illumination, communication. ▪ All decimal numbers must be preceded by a zero if no other digit exists. e.g. 0.121 (and not as .121 ) ▪ No thousand or hundred markers are to be used, e.g. 1000 (and not 1,000), but where large number of digits are involved a blank or space (equal to 1 digit or not less than ½ digit in width) may be used as a separator, in place of a marker. However, where only four digits are used no space as a separator need be provided. e.g. 100 000, 10 000 or 1000 (but not 1 00 000 or 1 000). ▪ For Length units recognized measures are km / m / mm which may if required must be in small letters. For example architectural plans have nearly all measures in mm, so the mention of mm should be avoided. However, in the same drawing if weight or volume or such other measures are to be indicated, then identifiers for such units may be indicated. Architectural drawings nominally have dimensions of maximum 5 digits (for mm ) unless a detail requires indicating a fraction of a millimetre, signifying measures up to 99999 mm or 99.999 mts (-but unit identifiers are not to be used). Plans larger then 99mts sizes are considered of Map category. ▪ Full names of units even when these are named after a person, are written in small letters: ampere, volt etc., with the exception W for watt and J for Joule. ▪ For liquid measure however lt may be written as Lt (to differentiate between 1 and l ). Plurals of measures need not be used. (kms, mts, kgs). Point or Full stop for abbreviation may not be used, for example as in m.m. or mm. ▪ Where cubic or square measures are to be shown: 3m3 = will mean three cubic metres and not 33 i.e. 3 x 3 x 3 = 27cmt. ▪ Following common units are acceptable Length mm m km (all 1000 factored=103) Weight gm kg mt or t (all 1000 factored=103) Liquid mlt Lt klt (all 1000 factored=103). ▪ Where traditionally only one unit is accepted, and if there are no chances of ambiguity, the measure nomenclature (mm, km, gm etc.) may not be mentioned. (E.g. cloth width = 1.200). If in one sheet of drawing (or a document) only one scale and one mode of measure are used, the nomenclature may be mentioned as a general instruction for the drawing. ▪ Where drawings or details are likely to be graphically reduced or enlarged in processing / copying, a graphical scale preferably showing 100 mm bar may be shown. If 100 mm size is not suitable due to micro reduction or macro enlargement, suitable multiples of 100 mm for upwards scaling and 10x fractions of 100 mm for downwards scaling maybe used. When both mt & mm are used on drawings, it will be less confusing if the dimension is always written to three places of decimals, i.e. 3.450. No unit symbol need be shown unless a lesser number of decimal places are used; i.e. 3.450 or 3.45 m and under some circumstances 3.5 m, are all correct. Of the options, 3450 and 3.450 both are preferred. Where no ambiguity can arise, symbols may be discarded, according to following rules: ▪ Whole numbers indicate mm ▪ Decimated fractions to three palaces of decimals indicate m (and also by implication, mm) ▪ All other dimensions or measures must be followed by the unit symbol. ▪ Where dimensions refer to different types of measures (lengths, weights, temperature etc.), preferably all units should be indicated or all units other than the major one should be indicated. ▪ Main dimensions and the tolerance (fitments, limits, margins etc.) etc. should be in the same unit system. ▪ Where main dimensions are accompanied by + or – range, both should be in the same unit. Post -by Gautam Shah Chinese Style Redwood Wood Bathroom Cabinet Natural Woods are many different types, such as Soft, Medium and Hard grain. Woods are likely to be Fresh, Seasoned and Old woods. Woods have different types of faces such as the end grains, flat and side faces. The woods have problems of uneven colours, patterns. The woods have Three variations of Grains. The end grains are too fibrous and are difficult to smooth out and have no patterns of interest. The grains facing the core of the trunk are more compact and have better and deeper colour, in comparison to any side that faces the bark or exterior. These choices are not easily available or detectable, except by a seasoned carpenter. Seasoned carpenters try to orient the side with deeper colour and straighter grains on the outside. The variations in textures are both natural and tools or machine made. Soft Woods Pinus sylvestris Wood products have similar problems but an average quality due to the mass production processes. The variations however are between near-natural products (plywood, veneers) and synthesized products (particle boards, MDFs etc.) For a clear coating application all wood surfaces require surface preparation treatments and post coating application treatments. The surface preparation treatments are over and above the nominal craft processes such as planing, sand papering, etc. These are mainly Filling, Sealing and Staining. The post coating application treatments are not always required, but could be Buffing, burnishing, waxing, etc. Hardwood tops Fillers generally consist of an Extender, a Binder and occasionally a Colourant. Fillers are required to fill in the pores in the wood grains of Natural woods and cavities in case of wood products. A levelled surface provides better gloss and integrity of the coating (one continuous surface without breaks). The coating material does not sink into it, and provide an even finish. Transparent fillers (low body NC lacquer, shellac, etc.) are used not only to fill the pores, but provide a sealing coat to the decayable material in the grains and vessels filled with gum exudates. Extenders are low opacity -reflectivity, fine grade powder of materials like gypsum, chalk, china clay, precipitated calcium carbonate, lime, asbestine, colloidal silica, barytes and talc(unlike the Zinc oxide or Titanium dioxide -the white pigments that adds whiteness and opacity). Binders are binding agents that hold together the extenders, temporarily or permanently, and also bind the extenders to the wood substrate. A binder could be water, gums, oils, alkyds and poly vinyl emulsions. Solvent bound binders are better compared to water bound binders. The later ones raise the grain or fibres off the surface. Colourants provide an equalizing tint to the wood surface and slightly colour the white extenders. Fillers, made of low opacity-reflectivity pigments serve a dual purpose, of filling as well as staining. Wood Stain Brush Delete Planks Wood Wax Wood Stains as colourants Stains provide a correct transparent tinge to the surface. Stains are generally dye-material soluble in water, oil or solvents. Water soluble stains though of many different varieties, raise the fibres and are difficult to penetrate. Oil soluble stains are heavy bodied, take longer to dry out and interfere in the subsequent coating application. Solvent soluble stains are costly, dry out immediately and may bleed residual gums and other exudates. Wood Staining Stains have one important drawback that they darken the existing colour of the substrate. Where timber surfaces need to be of lighter colour, surfaces have to be bleached or toned with opaque materials. Bleaching process lightens the existing colour of the wood. It includes a treatment with hydrogen peroxide followed by an alkaline accelerator like lime, caustic soda, sodium silicate or ammonia. Bleaching affects adhesion and toughness of coating. It also provides an amber hue to the coating on aging. Staining is also done by micro spray guns, singeing, burning or carbon deposition from flames. Imposed patterns On wood surfaces where there are very irregular grains or no patterns, these are screen-printed, pressed or embossed using stains. Such patterns may emulate a wood grain pattern or just very fine mesh or lines. Wenge veneer imposed pattern Post application treatments Clear finishes often require some post application treatments. These are mainly burnishing and waxing. Burnishing is mainly done to NC lacquer, Acrylic and Melamine coatings, to provide a glossy surface. Burnishing is not done to slow drying coatings, because such coatings, though are dry on outer face, take days to thoroughly dry out. Burnishing is done with a Carborundum like rubbing material with a waxy or oily base. Waxing provides a dull sheen and a protective coating. Waxing is also done to renovate old coatings. Waxing compounds also include a small amount of oils and sometime silicone materials. Yakisugi, shou sugi ban (焼き杉 Literally grilled cedar or burnt cedar) “Yaki” means burnt, charred, or heat treated, and “Sugi” refers to the Sugi Cypress indigenous to Japan. This is a wood protection technique that originated in Japan. It is obtained by deeply burning the surface of a wooden board. It is never made from reclaimed wood, driftwood, or chemically treated wood. The material thus obtained is reputed to be more resistant to fire, insects and fungi. This technique is reused by contemporary architects like Terunobu Fujimori and was proposed for the construction of the cladding. Yakisugi cannot be made without the traditional method of drying. Postby Gautam Shah Lacquer is a very generic term applied to a variety of coating systems. It indicates a surfacing system, where a film forming substance has been dissolved in or diluted with a solvent. On application the solvent evaporates leaving a thin film on the surface. Lac or Shellac is a type of resin, produced by insects thriving on the cell sap of certain host plants. It is produced in Eastern parts of India and the SE Asia. The natural resin, as extracted contains internal and external impurities. These are removed mechanically, by melting and filtration processes. Two main forms are commercially available, Button and prills or flakes. Other custom products include coloured sticks for colouring and moulding craft items. Wax is a natural constituent of Lac forming 2.5 to 5%. Lac Wax was often used, in Floor-polishes and cosmetics, later replaced by Carnauba wax. Lac Dyes were used for silk and wool, than Lac as a resin, in early 19th C before the availability of Synthetic Dyes. Lac or shellac is bio-degradable, eco-friendly, tasteless and non-toxic material. So ideal for children toys, play-cards, book cover coatings, etc. It is highly inflammable, softens with and so can be moulded. Moulded lacquer is used for making bangles and jewellery embellishments. The moulding process involves heating, combining with additives, colours, kneading, hammering and shaping into a mass like dough. The lacquer, on evaporation of its solvents changes the phase from Liquid to Solid, but does not convert itself into different substance. Lacquer films are soluble in the (original) solvent. Lacquers are also thermoplastic (will soften with an increase in heat) materials. The film forming substances of lacquers are linear polymers high in polymer weight with good solvent releasing property. Such substances are often very hard and brittle, so require addition of plasticizers to achieve better adhesion, flexibility and durability of the gloss. Commercially the term Lacquer is applied to Solvent-based Coating systems (against water-based systems) that offer hard, glossy and durable film. In this sense, there are Two basic varieties: 1 Thermoplastics type: Nitro cellulose, Acrylics, Chlorinated Rubber, Vinyls, Epoxy. 2 Thermosetting type: Acrylics, Epoxy Resins, Polyurethanes, Vinyls, Alkyd, Melamine. Cellulosic Polymers Cellulose is the most widely occurring, a natural polymer, available in almost all plants. Primary sources of industrial cellulose are cotton fibres and wood. Cellulose is a polyhydric-alcohol, and forms esters with organic acids. It also forms reaction products with inorganic acids. These cellulosic derivatives used in production of various types of lacquers are classified as: 1. esters of inorganic acids -nitro cellulose 2. esters of organic acids -cellulose acetate 3. others -methyl and ethyl cellulose Lacquers can be classified into two basic groups: NC Lacquers and Acrylic or Plastic Lacquers. Lamellar Lines Mudguard Horizontal Lacquered Sheet Nitro Cellulose Lacquers NC Lacquers consist of Nitro cellulose as the main raw material to which a variety of plasticizer and resins are added, to provide wide range of film properties. PLASTICIZERS increase elasticity and extensibility of the film. Commonly used Plasticizers are, blown-castor oil, dibutyl phthalate, dioctyl phthalate, dibutyl sebacate, butyl stearate, chlorinated diphenyls. Additions of RESINS increase gloss and adhesion of the film. The resins are coconut and castor oil alkyds, maleic modified ester gum, cyclohexanone (ketonic) resins, acrylic resins, toluene sulfonamides formaldehyde resins. NC Lacquers are produced by dissolving or diluting lacquer and suitable plasticizers in a mix of solvents. The SOLVENTS act in three ways: Active solvents are (ethyl acetate, butyl acetate), Latent solvents (ethyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, diacetone alcohol), and Diluents (toluene, xylene). A suitable mix of these basic three types of solvents is known as `Thinner‘. A very specific quality of Thinner is required for each application and weather condition. NC Lacquers do not become yellow with ageing. It has no peeling problem. Lacquers provide very ‘water-white’ (no colouration or tinge) film. NC Lacquers are re-coatable and removable substances. NC Lacquers are used on wood, metals, metals like gold, silver and copper, plastics, leather, paper, fabrics, as hair-fixers, and Nail-polishes. Lacquer is one of the best surface sealing material for wood products and so forms the primer coat for melamine, etc. Solvent-based nitrocellulose lacquers (from resin of nitration of cotton (lint) and other cellulose based materials, were used commercially from the 19th C. These lacquers began to replace shellac lacquer and were used as protective or rust inhibitive clear coatings for brass musical instruments, gift items and furniture. These were also used in white-goods products (refrigerators, irons, cooking tops, etc. and in automobiles. These lasted for several decades till arrival of ‘Polymer based lacquers‘. These materials are called Lacquers because the film is ‘water-white’. Acrylic lacquers of thermoplastic type are characterized by a transparent water white film, very good resistance to decolouration from temperature and UV light, good electrical properties, outdoor durability, excellent resistance to mineral oil-greases, resistance to chemical fumes, resistance to water based alkaline substances. Acrylic lacquers convertible coating that is on drying covert to a different product, which is non-dissoluble and non-removable. These are used for: wood items, clear coating for brass, copper, and aluminium, as a top coat for final gloss and protection air-crafts, automobiles, toys, auto-parts, industrial components, consumer durables, TV cabinets. These are used as clear-invisible coating for exposed surfaces like bricks, stones and concrete. Acrylic lacquers with soluble dyes form transparent glass coatings. One of the major uses is for internal coatings of food and beverage cans. Thermosetting Acrylics provide a hard and scratch proof coating, good colour retention, better water and detergent resistance, better gloss and chalking resistance. -Post by Gautam Shah Shellacs Finishes, were the first true clear coatings. It is believed that Shellac is in use for the past 2000 years. It was used as gum, sealing compound, and as a mastic compound. Shellac is an insect exudate known as stick-lac. It is refined to remove impurities including waxy substances, and lighten its colour. Button-Lac is a manually purified form and is of darker colour, while machine purified shellac is often de-waxed and de-colourized. Shellac is soluble in methylated spirit or alcohols. It is a very effective coating material even in very thin viscosity, as a result its penetration and filling capacity is excellent. It is one of the best surface filler material. It is eminently re-coat-able so a very smooth level and glossy surface is possible. Sankheda furniture (Sankheda near Vadodara, Gujarat, India ) and Chinese lacquer items are examples of shellac coatings. French Polish has been one of the most popular clear (colourless) coating material. It has been used as wood furniture polish, Protective and glossy coating for oil paintings, besides employed as a paper coating, hair fixer, and as a gum for Gold leaf fixing. French Polish is most preferred conservation coating for old furniture and oil paintings. French Polish on drying does not convert into a non-soluble product. It is technically a non-convertible’ coating system. Once applied it can be removed with alcohol like solvent, without damaging the original surface. French polish is very similar to natural shellac polish. However resistance to wear and tear is poor, and the film is permeable. But it is re-coat-able material. Vintage Old Vinyl Vinyl Record Music Record Retro French polish includes a number of materials that provide a transparent coating. In the past the most important materials were a shellac, and gum copal. But now a days various pine resins, especially maleic modified rosins of spirit soluble type are used. Post –by Gautam Shah Varnish is clear coating of resin and solvent that dries-hardens to transparent film. Today, Varnish is a generic term for Clear Coatings that provide a colourless (transparent) and (mostly) a glossy surface. Clear Coatings are required for several reasons, such as to show-up the surface grain, colour, pattern, or protect artwork or craft pieces. The surface to be coated may not always be perfect or decent. So some form of Conditioning of the substrate surfaces is needed before application of a clear coating. The most common problems with surfaces are like: 1. uneven colour 2. unsuitable tone 3. uneven grain or pattern 4. patchy absorbency 5. uneven texture 6. bleeding or soluble constituents 7. waxy or oily deposits 8. alkalinity 9. acidity 10. . galvanic sensitivity 11. moisture content and transfer Varnished Wood Chair The word ‘varnish’ comes from Latin ‘vernix’, meaning an odorous resin, Varnish as word comes from Greek ‘Berenice’, which was the ancient name of modern Benghazi in Libya. Perhaps the first varnishes were produced from resins of local trees of Benghazi. Wooden Decking Paint Wood House Deck Varnish Varnishes are clear coatings usually made with oils, oleo-resinous substances and alkyds. Varnishes are comparatively slow drying, high bodied finishes and so can be applied by brush, unlike Lacquer or French polish. Varnish types of finishes have thicker film of high gloss, with better wear and tear resistance. Kat_004 alt Varnishes are convertible coatings (materials, which after application change into different but permanent substance), so are more stable. In the past varnishes were made by boiling linseed or tung oil with modified rosins. Later varnishes were produced from oils with maleic or phenolic modified resins. Nowadays air drying varnishes (oxidation & polymerization) are produced from long oil alkyds, where as baking varnishes (heat polymerization) are produced from medium or short oil alkyds. Often amino resins such as urea and melamine formaldehyde are added to produce a very tough, hard wearing, solvent insoluble, alkali resistant, non yellowing and non degrading film. Magic Letters Deck High temperature baking varnishes though superior in many respects have limited use so far as wood, paper and such other surfaces are concerned. Theoretically any film forming medium (used for manufacturing paints -coloured coatings) can be used as a clear coating material, but certain film peculiarities and clarity restrict their use. High grade clear coatings could be of polyurethane, epoxy, polyester, PVA, materials. Varnishes besides wood, are used on paper, leather, fabrics, copper winding wires, pottery products, polymers, insides of food tin and aluminium cans, glass, electronic circuit boards, toys etc. Post -by Gautam Shah Seating arrangements influence the nature of interaction in a group. Space planning is key to design for social interactions. Circular seating provides a better environment for interaction. A hearth has been the focus of circular arrangement. However, in a circular seating arrangement individuals interact more with the person on opposite side rather than adjacent to them. That is why when a person conducts a group, or if there is a designated leader, the circular arrangement becomes a bow. It is observed that in four-person groups (or arrangements), favourable interaction occurs among persons seated closer together rather then facing one another. This could be the reason why young couples prefer to sit at right angle, compared to seasoned couples who prefer to sit opposite to each other. It is found that when eye-contact is diffused, a side-by-side interaction is preferred to across-the-table interaction. The eye contact is diffused by distance, strong and focussed lighting below the eye levels, occlusion due to intervening objects like decorative food or flower vases. Diffusion may also happen when the opposite person is socially unknown or repugnant. Very large group meeting tables (dining, conference, etc.) are designed to be of large width or with a well. Contrary to this tables are of very small width to provide intimacy, bonhomie and revelry, such as for picnics, outdoor eateries, and reunions. Coffee houses tables are small sized to encourage intimacy. Three persons sharing a circular or triangle table is highly awkward arrangement. Similarly tables with a narrowing end create a clumsy situation unless at the wide end a leader (or presentation screen for slide show or video) holds the attention. Larry King live -the famous programme host used a table with tapered shape to position the guest (perhaps depending on the personality) at desired place and thereby control the distance of interaction. Nature of interaction is defined by the spatial distancing. The spatial distancing could be the clear distance between the seats and one that can be manipulated by posturing. Seat distances such 450 mm are intimate, over 750 to 1200 mm are personal, over 1200 to 3500 allow social or eye contact, and over 3500 mm one has control over interaction, but beyond 15 mts one needs other means of enlargement to achieve interaction. Though different cultures and contexts may elicit alternative expectations on distance of interaction. The concept of spatial distancing and interaction have different connotations. Chat rooms, bulletin boards email, twitter and Skype etc. allow communication among strangers. Some of these mediums miss the personal feedback or a face-to-face context. Every media set has its own defined or expected culture, and anyone who do not abide by it is considered violating the spatial relationships. The person is considered less sociable than those who do not commit such violations. In the human body THREE types of heat generating processes are operative. 1 Conversion of food matter into useful energy is a continuous heat generating process. 2 Muscular activities like even sedentary work or sleeping, are heat generating processes. 3 Lastly, certain infections and dysfunctions within the body, elevate or lower the body temperature by extra ordinary rate of heat generation or weakened heat dissipation mechanism. Of all the energy produced in the body only 20 % is utilized, rest 80 % is surplus heat. The body must not only release all the excess heat that is generated from within the body, but all the excess heat as gained from the environment. Heat is lost from the body by Radiation (60 %), Evaporation (25 %), Convection and Conduction (15 %). 1 Heat loss through Radiation: Radiation mainly occurs when there is a difference in temperature of opposing surfaces. As long as temperature of the opposite surface or object (sun, fire, radiator) is below skin temperature, the body can lose heat by radiation. But once it reaches an equilibrium occurs, body will rather gain heat by radiation. 2 Heat loss through Evaporation is controlled by the level of humidity in the air. Level of humidity is in turn affected by temperature of the air and human body, rate of air movement and the existing proportion of humidity . Body dissipates heat through evaporation by perspiration, sweat and exhalation of air. Dryer air encourages faster evaporation. Evaporation can occur if air has velocity and appropriate humidity (low). Even in case of very high humidity conditions a high velocity air can remove the humidity. 3 Heat loss through Convection occurs when the air in the vicinity of skin becomes hot, expands, decreases in density, and elevates to allow cooler air in its place. Rate of heat convection from body depends on the difference in temperatures (skin & surrounding air) and rate of air movement. When the convective process is inoperative and radiation heat gain is positive, the body can maintain the thermal balance by evaporation. 4 Heat loss through Conduction depends on the difference between the body temperature and the contact object. Normal skin temperature is between 31° and 34°C. As the air temperature approaches the skin temperature heat loss from the body gradually decreases. In the circumstances the vasomotor regulation increases the body temperature to 34°C to maintain the heat loss, However if air temperature is higher (such as under the sun or very warm climates, the convective heat loss may not work. Post by –Gautam Shah Door Casings : Extrados : Intrados Door, windows and other gaps are often too deep, and a wood (or other materials) frame cannot cover the entire width. To economize the use of wood, door frames have to be of functional size (depth). The sides of the gaps are covered by a Casing. Casing is a widened frame, or additional panelling that is placed on the remaining area of sides. Treatments on external sides of the openings are also called Extrados and similar ones on interior sides are called Intrados. Extrados and Intrados are often used as decorative carved elements in plaster-work or as stone or brick masonry design, as integrated treatments. The words are also used for exterior-interior curve or surface of an arch or vault. Altamura Central Doorway deeply undercut to leave sides for full relief treatment The casing usually is placed on the interior face of the door frame, but for interior space doors it can occur on any face. There are many types of casings: 1 a casing that covers the entire depth of the gap, and the door frame is mounted over it or is formed by placing a thin architrave that creates a door stop butt; 2 a casing is formed between two sets of frames (outer + inner door frames) that marks the edge; 3 a casing, or two sets of it are placed over the remaining portion, not occupied by a centrally placed frame. 4 a casing, is a different entity from an Architrave so far its placement and functions are considered. Architrave a door frame frontal masking border. Casings are single panel constructions, multi division panels, or in the form of stripes or flutes. Casings are often confused with Architrave, Mouldings and other Trims used with opening systems. Deep door portals are used for accommodating a set of doors, with an interim space. In case of double shutter set such as the set of shutters ‘solid + glazed’, ‘glazed + louvered’, ‘glazed + mosquito net’, etc. are hung on the inside and outside edges. In a multi shutter system the casings are often hollowed out to accommodate (third set) of sliding shutters. 630 -1024px-Niesky_-_Zinzendorfplatz_-_Raschkehaus_02_ies Door Casing > Wikipedia Image by Frank Vincentz Extra wide casings are created by having deeper door portals. Deep portals create a zone between the two shutters, to dampen the noise, provide insulation, create an air lock. To avoid deep casings the sides are architecturally or panelling wise chamfered or stepped (serrated as in Gothic doors). Door Surrounds 2 Casings become termination points for the skirting, wainscotting, dado or wall panelling system. The chief tools for such termination or integration of two elements is architraves. (An architrave is a border that surrounds a door frame or door way. Often it covers the junction of a door frame and masonry wall, casing, panelling, etc. It is often a part of the moulding). Door Surround 1 Casings take the shape Door Surrounds. Door Surrounds emphasize the door by enhancing the size-scale. Door surrounds distinguish the door from the surrounding architectonic elements and surfaces. The architectonic elements add vertical, horizontal emphasis and other dynamism. The Door surrounds become style statement and declarative systems for personalization. Door Surrounds 3 . Post -by Gautam Shah In an open-ended system, components designed or manufactured by different vendors are used. The success of such a system depends on the adaptation of measures, standards for materials and codes for procedures. Open-ended systems are wasteful because of the built in, reserve or additional capacities. The built in capacities in the open-ended systems do facilitate future replacements, improvisations and up-gradations. Open-ended systems generally result from mature and multi trial endeavours. Where large number of people are involved in design and execution and where these processes are likely to take place in different time spans, the system automatically becomes open ended. Open ended systems are also called ‘open architecture entities’. In a closed ended system the components are not interchangeable. Components designed for a particular situation ,are neither usable nor adoptable in another situation. Closed systems are very wholesome or compact compared with open systems, which usually have a skeleton type frame structure (infrastructure) and are loosely held. Closed systems are rigid and not easily improvisable, whereas open systems allow up-gradation. Closed ended system being compact have no redundancy. Closed ended system become totally useless with even minor changes in their environment or working. Close ended systems generally result from first ever (prime) or unique creative effort. Spontaneous and one man creations tend to be closed systems, unless a conscious effort is made to make it an open system. Closed ended systems are also called ‘proprietary systems’.	<urn:uuid:f356a854-4df3-4c3e-87f0-25171ea6bc68>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.039904236793518066, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9086318016052246, "url": "https://interiordesignassist.wordpress.com/2014/04/" }
Karl Landsteiner Karl Landsteiner Photo from the Nobel Foundation archive. Karl Landsteiner The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930 Born: 14 June 1868, Vienna, Austrian Empire (now Austria) Died: 26 June 1943, New York, NY, USA Affiliation at the time of the award: Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York, NY, USA Prize motivation: "for his discovery of human blood groups." Prize share: 1/1 When a person loses lots of blood through accident or illness, it must be replaced. When transfusions from one person to another were tried, however, the result was very often disastrous. Karl Landsteiner discovered why: when different people\'s blood was mixed, the blood cells sometimes clotted. He explained in 1901 that people have different types of blood cells, that is, there are different blood groups. The discovery led to blood transfusions between people with compatible blood groups. To cite this section MLA style: Karl Landsteiner – Facts. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2021. Tue. 27 Jul 2021. <https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1930/landsteiner/facts/> Explore prizes and laureates Play a game What happens if you get a blood transfusion with the wrong blood type? Learn more about blood groups in the blood typing game! The game helps you understand how blood groups work. Blood typing game	<urn:uuid:2c595ece-4eae-44ec-975e-839a87711d61>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.5374313592910767, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8787553906440735, "url": "https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1930/landsteiner/facts/" }
Jul 4, 2021 Anglo-Zanzibar War: The Shortest War in History When you think of war, do you think of several battles over several years? Most people think of wars as lasting several years. The Cold War, for example, lasted about 45 years. However, there have been many wars that last just days. The Six-Day War, also known as the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, lasted, as you can guess, six days. But, the shortest war in history lasted just minutes, 38 minutes to be exact. The Anglo-Zanzibar War Was The Shortest In History - What's on This article will look at the Anglo-Zanzibar War of 1896, which was fought between the British and Zanzibar. The war began at 9:02 am on August 27, 1896, and ended at 9:40 am, just 38 minutes later. Before explaining what conditions led to the war, it is important to recognize that Britain initiated the conflict. In 1890, the Heligoland-Zanzibar treaty was signed by Britain and Germany over control over land in East Africa. This treaty dictated that Zanzibar would be under the control of the British while mainland Tanzania would belong to Germany. The form of control Britain and Germany had was that of a sphere of influence, meaning that they had predominant control over these foreign territories, so Zanzibar and Tanzania did not have sovereignty, but they were not colonies. Following the signing of this treaty, Britain installed Hamad bin Thuwaini after declaring Zanzibar a British protectorate, meaning that Britain effectively took control of all international affairs of Zanzibar, however, Zanzibar still technically had local autonomy over most internal affairs within the nation. Hamad bin Thuwaini was a supporter of the British, and Britain intended to use him as a puppet sultan, so they could also have control over Zanzibar’s internal and local affairs. This arrangement maintained peace in the region, but only lasted for three years before Hamad died suddenly three years later on August 25, 1896, just two days before the war. Hamad’s nephew, Khalid bin Barghash immediately seized power and became the new sultan. Although unproven, it is widely believed, and there is a general consensus, that Khalid poisoned Hamad––undoubtedly to become the sultan of Zanzibar. Khalid had moved into the palace within a few hours of Hamad’s death, further supporting the belief that he had poisoned Hamad. Khalid bin Barghash of Zanzibar Khalid became the sultan without Britain’s approval, and Britain did not want him to be the sultan. The British thought Khalid was too independent and that they would not be able to use him as a puppet. Instead, the British wanted Hamud bin Muhammed to be sultan. The chief British diplomat in Zanzibar, Basil Cave, warned Khalid that he should not take any action against the British. Nevertheless, by the end of August 25th, Khalid had the palace secured with an armed Royal yacht that was nearby, several artillery guns, and about 3,000 men. At the same time, the British were sending troops ashore in Zanzibar to protect the British Consulate and prevent riots. There were already two warships in the area, and at Cave’s request, another nearby British ship arrived in the harbor by the evening of the 25th. On the 26th, two more British warships also entered the harbor near the palace along with the commander of the British fleet. On August 26th, the British gave Khalid an ultimatum, stating that he had until 9 am on August 27th to leave the palace or the British would open fire against Khalid At 8 am on the 27th, Khalid told the British that he had no intention of leaving and that he did not believe the British would open fire against him, essentially calling the British on their bluff. This left the British with two choices: follow through and bombard the palace, staying true to their word, or not bombard the palace. The British chose the former, probably because they wanted to assert their dominance and show that they had the power. Consequently, in response to Khalid’s note, Cave told him that he did not want to open fire against Khalid, but that the Royal Navy would if Khalid did not evacuate the palace. The Sultan’s Palace At 9 am on the 27th, the Royal Navy began attacking the palace, and within minutes, the British had destroyed most of Khalid’s artillery, and the palace began to collapse, with the 3,000 men Khalid had assembled still inside. Khalid, however, is believed to have escaped out the back of the palace as it began to collapse. Khalid fled to the German Consulate, where he was secretly shipped out of Zanzibar immediately. By 9:40 am, the Sultan’s flag was pulled down, the British stopped attacking the palace, and the war officially ended. Despite only lasting about 38 minutes––40 minutes at most––500 of Khalid’s men had been killed, while only one British officer had been injured. The British won, and immediately installed Hamud bin Muhammed as the Sultan of Zanzibar, which he ruled, with “help” from the British, until his death in 1902. Since the conflict was so short, it seems as if the Anglo-Zanzibar war should not even be considered a war. However, there is no time limit that must be met for a conflict to be a war, and the Anglo-Zanzibar War of 1896 is the shortest war in history This war was an imperial war, one of several fought by the British over Britain’s desire to maintain power. The immediate cause of this war was the death of Hamad bin Thuwaini and Khalid bin Muhammed declaring himself sultan. However, the most significant cause of this war was British imperialism and Britain’s refusal to respect other nations Had Britain respected the rights of other nations and their sovereignty, the war never would have happened because Zanzibar would have been an independent nation. Sydney Henderson I am a senior at Berkeley High School in Berkeley, California, and I swim and play water polo. I am interested in gender studies and economics, which I plan to major in in college. I also love stand-up comedy! If you found this article, please share it: Our Latest Articles Tidings Media Where we discuss economics, history, and everything in between. 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Virginia Woolf Research Paper 1023 Words 5 Pages Virginia Woolf was an English writer in the twentieth century. During this time, society revolved around sex. According to Sigmund Freud, the emotions that were aroused in a young child (typically around the age of four) resulted in an unconscious sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex. This is referred as the Oedipus complex. Virginia Woolf, would take these new psychoanalysis studies and apply them to the female gender. She would try and negate many of the concepts that society determined to be applicable to the female sex. Feminist writer, Virginia Woolf, used her life experiences and writing to illustrate the plight of women searching for personal unresolved issues, equal sexual rights, and a mental illness. Virginia Woolf was born in Kensington, Middlesex, England. Woolf’s mother, Julia Prinsep Stephen, was born in India then later served as a model for several Pre-Raphaelite painters. Her mother was also a nurse and had written a book about the profession. From the time she was born to 1895, Virginia spent her summers at the Stephen’s Talland House …show more content… She fought for equal opportunities for education for women. At the time, she lived in a man’s world. Women had to fight for everything they got. She was an important role as an English writer in the twentieth century. For instance, she stood up and fought for what she believed in because it would be easier for women in the future to do the same. She faced life the same way she faced death. She fought hard until the end and embraced death walked right into the river. She once stated that she her death was one thing “one the experience I shall never describe.” She stated in her suicide letter that: “Against you I fling myself, unvanquished and unyielding, O Death! The waves broke on the shore” Related Documents	<urn:uuid:bfed0530-25f5-475a-acbc-4e75b597e1c5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.04286164045333862, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9796615242958069, "url": "https://www.cram.com/essay/Virginia-Woolf-Research-Paper/FJ4GS96PVT" }
Oxygen from moon? Scientists succeed in extracting it from 'lunar regolith', the surface rubble New research provides a "proof-of-concept" that it is possible to extract as well as utilize the oxygen from lunar regolith. army tank moon YouTube: Secureteam10 There is an abundant amount of oxygen present in the lunar regolith, the top layer of dirt and rubble on the surface of the Moon. Based on regolith samples from previous lunar missions, it is known that around 40 to 45 percent of the weight of regolith is oxygen and by far it is the most abundant component by weight. According to European Space Agency, chemist Beth Lomax from the University of Glasgow in Scotland said: "This oxygen is an extremely valuable resource, but it is chemically bound in the material as oxides in the form of minerals or glass and is therefore unavailable for immediate use." Lomax further explained that the research, which has been published in Planetary and Space Science, actually provides a "proof-of-concept" that it is possible to extract as well as utilize the oxygen from lunar regolith. Lomax explained: "The processing was performed using a method called molten salt electrolysis. This is the first example of direct powder-to-powder processing of solid lunar regolith simulant that can extract virtually all the oxygen." He added: "Alternative methods of lunar oxygen extraction achieve significantly lower yields, or require the regolith to be melted with extreme temperatures of more than 1600°C." It took them around 50 hours to extract around 96 percent of the oxygen present in the regolith sample and interestingly, 75 percent of the oxygen was lifted in the first 15 hours. It is noted that a third of the total oxygen from the sample was in off-gas, whereas, the rest was lost. However, there is still a vast improvement as compared to the yields of previous techniques. Moreover, the metal left behind is also usable. "This is the first successful demonstration of solid-state powder-to-powder regolith simulant processing that yields metal alloys as products," according to the researchers. "Furthermore, the clear separation of various alloy phases and the apparent depletion of other metallic components introduces the exciting potential for metal/alloy separation and refining from unbeneficiated lunar regolith," researchers added. This article was first published on October 11, 2019 Related topics : Space	<urn:uuid:cd2e8388-d7a0-45db-b97d-34c03713ebed>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.06579816341400146, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9568355679512024, "url": "https://www.ibtimes.sg/oxygen-moon-scientists-succeed-extracting-it-lunar-regolith-surface-rubble-32924?utm_source=Internal&utm_medium=article&utm_campaign=related" }
What Are The Basic Requirements Of Culture Media? What are the basic components of media literacy? The three key components of media literacy are personal locus, knowledge structures, and skills. These three are necessary to build your wider set of perspectives on the media.. What is culture media and types? Culture medium or growth medium is a liquid or gel designed to support the growth of microorganisms. There are different types of media suitable for growing different types of cells. Here, we will discuss microbiological cultures used for growing microbes, such as bacteria or yeast. What type of media is blood agar? Blood agar is an enriched, bacterial growth medium. Fastidious organisms, such as streptococci, do not grow well on ordinary growth media. Blood agar is a type of growth medium (trypticase soy agar enriched with 5% sheep blood) that encourages the growth of bacteria, such as streptococci, that otherwise wouldn’t grow. How do you sterilize culture media? Media containing agar should be heated to dissolve the agar before autoclaving. Bring the medium to the boil without scorching or burning. Most culture media will require final sterilization in an autoclave at 121°C for 20 minutes. What are the basic components of media and information? You can think of information literacy as having five components: identify, find, evaluate, apply, and acknowledge sources of information. What are the types of media? Media can be classified into four types:Print Media (Newspapers, Magazines)Broadcast Media (TV, Radio)Outdoor or Out of Home (OOH) Media.Internet. What are the 3 types of media? There are three main types of news media: print media, broadcast media, and the Internet. What is basic culture media? Basal media are those that may be used for growth (culture) of bacteria that do not need enrichment of the media. Examples: Nutrient broth, nutrient agar and peptone water. Staphylococcus and Enterobacteriaceae grow in these media. What is the importance of culture media? Culture media is of fundamental importance for most microbiological tests: to obtain pure cultures, to grow and count microbial cells, and to cultivate and select microorganisms. Without high-quality media, the possibility of achieving accurate, reproducible, and repeatable microbiological test results is reduced [1]. What are the components of media? How do you make agar? How to Make the Perfect Agar Plate Every TimeMake up the medium according to the recipe, then add the desired amount of agar (normally about 1% w/v) and stir. … Autoclave for 25 minutes. … Cool the medium-agar mix to 55°C. … Add any antibiotics or supplements. … Pour the plates. … Allow the plates to set.More items…• What are the basic components of culture media? Technical Support – FAQsFORMULATION OF CULTURE MEDIA. … 1 Nutrients: proteins/peptides/amino-acids.2 Energy: carbohydrates.3 Essential metals and minerals: calcium, magnesium, iron, trace metals: phosphates, sulphates etc.4 Buffering agents: phosphates, acetates etc.More items… How do you create a culture media? Preparation of media and culturesNutrient agar. Suspend 28 g of nutrient agar powder in 1 litre of distilled water. … Nutrient broth. Add 13 g of nutrient broth powder to 1 litre of distilled water. … Malt extract agar. … Mannitol yeast extract agar. … Mannitol yeast extract broth. … Glucose nutrient broth. … Sugar peptone water. … Tributyrin agar.More items… What are the examples of culture media? Examples: Nutrient broth, nutrient agar and peptone water. 2. ENRICHED MEDIA The media are enriched typically by adding blood, serum or egg. Examples: Enriched media are blood agar and Lowenstein-Jensen media. Why Peptone is used in culture media? Peptone is used in culture media to mainly supply nitrogen. Most organisms are capable of utilizing the amino acids and other simpler nitrogenous compounds present in peptone. … Certain bacteria require the addition of other nutrients, such as serum, blood, etc. to the culture medium upon which they are to be propagated.	<urn:uuid:eaab3064-29b7-4fb5-992d-b28d3d7e3f1d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.04156959056854248, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8369871377944946, "url": "https://aveasmartband.com/qa/what-are-the-basic-requirements-of-culture-media.html" }
Posted: February 27th, 2021 French hip-hop and the immigrant experiences Answer the following questions in approximately 150 words per response: 1) Based on the article for this week, explain how do French immigrant youth use hip-hop to forge their identities in France. What are some of the challenges they face? 2) In what ways does the film, La Haine, illustrate some of the challenges faced by immigrant youth in Paris? Choose a scene or two that describe these challenges. Expert paper writers are just a few clicks away Calculate the price of your order You will get a personal manager and a discount. We'll send you the first draft for approval by at Total price:	<urn:uuid:46d6ebb8-9f9d-43c1-a56e-6d3e36eab7bf>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.99983811378479, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9398359060287476, "url": "https://affordablepaperwritings.com/2021/02/27/french-hip-hop-and-the-immigrant-experiences-2/" }
Brick Building material Notes for IES and SSC JE - sscwale Brick Building material Notes for IES and SSC JE - sscwale Composition of Bricks- Lime 4-5 % Silica 50-60% Alumina 20-30% Oxide of Iron 5-6% Magnesia <1% Manufacturing of Bricks 1- Lime- It prevent shrinkage of the bricks, it it is in excess it causes the bricks to melt hence results in their lost shape. During burning process lumps of the lime are converted into quick lime that undergoes slaking in the presence of the moisture resulting in the increased volume thereby leading to the cracking or splitting of the bricks. 2- Silica- It prevent cracking, shrinkage and warping of the bricks, thus impart uniform shape and size to the bricks. If it is in excess, it destroyes the cohesion between the particles due to which bricks become brittle. 3- Alumina- It imparts plasticity to the brick earth, in so that it can be easily moulded into required shape and size. It it is in excess it causes shrinkage and warping during drying and bricks becomes too hard when it is burnt and break easily. 4- Oxides of iron- It helps in fusing of lime and silica with each other, moreover it also imparts reddish brown tinge to the bricks. 5- Magnesium oxide- It imparts yellow tinge to the bricks and avoids the shrinkage in bricks. If it is in excess it leads to decay of bricks. Harmful ingredients of brick earth- 1- Lime- Due to lime slaking takes place. 2- Iron pyrite- Presence of iron pyrite in brick earth leads to disintegration and crystallization of the bricks during its burning process, due to oxidation of iron pyrite. 3- Alkalies- These are generally present in the form of soda or pottash. They act as a flux during the burning process and causes the fusing of the bricks with each other. It also leads to efflorescence and staining in the structure in which it is used for the construction. 4- Organic matter and vegetative matter- Presence of organic and vegetative matters helps in the burning of the bricks but if those are left unburnt they undergo decomposition over the period of time resulting in the formation of the gases which when escape through the brick make it porous. 5- Stones and pabbles- Presence of stone and pabbles makes the brick porous and reduces its load carrying capacity as it decreases the net availability of area to transfer the load. Cement Chapter- Download Cement Chapter PDF NowClick Here Contact info- iesguruji@gmail.com	<urn:uuid:b243ce99-911e-4674-96e1-8b2657b5c915>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.18862879276275635, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9142833948135376, "url": "https://www.sscwale.com/2021/05/brick-building-material-notes-for-ies-and-ssc-je.html" }
Advertisement - Continue reading below Definition of "town" [] • A population center that is larger than a village and smaller than a city. (noun) • A territorial and political unit governed by a town meeting, especially in New England. (noun) • Informal A city: New York is a big town. (noun) • Chiefly British A rural village that has a market or fair periodically. (noun) • The residents of a town: The whole town was upset at the news. (noun) Use "town" in a sentence • "In a college town, the relations between town and gown are those between the residents of the town and the students and faculty associated with the school, who in the past wore academic gowns." • "Aigues Mortes is a dead town, and differs from Maguelonne, to be presently described, in this, that it is a dead _town_, whereas Maguelonne is only the ghost of a dead town." • "Between the ages of ten and fifteen, Kirsty had gone to the parish school of the nearest town: it looked a village, but they always called it _the town_."	<urn:uuid:31314361-f0a8-4ed4-a91f-65c980747f42>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.02573448419570923, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9641644954681396, "url": "https://definition.org/define/town/" }
Gallic Bards The singer poets of Medieval northern Europe were creating music that developed apart from the Greek and Roman, and Christian Church music evolving in the south (such as madrigal.) Roman historians even made note of their outer provinces' Gallic bards' poems and songs, and their lyre-like instrument was represented on Julius Caesar era gold medallions. Charlemagne's collection of their songs unfortunately has not survived ravages of time. Breton's contributed with the use of the Crouth (also called, Crowd, Chrotta, Crwth) where a bow moved across strings pressed by the left hand inserted in an upper opening. The Welsh developed that instrument into their harp. The bards Fingal, Fergus, and Ossian have only their fame remaining, sadly, leaving none of their songs. They were proficient in two different secular groupings. One class specialized in heraldry, history and emphasized poetry, the other were musicians, with doctorates earned after at least 9 years: in harp, the six string crouth and vocals. Celtic Bards Fergus, the traditionary bard of Ireland, sang of the heroic, the legendary, and the warriors. And he was one of many of that time that had already an established music tradition rivaling any others of the 5th century before St. Patrick landed and established his missionary work. This art was at its height at the 10th century with Irish King O'Brien, and his 28 string large based, four holed harp. Ever since England began its constant warring and conquering, banning the Irish traditional music, temporarily crippling the mighty legacy, the culture has since been striving to rebound. (And now in the 21st century has become an enlightened and prosperous one.) Of course, the Scottish bards were of same tradition; and they had the trademark bagpipe, along with the Celtic harp. Other Early Northern European Scalds The Anglo Saxons further south (before the Norman Conquest) had scalds (as their bards were called), and gleemen or minstrel; and the monks provided music in monasteries. Alfred the Great played the harp and sang, while others played the psaltery, the rota, minature 11 stringed harps, the viols called fiddles, citharas, coronets, and other horns. Ancient scalds of the Scandinavian used harps and an interesting horn instrument, the lüdr; and the mythic Runic poetry exists in the Edda. The Finns have their Kalevala a myth similar to Orpheus accompanied by Kantèle or Harpu a psaltry-like 5 string minor scaled instrument. The main contribution of all these northern bards, scalds, minstrels, and other singers was their danceable rhythms from being celebratory music of the people. The traveling minstrels shared techniques during their stays in various castles, Inns, camps, and monastaries. As Robert le Mains explained: I can play the lute, the violin, the pipe, the bagpipe, the syrinx, the harp, the gigue, the gittern, the symphony, the psaltery, the organistrum, the regals, the tabor, and the rote. I can sing a song well and make tales and fable. After the Crusades, the 12th to 13th centuries education improved, and the finer arts became more appreciated created with higher form and in better social settings. The trouveres were the singers comprised of knights who not only competed with jousting, but with verse competition. They would be brought in to lighten things up during the heavy times of Lent. Their secular services would be paid for, and even their continued musical education was helped, even though this was on a sporadic availability. The music of these centuries survives as "airs," which by todays standards was more primitive, but there was variety: Chansons des Gestes, Romances, and Serventois were for single voice, Motets, and Rondeaux were for dicant style; and for more voices they had duplum, triplum, quadruplum, and quintuplum. jongleurs perform their work, unless it was before other high-born aristocracy. The list of these is the Who's Who of Chivalry: • Richard the Lion-Hearted of England • Count William of Poitiers • Rambout • The Count of Orange • Pierre d'Auvergne • Pierre Ramon de Toulouse • Pierre Vidal • Pons de Capdueil (a poet and violinist as well) • Aimeric de Pequilain • Blagobres (a virtuoso on all instruments) • Blondel de Nesle • Chatelain de Coucy • Thibault, King of Navarre The French historian, Clement had a list of 28 trouvÁres of lesser social class than those, but we have 33 songs of Adam La Hale (b. 1240). He is attributed with the first opera, Robin and Marion, a Jeux Partis consisting of dialogue and airs. German Versions These (Love singers) were the German equivalent, of which 162 are listed in this occupation. This group, mixed with some royalty, including even kings, Richard Wagner characterized later in his operas. Some of the notable members were Klingsor, Wolfram von Eschenbach (Parcival), Gottfried of Strasburg (Tristan and Isolde), Walter von der Vogelwiede, the Chevalier Tannhauser, and Frauenlob Henrich Meissen. Their love themes diverged from their French counterparts in the emphatic portrayal of purity in a woman. Folk songs of the common people were simpler than their fancy peers, but they were so full of rhythm, had three-voice style; and they were ahead of their time utilizing major and minor modes. They were the most noted (especially Wagner) of these kinds of guilds, whose members received their charters from Emperor Charles 1V. They were mostly a varied group of tradesmen, not the most noble or educated: farriers, locksmiths, armorer, cobblers] and tailors. They had another clique within which comprised of "higher classed " company of engravers, physicians, and the independently wealthy gentlemen. The most famous of these was the cobbler-poet of Nuremburg, Hans Sachs, who followed, like all the others; the conservative format of Tablatura. The stereotype of the happy wandering troubadour can now take its own minstrel troup on the road, the reality was far richer and exciting than the fairy tales that have been handed down. source: History of Music; W.J. Baltzell, 1905	<urn:uuid:220c1989-19ff-4e5b-82ac-dc92208f012e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.03870391845703125, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9686198830604553, "url": "https://everything2.com/title/Poet+Singers+of+Olde+Northern+Europe" }
How do you write a numerical or variable expression for each quantity: two dozen eggs? 1 Answer Apr 26, 2016 One dozen = 12 Two dozen = 24 The numerical expression for #2# dozen eggs would be #24# eggs. Because you already know that there are #2# dozen eggs then you don't need a variable expression, as that is only needed if you don't know how many eggs you have. A variable expression would be used if the question was d dozen eggs. d dozen eggs would equal to #12d# as a variable expression because #d# is the unknown. I think this page might help if you are still confused. Numerical and variable expressions	<urn:uuid:6562061e-f59f-4358-a21f-6e48906237de>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.9804273843765259, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9446598291397095, "url": "https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-write-a-numerical-or-variable-expression-for-each-quantity-two-dozen-" }
Eastern Indian painting Eastern Indian painting, also called Pala painting, school of painting that flourished in the 11th and 12th centuries in the area of what are modern Bihar and Bengal. Its alternative name, Pala, derives from the name of the ruling dynasty of the period. The style is confined almost exclusively to conventional illustration on palm leaves depicting the life of the Buddha and Buddhist divinities. The style disappeared from eastern India after the conquest of the area by the Muslims in the late 12th century, but many of its features were preserved in Nepal. The style also influenced the art of Tibet, to a lesser extent that of Myanmar (Burma), and possibly even that of Sri Lanka and Java. The widespread nature of the influence is partly explainable by the travel of pilgrims who visited the great Buddhist centres of eastern India and carried back to their homes portable icons such as paintings and small bronzes. The paintings mostly depict the numerous deities evoked by later Buddhism and were used to aid in the evocation of the deities. Accordingly, they had to conform to the same strict iconographic rules used in the production of contemporary stone and bronze icons. The narrow leaf of the palm determined the size of the miniatures, which were about 2.25 by 3 inches (57 by 76 mm). The leaves were threaded together and enclosed in wooden covers, which typically were painted. The outlines were first drawn in black or red, then filled in with flat areas of colour—red, blue, green, yellow, and touches of white. The compositions were simple and the modeling vestigial.	<urn:uuid:6c4699ea-5c86-4be1-85f7-1fe95ff0bc54>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.06597572565078735, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9798240065574646, "url": "https://www.britannica.com/print/article/177116" }
The “Chatty Cathy” of the Dinosaurs Discovered in Mexico Courtesy of Pledge Times Tavishi Chattopadhyay, Staff Writer Mexican paleontologists proudly announced their findings as they revealed a new species of hadrosaur: Tlatolophus Galorum, which died about 72 million years ago. Paleontologists theorize that it possibly lived in the northern state of Mexico called Coahuila. Seventy-two million years ago, Coahuila was a tropical region so it is likely that the Tlatophus Galorum lived in tropical climates. The name, Tlatophus, is “derived from tlahtolli—which means word in the indigenous Nahuatl language—and lophus, meaning crest in Greek”( The dinosaur itself is believed to be much like a regular hadrosaur so the “structures like the crest were possibly brightly colored. They could have been completely red, or multi-colored, with spots,” said one of the scientists who found the creature. According to, paleontologists first discovered the tail, later they discovered the femur, and then the scapula. The paleontologists relayed that the crest, “was 1.32 meters long” and that why possessed, “other parts of the skull: lower and upper jaws, palate and even a part known as the neurocranium, where the brain was housed.” ( There are theories about the behavior of the dinosaurs as well, such theories are that Tlatophus used low-frequency sounds to communicate with others of their species. They used their talkative nature to create loud noises with their vocal cords to scare off predators. One thing is for certain… these Chatty Cathy’s would have probably talked their predators to death.	<urn:uuid:42397ef7-4553-420f-9b7b-5f0e7e7f08f0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.8693187236785889, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9702656865119934, "url": "https://mhspatriot.com/7632/news/global-and-domestic-news/the-chatty-cathy-of-the-dinosaurs-discovered-in-mexico/" }
What Is An Encoder? shutterstock_1083728816headerAn Encoder is a device, circuit, transducer, software program, or algorithm that converts information from one format or code to another, for the purpose of determining position, speed, or direction. To say there are many different types of encoders would be an understatement. There are linear and rotary encoders that can be further categorized as incremental and absolute encoders. Incremental and absolute encoders can be further broken down into optical or magnetic. Each of these encoders have a similar goal; to generate a signal that is sent to a controller to have the machinery perform its specific function. They have their different capabilities which is what leads to the many different types of encoders. A linear encoder can be defined as an encoder that responds to motion along a path. Its sensor reads the scale and converts position into an analog or digital signal that is transformed into a digital readout. This is done to convert motion into digital or analog signals to determine the change in position over time. Rotary encoders respond to rotational motion. Disks, light sources, detectors, and electronics make up a rotary encoder. Circles of all different patterns can be found etched into each rotary encoder. The light uniquely scans the etched disk which gathers a signal through the interruption of light. Once the signal is gathered it is sent to on output device which provides feedback of the position and/or velocity. shutterstock_85919593squareThese two types of encoders can be further broken down into incremental and absolute encoders. Incremental encoders use their movement to generate high and low pulses that indicate movement from one position to the next. Every time incremental encoders move, a pulse is sent out, after moving along its desired path the pulses are added up by a counter which then in turn provide information regarding positioning or speed. For a linear incremental encoder, the same functions would be performed but limited to movement on a linear path. If it were a rotary incremental encoder it would calculate rotational motion. This encoder doesn’t have the ability to calculate the specific position, only that the position has changed. An absolute encoder indicates not only position change but also the position relative to shaft rotation. Absolute encoders are known for being more accurate than incremental encoders. This is because they do not need the knowledge of any previous positions. Absolute encoders also have their own types of encoders. Single turn absolute encoders provide information for any increment within one shaft rotation. Multi-turn absolute encoders retain absolute position data over the course of multiple shaft rotations. If exact position is needed, absolute encoders would be the best type of encoder to provide that. shutterstock_43886095webEncoders can be further categorized into optical and magnetic encoders. Optical encoders use the interruption of the beam of light to produce a signal. Magnetic encoders rely on alternating positive and negative magnetic poles. For all the many different types of encoders, there are many different types of manufacturing industries that utilize them. If a process includes the need for measuring distance, position or speed, encoders will be used. Industries such as packaging, filling, conveying, cut-to-length, and flow control can all be aided by the measuring assistance encoders provide. Printing, binding, textile mills, automotive, agriculture, oil and chemical, metal roll forming, tolling machinery, paper and food mills also use encoders. As an integral part of any processing operation, encoders create an environment of efficiency and accuracy, regardless of the industry. Manufacturing & Factory Automation Specialists Spare Parts – Engineered Solutions – Custom Products – Control Repair Visit Radwell.com Visit Radwell TV	<urn:uuid:d26ace5f-33ba-4aab-9c1c-cc396af26e02>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.921875, "fasttext_score": 0.5487736463546753, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8962805867195129, "url": "https://blog.radwell.com/what-is-an-encoder" }
Always ready to pioneer new methods of problem-solving, Captain Grace M. Hopper made history on September 9, 1947, by removing the first computer bug. It was a moth that got into the relay calculator and was the first actual case of a bug being found. Afterward, the operators coined the phrase that they have “debugged the computer.” Of course anyone with a computer science background probably knows that story. Captain Grace Hopper At 3:45 p.m., Grace Murray Hopper records the first computer bug’ in the Harvard Mark II computer’s log book. The problem was traced to a moth stuck between relay contacts in the computer, which Hopper duly taped into the Mark II’s log book with the explanation: “First actual case of bug being found.” The bug was actually found by others but Hopper made the logbook entry. Source: U.S. Navy Cryptology and Technology	<urn:uuid:b770172e-e234-4bfc-a72b-c55cc32534bc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.2813647985458374, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9529040455818176, "url": "https://stationhypo.com/2019/09/09/grace-hopper-and-the-first-computer-bug/" }
Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 Page 1 of 2 - About 19 Essays • Analysis Of The 1833 Factory Act The Factory Act (1833) was part of the Whig Reform programme, which ran from 1833-1841 and was undertaken as a defensive response to fears of revolution and anarchy in the wake of revolution elsewhere in Europe. (Historyhome.co.uk, 2016) It was one of many social reforms of the time and there is division amongst historians as to its importance and success. This paper will analyse its content, make an analysis of its value and conclude that while the 1833 Factory Act was a critical piece of social legislation, it was not a terribly effective one and in essence changed far less than may have been hoped. This Act introduced by Whig, Althorpe and was fairly basic. It involved several regulations which were focused on children and specifically in… Words: 1466 - Pages: 6 • New Poor Law System Analysis In this essay, the New Poor Law System established in 1834 was outlined and evaluated fundamentally on how it works. It outlined the causes of poverty, some historical backgrounds, Chadwick and the development of the New Poor Law, diseases & poverty and the Laissez Faire ideology. The outlines also include the underserving and deserving, how effective the workhouse and how the social problems were addressed. In 1832, the government setup an agreement for the Royal Commission to explore the work… Words: 1722 - Pages: 7 • Elizabethan Poor Law Analysis how society was being cared for and thus the poor became a vital focus point. Because of the drastically increasing numbers of poverty stricken individuals the Elizabethan Poor law of 1601 was created and enacted. In this paper we will be examining three major aspects of this law. First, what social problems caused a need for this legislation? Second, who was it designed to help, and what was the goals that it intended to accomplish? And third, how were things changed in society and for human… Words: 1161 - Pages: 5 • How Did Henry Viii Approach To Poverty from the poor. In 1536, England was a country undergoing huge changes. The monasteries were being dissolved, and England faced a big rebellion, the Pilgrimage of Grace, from Northerners whom were angry about the religious changes. Attitudes to poverty were not at all sympathetic; many hated and distrusted those unemployed whom travelled around (vagabonds). This distrust was not helped by those who pretended to be disabled, who were called “cranks”. This essay will look at the different acts… Words: 1529 - Pages: 7 • Liberal Welfare Reform It has looked at the changing attitudes in society from the Poor Law Act 1834 to the reforms of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and the fall out from the Boer War. It has described how changing attitudes in society altered the mindset of those both in government and the population. All of these factors led to the development of a greater sense of social justice for universality and equality highlighting a sea change in the balance of power from the deep-rooted system where those who did… Words: 1398 - Pages: 6 • How Did The Industrial Revolution Affect The World During the Pre-Industrial revolution everything was clean and neat, women had nice fancy dresses and everyone attended church on Sunday, but after the industrial revolution the working class could no longer live at their own pace or supplement their income. In 1834 the poor law created workhouses for the distressed. They were built to be harming people from staying in relief and was used to separate families from one another. Poorhouse was made like a living hell to warn the workers from ever… Words: 773 - Pages: 4 • Social Security During the English poor laws, the poor were distinguished between the “deserving” and “undeserving” which was a very harsh way to distinguish between the two. Those considered “undeserving” were often whipped in the streets, and were seen as social pariahs branded with the letter “P” on the outside of their clothing. In no way was society accepting of the poor, and this often discourages people from openly seeking financial assistance.Many opposed social security considering it was funded… Words: 1970 - Pages: 8 • Summary Of How A Democratic Killed Welfare By Premilla Nadasen horrors of the Reagen-Bush era were over. Many people, unfortunately were wrong. The fact of the matter is that regardless of political views, Clinton’s administration brought destruction to poor… Words: 834 - Pages: 4 • Gun Control Case Study unfortunately has the population grows, the tougher it is going to become. Violent crimes are either acted out by raping a victim, murdering or a vicious act on someone, and anything that has to do with putting someone 's life in danger. Some of these crimes are affected with the use of guns, however an individual may use weapons to protect their property, yet others tend to over use the power of a firearm. This case study will associate on how The Violent Crime Control in Law Enforcement Act,… Words: 822 - Pages: 4 • The Beveridge Report The Beveridge report was conducted in the 1940’s by Sir William Beveridge, his aim was to improve services after the war. This post war policy development saw may change to the society, However, before then due to the development of cities and workmanship another type of policy was created to help the less fortunate. This was called the Poor Law Amendment Act; this policy was done in 1834. The industrial revolution, rapid population growth, experience of modern unemployment and the trade cycles… Words: 860 - Pages: 4 • Previous Page 1 2 Related Topics: Popular Topics:	<urn:uuid:4c4b3fa9-a7ec-4ed8-8425-48e02743e973>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.022287845611572266, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9759907722473145, "url": "https://www.cram.com/subjects/poor-law-amendment-act-1834" }
Skip to Content Asynchronous Development Of A Gifted Child And Their Unique Needs Asynchronous development is widely discussed in gifted education. The term refers to gifted children who can master certain skills quickly while having difficulty with others. Developing asynchronously is a common problem among gifted students. It is characterized by a lack of coordination between cognitive and affective processes. Despite their intellectual talents, these children often struggle with social interactions and emotional regulation. In this article, we will look at what asynchronous development is, how it works, and how to parent asynchronous children to help them achieve their potential. laughing kid with hand-drawn lightbulb above head What is asynchronous development Asynchronous development occurs when different parts of the brain do not develop at the same time. Asynchrony results in uneven development of different skills. Typically, an asynchronous child excels academically and in cognitive abilities, but struggles socially1. Asynchrony can occur in either direction. A child with the mental maturity of a teenager and the physical maturity of a 7-year-old, and a child with a teenager’s body and a 7-year-old mind, are both asynchronous children. What causes asynchronous development In asynchronous development, two or more parts of an organism develop at different rates. One eye might develop earlier than the other, for example. Asynchrony can be found among many animals, including humans. The conditions may be caused by genetic problems, environmental factors, or both2. Asynchronous maturation may result in differences in intellectual development, physical development, social development, and emotional development. Definition of giftedness Giftedness is a term used to describe individuals who are exceptional in particular areas of intelligence3. Children gifted with precocious abilities show remarkable aptitudes in areas such as math, music, art, language, and science. Furthermore, they tend to be independent learners and thinkers. Often, they can learn much more quickly than other students. The traditional definition of giftedness concentrates on factors that can lead to higher achievements in adulthood or the possibility of becoming successful. What is asynchronous development in gifted kids Giftedness is a form of asynchronous development where a child has higher intellectual abilities but shows significant deficits in social abilities, emotional regulation, and executive function. Gifted children may solve problems in ways that others cannot, and see things differently than most people. Challenges of asynchronous development Although giftedness seems like an admirable quality, gifted asynchronous kids face unique challenges. Unfair expectations Parents or grownups often expect asynchronously developing children to perform in ways that are unreasonable and unfair. Because they are intelligent, speak and think like an older child, adults sometimes assume they have as much self-control as an old child. This assumption leads to expectations that are difficult to meet. Due to their intelligence, many parents expect their children to excel academically with no effort on their part. When gifted kids struggle in school, their parents find it incredibly difficult to understand4. Emotion intensity and vulnerability Gifted children not only think differently, but they also feel differently. As gifted children have advanced cognitive skills and higher levels of emotional intensity, they are more conscious of life events and experience more intense feelings. Their intelligence and compassion often lead them to an awareness that they are not emotionally ready to handle. These children are often called “too sensitive” because they are highly sensitive to their environment and easily overwhelmed by it5. Struggle in social development Gifted kids are often considered smarter than other kids their age. Nevertheless, this does not mean that these students are always better than others. There are times when they struggle to fit in socially because their social development hasn’t caught up yet. These kids may also have a hard time making and keeping friends6. Some even experience bullying because of their differences and inferior social skills7. Trying to fit in Asynchronous kids often suffer from loneliness. For them to feel “normal,” sometimes they must give up their beliefs, behaviors, and values. Intensive self-analysis, self-critique, and inability to acknowledge their limits can plague them. Gifted individuals who are introverted, have low self-esteem, and feel helpless are more prone to development major depression8. How to parent a gifted child with asynchronous development Gifted asynchronous children are often misunderstood and isolated. They are often labeled as “special” or “different” and are treated differently than their peers. They possess a set of characteristics that are uniquely vulnerable. Although these children feel different from their peers and often struggle in different areas in life, they are rarely offered the help they need to overcome challenging areas. Caring for gifted children requires modifications in parenting. Recognize that the more gifted a child is, the more asynchronous they are. Listen to them and support the child’s emotional needs instead of accusing them of being “too sensitive”. 1. 1. Silverman LK. The construct of asynchronous development. Peabody Journal of Education. Published online June 1997:36-58. doi:10.1080/0161956x.1997.9681865 2. 2. Wang H. Fatty acid amide hydrolase deficiency limits early pregnancy events. Journal of Clinical Investigation. Published online August 1, 2006:2122-2131. doi:10.1172/jci28621 3. 3. Sternberg RJ, Davidson JE, eds. Conceptions of Giftedness. Cambridge University Press; 2005. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610455 4. 4. Morawska A, Sanders MR. Parenting Gifted and Talented Children: Conceptual and Empirical Foundations. Gifted Child Quarterly. Published online April 21, 2009:163-173. doi:10.1177/0016986209334962 5. 5. Lovecky DV. Identity development in gifted children:Moral sensitivity. Roeper Review. Published online December 1997:90-94. doi:10.1080/02783199709553862 6. 6. Silverman LK. Social and emotional education of the gifted: The discoveries of Leta Hollingworth. Roeper Review. Published online March 1990:171-178. doi:10.1080/02783199009553265 7. 7. Peterson JS, Ray KE. Bullying and the Gifted: Victims, Perpetrators, Prevalence, and Effects. Gifted Child Quarterly. Published online April 2006:148-168. doi:10.1177/001698620605000206 8. 8. Kaiser CF, Berndt DJ. Predictors of Loneliness in the Gifted Adolescent. Gifted Child Quarterly. Published online April 1985:74-77. doi:10.1177/001698628502900206 green traffic light What Is Discriminative Stimulus - Definition & Examples shadows of parents fighting and girl sits on ground crying Parents fighting in front of kids - what happens to your child * All information on is for educational purposes only. Parenting For Brain does not provide medical advice. If you suspect medical problems or need professional advice, please consult a physician. *	<urn:uuid:97b877aa-5464-4d44-9310-b96132dc4214>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.12272119522094727, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9295727014541626, "url": "https://www.parentingforbrain.com/asynchronous-development/" }
Night in the Museum We started the activity with a tray of sand in the centre of the room and the children excavated bones, feathers and items belonging to an animal that is now extinct. As a group they imagined and drew the creature as it may have looked and the traits of that animal and named it. As archaeologists and anthropology experts, the groups then presented their finding to the rest of the class, explaining what the animal or creature was and what evidence they had found to suggest this. What’s it good for? Speaking and listening, descriptive writing, writing to inform. Share this inspiration: Share on facebook Share on twitter Share on linkedin Share on pinterest	<urn:uuid:b95ed9c5-dc75-4059-a357-13d6e6d2eaca>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.06875032186508179, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9576838612556458, "url": "https://creativewritingarts.org.uk/2019/12/12/night-in-the-museum/" }
“We were interested in what happens when objects plunge into water, so we looked for examples in nature; the gannets are incredible,” said Sunny Jung, an associate professor of biomedical engineering and mechanics in the College of Engineering and an expert in fluid biomechanics; he has also studied dogs’ unusual drinking technique and how shrimp use microscopic bubbles to hunt. In a new study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Jung and his coworkers investigate the biomechanics of gannets’ dives. They found that the birds’ head shape, neck length and musculature, and diving speeds work in concert to ensure that the force of the water doesn’t buckle their slim necks. Previous studies of the diving birds have focused on ecological aspects of this hunting behavior, called “plunge diving.” Jung’s is the first paper to explore the underlying physics and biomechanical engineering that allow the birds to plunge beneath the water without injury. The primary force acting on the gannet’s head as it plunges beneath the water is drag, which increases with speed. To analyze what other parameters affect the force the bird experiences, the researchers created a simplified model from a 3-D printed cone on a flexible rubber “neck,” and plunged this system into a basin of water, varying the cone angle, neck length, and impact speed. High-speed video showed whether the neck buckled. “That’s what we do: We take a complicated system and find a way to simplify it,” said Brian Chang, a fourth-year doctoral student from Washington, D.C., who started working in Jung’s lab as an undergraduate. Their analysis revealed that the transition from stability to buckling depends on the geometry of the head, the material properties of the neck, and the impact speed; at typical gannet diving speeds, the birds’ narrow, pointed beak and neck length kept the drag force in a safe range. “What we found is that the gannet has a certain head shape, which reduces the drag compared to other birds in the same family,” Jung said. The team is already extending their work to other species. “One implication of this study is safety criteria for human divers,” Jung said. Humans are at a disadvantage relative to gannets; in contrast to the bird’s pointed beak and slender neck, humans’ feet create a flat surface that increases the force of impact with the water. This force can be strong enough to break bones and cause organ and tissue damage. Share this story	<urn:uuid:86524615-4148-444a-8ef1-30627060462b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.17279106378555298, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9413672089576721, "url": "https://vtx.vt.edu/articles/2016/10/ictas-jungdivingbird.html" }
Today in 1929, James Harold Doolittle completed the first aviation flight using only an aircraft’s instrumentation. The aircraft he flew in had no windows, granting him no vision outside of the cockpit. Doolittle was the first person to theorize that an aircraft could be flown through low-vision situations if a pilot learned to trust their instruments over their senses. Shortly after, Doolittle helped develop the artificial horizon and directional gyroscope, both of which are now standard aviation equipment.	<urn:uuid:dc5f12e5-def3-489b-b344-67b30ae9d98f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.20260369777679443, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.968203067779541, "url": "https://wonderspawn.com/september-24-1929-jimmy-doolittle-completes-first-blind-flight/" }
Main content Current time:0:00Total duration:3:21 Video transcript when people use the word perimeter in everyday language they're talking about the boundary of some area and when we talk about perimeter in math we're talking about a related idea but now we're not just talking about the boundary we're actually talking about the length of the boundary how far do you have to go around the boundary to essentially go completely around the figure completely go around the area so let's look at this first triangle right over here it has three sides that's why it's a triangle so what's its perimeter well here all the sides are the same so the perimeter for this triangle is going to be four plus four plus four and whatever units this is if this is four feet four feet and four feet there'd be four feet plus four feet plus four feet is equal to twelve feet now I encourage you to now pause the video and figure out the perimeters of these three figures well it's the exact same idea we would just add the lengths of the sides so let's say that these distances and their let's say they're in meters so let's say that this is three meters and this is also three meters as a rectangle here so this is five meters this is also five meters so what is the perimeter of this rectangle going to be what is the distance around the rectangle that bounds this area well it's going to be three plus five plus three plus five which is equal to let's see that's 3 plus 3 is 6 plus five plus five is ten so that is equal to 16 and if we're saying these are all in meters these are all in meters then it's going to be 16 meters now what about this Pentagon let's say that each of these sides are 2 and I'll make up I'll make up a unit here let's say there are two canoes two canoes that's a new unit that I have a new unit of distance that I have just that I have just invented 2 - good news - good news so what is the perimeter of this Pentagon in good news well it's 2 plus 2 plus 2 plus 2 plus 2 Guu or we're essentially taking one two three four five good news five five sides each have a length of two good news so the perimeter here we could add to repeatedly five times or you could just say this is five times two good news which is equal to ten good news we're going to is a completely made-up unit of length that I just made up here we have a more irregular polygon but same exact idea how would you figure out its perimeter well you just add up the lengths of its sides and here I'll just do it Union less I'll just assume that this is some generic units and here the perimeter will be one plus four plus two plus two let me scroll over to the right a little bit plus four plus six so what is this going to be equal to 1 plus 4 is 5 plus 2 is 7 plus 2 is 9 plus 4 is 13 plus 6 is 19 so this figure has a perimeter of 19 and whatever units these distances are actually given	<urn:uuid:34e0cc4f-e3c9-4566-afec-c72d32b0e619>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.09375, "fasttext_score": 0.234876811504364, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9724812507629395, "url": "https://www.khanacademy.org/math/3rd-engage-ny/engage-3rd-module-7/3rd-module-7-topic-c/v/introduction-to-perimeter" }
(Pocket-lint) - Watch any movie about infectious disease outbreaks, and you'll see one common plot scenario: Scientists and public health experts racing against the clock to find each sick person, including who they've been in contact with most recently. This is called contact tracing, and it continues until every last person who might've been exposed has been found. It's how you help stop the transmission of a virus. What is contact tracing? Traditionally, when a person gets sick, they are then interviewed by public health officials and asked about their recent interactions to learn who has been exposed to the virus, such as the novel coronavirus. Officials then contact those people to learn about how they’re currently feeling and to tell them to quarantine. They also learn about who they've contacted, and then those people will be phoned. It's a painstaking process that, on a global scale, often means there aren't enough resources to trace contacts for every new infection. In many places, experts have just stopped trying to track everyone down. That's where phones come in handy. UnsplashWhat is contract tracing and how does it work with phones image 2 How does contact tracing work in smartphones? All smartphones use wireless radios to exchange data over long ranges via cell towers or Wi-Fi routers, but phones with Bluetooth chips can support short-range transmissions up to 30 feet away. So, in terms of COVID-19, a Bluetooth phone owner could be alerted within seconds if they've been nearby another Bluetooth phone owner who has been diagnosed with COVID-19. Both Bluetooth phone owners would simply need to be using an app or a device involved with some sort of contact tracing initiative, and then they'd be able to report their symptoms or diagnosis to that system. Their information could then be instantaneously tracked, possibly heat-mapped, and anonymously relayed between the nearby phone owners over Bluetooth. Easy. Oxford University estimated that 60 per cent of a population needs to use phones for contact tracing to completely stop a pandemic. How are Google and Apple helping contact tracing efforts? Google and Apple announced they're developing a system that will let iPhone and Android phones use Bluetooth data to track if you have been near other people diagnosed with COVID-19, the disease that causes the novel coronavirus. Essentially, if someone tests positive for the virus, they'll be able to tell an app that supports the system, which then notifies the phones of everyone nearby. In other words, contact tracing is a proven technique, and smartphones could help make it possible on a global scale. It could potentially even be a really effective form of contact tracing. Think about it: You can only name people you've exposed if you personally know them. But, with Google and Apple's system, the stranger you exposed last week can be immediately alerted, if both of you use it. Google and Apple's system, which you can read more about here, will be to be built into their own phones, and it'll help public health agencies - like the NHSX - tap into those capabilities to build their own contact-tracing apps. Either way, it'll be completely voluntary. Only the necessary information will be collected, and your personally identifiable information will never be given to others. Apple and Google dominate the worldwide mobile phone market and have the potential to offer the broadest platform for contact tracing. They're planning to offer an API to health agencies in May and hope to grow their system. UnsplashWhat is contract tracing and how does it work with phones image 3 Who else is using smartphones for contact tracing? Several countries - the UK, Singapore, Israel, Australia, and others in Europe - have built contact-tracing apps or have them in development. In the UK, for instance, the NHSX is working on a contact tracing app that will also work with Apple and Google's incoming system. Are there any privacy concerns with contact tracing? Apple and Google's system, and even a proposal from researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, randomly generates IDs on devices that send Bluetooth signals to other devices with an app installed. If people identify themselves as COVID-19 positive and give consent to share that information, every device that interacts with those IDs in set time will get a notification. The collected IDs will be deleted every 14 days and are completely separate from any personal information. They're useable only for tracking, too. Google and Apple have released white papers on the cryptography and Bluetooth specifications behind their contact-tracing system. But, let's be honest: Google and Apple's contact tracing system seems like mass surveillance. It will fail if they can't convince enough people to try it. Due to the tech industry's long history of data scandals, not to mention concerns by privacy watchdogs, we don't blame people if they are wary of Google and Apple's system. Both companies will need to encourage people to trust their system. Governments can't make their contact-tracing system mandatory, either. Apple and Google said that would violate their conditions. The ACLU has also proposed guidelines to ensure privacy and transparency for contact tracing systems, and it recommends the systems be opt-in. They say no one should force you to use a contact tracing system, whether it's a government agency or school. Pew found that 60 per cent of Americans believe location tracking won't make a difference in limiting the spread of COVID-19 spread, but 45 per cent think it's OK to track people who have had contact with an infected person. Writing by Maggie Tillman. Originally published on 22 April 2020.	<urn:uuid:e9e89e9d-0eaf-4ec8-9939-74d3a9e5c06c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.5965198278427124, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9599753618240356, "url": "https://www.pocket-lint.com/phones/news/151910-what-is-contact-tracing-and-how-does-it-work-with-phones" }
Simon Bolivar - Liberator Simon Bolivar - Liberator Simon Bolivar’s father died before he was three years old. His mother died of tuberculosis when he was only eight years old. His inheritance made him one of the wealthiest persons in the Western hemisphere. Bolivar’s care was entrusted by his mother to her freed slaves, Hippolita and Jose Palacios who remained devoted to Bolivar his whole life. He was educated by tutors, most significantly by Simon Rodriguez. Rodriguez gave Bolivar the gift of critical thinking. He taught him about liberty, human rights, politics, history and sociology. Bolivar developed into a decisive, critical thinker who was far ahead of his time socially and politically. Bolivar studied in Spain for three years to become "polished". There he met and fell in love with his cousin, Maria Teresa. They married and Bolivar brought Maria Teresa to his home in Caracas, Venezuela. Maria Teresa was embraced by Caracas high society and the young couple was very happy. Only eight months after their wedding in Spain, Maria Teresa died from yellow fever. After his young bride died, Bolivar decided to begin his fight for freedom from Spain. Bolivar hoped to emulate his hero, George Washington of the United States, who led his country’s revolution for independence. Bolivar admired Washington’s constitutional democratic government. Bolivar devoted his life and his fortune to the independence of South America. Most of his fortune was spent to equip the army and to pay his soldiers and their widows. Most famous for his astounding military career, Bolivar was not just a leader of men; he fought side-by-side with his soldiers in over two hundred battles. Leading his army across the impassable Andes was an incredible feat and the turning point of the war, leading to Bolivar’s success in gaining independence from Spain. Bolivar became known as The Liberator, gaining independence for an area five times the larger than Europe. Bolivar’s vision and goal was to unite South America into one large democratic nation. Bolivar’s intelligence and bravery were recognized and renowned all over the world. As the first president of Gran Colombia, the united countries of the northern part of South America, Bolivar abolished slavery forty years before the United States’ Civil War. He wanted to build a canal through the Isthmus of Panama as early as 1828, in order to unite both borders of Colombia and enhance commercial growth. Bolivar established schools, universities and free education for poor children. Bolivar enacted laws to protect the environment, wildlife and the indigenous populations. Once the work of uniting the three countries was accomplished, Bolivars' priority was to defeat the remaining opposing factions in the country. Bolivar led an forceful campaign against them and by 1822 all of Gran Columbia was free. Bolivar’s ideas were not readily accepted by the people, impoverished after so many years of war, all they could see was their deteriorated infrastructure. The people could not envision financial success without the free labor provided by slaves. It was a tumultuous time, for Bolivar’s visions were far too ahead of time. Differing factions continued to spring up among the citizens fracturing the unity that Bolivar tried to achieve. Bolivar’s vision was beyond those of his people. It is often said that if he had accepted the dictatorship which was offered to him many times, he could have achieved the unity and independence that he so desired for South America. Bolivar detested the idea of dictatorship, slavery and anything else that might curb universal independence for all people. Bolivar claimed to be a soldier, not a politician. But he was wrong in a way. He was an eloquent writer and speaker, he could easily get whatever he needed through his eloquence and charisma. Bolivar was also very determined and decisive. He spent his entire adult life in the saddle leading battles and travelling all over South America to put out the political fires that blew up in his absence. But he could not be everywhere he was needed at the same time. All the time that Bolivar was travelling and fighting exhaustively, his health was deteriorating rapidly from tuberculosis. He coughed blood for years, but never slowed his campaigns. In the last few months of his life, he felt that he had failed. He was suffering and dying and felt that all that he had done to gain independence and set up a stable democracy was “plowing the ocean.” Bolivar died of tuberculosis complicated by pneumonia on December 17, 1830 in Santa Marta, Colombia surrounded by friends. He was impoverished and was buried in a borrowed shirt. In 1842, Bolivar’s body was returned to his birthplace in Caracas, Venezuela and interred in the Pantheon of Heroes. There are hundreds of places named in Bolivar’s honor, and monuments built in homage to him all over the world. To this day, he is still honored and revered as the father of six South American countries. Related Articles Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Previous Features Site Map Content copyright © 2021 by Valerie Aguilar. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:04aac406-27fa-4570-9c22-b3300b1b6301>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.15144407749176025, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9872143268585205, "url": "http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art28511.asp" }
Nieuwport in 2000 Nieuwport in 2000 World War One may have ended in 1918, but more than eighty years later the town of Nieuwpoort in Belgium was still feeling the impact. In December 2000, it was discovered that the main road through the town was in danger of collapse, along with the houses built on it, due to the tunnels that had been dug in the area during the war. The problem is being caused by the rotting of the timber supports, which were used shore up the tunnels. More than 80 years after the war had ended, these supports were rotting away and forcing the ground above to subside. According to scientists, this issue is not isolated to Nieuwpoort; many of the tunnels built by Allied soldiers are in danger of collapsing, which could affect towns and villages across Flanders. Professor Peter Doyle, University of Greenwich, said: "Much of Flanders - the land over which the battle for Passchendaele was fought - is sitting on a time bomb." This photo provides a clear view of the wooden struts that are now rotting underground across Flanders Deep tunnels were built by French and British troops across the area of Flanders as a means of protecting their troops before they went into battle. One such tunnel was built by the Royal Engineers in Nieuwpoort to house 10,000 troops and 627 artillery guns before the third battle of Ypres took place, which meant the tunnel itself was incredibly long. The shelters built within the tunnels became known as “elephant shelters” as they provided protection from the constant barrage of German artillery shells. They were built on a vast scale, containing more than 220 staircases and more than 2,000 ventilation shafts. Some individual shelters could house more than 1,000 men, preventing them from seeing daylight (or danger) until the moment when they were required to attack. Nieuwpoort suffered particularly badly during the war, and was actually flattened in 1918 to allow the area a new start. While this flattening did include the placement of around 10 feet of additional soil above the tunnels, it did not include the filling in of the tunnels running beneath the town. This was due to the fact that the British and French high command had left Flanders, and as such nobody knew the tunnels existed. For a long time, the tunnels sat undisturbed while the town grew above them. However, 80 years after they were first constricted, scientists began to notice signs that they might finally give way. The problem affected almost 12 miles of tunnels and the cost of putting the problem right was significant. Scientists predict this problem could appear again in the future in other parts of Europe where the same tunnel systems were created MLA Citation/Reference "Nieuwport in 2000". 2019. Web.	<urn:uuid:7d01b3b3-2df8-4b4a-8049-55ba1d4cc67f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.05489814281463623, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9865596890449524, "url": "https://historylearning.com/world-war-one/western-front-world-war-one/nieuwport-in-2000/" }
In computer networks, bandwidth is used as a synonym for data transfer rate, the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second). Networks typically have speeds measured in the millions of bits per second (megabits per second, or Mbps) or billions of bits per second (gigabits per second, or Gbps). This entry was posted in . Bookmark the permalink. Drew has written 24 articles Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:466a79d1-ce31-409b-8211-0bc1b060326e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.22109246253967285, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9201509952545166, "url": "http://athome.percepta.com/glossary/bandwidth" }
Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins is on view at the Getty Villa. We’re highlighting themes from the exhibition including ancient writing, kingship, and the role of supernatural forces in daily life. In ancient Mesopotamia, being king meant many things. Kings were not just rulers of their kingdoms and empires; they were also expected to be religious leaders, warriors, hunters, scholars, lawmakers, and builders. All of these roles were embedded in a complex belief system that begins with the gods bestowing kingship on mankind. A Sumerian list of kings (some real and some mythical), says that kingship “descended from heaven.” It was a gift from the gods and the king was therefore divinely chosen. For this reason, he was expected to be especially pious and perform the appropriate rituals to ensure that the gods brought good fortune to his people. In the hymn on the tablet shown below, King Shulgi of Ur gives offerings made of lapis lazuli, silver, and gold to the gods, who in turn favor him. Clay tablet with writing inscribed in it; the bottom right corner is broken off This tablet is inscribed with one of many hymns that glorified the Neo-Sumerian King Shulgi of Ur, who was deified in his own lifetime. The hymn describes him as a warrior who defends Sumer against foreign lands. The god Enlil promises that his dynasty will enjoy eternal kingship. Tablet with a Hymn to King Shulgi, 2094–2047 B.C., Neo-Sumerian. Unfired clay, 5 9/16 x 3 7/8 in. Musée du Louvre, Department of Near Eastern Antiquities, AO 5379. Image © Musée du Louvre, dist. RMN-Grand Palais / Raphaël Chipault / Benjamin Soligny / Art Resource, NY It was the king’s responsibility to make laws and enforce justice in society. The most famous example of this is the Babylonian Law Code of King Hammurabi, which lists a series of crimes and their respective punishments. Some crimes, like theft or harboring runaway slaves, resulted in the death penalty. Other laws lay out very specific scenarios; for instance, if a female tavern-keeper refuses to accept corn as payment for beer and insists on being paid in money, but the beer is worth less than the corn, she is to be convicted and thrown into the water. Three irregularly shaped pieces of smooth black rock with rows of shapes and characters etched into them Fragments of the Law Code of King Hammurabi, 1792–1750 B.C., Old Babylonian period. Gabbro, 5 3/16 x 3 13/16 in. Musée du Louvre, Département des Antiquités orientales, SB 14687, SB 14691, SB 14686, SB 14693, SB 14692. Image © RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource, NY. Photo: Mathieu Rabeau Ruling a kingdom required territorial expansion, putting down revolts, and fending off rivals, so the king was expected to be a fierce warrior. Many kings engaged in lion hunts to show off their strength and bravery. Building grand cities reflected a king’s prosperous rule—temples, palaces, and irrigation systems were meant to serve the gods and the people. And kings were also expected to produce sons who would continue the dynastic line and fulfill the same roles during their own reigns. Limestone featuring carvings of five children and a larger man, all with their hands clasped in prayer King Ur-Nanshe (right) is followed by a cupbearer and four of his sons, who clasp their hands in prayer. This relief was probably given as a votive offering to the god Ningirsu, for whom Ur-Nanshe built a temple at Girsu (modern Tello, Iraq). Votive Relief of Ur-Nanshe of Lagash and His Family, about 2520 B.C., Sumerian. Limestone, 15 3/8 × 18 5/16 in. Musée du Louvre, Department of Near Eastern Antiquities, AO 2345. Image © Musée du Louvre, dist. RMN-Grand Palais / Mathieu Rabeau / Art Resource, NY Of course, in reality, no single human being could actually be and do all of these things. So it was important for the king to give the appearance that he embodied the perfect worshipper, lawmaker, warrior, hunter, builder, and family man. Much of the art related to kingship expressed these idealistic goals and served as propaganda, promoting an almost mythical version of the king and his power. King Ashurbanipal, who ruled the Neo-Assyrian Empire (centered in present-day northern Iraq) from 668 to around 631/627 B.C., is a case in point. Ashurbanipal was especially concerned with depicting himself as an erudite man. At his capital at Nineveh, he amassed a library of thousands of cuneiform tablets covering all genres of scholarship and literature. This vast repository stored many hundreds of years of knowledge copied down through the centuries and housed literary compositions like the Epic of Gilgamesh; religious texts; scientific and technical instructions, including recipes for how to make glass; administrative and legal documents (census records, for example); and more. Ashurbanipal boasted that he could read and write the Sumerian and Akkadian languages. He sought out the oldest tablets he could find and even claimed to have read inscriptions that pre-dated the mythical flood. And, as any good king would, he thanked the gods for this ability—specifically Nabu, the god of writing. This tablet from his library is a bilingual dictionary that records a list of words in Sumerian and gives their Akkadian equivalents. Rectangular clay tablet with script carved into it Tablet with a Bilingual Dictionary from King Ashurbanipal’s Library, 668–627 B.C., Neo-Assyrian. Terracotta, 7 1/16 x 3 15/16 in. Musée du Louvre, Department of Near Eastern Antiquities, AO 7092. Image © Musée du Louvre, dist. RMN-Grand Palais / Thierry Ollivier / Art Resource, NY In contrast to Ashurbanipal’s scholarly pursuits, the carved relief panels that decorated his palace demonstrated another, violent side of kingship. One of the accomplishments of which Ashurbanipal was most proud was his conquest of the Elamite kingdom, in present-day southwestern Iran. In one massive composition that shows a chaotic scene of battle, Ashurbanipal’s army captures and beheads the Elamite King Teumman and his son. Two other palace reliefs from Ashurbanipal’s reign are currently on view in the Getty Villa exhibition Assyria: Palace Art of Ancient Iraq. After Teumman’s death in battle, his head was brought back to Nineveh and displayed as a trophy. A scene of opulent feasting in the king’s gardens shows Ashurbanipal and his queen drinking wine as the head of Teumman hangs from a nearby tree (at left). Behind Ashurbanipal’s banqueting couch, his sword, bow, and quiver of arrows lie on a table as a reminder of his military prowess. Scene carved into gold-colored mineral that depicts people eating and drinking, toasting to a man reclining on a couch The Banquet of Ashurbanipal, 645–635 B.C., Assyrian. Gypsum, 22 1/4 × 54 7/8 in. British Museum [1856,0909.53] [1856]. Image © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved In the tradition of Mesopotamian kings before him, Ashurbanipal hunted lions. Another large panel from his palace visually narrates one of his lion hunts. The storytelling techniques used in this relief are described here. Gold-colored mineral carved with images of men fighting lions on horseback, with arrows, and with horses Royal Lion Hunt, 645–640 B.C., Assyrian. Gypsum. British Museum [1856,0909.51] [1856]. Image © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved These hunts were not just about demonstrating power through violence. There was a religious component, too. Royal hunts were followed by ritualized celebrations at the palace in which the king gave thanks to the gods for their support and protection. In the lower register of this relief, Ashurbanipal pours a libation (liquid offering) over the bodies of slain lions. He stands before a table with food offerings and a brazier for burning incense. Ashurbanipal simultaneously presented himself as a highly educated man who wished to preserve written knowledge, a military leader, a man who appreciated leisure, a hunter, and a pious worshipper. But was his reign really so successful? The Neo-Assyrian Empire quickly went into decline after his death and was sacked by an alliance of rival powers (the Babylonians and the Medes) in 612 B.C. Some would argue that the weakness that led to the empire’s fall in fact began with Ashurbanipal himself—particularly the war he fought against his own brother, the king of Babylonia—in contrast to the image he presented. As all of these objects demonstrate, it can be difficult to disentangle historical reality from royal propaganda, especially when trying to understand events that occurred thousands of years ago. Find out more about Mesopotamia and the exhibition, Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins.	<urn:uuid:30c5f981-989b-49fc-a0e5-7e193f5705cb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.027209937572479248, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9557342529296875, "url": "http://blogs.getty.edu/iris/how-to-be-king-in-mesopotamia/" }
Gods of Rome Wiki Terminus was the Roman god of boundaries, the protector of the limits both of private property, and of the public territory of Rome. The worship of Terminus was either introduced to Rome during the reign of Romulus or during the time of his successor Numa. He was represented by a stone or post, set up in the ground with the following religious ceremonies. A trench was dug, in which a fire was lighted; a victim was sacrificed, and its blood poured into the trench; the body, upon which incense and fruits, honey and wine were thrown, was then cast into the fire. When it was entirely consumed, the boundary stone, which had been previously anointed and crowned with garlands, was placed upon the hot ashes and fixed in the ground. Any one who removed a boundary stone was accursed and might be slain with impunity; a fine was afterwards substituted for the death penalty. On the 23rd of February (the end of the old Roman year) the festival called Terminalia, according to Wissowa, a festival not of the god but of the boundary stones (termini), was held. The owners of adjacent lands assembled at the common boundary stone, and crowned their own side of the stone with garlands; an altar was set up and offerings of cakes, corn, honey and wine were made later, a lamb or a sucking pig was sacrificed. The proceedings closed with songs to the god and a general merrymaking, in which all the members of the family and the servants took part.	<urn:uuid:5510a9d4-f529-408b-980b-227cc0d8d1f3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.11219000816345215, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9882763028144836, "url": "https://gods-of-rome.fandom.com/wiki/Terminus" }
The world's oldest woven garment is made of linen. The Tarkhan Dress a long-sleeved shift with a pale grey stripe was unearthed from an Egyptian tomb in 1913 and has been radiocarbon-dated at over 5,000 years old. The fact that the dress has survived at all is remarkable, but then linen is a remarkable material. One of the strongest fibres in existence, it resists mildew and bacteria, withstands a great deal of wear and doesn't easily rot. Consequently, historians know that it was worn even before the Tarkhan Dress: fragments of linen more than 36,000 years old have been found in prehistoric caves in Georgia. Linen was prized so highly in Egypt that it was traded as a form of currency. It was also used to make priests' robes, ships' sails and shrouds for the dead from privileged families. The fabric was difficult to dye and was customarily left its natural oatmeal colour or bleached white. This paleness surely reinforced its association with purity and religion throughout the ancient world. A passage in the Book of Revelation describes angels clothed in pure and white linen', while Plutarch's Moralia, written in the first century AD, outlines why priests began to wear linen robes. Because they revere the sheep, [they] abstain from using its wool they wear their linen garments because of the colour which the flax displays when in bloom, and which is like to the heavenly azure which enfolds the universe. A fabric made from plants, Plutarch added, was more salubrious than one made from the hair of farm animals. Interestingly, he also noted that flax plants yield edible seeds and produce a plain and cleanly clothing, which does not oppress by the weight required for warmth and is suitable for every season. Similar words are often spoken now when extolling the virtues of linen. At roughly the same time Homer was composing his Iliad, linen was making its way to Britain and Ireland via the Romans and Phoenicians. At this time, linen vied with wool as the most widely used clothing fabric, but gradually a pattern seems to have evolved whereby linen garments formed an underlayer, and woollen ones were added on top when necessary for warmth. During the Middle Ages, the term linen came to be synonymous with underwear (the words lingerie and lining are both derived from it). This long-forgotten custom may help to explain why we still associate underwear with the colour white. Words by Amy Bradford Shop the TOAST Linen Collection Add a comment	<urn:uuid:63a266da-5ef6-4571-bb56-508b57404c36>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.045281291007995605, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9727182984352112, "url": "https://ca.toa.st/blogs/magazine/history-of-linen" }
science education resource For K-12 Students • Educators • Homeschool Families • Naturalists Loon (Common) Gavia immer Loon (Common) They spend the winter along both coasts in Alaska, Canada, the U.S. and in some places in Europe. In the summer, they breed all across Alaska, Canada, and the northern U.S. and in some places in Europe and Greenland. They are found breeding on forest lakes and spending the winter near the shore of the ocean and on large open lakes. Body Traits Loons are large birds reaching up to 3 feet in length. They have a dark head, neck, and a dark back and wings with white spotting. Their chest is white and shows brightly on the water. They have a white neck ring, striped in black with a smaller one under their chin. Their eyes are red and their large bill is black. Males and females look alike. They ride low in the water. Their yodel-like call is often heard at night. They need a big enough pond to make their “running” start to take off from the water. They dive for fish, but sometimes eat other small animals on the lake. Loons come to shore only to breed and nest. Their nest is made from water plants near the shore or sometimes on an island in the lake. The female lays 2-4 brown eggs with dark spots. Loon (Common) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Aves Order: Gaviiformes Family: Gaviidae Genus: Gavia Species: G. immer Citing Research References When citing a WEBSITE the general format is as follows. Here is an example of citing this page: Amsel, Sheri. "Loon (Common)" Exploring Nature Educational Resource ©2005-2021. September 24, 2021	<urn:uuid:6a3f20a0-483e-43c8-9137-dd3ef1133734>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.277030885219574, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9077537059783936, "url": "https://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/Loon-Common" }
Our muscular system continuously performs various functions to keep our body standing and functioning. Read more about the main functions of the muscular system in the following article. Muscular System Functions Have you ever wondered why don’t you feel the downward movement of the food you gulp? Or, how your heart contracts and expands without giving a slightest hint to you? If these were baffling you enough, wonder why at the slightest touch of a heated object, your hand immediately performs a reflex action and moves away? These are a few involuntary muscle functions performed by the muscular system upon which we don’t have any control over. However, apart from them, there are also many functions that we perform voluntarily with the help of our muscular systems, such as running, walking, climbing and even hitting someone. From the slightest movement of the eyebrows to the loudest shout we make while watching a match, all these functions are performed by our muscular system. Without muscular system, we are as good as a log of wood, lifeless and useless, that can’t even move by itself. Before knowing more about muscular system functions, it is important for you to get a little information about your muscular system. Perhaps you will be amazed to know that there are around 600 various types of muscles that constitute our muscular system. These muscles are basically categorized into three different classes — cardiac, smooth and skeletal. Among these, cardiac muscles are the only ones that are found in heart. These are involuntary in nature and are controlled by the lower section of the brain called the medulla oblungata. Smooth muscles are directly controlled by autonomous nervous system and are also involuntary in nature; cardiovascular muscles are the examples of smooth muscles. Apart from these involuntary muscles, the only types of muscles that are voluntary in nature are skeletal muscles. These are the muscles that help us to move our bones and other parts of the body. Skeletal muscles can be further divided into other types based on their position in the body such as facial, neck, shoulder, arm, abdomen and few other types. Now that you have got a brief insight about the muscular system, let’s know more about the important functions it performs. Below are mentioned some important functions of muscular systems. Main Functions Of Muscular System Movement is one of the major functions of muscular systems. Central nervous system directs the muscles to contract and expand according to the need of the situations. Muscles have the strength to move the bones and perform the required action. These actions are mostly voluntary, which means we direct the muscles to perform the actions. Movement includes running, jumping, climbing, hiking, lifting, biking and other actions. Stability & Posture Skeletal muscles are solely responsible for maintaining the stability and posture. Skeletal muscles are attached with the bones through ligaments and tendons. To perform an action, bone acts like the lever, while the muscles contract or relax, thereby moving the bone. Another remarkable property of skeletal muscles is that they can be stretched further to allow maximum stability and form. No wonder when we feel too much strained at muscles, we cannot stand properly or generally slouch. These muscles are also important to maintain the balance and coordination of the body. The important functions of the body like pumping of the blood and its circulation through different parts of the body are performed by smooth muscles. These muscles perform involuntarily action, such as contracting and relaxing heart muscles and pumping blood in the body. The same action is performed in the arteries, which further helps in circulation of the blood and oxygen throughout the body. What happens to the food after you chew and gulp it down? Got any clue? Not the least, we guess. Only till the time the food reaches the throat is it voluntarily after which, the rest movement of the food from throat to anus is involuntary and is performed by smooth muscles. The food is chewed in the mouth by the teeth which are voluntary but once it enters esophagus, it moves down the digestive tract through the process of peristalsis. This food is again churned by the muscles in stomach to absorb energy and nutrients and is then passed down to the rectal region for excretion. Heat Generation The body constantly needs to maintain and regulate its normal body temperature. Whenever it is cold outside, our body involuntarily shivers. In this way, the muscles are contracting and hence producing heat to maintain its normal temperature. Similarly in the summers, when our body is exposed to extreme heat, these muscles redistribute heat to the skin and hence produce sweat to regulate body temperature. So, the next time you are walking and running, you better give some credit to your muscles for their untiring and continuous job! How to Cite More from iloveindia.com	<urn:uuid:54112b98-2e29-46a5-9041-6b4d39956a87>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.23020857572555542, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.948094367980957, "url": "https://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/muscular-system-functions-13881.html" }
What is Assay An assay is a process of analyzing a substance to determine its composition or quality. The term is often used in the mining industry to refer to tests of ore or minerals. The term assay is also used in the environmental, chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Assaying is also important in futures markets. Metals that are used to meet delivery requirements of futures contracts must be assayed to ensure that they meet the stringent quality and purity requirements mandated by the futures exchange. Physical delivery of metals helps in convergence of prices between futures and spot markets. Understanding Assay Assay results provide an early indication of the potential value of a mineral or ore body, and therefore they are closely monitored by investors in mining companies. An exceptional assay result can trigger a rally in the stock of a company that holds the mineral rights of the property. Conversely, poor assay results may lead to a significant decline in a stock that has run up on speculation about promising results. Key Takeaways • An assay is a process of analyzing a substance to determine its composition or quality. • Three techniques - fire assay, wet chemistry, and instrumental analysis - are mainly used to analyze and determine purity of metals. • Assays are used in futures markets to meet delivery requirements for metal futures, as specified by exchanges. There are three main techniques used to assay minerals: fire assay, wet chemistry, and instrumental analysis. The fire assay method is the most popular method and consists of grinding samples into a fine powder mix. Subsequently, they are heated in a ceramic or metal container, which decomposes the sample into constituents. A shallow cup is used to separate out the mixture further and the metals are analyzed using instrumental analysis technique. Distillation, titration, and gravimetric analysis, similar to precipitation, are used in the wet chemistry analysis method. Futures exchanges typically specify the metal's quality for delivery. For example, the CME group, which has gold futures listed on its platform, requires a minimum fineness of the metal of 995, or 995 parts per thousand, for delivery in the COMEX gold futures. For platinum, the minimum fineness is 99.95%. Example of Assay Assay results can move prices for mining and exploration companies. This is because it represents potential for future product demand and earnings growth. For example, in 2020, Thor mining, an Australian mining company, saw its stock price rise after it reported that gold sediments had been found at its Pilbara Goldfield tenements in Western Australia. Its stock price also rose following the confirmation of discovery of high-grade tungsten at another project.	<urn:uuid:c461bccf-7cdd-4f21-907b-eaa23c27ee45>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.24239784479141235, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9311062097549438, "url": "https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/assay.asp" }
What are Xanthelasma? Xanthelasma is a disease of the skin. It is characterized by yellow plaques forming on the inner corners of the eyes or on any other part of the body. Clearly, the plaque and raised skin affect your cosmetic appearance, but besides that, it can also be a sign of certain sinister changes within your body. Xanthelasma or xanthoma as they are most commonly known as commonly involves the upper eyelid. This specific involvement of the eyelids gives the disease its name, xanthelasma palpebrarum or Xanthelasma Palpebra, as some people know them. It is a common problem in the elderly and the obese, however, it’s surprising how little people actually know about the condition. Here we describe what xanthelasma really is and how you can treat it; The xanthelasma plaque is actually cholesterol that is deposited in the skin layers. It presents as a soft, semisolid or calcareous elevation on the skin with a distinct yellow hue. The disease itself is usually symmetrical, involving both sides of the body at the same time. Xanthelasma palpebrarum, in severe cases, can involve all four lids at the same time. The term xanthelasma explains its meaning. It is derived from 2 Greek words, Xanthos meaning yellow and Elasma meaning beaten metal plate. You need to consider the fact that these plaques are temporary initially and can be reversed. However, over prolonged periods of time, the plaques tend to coalesce together, increase in size and become permanent. What started off as a minuscule elevation on the skin, ends as a grossly visible deformity on your eye or other parts of the body. So, what causes xanthelasma? Xanthelasma palpebrum can occur in certain disease processes, but it usually occurs in obesity and the elderly. This is because high levels of blood lipids and cholesterol play a major part in the pathophysiology of xanthelasma. What happens is, the elevated levels of LDL, VLDL, IDL, and cholesterol circulates in the blood. Most of these lipids start to filter into the tissues where they invoke the macrophages to eat them. Few lipids are fine, but when these white blood cells ingest large quantities of lipid, they transform into large, lipid accumulating, abnormal cells called foam cells. As the numbers of these cells increase in the skin, the external appearance of the skin transforms into an elevated plaque. Depending on the duration of the plaque, it’s consistency changes. Initially, it is soft as the foam cells have not yet taken up permanent positions in the tissues. As the number of foam cells increases and the skin starts to develop fibrosis, the consistency of the xanthelasma plaque changes to semisolid. At this point, the plaque is partly reversible by using lifestyle changes. However, as the time goes by, calcium starts depositing in the tissues and the plaque hardens. It now has a calcareous consistency and is difficult to remove. At this point, surgery may be the only choice. what causes cholesterol deposits around eyes A number of diseases can also result in these plaques. Especially diseases that modify the enzymes involved in lipid metabolism can result in lipidemia and then xanthelasma. Both primary and secondary hyperlipidemias are associated with xanthelasma plaques. Xanthelasma is very common in type 2 and type 4 hyperlipoproteinemia. It is also common in certain conditions that involve a decrease in the level of good fats, HDL.Although xanthelasma, itself, does not have any morbidity or mortality, it does point to some other sinister changes. For instance, chronically elevated levels of lipids in the blood, which caused the cutaneous manifestations in the form of xanthelasma will also result in problems within the body. The high levels of lipids in the blood can result in deposition of fat in the blood vessels, particularly of the heart. This can result in cardiovascular diseases which have high mortality and morbidity ratios. In addition to this, this fat can also affect the renal arteries and the arteries to the brain, resulting in hypertension, renal diseases, and strokes. How to treat Xanthelasma And External Xanthomas? what is xanthomas of the skin So, how do you treat the condition? The first step towards treating it is identifying that you have a problem. Once you are diagnosed with xanthelasma palpebrum, the first step you need to do is lower your blood lipid levels. For this, lifestyle changes are important. Here we introduce some ways that will help to lower your lipid levels and treat xanthelasma. • DIET; Alter your diet to exclude fat and eat nutritious food. Increase the content of fiber, as fiber binds fat in your diet and also stimulates the satiety center in the brain to suppress appetite. • FRUIT AND VEG; Eat lots of fruits and vegetables, these are high in antitoxins and antioxidants, which help to reduce the inflammatory effect of increased lipids. They are also abundant in fiber and water both of which can help you counteract the enormous lipid levels. • GET HEALTHY; Exercise is an important way to burn fat. It helps to get rid of all the excess lipids in your blood system and reduce the fat load. • DIET; Reduce your weight, obesity is a primary culprit leading to a number of diseases. A large weight means more fat in the body and a higher level of lipid in the blood. You need to counteract and reduce this weight in order to decrease the lipidemia and treat xanthelasma. • PRESCRIPTION DRUGS; Medicines, there are a number of lipid-lowering medicines also. You can consult a physician to get a prescription of certain medicines like statins that will help lower the levels of lipid and treat xanthelasma. • SURGERY; Cosmetic surgery, in long term cases xanthelasma can only be treated by surgically slicing it off. However, this is often the last resort and unless you control your lipid levels, the plaques of xanthelasma are likely to recur. • XANTHEL; Xanthelasma Remover cream, is fast becoming the number 1 removing Xanthelasma and xanthoma plaques, due to its easy to use formula and effective results. Just one application is all it takes to remove your plaques. Hence, long-term management of xanthelasma involves modifying your diet and your lifestyle. Excessive fat is never good for your body and can lead to not only the cosmetic disfigurement due to xanthelasma palpebrarum but also sinister health problems like heart and kidney diseases. You need to consider the long-term effects of your actions. Xanthelasma palpebrarum is not very difficult to treat if you are willing to do so. If you have any more questions about treating or removing Xanthelasma or Xanthoma, just contact us on the contact form below. Xanthel ® Help Guide Video Xanthel, 483 Green Lanes, London, N13 4BS +0044 20 805 01681	<urn:uuid:afa2fbc6-582b-419d-983f-a869925365e3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.14839494228363037, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9162328839302063, "url": "https://xanthelasmatreatment.com/xanthelasmas/what-is-xanthelasma/" }
The Misanthrope Citation metadata Editor: Elizabeth Thomason Date: 2001 Drama for Students From: Drama for Students(Vol. 13. ) Publisher: Gale Pages: 27 Content Level: (Level 4) Document controls Main content Full Text: Page 122 The Misanthrope The Misanthrope (Le Misanthrope in the original French) is one of the great masterpieces by France’s most celebrated comic dramatist. It was first performed at the Palais-Royal Theatre in Paris in 1666, featuring Molière himself in the title role and his own wife in the role of his love-interest. The Misanthrope is set in the fashionable social milieu of seventeenth-century Paris. Alceste, the misanthrope of the title, is disgusted by the hypocrisy, injustice, and overall corruption in human society. Alceste’s concern with the issue of justice has to do with the fact that he is embroiled in several lawsuits, the outcome of which are determined not by which party is in the right but by who has the most influence in court. Nonetheless, Alceste is in love with Célimène, a young widow with a reputation for flirtation and for surrounding herself with suitors and who is a prime example of the insincerity that Alceste despises in others. In the final act, Célimène is confronted by all of her suitors for her lack of honesty when they discover that she has promised her love to each of them while ridiculing each of the others behind his back. Finally, fed up with society and fearing the consequences of various legal battles, Alceste vows to run off and live in seclusion in the wilderness. The Misanthrope is concerned with themes of honesty and hypocrisy, justice and injustice, the manipulative social games people play, and the conflict between the individual and society. Critical Page 123 \| Top of Articlediscussion often focuses on interpretations of the character of Alceste and the question of whether the play professes a clear-cut moral lesson. Molière, born Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, was baptized in Paris, France, on January 15, 1622. His father, Jean Poquelin, was a furniture merchant who, in 1631, was appointed chief provider of furnishings for the home of King Louis XIV. Molière’s mother, Marie Cressé, died when he was ten years old, and in 1633, his father remarried. Molière received his education at the Jesuit College de Clermont, after which he studied law and was admitted to the Bar in 1641. After practicing law for six months, however, Molière informed his father, who had expected his son to inherit his court appointment, that he wished to pursue a career in the theater. In 1643, he joined the newly formed theater company the L’lllustre-Théâtre, soon taking the stage name of Molière. The company suffered financial troubles, however, and Molière was briefly jailed for debt in 1645. Later that year, he and others from the original troupe joined a theater touring company, with which they traveled throughout the south of France for the next thirteen years. The first public performance of a five-act comedy written by Molière was staged in 1655. In 1657, Molière’s theater company, having earned considerable renown as a traveling troupe, moved to Paris. In 1658 they gave their first performance before King Louis XIV, a farce written by Molière, Le Docteur Amoureux (The Amorous Doctor). It was a great success with the king, who found it amusing and offered them the patronage of his younger brother, known as “Monsieur.” Now called the “troupe de Monsieur,” Molière’s company was provided performance space in the Petit-Bourbon, which they shared with an Italian theater company. Molière’s first great personal success as an actor and an author came with the performance of Les Precieuses Ridicules (Such Foolish Affected Ladies), in 1659. When the Petit-Bourbon was demolished in 1660, the company was given space at the Palais-Royal. In 1662, Molière, at age forty, married Armande Bejart, then nineteen years old. That year his comedy, L’Ecole des Femmes (The School for Wives), was a popular success but created controversy that Molire Molière continued for over a year. In 1663, Molière was granted a royal pension and, in 1664, King Louis XIV was named godfather of his firstborn son, Louis, who died less than a year later. The year 1664 also began a five-year-long controversy over the play that came to be called Tartuffe. Although the king himself was not offended by Tartuffe, he was not immune to the influence of others and had the play banned. In 1665, Molière’s play Don Juan was cancelled after just fifteen performances, due to its controversial nature, and it was never performed again in Molière’s lifetime, although it was never officially banned. Nonetheless, that same year the troupe earned the patronage of the king, and Molière’s pension was raised considerably. The Misanthrope was first performed in 1666 at the Palais-Royal Theatre, starring Molière himself in the lead role of Alceste, the “misanthrope,” and his wife as the flirtatious coquette Célimène. While he enjoyed professional successes, Molière’s health began to seriously decline due to tuberculosis, which occasionally prevented him from performing; these absences from the stage led in 1668 to rumors of his death. In 1672, his wife died. A year later, during his performance as the hypochondriac in Le Malade Imaginaire (The Hypochondriac), Molière collapsed on stage and died later that evening. Although he requested a priest for his final confession, none Page 124 \| Top of Articlearrived in time, and, not given the right to a proper funeral because he was an actor, Molière was buried at night. Act 1 In act 1, Alceste and Philinte argue over the issue of sincerity in social interaction. Alceste maintains that one should always be completely honest and sincere about one’s feelings for other people, regardless of how influential they may be. Philinte argues that it is important to behave in a pleasant, friendly manner with all people, especially those who are influential at court. Alceste, however, insists that one should always “be a man of honor” and “be sincere,” while Philinte defends the importance of common courtesy. Philinte further points out that because Alceste is in the midst of a lawsuit, it would be in his best interest to make friends with someone who is influential. He adds that “ruthless truth telling” can do more harm than good and that “delicacy, tact” are virtues, as well as honesty. Philinte concludes, “Life would be an absolute nightmare” if everyone said exactly what they felt about another person to that person’s face. He then brings up the fact that while Alceste criticizes everyone else for being insincere, he fails to see the many faults in one person—Célimène, the woman he is in love with. At this point, Oronte enters and reads aloud a love poem he has written, asking Alceste’s opinion as to whether he should try to get it published. Alceste tells Oronte that his poem is “trash” and that he should burn it and give up writing poetry completely. Act 2 In act 2, Alceste complains to Célimène, a young widow, that she constantly flirts with many other men and continues to lead them on, despite the fact that she has declared her love for him. Célimène retorts that she is only being polite to these other men, who are her visitors, and that, furthermore, they are very influential at court. If she does not cater to them, it may cause problems for her, particularly in relation to the lawsuit in which she is embroiled. Alceste protests that he loves her more than any of the other men, but she points out,“You only love me to find fault with me.” Eliante (Célimène’s cousin) and Philinte enter, followed a bit later by Acaste (a marquis), and Clitandre (another marquis). Acaste mentions several mutual acquaintances, each of whom Célimène criticizes at great length. Alceste points out that next time she sees each of these people she is now criticizing, she will behave toward them as a dear friend. Célimène retorts that Alceste is bent on contradicting whatever anyone else says, especially in regard to herself. Alceste claims that he is disgusted with her “malicious gossip.” He goes on to say that his honesty in criticizing her proves that his love for her is true, while men such as Clitandre and Acaste, who continually flatter her, are weak and insincere. An officer enters and informs Alceste that a lawsuit has been filed against him by Oronte and that he is due in court. Alceste is reluctant to go and leaves only when Philinte drags him off; as he does so, Alceste begs Célimène to let him see her again soon. Act 3 In act 3, Clitandre asks Acaste why he looks so happy. Acaste replies that he is happy because he is “young, blue-blooded, beautiful, and rich.” He boasts that he is confident in his wooing of Célimène, to which Clitandre replies that he doesn’t have a chance with her. Acaste concedes that he has been given no reason to believe that she favors him in any way. The two men make an agreement that, if either of them finds out that she prefers one or the other of them, the one she does not prefer will willingly drop out of the competition. Célimène enters and tells Acaste and Clitandre that her friend Arsinoe is a hypocrite. She says that Arsinoe is not very attractive but is desperate for a man. She goes on to say that Arsinoe merely pretends to be pious and prudish as an excuse for the fact that men take no interest in her. Arsinoe then enters and tells Célimène that, as her friend, she feels she must let her know that people are talking behind her back about her reputation for flirting with so many men. Célimène responds that, as Arsinoe’s friend, she feels she must let her know that she is a hypocrite and that her piety is merely a false front. Alceste enters, and Célimène walks out, leaving him alone with Arsinoe, who tells him that Célimène is deceiving him about her relations with other men and promises to show him proof if he will accompany her home. Act 4 Philinte tells Eliante about the tribunal proceedings in which Alceste was accused of telling Oronte that his poem was terrible. While Alceste remained adamant in refusing to change his opinion Page 125 \| Top of Articleof the poem, he agreed to apologize to Oronte for not liking it. The two men were then made to shake hands, and the matter was resolved. Eliante confesses to being in love with Alceste. She explains that she nevertheless sincerely does her best to foster the romance between Alceste and Célimène, but that, if Célimène ends up rejecting him, she hopes to win his love for herself. Philinte then admits to being in love with Eliante, but she assures him that she is holding out for Alceste. Alceste enters and tells Eliante and Philinte that he has with him a love letter that Célimène wrote to Oronte. He tells Eliante that she must now marry him because that would be the best way for him to get revenge against Célimène for betraying him. Célimène enters, and Philinte and Eliante leave. Alceste accuses Célimène of loving another man and questions her about the letter. When he persists in this accusation, she concedes that she wrote it to Oronte, but she tells Alceste that he, Alceste, really is the one she loves, and she criticizes him for doubting her love. DuBois, Alceste’s servant, enters and tells him that a mysterious letter pertaining to his lawsuit was just delivered to his home. He tells Alceste that he must pack his bags and flee immediately or else he may be in danger and may even risk being arrested. However, DuBois has forgotten to bring the letter with him, so Alceste hurries home to read it. As he leaves, he pleads with Célimène to give him a chance to continue their conversation later. Act 5 In act 5, Alceste tells Philinte that he is resolved to abandon society and go live out in the wilderness, claiming that there is no decency, honor, or justice anywhere. He explains the ongoing lawsuit against him in which another man printed a book containing scandalous material and attributed it to Alceste’s authorship. Furthermore, Oronte, who is very influential at court, is spreading vicious rumors about him, thus strengthening the legal case against him. Philinte suggests that he shouldn’t be so hasty in leaving, that the court case is not yet settled and that no one believes the rumors about him anyway. But Alceste insists that society is completely corrupt, to which Philinte responds that, yes, people are unjust and insincere but that it is “part of Heaven’s plan,” that the lack of justice in the world is what makes virtue so valuable. Philinte then goes to find Eliante. Célimène and Oronte enter. Alceste and Oronte insist that Célimène, simply tell them truthfully which of them she truly loves, to which she responds that she is too polite to hurt anyone’s feelings with such a frank statement of her feelings. Acaste, Clitandre, and Arsinoe arrive. Acaste and Clitandre take turns reading aloud from letters Célimène, has sent to each of them, in which she declares her love for the man she is writing to and criticizes each of the other men who are pursuing her. Acaste, Clitandre, and Oronte leave in anger, assuring Célimène, that they will be telling others of her dishonesty and betrayal. Alceste tells Célimène, that, although he should be angry with her, he will always love her. He asks that she go off to the wilderness with him. She responds that she could not bring herself to “renounce the world” and run off with him, although she would marry him if he stayed. He replies that he could never love her because she cannot accept him as he is. Eliante announces that she is in love with Philinte, to which Philinte responds that he will be hers. Alceste congratulates Eliante and Philinte on their true love but insists that he is determined to leave “this stinking sink of evil,” where he has been “betrayed ...persecuted, cheated, vilified.” As soon as Alceste leaves, however, Philinte and Eliante hurry after him in an effort to try to convince him to stay. Acaste is one of the two marquis who pursue Célimène,. In act 5, Acaste, along with Clitandre, confronts Célimène, with love letters she has written to each of them. Acaste reads aloud from a letter which she wrote to Clitandre, in which she refers to him (Acaste) as “the little marquis” and assures Clitandre that, although she let Acaste hold her hand, he is “of no consequence.” Acaste leaves with Clitandre, assuring Célimène, that he has “better women standing by” who are interested in him. Alceste is the misanthrope referred to in the title. Throughout the play, he expresses his disgust with the dishonesty, hypocrisy, corruption, and lack of justice in society, claiming that he himself at least is completely frank and honest in all of his social interactions. Philinte, his friend, presents a variety of counterpoints to Alceste’s arguments. When Oronte asks his opinion of a love poem he has just written, Alceste tells him that it is “trash,” that it should be burned, and that Oronte should never write another poem. Oronte, who is highly influential at court, retaliates for the insult by filing a Page 126 \| Top of Article Sidebar: HideShow • FACSEA video distributors offers the 1989 version of The Misanthrope, directed by Jacqueline Duc, as part of its series collection Molière: Plaisir du Theatre, which includes productions of five other Molière plays. • The video entitled Molière is a fictionalized dramatic production of the life of Molière, based on the biographical novel by Mikhail Bulgakov, which focuses on the social and political controversy surrounding Molière’s theatrical career. lawsuit against Alceste. Before a tribunal of marshals, however, Alceste refuses to take back his criticism of Oronte’s poem, and the matter is only settled when he agrees to apologize to Oronte for not liking it. Alceste, meanwhile, is also engaged in a lawsuit concerned with a man who has circulated a scandalous book and attributed it to Alceste’s authorship. Alceste is in love with Célimène, but constantly criticizes her for her insincerity and complains of her flirtations with other men. He claims that he is brutally honest with her only because he truly loves her. Various interpretations of The Misanthrope, both in scholarly criticism and at the level of performance choices, revolve around whether Alceste is seen as representative of the moral message of the play or whether he is seen as a self-serving hypocrite, not unlike most of the other characters. Arsinoe is a so-called friend of Célimène,. Célimène, tells others that Arsinoe is a “hypocrite” and that, while unattractive, she is desperate to find a man and pretends to be prudish and pious as an excuse for the fact that men take no interest in her. Arsinoe tells Célimène, that, in the name of friendship, she feels she must let her know that others are talking behind her back about her reputation for flirting with so many men. Célimène, responds to Arsinoe by saying to her face what she has previously said behind her back. Arsinoe later shows Alceste a letter in which Célimène, tells Oronte that she loves him. Basque is the servant of Célimène,. He occasionally enters to announce the arrival of guests. Célimène, is a very attractive and very flirtatious young widow, who is pursued simultaneously by at least four different men. Of all the characters, she is the most thoroughly insincere and represents social hypocrisy at its worst. She tells each of her suitors that he is the one she truly loves and proceeds to criticize all of her other suitors. Alceste is in love with her but continually criticizes her for her dishonesty, claiming that it is because he truly loves her that he is brutally honest, rather than insincerely flattering her like the other men. Alceste also complains of Célimène,’s flirtations with other men, but she defends herself on the grounds that they are all influential at court and that she must be polite to them or they may negatively influence the lawsuit she is engaged in. When Alceste confronts her with a love letter she has written to another man, she at first claims it was written to a woman, then admits that it was in fact written to Oronte, Alceste’s archrival. At the end of the play, several of her suitors confront her with letters she has written to each of them in which she professes her love for the man she is writing to and ridicules each of the other men. These suitors then leave, vowing to malign her reputation among others. Alceste, however, claims that he will always love her, in spite of this revelation of her true insincerity. He asks her to flee to the wilderness with him, but she responds that, although she would marry him were he to stay, she would not be happy leaving society. Upon hearing this, Alceste claims that he could never love her if she cannot love him by himself, away from society. Clitandre is one of the two marquis who pursue Célimène,. In act 5, Clitandre, along with Acaste, confronts Célimène, with a letter she has written him in which she assures him that he is the only man she loves and makes a point of criticizing all of the other men who are pursuing her. In a letter to Acaste, however, she calls Clitandre a “love-struck loon” and claims that he is “the last man on earth I could fall for.” Clitandre sarcastically comments in regard Page 127 \| Top of Articlegard to Célimène, that she is a “sweet creature.” Before leaving with Acaste, Clitandre sarcastically assures her that “everywhere we go / We’ll start to paint your splendid cameo!” meaning that they intend to ruin her reputation everywhere they go. Du Bois Du Bois is the servant of Alceste. He enters in act 4 to inform Alceste that a mysterious letter pertaining to his lawsuit has been delivered to his home and that he must pack his bags and flee immediately because he is in danger and may even be arrested. Du Bois is a bit of a buffoon and, in his urgency, has neglected to bring the urgent letter with him so that Alceste must leave Célimène,’s house to go home and read the letter. Eliante is Célimène,’s cousin. She is in love with Alceste but, selflessly, does everything she can to nurture the relationship between Célimène, and Alceste. She tells Philinte that, if Célimène, ever actually rejects Alceste, she is hoping he will want her. Philinte confesses his love for her and asks that she consider turning to him should Alceste end up with Célimène,. When Alceste is angered by what he believes is Célimène,’s betrayal, he insists that Eliante will have to marry him, because that would be the best way for him to get revenge on Célimène,. In the final moments of the play, Alceste turns to Eliante to apologize for not being in love with her, but she interrupts him to say that she is now in love with Philinte. Upon hearing this, Philinte jumps at the chance to express his devotion to her. Eliante, along with Philinte, represents a character who is genuinely sincere and honest but, unlike Alceste, also takes great care with the feelings of others. The Officer of the Marshals of France enters in act 2 to inform Alceste that a lawsuit has been filed against him by Oronte and that he is required to come before a tribunal of marshals, who are, he explains, court officials who arbitrate in some disputes. Oronte is a gentleman who is in love with Célimène,. In act 1, he asks for Alceste’s opinion of a love poem he has written to her. Alceste replies with brutal honesty that the poem is “trash” and that Oronte should burn it and never write a poem again. Oronte, who is very influential in court, files a lawsuit against Alceste for the offense. During the tribunal, Alceste refuses to retract his statement about how bad he thinks the poem is but agrees to apologize for not liking it, which resolves the lawsuit. Oronte then begins to spread malicious rumors about Alceste in order to weaken his defense in another lawsuit in which he is engaged. Philinte is a true friend of Alceste. As the play opens, Alceste is chastising Philinte for his insincerity in treating a distant acquaintance as if he were a dear friend. Philinte defends his behavior by pointing out that the man is very influential at court, and so it is in his best interest to treat him as a friend. Throughout the play, Philinte debates with Alceste the issue of sincerity and insincerity in social interaction. While Alceste is insistent upon the virtue of complete honesty at all times, Philinte argues for the importance of common civility in social interactions. When Alceste announces that he is fed up with the hypocrisy and corruption of society and is fleeing to the wilderness, Philinte argues that, yes, all people are flawed, but that it is “part of Heaven’s plan,” and the lack of honesty and justice in the world are what make virtue so valuable. Philinte is in love with Eliante, who, for the first half of the play, is in love with Alceste. Nevertheless, he confesses his love for her and asks that, should she be rejected by Alceste, she consider him instead. In the final moments of the play, Eliante declares her love for Philinte over Alceste—at which point Philinte jumps at the chance to be her “slave.” As soon as Alceste leaves to go off to the wilderness, Philinte insists they follow after him and try to convince him not to leave society. Philinte and Eliante are the only truly compassionate characters in the play and are able to balance honesty with civility. Honesty and Hypocrisy The overriding theme of The Misanthrope is honesty and hypocrisy. Alceste, the central character, is a misanthrope because he is disgusted by the hypocrisy that, in his view, characterizes human society. Alceste claims to be the only truly honest person he knows. As the play opens, he is criticizing Philinte for insincerely behaving with affection toward someone who is merely a mild acquaintance. When Oronte asks for Alceste’s opinion Page 128 \| Top of Article Sidebar: HideShow • Molière was a key figure in seventeenth-century French drama. Learn more about other areas of French literature in the seventeenth century, such as poetry, fiction, or nonfiction prose. Who are the key figures of the genre, and what are some of their major works? What general concerns and literary values characterize French literature of this period? • Molière’s lifetime coincided with the Baroque period in the arts. Learn more about the Baroque period in art or architecture. What specific elements characterized Baroque? Who were some of the major artists and architects of the Baroque period, and what were some of their major works or buildings? • France in the seventeenth century was involved in important international affairs throughout Europe. Learn more about the history of Europe during this period. What major conflicts occurred between France and other European nations during this era? What major events took place in international relations among European nations? • The era of seventeenth-century Restoration theater in England was directly influenced by the French theater of Molière. Learn more about England during the Restoration and the historical events that led to the English Restoration. List the elements that you find as being a direct influence from Molière. about the love sonnet he has written, Alceste is brutally honest in claiming that the poem is “trash” and that Oronte should refrain from ever writing another poem. Against Alceste’s diatribes, Philinte argues for the value of insincerity in social interactions for the sake of the feelings of other people, as well as in the interest of endearing oneself to those with influence. Critical discussion of the character of Alceste, however, reveals that he may be the biggest hypocrite of all in claiming to be the only honest man around. Nicholas Dromgoole, in an introduction to a translation of Molière: The Misanthrope, argues that, while, in theory, Alceste’s argument is one that most people might agree with—that the world would be a better place if people were more honest and sincere with one another—“Alceste carries this idea to the point of obsession, of absurdity.” Peter Hampshire Nurse, in Molière and the Comic Spirit, observes that Alceste’s so-called sincerity in speaking his mind to others is merely a “rationalization for self-centered passion”; hence, “the inauthenticity of Alceste’s whole code of sincerity.” Thus, D. B. Wyndham Lewis asserts in Molière: The Comic Mask, “A moral theologian could indict [Alceste] almost at sight for the sin of pride.” By allowing for this ambiguity in Alceste’s true character and motives, Molière’s play thus leaves open the question of the value of absolute sincerity as advocated by a misanthrope. Throughout the play, Alceste is concerned with the issue of justice, both in the abstract, moral sense and in more concrete terms, as practiced by the judicial courts. Among the characters in The Misanthrope, litigation seems to be the rule of the day. Lawsuits are apparently so common that characters frequently refer to “my lawsuit” without explanation of the nature of the suit. In the context of the play, however, one can assume that these lawsuits are essentially trivial and a matter of personal revenge rather than any claim to real justice. Alceste, in particular, is embroiled in several lawsuits during the course of the play. Oronte takes him to court for the offense of having criticized his poem—a matter that is resolved only when Alceste agrees before a tribunal to apologize for not liking the poem, although he refuses to take back his statement that the poem is terrible. Alceste’s other Page 129 \| Top of Articlelawsuit involves a man who has circulated a publication criticizing the government and attributed it to Alceste’s authorship. While everyone else seems willing to play the game of legal battles by attempting to make friends with those who have influence at court, Alceste refuses to participate in this game even though it would be in his best interests. Rather, he prefers to remain self-righteous in his argument that true justice should prevail in the legal system, as elsewhere, and that the fact of his being in the right should suffice as his legal defense. It is made clear throughout the play, however, that justice is hardly a factor in legal disputes, because it is equally absent from society as a whole. Games People Play As a comedy of manners, The Misanthrope is about the game of social propriety as a cover for power-mongering, revenge, and manipulation. Throughout the play, characters make reference to social custom and civility as a game. For instance, Célimène, says of the need to flatter those who have influence at court: “It’s not a nice game, but it must be played.” Hallam Walker, in Molière, explains Molière’s comic method as one in which “he sets up some guidelines for a game of human relations, gives the characters an initial nudge, and lets them play themselves.” Alceste, then, is a misanthrope because he refuses to play by the rules of the social game in which everyone around him is engaged. In this play, the game is one in which everyone pretends to adore everyone else, speaks critically behind everyone’s back, and uses the power of influence at court to manipulate others, exact revenge, curry favor, and satisfy their own desires. Roxanne Decker Lalande, in Intruders in the Play World, reads the character of Alceste into the context of Molière’s social milieu, observing that “by refusing to play the game, Alceste threatens to shatter the illusions upon which seventeenth-century polite society has secured its foundations.” The Individual in Society In his distaste for common civility, which he sees as hypocrisy, his insistence on the belief that justice should prevail, and his refusal to play by the rules of the game of society, Alceste represents the classic figure of the individual struggling against the conformity that society demands. Walker observes that, while the theme of “the conflict between one eccentric individual and the public good is a timeless scheme for comedy,” which Molière had used in previous plays, “Le Misanthrope is the most subtle and far-reaching treatment of the theme.” In her article,“Oh, Those Black Bile Blues: Teaching Le Misanthrope,” Louise K. Horowitz points out, however, that Alceste’s very claim to individuality is merely an aping of an oft-repeated stance against society. As with the question of sincerity, Molière’s play raises the question of the sincerity of claims to individuality, leaving open to interpretation whether or not Alceste’s insistence on defying the everyday requirements of social convention is only an elaborate excuse for manipulating others and serving his own ends. Comedy of Manners The term comedy of manners refers to a play that focuses on satirizing social customs and rules of etiquette among an elite class of the time period and society in which it is written. The comedy of manners is characterized by witty dialogue and a farcical plot revolving around scandalous love affairs with a cast of characters who are generally hypocritical and insincere and concerned with trivial matters of social conduct. Molière brought the comedy of manners to new heights of sophistication, which inspired playwrights of the English Restoration, such as William Wycherley and William Congreve. Walker asserts that The Misanthrope is “probably the world’s greatest ‘comedy of manners.’” Rhymed Verse The dialogue of The Misanthrope is written in the form of alexandrine verse, which became the standard verse form in French poetry. The alexandrine line of verse has twelve syllables, the major stresses falling on the sixth and last syllables, and is a versatile form suitable for a variety of poetic expressions. Originally used in a classic French collection of romantic verses in the twelfth century, the alexandrine was revitalized in the sixteenth century and, by the seventeenth century of Molière’s time, was a predominant verse form for drama and narrative poetry. Although it has primarily been used in French literature, the alexandrine line is referred to in English verse as “iambic hexameter.” Thus, while the content of Molière’s dialogue ridicules social convention, the structure of the verse expresses this critique through means of a conventional literary form. The effect of this is to stylistically unify the disparate voices that can be heard throughout the play. In an introduction to his 1955 translation Page 130 \| Top of Articleof The Misanthrope, Richard Wilbur observes, “The constant of rhythm and rhyme was needed, in the translation as in the original, for bridging great gaps between high comedy and farce, lofty diction and ordinary talk, deep character and shallow.” Translation from French The Misanthrope was originally written in French. Thus, the English language reader has access to the play only in translation, of which there are a number of different renditions. One grammatical feature of the French language that has no equivalent in English is the distinction between tu and vous, both of which mean “you.” However, vous is the formal form of the word you, used in addressing figures of authority or those one does not know well; tu, on the other hand, is the informal word for you, to be used with friends and family or in some casual social situations. Because this distinction cannot be translated literally, translators of Molière, such as Nicholas Dromgoole, in his 1998 translation of The Misanthrope, have retained these French terms through the translation. Thus, in act 2, Célimène, who is ridiculing one of her acquaintances for his arrogance and “self-importance,” complains that “he calls the bluest-blooded people ‘tu’—/ Reserving ‘vous’ for plebs like me and you.” In other words, he speaks to the most elite members of society using the familiar tu form while he regards those he considers to be of lesser importance with the more distancing vous. In this way, he shows off his intimacy with the most elite class and snubs all others as distant acquaintances. Because of inherent differences in French and English, this distinction would be lost without the translator retaining the original French forms of the word you in this line. The term self-referential describes texts that, directly or indirectly, refer back to themselves or their authors. In The Misanthrope, during a heated discussion with Alceste, Philinte mentions the play The School for Husbands (1661), written by Molière. He tells Alceste, “We’re like the brothers in that Molière play—’The School for Husbands’—you recall the way.” To which Alceste responds,“Your favorite trick—a facile parallel!” The effect of this self-referential passage in Molière’s play is that of a gesture that literary theorists sometimes refer to as a “wink” at the audience; in mentioning another of his own plays, only to have his protagonist write off the reference as irrelevant, Molière invites his theatrical audience to have a laugh at his expense while reminding them that the events and characters they are watching are simply the creation of the dramatist and meant to be taken in a playful vein. The denouement of a story refers to the resolution or conclusion with which most stories end, providing the reader with a sense of closure and the impression that the central conflicts of the story have been essentially resolved. The ending of The Misanthrope, defying the classic denouement, is disarmingly abrupt. It should not surprise a reader to find himself or herself flipping confusedly through the final pages of the play, wondering if a sixth act has been erroneously omitted from the text. This is because The Misanthrope does not end with the type of denouement that is standard to comedy, such as the happy marriage of several couples in many of Shakespeare’s comedies. Rather, it ends with Alceste’s final renouncement of his love for Célimène, and his abrupt departure for the “wilderness,” where he claims he will spend his life in solitude. Philinte insists on following after Alceste, hoping to convince him not to leave. Asserting that “the irresolution” of The Misanthrope “is the most daring bit of theatrical trickery that Molière undertakes,” Walker describes the final action of the play as “a dash off the stage with a peculiar sense of projected energy utterly foreign to a proper resolution of a drama,” adding that “indeed, nothing is at all finished or settled, nor was the contemporary audience wrong in finding the ending very odd.” The Reign of Louis XIV The maturing of Molière’s theatrical career took place during the reign of King Louis XIV of France, which lasted from 1643 to his death in 1715. The social, cultural, and political atmosphere that characterized the reign of Louis XIV was so distinct that it lent itself to the name of an era in French history. Louis XIV, the son of King Louis XIII, was born in 1638, officially ascending the throne at less than five years of age in 1643. As an adult, however, Louis XIV worked hard to consolidate his power and eventually became one of the most powerful monarchs in history. His policies were a combination of aggressive international warfare and a fostering of cultural arts such as architecture, theater, and dance at the domestic level. The “Louis XIV style” Page 131 \| Top of Article Sidebar: HideShow • 1645-1715: The reign of King Louis XIV is characterized by the exercise of near absolute sovereign authority. 1715-1789: The reigns of King Louis XV and King Louis XVI witness the waning power of the French monarchy, which culminates in the French Revolution. 1789-1799: The French Revolution of 1789, partly inspired by the American Revolution of 1776, initiates the end of the French monarchy. The former King Louis XVI is executed in 1793. The new government becomes known as the First Republic. 1799-1815: Napoleon Bonaparte rules France, naming himself emperor in 1804. 1815-1848: France returns to monarchical rule with the reigns of King Louis XVIII (1815-1824), King Charles X (1824-1830), and King Louis-Phillip (1830-1848). 1848-1852: The Revolution of 1848 results in the formation of the Second Republic and in the election of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (the nephew of the original Napoleon) to the presidency. 1852-1870: After staging a coup, Louis-Napoleon takes the title of emperor of France. In the Revolution of 1870, Louis-Napoleon is deposed, and citizens demand the formation of a Third Republic. 1940-1945: France agrees to occupation by Nazi Germany during World War II, resulting in the Vichy government. The French Resistance movement, Free France, works to undermine German rule and the Vichy cooperation. 1945-1958: The end of the war leads to the formation of a Fourth Republic. Women in France are granted the right to vote. 1959: A military coup in French colonial Algiers leads to the end of the Fourth Republic. The Fifth Republic is headed by General Charles de Gaulle. 1968-1969: A national crisis is caused in May 1968 with the occupation of the Sorbonne university in Paris by student radicals, which inspires a surge of wildcat strikes among workers throughout France. De Gaulle, whose national standing never quite recovered from May 1968, resigns in 1969. 1981-1995: The election of François Mitterrand ushers in a socialist presidency in France, which lasts through two terms. In 1995, Jacques Chirac is elected president of France, ending the fourteen-year period of socialist rule. • 1600s: The reign of Louis XIV fosters the theatrical arts. Three theaters dominate the Parisian world of drama: The Marais, the Hôtel de Bourgogne, and the Palais-Royal. After the death of Molière in 1673, the king orders the merging of three main theater troupes, which, in 1680, become the Comédie-Française, the first national theater in Europe. 1790s: During the French Revolution, the Comédie-Française is divided along lines of political sympathies. 1800s: Under the emperor Napoleon, the Comédie-Française is re-established. In 1812, Napoleon issues a decree stating the rules according to which this national theater is to be run. 1900s: A new director, appointed to the Comédie-Française in 1970, initiates the performance of new plays, along with traditional plays. Page 132 \| Top of Article designated characteristic elements in the visual and decorative arts that developed during his reign, making Paris the European center of fashion, interior design, and architecture. Seventeenth-Century French Theater The reign of Louis XIV fostered the development of the theatrical arts, and Molière’s career was largely dependent on the direct patronage of the king. During the seventeenth century, Paris held three main theaters. The first permanent theater to be built in Paris was the Theatre de 1’Hotel de Bourgogne, which, after 1610, housed the theater company known as The King’s Players. In 1634, the Theatre du Marais was created on the site of a tennis court, which was converted for its purposes, and quickly became the leading theater in Paris. The Marais Theatre burned down in 1644 but was rebuilt with updated stage machinery. After 1660, Molière’s troupe was housed in the Palais-Royal Theatre. The Italian commedia dell’arte (also called the Comedie-Italienne), a troupe with which Molière’s company shared space in two different theaters, was an equally important presence in the world of French theater. Molière’s contemporaries in the theatrical world included Jean Racine, a master of the tragic play and equal in status to Molière as master of the comic play. While Molière’s troupe produced several of Racine’s early plays, a falling out occurred in 1665, when Racine secretly negotiated to have his plays produced simultaneously at the Hotel de Bourgogne. Racine’s masterpiece, Phèdre, was first produced in 1677. The year of Molière’s death, 1673, the king ordered the close of the Marais, combining its theatrical troupe with that of the late Molière and later with the troupe that had been associated with the Hotel de Bourgogne. In 1680, this combined theatrical company was named the Comédie-Française, the first nationalized theatrical company in modern Europe. The English Restoration Molière’s comedies of manners greatly influenced the seventeenth-century English stage, as well as the French. In 1660, King Charles II, having spent years in exile in France, was restored to the English throne. Influenced by his exposure to Parisian culture of the Louis XIV era, especially the theater, Charles II revitalized the English stage within months of his return. The theatrical arts in England had suffered since all theaters were shut down at the beginning of the civil war in 1642 and remained closed for eighteen years. Charles II first established two theatrical companies, the King’s Players and the Duke’s Players, and had two new theaters, the Theatre Royal and the Duke’s Theater, built at the sites of converted tennis courts. He also allowed the presence of female actors on the English stage for the first time (whereas female parts had previously been played by boys and young men). Restoration theater was greatly influenced by the comedies of manners of Molière, particularly in the works of William Wycherley (who studied in France as a young man), such as The Country Wife (1675) and The Plain Dealer (1676). Other writers of note include William Congreve, whose Way of the World (1700) represents the crowning achievement of Restoration theater. However, as these productions catered primarily to the elite and not the general populace, they were not entirely successful. In 1682, due to declining theater attendance, the King’s Players and the Duke’s Players were combined to form the United Company, which remained the only theatrical company in London for the next thirteen years. Molière is perhaps the greatest writer of the French stage. David Coward, in an introduction to Molière: The Miser and Other Plays, states that Molière is “one of the world’s greatest comic playwrights.” Margaret Webster, in an introduction to Molière, explains his significance as a literary figure in France, noting, “in his own language he is as towering a figure as Shakespeare is in ours.” James F. Gaines and Michael S. Koppisch, in Approaches to Teaching Molière’s Tartuffe and Other Plays, state that “Molière has, almost since the moment he began writing, been a central—and controversial—figure in French culture.” In his lifetime, Molière enjoyed immense popularity among audiences, as well as the ongoing favor and patronage of King Louis XIV, while suffering the censorship and banning from the stage of some of his greatest works, as well as harsh condemnation from church and civic leaders. According to Coward, In his day Molière had many enemies and they did not mince their words. He alienated a section of the Court, the devout party, doctors, the Faculty of Theology, not to mention rival actors and authors, who called him a ‘public poisoner,’ spread slanderous rumours about his private life and tried to silence him. However, he enjoyed a popular international reputation during his lifetime. His plays, which Page 133 \| Top of Articlewere performed in England, Germany, and Holland, Coward notes, “immediately struck sympathetic chords with spectators unacquainted with the specific social culture of France.” Coward adds that this “universal appeal” persisted into the twentieth century as Molière continued to be “a magician of the theatre.” Hallam Walker points to the continuing popularity of Molière’s plays as theatrical productions to indicate the immensity of his achievement: It is a fact that the plays seem to be ever prepared to go on stage, revealing to new audiences new meanings about themselves. An ongoing process of creation was set in motion by Molière more than three centuries ago, and this is his real legacy. In the course of his career, Molière transformed the comic stage in France, adding a depth of humanity and philosophical complexity to the standard genres of comic theater. Coward observes that “Molière blended the various strands of traditional comedy—farce, spectacle, manners, character and situation—into a new kind of integrated comedy of observation.” Coward asserts, “Molière would bring these disparate comic strands together in plays which drew their unity from a more consistent concern with human behavior,” adding that “he never forgot that farce was the great laughter-maker, but he civilized it, building it into situations which highlighted personal and social folly.” Dromgoole observes that Molière elevated the status of theatrical comedy to the extent that by the end of his career he had raised the status of comedy so that inside and outside theatre buildings that smiling mask of comedy and the anguished mask of tragedy were of equal size and equal importance. He explains, Molière was doing something new. He was bringing real life, recognisable people into the theatre, speaking down-to-earth language and making fun of the artificial diction and pompous language his same audience were so enthusiastic about in their tragedies. Three and one-half centuries of international notoriety have generated an overwhelming quantity of critical responses to the work of Molière. Critics generally concur in broad sweep overviews of the development of this criticism. Early discussion of Molière’s work after his death was frequently concerned with the autobiographical elements of his plays, noting parallels between his own life and career and his central characters. For instance, as Peter Hampshire Nurse states, this biographical criticism led to ...the view that plays like Le Misanthrope, in which Alceste suffers from being in love with an apparently unfaithful coquette, are based on the playwright’s Michael Pennington and Elaine Page in a scene from the 1998 production of The Misanthrope at the Piccadilly Theatre in London, England Michael Pennington and Elaine Page in a scene from the 1998 production of The Misanthrope at the Piccadilly Theatre in London, England own unhappy relationship with an actress-wife who was twenty years younger than himself and was generally rumoured to be unfaithful to him. Continuing discussion, however, has been primarily concerned with the question of the extent to which Molière wished to convey a moral message through his plays, as well as the precise nature of this message. However, a significant shift in Molière criticism took place in the mid-twentieth century, to a focus on Molière as dramatist, rather than Molière as moralist. Walker, for example, asserts that “Molière was above all a man of the theater and not a conscious promoter of philosophical views,” and suggests that ... if we can accept him on his own terms, as the entertainer on the boards, and try to understand his works as living theater, then we shall follow the surest route to an understanding of his greatness. Other critics in the latter half of the twentieth century delved into the social and political context of seventeenth-century France in order to illuminate Molière’s plays. Walker describes Molière criticism since the early 1980s as an amalgam of approaches taking into account significant threads of thought developed throughout the twentieth century, Page 134 \| Top of Articleso that now “work is done on Molière in the comic tradition, in the climate of his times, as a commentator on the human condition, and as a creator of theater.” Liz Brent Brent has a Ph.D. in American culture, specializing in film studies, from the University of Michigan. She is a freelance writer and teaches courses in the history of American cinema. In the following essay, Brent discusses the significance of French fashion, society, and politics to Molière’s great comedy of manners. Critics often note the universal appeal of Molière’s plays, evidenced by his international popularity throughout three and one-half centuries. As a “comedy of manners,” however, The Misanthrope is also set in the historically and culturally specific context of the fashionable upper-class Parisian elite of the Louis XIV era in France. Many references to fashion, high society, and court life thus run throughout the play. A better understanding of the history and culture of these references will enhance the reader’s appreciation of the play as social satire, as well as increasing awareness of the highly topical nature of The Misanthrope from the perspective of Molière’s contemporary audience. Several specific references are made in The Misanthrope to the king, meaning King Louis XIV. In act 1, Oronte offers Alceste the possibility of benefiting from his influence with the king, letting it be known that: I think my influence with the King Is pretty widely known. In everything He’s always proved—oh, quite sublimely kind; In act 3, Acaste, boasting of his all-around good fortune as a man who is “young, blue-blooded, beautiful, and rich,” adds that “the King adores me.” Later in act 3, Arsinoe lets Alceste know that she may be able to use her influence in order to procure for him the favor of the king, mentioning, “I’d like the King to take some note of you.” Throughout the play, characters mention the king only in order to brag about their influence and favor in his majesty’s eyes and for the purpose of manipulating others to benefit their own interests. In addition to continually reminding others of their associations with the king, the characters in The Misanthrope also frequently mention their influence at court. The court of the seventeenth century did not simply refer to the court of law, but included the array of nobles, officeholders, and social elite with which the king surrounded himself in his royal palace. Molière’s characters are thus referring to this larger social-political milieu when they speak of court. And, although none of the scenes in the play is actually set at court, the presence of the court offstage, including the court of law, represents a locus of social power around which the relationships between the characters revolve. While frequently bragging about their social connections by referring to their influence with the king and at court, various characters also simply refer to their presence in Versailles or the Louvre, both palaces of the king. For instance, in act 2, Clitandre enters, telling the others, “I’ve just been to the Louvre.” Although it became a national art gallery in the eighteenth century, the Louvre in Paris was the royal residence and location of court from the mid-sixteenth century through the first half of the reign of Louis XIV, during which time he added to its impressive collection of international art. In 1655, just a year before the first performance of The Misanthrope, the king initiated renovation of the Louvre, the mention of which would have been of topical interest to Molière’s audience. Clitandre thus mentions his presence at the royal palace of the Louvre as a means of showing off his courtly social connections. Likewise, in act 3, when Arsinoe tells Alceste that she could use her influence in order to secure a government post for him at Versailles, she is referring to the king’s royal palace at Versailles, one of the visible accomplishments of the king’s reign. The royal palace was eventually moved by Louis XIV from the Louvre to the village of Versailles, ten miles from Paris, where royalty had formerly enjoyed the comforts of a hunting lodge. Louis XIV renovated and extended the palace of Versailles over a period of fifty years, from 1661 to 1710, employing the most talented architects, landscapers, and interior decorators of the age in a spectacular achievement expressive of the king’s far-reaching power. During the period in which The Misanthrope was performed, the remodeling of Versailles was an ongoing project of the king, who would most likely have been pleased by its mention in Molière’s play. And, although it did not become the official residence of the king and his court until 1682, it was clearly functioning in this capacity as Page 135 \| Top of Article Sidebar: HideShow • L’Ecole des Femmes (1662; The School for Women), by Molière, was a popular success in its initial production but created controversy that lasted for over a year. The story concerns a man who, afraid of the power of mature women, opts to marry an inexperienced young woman only to find himself at her mercy. • Tartuffe (1667), by Molière, was so controversial that it was cancelled shortly after its first run and not performed publicly again until years later. Tartuffe is now considered among Molière’s masterpieces and is the most popular choice of his plays for student productions. • Le Malade Imaginaire (1673; The Hypochondriac), by Molière, starred, in its initial production, Molière himself as the hypochondriac who is afraid of doctors. He had written the part to suit the cough from tuberculosis he suffered but collapsed on stage during the fourth performance and died several hours later. • The Plain Dealer (1676), by William Wycherley, is an English comedy of manners of the Restoration period, frequently compared to Molière’s The Misanthrope. It presents a crudely expressed, harsh satire of greed among the upper classes. • Phèdre (1677), by Jean Racine, is the masterpiece of the great seventeenth-century tragic playwright. It concerns a woman who is hopelessly in love with her stepson. • The Importance of Being Ernest (1895), by Oscar Wilde, is an English comedy of manners of the late nineteenth century. The plot concerns two young men, both of whom have invented imaginary alter-egos, in a drawing-room farce centered on their romantic dealings with two young women. early as 1666, when The Misanthrope was first performed. Alceste, however, assures Arsinoe that he “simply wouldn’t prosper at Versailles,” because of his inability to play the game of social politicking required for a government post. (One may note that Molière himself, in contrast to the fictional character of Alceste, greatly benefited from the favor and patronage of the king, who supported his theatrical company and his career, as well as providing significant increases in his pension over the years.) In addition to topical references to the king and his court, and his majesty’s ongoing achievements represented by renovations of both the Louvre and Versailles, Molière includes in his play reference to major events in the history of France. Philinte, complaining of the boring conversation of an acquaintance, mentions his habit of bragging about his service in the civil war as one of his more irritating conversational traits. Philinte mentions “Dorilas, who’s such a bore / About his exploits in the Civil War.” This is most likely a reference to the series of civil wars in France known as the Fronde, which were waged between 1648 and 1653. The Fronde occurred in several phases, each revolving around a somewhat different set of issues and events. However, the overall thrust of the violent civil disturbances known as the Fronde was an effort of the upper classes to curtail the power of the monarch over parliament. Once this period of rebellion was quelled, however, Louis XIV reacted by creating the most powerful monarchy in Europe, exercising extensive control over his dominion. At the time of The Misanthrope, the civil war would have been over for some thirteen years, and the man who still bragged about his participation in such events is seen as a bore because of his inability to discuss more pertinent, up-to-date matters. Central to the comedy of manners are the specific fashions of the age in which it takes place, in this case a distinct aesthetic known as the Louis XIV style. The prominence of fashion in French Page 136 \| Top of Article Sidebar: HideShow high society was increased with the development of Paris as a center of European style and taste during this era. The attitude expressed in Molière’s play toward men’s fashions of the day is indicated by the description of Célimène,’s suitors, Acaste and Clitandre, as “fops”—men overly concerned with emulating high fashion to the point of rendering themselves ridiculously vain and clownish. Alceste refers to several characteristics of the flamboyant men’s fashions of the Louis XIV era when he interrogates Célimène, about her reasons for flirting with Clitandre, one of his rivals for her attention. He asks her: Just tell me what it is You like about him. That long nail of his? (His little finger nail.) or—let me see— His blonde wig—that’s it! Well, admittedly The world of fashion thinks it’s quite the thing. That’s why you keep the poor fool dangling? Or is it all those ribbons you adore? Is it his stocking that you love him for? Have his vast breeches worked their magic on you? During the mid-seventeenth century, men’s high fashion was characterized by massive wigs made up of curls that were styled high up on the head and then cascaded down below the shoulders. Ribbons, as well as lace, were a prominent feature adorning the male wardrobe, while the style of men’s “breeches” became so full and loose that they were recognized as closer to the feminine skirt or petticoat. Alceste thus makes note of the fashionable men’s wardrobe of the day, made up of a wig, ribbons, and “vast breeches.” Ridicule of men’s fashions continues in act 2, when Célimène, complains of Timante, a male acquaintance whom she criticizes for his vanity. She suggests that, while he frequently claims to be running off on important business, in fact, “he’s only crept off to adjust his bows / Or put some powder on his wig!” In act 5, Acaste reads aloud several letters that Célimène, has written to each of her suitors, criticizing each of the others behind his back. She paints each man as a buffoon, making reference to his vanity in the use of fashion. Alceste she refers to as “the man with the green ribbons,” associating the men’s fashion characterized by extensive use of ribbons with Alceste’s “green” envy of other men. And Oronte she calls “the buffoon in the waistcoat,” referring to the hip-or waist-length jackets men wore over their white shirts. In all of these instances, the men’s fashions of the day are mentioned only in order to be ridiculed as signs of vanity, clownishness, and self-absorption. The Misanthrope, a masterpiece among Molière’s comedies of manners, holds a universal appeal in its ridicule of social games of propriety and power-mongering, in the context of a setting that is unique to the fashion, society, and politics of the Louis XIV era. The king and his court, located both at the Louvre in Paris and the palace at Versailles, are brought into conversation among these characters only for the purpose of bragging about their social and political connections, either threatening or manipulating others with the power of their influence. Likewise, historical events are referred to in conversation for the purpose of ridiculing the outdated conversation of a fellow acquaintance. Finally, the high fashions of the day, specifically the excessive quality of the latest men’s fashions, are ridiculed as a sign of vanity and foolishness. Source: Liz Brent, Critical Essay on The Misanthrope, in Drama for Students, The Gale Group, 2001. Larry W. Riggs In the following essay, Riggs examines what aspects make Alceste’s character a comic one. It is in teaching literature that the critic/professor is forcibly reminded of the continuing reality of literary problems that he or she may have come to regard as solved. It is in trying to explain to students the logic of a particular solution that the critic is often led to new realizations by the unexpected vitality of an “old” question. Each time I teach Le Misanthrope, I am obliged to confront the question of the Page 137 \| Top of Articleplay’s being or not being entirely comic; and I find that each group of students’ initial response to Alceste is much like the one expressed by Rousseau in his “Lettre a d’Alembert sur les spectacles.” For each group I must repeat—and, indeed, re-think—the critical process whereby I arrived at the conviction that Alceste is an entirely comic—and not at all an admirable—character. It is impossible to do this without recognizing that the issues raised bear on the essence of Molière’s comic art, the nature and importance of comedy in general, and the nexus of the relationship between theatrical and real identities. The crux of the critic’s difficulty in showing Alceste to be a thoroughly ridiculous character is that Alceste seems at first glance to be living the essentially tragic opposition between the integrity of the individual self and the arbitrary, ineluctable laws of collective existence. Alceste’s choice of sincerity as his ideal—or mask—is what makes the play so quintessentially theatrical and comic; he tries to use sincerity as a vehicle for radically individuating himself, despite the fact that sincerity is a characteristic of communication which can only be ascribed to an individual by a group whose language and basic expectations he shares. “Sincerity,” like any virtue, makes sense only as a performance evaluated within a context of perceptions and values. The play clearly ridicules the idea that there can be opposition between an individual and his social environment, except within socially defined limits. Individuation itself is actually a function of collective existence. It is this complex aspect of context—generating and nourishing, as well as limiting, individuation—that Alceste tries to ignore. Indeed, it is the fact of context in general, and of his particular context, that Alceste, like most other comic figures, fails to consider. What makes a being real, or a performance meaningful, is the same thing—context—that makes it contingent. Alceste would like to be his own source, and the source of all that surrounds him. He actually attempts to reverse the relationship between individual and group by imposing his condemnation—his misanthropy—as the defining context wherein others must exist. He wants to be the audience in whose gaze all performances find their meaning. His situation becomes comic when it is clear that his refusal to perform is itself a performance, and that his apparent wish to annihilate others as morally significant beings clashes with his insistence that others acknowledge and admire his supposed difference Sidebar: HideShow from them. What the lucid spectator sees as the play progresses is that Alceste’s “sincerity,” both as an individual trait and as a characteristic of social relations, must be confirmed and participated in by the group. Like Molière’s other ridicules, Alceste hopes to escape the consequences of this interdependence by obscuring others’ awareness of the mutuality imposed by a shared context. He wants to keep them from recognizing and playing their role in creating his meaning and identity. The comedy is reinforced by the fact that the rhetoric of Alceste’s performance, which he hopes will constitute a person whose essence is distinction, actually reveals the extent to which his thinking and behavior are similar to those practiced in the group. Oronte’s famous sonnet, presented in Act I, scene ii, is a key element in this comedy of convergence. It is typical of Alceste that he tries to place the poem in a definitive context—that of his negative judgment—before he has heard it. The significance he ascribes to this scene, and the role he will play in it, have been predetermined for Alceste by his loudly declared rejection of social conventions (Act I, scene i). Writing sonnets and praising them are conventions. As Oronte reads the poem, Alceste classifies it as sottises. The importance of the sonnet cannot be fully discovered by trying to decide whether Alceste is sincere, or correct, in his judgment of it. The scene itself is important and comic in that it shows Alceste torn between his desire to condemn the poem and Page 138 \| Top of Articlethe difficulty of being blunt. In terms of the play as a whole, however, the sonnet is central in a different way: the poem is, in fact, in its tone and logic, a brief summary of Alceste’s own speeches to and about Célimène,. The fact that Alceste is guilty here of both prejudice and equivocation is less important than the close correspondence between the rhetoric of the sonnet and Alceste’s performance. Alceste’s denunciation of the poem as fatuous becomes integral to his ridiculousness as his persona converges with its persona. In other words, the spectators’ judgment, which is Alceste’s and the play’s ultimate context, is conditioned in part by this convergence. Alceste, having warned Oronte that expatiating on love can lead one into playing de mauvais personnages, spends much of the rest of his time on stage expatiating on love, and creating a very comic personnage. The poem’s persona is the lover who is tired of living on hope: L’espoir, il est vrai, nous soulage Et nous berce un temps notre ennui; Mais, Philis, le triste avantage Lorsque rien ne marche apres lui! The lover then expresses despair at the prospect of eternal anticipation: S’il faut qu’une attente eternelle Pousse a bout l’ardeur de mon zèle, Le trépas sera mon recours Alceste’s frustration at waiting for an explicit understanding with Célimène, his belief that there is reason to hope, and his shows of desperation all closely parallel the sonnet. His threat to withdraw to a désert—a non-context—corresponds to the sonnet’s rhetorical threat of suicide. Having failed to accept openly the necessity of performance, Alceste becomes a theatrical being in the worst sense: he constantly repeats the themes of a narrow, thoroughly prefabricated role. His “being” is as superficial as the word-play of the sonnet. His virtues and emotions look like mere textual formulas, and his awareness of context is as faulty as that of the stargazing philosopher who falls into a well. Alceste’s comic downfall is consummated in the consciousness of the spectators, whose role in creating Alceste’s—and the play’s—meaning corresponds to that of the group in accepting or rejecting any individual’s version of himself. Awareness of context as a fact of life, and of the evolving patterns of a particular context is, then, an attribute that Molière’s ridicules lack. Alceste’s attempt to evade the complexities of communication and to blind his “spectators” by identifying himself with sincerity is based on the comic error of ignoring the fundamentally social and theatrical nature of sincerity. He could scarcely have been more maladroit in selecting his stance vis-a-vis society; misanthropy is as much a social performance as is sincerity. Another proof of Alceste’s convergence with the group he wants to both dominate and reject is the fundamental similarity between misanthropy and the group’s principal pastime, medisance. In Act III, scene v, Alceste listens to Arsinoe’s jealous gossiping about Célimène, in order to gain a social advantage. Misanthropy’s similarity to medisance is underscored by this partnership. Because of his desire to possess Célimène, and to be individuated, Alceste is bound to others in a relationship that is inescapable, and even mimetic, as well as contradictory. His performance is comic because his perceptual errors result from a willful ignorance of context. His misanthropy is a form of lover’s lament, and is thus convergent with the most hackneyed poetic attitudinizing. Sincerity and uniqueness must be ascribed by the group, and Alceste’s performance follows a pattern which was, in a real sense, invented by and for the group. He never makes good his threat to flee to the desert of non-context and non-meaning, and thus denies himself the quasi-tragic status Rousseau erroneously gave him. Molière is at pains to define the difference between proper and improper perception and use of performance, or theater. Life is theater-like, and Molière’s comic theater ridicules any who ignore or misuse the analogy. In the case of Le Misanthrope, Molière dramatizes an attempt to oppose the social context and triumph in that context. In the process, he shows us—as theater nearly always does—that individual and context are not entirely distinguishable unless meaning and identity are to be sacrificed. It is certainly ridiculous to use absolute condemnation of the group as a means to obtain what only the group can confer. The very fundamental resources of individuation are derived from the context. Only after recognizing Alceste’s ultimate similarity to his fellows can one appreciate the comic contradictions of his performance. Alceste is profoundly similar to any comic character who is clumsy and ineffectual because he ignores something critically important about his environment; and the comedy makes perceptible the fact that this error is a very common one. Source: Larry W. Riggs, “Context and Convergence in the Comedy of Le Misanthrope,” in Romance Notes, Vol. XXV, No. 1, Fall 1984, pp. 65-69. Page 139 \| Top of Article Hans R. Jauss In the following essay, Jauss offers “an interpretation of the literary history” of The Misanthrope and considers it “against the background of the history of the concept of character.” Our newly revived historical anthropology starts from the premise that despite its apparent immutability human nature in fact has a history and, further, that this history—the sediment of constantly reformulated and superseded projects in the process of human self-determination—can be understood as man’s second nature. The literary historian can best illustrate what is meant by this formula by tracing changes in the presentation and interpretation of moral character types. No matter how timeless these characters may seem in comedy and moral reflection, they have not always been a part of Western tradition. They first appear at a later stage of Greek literature, in the new comedy of Menander, after Theophrastus had drawn up the first characterology based on observation of everyday life. With the appearance of Theophrastus’ work, European comedy acquired a basic repertory of character types that lived on in the oral tradition of so-called mimology (short, crude scenes of popular farce), surviving the interruption of the Christian era in which they were excluded from the canon of the representable. Christian literature in the Middle Ages founded its official canon of characters on the ancient animal fables and on folkloric animal farces. The analogy of animal characters or manners with human nature revealed a new conception of human existence, and the newly created animal epic Reynard the Fox at the summit of medieval satire opposed the idealism of all heroic and courtly poetry for the first time. The classical repertory of everyday characters was revived by the humanist rediscovery of Plautine comedy and underwent a period of fruitful reception culminating in classical French comedy. Its purest development, Molière’s comedy of character, was once again accompanied by a moral-philosophical characterology, La Bruyère’s Caractères ou les moeurs de ce siècle (1688). This work assimilated and surpassed Theophrastus’ characterology by attempting to portray the entire social life of the age of Louis XIV in its customs as well as its institutions. La Bruyere thus pursued the goal of a moralist: he examined his fellow man’s behavior and forms of life in order to ascertain what could be attributed to human nature in general and what was conditioned A scene from the 1996 theatrical production of The Misanthrope, featuring Elizabeth McGovern as Jennifer and Richard OCallaghan as Alexander A scene from the 1996 theatrical production of The Misanthrope, featuring Elizabeth McGovern as Jennifer and Richard O’Callaghan as Alexander by changing times. He thus assumed the role of observer as well as critic of his times. The historical thought of the Enlightenment, foreshadowed in La Bruyere’s text, devalued not only the characterology of the classical moralists, which can be considered a kind of protosociology, but also Molière’s comedy. By 1800 Goethe could affirm that the time for character plays was over. How he arrived at this prognosis remains a question, but its accuracy seems thoroughly confirmed by the subsequent history of comedy. As Peter Szondi has noted, Hofmannsthal’s Der Schwierige has remained “the only modern figure in the character gallery of great comedy.” As an untimely exception, Der Schwierige confirms the historical rule in a highly instructive manner. It allows us to see what was required in order to invent—as a reply to Molière’s Misanthrope—such an unforgettable figure as Count Buhl, who had to be a “character” in the eyes of others without having a character in his own. From this point on characterology was increasingly relegated to the museum of the history of science. Scientific psychology today recognizes only social Page 140 \| Top of Article Sidebar: HideShow norms and functions, and questions whether moral behavior is at all classifiable. The concept of “character,” which is no longer found in psychological lexicons, has been replaced by a theory of “personality” which does not require the notion of “human nature” but only that of the interaction of disposition and situation. I have chosen to examine here the character of the Misanthrope because it is represented at the beginning, the culmination, and the end of this tradition in significant works of Menander—his Dyskolos is his only full preserved work—Molière, and Hofmannsthal. On the other hand, it is noteworthy that the Misanthrope is not included in the Aristotelean classification of the ten affects of the soul accompanied by pleasure or pain, nor in Theophrastus’ classification of moral attributes in social life. Does the Misanthrope fail to appear in such anthropological or moral-philosophical treatises because to be or to feel oneself an enemy of mankind would go against nature and the social condition of human existence? If this conjecture were true, then the Misanthrope would not be accidental invention shaped by poetic fiction, but would be rather a limiting case created to test and explore (auszuspekulieren) what human nature can be—if man is capable of acting against his own nature—and to see how he can be brought to abandon his unnaturalness and return to ...the ancient ideal of moderation. These considerations allow us to determine in a preliminary fashion what was involved in Menander’s creation of a literary character, the Dyskolos, out of a comparable type of social behavior described by Theophrastus as ‘the distrustful man.’ The genuine task of literary hermeneutics is the exploration of such transformations of philosophical questions into possible literary answers and their testing through aesthetic experience. My study will offer an interpretation of the literary history of Molière’s Misanthrope, whose well-documented reception exemplifies the changing horizon of characterology. I shall consider this character against the background of the history of the concept of character and in the light provided by the mutual illumination of practical philosophy and literary fiction. Character (from the Greek word [meaning] ‘to scratch or etch’) has the basic meaning of something engraved, imprinted, hence indelible. The corresponding Latin word also signifies a brand, a letter, a military identification mark, and, in an extended sense, a writer’s hallmark. After Theophrastus, the word is applied not only to an exterior mark but also to inner nature, and thus acquired the moral meaning of an inscribed personal characteristic. For Theophrastus, differences in human behavior reflect differences in nature, and are thus innate and immutable. This is in accord with his belief that after the child’s native dispositions have been fully developed no further education is possible—a view which deviates from Aristotle’s. Nevertheless, Theophrastus uses the Aristotelian principle in evaluating his characters: their description illustrates a prior definition (e.g., “Distrustfulness is a presumption of dishonesty against all mankind; and the Distrustful man is he that will.. .”) through observations which compose a mosaic portrait, representing human behavior in terms of excess or deficiency in relation to an ideal but unmet mean. From the outset, ethical characters are negatively determined by their failure to attain the proper measure of the Good Life, and consequently by their weaknesses or “vices.” Virtues apparently have no characters, as Christian tradition later confirmed (virtue acting through the holy man transcends all merely individual differences in human nature). When these ethical characters enter literature, in the passage from Theophrastus to Menander, they are not merely developed in dramatic action involving conflict with others. The literary elaboration also draws attention to the paradox of a consciousness aware of depending upon nature, against its will to be another nature. The characters of the Boor, the Distrustful Man, the Superstitious Man, the Shy Man, the Misogynist, and the Misanthrope, all characters corresponding to the titles of Menander’s plays, are not simply the objects of ridicule. The comic exaggeration of their behavior makes the one-sidedness of their nature evident and Page 141 \| Top of Articlethus confirms, ex negativo, in the eyes of the unconcerned spectator, the unrealized norm of the Good Life. The comedy sets before our eyes a character who deviates from the ethical norm and at the same time remains completely enslaved by his own nature. He may become more or less aware of his enslavement, he may suffer or obstinately persist in it, even to an extreme, when his affectively rigid, circular behavior runs counter to his own ends. As an example of this kind of comic effect we may adduce the beginning of the Dyskolos, where the grumbler Cnemon summarily turns away a visitor by calling him a “criminal” (even though the visitor wants to offer him an advantageous business opportunity), pelts him with stones and clods of earth and, finally, “when nothing else was left,” with pears, the hard-won fruit of his dry, infertile land. Cnemon’s contempt for all his fellow men may not only damage his own interests but may even lead to the wish to destroy himself. Thus when his future son-in-law Sostrates appears, Cnemon first wishes he could go a bout like Perseus with a Medusa’s head “to turn all those who pestered him to stone” and then complains that “even if a man should somehow want to hang himself,/there’s nowhere he could find the privacy he needs for that!” Menander’ s Misanthrope also goes beyond the simpler character of the Distrustful Man, in that Cnemon’s unnatural behavior extends even to the most natural family relations, which Theophrastus’ Distrustful Man still respects. Menander raises the Dyskolos to the level of a limiting case that makes it possible to investigate the most extreme possibilities and contradictions of human nature within the framework of literary fiction. He achieves this ultimately by means of an astute experiment which he apparently tried only in this comedy: the reversals of the action—the fall into the well, the encounter with death, and the rescue by the stepson Gorgias—bring Cnemon to see that he has fallen prey to an error: “The mark of inhumanity drops away, and the spectator glimpses the clenched pain of a tormented soul which calls for pity.” Cnemon’s great monologue, in which he recognizes as delusion his belief that he was “self-sufficient and would need no help” and rejects the philosophical ideal of autarchy, arouses in the modern spectator the expectation that a different Cnemon, freed from his unnaturalness and more open to his fellow man, will result from his recantation. We therefore find it all the more strange that this expectation will be disappointed and that, instead, Cnemon’s return to his solitary nature in the last act and his punishment for it in the final harassment scene must have been fully in accord with the classical spectators’ expectations. This hermeneutic crux permits us to recognize an archaic horizon which allowed classical comedy to plumb the depths of a character by playing out the consequences of a limiting case, but only in order to bring to light his unchangeable and ultimately unmotivated nature. Of course, Menander is not content merely to show that his Dyskolos’ nature is unmotivated. His comedy implies a question which Theophrastus had not yet asked in his characterology: how can a person, against his own nature, become an enemy of mankind? But the answer that Cnemon’s monologue gives does not illuminate grounds for his misanthropy; it only reveals his error in having followed the philosophical principle of autarchy. By saving his life, Gorgias has proven that selfless help among human beings is needed and provided, but Cnemon is not cured of his misanthrophy by being freed from his delusion of autarchy. He does not merely repeat the fate of Timon, whose fall from power, riches, and generosity to ruin and isolation motivates his contempt for human beings and gods; rather, the groundlessness and inalterability of Cnemon’s misanthropy is thrown into relief at the very moment of insight when, faced with deadly danger, his delusion is stripped away from him. In an act which is both a reconciliation and a farewell, Cnemon hands over his rights and responsibilities as family head to his adopted stepson in order from that time on to live completely alone and outside all human society (“No man on earth/would ever suit me. One thing—let me live the way I want”). This decision is the only action that Cnemon himself initiates in a play that always portrays him—in accord with his character—as reacting, not acting. But Cnemon’s de cision to want to be as he believes himself compelled to be by nature can no more be the comedy’s last word than the celebration of the double wedding can be its last scene, although on the religious level of the ritual sacrifices which frame the Dyskolos’ action it fulfills Pan’s prediction of a happy ending. Cnemon’s last request that even the old kitchen servant attend the merry celebration so that he can be completely alone in the house is an affront not only to the solidarity of the family, to which he no longer wants to belong, but also to the entire human community represented by the ritual of sacrifice. The provocation of this extreme separation is avenged by even the humblest members of the community, a slave and a cook, who take it upon themselves to exorcise their former Page 142 \| Top of Articlemaster’s nature with an “ennobling” beating and to close the action of the play with a Dionysian wedding feast. Of course we have learned to explain this denouement as a punishment meted out by “poetic justice.” But nevertheless we cannot but recognize such a poetic justice as unjust and so foreign to us that the case of the classical Misanthrope seems to illustrate the hermeneutic paradox: that is, a perfect explanation of a remote horizon of experience does not necessarily imply an understanding of its alterity. La Bruyère, who translated and further elaborated Theophrastus’ Characters, designated the aesthetic norm of French Classicism against which Molière’s comedy should be measured when he wrote that the principal source of comedy is not witticisms, obscenities, double entendres, or any other type of linguistic joke. Rather, comedy must rely on characters alone to make a wise, virtuous—hence educated—audience laugh. La Bruyere did not explain why human characters should produce the purest comic effect, and therefore never asked how characters could trigger laughter for different reasons at different times. Molière, in turn, did not add much theoretically to La Bruyere’s apodictic assertion. Once when he does discuss the peculiar enterprise of making the honnetes gens laugh, he points out only that it is not done by portraying people according to their nature. The difficulty, for Molière, lies in portraying this nature in a way that will bring out the failings of one’s contemporaries. Since tragedy, in Molière’s view, does not pose this problem, he considers it a less exacting genre. Neither La Bruyere nor Molière apparently suffered from any anxiety of influence; for them the perfection of their classical models rendered superfluous any effort to justify their own work theoretically. We can see this attitude in another cryptic statement by Molière: “Le ridicule” is defined as “la forme exterieure et sensible que la providence a attachee a tout ce qui est deraisonnable.” Molière can thus counter the church’s criticism of the immoral effect of theater: in the final analysis comedy, which reve als in the ridiculous a deviation from what is natural and reasonable in order to reaffirm the “fameux quod decet des anciens,” cannot but serve the ends of Christian Providence. Has Providence in its wisdom not placed before us a “perceptible sign” in the form of the comic so that we might recognize in the defects of human nature what the golden mean of an upright life demands of us? In the realm of art, theory and practice seldom coincide, and this is also true for Molière. In matters of theory he was an “ancient” and wanted to raise the ridiculum to the level of an agent of Providence in order to legitimize the moral claims of classical comedy. But in matters of practice he was a “modern,” and his conception of literary characters decisively questions the naive harmony posited by his theory. His Miser or his Hypocrite can no more be understood on the basis of the classical norm of the comic than can his Sosias or Georges Dandin, his “Malade imaginaire” or “Bourgeois Gentilhomme.” These modern characters are no longer definable by the mimetic presentation of a one-sided nature; rather, they are caught between having to be and wanting to be what their nature requires, between natural being and reflective consciousness. They play out their self-contradictions in such a way that the spectator’s laughter constantly subsides, changing suddenly into pity or alarm. Far from being a perceptible sign of a self-evident, providential world order, the comic is now aimed at society’s claim that it already knows what is natural and reasonable rather than at individual weaknesses and vices. I have shown elsewhere in my interpretation of Harpagon’s monologue in L’Avare how a consciousness enslaved by an unnatural greed can again become productive and rise above all natural and societal orders. Molière thereby brings out a specifically Christian problematic: an evil gradually revealed in the unnaturalness and self-contradiction of the characters. In other words, his comedy represents an aspect of fallen human nature. But this modern view of characters remains untouched by the discovery of the individual, which the history of ideas shows as undergoing a change of meaning in which the Christian conception of human nature gradually prevailed over the inheritance of classical anthropology. The Christian phase of the history of the concept of character presupposes a new determination of human nature which developed eventually out of a new value placed on individual existence. Augustine, who discovered the individual self in the act of conversion, described in his norm-building Confessions the constitution of Christian subjectivity as from the very beginning a divided, temporally split, and—as the mere image of its creator—necessarily imperfect existence. But the lost wholeness of the primal nature was restored as soon as the new Christian received through the sacrament of baptism his indelible mark. To this end, Augustine took over the popular expression militiae character and extended it as character crucis to the trinitarian baptismal formula. According to the subsequent Christian view, still evident in Thomas Aquinas as Page 143 \| Top of Articlewell as in Martin Luther, the baptized person receives through the sacrament a “spiritual mark on the soul.” Later this concept seems to move away from the theological toward the philosophical meaning of character in that the feature of indelibility is taken from the sacrament of baptism and applied to the individualitas of a man, in order to distinguish his specific character as the nature of his singularity. The same word which in the pre-Christian view referred to the unalterable being of different human types or “natures” acquires in the Christian conception a dynamic and later a historical meaning. According to Leibniz the power of ideas operated in mathematical characters and more particularly in the formula as a rule-for-construction which allows the comprehension of an infinity of numbers. Lessing was the first to speak precisely of the “formation [Bildung] of a character” which can lend unity to dramatic action. German Idealism then completes the reversal of meaning from character as a determination of nature to character as a determination of freedom. Kant introduced the distinction between physical and moral character, distinguished the latter as a type of thought from the natural dispositions of what he called temperament (Naturel), and ultimately defined man as a rational being on the basis of “what he is willing to make of himself.” Hence, more precisely, the enlightened man “has a character, which he himself creates, insofar as he is capable of perfecting himself in accord with goals that he establishes for himself.” One of the most interesting differences between French and German language and culture is that the meaning of “character” as defined by the philosophy of German Classicism appears in French for the first time only a century later. We do not find a French equivalent to the famous lines from Goethe’s Torquato Tasso—“Es bildet ein Talent sich in der Stille, / Sich ein Charakter in dem Strom der Welt”—before the phrase “former son caractère!” used by Andre Gide and by Andre Maurois. This shows that in France the question of character was posed primarily in terms of the social nature of man. What La Bruyere and Molière interpreted through their characters was further developed in moral philosophy and psychology as a specific heritage of French Classicism, and also taken up by the German Enlightenment in the literary form of “moral portraits.” Later this tradition continued in the so-called “physiologies” or “tableaux” (e.g., of Paris, of France) which were periodically revived in the nineteenth century as a way of portraying society. Finally, it entered into the ambitious project of Balzac who, as a historien des moeurs, wanted to produce a complete description of his time. Contrary to this French development, a process of singularization, similar to what Reinhart Koselleck has termed the paradigm change from histories to history, was initiated in Germany. A singular character based on the ability of an individual to create and to perfect himself is detached from the plurale tantum of social characters. Character as sing ulare tantum becomes henceforth the privileged subject of aesthetic formation (Bildung) which, in Germany, was raised to the level of the ideal life and given a literary form in the Bildungsroman. The latter was unknown in France where the ideal of aesthetic formation seems to be absent in nineteenth-century culture and literature. The modern character of the Misanthrope created by Molière is strongly affected by this multiple, changing horizon, as is shown by the history of his reception. In order to summarize Molière’s comedy, I shall follow the example of French classicism and attempt to construct a portrait “a la maniere de Theophraste” from the details of Alceste’s behavior. Misanthropy can be defined as the melancholy temperament of a grouser {esprit chagrin the language of Molière’s time) who without any visible cause is angry at everyone and meddles at every opportunity in order to condemn the corruption of human nature and in doing so to find his own solitary satisfaction. The Misanthrope is something like the following: he wants to renounce the friendship of his only friend simply because the latter received a third party with studied politeness and afterwards had to acknowledge that he was, in fact, indifferent to him. Alceste goes so far as to claim that if he had been caught behaving in such a deceitful way be would have hanged himself immediately. When a lawsuit is brought against him, he relies only on his own righteousness to win his case, refusing all good advice and announcing that he would gladly pay a goodly price to lose “Pour la beaute du fait.” When his case is lost in the first court, he refuses to appeal to a second because a 20,000 franc fine would be a small price to pay for the privilege of complaining with full justification about the injustice of all humanity. When a would-be poet reads his most recent work to him and awaits his praise, Alceste tells him candidly, “Franchement, il est bon a mettre au cabinet.” To complete the affront, Alceste presents him with a poem that is an example of good taste—that is, of Alceste’s taste. In matters of the heart, he does not choose the woman who shares his convictions, but rather confesses his Page 144 \| Top of Articleweakness for an extremely worldly and coquettish young widow, whom he is willing to accept despite her failings so that he may purge her soul of them. When she informs him that she favors him, he provokes her by asking if she tells her other suitors the same thing and expresses his love with the bizarre compliment: “Et c’est pour mes peches que je vous aime ainsi.” When he decides once and for all to turn his back on all mankind, he is caught in the contradiction of wanting to take with him a member of the very society that is so hateful to him. But his scandalous beloved, who is supposed to share his solitude from then on, does not, of course, agree to this. This character portrait allows us to see how the modern Misanthrope contrasts with his ancient predecessor whom Molière possibly—if at all—knew in the modern form of Shakespeare’s Timon of Athens. The scene is no longer a wilderness in which a Cnemon or a luckless Timon must hoe or dig in the earth: now, society itself is the stage on which the unsociable man must bear his contradiction, only to finally turn away into an even deeper solitude. Molière’s Misanthrope is not taught by others and is not brought back to reason from his delusion of autarchy. Nor, at the end of the comedy, when he persists in his unnaturalness, is he punished with the beating that fulfilled the classical spectator’s expectation of poetic justice. Now it is the Misanthrope himself who poses as the judge of his age constantly instructing his friends, his lover, and eventually everyone. At the same time, the comic exaggeration raises questions concerning the more profound justice of social conventions, and the expected confirmation of poetic justice is not forthcoming. Thus Molière suggests, for example, that the “Marshals of France”—the highest arbiters in courtly society—might decide whether Oronte’s sonnet is as bad as Alceste, doubly provoked, thinks it is. At this point, the laughter prompted by the absurd cause and the spite of the misanthropic judge of culture surreptitiously turns around and ends up being directed against the arrogance of a royal authority that would decide by decree what shall be considered beautiful. The comic in Molière is not simply based on a deviation from a societal norm of bienseance. Subversively the play draws attention to and revalidates what had been repressed by the claim of the upper class to be the unquestioned representative of reason. The modern Misanthrope, who “im offiziell Geltenden das Nichtige und im offiizell Nichtigen das Geltende sichtbar werden laGt,” is, according to this famous formula of Joachim Ritter, at the same time a comic and a morally ambivalent character: in social matters because of his unconditional righteousness in a society schooled in the value of bienseance, but also as a character, because of the pathological foundation of his nature. Molière makes the grandiose one-sidedness of Alceste problematic by playing him off against a counter-character. Alceste is contrasted with Philinte, the melancholic with the phlegmatic man, and the temperaments of the two men are compared in turn with the contrasting female figures of Célimène, Eliante, and Arsinoe. Thus Molière constructs a communicating system of characters who must unfold their nature dialogically rather than monologically in reciprocal role-playing. Alceste’s and Philinte’s temperament and even their linguistic demeanor are presented in accordance with the traditional theory of the four bodily humors. This theory was still held in high regard by the medical science of Molière’s time, and it is entirely possible that a portion of Molière’s contemporary audience recognized symptoms of humoral pathology in the individual traits of these characters. But even if a spectator were acquainted with the pathological basis of the comic figures of Alceste and Philinte, the conflict of such completely contrasting temperaments would have constantly challenged him to consider whose side he should take and how he might find a reasonable mean between these two extremes, because Molière’s play assails the prevailing reason and very self-righteousness of his society. But even if these serious challenges—which interpreters have answered in the Misanthrope’s history of reception in three different ways—threaten to dissolve all comic effects in moral reflection, the audience could always be brought to laughter or smiles by the ultimate idiosyncrasy which most clearly distinguishes Alceste from Cnemon or Timon and which, according to La Bruyere and Boileau, was the very reason the honnetes gens laughed at him. The schism between wanting to be and having to be expresses itself in the comic self-contradiction of an atrabilaire amoureux who is in principle a misanthrope but, by way of exception, is nevertheless in love. The response of Molière’s contemporaries indicates that they had to change their views and realize why the comic figure Alceste was in bitter earnest. The spectators in the parterre (mere consumers in Molière’s day) found nothing to laugh at in the play. The gallery (the connoisseurs and critics) laughed at the wrong times. They had to be Page 145 \| Top of Articletaught, for example, that Oronte’s sonnet, which was at first considered quite beautiful, was being made fun of as a modish, clumsy piece written by a would-be poet. Symptomatic of this change of views is the case of a certain Monsieur de Montausier. He summoned Molière in a rage because he had been told that the Alceste everyone was laughing at was his exact portrait. But the high-born man received the trembling author with surprising respect. He had read the work himself in the meantime and could now only thank Molière because his Misanthrope was the most perfect gentleman he had ever encountered in his life. Molière’s first public came to esteem Alceste to the extent that they began to see that his ridiculous behavior and bizarre speech were the other face of a rare virtue, righteousness, and that no character could “speak more effectively against the corruption of his fellow men than their enemy.” Contemporary critics went so far as to praise the consistency with which Alceste “maintains his character” in all situations, as if it were not his enslavement to his nature but rather his free will and honor which prompted him to set an example for society. “Soutenir bien son caractère”—this newly coined meaning shows that in French Classicism the concept of character encompassed both nature and will. This new understanding presupposed that an individual in his social role maintains the character embedded in him, but it did not yet include a concept of the singular and the private, of the individual as distinguished from a public role. The modern view of Alceste as a misunderstood individual in a degenerate society first arose in German Classicism, and was developed by the Romantics. This major shift in the interpretation of the Misanthrope was ushered in by Rousseau’s criticism of Molière. The classical understanding of the Misanthrope was indeed renounced point by point barely a century later. Rousseau reproached Molière for adapting his comedy to the prevailing taste and—worse yet—for not having seen through the ideology of his society. In Rousseau’s view, Molière exposed to ridicule the only sincere, indeed the only just man who had the courage to point out society’s vices. To pillory “le ridicule de la vertu” on stage was to commit the ultimate sin of withholding from a deluded society the fact that its much-praised advances in knowledge and the arts were being purchased by a parallel decline in its morals and virtues. Was the derided enemy of humanity not actually the unrecognized friend of humanity; was it not because Alceste loved humanity that he was compelled to hate and denounce its vices? A new ideal of human nature was thus imposed by this complete reversal of the classical meaning. In Rousseau’s view, Alceste prefigures the homme naturel of the French Enlightenment and his failure is the typical fate of the “citoyen de Geneve,” who in his sincerity tears away the mask of social appearances and wants to set an example of the path to a natural existence. It is apparent in the subsequent effects of Rousseau’s new interpretation that a new understanding of a classical work often involves both a gain and a loss in meaning. Rousseau himself recommended that the text be revised so that Alceste could become a tragic figure. The “misanthrope amoureux” should be abandoned and instead Philinte the conformist should be exposed to ridicule. What Goethe, echoing Rousseau, called the solitary “Konflikt mit der socialen Welt, in der man ohne Verstellung und Flachheit nicht mehr umhergehen kann” no longer tolerates the spirit of comedy. Molière’s Misanthrope could no longer be understood simply as a comic subject because in his societal tragedy the inner world of a great individual had been revealed. Thus Goethe asked “ob jemals ein Dichter sein Inneres vollkommener und liebenswürdiger dargestellt habe,” as did Molière—a quality which Schlegel, in Goethe’s view, completely failed to recognize. Goethe and the Romantics were not the only followers of the tragic Alceste. French readers of Rousseau drew another conclusion: Alceste could only be found ridiculous or tragic during the Ancien Regime. Once republican freedom is developed comedy will have exhausted its purpose and Alceste have lost his right to complain. Perhaps Stendhal put it best when he wrote that the children of the revolution could no longer be expected to enjoy the pleasures of classical comedy. Its characters should be replaced by a new source of the comic for which Stendhal believed he had found the formula: “se tromper sur le chemin qui mene au bonheur.” Alceste in particular should have realized that all his suffering derived from the power of the monarchy. The refore Molière could retain only a historical interest for his nineteenth-century public unless—and this actually happened after 1789—his enemy of mankind was interpreted as a Jacobin avant la lettre. The second great shift in the history of reception of the Misanthrope results from a reversal of Rousseau’s paradigm. It is precisely his unquestioned premise that sincerity was the ground for Alceste’s Page 146 \| Top of Articlebehavior that is now doubted. The psychoanalytic interpretation given to Molière’s character gave rise to a profusion of aesthetically important readings and thereby weakened the prejudice that psychoanalytic approaches to literature reduce the artistic character of a work to concerns alien to art. This new understanding can be summarized in the following questions, which had not been asked before: Is the comic figure of Alceste rightly and without loss of meaning reducible to the modern character of the sincere individual—a character not found in the tradition before Molière—or does he not rather remain a profoundly ambivalent character? When Alceste demands of Philinte and eventually of everyone, “Je veux qu’on soit sincere”, is only the sincerity of others in question and never his own? Why does he still seek the unconditional recognition of others (“Je veux qu’on me distingue”) when he finds them incorrigible and, indeed, hates humanity in toto? Is something else hiding behind his demand for unconditional sincerity—perhaps the compulsive need to subject all other wills? Does not the initially legitimate protest against the self-righteousness and self-delusion of society always change suddenly into the hubris of one who despises the world and considers only himself upright? Karlheinz Stierle has noted that “in Molière’s Misanthrope a fundamental social fear—the dissolution of society by the / that posits itself as absolute—is thematized in such a way that the public is freed from this fear through laughter.” If the audience of French Classicism could free itself from such fears through laughter, wouldn’t that laughter subside if today’s audience were to see in an enemy of humanity the possible appearance of a tyrant? It is certainly possible, however, to laugh freely at Hofmannsthal’s Der Schwierige. Considering it in relation to Molière’s work, we could say that this belated comedy of character corrects, as it were, its classical model. If contrary to all classical expectations—expectations which the most intricate action of the play strengthens almost to the end—the Misanthrope is at last cured, this comic catharsis is made possible by the fact that in Count Buhl Hofmannsthal has created and investigated an eminently modern “character.” For this “difficult man,” who was first conceived in terms of the traditional character of a hypochondriac, is in fact far from being a character coined by nature. Rather, Count Buhl is—like the hero of Musil’s contemporary novel—a “man without qualities” or, better yet, a “man without intentions,” as Hofmannsthal first wanted to call his hero in a title he later rejected. So both the natural character of French Classicism and the self-creating character of German Classicism are discarded with the figure. The comic sovereignty of the “difficult man” originates in that others ascribe to him feature by feature the qualities he lacks in order to form a stable image of his being, an image County Bühl denies and finally destroys in an unexpected action. Thus the self-contradiction of Molière’s character, the schism between his nature and his will, is converted into a new, specifically modern contradiction between being for oneself and being for others and dissolved in the cathartic outcome of the comedy. But this denouement is by no means a triumph of narcissism confirming the principle of individuality. Nor is Count Buhl, who considers it naive to think “daB man etwas aus sich machen kann”, a character in the German Idealist sense. His comic dilemma does not grow out of the autonomy of a subjectivity that, in Hegel’s phrase, “sure of itself, can bear the dissolution of its goals and realizations,” but rather out of the heteronomy of an action which finally solves his difficulty unexpectedly, bringing him nolens volens back to sociability. If one sees in Hofmannsthal’s comedy a palinode or an ironic antiphony to Molière’s comedy of character, then the humor of Der Schwierige originates in the contrariness of a plot which entangles in the “odiosen Konfusionen” a “man without intentions” for whom nothing seems more demanding than to understand “wie man von einer Sache zur andern kommt.” At a soiree which he finds perfectly awful he sets out to accomplish diplomatically three extremely delicate intentions: the reconciliation of his former mistress with her husband, the engagement of his nephew with Helene, and his own farewell to her whom he loved in secret. What effects the ironic reversal of the classical role of the Misanthrope is that Count Buhl is no longer the critical adversary but rather the perfect representative, admired by all, of the aristocratic society of Old Vienna, who, from a superior position, presides over its declining art of conversation. His difficulty is caused not so much by the fact that the medium of conversation, on which he constantly meditates, itself becomes problematic to him. He first gets into an “unentwirrbarer Knauel von MiBverstandnissen” by not avoiding the role of lecturing others, although he, in contrast to Alceste, considers lessons impossible. He fails in his mission at every step and indeed produces the opposite of what he intended. Helene finally teaches him the most unexpected, indiscreet, and at the same time simplest of all Page 147 \| Top of Articlelessons which penetrates the wall of confusion he had erected and relieves him forever of the difficulty implied in his noncharacter. The lesson of the comedy with respect to the character of the Schwierige is contained in the explanation Helene gives for his bizarre behavior—an explanation which is a worthy close to the long hist ory of Misanthrope interpretations, since it teaches us to see the ultimate cause of his self-contradiction in a new light: “Was Sie hier hinausgetrieben hat, das war ihr MiBtrauen, Ihre Furcht vor Ihrem eigenen Selbst...Vor Ihrem eigentlichen tieferen Willen.” With respect to the behavior of the Schwierige in society the lesson of the comedy is the cure of the unsociable man by Helene’s confession of her love. What seems to be a social “Enormitat” allows this remarkable pair to attain sociability in the process of finding themselves—paradoxically, in the very act by which they withdraw from society: “Aber es ist die letzte Soiree,” announces Count Biihl, “auf der sie mich erscheinen sieht.” One of Hofmannsthal’s concise and programmatic notes reads “Das erreichte Soziale: die Komodien” His comedy Der Schwierige ends ironically, but there is also a “promesse de bonheur.” The power of the comic resolution can only initiate the reconciliation with society; it cannot complete it. The normative seriousness of social life is challenged anew since the engagement kiss must be sanctioned by the bridegroom’s sister and the bride’s father as their delegates. But can we not see in the comic catharsis a desire to turn the solitude of the Schwierige into a regained sociability shared by two, which leaves us with some hope? I should like to explain this hope by introducing a notion of truth which, I suppose, may be pertinent not only in poetry but also in social life. If a truth which could convince all would be too much for us, and if truth possessed by one man alone would be too little, are there not many things which are true for at least two people? Do not Count Biihl and Helene, who begin history anew as a first couple in the image of Adam and Eve, and who succeed in destroying the illusion of a truth possessed by a single person (that is, the illusion of classical autarchy as well as of modern individualism), thereby pave the way for a truth which can perhaps someday constitute a “promesse de bonheur” for all? Source: Hans R. Jauss, “The Paradox of The Misanthrope,” in Comparative Literature, Vol. 35, No. 4, Fall 1983, pp.305-322. Bolt, Ranjit, trans., Molière: The Misanthrope, A New Version, Oberon Books, 1998. Coward, David, “Introduction,” in Molière: The Miser and Other Plays, Penguin Books, 1959, pp. vii-viii, xv, xx-xxii. Dromgoole, Nicholas, “Introduction,” in Molière: The Misanthrope, A New Version, translated by Ranjit Bolt, Oberon Books, 1998, pp. 6, 8-9, 14. Gaines, James F., and Michael S. Koppisch, eds., Approaches to Teaching Molière’s Tartuffe and Other Plays, Modern Language Association of America, 1995, p. ix. Horowitz, Louise K., “Oh, Those Black Bile Blues: Teaching he misanthrope” in Approaches to Teaching Molière’s Tartuffe and Other Plays, edited by James F. Gaines and Michael S. Koppisch, Modern Language Association of America, 1995, p. 83. Lalande, Roxanne Decker, Intruders in the Play World: The Dynamics of Gender in Molière’s Comedies, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996, p. 147. Lewis, D. B. Wyndham, Molière: The Comic Mask, Coward-McCann, Inc., 1959, p. 89. Nurse, Peter Hampshire, Molière and the Comic Spirit, Librairie Droz, 1991, pp. 108, 114. Walker, Hallam, Molière, Twayne, 1990, pp. 89, 98, 100-101, 147, 149, 153, 168-169. Webster, Margaret, “Introduction,” in Molière, translated by Miles Malleson, Coward-McCann Publishers, 1950, p. v. Wilbur, Richard, “Introduction,” in The Misanthrope, translated by Richard Wilbur, Harcourt, 1955. Bernier, Olivier, Louis XIV: A Royal Life, Doubleday, 1987. This is a biography of King Louis XIV of France, who reigned from 1643 to 1715 and who remained an ardent supporter of Molière’s theatrical career. Jones, Colin, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France, Cambridge University Press, 1994. This is a history of French civilization with an emphasis on graphic display, such as artwork, engravings, and photographs. This is a feminist reading of the representation of women and gender in Molière’s major theatrical comedies. Marshall, W. Gerald, A Great Stage of Fools: Theatricality and Madness in the Plays of William Wycherley, AMS Press, 1993. Page 148 \| Top of Article This book contains a discussion of the works of Molière’s English counterpart as the master of the comedy of manners on the English stage. Maskell, David, Racine: A Theatrical Reading, Clarendon Press, 1991. This book discusses the works of the greatest tragic playwright of seventeenth-century France. Powell, Jillian, A History of France through Art, Thomas Learning, 1996. Powell’s text contains a history of art in France, in a cultural and historical context, from medieval through modern times. Walker, Hallam, Molière, Twayne, 1990. Walker’s book discusses the development of Molière’s dramatic career, with a focus on his major works. Source Citation Source Citation Gale Document Number: GALE\|CX2693800017	<urn:uuid:70c91b3d-983d-4850-a4ac-3272691bfe87>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.02436429262161255, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9610936641693115, "url": "https://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2693800017&v=2.1&u=poul45153&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=0be1a9e002850d80df4288ff2399060c" }
Rakib Hassan Big data and super computers help solve Hawaiian geological enigma By Robyn Williams on The Science Show How can we explain a 60-degree bend in the long chain of underwater sea mounts that trail the Hawaiian Islands? Until recently, it was thought the Pacific plate may have changed direction about 50 million years ago. But this would also apply to other sea mount chains, and other chains do not show the same feature. Recent work at the University of Sydney has uncovered a better explanation. It flows from detailed computer models of mantle movements over 200 million years. Now it is thought the bend stems from the movement of rock in the north Pacific. Large volumes of sinking oceanic crust led to rapid southward motion of the dense pile of rock below. This tilted the Hawaiian plume between 100 and 50 million years ago. As the pile slowed around 50 million years ago, the plume rapidly straightened leading to the dramatic bend in the Hawaiian seamount chain which we see today. These findings have major implications for the reconstruction of the Earth’s history in deep geological time. Duration: 3min 51sec • Rakib Hassan Post doctoral researcher Geophysics and Geodynamic modelling The University of Sydney Sydney NSW Further Information	<urn:uuid:9e288d13-ade4-4c88-a3d1-c65dff11d7ff>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.14373034238815308, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9147396087646484, "url": "https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/scienceshow/big-data-and-super-computers-help-solve-hawaiian-geological-eni/7695400" }
Since Houston, Texas was founded nearly two centuries ago, Houstonians have been treating its wetlands as stinky, mosquito-infested blots in need of drainage. Even after it became a widely accepted scientific fact that wetlands can soak up large amounts of flood water, the city continued to pave over them. In recent days, the flooding caused by Hurricane Harvey has raised water levels in some parts of the watershed high enough to completely cover a Cadillac. The vanished wetlands wouldn’t have prevented flooding, but they would have made it less painful, experts say. Written by Ana Campoy & David Yanofsky. Read more from the article: https://bit.ly/2PjcLpl.	<urn:uuid:95573e26-a1fe-4b66-a8cc-650e6fc624be>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.07739025354385376, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9692657589912415, "url": "https://www.sicwf.org/houstons-flooding-shows-what-happens-when-you-ignore-science-and-let-developers-run-rampant/" }
Science Lesson Plans Gym or open space The circus gets opportunities to travel all over the world! They are going over the ocean on boat and get to see really interesting sea creatures. As a group, discuss different animals in the ocean and how the travel all over it. Decide on two or three animals (depending on the class size) from the ocean. Divide the class into the two/three groups. Explain that when their animal group is called they will have to cross the ocean. However, they need to be listening for how to cross the ocean. (Example: All of my octopus can hop across the ocean.) If you call out "All the fish in the sea", every one needs to cross at the same time. Lastly, explain how there are other living things in the ocean such as plants. You (the teacher) have become _________. (Examples: seaweed, amoebas, coral, etc.) When they cross the ocean, they have to be careful not to get caught by / get stuck in your plant. If a student does get caught then they turn into a plant as well and help to catch other animals. When playing the part of the plant, it is important to remember that plants do not move. They can turn around and wave their arms, but they stay in one spot. Once the students are at the other end of the ocean, turn around and start again. (1) (9) Variations1) When they become more familiar with the game, you can start to choose other students to begin as the plants. 2) To be more challenging call out things like “all mammals.”3) Have the students go across the oceans on boats (scooters) if they get tagged then they need to put their scooters away and be plants. Science: 8:A, 8:B, 8:C, 8:D, 9:A, 9:B, 9:C PE: 1:A, 1:B, 1:C, 1:D, 1:E. 1:G, 2:B, 3:A, 6:A, 6:B, 7;A, 7:B, 7:C Materials Area: Large open space Introduction Some of your animals have escaped! You need to go on a scavenger hunt to find them! Activity Split the students into groups of three and assign each group a color. Their will be boxes with their colors and animals on them. At the start of the game each team will be given a clue as to what their animal is. For example one of the groups will get a card that looks like: MammalFound in AfricaPurple tongueEats off of tall trees The team would then look for a box that is their color and has a giraffe on it. In the box will be a puzzle piece and another clue. The team will continuously answer questions and pick puzzle pieces up to put together. The puzzle pieces will then tell them what their prize is for finishing, which will be a class pizza party. Variations:1) Have students walk from clue to clue based on the last animal they found. For example if they find an elephant then they need to walk like an slow and big like an elephant. 2) They will have a secretary that writes the problems and solutions on a piece of paper to submit to the teacher. 3) The students can practice using a compass by following specific instructions from the different boxes. For example one of the boxes could say “Congratulations! You found the Lion! The lion is the second largest cat. The male lion is easily recognized by it’s mane. Now its time to find another animal! He is found in swamps and Louisiana is the state with the largest population of these animals. The muscles on his jaw are incredibly strong. On average, he is six feet long. Practice caution! From the lion, walk twenty giant steps north, thirty baby steps west, and four hops South.” (9) 10) TEKS	<urn:uuid:9a082dc9-cbfc-4d5f-a850-a3430c4ecaf3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.7856776714324951, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9438140988349915, "url": "https://educatorpages.com/site/chelseadean/pages/47565" }
How is the stigma adapted for capturing pollen? Quick Answer The stigma has a surface that chemically bonds to the specific coating on the pollen from its own species, so it captures its own pollen very well but not the pollen of other species of plant. Stigma surfaces can be either wet or dry. Continue Reading Related Videos Full Answer Different plants have widely different varieties of pollen coatings, stigma surfaces, slime layers and other structures made to specifically bind the pollen and stigma of the same species together, according to a study by Edlund, Swanson and Preuss. After the initial adhesion of the pollen to the stigma, various processes often work to make the bond stronger. The pollen is generally very dry when it first comes in contact with the stigma, so once they are firmly bonded, the stigma begins providing water to the pollen to allow it to grow. Once hydrated, the living cells of the pollen activate and begin to grow. The pollen cells form tubes that extend down the stigma toward the plant ovum. The pollen cells know in which direction to form the tubes by the direction from which they are provided water by the stigma. The sperm cells in the pollen then travel down the tubes to fertilize the ova. Learn more about Outdoor Plants & Flowers Related Questions	<urn:uuid:d3ba4cb0-4598-4451-964b-19e03209ffee>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.953125, "fasttext_score": 0.10009688138961792, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9152700901031494, "url": "https://www.reference.com/home-garden/stigma-adapted-capturing-pollen-9f4f5c457e764c47" }
Math Homework. Do It Faster, Learn It Better. The word infinity is derived from the Latin word, infinitas. It refers to the concept of never ending or limitlessness, boundlessness, without end. In mathematics it is often used in the context of numbers as in “an infinite number of items’ or the ‘limit as it goes to infinity.” The symbol for infinity is . The mathematician John Wallis is credited with introducing the symbol to mathematics in the mid- 1600 s. One popular explanation suggests that the shape is derived from the Mobius Strip, a figure with no beginning and no end.	<urn:uuid:bcd5dd2f-3087-4f62-b168-233cf6f66964>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.9910185933113098, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9203351140022278, "url": "https://www.varsitytutors.com/hotmath/hotmath_help/topics/infinity.html" }
Traditional and Contemporary Adaptive Strategies From Bedouininfo, the free wikispace Background Information on Adaptive Strategies The Bedouin have used animal husbandry and pastoral nomadism as their primary means of survival for 2, 500 years. Their primary goal is searching for lands that are abundant with both grass and water. These resources are vital to both the herders and the herds, making knowledge of the seasonal changes that affect pasture and water location. Contemporary nomads (since the 1960s) have used trucks in place of camels to supply water to the herds (Countries and their cultures). Due to the Bedouin’s nomadic nature, they do not produce specialized work such as metal or cured leather. This leaves them to depend on outside sources such as gypsies and other traders (Countries and their Cultures). external image algeria-bedouin_662574c.jpgexternal image syria-water-2011-03-15-2.jpg Traditionally the Bedouin had to secure grains and produce that is farmed through a variety of ways. Some would harvest crops if their lands were near rain-fed cultivation. Another way of getting grains was trading with local farmers for their protection and security from attacks from other tribal groups (Countries and their Cultures). The Bedouin depend largely on familial bonds. This is both a traditional and contemporary aspect of their culture. While the Bedouin live a nomadic lifestyle, this doesn’t exclude every type of settlement. The Bedouin have claims to lands that have somewhat defined limits including their pasturelands and their seasonal homes. Traditionally, the Bedouin arrange together in kin-based households that journey together. This movement tends to happen around the spring and summer months, while the winter months are spent at shelters that can be either temporary or permanent (Countries and Their Cultures). external image 20090422_bedouins_patrick-zoll_01.jpg Normally, the Bedouin would settle in tent shelters (called buyuut) in campsites of as little as three shelters to as many as 15 shelters. As some Bedouin groups have begun to stay settled in once place consistently every year for the winter, the tents have been upgraded to stone dwellings (called buyuut hajar). These huts are sometimes not even fully deserted during the spring and summer due to elderly tribes people and very young children staying behind. These people stay behind to take advantage of the government assistance that is being provided to some Bedouin groups now. Services such as health care and education have been introduced into some of these communities. (Countries and Their Cultures). Others haven’t been recognized and assisted. Adaptive approaches differ among the Bedouin depending on their location. Variations do exist among the different Bedouin groups. For example, the Bedouin in North Africa show differences in movement schedules, and their tent or stone dwelling are mostly similar to those of other Bedouin groups. However the shape is rectangular and the house is divided up based on the spheres of the women’s place, the man’s place and then an area for animals (Countries and Their Cultures). Due to economic and political developments the Bedouin have had to adapt their lifestyle. Many are still animal herders, but some have had to settle more permanently. The Bedouin have traditionally avoided settlement and sedentary work, but have been forced to acquire these skills to survive in the new political and environmental conditions. (Encyclopedia Britannica Online).	<urn:uuid:c72195a1-f932-4003-a3a7-fa6e65d3d669>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.15920895338058472, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9632200598716736, "url": "http://bedouininfo.wikispaces.com/Adaptive+Strategies?responseToken=01a6aa48fb9c47d8b4f1673e588d34703" }
What is a molt? Molting is a natural and necessary process by which chickens lose old, broken, worn out and soiled feathers for new plumage on a regular basis. It is important that a chicken grow new feathers from time to time before the integrity of a bird’s feathers affect how well that bird is able to keep itself warm in cold weather. A bird’s first adult molt is generally about 18 months old - usually in late summer or early fall and the replacement feathers are generally in fully within eight to twelve weeks, although some birds drag it out longer. There are two styles of molting – soft and hard: • Soft molting birds lose some feathers, but the affect is such that the untrained eye might not realize a molt is even going on; • Hard molting will suddenly and dramatically lose a vast quantity of feathers giving it a nude appearance. Some of the most common triggers for a molt are a reduction in daylight hours, stress caused by lack of water, malnutrition, extreme heat, hatching a clutch of eggs and unusual lighting conditions (such as a light bulb in the coop left on all day and then it suddenly goes out). Any of these issues can be at the root of an unexpected or untimely molt. Keep in mind that the replacing of feathers requires a lot of protein. A molting chickens body simply cannot support both feather and egg production simultaneously. As a result, molting generally causes either a significant reduction in egg productivity or, more commonly, a full hiatus from egg laying until the hen has fully replace its feathers. There are things you can do to help your hens through this time. Providing more protein is key. Typical layers feed is 16 percent protein; during a molt, switch to a broiler blend of feed which is 20-25 percent protein instead. Protein rich treats should also be provided. Some examples of high protein treats that can be easily provided include: sunflower seeds or other nuts (raw and unsalted), peas, soybeans, meat (cooked), cod liver oil, bone meal. You can also feed them protein-rich corn bread – using a basic corn bread recipe and supplement it with nuts, flaxseed, dried fruit and yogurt in the batter. The added ingredients boost this snack’s protein levels and will help molting hens get her feathers back in quickly. As an added bonus, the flock seems to enjoy that this treat is served to them warm on these snowy, wintery days. There are a couple other molting issues to keep in mind. It is uncomfortable for a bird with pin feathers to be handled. Additionally, a bird going through a hard molt with bare skin can be more susceptible to pecking and bullying by other flock members, so keep a close eye on the molting bird. A rapid feather loss by the entire flock is usually a sign that something serious has happened (such as a lack of water). To prevent molting, you can provide artificial light for 16 hours a day. One 40 watt light mounted 6-8 feet above he flor in the centre of the pen should be sufficient for our purposes. The light can be turned off during the day, but if you forget to turn it one even once, your hens may start to molt. If you think you might forget, set a timer to turn the light on at 4:00 a.m. and shut off at 8:00 p.m., allowing a slight overlapping of artificial and natural light in the morning and evening.	<urn:uuid:1d49951b-75e4-46ea-8ed1-df1b2a5df410>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.06347483396530151, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9431025981903076, "url": "http://kitchenerurbanhens.webs.com/molting" }
It’s never pleasant to come into contact with a pollutant, but BPA might be even worse for the environment than we thought. Painted turtle eggs were brought from a hatchery in Louisiana, candled to ensure embryo viability and then incubated at male-permissive temperatures in a bed of vermiculite. Those exposed to BPA developed deformities to testes that held female characteristics. Image credits: Roger Meissen, MU Bond Life Sciences CenterClose. Bisphenol A (typically abbreviated BPA) is a common chemical used in a variety of consumer products, including food storage containers, water bottles and certain resins. It’s been in commercial use since the late 1950s. BPA exhibits estrogen mimicking, hormone-like properties that raise concern about its effects on the environment, and it also affects the growth, reproduction, and development in aquatic organisms, fish being the most vulnerable. Now, researchers have found yet another negative effect the chemical has on wildlife: it can really mess up the brains of turtles. Turtles are often regarded as an “indicator species,” being indicative of the environmental health of the entire ecosystem. So if something’s wrong with turtles, it could be that similar things are happening to other species in the same habitat. Cheryl Rosenfeld, an investigator in the Bond Life Sciences Center, along with other researchers at the University of Missouri, Westminster College and the Saint Louis Zoo, set out to see how BPA (a common pollutant) affects the turtles. Startingly, researchers report that the chemical can have a severe effect on their brains and behavior, making male turtles act like females and vice versa. Rosenfeld wanted to see exactly how BPA does this, and she found that it basically affects the turtles’ gene expression, altering their mitochondrial and ribosomal pathways. Since the mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell and convert nutrients into useful energy, BPA can change a lot of things. For instance, increased energy production inside brain cells can affect cognitive flexibility and memory. However, we’re only beginning to understand how this type of substance can damage the environment because we don’t know that much about cellular mechanisms and gene expressions in creatures like turtles. This is the first study to find a correlation between pollution, gene expression patterns, and behavioral changes in turtles. Although this is a newly discovered mechanism, researchers were able to show that the effects last for at least a year, and they believe that the damage BPA does to the critters might even be permanent. Like us on Facebook	<urn:uuid:d91187d1-8bf1-4c21-9a23-746ece9c9142>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.1836187243461609, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9274736642837524, "url": "https://www.zmescience.com/ecology/animals-ecology/bpa-brain-turtle-19052017/" }
Example of formatting cells that contain missing observations A quality engineer for a pharmaceutical company wants to determine the shelf life for pills that contain a new drug. The engineer collects a batch of pills from each of five production lines. The engineer tests one pill from each batch at nine different times. However, the engineer fails to test a sample at some of the production line/time combinations. Therefore, those observations are missing. The engineer uses conditional formatting to identify the cells that contain the missing observations. 1. Open the sample data, ShelfLife.MTW. 2. Click in the Drug% column. 3. Choose Editor > Conditional Formatting > Highlight Cell > Missing Observations. 4. From Style, select Yellow. 5. Click OK. The cells that contain missing values are shaded yellow.	<urn:uuid:ba10807c-8b98-43e9-9ff2-201220b0f102>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.9616689085960388, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8784587383270264, "url": "https://support.minitab.com/en-us/minitab/18/help-and-how-to/manipulate-data-in-worksheets-columns-and-rows/how-to/apply-conditional-formatting-to-cells/example-of-formatting-cells-that-contain-missing-observations/" }
The Hejaz railway The Hejaz railway connecting Damascus with the Holy Cities of what is now western Saudi Arabia had been built by the Ottoman rulers, and financed by subscriptions from Muslims, in the early years of the twentieth century to ease the difficult journey across the desert for the huge numbers of pilgrims on the annual hajj. Although originally intended to reach as far as Makkah (Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed), opposition from local tribes – who made an excellent living transporting the pilgrims across the last section of desert – prevented the final leg from being built. Consequently, the line ran from Haifa, on a branch line on the Mediterranean coast, to Damascus, the capital of what is now Syria, and south through the desert to Madinah (Medina), nearly 1,000 miles away. The terminus was still 300 miles short of Makkah but nevertheless made it much easier for Muslims to reach their two holiest cities. The journey to Makkah took a couple of weeks using the railway rather than the arduous five- or six-week journey by caravan. While the religious reasons for its construction were emphasized by the Ottoman ruler, Abdulhamid II, the railway, like so many others, also had both an imperial rationale, as it was a way of cementing together the disparate elements of the crumbling Ottoman Empire, and an economic one, since there was the hope that the desert would yield up valuable minerals. It was, therefore, vital for the Turks to protect and maintain the line after the outbreak of war, which they had joined on the German side in October 1914. In 1915, the British decided to open up a second front, in the Middle East, to take pressure off the Western Front, landing at the Dardanelles to force the Germans to divert resources there. It was a disastrous failure, with delays and uncertainty allowing the Turks to reinforce their positions over the beaches, resulting in the abandonment of the attack by the end of the year. Britain was left with two armies in the Middle East, in Palestine and Mesopotamia (in what is now Iraq). In Palestine their main role was to guard the vital Suez Canal but in Mesopotamia the war against the Turks, which was primarily about protecting oil supplies from the Gulf, had initially resulted in a humiliating defeat for the British at Kut Al Amara in April 1916. The British had over-extended themselves by trying to occupy Baghdad, running too far ahead of their largely river-based supply lines, a problem which was eventually remedied through the construction of a large network of narrow-gauge railways. Kut was retaken from the Turks early the following year and Baghdad was seized in March 1917, finally giving the initiative to the British in the Mesopotamian campaign. By the summer of 1916, the British saw that the best way of putting extra pressure on the Ottomans would be through encouraging the Arab tribes, led by Ali, Abdullah and Feisal, three sons of Sherif Hussein, the Emir of Makkah, to rise up against Turkish rule. With tacit encouragement from the British through diplomatic channels, the Arabs started harassing the Turks in June, targeting the Hejaz railway as the focus of their attacks. Initially their efforts were crude, involving ‘tearing off lengths of the metals with their bare hands and tossing them down the bank’. Since the Turkish army had efficient repair teams and large reserves of track, these attacks did little to hinder their war effort. The Arabs needed explosives and better organization. Enter T. E. Lawrence. Captain – he later became a colonel – Lawrence arrived on the Arabian Peninsula in October with no official mandate but his timing proved perfect. An Arab-speaker who had travelled extensively in the Middle East, Lawrence had only managed to take time off his desk job in Cairo (Egypt was a British colony at the time ) by applying for leave. He never went back to the paperclips. Instead he was sent unofficially by the British military to meet Prince Feisal in the desert, because the Arabs’ attacks had petered out, and came back convinced that with supplies, especially guns and ammunition, and support the Arabs could make a significant difference to the war in the Middle East. An overt all-out attack on the Turks was ruled out by the British high command, but the idea of a war conducted cheaply and with little direct British involvement by offering support to the Arabs proved appealing. The British Army was so taken with the suggestion that it funded Lawrence to the tune of £200,000 per month, which he used to buy supplies and camels and to enlist the support of the Bedouin tribes. Lawrence returned to Cairo and, having persuaded his superiors of the value of supporting the Arabs, rejoined Feisal’s irregular army as liaison officer in December 1916 to launch a series of attacks on the Hejaz Railway. In January 1917, the British seized Wejh, a port on the Red Sea, to use as their base for attacks further inland on the Arabian Peninsula. The takeover of Wejh was crucial not only in ensuring that the anti-Turkish forces could be supplied, but also in thwarting any Turkish notion of further attacks on the Egyptian side of the Red Sea, and from this point their military ambitions were limited to retaining control of the Hejaz Railway in order to keep Madinah supplied. The first attack on the railway was actually carried out not by Lawrence but by Herbert Garland, an eccentric major (bimbashi) attached to the Egyptian Army, and a party of fifty tribesmen, who blew up a troop train in February at Towaira. The gang had been fortunate as the guides had taken them close to a blockhouse protecting the line but hey had not been overheard as they laid their charges. Indeed, the railway was well protected by a series of blockhouses at key structures such as bridges and tunnels, and therefore the attacks were focussed on remote areas of the line. Simply blowing up the track was futile as the repair work could be effected quickly, especially as there were plenty of spare rails in Madinah that had originally been intended for the extension of the line to Makkah which was never built. As he explains in his classic Seven Pillars of Wisdom, Lawrence instead devised tactics that were designed to cause maximum disruption to the Turks while avoiding an all-out confrontation and he deliberately targeted trains with specially devised mines that he normally laid himself. By the time Lawrence arrived, the Arabs had already taken over several towns in the Hejaz, including Makkah, but the Turks still held Madinah at the end of the line which could only be supplied by the railway. Lawrence ruled out the idea of trying to take the town because the Arab irregular forces were no match for the well-organized Turks in set-piece battles. Instead, the tactic was to launch a series of raids along the length of the railway, similar guerrilla methods to those employed by the Boers against the British in South Africa: ‘Our idea was to keep his railway just working, but only just, with the maximum of loss and discomfort… The surest way to limit the line without killing it was by attacking trains.’20 Lawrence led his first raid on the railway at Abu Na’am in March and there were some thirty more attacks in the following months, most carried out by Arab forces led by Prince Abdullah and supported by forces of the Egyptian Army and a small French contingent. They were supplemented by a few bombing raids by aeroplanes on the railway, which was at the limit of their range from their base in Egypt. Lawrence’s attacks took a disproportionate toll on the Turkish forces. Very few of the attackers were killed in these engagements, while the Turks usually lost dozens, if not more, each time. The attacks kept the Turks on the defensive and prevented Fakhri Pasha, the commander of the Turkish garrison at Madinah, from launching an attack to try to regain Makkah. This was vital since the fact that the Turks had lost control of the holiest of cities, after 600 years of Ottoman rule, was a great spur to the continuation of the Arab Revolt. While the railway was rarely closed for more than a day or so by the attacks, the number of trains was reduced from the peacetime level of two daily to two every week, which created food and fuel shortages in Madinah, stimulating internal dissent. About half the population fled northwards on the railway – one train of such refugees, mainly women and children, would have been blown up by Lawrence but for the good fortune that his mine did not go off. Meanwhile Lawrence turned his attention to the Port of Aqaba. His little army left Wejh in July 1917 and cleverly attacked the railway on several occasions as he headed north to fool the Turks into thinking that was the purpose of his mission. The Turks expected that any attack on Aqaba would come from the sea. Instead, Lawrence and Feisal, with a force of 2,000 men, mostly on camels, for once took on a static army head on but triumphed easily thanks to the element of surprise and the lack of proper defences in what was then a small fishing village. The Turks put up little resistance and the bloody side of this desert war was exposed by the subsequent massacre of more than 300 Turkish soldiers by the vengeful Arabs, the kind of incident which, as Lawrence relates in his book, was repeated several times during this campaign. There were virtually no casualties on the Arab side, though Lawrence nearly killed himself by accidentally shooting his own camel in the head and being thrown off at full speed, but suffered only cuts and bruises. Now the focus of the revolt turned north, with the idea of chasing the Turks out of what is now Jordan, Syria and Lebanon. The capture of Aqaba helped protect the British right flank in Palestine, where a different type of war was taking place, one which involved building a railway rather than destroying it. Having initially only sought to defend the Suez Canal, the British, led by Lawrence’s hero, General Edmund Allenby, decided to go on the offensive across the Sinai towards Palestine but they needed a railway to supply them, just as Kitchener’s army had when reconquering Sudan. The aim was to push through from Egypt to Palestine, and chase the Turks out of Gaza, and then Jerusalem, with the ultimate goal of Damascus. The railway was started at Kantara, on the eastern bank of the Suez Canal, and was gradually extended eastwards during 1916 and the early part of 1917. It made slow but steady progress, reaching the front at Gaza, 125 mile s from its terminus, where the Turks were entrenched, supplied by their own railhead at Beersheba and later a specially built branch just out of range of the British guns. It would take Allenby three attempts to dislodge the Turks from Gaza, but when he finally did, and marched on to capture Jerusalem at the end of 1917, it was celebrated as one of the few genuine victories by British forces in the war. Lawrence had used Aqaba as a base for repeated attacks on the Hejaz railway until the winter, when there was a lull in the fighting. Allenby’s progress towards Damascus was delayed, too, as two of his divisions (around 25,000 men) were redeployed to the Western Front. In the spring, when the drive to Damascus finally began, the policy towards the railway changed. It was imperative to cut off the line up from the Hejaz so that the Turks could not use it to bring reinforcements from Madinah against Allenby’s forces. Consequently, Lawrence’s group attacked the railway in various places, having developed a more sophisticated type of mine inappropriately called ‘tulip’. This was a much smaller charge, a mere 2lb of dynamite compared with the 40lb or 50lb ones used previously, and involved placing the charge underneath the sleepers, which would blow the metal upwards ‘into a tulip-like shape without breaking; by doing so it distorted the two rails to which its ends were attached’, which was impossible to repair and consequently forced the Turks to replace the whole section of track. In early April 1918, the last train between Madinah and Damascus made it through but after that the line was blocked by successive attacks which left more Turkish troops stuck in the Hejaz protecting a line that was now of no strategic use than were facing Allenby in Palestine. In the decisive attack at Tel Shahm, led by General Dawnay, Lawrence showed his regard for the railway by claiming the station bell, a fine piece of Damascus brass work: ‘the next man took the ticket punch and the third the office stamp, while the bewildered Turks stared at us, with a growing indignation that their importance should be merely secondary’. The Turks had clearly never met any British trainspotters with their obsession for railway memorabilia. Attacks against the northern part of the railway continued, and the line was cut off in several other places, either by Lawrence or the British forces coming from Palestine. The attacks on the Hejaz railway had been an exemplary case history of guerrilla warfare. It was not all about Lawrence, as he readily admits in the Seven Pillars, but without his ability to stimulate the Arab revolt, General Allenby’s task in sweeping through Palestine would undoubtedly have been harder. Although in the later stages some armoured vehicles and even air support became available, the basic tactics remained the same throughout: ‘The campaign remained dependent on the speed and mobility of the irregular Bedouin forces, and on the inability of the better trained, well-equipped Turkish troops to follow the raiding parties into the desert… As Glubb Pasha (of later Trans-Jordanian Arab League fame) remarked: “the whole Arab campaign provides a remarkable illustration of the extraordinary results which can be achieved by mobile guerrilla tactics. For the Arabs detained tens of thousands of regular Turkish troops with a force scarcely capable of engaging a brigade of infantry in pitched battle”.’ The Turks, too, were equally courageous and in their stubborn defence of the line there is another side to the more famous Lawrence story, which is the difficulty of putting a railway permanently out of action. There was no shortage of difficulties for railway operations. Fuel was a constant worry and by the end of the war the houses in Madinah had been stripped of all timber and even the city gates and wooden sleepers from the track had been removed to keep the locomotives running, which required constant improvisation in the face of the constant attacks. While even today a few wrecked locomotives can still be seen in the desert, for the most part the Turks rescued damaged engines and repaired them in their works yards. The historian of the lines, James Nicholson, remarks that the foot soldiers were genuinely heroic: ‘Confined to their stations and a narrow strip of land, they were cast adrift in a vast and hostile country, far from the main centres of command.’ They were dependent on the railway for all their needs and therefore by 1918 ‘many were close to starvation, clothed in rags and ravaged by scurvy’. And yet, despite that, they managed to keep the railway operating until nearly the end of the war. Barbary Corsair Hamidou Raïs Algiers the capital of Algeria in the time of Rais Hamidou The U.S.-Tripoli conflict had come close to destabilizing the entire Barbary Coast. Algiers threatened war with America because the annual tribute of naval stores was late in coming. Tunis threatened war because American vessels blockading Tripoli harbor persisted in stopping Tunisians and confiscating Tunisian goods. Morocco actually opened hostilities and detained two American merchantmen before the sultan thought better of it. Of the European powers with interests in the Mediterranean, the Danes and the Swedes did their best to mediate between the two sides, and France promised that its consul in Tripoli would try to free the crew of the Philadelphia. The British consul, on the other hand, worked hard to maintain Yusuf’s hostility toward America—or so the Americans believed. But war between Britain and France broke out in May 1803; and Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself emperor of France the following year. Europe had more pressing matters to worry about than relations with North Africa. “God preserve Bonaparte!” exclaimed one corsair. “As long as other nations have him to contend with, they won’t worry us.” That corsair was Hamidou Raïs. Hamidou belonged to a group of corsair captains whose careers flourished in a little renaissance of Algerian privateering around the turn of the nineteenth century. It included Ham-man, said by some sources to be Hamidou’s brother; Tchelbi, with whom he sailed in the late 1790s; Mustafa “the Maltese”; and Ali Tatar. Although the taifat al-raïs was no longer the maker and breaker of deys that it had been in the seventeenth century, individual captains still commanded a great deal of respect in Algerian society. They lived in fine mansions with large households. Their exploits were celebrated in songs and poems. Hamidou was a native Algerian, the son of a tailor. He went to sea as a boy in the 1780s, and by 1797 he had his own ship, a small, fast three-masted xebec. That year, he and Tchelbi Raïs sailed into Tunis with four valuable prizes, a Genoese, a Venetian, and two Neapolitans; and when Algiers declared war on France in 1798 he captured the French factory at El Kala near the Tunisian border, and then sailed north to raid along the coast of Provence. Over the next two years his men took at least fourteen prizes worth half a million francs. Algiers made peace with Napoleon at the end of 1801, by which time Hamidou had become one of his nation’s most profitable corsairs. As a reward, he was moved to the brand-new forty-four-gun Mashouda, one of two frigates which the dey commissioned specially from a Spanish naval architect, Maestro Antonio. (The other went to Ali Tatar.) The Mashouda remained his flagship for the rest of his life. In 1805 he took several Neapolitans, an American schooner with a crew of fifty-eight, and, after a fierce battle, a forty-four-gun Portuguese frigate, the Swan. The Swan’s 282 survivors were brought back to Algiers, and the poets sang of how Hamidou’s heart was full of joy at overcoming the infidels, and how he arrived at the dey’s palace trailing behind him enslaved Christians and Negroes. Amid the stylized Algerian encomiums that celebrated Hamidou’s successes, there is the occasional more prosaic glimpse into the character of this charismatic man. He was of medium height, with blond hair and blue eyes (not as unusual as one might think among native-born Algerians), and clean-shaven except for long drooping mustaches. Elizabeth Blanckley, the young daughter of the British consul general in Algiers, was clearly smitten: years later she wrote that the raïs, who when he wasn’t hunting Christians lived next door to the consulate, “was one of the finest-looking men I ever saw, and was as bold as one of his native lions.” She also recalled that Hamidou was “not the most rigid observer of the Alcoran,” since he used to drop round for a glass or two of Madeira with her father. “His house and garden were kept up in the greatest order and beauty,” she said. Hamidou’s domestic arrangements are unknown, although when Algiers was briefly at war with Tunis in 1810 and the Mashouda captured a Tunisian ship with four Negro women aboard, one was reserved for his use. Presumably the young Elizabeth was unaware of what went on behind the walls of Dar Hamidou. The Tuscan poet Filippo Pananti, who was taken when the Mashouda captured the Sicilian merchant ship in which he was a passenger, left a vignette of Hamidou at work. His description of the capture is vivid: one of the Sicilian sailors, who had already been enslaved once, had to be restrained from stabbing himself to death. Another seized a firebrand and tried to blow up the ship’s powder magazine before the corsairs could board. When they did board, passengers and crew were petrified: [The pirates] appear on deck in swarms, with haggard looks, and naked scimitars, prepared for boarding; this is preceded by a gun, the sound of which was like the harbinger of death to the trembling captives, all of whom expected to be instantly sunk; it was the signal for a good prize: a second gun announced the capture, and immediately after they sprang on board, in great numbers. Their first movements were confined to a menacing display of their bright sabres and attaghans [long knives]; with an order for us, to make no resistance, and surrender . . . and this ceremony being ended, our new visitors assumed a less austere tone, crying out in their lingua franca, No pauro! No pauro! Don’t be afraid. To Pananti’s surprise, Hamidou’s men were kind and deferential toward the women captives, and enchanted with their children. “It was only necessary to send Luigina [one of the little girls] round amongst the Turks, and she was sure to return with her little apron full of dried figs and other fruits.” Hamidou himself comes across as ingenious, arrogant—and amiable. He would sit cross-legged on deck for three or four hours each day, giving orders to his men, smoking and smoothing his long mustache. But he also invited the Italians into his cabin, “where an Arab tale was recited, and what was still better, a cup of good Yemen coffee was handed round, followed by a small glass of rum.” By 1815, Algiers was at war with Portugal, Spain, several Italian states, Holland, Prussia, Denmark, and Russia. The dey’s prize registries for the thirty months from July 1812 to January 1815 show that Hamidou and the Mashouda brought home twenty-two prizes with cargoes worth nearly two million francs. There was brandy, cocoa, coffee and sugar, wine and cloth and timber. The corsairs were generally careful to avoid direct attacks on shipping belonging to France and Great Britain, both of whom had navies powerful enough to deter any acts of aggression. But the smaller, weaker nations were fair game, and Hamidou’s victims included Danes, Swedes, Greeks—and Americans. The dey of Algiers took the occasion of the War of 1812 to renege on his treaty obligations with the United States; and although corsairs had a hard time finding American ships that hadn’t already been captured by the British navy, one U.S. brig, the Edwin, was taken off the southern coast of Spain in the summer of 1812, while on her way home from Malta, and brought into Algiers, where her ten-man crew was imprisoned. Her captor was a frigate armed with two rows of cannon on each side—she may well have been the Mashouda. Britain and the United States signed a peace treaty on Christmas Eve 1814. The following spring, outrage at the continuing detention of the Edwin and her crew led the administration in Washington to decide it had had enough of the corsairs. President James Madison and Secretary of State James Monroe co-signed an uncompromising letter to the dey, Hadji Ali: Your Highness having declared war against the United States of America, and made captives of some of their citizens, and done them other injuries without cause, the Congress of the United States at its last session authorised by a deliberate and solemn act, hostilities against your government and people. A squadron of our ships of war is sent into the Mediterranean sea, to give effect to this declaration. It will carry with it the alternative of peace or war. It rests with your government to choose between them. Madison made good his threat, dispatching two squadrons of warships to deliver his letter. One of these squadrons, commanded by Commodore Stephen Decatur in the Guerriere and carrying the American consul general for the Barbary states, William Shaler, encountered Hamidou Raïs and the Mashouda at Cabo de Gata on Saturday, June 17, 1815. Hamidou had been cruising off the Spanish coast that week, in company with a twenty-two-gun brig, the Estedio, which had been taken from the Portuguese some years before. He had just sent the Estedio to reconnoiter farther along the coast (she was run aground near Valencia by the Americans and captured the next afternoon), leaving the Mashouda alone to watch the merchant shipping passing on its way to and from the Straits. Hamidou initially thought the American warships were British (and hence friendly), even though they were obviously changing course to close the distance between the Mashouda and them. Only when Captain Gordon of the Constellation raised the Stars and Stripes so rashly did the corsair realize what was happening. Immediately he ordered his men to crowd on sail and take evasive action. If the Mashouda could once get clear of the American guns she could give them a run for their money. There was a westerly wind, and Algiers lay 300 miles due east. He could reach home in two days. The Americans, though eager, were inexperienced. Even before Gordon’s gaffe with the colors, the captain of the squadron’s flagship, the Guerriere, who had never commanded a ship in battle before, broke out the wrong signal, ordering the other ships to “tack and form into line of battle.” If they had obeyed the signal, the Mashouda would have gotten away while they slowly maneuvered into line. They didn’t. On the deck of the Mashouda, Hamidou told his lieutenant that if he died, “you will have me thrown into the sea. I don’t want infidels to have my corpse.” Hamidou managed to leave the Constellation behind him, but the Guerriere gained fast, forcing him to change course and double back on himself. In doing so he brought the Mashouda within range of the Constellation’s guns and Gordon opened fire, hitting the Algerian’s upper deck. One of the flying splinters of wood struck Hamidou, hurting him badly, but he refused requests to go below and instead ordered a chair to be placed for him on the upper deck. There he sat, in pain and in plain view, urging his men on. The Mashouda changed course again and an American sloop, the U.S.S. Ontario, passed her on the port beam and fired a broadside before sailing straight past her, the captain having misjudged his own ship’s momentum. Minutes later the Guerriere maneuvered alongside and fired a broadside from a distance of barely thirty yards. It tore into the Algerian’s upper deck, and Hamidou, who was still shouting orders and encouragement to his men, was killed outright. Even in the heat of battle, his men obeyed his wishes before surrendering. The last corsair’s broken body was thrown into the sea to save it from being defiled by the infidels. Fall Of Constantinople – Ottoman Superguns Ottoman superguns It is not without some irony that bombards, all but abandoned as obsolete by most European powers by 1453, played a critical role that year in the fall of Constantinople, the last Christian stronghold in the East. For centuries the Byzantine capital’s great walls and defenders had repulsed invaders, including an earlier 1422 attempt by Sultan Murad II (r. 1421–1451). Although Murad had employed bombards against the city, they were rather ineffective, and he subsequently withdrew. His successor, however, Mohammad II, sometimes known as Mehmed II (b. 1432; r. 1444–1446, 1451– 1481), and also known as Muhammad the Conqueror, possessed an innate appreciation for artillery and its use in siege craft. Muhammad, lacking technical experts among his own subjects, subsequently obtained the services of Christian gun founders to design and build cannons especially suited for the siege. Among these was reportedly a famed Hungarian cannon maker known as Urban. Urban (or Orban) had previously been hired by the Byzantines but had deserted their cause after they failed to meet his fees. Muhammad, unlike the Byzantines, appreciated Urban’s considerable, although mercenary, talents and “welcomed him with open arms, treated him honorably and provided him with food and clothing; and then he gave him an allowance so generous, that a quarter of the sum would have sufficed to keep him in Constantinople” (De Vries, X 356). Urban quickly established a gun foundry at Adrianople where he oversaw the casting of both a number of large iron and bronze guns. These included at least one huge bombard of cast iron reinforced with iron hoops and with a removable, screw-on breech. Typical of such large breechloading cannons, the gun was fitted with slots around the breech’s circumference to accept stout wooden beams. For loading and unloading, these beams were inserted in the slots to act as a capstan and provide the leverage to unscrew the heavy powder chamber. Weighing more than 19 tons, the gun was capable of firing stone balls weighing from approximately 800 to 875 pounds. The sheer size of the bombard, known as Basilica, required forty-two days and a team of sixty oxen and a thousand men to traverse the 120 miles to its firing site at Constantinople. Muhammad began preparations for the siege in February and ordered the positioning of fourteen artillery batteries around the city. As a further preparation, he ordered his navy, also equipped with artillery, to cut Constantinople off from the sea. For his part, the Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI (b. 1409; r. 1449–1453), did possess some artillery, but it was for the most part obsolete and numerically insufficient to reply to Muhammad’s forces. The Byzantines had long lost the technological superiority they had held in previous centuries, and they soon found themselves reckoning with their shortsightedness in snubbing Urban the Hungarian. Muhammad began the bombardment of the city on 6 April 1453. With a keen eye for the city’s weaknesses, he concentrated his guns against its most vulnerable points, including the Gate of St. Romanus, where they affected a breach on 11 April. His success was short lived, however, as the defenders counterattacked and repaired the damage. Muhammad also faced other setbacks when Urban was killed when a cannon he was supervising exploded, and when his giant bombard cracked after a few days of firing, necessitating repairs. The sultan, however, proved his own resourcefulness in the use of artillery and made much better use of his smaller guns—weapons that were capable of a much higher rate of fire than Basilica’s three rounds a day and were also more maneuverable. These included eleven bombards capable of firing 500-pound shot and fifty guns firing 200-pound balls. The Ottoman barrage continued day and night, wearing down both the city’s walls and its defenders. A witness described its effect: And the stone, borne with tremendous force and velocity, hit the wall, which it immediately shook and knocked down, and was itself broken into many fragments and scattered, hurling the pieces everywhere and killing those who happened to be nearby. Sometimes it demolished a whole section, and sometimes a half-section, and sometimes a larger or smaller section of tower or turret or battlement. And there was no part of the wall strong enough or resistant enough or thick enough to be able to withstand it, or to wholly resist such force and such a blow of the stone cannon-ball. (ibid., X 357–358) Finally, on 29 May 1453, the walls on either side of the St. Romanus Gate collapsed, and the Turks stormed the city. The Emperor Constantine fought valiantly in the defense of his city, but he was killed as overwhelming numbers of Turkish troops rampaged through the city for three days, killing, looting, and raping. With the fall of its capital, the Byzantine Empire collapsed, and with it the last vestiges of the Roman Empire. Constantine the Great established the city of Constantinople as his capital in 323. He occupied the former city of Byzantium, which for centuries controlled the straits separating Asia and Europe. It lies on the Sea of Marmara, flanked to northeast by the Bosphorus and to the southwest by the Dardanelles, two narrow passages linking the Mediterranean and the Black seas. The only direct route from Europe into Asia Minor is at Constantinople, so it has been an extremely strategic possession for land and naval warfare and trade. Constantinople became the seat of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire. It not only was the political capital of much of the Mediterranean and Middle East, but also the seat of the Greek Orthodox Church, rival to the power of the pope in Rome for the souls of Christians everywhere. In the end it was that religious rivalry that spelled Constantinople’s doom. In the seventh century Muhammad the Prophet founded Islam. By coincidence (or divine intervention) he appeared in Arabia just as the two major Middle Eastern powers, Persia and the Byzantine Empire, had fought each other to an exhausted standstill. He therefore conquered a massive amount of land hand in hand with the spread of his faith. Both Persia and the Byzantines suffered major territorial losses as well as major losses of converts to Islam, who found it less oppressive than the ultraconservative Orthodox Church. For seven hundred years the forces of Islam and Orthodoxy struggled, with both sides trading ascendancy. By the fifteenth century, however, the Byzantine Empire had shrunk to almost nothing: Constantinople and a handful of Aegean islands. An earlier Islamic threat to the city resulted in the Crusades in the twelfth century, but that too ended in further alienating the Catholic and Orthodox churches. When in 1452 Sultan Mohammed II, son of Murad II, decided to attack Constantinople, European responses to pleas for help were almost nonexistent. England and France were just winding down the very costly Hundred Years War; Germanic and Spanish princes and kings offered aid but sent none. Genoa and Venice, however, did not want to see Constantinople fall into the hands of Arab merchants, and Rome promised aid if the Orthodox Church would submit to papal will. The emperor did all that he could to prepare for the siege. Envoys were sent to Venice, Genoa, the Pope, the Western emperor, the kings of Hungary and Aragon , with the message that, unless immediate military help was provided, the days of Constantinople were numbered. The response was unimpressive. Some Italians, embarrassed at their government’s impotence, came as volunteers. Reluctantly Emperor Constantine XI Paleologus agreed to Rome’s demand, but it netted him a mere 200 archers for his meager defenses as well as the hostility of his people; many claimed they preferred Turkish domination to Roman. In the spring of 1452 Mohammed II sent 1,000 masons to the Bosphorus to build a fort to protect his army while crossing the straits. Constantine could do little more than lodge a protest. Among his populace were a mere 5,000 native and 2,000 foreign soldiers. The Venetian colony in Constantinople and many citizens in Pera, opposite Constantinople, also stayed, as did Orhan, the Ottoman pretender with his Turks. Some 30,000 to 40,000 civilians who rendered valuable service by repairing the 18-mile-long walls of the city before and during the siege. He had tradition on his side, however, for the triple walls that blocked the city from the landward side had survived twenty sieges, even though at this point they were not in good repair. As of January 1453, he also had the services of Italian soldier of fortune Giovanni Giustiniani, who brought 700 knights and archers. Giustiniani was well known in Europe for his talents in defending walled cities. Mohammed also had some European assistance in the form of a cannon maker named Urban from Hungary, who provided the Muslim army with seventy cannon, including the “Basilica,” a 27-feet-long canon that fired stone balls weighing upwards of 600 pounds. It could only fire seven times a day, but did significant damage to anything it struck. As part of the Ottoman military preparations, some 16 large and 60 light galleys, 20 horse-ships and several smaller vessels were constructed in the Ottoman arsenal of Gallipoli. The sultan’s army of 80,000 to 100,000 men was assembled in Edirne, the Ottoman capita l, In the Edirne foundry some 60 new guns of various calibres were cast. Some of them threw shots of 240, 300 and 360 kg (530-793 lb), The largest bombard that the Hungarian master Urban made for the sultan fired, according to the somewhat contradictory testimonies of contemporaries, stone balls of 400 to 600 kg (800-1,322 lb), It was transported to Constantinople by 60 oxen. A single wall that ran the circumference of the city’s seaward sides defended the rest of Constantinople. Mohammed sent his men across the Bosphorus north of the city, so the southern approach to the Mediterranean was open. A chain boom protected the primary harbor, the Golden Horn, across its mouth supported by twenty-six galleys. Thus, if anyone sent relief, the route was open. Mohammed II arrived on 6 April 1453. He led 70,000 regular troops and 20,000 irregulars called Bashi-Bazouks, whose sole pay was the loot they might gain if and when the city fell. The premier troops were the Janissaries, slave soldiers taken captive in their youth from Christian families and raised in a military atmosphere to serve the sultans. They were heavily armored and highly skilled, and at this time they were beginning to use personal firearms. Mohammed first seized the town of Pera, across the Golden Horn from Constantinople. At first this action was little more than symbolic, but it had serious ramifications later. He then deployed his forces on the city’s western face and began the siege. A single wall near the imperial palace protected the northern end of the city. It was there, the Blachernae, that Constantine placed most of his men. For twelve days the Muslim cannon pounded the city walls, and on 18 April Mohammed decided that had softened up the defenses sufficiently. The Byzantines easily defended a narrow breach in the walls, killing 200 attackers and driving off the rest without loss to themselves. On the 20th, four ships approached from the south: three Genoese transports with men and supplies from Rome and a Byzantine ship hauling corn from Sicily. After a hard fight with the Muslim fleet they broke through, cleared the boom, and entered the Golden Horn. Mohammed decided he had to control the harbor. He could not pass the chain boom, so he ordered ships dragged overland, through the town of Pera, to the harbor. It was a monumental engineering feat and on 22 April thirty Turkish ships were in the Golden Horn. An agent of the sultan betrayed the Byzantine counterattack, which managed to destroy only a single Turkish ship. In spite of this Turkish accomplishment, it had little effect on the siege. Mohammed continued his cannonade against the walls. By 6 May it had opened a breach at the Gate of St. Romanus, where the Lycus River enters the city. Giustaniani built a new wall just behind the breach, rather than trying to repair the wall while under fire. The Turks attacked on 7 May but their 25,000 men were thrown back after three hours of fighting. On the 12th another force assaulted a breach in the wall at Blachernae; only quick reinforcement by Constantine and the Imperial Guard stemmed the tide. Mohammed then tried mining the walls. Constantine’s engineer Johannes Grant managed to locate each of the mining attempts and either undermine the mines or destroy the attackers inside with explosives, flooding, or the incendiary Greek fire. None of the fourteen mines succeeded. Mohammed then determined to scale the walls. His men built a siege tower and rolled it into place before the Charisius Gate, the northernmost opening in the city walls. Muslim artillery fire had destroyed one of the defending towers, and the siege tower was able to provide covering fire for Turks filling in the moat. Constantine’s call for volunteers to attack the siege tower produced spectacular results. The sally surprised the Turkish guards and the Byzantines broke pots of Greek fire on the wooden siege tower. Meanwhile, their compatriots spent the night rebuilding the city wall and its destroyed tower. The next morning Mohammed saw the charred remains of his assault machine smoldering before the newly rebuilt tower in the city wall. In both camps officers debated the progress of the siege. The defenders were exhausted and running out of supplies. In Mohammed’s camp, some factions wanted to end the siege before a rumored rescue fleet could arrive. The sultan favored those who counseled continuation and decided to launch one more attempt before withdrawing. As the most serious damage to the walls had been inflicted along the Lycus River entrance to the city, it was there he proposed to launch his final assault. Constantine learned of the plan from a spy, but could his dwindling force survive another battle? The Bashi-Bazouks began hurling themselves against the Byzantine defenses at 0200 on 29 May. For two hours the Byzantines slew them with arrows and firearms, but grew increasingly tired in the process. With the first attack repulsed, Mohammed threw in a second wave before the defenders could recover. Even though these were regular troops with better discipline and equipment, the narrow breach provided the defenders with less area to cover and they threw back that assault as well. After another two hours of fighting the Byzantine troops could barely stand. Mohammed sent in the third wave, made up of Janissaries. Constantine’s exhausted troops managed to repulse them as well. During this fighting, a small band of Turks discovered a small open gate and rushed a handful of men through before it could be closed. They occupied a tower near the Blachinae and raised the sultan’s banner, and the rumor quickly spread that the northern flank had been broken. At the same moment, Giovanni Giustiniani was severely wounded. Hearing of his evacuation, coupled with the report from the north quarter, the defenders began to fall back. Mohammed quickly exploited his advantage. Another assault by fresh Janissaries cleared the space between the walls and seized the Adrianople Gate. Attackers began to pour through. Constantine XI led his remaining troops into the Turkish onslaught, dying for his city and his empire. Almost all his co-defenders as well as a huge portion of the civilian population joined him, for the Turks went berserk. Mohammed II limited very little of the pillage, reserving the best buildings for himself and banning their destruction. He claimed and protected the Church of St. Sophia, and within a week the Hagia Sophia was hosting Muslim services. Thirty ships of a Venetian fleet sailing to Constantine’s relief saw the Turkish flags flying over the city, turned around, and sailed home. The looting finally subsided and the bulk of the population that was not killed, possibly 50,000 people, were enslaved. The bastion of Eastern Christianity fell after more than 1,100 years as Constantine the Great’s city. Mohammed II proceeded to conquer Greece and most of the Balkans during the remaining twenty-eight years of his reign. Western Europe, which had done so little to assist Constantinople, was shocked that it fell after so many centuries of standing against everyone. In Rome, the Catholic Church was dismayed that they would now have no Eastern Christians to convert, for they were all rapidly becoming Muslim. The Eastern Orthodox Church survived, however, for Mohammed allowed a patriarch to preside over the Church. It remained a viable religion, now far from the reach of the Catholic Church’s influence. As such, its survival encouraged others who resented the Catholic Church. Within sixty years Martin Luther led a major protest against the Church, starting the Reformation. The trading centers of Genoa and Venice feared having to deal with hard-bargaining Arab merchants who now controlled all products coming from the Far East. The major cities of eastern Europe began to fear the Turkish hordes approaching their gates, and for the next 450 years Austria and the Holy Roman Empire carried on the European/Christian struggle against the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Turks established themselves as the premier Middle Eastern Muslim power, controlling at their height almost as much as had the Byzantine Empire: the Balkans, the Middle East, much of North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. The flood of refugees from southeastern Europe, especially Greece, brought thousands of scholars to Italy, further enhancing the peninsula’s Renaissance. Italian merchants, shocked at the prices the Muslims charged for spices and silks from the East, began to search for other ways to get those goods. Certainly the age of European exploration came much sooner because of Constantinople’s fall. A galley which Ottoman Sultans used at inshore waters. Built at the end of the 16th century. Length: 40 m; Width: 5.70 m. It is reportedly the only original galley in the world. (Maritime Museum, Istanbul). On August 14, 1571, a gigantic ship’s pennant of silk damask passed through the congested streets of Naples. Embroidered to the pope’s commission, it was the standard of Christendom, to fly from the tallest mast in the fleet of the Holy League as it sailed into battle. The pope’s banner with a huge golden figure of Christ nailed to the cross loomed over the stocky Spanish soldiers who carried it in procession from the steps of the Church of Santa Clara. As the blue flag moved through the Neapolitan crowds, an unnatural stillness gripped all who watched it go by. An hour before, inside the church, the assembled nobles, officers, monks, and priests had stood silent and unmoving, all their eyes on the admiral of the Holy League, Don John of Austria. Arrayed in cloth of gold, scarlet satin, and white velvet, the young admiral knelt before the altar as the pope’s representative, Cardinal Granvelle, handed him his staff of office and pointed to the great banner behind him. “Take these emblems,” the cardinal exhorted, “of the Word made flesh, these symbols of the true faith, and may they give thee a glorious victory over our impious enemy and by thy hand may his pride be laid low.” Below the cross of Christ were the emblems of the king of Spain and of the Holy Father, Pope Pius V, with the badge of the Republic of Venice, all linked by a great golden chain, symbolizing the power of faith that bound them together. From that chain, in slightly smaller scale, hung the pendant crest of Don John. The emblems marked a brief moment of unity. For the first time in more than a century, Christendom had combined in force to do battle with the power of “Islam.” The war was sanctified, waged under the protection of the golden figure of Christ. The pope had declared that those who fought in this struggle were to be granted the same plenary indulgences as earlier Crusaders fighting to secure the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. All who died in the shadow of this battle flag would be spared the worst rigors of purgatory. Eight hundred miles to the east a similar, if less public, ceremony had already taken place. From the treasury of the imperial palace in Constantinople, a bulky bundle wrapped in silk had been brought from Sultan Selim II to Ali Pasha, admiral of the Ottoman fleet. It also contained a flag, but one colored a vivid green instead of the lambent Christian blue. Even larger than the banner that Pope Pius V had entrusted to his commander, this was one of the most potent emblems of Islam. Upon its surface the ninety-nine names and attributes of God had been embroidered in gold. It was reputed that these were repeated no less than 28,900 times. The giant Kufic characters were surrounded and interlaced with endless reiteration of those same names, in a smaller script, so that from a distance the whole surface of the pennant appeared a shimmering network of golden filigree. The two commanders were opposites—in rank, status, and experience of life. Don John was the acknowledged natural brother of the king of Spain, Philip II, and the by-blow from a few months Emperor Charles V had spent with a young widow called Barbara Blomberg in the imperial city of Regensburg. Don John had come to Naples from fighting a savage war in the mountains of southern Spain, to command the largest fleet ever assembled by Christian Europe. He had never fought at sea before. By contrast, Ali, the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman fleet, was a veteran of galley warfare, feared throughout the Aegean and into the far west of the Mediterranean. His origins were more humble, as the son of a muezzin, a mosque servant who called the faithful to prayer. But the two leaders, for all their differences, had much in common. They were like twin paladins from an epic poem: yearning for battle, chivalrous, and honorable. Fate decreed divergent destinies for them. One would die with a musket ball through the skull, his head then hacked off and stuck on the point of a pike. The other would return in triumph, honored and feted, his victory celebrated with paintings, engravings, poems, coins and medals, essays and learned disquisitions through more than four centuries. Stories of their encounter abound, some closely following facts, others embellished to make a better tale. Quite where history ends and legends begin is still unsure. The battle they fought in the Gulf of Lepanto has a double character: the event itself and its burgeoning afterlife. This afterlife, the mythic Lepanto, came to stand as a synecdoche for the contest between the Islamic and the Christian worlds. In deciphering the meaning of Lepanto, we may find a point of entry into those deeper mysteries. The greater struggle had deep roots. For almost a thousand years the Christian world had felt threatened by the power in the East. Sometimes, with the Crusades in the Levant, for example, in Sicily and in Spain, Christian Europe had taken war to the enemy. Over the centuries a brooding sense of Muslim threat came to mesmerize Christendom. By the sixteenth century conflict was accepted as the natural and inevitable relationship between East and West. Like a child’s seesaw, the rise of the East required the fall of the West. In 1571, the two adversaries sat roughly in balance. Scholars reinforced a common belief in the danger and evil of “Islam.” The Muslims, according to the Venerable Bede, who wrote in the eighth century, were descended from Hagar, the prophet Abraham’s concubine. Many Muslims believed that she and her son, Ishmael, lay buried under the Kaaba, the great black stone in Mecca, which was the focal point of the Islamic faith. Christians, however, were descended from Abraham’s lawful offspring, Isaac. Worse still than the stain of bastardy, an even darker curse hung over the people of the East. Christians inferred that while all men traced their line back to Adam and Eve, the Muslims were the lineal descendants of Cain, thrust from the presence of God for murdering his brother Abel. For his crime, Cain bemoaned that he would “be a fugitive and a wanderer upon earth … and everyone who finds me will slay me.” They had been forced to dwell “east of Eden.” Between the children of Cain and the other descendants of Adam, there could be only mutual slaughter and revenge for the primordial crime of fratricide. So this struggle grew from a long tradition of atavistic hatred between the peoples of the West and East. What this meant in practice it is hard to say. Naturally, Christians in battle routinely insulted their enemies as the “sons of Cain,” as “misbegotten,” or “Antichrist.” Muslims decried their enemies with equal vehemence. Conflict between East and West seemed permanent, inevitable, preordained, as much for the Christians as for the Muslims. Yet it did not destroy the skein of mutual economic and political interests that dominated the Mediterranean and the Balkans, the border and boundary between the two worlds. Trade and commercial interests were constantly in play, especially in the case of Venice and the other city-states of the Adriatic, which preferred to negotiate with Muslim power rather than fight it. The Christian powers in the Mediterranean had much to fear from an Ottoman Empire intent on expansion. The desire for a great victory went beyond political calculations, and not only for the pope, the architect of the grand alliance. After the capture of Constantinople in 1453, many Christians were convinced that the triumphant advance of Islam could only be part of God’s plan. The Islamic scourge was a means to chasten mankind to a better sense of its faults and flaws. Were Christians being punished for the sins of declining faith and, latterly, schism? For more than a century Christian Europe had resisted the Islamic onslaught, but had won few decisive victories. What better sign of renewed divine favor could there be than a great and annihilating victory over the forces of darkness? Victory was also much in the minds of Sultan Selim II and his advisers in Constantinople. Although the armies of “Islam” had continued to press forward against the infidel, the pace of advance had slowed. Selim’s grandfather and namesake had brought vast territories in Egypt, Arabia, and the Levant into the Ottoman domain. His father, Suleiman the Lawgiver, had captured the fortress island of Rhodes, Belgrade, and Budapest, and held the Hungarian plain almost to the walls of Vienna. Suleiman had destroyed the Kingdom of Hungary in a single day on the battlefield of Mohacs in 1526. Yet Suleiman too had his setbacks. He twice failed to capture Vienna—in 1529 and 1566—and the island of Malta had withstood all the Turkish efforts at storm and siege. In the Mediterranean, the great naval battle in 1538 at Prevesa, just off the Greek mainland north of the Gulf of Lepanto, produced no decisive result. The Ottoman state was built upon a theory of infinite expansion, and annual war to advance its frontiers. Without conquest it would decay. Moreover, all good Muslims were duty bound to extend the Domain of Peace, and that burden weighed heaviest upon the sultan. Selim II had committed himself to advance the boundaries of righteousness by seizing the island of Cyprus, which was under the rule of Venice. He used the pretext that privateers had sailed from the island to harry his shipping and the coastal towns of Anatolia. By late 1570, it seemed likely that the island would fall to his armies. Even so, he desired much more than the capture of an island. The sultan demanded a dramatic victory from his commanders, another Mohacs. Thus, his admiral, Ali Pasha, knew that he had to achieve the complete destruction of the Christian fleet, and return laden with trophies, slaves, and booty. The two adversaries gathered their forces from far distant points in the Mediterranean. Throughout the summer of 1571, little clusters of ships moved toward the designated meeting points: Messina for the Christians commanded by Don John, the Aegean for the sultan’s war fleet under Ali Pasha. They were galleys, a type of ship built for the specific conditions of the Mediterranean. Galley warfare occupied its own universe, utterly different from battles fought between the sailing ships of the Atlantic. Long, sitting low on the water, frail by comparison with their solid northern counterparts, war galleys appeared to be able to move regardless of the force or direction of the wind. Although these slender craft carried two or three large triangular sails, their main motive power was banks of oars that extended out forty feet or more from either side of the ship, both banks pulling in unison so that the boat moved forward swiftly in what seemed a series of rhythmic spasms. In their element, with a calm sea and a following wind, they resembled gigantic water beetles skittering on their long legs over the surface of the water. Although the galleys were faster under sail than when they depended on their oars alone, their power of maneuver came from the rowers. It meant that a galley never risked being blown ashore onto a rocky coast, which was a constant danger for the clumsy deep-hulled merchant sailing ships. A galley could move almost as fast backward as it did forward and, with its shallow draft, could negotiate shoals that would strand other sailing vessels. Over the centuries galleys had developed many forms, some designed to carry cargo, but by the mid–sixteenth century they were evolving for a single purpose: war. The Mediterranean war galley had been adapted over many generations, from the Greek triremes that destroyed the Persian fleet at the battle of Salamis, almost two thousand years before. After 1500, some galleys acquired superstructures at bow and stern, to house guns and fighting men. But the essence of the galley remained the same. As in classical times, galleys were merely a floating platform from which men could board and overcome the crews of other ships, an insubstantial shell for carrying the oarsmen and men-at-arms. Originally, as in the rowing skiffs and caïques to be found in every Mediterranean port, each man had pulled his own oar, but this became a costly option since oars had to be made from expensive well-seasoned timber, much of it imported from northern Europe. From the mid–sixteenth century a new style of rowing appeared that reduced the number of oars. Three or four men, sometimes as many as five, would sit side by side on benches, all pulling in unison on a single massive sweep. It was easy thereafter to add more men to increase the force behind the oars. The power of a war galley lay in its personnel. Aboard each one would be a number of well-equipped professional fighting men, a battle crew. On Muslim and Venetian ships, many among the rowing crew were also armed and would join the melee. Of the Venetian oarsmen, who were volunteers, those on the end of each bench had a sword and short pike close at hand, while the second man had a bow and a quiver of arrows. As the ships closed, they would leave their oars to the third man and gather, ready to swarm across onto the deck of their victim. No merchant vessel loaded with cargo could hope to outrun a galley pursuing at full speed. Most tried, because the alternative was dire. The galley attack resembled that of a hawk swooping to snatch its prey. The sharp beak of the galley would come closer and closer to the fleeing ship, so close that the crew of the doomed vessel could see its nemesis preparing to board. At that point, many ships yielded; any that continued to run would be showered with arrows or musket fire and the crew killed. For reasons of economy the great bow guns of the attacking galley were rarely used. Galleys were raptors, living off weaker and less well armed vessels. Like the carnivorous dinosaur the war galley dominated its environment. But like the dinosaur, it grew progressively larger and more powerful to compete with its own kind until, like the dinosaur, it became increasingly immobile. The tactical power of the Mediterranean war galley, with the teeth and jaws of Tyrannosaurus Rex, depended on a continuous supply of flesh and blood. Unless a galley could keep its rowing benches filled it could not survive. Much of the ceaseless raiding and predation was to seize not cargo but manpower. When a Muslim vessel took a Christian ship, all non-Muslims aboard would be immediately enslaved. Often the crew and any passengers would be the most valued prize. Some could be ransomed, and others sold for a good profit in the markets of North Africa or Constantinople. If a Christian galley intercepted a Muslim ship, exactly the same transactions would take place. All non-Christians would be made prisoner and put to work at the oars. But Spanish, French, and Venetian ships preyed as frequently on the ships of other Christian nations. There were many excuses that would permit a war galley to seize a merchant vessel. They might search a Christian ship for “contraband,” claiming that the crew was trading with an enemy. The Knights of St. John, sailing from their fortress island of Malta, were feared by all, Christian and Muslim alike. If they stopped a Christian ship in eastern waters, they would examine the cargo minutely for anything that could be termed illicit. When lacking anything more obvious, they were in the habit of uncovering “Jewish clothing” during a search, indicating that the ship was trading with the Jewish population of Muslim ports. This justified the expropriation of the whole cargo, and the enslavement of the crew. Battle of Lepanto. In the curious parallelism that surrounds the events of 1571, at that moment the Ottoman commander, Ali Pasha, was also holding a council of war with his captains, and their opinions were divided in a roughly similar manner. Hassan Pasha, a bey of Algiers, spoke for the overwhelming majority. He acknowledged that the scouts had told them that this was the largest fleet they had ever seen. But he recalled how at Prevesa (in 1538) and at the island of Jerbi, off Tripoli (in 1560), the infidels had faded under Turkish attack. He believed that they were cowards, without spirit, and would flee here, as they had done in the past. The opposite view was presented by Hamet Bey, who suggested it would be a mistake to underestimate the power or unity of the Christians, and that Don John, although young and inexperienced, had proved himself in the war against the Moriscos (Muslims forcibly converted to Christianity) in the Alpujarras mountain range of southern Spain. The Ottoman fleet had everything to gain by playing a waiting game, under the protection of the guns of the Lepanto fortress. Ali Pasha himself favored an immediate attack, and his resolve was hardened by the long-awaited orders from the sultan. Selim ordered the fleet to capture the Christian ships and to bring them immediately as trophies of war to line the waters of the Golden Horn, below his palace of the New Seraglio in. The order admitted no dissent, and all doubters were silenced Constantinople. The council came to a precipitate end, and the captains returned to their ships to prepare for battle. The efficient Ottoman commissary quickly stocked the hundreds of ships with food and water, and with large quantities of powder and shot, while Ali summoned more troops from neighboring garrisons. He speedily added 10,000 janissaries and 4,000 other troops to his fighting crews. Meanwhile, the fleet of the Holy League moved south. By October 3, it was off Prevesa, but its advance was halted by high seas and adverse winds from the south. October 4 and 5 were spent battened down, riding out the storm. While the fleet was at anchor, a small vessel heading north from the island of Crete to Venice brought terrible and unexpected news. Every Venetian in the fleet knew that the Ottomans were besieging the town of Famagusta in Cyprus. The island’s capital, Nicosia, had fallen a few months after the invasion of July 1570. Twenty thousand inhabitants had been slaughtered when the Turkish troops broke into the city, and the rest of the islanders submitted to avoid the same fate. Only the small port city of Famagusta refused to surrender and held out in the hope of relief from the sea. Within hours of the fall of Nicosia, Turkish horsemen were riding around the walls of Famagusta, taunting the inhabitants with the heads of the leading citizens of Nicosia impaled on their lance points. However, Marcantonio Bragadino, the governor in Famagusta, had prepared his command to withstand a long siege and it was clear that the city would resist, despite the frightful example of Nicosia’s fate. By the early spring of 1571 more than 100,000 Turks had gathered around Famagusta. It seemed that it could not hold out for long. But for four months the 4,000 defenders beat back every assault until attacks in July 1571 breached the walls in six places, and the troops in the garrison were reduced to their last barrels of gunpowder. Faced with certain defeat, Bragadino sought an honorable surrender. The terms agreed on August 1 with the Ottoman commander, Lala Mustafa, were unusually favorable: the Venetians secured protection for the remaining citizens, while the garrison would be evacuated to the Venetian island of Crete. The Turks had lost more than 50,000 men in the capture of Nicosia and Famagusta. The terms granted were remarkable, especially after the massacres at Nicosia. On August 4, Lala Mustafa summoned Bragadino and his staff to his camp. The Venetian commander, wearing the purple robe of a senator, rode out from Famagusta under an ornate parasol (against the searing heat) at the head of his officers and with a bodyguard of forty harquebusiers. He was, according to the records, “serene … without fear or pride.” At the meeting, the Ottoman commander accused him of breaching the agreement for the city’s surrender and demanded hostages. Bragadino responded that this did not form part of the terms. Then, at a prearranged signal, janissaries rushed into the tent and overpowered the Venetians. Outside, the senator’s escort had already been disarmed. The subsequent events were played out for the benefit of the Ottoman army gathered in a huge mass around Lala Mustafa’s encampment. It seems unlikely that Bragadino expected to survive the surrender, or to see the treaty honored. The Ottomans usually repaid resistance with death, and to allow the defenders to retire with their arms in hand and flags flying was almost without parallel. On previous occasions the Ottomans had invariably slaughtered or enslaved the bulk of their captives, sparing only a few for ransom, or to take the news back to their enemies. After the battle of Mohacs, Sultan Suleiman had “sat on a golden throne” while his soldiers decapitated thousands of prisoners. The Venetians were playing a grim but well-understood role in a gory traditional drama. The performance was designed to be exemplary, and to satisfy the sultan in Constantinople that the long and costly siege had not been in vain. Bragadino’s officers and staff were beheaded in front of him, so that a rivulet of blood flowed across the hard dry ground and washed over his feet. This was the news brought to the fleet of the Holy League waiting fogbound between the islands of Cephalonia and Ithaca. It stilled any remaining doubts about the need for a battle, which would now, additionally, revenge the death of Bragadino and repay his humiliation many times over. As soon as the fog lifted sufficiently for the fleet to move safely, in the early hours of Sunday, October 7, the whole armada advanced into the open sea, in the mouth of the Gulf of Patras, and some forty miles from the entrance to the well-protected harbor of Lepanto. With the mainland coast in sight, Don John sent two fast ships forward down the gulf to discover if the Ottoman fleet was still at anchor. If it was, it would not slip past the mass of Christian ships rowing down the narrowing gulf toward the straits before Lepanto. To the north, as the Christian galleys pushed into a stiff breeze, lay the high mountains of Acarnia; to the south, the lowlands of the Morea. The winds came off the high ground, veering back and forth, so the sails on the galleasses could not be used, and the whole fleet slowed to the rowing pace of these ungainly vessels. Shortly after dawn the fleet halted, and moved into the battle formations designated by Don John. He also gave orders that the rams, or spurs, mounted on the prow of each war galley should be cut away. These stout wooden structures were designed to hook into the side of an enemy ship, providing a platform along which boarders could advance. But the spur made it difficult to maneuver the bow guns, which alone had the capacity to cripple an enemy vessel. Don John’s strategy was not to capture the Ottoman fleet but to destroy it. He intended to use his heavy guns to smash the lighter hulls of the Ottoman vessels, boarding where necessary, but first sending as many ships and crews as possible to the bottom of the sea. But the order gave a deeper message to his men: cutting away the spurs was equivalent to throwing away the scabbard of his sword, signifying that it would not again be sheathed unbloodied. No one had any prior experience of marshaling so large a fleet into battle. Moreover the six galleasses were new and wholly untried weapons. The forthcoming conflict would be like no other at sea, but Don John planned to fight in the open waters of the Gulf of Patras much as he would have fought a cavalry battle on land. However, the scale was vast: the fleet extended in a line for almost four miles end to end. Don John divided the hundreds of galleys into four divisions: the center, which he oversaw in person; two wings; and behind this line the reserve, commanded by a trusted Spaniard, and intended to staunch any breach made by the enemy. The battle tactics were simple: in front would be the six galleasses, and the galleys of the Holy League would row forward at a steadily increasing pace behind them. Once the firefight began, the rowing rate would rise until the galleys covered the last few hundred yards in less than a minute, until they smashed into the enemy, also advancing at full speed. Then all semblance of strategy would vanish in the melee of hand-to-hand fighting. The great danger was that the fast and maneuverable Ottoman galleys would break through the line and swarm around the Christian ships on every side, rather in the way that on land Turkish horsemen would pull down armored Christian knights by weight of numbers. Although he had never fought at sea, Don John knew his enemy. The war in the Alpujarras, from house to house, from village to village, had taught him that even Muslim peasants would die rather than yield or retreat. The lesson of innumerable galley battles was that once the hardy Muslim fighters gained a foothold on the opponent’s decks, then the chances of survival were small. As a last act before the fray, he ordered that all his ships should be rigged with boarding nets, to act as a fence all along the sides above the rowing decks. The nets would not stop boarders, but they would slow them down, giving the defending crew time to rally. The only effective protection against the rush of the janissaries was firepower. On the Real he trained a force of 300 men, armed with the heavy Spanish harquebuses and muskets, to fire in volley if the enemy did succeed in boarding. But ultimately Don John could not control the flow of the fight on his ships. Success would depend on the spirit and morale of his men. In the early morning light, in a fast small fregata he traversed the line of stationary ships back and forth, shouting encouragement to the crews and soldiers, telling them that God was with them, and reminding them of the fate of Bragadino, for whom they would wreak revenge upon the bodies of their enemy. Cheers rose as he passed each ship. He had ordered that every Christian convict oarsman should be freed so that they could join the Crusade, while Muslim rowers were double-chained, by both hand and foot, to the oars. Only the best of his soldiers were equal to the Ottomans, and the advantage lay with Ali Pasha, with fresh troops rested, well fed, and eager for battle. Don John’s victory at Lepanto was due to the supremacy of the gun. He had placed the six galleasses in front of his line at intervals, confident that their firepower would disrupt the Ottoman line of battle. As well as the heavy guns, he crammed them full of marksmen with muskets. Later pictures of the battle show the ships bristling with gun barrels, like the spines on a hedgehog. Success would depend on Ottoman willingness to be drawn into the killing zone around these floating fortresses. But if the Ottomans retreated, drawing Don John’s ships farther down the gulf toward the guns of the Lepanto fortress, then the dynamics would alter. There was already a stiff breeze and the sea was running against the Christian ships. The more his oarsmen exhausted themselves, the greater chance that the advantage would slip to the Turks. As in all battles, chance and providence were in command. Austrian Emperor Rudolf confidently took up a challenge to his lands from the Ottomans in 1593, embarking on what became the Long Turkish War that proved a fiasco for both sides. The thirteen-year struggle contributed to a chain of problems that kept the Ottoman empire out of the Thirty Years War and ensured a period of relative tranquillity for Hungary. With hindsight, this was of undoubted benefit for the Habsburgs, since it enabled them to concentrate on the problems of the Empire and their western and northern European enemies. However, this was not clear at the time and the Turkish menace remained a constant source of anxiety. Worse, the Turkish War left the Habsburgs financially and politically bankrupt, in turn contributing to the outbreak of renewed conflict in 1618. The Scourge of God These events and their consequences have not received the attention they deserve, leaving the Ottomans as a shadowy presence in most accounts of the Thirty Years War. Their empire was the superpower of the early modern world, stretching for 2.3 million square kilometres across three continents with at least 22 million inhabitants, well over three times the number in the Habsburg monarchy. Much of the original dynamism was lost after the death of Süleyman the Magnificent in 1566, but it would be wrong to categorize the Ottomans as in decline. They remained the terror of Europe, associated by Protestants and Catholics alike with the scourge of God sent to punish a sinful mankind and viewed with a mixture of awe and revulsion. Their empire continued to expand, particularly in the east where they seized Georgia and Azerbaijan from the Shiite Persian empire between 1576 and 1590. The Habsburgs were sufficiently alarmed by this that they accepted humiliating terms in November 1590 to obtain an eight-year extension to the truce agreed at the end of the previous Turkish war in 1568. Despite the expense, the emperor maintained a permanent embassy in Constantinople, whereas the sultan disdained to deal with the infidel and rarely sent ambassadors to Christian courts. The Austrian diplomats struggled to secure accurate intelligence at a court that was truly the successor to medieval Byzantium. They were kept waiting for weeks before being received by officials who gave evasive or contradictory answers. The presence of Dutch, English, French, Venetian and other Christian embassies was a further source of concern as these were all powers considered hostile to the emperor. The difficulty in obtaining a clear picture prevented outsiders from perceiving the Ottomans’ mounting internal difficulties. The absence of accepted rules of succession bred bitter family feuds and forced each new sultan to command his deaf mutes to strangle his immediate brothers and sisters. The internal intrigues weakened the sultanate that lost direction at a time when their most dangerous foes to the east were entering a period of renewed vigour under the Safavid dynasty in Persia. The new conquests failed to bring sufficient rewards to satisfy the groups essential to the running of the Ottoman empire – notably the army, which had once been a pillar of strength and which now entered politics with disastrous results. Accustomed to rich bonuses from new sultans, the regular Janissary infantry began extorting rewards in return for continued loyalty, leading to the assassination of Osman II in 1622, setting a precedent that was repeated in 1648 and again later in the seventeenth century. The internal problems of their empire made the Ottomans more unpredictable in their actions, adding to an already unstable situation in south-east Europe at the point where their empire met that of the Habsburgs to the west and the lands of the Poles to the north. The war that broke out in 1593 was essentially a struggle between two of these powers to extend influence over the intervening region while denying access to their rivals. Hungary to the west was already split into Habsburg and Ottoman spheres, with the emperor controlling the north and south-west, along with Croatia, while the sultan commanded the central area and south-east. Neither side had a clear position in the region further east that was split into four principalities, all nominally under Turkish suzerainty, but pursuing varying degrees of autonomy. The area along the northern shores of the Black Sea belonged to the Crimean Tartars, the descendants of Ghengis Khan who had paid tribute to the sultan since the later fifteenth century. They provided useful auxiliaries for his armies, but were largely left alone since they served as a buffer between Ottoman territory and that of the Russian tsar further to the north-east. The three Christian principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania lay to the north and west of the Tartars. They likewise paid tribute, but were more open to influence from Poland and Austria. The Poles sought access to the Black Sea by pushing into Podolia, between Moldavia and the Crimea. Polish influence grew pronounced in Moldavia during the 1590s and they also intrigued in Transylvanian and Wallachian politics. Of the three, Transylvania is the most significant to our story, and an examination of its internal politics reveals much that was typical for Moldavia and Wallachia as well. Formed from the wreckage of old Hungary in the 1540s, Transylvania was a patchwork of four major and several minor communities. In addition to pockets of Turkish peasants and Eastern Slavs, there were Orthodox Romanians, Calvinist Magyars, Lutheran German immigrants, called Saxons, and finally the self-governing Szekler people, living in the forested east, who remained Catholic. The prince maintained power by brokering agreements between these groups, particularly the three ‘nations’ of Magyar nobles, Saxon towns and Szekler villages entitled to sit in the diet. The balance was enshrined in the Torda agreement from 1568 that extended equal rights to Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists and the radical Unitarians (who rejected the doctrine of the Holy Trinity and refused to believe that Christ had been human in any way). Separate princely decrees extended toleration to Jews and the substantial Romanian population. It was an arrangement that worked surprisingly well at a time when people elsewhere in Europe were murdering each other in God’s name. All parties recognized Transylvania’s vulnerability and wanted to deny predatory outsiders a chance to intervene. Over time, toleration became embedded in society and political culture, enhancing princely power since he could pose as the defender of all faiths and their liberties against Habsburg confessionalization and absolutism. However, it created confusion for external relations, particularly once the prince converted to Calvinism in 1604. While nine-tenths of his nobles now shared his faith, the peasantry were mainly Catholic or Orthodox, while the burghers were Lutheran. Christian powers looking to Transylvania only saw its leadership and mistook the principality as a Protestant champion ready to save them in their hour of need. While it might serve his purpose to present himself as such to outsiders, the prince remained conscious that his rule depended on preserving the balance between the ethnic and confessional groups. There were also significant material obstacles that inhibited Transylvania from playing a major role in European affairs. Over half its territory was covered by forest and barely a fifth lay under cultivation. The population was concentrated in isolated pockets largely cut off from each other by trees and mountains. It was impossible to maintain a western-style regular army, and in any case, such an army would be ill-suited to operating in such conditions. Like its immediate neighbours, Transylvania relied on lightly armed cavalry able to cover 35km a day, supported by smaller numbers of irregular musketeers to hold outposts on the border. Such forces lacked staying power in a formal battle, which they generally avoided, preferring to break their opponent’s will to resist by rounding up livestock and civilians. These tactics were thwarted if the enemy took refuge in walled towns or fortresses, since the Transylvanians lacked artillery and the disciplined infantry needed for a siege. They were also unable to sustain operations for more than a few months, waiting until the grass grew in the spring for their horses before setting out, and returning home with their booty before the high summer scorched the ground. Strategy and Logistics These logistical problems were found elsewhere in the Danube valley and across the Hungarian plains (puszta) where temperatures soared in the summer and plummeted below freezing in winter, and hampered all combatants. The surrounding mountains were blocked by snow from the autumn until the spring thaws that swelled the rivers and flooded a third of the plains for much of the year, providing a rich breeding ground for malarial mosquitoes. Hungary lay at the north-west periphery of the Ottomans’ world empire, 1,100km from their European base at Adrianople (Edirne). A field army of 40,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry required 300 tonnes of bread and fodder a day. Crop yields in eastern Europe were half those of Flanders and other western agricultural regions that could support ten times more non-producers. Even Poland, rapidly becoming the bread basket of western European cities, exported only about 10 per cent of its net crop in the later sixteenth century. It was often impossible to requisition supplies locally in the Danube area, especially as the population tended to be concentrated in isolated pockets, as in Transylvania. The Turks were forced to follow the line of the river during hostilities, reducing their advance to 15km a day. If they set out in April, they could not reach Vienna before July. Not surprisingly, Ottoman armies relied on Belgrade once war broke out, since this was already two-thirds of the way to the front and was the first major city on the Danube west of the Iron Gates (Orsova) pass between the Transylvanian Alps and the northern reaches of the Balkan mountains of modern Bulgaria. These strategic and logistical factors imposed a certain routine on the Turks’ campaigns. Operations began slowly with the collection of troops from across the empire at Adrianople or Belgrade. The main army reached the front in July, leaving only a few months to achieve success before the autumn rains set in during September, while the sultan traditionally suspended campaigns on 30 November with the onset of winter. Major operations were the exception and most fighting involved cross-border raiding that remained endemic due to political, ideological and social factors. The region lay at the extremity of both the Ottoman empire and the kingdom of Poland, and while physically closer to the heart of Habsburg power, it was still politically distant. All the major powers were forced to rely on local landowners and their private armies who commanded the resources, loyalty and respect of the scattered population. Though wealthy, the magnates in Hungary and Transylvania were adopting expensive new lifestyles, with decorated country houses, foreign university education and grand European tours for sons and heirs. They could not afford large permanent forces to defend the frontier and also needed to satisfy poorer clients who relied on banditry to supplement their incomes from livestock, horse breeding or farming. Those at the centre tolerated the situation as the only way to retain the loyalty of the unruly border lords, and as a convenient means to put pressure on their international opponents. As the secular representatives of opposing world religions, neither the emperor nor the sultan could accept permanent peace without implying recognition of an alternative civilization. The lack of clear frontiers allowed a policy of gradual expansion by encroachment, whereby whichever side was currently stronger exploited weakness in the other to assert the right to collect tribute from border villages. Frontiers shifted back and forth like sand with the tide, while major fortified towns remained immovable rocks that required open war to crack. Such fortresses began to be built during the 1530s as both the Ottomans and Habsburgs entrenched their hold over Hungary. The Turks had the advantage of shorter interior lines of defence, with a compact position along the middle Danube and in Bosnia to the south-west. They relied on around 65 relatively large castles held by 18,000 regular soldiers, with 22,000 militia recruited from their predominantly Christian subjects to patrol the gaps. The Habsburgs were forced to defend an 850km-long arc to the west and north, partly detached from Austria and Bohemia by chains of mountains. Lateral movement was restricted, since all the rivers drained eastwards into the Ottoman-held Hungarian plain. Each Austrian and Bohemian province had its own militia, but mobilization depended on the Estates who wanted them mainly for local defence. The Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529 proved a shock and prompted the construction there of new bastioned fortifications in the Italian manner between 1531 and 1567. Plans to modernize these had to be shelved in 1596 due to the peasant unrest and a lack of funds, leaving the capital weakly defended when the Bohemians and Transylvanians attacked in 1619. The civic militia was converted into a regular garrison in 1582, but they numbered only five hundred men. The Military Frontier To keep the Turks at bay, the Habsburgs revived and expanded existing Hungarian defence measures to create what became known as the ‘military frontier’. This militarized zone around 50km deep ran the entire length of the frontier and rested on 12 major and around 130 minor fortified posts held by over 22,000 men by the 1570s. Its development and upkeep was heavily subsidized by the Reichstag, which voted eight grants with a nominal value of around 12 million fl. between 1530 and 1582, plus well over another million towards fortress construction. At least four-fifths of this amount was actually paid, despite the confessional tension in the Empire, since the Ottomans were considered a common menace to all Christians.8 Indeed, the largest two grants had been made in 1576 and 1582 at a time when many historians think confessional tension was growing worse. However, disagreements did ensure there was no immediate renewal when the last grant expired in 1587, increasing the dynasty’s dependency on taxes voted by its Estates to maintain particular sectors. Only about half the border troops could be spared from their garrisons, limiting the scope for offensive operations. A major army of 55,000 men was reckoned to cost at least 7.4 million fl. for a single campaign, a figure way in excess of the monarchy’s entire revenue. Financial considerations forced the Habsburgs to place large sections of the frontier in local hands. The southern or maritime border, based around Senj on the Adriatic, was held by a people known as the Uskoks, after the Serbian for ‘refugee’. This mountainous region could not support the growing number of refugees who were supposed to be paid by the government to defend the frontier with Ottoman Bosnia. Chronic indebtedness forced the Habsburgs to tolerate Uskok raiding and piracy instead. The next sector to the north was the Croatian border around the castle of Karlstadt that had been built in 1579 with funds granted by the Inner Austrian Estates in return for the Pacification of Bruck, and which protected the upper reaches of the Save river, blocking an invasion of Carniola. The Slovenian border around Warasdin on the upper Drava was also subsidized by Inner Austria since it protected Styria. Around half of all the minor posts were concentrated in these two sectors and were manned by colonists settled on crown land in return for militia duty. They received little help from central coffers and were expected to supplement their meagre existence from farming by raiding villages across the frontier. The Hungarian border was split into three sections, with that in the south stretching from the Drava to the southern end of Lake Balaton and containing the important fortress of Kanizsa. The middle section ran north from Lake Balaton to the Danube, before curving east around the Ottoman salient at Gran where the river makes a right-angled turn from due east to flow south past Buda and Pest. This was the most heavily contested sector, because the Danube valley gave the best access for both sides. The Ottomans were concerned to protect Buda as the seat of their Hungarian government and as a forward base for an attack against Vienna. To forestall this, the Habsburgs built Komorn at the east end of Schütt Island, a large area that stretched west to Pressburg which was formed by two branches of the river and often flooded. Another fortress was constructed at Raab, approximately 40km south west of Komorn, to guard the only practicable route south of Schütt Island into Lower Austria. The lesser fortress of Neuhäusel covered Komorn’s northern flank by blocking the Neutra river. The final Hungarian section stretched eastwards from there to the Tisza river and Transylvania. Its main fortress was Erlau, which blocked the road north over the Matra mountains into Upper Hungary and so safeguarded communications between Austria and Transylvania. Central funds covered only the principal garrisons, leaving the intervening sections in the hands of Hungarian magnates who maintained private armies of haiduk infantry. The haiduks were originally nomadic oxen drovers who had been forced by the partition of Hungary to accept a semi-settled existence as border guards, living in their own villages under elected headmen and relying on banditry between wars to supplement their irregular pay.	<urn:uuid:8a4d1b74-17da-43a9-8852-89ce603d420d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.057419657707214355, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9785013794898987, "url": "https://weaponsandwarfare.com/category/ottoman/" }
Once called the Ruwenzori Ranges, and now called the Rwenzori Mountains, the Mountains of the Moon are located between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Stretching to heights of about 5, 109 metres the Rwenzori Mountains are one of the highest mountains in Africa. The mountains are said to have been formed three million years ago. The range is about 120 kilometres long and 60 kilometres wide. The Rwenzori is composed of a group of mountains referred to as massifs. The massifs are separated by deep gorges. They are Mount Stanley (5,109 metres), Mount Speke (4,890 metres), Mount Baker (4,843 metres), Mount Emin (4,798 metres), Mount Gessi (4,715 metres) and Mount Luigi di Savoia (4,627 metres). Vegetation in Rwenzori Mountains. Photo: Jorn Eriksson/Flickr The peak of the mountains is the Marhgherita Peak which is on Mount Stanley. It is the third highest peak in Africa. The name Ruwenzori was changed to Rwenzori around 1980. This was in order to keep more closely with the local name Rwenjura. Read: WATCH: Snows Of The Nile short documentary The mountains are one of the sources of the river Nile. Although glaciers are disappearing from the mountains due to global warming, the Rwenzori peaks are permanently snow-capped. Ornithologist James P. Chapin displays Flag #4 on expedition in the Ruwenzori Mountains, 1925 Photo: Wikimedia Commons The mountains are a host to two national parks, the Rwenzori Mountains National Park and Virunga National Park. The mountains also boast of lush vegetation which ranges from tropical rainforest through alpine meadows to snow. The reference to Mount Rwenzori as Mountains of the Moon came from Greek explorers trying to locate the source of the Nile. A merchant called Diogenes reported that the source of the Nile came from a group of mountains which the indigenes of the land called Mountains of the Moon because of their snow-capped whiteness. Unfortunately this snow-capped whiteness has been reducing and is likely to stop existing. Snow Capped Rwenzori Mountains Photo: Jorn Eriksson/ Flickr The glacial recession on the Rwenzori Mountains has been a cause for worry. It is one of the evidence of global warming. In 1906, the Rwenzori had 43 glaciers across six mountains. Almost 100 years later, in 2005, less than half of those glaciers were present on three mountains. Read: Sossusvlei, one of Africa’s most spectacular landmarks The Rwenzori Mountains experience high and regular rainfall throughout the year making it have one of the most diverse vegetation. The Rwenzori has five vegetation zones which changes as one goes higher. The grassland which is found at 1000 to 2000 metres, montane forest (2000 to 3000m), bamboo/mimulopsis zone (2500 to 3,500m), heather/Rapanea zone (3000 to 4000m) and finally the afro-alpine moorland zone (4000 to 4,500m). Uganda has three UNESCO Heritage Sites and Rwenzori Mountains National Park is one of them.	<urn:uuid:62324f32-bddd-48c9-999f-1f79c4160b53>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.023024678230285645, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9446172714233398, "url": "https://thisisafrica.me/lifestyle/rwenzori-mountains-mountains-moon/" }
This video is part of an ongoing series of Areaware video shorts, providing 1 min. explanations of our products. Each video is produced in-house by the Areaware creative team. In 1946, Buckminster Fuller patented a map of Earth which presents geographic information without breaks in any of the continental contours, or any visible distortion of the relative shapes or sizes of the land masses. In 1954, with architect Shoji Sadao as cartographer, the Dymaxion Projection as we know it today was created. Designer Brendan Ravenhill has configured Fuller’s projection as a magnetic folding globe, a representation of Earth that easily transitions from flat to three dimensional. Fold it to form a geometric globe or unfold to reveal our flattened planet. NEW - Dymaxion Folding Globe - Satellite Earth Shop the Dymaxion Folding Globe	<urn:uuid:e1dcd46d-5f11-41c1-a475-4f8fd3e59717>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.02290576696395874, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8840419054031372, "url": "http://area.areaware.com/areaware-video-short-dymaxion-folding-globe/" }
About Angklung Angklung is a musical instrument made out of two bamboo tubes attached to a bamboo frame. The tubes are carved so that they have a resonant pitch when struck. The two tubes are tuned to octaves. The base of the frame is held with one hand while the other hand shakes the instrument rapidly from side to side. This causes a rapidly repeating note to sound. Thus each of three or more angklung performers in an ensemble will play just one note and together complete melodies are produced. Angklung is popular throughout Southeast Asia, but originated from Indonesia (used and played by the Sundanese since the ancient times). Since 19 November 2010, Angklung has been declared as Indonesian Intangible Cultural Heritage by Unesco. Each Angklung consist of 3 parts: 1. The Voice Tubes: these tubes produce the tune. Each tube has to be tuned for specific tone by cutting its upper parts for increasing tone and by shaping both voice laths for decreasing the tone. 2. The Frame : is supporting the voice tubes so they can be move back and forth freely when the instrument is shaken sideways 3. The Base It is function as the frame of the voice tubes. Not all bamboo can be used for angklung instrument, it is selected by its age – has to be at least 4 years old and not more than 6 years old. It is cut on the dry season, between 9 am in the morning to 3 pm at the afternoon. After being cut at its base for about 2-3 span of the hand, it will be stored for about 1 week, so that the bamboo will contain less water. After a week, the bamboo will be cut into certain various sizes. Then, will be stored for about one year to keep it from termites. Some of the other procedures are: by sinking the bamboo beneath mud field, pool or river, also by smoking it at the fireplace, and the modern procedure: by using a certain liquid chemistry formula. The Angklung got more international attention when Daeng Soetigna, from Bandung, West Java, expanded the angklung notations not only to play traditional pélog or sléndro scales, but also diatonic scale in 1938. Since then, angklung is often played together with other western music instruments in an orchestra. One of the first well-known performances of angklung in an orchestra was during the Bandung Conference in 1955. A few years later, Udjo Ngalagena, a student of Daeng Soetigna, opened his “Saung Angklung” (House of Angklung – http://www.angklung-udjo.co.id) in 1966 as centre of its development. In Hindu period and Padjajaran kingdom era, Sundanese people used the angklung to sign the time for prayer. Later, Padjajaran kingdom use this instrument as corps music in Bubat War (Perang Bubat). Angklung functioned as building the peoples community spirit. It was still used by the Sundanese until the colonial era (Dutch East Indies, V.O.C). Because of the colonial times, the Dutch East Indies government tried to forbid people playing the angklung instrument. Outside Indonesia In the early 20th century, the angklung was adopted in Thailand, where it is called angkalung (อังกะลุง). The Thai angklung are typically tuned in the Thai tuning system of seven equidistant steps per octave, and each angklung has three bamboo tubes tuned in three separate octaves rather than two, as is typical in Indonesia. Angklung had also been adopted by its Austronesian neighbours, in particularly Malaysia and the Philippines, where they are rather played as part of bamboo xylophone orchestras. Formally introduced into Malaysia sometime after the end of confrontation, it found immediate popularity [. They are generally played using a pentatonic scale similar to the Indonesian slendro, although in the Philippines, sets also come in the diatric and minor scales used to perform various Spanish-influenced folk music. At least one Sundanese angklung buncis ensemble exists in the United States. Angklung Buncis Sukahejo is an ensemble at The Evergreen State College, and includes eighteen double rattles (nine tuned pairs) and four dog-dog drums. Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Google+ photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:7ae26042-5136-4fd9-a119-fba2ce950336>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.028840601444244385, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9321702122688293, "url": "https://lesangkuriang.wordpress.com/2013/12/11/about-angklung/" }
History of the Former Lorton Prison prison_old_picAt the beginning of the 20th Century, President Theodore Roosevelt commissioned the purchase of a large tract of land in Virginia for the creation of a workhouse for Washington, DC’s non-violent criminals. Roosevelt’s progressive era vision was to provide prisoners with fresh air, natural light and structured, purposeful work as the basis for their rehabilitation.Agricultural operations began at the Workhouse in 1912 and the prisoners created a brick plant where they produced bricks to construct the permanent buildings. How You Can Help	<urn:uuid:fa5f4df7-62f8-4fab-a980-107b6ce545eb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.037412047386169434, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9178654551506042, "url": "http://flhec.org/about-us" }
Logarithmic Scales \| Decibel \| Earthquake \| pH-Value \| Brightness (mag) \| Octave \| Power of Two \| Power of Ten Compare the Magnitudes of Earthquakes Calculator for the comparison of two Earthquake magnitudes given in the Richter scale. The Richter scale is the most frequently used to measure earthquake magnitudes. This is a logarithmic scale, where each step has ten times the power of the previous one. An earthquake that registers 7.5 is 10 times stronger than one with 6.5. The strongest earthquake measured so far had 9.6 on the Richter scale, this was 1960 in Chile. Please enter two values, the third will be calculated. First value (a): Second value (b): Ratio a to b: Round to decimal places. Example: an earthquake that registers 4 on the Richter scale makes the furnishings shake. An earthquake that registers 9 is a hundred thousand times stronger (109-4 = 105 = 100000). With 9.6, this is almost four hundred thousand times stronger. Calculate ratios of logarithmic scales © Jumk.de Webprojects \| Imprint & Privacy German: Logarithmische Skalen \| Dezibel \| Erdbeben \| pH-Wert \| Helligkeit (mag) \| Oktave \| Zweierpotenz \| Zehnerpotenz	<urn:uuid:34716044-2f9f-4a85-b785-95e28a30b2c9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.08475500345230103, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7937099933624268, "url": "https://rechneronline.de/log-scale/earthquake.php" }
Origin of the word ‘Aryan’ by 5ocietyx c.1600, as a term in classical history, from L. Arianus, Ariana, from Gk. Aria, Areia, names applied in classical times to the eastern part of ancient Persia and to its inhabitants. Ancient Persians used the name in ref. to themselves (O.Pers. ariya-), hence Iran. Ultimately from Skt. arya- “compatriot;” in later language “noble, of good family.” Also the name Sanskrit-speaking invaders of India gave themselves in the ancient texts, from which early 19c. European philologists (Friedrich Schlegel, 1819, who linked the word with Ger. Ehre “honor”) applied it to the ancient people we now call Indo-Europeans (suspecting that this is what they called themselves); this use is attested in English from 1851. The term fell into the hands of racists, and in German from 1845 it was specifically contrasted to Semitic (Lassen).	<urn:uuid:e1e68cf2-3169-44bd-a1d4-53a335751473>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.06745213270187378, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9055595993995667, "url": "https://5ocietyx.wordpress.com/2012/04/24/origin-of-the-word-aryan/" }
Undeciphered language. Voynich manuscript The Voynich manuscript is a mysterious book thought to have been written in the 15th or 16th century and comprising about 240 vellum pages of handwritten text, the majority having illustrations. The text of the manuscript has not yet been deciphered, and the author, script, and language remain unknown. Since its recorded existence, the Voynich manuscript has been intensively studied by many cryptographers, including some top American and British codebreakers of World War II fame, but all of them failed to decrypt at least a part of the text. The Voynich manuscript has become a famous subject of historical cryptology, but it has also given weight to the theory that the book is simply a well conceived hoax having a meaningless sequence of arbitrary symbols. The book is named after the Polish-American book dealer Wilfrid M. Voynich, who acquired it in 1912. Currently the Voynich manuscript is stored in the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Yale University as item “MS 408”. The first facsimile edition was published in 2005. The book originally had 272 pages in 17 quires of 16 pages each. About 240 vellum pages remain today, and gaps in the page numbering (which seems to be later than the text) indicate that several pages were already missing when Voynich acquired it. A quill pen was used for the text and figure outlines, and colored paint was applied (somewhat crudely) to the figures, possibly at a later date. There is strong evidence that at one point in time, the pages of the book were arranged in a different order. The text was clearly written from left to right, with a slightly ragged right margin. Longer sections are broken into paragraphs, sometimes with “bullets” in the left margin. There is no obvious punctuation. The ductus flows smoothly, suggesting that the scribe understood the words as he wrote. The manuscript therefore gives the impression that the symbols were not enciphered, otherwise the individual characters would have had to be calculated before being written. However, it is possible to write somewhat fluently in other codes. Wider gaps divide the text into about 35,000 “words” of varying length. These seem to follow phonetic or orthographic laws of some sort; e.g. certain characters must appear in each word (like the vowels in English), some characters never follow others, and some may be doubled but others may not. Statistical analysis of the text reveals patterns similar to those of natural languages. For instance, the word entropy (about 10 bits per word) is similar to that of English or Latin texts. Some words occur only in certain sections, or in only a few pages; others occur throughout the manuscript. There are very few repetitions among the thousand or so “labels” attached to the illustrations. In the herbal section, the first word on each page occurs only on that page and may be the name of the plant. The Voynich manuscript’s “language” is quite unlike European languages in several aspects. There are practically no words comprising more than ten glyphs, yet there are also few one- or two-letter words. The distribution of letters within words is also rather peculiar: some characters only occur at the beginning of a word, some only at the end, and some always in the middle section. While Semitic alphabets have many letters that are written differently depending on whether they occur at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a word, letters of the Latin, Cyrillic and Greek alphabets are generally written the same way regardless of their position within a word (the exception being the Greek letter Sigma). The text seems to be more repetitive than typical European languages; there are instances where the same common word appears up to three times in a row. Words that differ only by one letter also repeat with unusual frequency. There are only a few words in the manuscript written in a seemingly Latin script. On the last page, there are four lines of writing that are written in (rather distorted) Latin letters, except for two words in the main script. The lettering resembles European alphabets of the 15th century, but the words do not seem to make sense in any language.Also, a series of diagrams in the “astronomical” section has the names of ten of the months (from March to December) written in Latin script, with spelling suggestive of the medieval languages of France or the Iberian Peninsula. However, it is not known whether these bits of Latin script were part of the original text or were added later. The illustrations of the manuscript shed little light on the precise nature of its text but imply that the book consists of six “sections”, with different styles and subject matter. Except for the last section, which contains only text, almost every page contains at least one illustration. Following are the sections and their conventional names: • Herbal. Each page displays one plant (sometimes two) and a few paragraphs of text—a format typical of European herbals of the time. Some parts of these drawings are larger and cleaner copies of sketches seen in the “pharmaceutical” section (below). None of the plants depicted are unambiguously identifiable. • Cosmological. More circular diagrams, but of an obscure nature. This section also has foldouts; one of them spans six pages and contains a map or diagram, with nine “islands” connected by “causeways”, castles, and what may be a volcano. • Recipes. Many short paragraphs, each marked with a flower- or star-like “bullet”. The first impression given by the surviving leaves of the manuscript is that it was meant to serve as a pharmacopoeia or to address topics in medieval or early modern medicine. The puzzling details of illustrations have generated many theories about the book’s origins, the contents of its text, and the purpose for which it was intended. The first section of the book is almost certainly herbal, but attempts to identify the plants, either with actual specimens or with the stylized drawings of contemporary herbals, have largely failed. Only a couple of plants (including a wild pansy and the maidenhair fern) can be identified with some certainty. Those herbal pictures that match pharmacological sketches appear to be clean copies of these, except that missing parts were completed with improbable-looking details. In fact, many of the plant drawings in the herbal section seem to be composite: the roots of one species have been fastened to the leaves of another, with flowers from a third. Astrological considerations frequently played a prominent role in herb gathering, blood-letting and other medical procedures common during the likeliest dates of the manuscript (see, for instance, Nicholas Culpeper’s books). However, apart from the obvious Zodiac symbols, and one diagram possibly showing the classical planets, no one has been able to interpret the illustrations within known astrological traditions (European or otherwise). A circular drawing in the “astronomical” section depicts an irregularly shaped object with four curved arms, which some have interpreted as a picture of a galaxy that could only be obtained with a telescope. Other drawings were interpreted as cells seen through a microscope. This would suggest an early modern, rather than a medieval, date for the manuscript’s origin. Manuscript’s History The history of the manuscript is full of gaps and full of mystery. Due to the fact that the manuscript’s alphabet does not resemble any known script, and the text is still undeciphered, the only useful evidence as to the book’s age and origin are the illustrations—especially the dress and hairstyles of the human figures and a couple of castles that are seen in the diagrams. They are all characteristically European, and based on that evidence, most experts assign the book to dates between 1450 and 1520. This estimate is supported by other secondary clues. In 2009 the material used to write the manuscript was carbon-dated to between 1404 and 1438. There are no records of the book for the next 200 years, but in all likelihood, it was kept, with the rest of Kircher’s correspondence, in the library of the Collegio Romano (now the Pontifical Gregorian University). It probably remained there until the troops of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy captured the city in 1870 and annexed the Papal States. The new Italian government decided to confiscate many properties of the Church, including the library of the Collegio. According to investigations by Xavier Ceccaldi and others, just before this happened, many books of the University’s library were hastily transferred to the personal libraries of its faculty, which were exempt from confiscation. Kircher’s correspondence was among those books—and so apparently was the Voynich manuscript, as it still bears the ex libris of Petrus Beckx, head of the Jesuit order and the University’s Rector at the time. Beckx’s “private” library was moved to the Villa Mondragone, Frascati, a large country palace near Rome that had been bought by the Society of Jesus in 1866 and housed the headquarters of the Jesuits’ Ghislieri College. Around 1912, the Collegio Romano was apparently short of money and decided to sell (very discreetly) some of its holdings. Wilfrid Voynich acquired 30 manuscripts, among them the manuscript that now bears his name. In 1930, after his death, the manuscript was inherited by his widow, Ethel Lilian Voynich (known as the author of the novel The Gadfly and daughter of famous mathematician George Boole). She died in 1960 and left the manuscript to her close friend, Miss Anne Nill. In 1961, Anne Nill sold the book to another antique book dealer, Hans P. Kraus. Unable to find a buyer, Kraus donated the manuscript to Yale University in 1969. Researchers at the University of Arizona performed C14 dating on the manuscript and showed that the parchment on which the manuscript was written was made between 1404 and 1438, according to Walter Koehler. In addition, the McCrone Research Institute in Chicago found evidence that the ink was added to the parchment around the same time as the creation of the parchment itself, suggesting that it is an authentic document. 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Follow project on Twitter 2.6. Other sources of intelligence Language is not the only source of intelligence. Animals like dolphins, crows and chimpanzees show intelligent behavior regarding to spacial information. So, spacial information is another source of logical information (intelligence). An example: If a room has only one entrance, and there are no temporary entrances, and there is an object inside that room, then we can conclude: Either that room is built around that object, or that object must have entered the room through that one entrance. So, if we see a classical miniature ship in a bottle, and this bottle has no temporary entrances like a separate bottom, either the bottle is built around that ship, but more likely, the ship has entered the bottle through the bottleneck. More derived spacial information: The miniature ship consists of multiple components, leaving the audience in awe which of those components were already attached, and which were attached later on. (But its party trick is of course the unfolding of the masts and sails.) Creating a miniature ship in a bottle requires capabilities of natural intelligence, like grouping, separating, planning and probably also learning from mistakes. Not only the creator, but also the audience watching the end result, will need capabilities of natural intelligence in order to analyze the problems involved with this peculiar object. A curious person who sees a miniature ship in a bottle for the first time, will not just say “nice” and walk away. Apparently, the laws of nature involved with spacial information are already present in the brain. They will trigger the brain of a curious person when the spacial information doesn’t add up. Illusionists are masters in hiding aspects of spacial information, by which the spacial information visible to the audience doesn’t add up: Objects seem to appear and disappear without visible action taken. I like the artwork of M.C. Escher. He understood the logical structures of spatial information very well. In his artwork, Escher plays with the outer lines of objects like birds and fish. In other artwork, Escher deliberately applied the logical structures of spatial information in a wrong way, by which this artwork seems 'wrong'. Brilliant! Objects like birds and fish structured in artwork, are like keywords structured in a sentence. A lot of daily activities – like anticipation in traffic and sports – require capabilities of natural intelligence in order to process a lot of spacial information in a fraction of a second. It includes capabilities like grouping, separating, planning, foreseeing and learning from mistakes. Experience (training) helps to use as much spacial information as possible within a short time frame. In self-driving cars and trucks, the processing of spacial information is more and more automated to our benefit. In fact, these are also artificial implementations of natural intelligence (within a limited domain). Prefix “self” in “self-steering” refers to the natural origin of the spacial information.	<urn:uuid:f881ffbf-f7d9-4a29-abb6-fc95146f445b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.027815818786621094, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9467196464538574, "url": "http://mafait.org/nl/other_sources_of_intelligence/" }
Credit: WIred Humans made the banana perfect—but soon, it’ll be gone …scientists noted that in the native range of bananas lived a great diversity. There were big ones, small ones, sweet ones, sour ones, hard ones, soft ones, bananas as dessert, and bananas—plantains, really—consumed as sustenance. In those same regions one could also find an extraordinary diversity of pathogens. But in the cultivated world of bananas, the scientists pointed out, because a single genetically identical variety of banana was planted everywhere, were any banana-attacking pathogen to arrive, it would mean trouble. Any pathogen that could attack a single banana plant, even one, would be able to kill all of them. If the banana companies had listened to these warnings, they might have planted a diversity of banana varieties or a variety that would be resistant to the most likely pathogens. But why would they? The single clone of the Gros Michel banana was the most productive anyone had ever found. Planting anything else would mean losing money. Then the inevitable happened. Rob Dunn in the Wired on how Panama disease, wiped out banana plantations back in the 1950‘s and is threatening to do so again.	<urn:uuid:331ecc99-a4df-42ec-b3b4-b05fb9e5655b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.7495200634002686, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9728739857673645, "url": "http://chugs.me/humans-made-banana-perfect-soon-it-will-gone/" }
1000px-WWBBook Macrauchenia "These Macrauchenia are unrelated to any modern mammal." Macrauchenia ("Long Llama") was a prehistoric mammalian animal that looked a bit like a camael or a llama. Macrauchenia lived during the Late Miocene to Late Pleistocene from around 7-1 million years ago. A species of mammal unrelated to any modern mammal, Macrauchenia were unique to South America, but they were also the last of their kind. They were prime targets for Smilodon. Macrauchenia were fast, wary animals and had outstanding maneuverability. Behavior Edit Like many mammals, Macrauchenia lived in large herds. Male Macrauchenia lived separately from their herds and often wondered into the scrub forests to browns, using their long noses to strip leaves.	<urn:uuid:574cf876-d192-4cfc-9428-ea565b8bd423>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.9704033732414246, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9511116147041321, "url": "http://prehistoric-earth-a-natural-history.wikia.com/wiki/Macrauchenia" }
While it’s hard to imagine as one gazes at the vast wilderness of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, more than two-thirds of the lush forests were clear-cut by timber companies in a couple of short decades preceding the park’s creation. Ridge after ridge, the slash operations of the timber giants denuded the mountains, gobbling up massive forests at lightening speed during the 1910s and 1920s. “Looking at these wonderful mountains with this timber, they couldn’t wait to cut it down,” Duane Oliver said of the timber barons arrival. Oliver grew up in the Swain County portion of the park prior to its creation and recalls their lasting influence. Large mill towns were born virtually overnight to support the operations. Oliver remembers the hustle and bustle of Proctor, one of the larger logging towns. The once rural area was suddenly home to a movie theater, tennis court and their first resident doctor. While the lumber camps attracted hundreds of workers from outside the region, the logging operations and their railroads gave rise to a cash-based economy on a scale previously unknown by local people. For many, the desire for a steady paycheck often outweighed their internal conflict over the destruction they were witnessing. “People were glad to get jobs that paid money,” said Luke Hyde, 69, of Bryson City, whose grandfather on both sides worked as loggers. “Most people in the mountains were subsistence farmers and considered it lucky to get work where they made money. Even when I was a lad people conducted business by barter. Money was in short supply so people would swap things.” The timber boom wouldn’t last forever, of course. The barons would soon move on, leaving the mountains denuded and thrusting the local people back into poverty — only this time, without their prized forests. The stripped hillsides would no longer be fertile hunting grounds and the creeks once teeming with trout would be decimated by clear-cutting. In this sense, the park movement entered the stage at just the right time. When talk of a national park in the Smokies began percolating in the early 1920s, local people could see logging would soon go bust. It made it far easier to latch on to the idea of a tourism economy hung on the neck of a national park, even though it was still a foreign concept. “You’ve got to understand how poor people were. They were looking for anything that might help,” said Claude Douthit, born in 1928 amidst the movement to create the park. While the lumber companies had brought a short-lived boom, mountain people could see that the jobs would dry up when the lumber companies disappeared. But unlike logging, tourism would be here to stay, park proponents pledged. “If we use this a magnet to draw tourists, it will be something that will produce forever,” Pierce recounted of their argument. “If we make this a park it will be like the goose laying the golden egg.” Wresting it away When the states of North Carolina and Tennessee began buying land for the park in 1927, there were eight large lumber companies operating in what would become the park — among them the well-known Ritter, Norwood, Kitchen, Champion, Suncrest, Whitmer-Parson and Crestmont — as well as a myriad of smaller ones. Some timber companies had already logged most of the timber and saw a chance to unload the wasteland left behind. “The lumber companies had come in here and dry-cleaned the whole darn thing,” said Douthit. “They came in and bought the land for nothing, cut the lumber then sold their land to the park.” The timber companies didn’t exactly go quietly, however. They fought hard for a national forest instead of national park. With a national forest, they could return every few decades to recut what had grown back, but not so with a national park. Many timber companies balked at the price initially offered for their holdings — in North Carolina it was $10 to $20 an acre — and went to court to get more. The crux of the argument was they needed to be paid not just for the land, but the value of the still standing timber. While lumber companies had certainly burned through vast tracts of timber already, they weren’t ready to quit while there was still logging to be done, according to Dan Pierce, a UNC-Asheville professor who is an expert on Smokies history. “Most of these companies still had plenty that had not been logged,” Pierce said. The timber companies had the deep pockets necessary to fight the land takings in court — and in the meantime continued logging. One of the more storied cases involved Champion, a large timber company with a paper mill in nearby Canton. To demonstrate the cost of logs needed to feed its mill, Champion faked a shipment of specialty spruce from Sweden at a vastly inflated price to flout as evidence of the great cost they would incur through the loss of their timber land. A jury awarded Champion a generous amount, due in part to the economic tour de force the timber companies were in local communities (although the IRS later discovered a juror in the case got a $15,000 bribe from Champion). The government appealed Champion’s award — indeed it seemed whichever side lost would have done the same — and the two appeared locked in a dead-end battle. “Champion recognized this could drag on a long time, and meanwhile they have all these assets tied up,” Pierce said. “Once the Depression hits, Champion realizes ‘If we get this cash, we can do a lot with this.’” So they settled out of court for $2 million — about $20 an acre. The lengthy court battles with the timber companies pushed the tab for the park’s creation higher than anticipated. Park proponents estimated the raw cost of buying land would be $10 million, and it was. “What they didn’t figure on were the legal fees and the cost of appraisers to estimate the value of the timber,” Pierce said, “which ran close to $1 million.” The timber company owners went to their graves claiming they had lost money on the sale of their holdings to the park. But Margaret Brown, a history professor at Brevard College and the author of a leading book on the park’s creation, The Wild East, thinks otherwise. “I think they made out like bandits. They made money on the land three ways. They bought it very cheaply, they got everything off it they could, and then got reasonably good prices from the United States government once it was sold,” Brown said. “I think they did just fine for themselves.” An unlikely ally Ironically, if it weren’t for the massive logging operations, it is likely the Great Smoky Mountains National Park would not be here. The timber companies made critical contributions to the park movement. For starters, they played a valuable role sorting out the muddled nature of property deeds in the high mountains, Brown said. When the timber companies arrived in the early 1900s, land ownership often dated back to the first land grants. The boundaries of the original claim, let alone how it had been parceled up through the generations, was fraught with confusion. When timber companies made their first forays into the Smokies, they often relied on a land speculator to buy up a hodge-podge of tracts and resell them as a block, often landing in court to sort out who held clear title. Unfortunately, a few landowners were out-lawyered and in effect had their land stolen. By the time the park came along two to three decades later, much of the land had been consolidated as large tracts owned by a handful of timber barons. The timber era also had pushed the region into a cash economy, and it seemed there was no going back to a subsistence lifestyle, Brown said. Addicted to commerce, even if on a rural scale, it made people more willing to accept the idea of tourism as a replacement. But most importantly, the nation and locals alike saw intrinsic value in the Smokies. Before the timber barons, people couldn’t imagine losing the mountains, so they had no concept of saving them. “It raised the consciousness of people that it was something they wanted to protect,” Brown said. This Must Be the Place Reading Room • Books that help bridge the political divide Go to top	<urn:uuid:4a385937-1616-45a4-af4c-786aee896703>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.02841627597808838, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9788907170295715, "url": "http://smokymountainnews.com/aae/item/2308-a-race-against-time" }
Or are you looking for Search the Archives? Please complete the form to email this item. • Place of origin: Germany (made) • Date: 1200-1400 (made) • Artist/Maker: • Materials and Techniques: • Museum number: • Gallery location: Medieval & Renaissance, Room 8, The William and Eileen Ruddock Gallery, case 10 This candlestick highlights a fashion in the 12th and 13th centuries for designs of beasts and monsters on domestic objects. The Elephant and Castle represented here was an exotic motif inspired by the use of elephants in Eastern warfare. Towers were placed upon the backs of the elephants from which soldiers could fire arrows or throw missiles. Elephants were a source of great fascination in medieval Europe because they were little known. In England only the King owned an elephant in his menagerie at the Tower of London. Physical description Bronze pricket candlestick in the shape of an elephant and castle. The small elephant stands in a stationary position with its head straight and its tail between its legs. A small trunk, short tusks and small ears are are depicted, which identify the beast as an elephant. The castle tower is fixed around the waist of the elephant. It has two tiers with windows on both sides. The pricket stands upon the upper tower of the castle. The edge of the tray beneath the pricket, used to catch the wax, is crenellated. Elephants fascinated the medieval West because of their exoticism and novelty. In England only the King owned an elephant in his menagerie at the Tower of London. Based on their behaviour, Elephants came to signifiy chastity and piety (it was believed that every new moon they cleansed themselves), yet they were also seen as monstrous and deformed owing to their use in warfare and their appearance. The elephant and castle was a popular motif in the middle ages. Elephants were used in the East in warfare. Structures ("castles") were fixed upon the back of the elephant from which soldiers could fire arrows or hurl weapons. This exotic image became popular in medieval Europe and was adapted into western culture. The British Library manuscript Burney 216 from the 12th century depicts a marginal drawing of an elephant and castle on folio 33. The sketch, describing King Pyrrhus' battle elephants in Orosius' Historiarum Adversum Paganos depicts the exotic elephant with western armed soldiers in the "castle" on its back. This candlestick, although missing the connotations of war, also demonstrates how the west interpreted this eastern theme. The castle upon the elephant's back is crenellated and tiered in the style of western fortifications whilst the elephant represents the exotic. It is the popular belief that the term "Elephant and Castle" is a corruption of "Infanta de Castilla", the title of the Spanish princesses in Castile, although this is by no means certain. Place of Origin Germany (made) 1200-1400 (made) Materials and Techniques Height: 16.8 cm, Width: 5.3 cm, Depth: 10.3 cm, Weight: 0.34 kg Object history note Holy Roman Empire Exhibition RF.2006/104 Historical significance: This object is made from base metal, which was a robust and popular material for candlesticks in the medieval period. Its pricket demonstrates how the medieval candlestick functioned; candle holders or sockets did not come into use until the 13th century. The design of this candlestick is in keeping with a fashion at this time for shaping candlesticks in the form of animals. The elephant and castle however, is a representation that can be found in many different artistic media, from ivory chess pieces to manuscript illuminations. Historical context note Medieval candlesticks were used both in the home and during religious ceremony to provide light. The candle was secured to its holder using a pricket or spike to impale the candle and hold it in place. Candlesticks were most commonly made from base metals during this period. Descriptive line Bronze candlestick in the shape of an elephant and castle, Germany, 13th-14th century. Bibliographic References (Citation, Note/Abstract, NAL no) Mende, U, "Mittelalterliche Elefantenleuchter und die Magdeburger Gußwerkstatt", Anzeiger Des Germanischen Nationalmuseums, 1986, pp.7-18, esp.p.9 and pls.9, 4, 5 and 12 Labels and date In the form of a grotesque monster Flemish; 13th century [] Subjects depicted Castle; Elephant Access to Images; Images Online; Metalwork Metalwork Collection Large image request	<urn:uuid:41f70587-208c-45cf-ab2d-c2ec4c199e5a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.06621551513671875, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9313493371009827, "url": "http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O69137/candlestick-unknown/" }
Chapter 11 Questions MAKE SURE YOU ARE INCLUDING SPECIFICS, especially DATES and names of people involved. 1. What disadvantages or challenges did each of the candidates in the election of 1800 face? What mudslinging tactics were used against Jefferson? What role did Aaron Burr play? 2. What trouble arose for Jefferson in the electoral college? What then happened to resolve this? Be specific. 3. Explain the four parts of Jefferson’s mission, as he saw it (on p. 228). 4. Explain this quote: “There were in fact two Thomas Jeffersons.” How did he seem to be two different people? 5. How did Jefferson’s actions as president align with his political philosophy that he had displayed previously? Support your answer with details. 6. What were the political implications of the Judiciary Act of 1801? How did this lead to a crisis—and an expansion of judicial power? Include an explanation of Marbury v. Madison in your answer. How else did Jefferson attempt to influence the judiciary, even though it was filled with Federalists? 7. How and why was John Marshall a thorn in the side of Jefferson? How was Marshall different from Jefferson (even though they were cousins)? Explain Marshall’s political and legal philosophy, as well as his lasting impact upon our country’s court system. 8. How did we get involved in a war with Tripoli, and what changes did that force Jefferson to make in his ideas about the military? 9. What was the specific reason why Jefferson sent envoys to France? What was his fall-back plan if the negotiations failed? Why did Napoleon sell, and how did that offer create a real conundrum for the envoys—and Jefferson himself? 10. What were the PURPOSES of the Lewis and Clark expedition? Did they accomplish these purposes? 11. Evaluate this statement: Aaron Burr was absolutely insane. Support your answer. 12. What problems did the US have with British naval policies? Include impressment and the Chesapeake incident in your answer. 13. How did Jefferson attempt to deal with the same problem that Washington and Adams had faced with the fighting between the British and the French? How did he attempt to use economic coercion, and what were the results of this attempt? Include the Embargo and Macon’s Bill No. 2 in the answer. How did President Madison (Jefferson’s successor) make a mistake in this area? 14. By 1812, which groups wanted war with Britain and why did they demand it? List their specific justifications. 15. Explain the problem that Tecumseh posed for those on the frontier. What impact did the Battles of the Thames and Tippecanoe. 16. Why finally did Madison accede to the demands for war with Britain? How did sectional differences become obvious regarding the question of war? %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:79090e88-59ef-4ad7-956c-1e418ebcb100>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 1.0000100135803223, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9792989492416382, "url": "https://historyscoop.com/2013/10/02/chapter-11-questions/" }
Encyclopedia of Parasitology 2016 Edition \| Editors: Heinz Mehlhorn Isospora Species of Animals Reference work entry Greek: isos = identical; sporos = seed, spore; kystis = cyst, capsule. Geographic Distributions/Epidemiology The isospores are worldwide found as parasites of many groups of vertebrates. Their abundance in single infected hosts may reach very high numbers, as well as the rate of infection among given host population may reach 90 %. Morphology/Life Cycle In the present overlook only a few species are considered out of a number of several hundreds. The life cycle has the same phases (schizogony, gamagony, sporogony) like the Eimeria species, which are as numerous. The difference is that in Isospora species the oocysts include two sporocysts with four sporozoites (Fig. 1), while in oocysts of Eimeria species four sporocysts with two sporozoites occur ( Coccidia). The oocysts are excreted in an unsporulated state and form their infectious stages in species-specific and temperature-dependent times outside of the host (=sporulation). Due to the extremely resistant oocyst wall the parasites inside can survive extreme conditions for years. Some examples of important Isospora species are listed in Table 1. Isospora Species of Animals, Fig. 1 Two unsporulated oocysts of the genus Isospora (light micrograph) Isospora Species of Animals, Table 1 Important Isospora species of animals Size of oocysts (μm) Prepatent period I. suis Pigs/Small intestine 17–22 × 17–19 I. canaria 13 × 10 I. erinacei Hedgehogs/Small intestine 28–34 × 23–27 I. farahi 29 × 28 I. lacazei I. lacerate 28 × 26 I. serini Canaries/Intestine and its wall, liver, lung 12 × 10 Symptoms of Disease Slight infections remain mostly symptomless. However, especially young animals suffer from diarrhea, which may be fatal due to huge loss of water. However, after surviving such an infection immunity protects them further on. Isolation of oocysts (Figs. 1 and 2) by concentration methods ( S.A.F.C. M.I.F.G., flotation) from feces shows the species specific oocysts (compare Figs. 1 and 2 in Cystoisospora species). The size and details of some species are listed in Table 1. Isospora Species of Animals, Fig. 2 Sporulated oocyst of the genus Isospora containing two sporocysts each with four sporozoites (light micrograph) Oral uptake of sporulated oocysts with fecally contaminated food. Quick removement of animal feces from breeding sites. Incubation Period High variations in the different species: a few days until weeks. Prepatent Period Examples see Table 1. Species specific: 1 to several weeks. The medicament of choice is toltrazuril (10 mg/kg bodyweight) orally for 4–5 days. Further Readings 1. Berto BP (2011) Coccidia of New World passerine birds: a review of Eimeria and Isospora. Syst Parasitol 80:159–204CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar 2. Box ED (1977) Life cycles of two Isospora species in the canary Serinus serinus. J Protozool 24:57–67CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar 3. Mihalca AD (2009) A new species of Isospora in Ruppels agama with review of this genus in agamid lizards. Syst Parasitol 74:219–222CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar 4. Milde K (1979) Light and electron microscopic studies on isosporan parasites in sparrows. Protistologica 15:607–627Google Scholar 5. Worlicek HL (2009) Porcine coccidiosis. Investigations on the cellular immune response against Isospora suis. Parasitol Res 105:S151–S155CrossRefGoogle Scholar Copyright information © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016 Authors and Affiliations	<urn:uuid:e0612539-2f85-4037-853d-35862d7c05ef>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.029490649700164795, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8029392957687378, "url": "https://rd.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-662-43978-4_3976" }
Teaching Guide: Exploring the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878 This teaching guide helps instructors use a specific primary source set, The Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878, in the classroom. It offers discussion questions, classroom activities, and primary source analysis tools. It is intended to spark pedagogical creativity by giving a sample approach to the material. Please feel free to share, reuse, and adapt the resources in this guide for your teaching purposes. Discussion questions 1. At the time of the 1878 epidemic, doctors and scientists did not yet know exactly what caused yellow fever. Dr. Summers describes yellow fever as the “most formidable malady known to warm latitudes” and the “curse of our land.” Based on chapter one of Yellow Fever, explain what factors doctors had identified as possible causes of yellow fever. What causes does Dr. Summers rule out? Given that the disease is transmitted via mosquito bite, how accurate or “close” do you think nineteenth-century scientists were to identifying the cause of the disease? 2. Using Yellow Fever and the map, explain how the 1878 epidemic challenged and/or confirmed prevailing knowledge about the circumstances under which yellow fever occurred. 3. What do the Frank Leslie’s excerpt about the yellow-fever camps and the image of hungry citizens reveal about the impact of the disease beyond the medical crisis? 4. What does the title of Dr. Dromgoole’s book tell you about the epidemic? 5. Much of the medical care provided during the yellow fever epidemic was offered by volunteer organizations including the Howard Association and Sisters of Charity. What do the "Brave Women in Memphis” excerpt from Dr. Dromgoole’s book and the “Sisters of Charity" illustration reveal about the role of women in treatment? 6. Based on the report from the expedition of the War Department, what can you infer about the involvement of the federal government in addressing the fever epidemic? How helpful do you think the efforts of this expedition were? 7. Using the image from New York and the letter from Boston abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, what can you learn about how Northern communities reacted to the yellow fever epidemic? 8. Using the Sanitary Code of New Orleans, explain some ways the city applied lessons learned during the 1878 outbreak. The link between mosquito bites and the transmission of yellow fever was discovered shortly after this document was published. How do you think that discovery would impact the guidelines provided in this document? Classroom activities Ask students to imagine themselves as news reporters during the 1878 yellow fever outbreak. Using the primary sources in this set, ask students to write an article about some aspect of the crisis. They should select at least three figures (real or imagined) featured in the sources of this set. For example, students may elect to “interview” one of the hungry Memphis residents waiting for food, a person who lived in the Father Matthew refugee camp, a Howard Association doctor, or one of the participants in the War Department expedition. Ask students to consider their angle and (imagined) audience. What questions would your students ask of their “interviewees”? Send feedback about this teaching guide or our other educational resources to	<urn:uuid:78cd2751-7222-43e3-8a39-ea9abd5f583d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.125, "fasttext_score": 0.293556272983551, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9428563714027405, "url": "https://dp.la/primary-source-sets/guides/teaching-guide-exploring-the-yellow-fever-epidemic-of-1878/" }
What is a DNA Haplogroup? What is a haplogroup What is a DNA haplogroup What is a DNA haplogroup What is a DNA Haplogroup? When learning about genetic testing, some people may find it surprising to learn that it is possible to trace their ancestral lines far beyond marriage and birth certificates. Through DNA haplogroup assignment, individuals can learn more about where their family originated from, who they are genetically related to, and more. But what is a haplogroup? A haplogroup, which is determined by markers in your DNA, is the determination of which small group of ancestors your family is originally descended from. The haplogroup is also generally tied to one or more geographical areas, with the possibility of mutations from migration from one location to the next. If you are interested in learning about haplogroups, the differences in testing, and if you should get tested, then read on. The information in this short article will answer many of your questions. Y-DNA and mtDNA When it comes to determining haplogroups, both the Y-DNA and mtDNA must be looked at. These are the DNA strands that determine your mother and father’s ancestral line, both of which have been untainted by marriage, and will give you a good idea of where your ancestors originated from. Y-DNA will determine your paternal line’s ancestry. It is found in the Y chromosome, and, therefore, is not present in females. Women can get a close understanding of the Y-DNA haplogroup by having a close male relative, such as a father or brother, tested, using that person’s Y-DNA as the best alternative to finding their paternal haplogroup. It is best used to finding close genetic matches that may not be part of your family tree. The other strand, mtDNA, is mitochondrial DNA and is the testing of your maternal line. It is the most commonly used sequence to find haplogroups. Everyone can find out their maternal haplogroup, as it is housed in the X chromosome. What is a DNA Haplogroup? Testing Differences When it comes to finding your haplogroup, not all tests are created equal, and here’s why — you have over 17,000 markers within your DNA that contribute to determining your haplogroup, and not all tests register each marker. When you request a DNA test, a swab of fluid from the inside of your mouth is taken and sent to the lab. This swab contains all the information a lab will need to get the mitochondrial sequence needed to test for the haplogroup. These markers in either your Y-DNA or mtDNA are responsible for pinpointing your exact haplogroups, mutations and all. Because of this, the more markers that are tested and analyzed, the more accurate the results will be. The pricier your genetic testing is, the more likelihood you have of getting accurate results. This is especially important if you are looking for genetic matches and long-lost family members. For those who just have an interest in learning more about their general haplogroups, then a slightly less expensive test that does not include all markers will suffice. Should You Be Tested? This question depends on you. If you were adopted or have no living relatives, being tested to find out your DNA haplogroup can help you find your ancestry, giving you a sense of where you came from. For others, being tested is all about curiosity and filling out the family tree. It can help families learn more about their cultural ancestry, guided by actual science and not family folklore. It can also help you find genealogical ancestry matches, leading you to determine your familial line through genetic cousins who share certain DNA markers with you. If you are looking for family members or birth families, haplogroups really isn’t help. There are millions of people in a haplogroup and it is more general information for you about your ancestors past. DNA haplogroups are a definitive way of tracing ancestry back thousands of years for everyone, making it the best way to learn about ancestral roots. But because of the way ancestral lines are derived from DNA — mainly the Y-DNA and mtDNA strands — it is important to ensure that you are tested by professionals who understand your needs. About the author I found my birth family after 40 years of looking for them. I used DNA tests, software to sort DNA match results, family trees, contacting DNA matches and several website tools. We want to provide you a "one stop shop" with all your resources to help YOU find YOUR family. Click here to add a comment Leave a comment:	<urn:uuid:32c3b605-1871-4f0c-8c95-26ed5a093e4b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.018558979034423828, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9525259137153625, "url": "http://findmyfamilymagazine.com/what-is-a-dna-haplogroup/" }
Nachlinger Catchfly Endemic Global Species Background Information Nachlinger's catchfly (Silene nachlingerae) This flowering plant is found in central Great Basin ranges like the Snake and Ruby. Like many Great Basin endemics, it is found primarily in isolated alpine areas on limestone substrates. It has been found in the park around the Lincoln Peak and Mount Washington areas. Listed as a sensitive species, species of concern, and a Nevada Special Status Species, it is threatened by alpine recreation and livestock grazing in alpine and subalpine habitats, particularly associated with the Murphy Wash sheep allotment. These plant grow from 24-28 inches, it has a lng slender reclining stem. They are also known as Royal catchfly. They are natives to USA Threats and causes of endangerment Causes of endangerment include: destruction of habitat, constant picking by people, overgrowth of woody species and fire suppression. Climate change doesn't affect the because they actually thrive more in sunny areas Solution and courses of protection We can try to reduce picking and man made activities, also reduce the use of chemicals on plants and they are protected by the government because it is now prohibited to pick these plants	<urn:uuid:f37f4e3a-4501-4f3e-84e4-48a12f7e076b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.027740120887756348, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9475095272064209, "url": "https://www.smore.com/cvu2k" }
By Xiomary M. Grade 9, Pennsylvania Country of Origin: Poland this story is about a young boy named Seymour Rechtzeit who was a immigrant from Lodz poland. He was born in 1912 and him and his family is Jewish. His family decided that Seymour and his father should come to America for better opportunities. He has a uncle who lived in America who send his father and Seymour and his father two tickets to come to America to seek a better life but the rest of their family had to stay behind. The idea was Seymour and his dad to come to America to raise money to bring the rest of their family to America too. Back to Immigration	<urn:uuid:66df84b6-0c29-486a-adc9-d15baab07666>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.11519730091094971, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.993359386920929, "url": "http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/writing/publish/readrep.asp?SID=1555&topic=Immigration" }
Powerpoint: Teaching Pearl by Jane Beal, PhD (free download) Approaches to Teaching the Middle English Pearled. Jane Beal and Mark Bradshaw Busbee (New York: MLA, forthcoming 2017). Jane Beal, “Three Approaches to Teaching Pearl: Introduction to Literature, British Literature I, and the Mythology of J.R.R. Tolkien,” The Once and Future Classroom (Spring 2016), Art. 6. Key Terms and Study Questions Terms: affective piety, allegory, balade stanza, baptism, bestiary, Christology, codicology, concatenation, consolation, Cotton Nero A.x, courtly love (amour courtois), crown (corona), Dreamer, dream vision, elegy, epithalamion, eschatology, Eucharist, exemplar, four senses of scripture (literal/historical, spiritual/allegorical, moral/tropological, anagogical), hortus conclusus, Jesus, jewel, jeweler, Lamb, margarita, lapidary, locus amoenus, manuscript, New Jerusalem, paleography, parable, pearl, Pearl-Maiden, Pearl-Poet, phoenix, revelation, Revelation, rose, sacrament, Saint Margaret, seed, somnium, Song of Songs, spiritual marriage, symbol, typology, virgin, Virgin Mary, Wyrde Pearl, I-X (l. 1-768) 1. Where does the poem begin? Think of Eden, the Song of Songs, and Mary’s womb, all considered to be types of the hortus conclusus (“enclosed garden”) in the Middle Ages. What did these gardens contain? What grew in them? What does the garden at the beginning of this poem contain? What is growing in it? 1. The speaker grieves over his lost pearl in the opening lines of the poem. He says, “Allas! I leste hyr in on erbere” (alas, I lost her in a garden); she is “clad in clot” (dressed in dirt); he observes, “For vch gresse mot grow of graynez dede” (for each grass must grow of dead grains). What do these lines suggest has happened? 1. The speaker falls asleep in the garden and has a dream vision. What is the landscape like in his dream? See section II. How does his vision of this paradisial dreamscape affect the Dreamer emotionally? (lines 121-32). Whom does the Dreamer see here, and what does she look like? (lines 160ff) 1. How does the Dreamer feel when he sees the Pearl-Maiden? (lines 181ff) Read lines 230-35. What is the relationship between the Dreamer and the Pearl-Maiden? Notice the Dreamer’s description of feelings he has suffered since his separation from the Pearl-Maiden (lines 241ff). Is this love-sickness? Why does he call himself a “joyless jeweler”? What is the significance of such a self-identification? What is the role of a jeweler? 1. How does the Pearl-Maiden see/identify the Dreamer? Allegorically or symbolically or metaphorically, then, what is the relationship between the Dreamer and the Pearl-Maiden? The Pearl-Maiden says: “For what you lost was but a rose/That flowered and finally failed in time” (trans. Finch). What does a rose often stand for? Is this a (courtly) love story? (Think of the French allegory, the Roman de la Rose.) 1. The Pearl-Maiden reproves the Dreamer for calling Fate (“Wyrde”) a “thief” (line 273) and calls into question the Dreamer’s perception of reality (lines 295ff). Why? What do her words suggest about her intentions in coming to meet the Dreamer in this vision? (Think of Boethius and Lady Philosophy in the Consolation of Philosophy and Dante and Beatrice in The Divine Comedy.) 1. At line 325, the Dreamer asks, “Do you judge me … my sweetheart, to sorrow again?” What does the Dreamer fear may happen next? Why might he feel that way? To whom does the Pearl-Maiden advise the Dreamer to look? At this rebuke, the Dreamer speaks once more of his intense feelings (lines 361-84). What are those feelings? What kind of relationship does he want to have with the Pearl-Maiden? 1. The Dreamer says the Pearl-Maiden is the ground of all his bliss, but who does the Pearl-Maiden say is the ground of hers? At the end of section VII, the Pearl-Maiden describes her spiritual marriage to her “Lord the Lamb.” Think of the description in the Bible of the marital relationship between God and Israel as well as Jesus and the Church, Origen’s reading of the Song of Songs as an epithalamion describing God’s relationship to the individual Christian soul, Bernard of Clairvaux’s commentaries on the Song of Songs, and the tradition of mysticism, especially among women like Birgitta of Sweden (or, later, Margery Kempe and Teresa of Avila) who experienced visions in their souls of being married to Christ. What kind of intimacy, what kind of authority, does such an experience imply? 1. How does the Dreamer react to the news that the Pearl-Maiden is married? (lines 420ff). Whom does he call the “Phoenix of Arabia”? Why? Who is the “queen of courtesy” and the “empress of heaven”? What is the Dreamer really arguing about here? 1. Sections IX-X re-tell Jesus’ Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard from the New Testament. What is that parable about, and what is its point? Why does the Pearl-Maiden re-tell it here? How does the Dreamer respond to the parable? (lines 590ff) Is the Pearl-Maiden unworthy of her penny? Why not (in her estimation)? What is “great enough” for her to have a place in heaven as a queen? Pearl, XI-XX (l. 769-1212) 1. Notice the example of the baptized infants. What makes a soul innocent? (lines 625ff) What sin took place in the Garden of Eden that necessitates atonement? (lines 637ff) What is the significance of the Crucifixion and the blood and the water that sprang from Christ’s side? (lines 645ff) 1. In section XII, what two types of people does the Pearl-Maiden discuss with interest? Is there a relationship between righteousness and innocence? Why do you think the Pearl-Maiden remembers the stories from scripture of how people brought their children to Jesus to be blessed by him? (lines 709ff). 1. In section XIII, the Pearl-Maiden remembers the Parable of the Merchant. What is that parable about, and what is its point? This parable is the obvious subtext for the entire poem, Pearl. In an allegorical reading that takes this parable into account, what might the Pearl-Maiden stand for? Notice how the Pearl-Maiden describes the pearl on her breast given to her by her Lord the Lamb. What idea does this image reinforce? 1. In the second-to-last stanza of section XIII, the Pearl-Maiden again describes her spiritual marriage to Christ. What language does she use to describe her Bridegroom? How does she understand herself in relationship to him? 1. In section XIV, the Pearl Maiden makes several allusions to the book of Revelation / Apocalypse. What keyword is repeated at the end of every stanza in the section? In the second stanza, what are the names that the Pearl Maiden gives to her lover (“my lemman”)? What key event in the life of Jesus is described? 1. The Pearl-Maiden describes how “each soul” can be the Lamb’s “worthy wife” (lines 845-46). Again, we see the potential for spiritual marriage not only for the Pearl-Maiden but also for the Dreamer (and even the readers of the poem!). How does this relate to the allegorical sense of the poem? Discuss the “old” and the “new” Jerusalem … If the Pearl-Maiden’s soul is with the Lamb, where is her body? (see line 856) … What is the music like in heaven? (see lines 877ff) How does the Dreamer respond to these revelations? (lines 901ff) How does he see himself? How does he see her? 1. What does the Dreamer ask for from the Pearl Maiden? What does he want to see? Where does he want to go? (line 963) Whom does he wish to see there? (line 964) Where is the focus of his gaze? What does the Pearl-Maiden say in response? 1. The Dreamer calls himself a jeweler. At line 985ff, he begins to describe the gems of the foundations of the New Jerusalem. Who else is a Jewel/Jeweler? In section 18, what are the gates of the city made of? Where does the light in the city come from? What tree grows there and how many kinds of fruit does it bear? Compare these lines to Revelation 21. 1. The Dreamer sees a procession of virgins crowned, arrayed in pearls, and dressed in white, which includes his “blysful.” Then he sees the Lamb. How many horns does he have and what are their colors? What kind of clothes does he wear? What kind of wound does he have? The Dreamer’s gaze is filled with this wounded Lamb, a Lamb who responds to his pain with joy. How might this speak to the loss that the Dreamer has experienced? What ecstatic emotion does the Dreamer experience in response to what he is seeing? (Notice the keyword repeated at the beginning and end of each stanza!) 1. In section XX, where does the Dreamer most want to be? What happens when he attempts to cross the water? What is the Dreamer’s explanation for what happens? What adjectives does the Dreamer use to describe his actions? He calls his dream a “veray avysyoun” (a true vision). What does that suggest about his understanding of his experience? The relationship between his dream and reality? Between earthly and heavenly experience? 1. What has the Dreamer found the “Prince” to be both day and night? What are the names the Dreamer gives to the Lover? How has the dream apparently changed his view of God and his loss of his beloved Pearl-Maiden? Has he reached the stage of grief in which he can relinquish and still remember peacefully? 1. Why does the Dreamer allude to the bread and the wine of the Eucharist in the last stanza of the poem? What is the purpose of the Eucharistic rite? What permission might the Eucharist give the Dreamer to remember? 1. What invitation is given in the last two lines of the poem to the readers of the poem? How are we included in the Dreamer’s experience? Having read this poem, what range of meanings might be signified in the image/signifier “precious pearls”? 1. How might we characterize the genre of this poem? Literal sense Allegorical sense Moral sense Anagogical sense Elegy Allegory Consolation Revelation 1. The overall structure of Pearl has been compared to a cathedral, a rose-window, a reliquary, a crown, and the microcosm of a human body with a heart at its center as well as (of course) a pearl. How do these comparison enlarge our understanding of the poem and its memorial, cultural, and theological purposes? 1. Consider also the smaller structures of Pearl: 1,212 lines, 101 twelve-line stanzas, and 20 sections (each unified by a key concatenation word), which can be studied as a chiastic diptych (10-10) or a triptych (4-12-4). Given medieval number symbolism, how are these numbers and divisions significant? In what ways are the form and content of Pearl intimately related? One thought on “Teaching 1. Pingback: Week 5: “Pearl,” “Princess Mee,” and Other Poems \| Mythology of J.R.R. Tolkien Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:b2202ebf-a03b-4198-b2b9-cd01a425bdad>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.9991540908813477, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9366063475608826, "url": "https://medievalpearl.wordpress.com/teaching/" }
Shortly after salmon swim upstream to spawn, their bodies undergo a dramatic deterioration and the fish die within days. But, reasoned Donald L. Garling, a Michigan State University biologist, if the fish never felt the urge to spawn, they might just stay in deep water, growing bigger and meatier year after year. Garling has found a way to eliminate the salmon's reproductive urge and, although the experiments are just beginning, he says his specially treated versions of Lake Michigan's Chinook salmon might grow beyond their usual 20- to 40-pound weight at maturity and become 60- or 70-pound leviathans in an additional three or four years. Garling has created sterile salmon simply by placing salmon eggs in warm water, between 85 and 100 degrees Fahrenheit, for a few minutes. The eggs, adapted to cold water, are shocked by the heat and fail to undergo a normal developmental step. As a result, each egg contains a full set of paired chromosomes instead of the normal half-set that includes one from each pair. Ordinarily the male salmon's sperm, bearing its own half-set of chromosomes, would fertilize a normal egg's half-set, producing a full paired set that would be the start of a new embryo. In Garling's hatchery, however, the normal sperm give the heat-shocked eggs a third half-set of chromosomes. The combination produces a fish normal in most respects except that it is unable to make viable sperm or eggs. Its reproductive system disabled, this fish never feels the urge to swim upstream and keeps on growing, Garling hypothesizes. Fingerling salmon produced this way last year are swimming in Garling's lab. They will be tagged and released into Lake Michigan next spring. Fishermen will be notified to send the tags to Garling, should they hook one of the special fish. Because salmon normally spawn around age 3 or 4, it will be some time before Garling learns whether his fish have lived to be the lunkers to lure new anglers to the lake.	<urn:uuid:3823c7a3-8d98-4e2b-8410-635201a854b6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.03683900833129883, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9503617286682129, "url": "https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1985/12/01/sterile-salmon-may-achieve-giant-size-biolog/ca191e90-2277-48d0-a464-ee1277276a96/" }
Quick Links Skip to main contentSkip to navigation Clarendon ISD Ajax Loading Image The Importance of Structure Junior high students explore the “One Word” of the year. Story image 1_0 Story image 1_1 Story image 1_2 Story image 1_3 Story image 1_4 The definition of chaos is “complete disorder and confusion.” The definition of structure is “construct or arrange according a plan.” During the first “Structure Kickoff” assembly, CJH students started their afternoon in the cafeteria with a pile of straws and paper. For the first few minutes they were not given any expectation or instructions on what to do with it. They were then told to build the tallest structure possible with the given materials. During the exercise, students stopped and talked about the word structure and how it relates to life and education. “Some built their structure with a weak base and started the structure from the highest point of the building the ceiling, while other teams focused on a good foundation and created height from that point on,” explained school counselor Jenae Ashbrook. “When the activity was complete, we talked about what elements defined a structure and which structure met all those requirements to win, some of the elements listed were: good strong foundation, teamwork, motivation, routine, plan, and grounded.” This exercise was a concrete illustration of the junior high’s theme or one word for the year. “Structure is how all pieces fit together to support the whole,” principal John Taylor stated. “At CJH everyone is important and has a role to play in the success of the campus. Also, focusing on structure and providing a more structured environment creates a situation where junior high students can find more success individually. Therefore, an emphasis on structure not only recognizes that everyone has a responsibility for the achievements of the school, but also helps the individual student succeed.” After the main event in the cafeteria, the students went outside for other structured games in order to relax and have fun. While plans are in the works for a similar event in the spring, students will remember that structure not only counters chaos in their lives, but also helps them become successful.	<urn:uuid:1bb20f07-9e47-4b7e-80e4-ea958aec1777>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.10054183006286621, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.95308917760849, "url": "http://clarendonisd.socs.net/vnews/display.v/ART/59e61e42a100e" }
Nikola Tesla - Death Ray Sources (left to right): Unknown artist in Aviation Week magazine July 1980; Hal Crawford. Publicly unveiled in 1934, Tesla presented an amazing new device to the US military. It was named Teleforce. The device was the first “particle beam projector” in history to be taken seriously, the first one deemed realistic and plausible. Tesla had stated in his early talks with the US government that the device could attack a target 250 miles (400 km) away, leveling millions of soldiers or even a fleet of 10,000 aircraft. Myths and rumors regarding this device abound. Today, in honor of Halloween, we’d like to discuss one of these rumors surrounding this death ray. There are many rumors stating that Tesla’s early prototypes were fired over the arctic circle in the early 1900s. One such rumor was propagated by apparent eye-witnesses involved in his lab complex whom relayed information to the media. They stated that Tesla fired the weapon at a location at the North Pole, but atmospheric distortion and the curvature of the Earth deflected the beam. As a result, they claim that the beam did not hit where it intended. At first, it seemed that the beam did not work; however, news began to trickle in related to a strange event in Siberia. On June 30, a massive explosion had devastated Tunguska, a remote area in the Siberian wilderness. Five hundred thousand square acres of land had been instantly destroyed. That’s right; these eyewitnesses claim that Tesla is the one responsible for the Tunguska event. These individuals go on to claim that the initial disappointment that Tesla had at missing his target quickly turned to horror over the devastation it apparently unleashed. As a result, he sought to dismantle the current prototype and refine it further. Whilst it is unknown whether a perfected prototype was created, many claim that he offered it to the US Military as a weapon of defense, rather than offense. Despite its apparent abilities, the US Military was reluctant to implement this technology – there must have been a valid reason for this… fear of retaliation? fear of misuse? Uncertainty inspired by the mysterious events at Tunguska? Or perhaps the device simply didn’t work. Who knows for sure. To his dying day, Tesla continued asserting that he had created a super-weapon; however, there was a large cloud of uncertainty, and officials never admitted to seeing a prototype, nor observing a test-fire (such as the one that could account for the Tunguska event). Is it a cover up? Or is it all just a myth? You be the one to decide… Warning: This article was posted on the 31st of October, 2013 as a “Halloween-themed” article. Due to the conspiracy-nature of this article, most of the sources (seen below) cannot be considered “trustworthy” by FQTQ’s quality standards. Nonetheless, I hope you had as much fun reading and imagining this as we did writing it. Use and navigate the sources at your own risk – bring your critical thinking cap with you. Tesla Tries To Prevent World War II Nikola Tesla’s Teleforce & Telegeodynamics Proposals Tesla: The Forgotten Mysteries III [Death Ray]	<urn:uuid:447712b8-5fb6-43e0-b2cf-1d6de5945ca2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.056978464126586914, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.967417299747467, "url": "https://futurism.com/%EF%BB%BFnikola-teslas-death-ray-2/" }
About Limes The Latin word Limes was initially used by the ancient Romans to indicate the limit between two areas, for example - the limit between two pastures. Even so, several ancient authors used this word, referring to the frontiers of the Roman Empire. Historians of today use this term in a wider sense, to describe the defense system, diplomatic and military issues, but also economic, religious and other issues involved. The Roman Empire Limes has known its greatest expansion in the A.D. II-nd century, having a length of over 5000 km. It was reaching from the Atlantic shores of Scotland, cutting across Europe, touching the Black Sea and continuing on to the Red Sea, travelling through North Africa to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. The frontiers were a symbol of the power, ambition and culture of the Roman Empire, promoting the Roman way of life, all across the Empire. Today, the signs of the Limes are to be found in the built walls, ditches, earthen ramparts, castra, fortresses, signal towers and civilian settlements. The limes physical structure differs along its path, from the walls, earthen ramparts, palisades, to the rivers, desert, and mountains. And so, its purpose also differs, across time, the limes was a control area and point of passing the information, commerce area and migration, as well as an area with a defensive role.	<urn:uuid:b9d9a573-3aa1-48e3-bc01-d9accf5fb9a9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.5006539225578308, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9530494213104248, "url": "https://danubelimesbrand.ro/en/limes" }
Tufts University e-news Search GO > this site people Tufts University Logo Bottom Search Bottom left side photo The Science Of Racial Bias The Science Of Racial BiasIn a groundbreaking study, a Tufts professor found that both black and white populations stereotype blacks based on their skin tone. Medford/Somerville, Mass. [05.01.02] Highly controversial in nature, racial bias has been a topic of research largely avoided by the scientific community. But a groundbreaking study by a Tufts professor is shedding new light on the subject, finding -- for the first time -- that both black and white populations stereotype blacks based on their skin tone. "Recently, [Tufts' Keith] Maddox, and African-American himself, published the results of a set of experiments that showed for the first time that both blacks and whites unconsciously categorize blacks by their skin tine, and that both blacks and whites are well aware of the stereotype that paints dark-skinned blacks as inferior," reported The Boston Globe. Prior research had only focused on general cultural stereotypes about blacks, said the assistant professor of psychology at Tufts. "When he was a graduate student, [Maddox] noted that researchers focused on how races see other races as homogenous, and tended not to focus on ways people of the same race are different," reported the Associated Press. While many scientists believed skin-tone bias was a taboo topic for research, Maddox decided to design a series of experiments to explore the issue. "[Maddox's] work is unusual, other researchers said, not just for its bravery, but because he is using a basic experimental approach, in some ways quite ingenious, that hasn't been brought to this question before," reported the Globe. Maddox -- who also heads Tufts' Social Cognition Lab -- recruited 150 white and black college-aged students from around Boston for the research. "In the first part of the study, subjects were shown pictures of light- and dark-skinned blacks, along with neutral statements," reported the Associated Press. "The subjects were then asked to match the faces and the statements. Researchers wanted to see if the subjects characterized the pictures and statements by skin tone." In the second part of the study, the subjects were asked to list the traits they believed to be commonly associated with light-skinned and dark-skinned blacks. The Tufts professor's findings -- which have received national attention -- offered some of the first scientific evidence about how racial stereotypes operate in society. "The study found light skinned blacks were more likely to be described as intelligent, attractive or wealthy, while dark-skinned blacks were more apt to be described as poor, criminal or tough/aggressive," reported the Associated Press. Maddox's experiment was carefully designed to focus on skin tones, resulting in scientific evidence that showed "racial bias and prejudice are related to the lightness or darkness of a black person's skin, rather than other features such as hair texture, lip fullness or nose width," reported the Boston Herald. As a result, Maddox and his Tufts colleague Stephanie Gray noted in their findings "that the effects of skin tone are not only historical curiosities from a legacy of slavery and racism, but present-day mechanisms that influence who gets what in America." The research -- funded by that National Institutes of Health -- is an important step in understanding and addressing racial bias, Maddox told the Globe. "It is something that in the past has been thought of as divisive and explosive and something we shouldn't ever talk about in public," he told the newspaper. "But if you don't try to understand it, then things will never get better." Maddox hopes his research will help. "The goal, Maddox said, is to develop a clear picture of how racial stereotypes operate," reported the Globe. "That way, he said, we should all feel more comfortable talking about them -- and, by talking about them, eventually getting beyond them." It's a process that has taken a long time already. "We've come a long way since the 1950s in terms of acknowledging racial inequality, but skin tone bias represents a lingering and influential remnant of history," he told the Herald. Keith Maddox's color photo courtesy The Boston Globe. Related Stories Related Links Featured Profile	<urn:uuid:e8a8bc85-9a91-4add-a2f6-4b293aea9367>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.921875, "fasttext_score": 0.025346219539642334, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9708058834075928, "url": "http://enews.tufts.edu/stories/1123/2002/05/01/ScienceOfRacialBias" }
Tuesday, 3 September 2013 What on Earth is a Zeugen?! 'Not all students knew what yardangs were and there was some confusion with rock pedestals and zeugen' This quotation is from the examiner report on the June 2013 GEOG 1 exam, and I have to say I am glad to see it! Not because I am happy that students got it wrong, but because I hope it will help to solve the mystery of what a zeuge actually is, and perhaps open up a wider discussion on the flexibility of geographical terminology. You may wonder why I am so obsessed with zeugen, after all, they're just some rocks in a desert... I suppose I do have a somewhat obsessive personality when it comes to teaching (which perhaps explains why I spent so many hours planning lessons!) but it's important to get things right, especially when it's for someone's exam, and hence their future! I came across the zeugen when I first started teaching deserts and this landform caused me many hours of grief as, in my determination to cater for visual learners and provide a link between theory and reality I tried to find a picture of one to show my students, just like I do with any landform. Although the Philip Allan AS textbook clearly states what a zeuge is and has a diagram of one, it doesn't have a photo. I tried searching for the word online but all 'Professor Google' can come up with are mesas, buttes, yardangs and, much to my irritation, rock pedestals (aka mushroom rocks), useless! As I researched further I discovered that I was not the only one who wasn't sure what they were, even the exam board who wrote the specification couldn't seem to give me a clear answer! Even worse, when the new Oxford textbook came out it had a picture of a rock pedestal and underneath labelled it as a zeuge! I was beginning to wonder if AQA and the textbook I had had got it wrong, and that 'Zeugen' and 'Rock Pedestal' were simply 2 different names for the same thing! But then, since it was in the AQA spec. I had to go with it and teach them as 2 separate landforms, even if was wrong I had my student's grades to think about! I simply used a diagram to show them what a zeuge looked like and fortunately none of them questioned it. The page below reiterates what the Philip Allan textbook says and gives a very good explanation of a Zeuge and how it differs from a Yardang, however, notice there is no photo. I wasn't happy about this lack of evidence that these things really do exist (obsessive teacher alert!) so recently, while I had some time on maternity leave, I decided to look into it again. This time I did find this very useful page which gave further diagrams and confirmed that zeugen are indeed a separate landform, examples of which can be found in the deserts of Bahrain! This got me very excited as I had the name of the a place where they were! Perhaps they were real after all and I was finally going to see a real picture of one. All it took was a quick image search of 'Bahrain Desert' and voilà! I found these images, they do exist! woohoo!! (that is if these things are actually zeugen..., I'm going to assume they are unless someone else can enlighten me??). ANOTHER ZEUGE (source) - see some more great pics here too So, there you have it. Rock Pedestals, Yardangs and Zeugen, 3 different landforms!! With similarities, but also distinct differences. Please don't get them confused again! Right, think I might write to Oxford and let them know that their textbook has a mistake in it! UPDATE 9/4/14 Ok so it turns out 'Zeugen' is a German word meaning 'witnesses' (hence 'Zeugen Jehovas') and since it's a plural word I've been using it wrongly, it should be 'a Zeuge' and 'several Zeugen' - so apologies for this (now updated!). I discovered this whilst reading FJ Monkhouse's Dictionary of Geography (London, 1965) which was given to me by our college library as it was so old they decided not to keep it anymore. I love old books and have been reading through all the interesting definitions; then I thought of looking up Zeugen: "Zeuge (pl. zeugen) (Germ) A tabular mass of resistant rock up to 100ft high, standing out from softer underlying rocks because of its protective capping. It is produced by differential erosion in a desert through the scouring effect of sand-laden winds." Underneath it has a labelled sketch of 3 rock pedestals. Similarly I found this in a 'Glossary of Geology' published in the US in 2005: "Zeuge - a tabular mass of resistant rock left standing on a pedestal of softer rocks, resulting from differential erosion by the scouring effect of windblown sand in a desert region; it may be 2-50m high. Cf. mushroom rock; Syn. witness rock." Since it's a US publisher while the other book is British, I assume this confusion in terminology can't be put down to a difference between the UK and US (as with the issue of whether crystal growth is a form of chemical or physical weathering). Further use of Google reveals this definition by David Lambert from The (2006) Field Guide to Geology: 'Zeugen are parallel, flat-topped ridges of hard rock up to 100ft (30m) high' This is accompanied by a diagram very similar to the one I have pasted above, showing joints widening until just the ridges are left behind, protected by their resistant caps. But they are definitely long; and not rock pedestals, which are defined separately on the same page as: 'Mushroom-shaped rocks, often made of horizontal layers'. So, what is going on? I have an urge to visit the Foyle Reading Room and solve the issue once and for all, but sadly I live far from it so it will have to wait. Perhaps I can shed some light on the issue during the GA Conference next week....! UPDATE 29/3/15 Far from solving the issue the GA conference last year proved to be a source of even further confusion with one geologist telling me, when I showed him a picture of what I thought was a rock pedestal, that it was a yardang! I did recently attend an A2 revision conference however, and met the very helpful Phillip Banks who informed me that, in his opinion a zeuge and a rock pedestal are different types of the same thing - the first being an elongated landform, the second simply having become isolated after further erosion, similar to a protruding cliff eventually becoming a stack I suppose. So technically a rock pedestal IS a zeuge. This makes a lot more sense to me given the meaning of the word. However, it seems that AQA would prefer us to distinguish between them, so I'm going to go with: Yardang - elongated rock formation comprising vertical layers of alternately hard and soft rock Zeuge - elongated rock formation comprising horizontal layers of alternately hard and soft rock Rock-pedestal - a type of isolated zeuge; a mushroom-shaped rock that is undercut at the base I'm going to assume that a zeuge becomes a rock pedestal once the length of the feature becomes the same as its width. And that in an area where the rock strata are aligned neither horizontally nor vertically but as an angle of exactly 45o the feature is called a Zeudang... Personally, after all this I am somewhat disillusioned by giving all these landforms names in the first place, especially when 99% of them don't look anything like in the textbook. Rather than attempting to classify differently shaped bits of rock into different categories surely it is better to focus on the processes that formed them and recognise the complexity and continuity of the physical landscape? Source: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SfnSesBc-RgC&pg=PA732&lpg=PA732&dq=zeugen+geology&source=bl&ots=7Zhdr2V0_u&sig=_00MASEGlqfPJZK7L8MERsetI-g&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AG1FU_K6HcyQhQe8p4HYCw&ved=0CGYQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=zeugen%20geology&f=false Who Else is Visiting This Blog?	<urn:uuid:7572ccab-e8de-407a-89fb-9038fa6e5457>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.021020233631134033, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9656833410263062, "url": "http://www.geogarific.com/2013/09/what-on-earth-is-zeugen.html" }
How to Draw a Gecko In this quick tutorial you'll learn how to draw a Gecko in 6 easy steps - great for kids and novice artists. At the bottom you can read some interesting facts about the Gecko. How to Draw a Gecko - Step-by-Step Tutorial Step 1: Let's start by drawing the head. Draw an oval with a bump for the eye and leave a space for the body. Step 2: Now draw two dots for the nose, a long line for the mouth, and two small ovals for the eyes. Did you know? Geckos do not have eyelids, so they have to lick their eyes to keep them clean and keep them from drying out. Step 3: For your next step, draw the front legs. Geckos have short legs to help them stay low to the ground when they are crawling. Step 4: Behind the front legs, draw two straight lines for the body. Don’t close off the end of the body yet because you'll need to add other details in the next step. Step 5: Now draw the two back legs. Geckos have five toes on each foot. The back toe is separate from the others, just like your thumb is separate from your fingers! Step 6: Last is the tail. Draw a long and pointy triangle--even longer than the rest of the body. If geckos lose their tails, they can grow them back! Some people have geckos as pets. Have your students draw a habitat in a cage for their geckos with light, plants and water. Interesting Facts about Geckos Geckos are medium-sized lizards. There are more than 1,000 species of geckos. They live in warm habitats all over the world, and people also keep them as pets. Did you know? • Geckos can grow their tail back if they lose it. • The largest gecko is the Tokay gecko. The smallest is the dwarf gecko. • Geckos do not have eyelids, so they cannot blink. They lick their eyes to keep them from drying out and to keep them dust-free. • Geckos can be many different colors, and some gecko species become a lighter color in the dark. • In some species, female geckos are parthenogenic, which means that they can reproduce without make geckos. • Geckos are carnivorous and nocturnal, which means they eat meat and are most active at night. Geckos eat insects, and they sometimes also eat small mammals. Geckos use their toes to stick to surfaces. Their toe pads have Velcro-like bristles called setae. In warmer climates, many people find geckos in their homes. They usually find these lizards walking across their ceilings. The species that is most commonly found indoors is the house gecko. People do not mind having them in their homes because they eat unwanted insects. Next post: Previous post:	<urn:uuid:92ff9435-88a1-445f-8f95-78340abc01e6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.12175840139389038, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9595676064491272, "url": "http://www.wedrawanimals.com/how-to-draw-a-gecko/" }
Please submit your answers for lesson 3 using this form. True or False Place a check mark next to the TRUE statements below. 1. Noah built the ark in 150 years. 2. Water prevailed 30 cubits above the high mountains. 3. The apostle Peter is the only person to mention the Flood in the New Testament. 4. Next to Creation, the Flood is the greatest single geological event in the history of the Earth. 5. A local, Mesopotamian flood would require an ark to save the world's wildlife. 6. The ark has been located on top of the 17,000 feet-high Mount Ararat. 7. The opening of the windows of heaven provided all the water necessary for the Flood. 8. Below the equator, water does not seek its own level as it does above the equator. Multiple Choice Select the correct answers below. 1. God imposed a "probationary period" of a maximum of how many years before destroying the inhabitants of the Earth? 2. Which of the following is not used to describe Noah? Faithful in the ages A just man Perfect in his generations Walked with God 3. How old was Noah when he entered the ark? 4. In Luke 17:26-30, Christ compared the Flood with the: Destruction of the Tower of Babel Destruction of the Temple in in Jerusalem Destruction of Sodom Destruction of Satan 5. What was Noah required to take with him on the ark? Land-dwelling creatures 6. Biblical testimony points to a: Local flooe Mesopotamian flood Intercontinental flood Worldwide flood 7. How long were Noah and his family on the ark before the waters that were to form the Flood began to arrive? 1 day 2 days 7 days 1 year 8. According to Genesis 8:7, what was the first animal Noah sent out from the ark to see if the waters had receded? Match the related concepts (place the correct letter in the space provided by each number). 1. Greek for "world" A. Jesus 2. Walked with God B. Peter 3. Hebrew for "all" C. Kol 4. Responsible for getting the animals to the ark D. God 5. Apostle who referred to the Flood in reference to the Second Coming of Christ E. Kosmos 6. Predicted an impending doom that was to befall the Jews of his day who would not listen to, and obey, the Word of God F. Noah Fill In The Blanks 1. Genesis 7:21: "All flesh that moved upon the earth, both birds, and cattle and beasts, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and every man." 2. Numerous theologians and of the past attributed many of the Earth's features to the Flood of Noah. 3. Some Bible professors have wrongly argued: "The flood hypothesis seems to be a valid alternative." 4. Genesis 6:5: "And Jehovah saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth and that every of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually." 5. Rehwinkel stated: "No geologist, biologist, or student of history can afford to ignore this great ." Copyright © 2001-Apologetics Press, Inc. We'd love to know where in the world our website visitors are coming from so we hope you'll fill out the contact information. We will not ask for contributions, no one will contact you against your wishes and your contact information will remain confidential. First Name: Last Name: Questions or Comments:	<urn:uuid:dd72c482-1b1e-4c50-8e46-b96ca88b29a5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.4442219138145447, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9323373436927795, "url": "http://richmondcc.org/CUSTOMCODE/cea/af3.php" }
Sign up here Bible and Health The medical instructions given by Moses to the Israelites some 3500 years ago were not only far superior to the practices of contemporary cultures; they also exceeded medical standards practiced as recently as 100 years ago. Following are some examples of the medical knowledge afforded the Israelites in biblical times: Sanitary Practices For centuries doctors denied the possibility that disease could be transmitted by invisible agents. However, in the late 19th century Louis Pasteur demonstrated in his Germ Theory of Disease that most infectious diseases were caused by microorganisms originating from outside the body. This new understanding of germs and their means of transmission led to improved sanitary standards that resulted in an enormous drop in the mortality rate. Yet these core principles of sanitation were being practiced by the Israelites thousands of years earlier. The Israelites were instructed to wash themselves and their clothes in running water if they had a bodily discharge, if they came in contact with another person's discharge, or if they had touched a dead human or animal carcass. They were also instructed to wash any uncovered vessels that were in the vicinity of a dead body, and if a dead carcass touched a vessel it was to be destroyed. Items recovered during war were also to be purified through either fire or running water. In addition, the Israelites were instructed to bury their human waste outside of camp, and to burn the waste of their animals (See Numbers 19:3-22Lev. 11:1-4715:1-33Deut 23:12). These sanitary practices without question saved countless lives in the Israelite camps by protecting them against infection caused by unseen germs. Meanwhile, their Egyptian peers were dying by the thousands due to "remedies" that almost always consisted of some amount of human or animal dung1. As mentioned earlier, the sound sanitary practices that we take for granted today only began to flourish about a 100 years ago. Leprosy is a bacteria, a living organism, that certainly can survive on walls and garments! In fact, the encyclopedia notes that leprosy "can survive three weeks or longer outside the human body, such as in dust or on clothing". It is no wonder that God commanded the Levitical priests to burn the garments of leprosy victims! (Leviticus 13:52) Laws of Quarantine In the same Med-Planet encyclopaedia cited above we read that "It was not until 1873 that leprosy could be shown to be infectious rather than hereditary." Of course God knew this all along, as His laws to Moses reveal (Leviticus 13, 14, 22, Numbers 19:20). His instructions regarding quarantine to prevent the spread of leprosy and other infectious diseases are nothing short of remarkable, considering that this life-saving practice was several thousand years ahead of its time. Infected persons were instructed to isolate themselves outside the camp until healed, and were to shave and wash thoroughly. The priests that administered care were instructed to change their clothes and wash thoroughly after inspecting a plague victim. It should be re-emphasized that the Israelites were the only culture to practice quarantine until the last century, when medical advances finally demonstrated the importance of sanitation and isolation during plagues. The devastating black plague of the 14th century that claimed millions of lives was not broken until the church fathers in Vienna began encouraging the public to start following the guidelines as set forth in the Bible. The promising results in Vienna compelled other cities to follow suit, and the dreaded plague was finally eradicated. The First Antiseptic Hyssop oil was charged by God to Moses to be used as a purifying agent. Hyssop oil has been shown to contain 50% antifungal and antibacterial agents (Numbers 19:18Psalm 51:7). Circumcision and Blood Clotting For centuries scholars must have been perplexed by God's law of circumcision which required the procedure to be performed on the 8th day after birth (Gen 17:1221:14Lev 12:3Luke 2:21). Medical researchers recently discovered that the two main blood clotting factors, Vitamin K and Prothrombim, reach their highest level in life, about 110% of normal, on the 8th day after birth. These blood clotting agents facilitate rapid healing and greatly reduce the chance of infection. You can verify with any Obstetrician that the 8th day of life is the ideal time for a circumcision, and that any circumcision done earlier requires an injection of Vitamin K supplement. Dietary Guidelines By the 1980s, all the health organizations of the United States had adopted low-fat, high fiber dietary guidelines. This was the culmination of numerous scientific studies that had demonstrated that diets high in vegetables, fruits, and grains reduced the risk of heart disease, cancer, and many other diseases. The Biblical diet was primarily a vegetarian diet of vegetables, fruits, nuts, and grains. It wasn't until after Noah's Flood that God reluctantly allowed moderate consumption of meat (ingestion of fat remained strictly forbidden), though He still clearly indicated the superiority of vegetables over meat (see Daniel 1:12-15). For a detailed discussion, see Dr. Jerry Bergman's report in the Creation Research Society Quarterly, Vol 34, No. 4, March 1998, pg 209. Encyclopaedia Britannica documents that in 1845, a young doctor in Vienna named Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis was horrified at the terrible death rate of women who gave birth in hospitals. As many as 30 percent died after giving birth. Semmelweis noted that doctors would examine the bodies of patients who died, then, without washing their hands, go straight to the next ward and examine expectant mothers. This was their normal practice, because the presence of microscopic diseases was unknown. Semmelweis insisted that doctors wash their hands before examinations, and the death rate immediately dropped to 2 percent. Look at the specific instructions God gave His people for when they encounter disease: 'When a man is cleansed from his discharge, he is to count off seven days for his ceremonial cleansing; he must wash his clothes and bathe himself with fresh water, and he will be clean.' (Leviticus 15:13). Until recent years, doctors washed their hands in a bowl of water, leaving invisible germs on their hands. However, the Bible says specifically to wash hands under "running water." 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Rehovot, Israel (Scicasts) — The Weizmann Institute scientists found that for rats, which use their whiskers to feel out their surroundings at night, clumps of nerve endings called mechanoreceptors located at the base of each whisker act as tiny calculators. The research findings were recently published in Nature Neuroscience. As our sensory organs register objects and structures in the outside world, they are continually engaged in two-way communication with the brain. Whiskers, like our eyes or fingers, must move to sense the stationary things in their environment. Prof. Ehud Ahissar and his group in the Institute's Neurobiology Department, including Dr. Knarik Bagdasarian, have been investigating the rat's active sensing system for over a decade, applying a method in which the experimenter "does the whisking" for an anesthetized rat. This method enables them to study so-called active sensation, but the whisker's movement could not mimic that of awake rats - in which sensing and the act of whisking are tightly bound. In the present study they combined their method with one developed by Dr. Avner Wallach, at that time a postdoctoral fellow in Ahissar's lab, whose PhD research with Profs. Shimon Marom and Ron Meir in the Technion had involved work on integrating computers into biological systems. Wallach, Bagdasarian and Ahissar further developed a combined method: a closed-loop system in which the rat whisking system and the computer form a sort of "rat-computer hybrid" that recreates the whisking movement and the way it is regulated in awake, freely-moving rats. The discovery that the mechanoreceptors within the whisker follicle were actually calculating the whisker's motion phase "online" came as a surprise to the researchers, because knowing the phase implies predictive knowledge of how the whisker motion will develop. The assumption was that specialized neuronal circuits would perform this calculation using raw data from both the receptor and the brain's motion-planning circuits. "On second thought," says Ahissar, "this work division is sensible. The sensory organs are not merely 'signal converters.' Rather, they are broad, inclusive interfaces between organisms and their environments, providing everything the brain needs for making sense out of their signals." Next, the researchers would like to know how the sensory organ physically calculates this predictive information. The combined method might, in future research, be used to explore other closed-loop algorithms in the brain. "By investigating sensing with a machine-brain interface, we were able to obtain a sort of insider's insight into the communications between the whisker and brain," says Wallach. "This 'inside agent' can be moved around to explore other complex motor-sensory loops underlying perception." "The more the sensory organs are studied, the more their complexity and sophistication are revealed," adds Ahissar. "It seems that their evolution is a key factor in the evolution of perception." Article adapted from a Weizmann Institute of Science news release. Publication: On-going computation of whisking phase by mechanoreceptors. Wallach, A et al. Nature Neuroscience (18 January, 2016): Click here to view.	<urn:uuid:f54a8fa7-b48b-46c5-bca0-97102f954ff1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.06072777509689331, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9533219933509827, "url": "https://scicasts.com/channels/neuroscience/2062-neuroinformatics/10621-new-details-revealed-how-animals-use-their-whiskers-to-calculate-and-send-precise-information-to-brain/" }
Natural Resources, School of Date of this Version Document Type Published in J. Buikstra & C. Roberts, eds., A Global History of Paleopathology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 751–764. Copyright © 2012 Oxford University Press. Used by permission. Parasitology is the study of organisms that are symbiotic with other organisms. In this form of symbiosis, the parasite species by definition benefits from the interaction while the host is harmed to some degree. In actuality, some parasites benefit their hosts. The animals traditionally studied by parasitologists range from protozoa to arthropods, and include all types of internal and external worms. Ticks, fleas, lice, and a variety of insects that transmit parasites are also studied by parasitologists. Recently, a more holistic view of parasitism appeared, including bacteria and viruses. In essence, parasitology is the study of a certain kind of biological relationship that is very common in the natural world. Humans host hundreds of parasite species. The details of the relationship between any parasite species and humans are defined by culture. Archaeology is the study of past humans and human culture. Therefore, archaeoparasitology is the analysis of parasitism based on archaeological evidence. As defined by Reinhard (2000a) and Reinhard and Araújo (2007), archaeoparasitology derives data from physical evidence such as artifacts, documents, and art. In addition, ecoartifacts such as coprolites, sediments, and human remains provide direct evidence of parasitism. Fisher et al. (2007) provide a holistic example of archaeoparasitological reconstruction of Albany, NY, based on analysis of medical documents, artifacts such as medicine bottles, archaeochemical analysis of sediments for evidence of medicines, reconstruction of sanitation, and direct analysis of parasite eggs from various domestic contexts. In addition, archaeopalynology (Chaves and Reinhard 2006) and archaeobotany (Reinhard et al. 1985) reveal evidence of medicines used to treat parasitic disease symptoms. In short, archaeoparasitologists sift through every imaginable type of archaeological residue that can provide any insight into the culturally defined relationship between human hosts and parasites. In doing so, we decipher the unique parascript specific to human-parasite cultural evolution.	<urn:uuid:652abe42-9a77-4a0c-990b-bbce222f4ac0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.027018964290618896, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9109508395195007, "url": "https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/natresreinhard/64/" }
Monday, 1 January 2018 The 19th Century - The Invention Of Modern Times Bruce Robinson Rural life Horizons were limited and life was slow. Railway mania Although migration itself was not new, it had been difficult and correspondingly rare. The birth of the steam locomotive and the railway networks made it easier and more commonplace. In 1825 the Stockton and Darlington Railway opened, followed by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway five years later. The age of the railway had begun, reducing transport times, lowering transport costs, consuming raw materials and stimulating investment. The 1840s saw 'railway mania': by 1851 6,800 miles of track had been laid. Soon it was possible to travel from London to Bristol in hours rather than days at speeds of around 60 mph. But what did this actually mean? Reduced travel times inevitably shrank the country and widened horizons from local to national. The old days of local time (as in Bristol) jarred with railways that crossed the country and ran to a national timetable, and in 1845 the rail companies successfully lobbied Parliament to abolish it. The edges of Britain were joining up with the centres - the cities. If rail travel shrank the country, the telegraph crushed it. The spread of railways stimulated communication, and Rowland Hill's standardisation of postal charges in 1839 saw a boom in mail services. But this was nothing compared to the revolution of the telegraph. If you think the internet is big (and given you're reading this online the chances are you do) then just imagine how much bigger it would seem if you had never before seen a computer or telephone. That's what the telegraph was to the Victorians. If rail travel shrank the country, the telegraph crushed it. It opened in the 1840s and soon went stratospheric - within ten years exchanging telegrams had become part of everyday life. By the mid 1860s London was connected with New York and ten years later messages could be exchanged between London and Bombay in minutes. This had vast implications for business and communication. The telegraph marked the start of truly global markets and news. It marked an irreversible acceleration in the pace of commercial and everyday life. New mass communication via the telegraph, newspapers and - from 1876 - the telephone meant that the rate of change accelerated further. New inventions, like the X-ray in 1895, could be flashed around the globe in days. The age of media frenzy had arrived. Time is money The Victorians had become addicted to speed and, like all speed crazy kids, they wanted to go ever faster. Time was money and efficiency became increasingly important. Although division of labour had been conceived by Adam Smith and illustrated by a pin factory in The Wealth of Nations in 1776, it could now become fully realised. This specialisation and - by implication - individualisation of labour was in marked contrast to the rural means of production, in which the family was the means of production, consumption and socialisation. Steam engines were servant to neither season nor sunshine. With greater speed came a greater need for industries and businesses to make more and make it quicker. Steam made this possible and changed working life forever. Gone were the days when work was dictated by natural forces: steam engines were servant to neither season nor sunshine. Factories had foremen and life became correspondingly more regimented. The clocking-on machine was invented in 1885 and time and motion studies to increase efficiency would be introduced only some twenty years later. But it was not all bad news. Agricultural incomes depended on variable harvests and weather. Factories provided secure and predictable income, but long hours. Working life was becoming increasingly regulated, and the working week was reorganised to promote ever-greater efficiency. The old custom of St. Monday - when no work was done - was gradually phased out and to compensate, work stopped around midday on Saturday and did not resume until Monday morning. A new division between 'work' and 'leisure' emerged, and this new block of weekend leisure time coincided with the development of spectator sports like cricket and football, and the rise of music hall entertainment for the new working classes. New loyalties were needed to fill some of the vacuum caused by the demise of close-knit rural communities, and they didn't come from the church. Many of the middle class (itself a new term dating only from 1812) became concerned about the godlessness of the working classes when it emerged that only 50 per cent of the eligible population attended a church service on Census Sunday in 1851. The new rat race But if the Anglican Church was seen to be losing the working classes, Methodism was increasingly popular. It fitted the ethos of the age. Commerce and business brought a new spirit of self-help, popularised in the 1859 book of the same name by Samuel Smiles, with the opening line, 'Heaven helps those who help themselves'. Methodism stressed hard work and self-discipline, and this sentiment was reflected in the rise of evening classes for the working classes. It was every man for himself. The modern world was opening up new opportunities for those who would work hard enough to take them. A new breed of self-made man - never a woman - had emerged. Proud of his accomplishments, these nineteenth century yuppies encapsulated the spirit of this cut-throat capitalism, sitting at their desks, twanging their braces and figuring out how to make more moolah. This spirit of competition extended even as far as science. Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) described the theory of natural selection, or the survival of the fittest: the ultimate rat race. The nineteenth century was a world of free markets, free trade and laissez-faire government, with all moves towards paternalism - in areas such as public health and poor laws - fiercely resisted. It was every man for himself. Rural decline Meanwhile, the countryside was attracting ever less interest. The Corn Laws spelled out the shifting balance of power. Passed in 1815 to fix the price of corn and protect the interests of the agriculturists that then dominated Parliament, they were repealed only 31 years later, against bitter protest from landowners and loud applause from industrialists. Farmers were passé: everything that was anything was urban. Punch magazine's comic stereotypes caricaturing agricultural labourers as backward yokels in smocks and chewing straws flourished in the 1870s and live on to this day. Every decade would have seen ground breakingly new inventions and the pace of life pick up. So what happened to our child of 1800? Raised in a slow, rural life, he probably migrated to the city, leaving behind his old cosy community to start afresh on his own. Working in a factory, he would have been on his own: if lucky and diligent, he might have made a comfortable living. But every decade would have seen ground breakingly new inventions and the pace of life pick up: he might have travelled on trains and exchanged telegrams before he died. What is certain is that the world must have seemed ever smaller, while spinning ever faster. The British Library No comments:	<urn:uuid:2e5a082b-c99e-4961-96d2-7ad677c1a0eb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.05257302522659302, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9798787832260132, "url": "http://enigmatoligist.blogspot.com/2018/01/the-19th-century-invention-of-modern.html" }
Lesson Plans US History 10 3rd Q 13.14 Lesson Plans Week: 01/13/2014 Instructor: Mary Jo Hendrickson Academics continue the notes on dictators and war-- How did dictators and militaristic regions grow in several countries during the 30's Students should know the terms from section one reading page 772 read 779-786 from isolation to involvement: what were events leading to world war II what was the policy of the United States during the 30's know the terms page 779 How did the US enter the war 788-795 Why did Japan attack the Pearl Harbor--What was the cause of the invasion and the effect of the attack finish notes for the week. Possible film: Pearl Harbor students will work in class on their decade timeline	<urn:uuid:afd7ffe5-74aa-429e-9ab6-f0e0ae74c21f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.9995660185813904, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.916022002696991, "url": "http://www.wwgschools.org/action.lasso?-database=LessonPlan&-Table=AllFields&Class=US%20History%2010%203rd%20Q%2013.14&Week=2014-01-13&-search&-response=ArchivedLessonPlan.lasso" }
Making meshes using Turing's mathematical model results in efficient water filters A team of researchers at Zhejiang University in China has used a mathematical model developed by Alan Turing to create a unique type of polyamide mesh. In their paper published in the journal Science, the group describes their process and how they discovered the mesh could be used to filter water. Alan Turing, famous cracker of the German Enigma machine, and developer of some of the foundations of computer science, also dabbled in chemistry. In 1952, he actually published a paper describing a mathematical model explaining how unique striped patterns in animals come about. His math described a process by which two chemicals, when mixed together, take turns interrupting the other’s actions. In living beings, the chemicals are hormones that influence characteristics such as stripes on tigers. It was in the different ways the hormones were diffused through the tissues, Alan argued, that caused the patterns. In this new effort, the researchers set out to create a new material based on the model Turning had created. Instead of using biological material, the researchers used a type of polyamide—it is normally made by reacting trimesoyl chloride and piperazine. To make it diffuse in ways described by Turing’s model, the team added polyvinyl alcohol. The result was a nylon-like mesh, the features of which could be adjusted by altering the ingredients in the reaction. In one such form, the mesh resulted in a material that looked to the researchers like a filter. Surprised, they tested it to see how well it could remove salt from water. They report that the material was able to filter large types of salt more efficiently than current methods—it allowed less salt through, while allowing more water. Further testing revealed that their unique filter was able to handle 125 liters of water per hour when put under pressure. It also removed approximately three times as much salt as conventional filters. The researchers do not expect the filter will be used in desalination plants, however—filters in such plants must be able to remove tiny salts. But, they note, the filters might prove useful in cleaning manufacturing waste. They note also that their work demonstrates that possibilities exist for using Turing’s ideas to make useful products.”	<urn:uuid:f0fcfe13-a39e-470e-a9ee-ff54ddb4beca>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.056143343448638916, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9563882350921631, "url": "https://jpralves.net/post/2018/05/06/making-meshes-using-turings-mathematical-model-results-in-efficient-water-filters.html" }
Assimilationism in A Raisin in the Sun Assimilationism in A Raisin in the Sun The play A Raisin in the Sun demonstrates the intense opposition that white families in Clybourne Park displayed in response to the Youngers moving in to their primarily white neighborhood. The conflict of assimilationism intensifies and provides the central theme throughout the play. Assimilationism means that one race conforms to another in an effort to blend in. The play provides a uniquely personal look into racism. The setting of the play is Chicago in the 1950’s. At that time, segregation laws still separated white people from African Americans. The Civil Rights Movement had begun by the 1950’s but would not result in equality for African-Americans until the next decade. The play’s main characters, members of an African-American family called the Youngers, are coping with the loss of their patriarch at the play’s introduction. The family is trying to decide what to do with the life insurance money. Mama, the mother and widow of the family, buys a house in Clybourne Park. When the neighborhood association discovers that a black family will be moving in, they offer them money to leave. The white people of Clybourne Park are racist enough to want to pay for a black family to leave them alone. This act of racism provides a glimpse of what African-Americans went through during this time period. Because of the racism of white people, assimilationism was impossible for the Youngers to attain. The Youngers’ collective attempt at assimilationism is not motivated by personal desire but by necessity. They want to move out of their apartment and into a house to live as a family, a lifetime dream of Mama and her deceased husband. This goal is not fueled by the desire to assimilate with white people. It is a practical goal to put a roof over the Youngers head. Housing is a basic necessity, and it does not matter to Mama that the house she buys is in a white neighborhood. However, because they choose to move to a white neighborhood, they are inadvertently attempting to assimilate. In this circumstance, assimilation occurs as an accident or afterthought. Beneatha states that she is not an assimilationist in Act II scene I. George Murchison, Beneatha’s suitor, has a heated debate with her when he comes to pick her up and she is dancing with her brother in a traditional African costume. George is from a wealthy African-American family. It appears that George has assimilated to white culture by the way he dresses as well as the way he acts. He talks about their heritage negatively and chides Beneatha for wearing the African garb. Beneatha tells him that she is not an assimilationist and that she would rather stay true to her heritage than try to be more like a white person. An example of this would be her hair. She does not try to straighten it to look like a white woman’s hair, but instead lets it grow naturally into an afro. A Raisin in the Sun focuses on the theme of assimilationism. The Youngers indirectly try to assimilate into a white neighborhood and receive intense racial opposition. Beneatha and George provide opposite perspective on assimilating into white culture. Beneatha vehemently opposes trying to be more like a white woman, while George tries to blend in by conforming his speech and dress patterns to be more like a white man. There are many sides to the topic of assimilationism in the 1950’s, and the play presents many different sides using different characters. Work Cited: Hansberry, Lorraine. A Raisin in the Sun: a Drama in Three Acts. New York: Random House, 1959. Print. Let's make that grade! Online chat	<urn:uuid:bbe09918-e864-49d5-87cc-7593e858d709>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.07306861877441406, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9708904027938843, "url": "https://grademiners.com/free-papers/literature/assimilationism-in-a-raisin-in-the-sun" }
Open Menu • Tags: Democracy People's History Museum The People's History Museum, located in the industrial city of Manchester, is Britain’s national museum of democracy. It aims to ‘engage, inspire and inform diverse audiences by showing there have always been ideas worth fighting for.’ Attracting 100,000 visitors a year, with free entry, the museum outlines the political consciousness of the British population beginning with Peterloo right through to the recent Brexit vote. The British transatlantic slave trade and the abolition movment feature in this discussion early on. In a small display the interpretation discusses the role of slave-produced cotton in the rise of Manchester as an industrial powerhouse. It then goes on to describe the important role that the people of Manchester had in supporting the abolition campaign. The focus is again on the local experience. This is also illustrated with one of the exhibition’s key interpretive characters, William Cuffay, a mixed-race chartist leader whose father was a former slave. In the second gallery, which brings the displays closer to the present day, other issues explored include anti-racism and attitudes towards migration and multiculturalism. There is a clear link, although not explicitly expressed in the interpretive text, between these ideas and the lasting legacies of Britain's involvement in the slave trade.	<urn:uuid:ab8de169-b081-45aa-92ac-725831fe1c20>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.03666245937347412, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9219496250152588, "url": "http://antislavery.ac.uk/items/browse?tags=Democracy" }
3. Mountains, Climate, and Fertility of the Soil Up: Contents Previous: 2. On the Rivers and Brooks of Sonora Next: 4. Native Flora [page 20] 3.1. Mountain Ranges Sonora is mountainous, rugged, and uncultivated except for some small valleys, most of which are no more than glens measuring here and there from half a league to one or more in width. These valleys in nearly all instances extend from north to south, paralleling the mountain ranges that form them, as do the brooks or rivulets that irrigate them as described in the preceding chapter. There are six mountain ranges extending from north to south. If a line were drawn from Nácori Chico on the east [30 degrees, 40 minutes latitude, 267 degrees, 20 minutes longitude] to San Miguel de Horcasitas on the west [30 degrees latitude, 263 degrees, 30 minutes longitude], all six ranges would cross it. As they approach the coast their height and mass decrease except in a few places, forming an imaginary stairway starting at the eastern boundary—the Sierra Madre Occidental—and ending at the western boundary—the Gulf of California. The most prominent peaks along the coast of the Gulf of California are the Cerro Prieto [28 degrees, 10 minutes latitude, 263 degrees, 20 minutes longitude] and Picú [in the Carrizal Range at 30 degrees latitude, 261 degrees longitude], Las Espuelas and Bacoachi el Grande [30 degrees, 5 minutes latitude, 272 degrees, 20 minutes longitude], all in Seri land. The Santa Clara volcano—inactive—and some others are in the Pimería Alta.1 [page 21] The first range of mountains is the Nácori. Between the village of that name and Bacadéhuachi it forms a very limited dale which for want of irrigation is used only for seasonal planting. From this the Opatas of Nácori Chico and the Jovas of Mochopa eke out an existence. The second range is that of Bacadéhuachi which, with six or seven leagues of rugged slopes and precipices, forms with the preceding range the little valley of Bacadé huachi, three to four leagues long with a few bits of watered land and a small flour mill half a league from Bacadéhuachi powered by the small brook of the same name. The third range unites with the second to enclose the Huáasabas Valley with the Río Grande flowing through. This vale, though narrow, is fifty leagues in length extending from Batepito on the north to five leagues below Huásabas with no towns in between except Oputo, its dependent mission.2 Because the population of this area is small and the Apache harassment great, one-tenth of the food-producing lands which the valley has to offer cannot be cultivated. These ranges extend on the north far into the region of the Apaches, and it is said by those who have been there that they reach the Chiguicagui Mountains3 [34 degrees, 30 minutes latitude, 264 degrees longitude] and beyond to the Florida Range that skirts the Gila and reaches the San Pedro River. All that area is where the wild, reckless, and uncontrolled activities of the enemy, the Apaches, take place. The Florida Range and the fourth range form the Oposura Valley,4 which is not so narrow as the ones described, affords much more comfort, allowing its inhabitants to breathe and enjoy more air and sunlight. While limited in length, it offers many bountiful fields to its tillers so that this valley alone, so well watered by a constantly running stream, [page 22] could supply the Sonora Province with grain if there were more natives willing to serve the owners of the land. The fourth range is less rugged and of lower height than the preceding ones. It forms a valley thirty leagues long and less than half a league wide which, along with another valley formed by a range, the fifth, rising on its west flank, has three missions,5 eight Indian villages,6 four active reales de minas,7 two small settlements of Spaniards,8 and an abandoned real.9 These two valleys are more thickly populated, and their planted fields outnumber those of the Oposura Valley. The fifth mountain range is about twenty leagues across and measures much less toward the south, narrowing more as it extends westward to Opodepe where it joins the sixth range. The sixth range begins in the Pimería Alta, descends toward the south to Nacameri, where it is cut by the brook of that valley, and continues to San José de Gracia, Santa Rosalía, etc. Some of its ridges reach the mountain of Las Animas and almost join hands with the famous Cerro Prieto, running down its slopes to Guaymas near the Yaqui River. There are other ranges and hills farther to the west, but as they are much smaller than those described and the plains much larger, I find it advisable not to detail them. A long description would only exhaust the patience of the reader. 3.2. Fertility of the Soil The upper and lower lands of the Pimas, as well as a portion of the land of the Eudebes, are not guarded by so many rugged mountains as are those of the Opatas, most of the Eudebes, and Jovas, though they [page 23] border some ranges. These latter lands are flatter, more extensive, and exposed to all winds. Ordinarily they are less fertile. The land of the Pimería Alta excels all others in this province. I recall having heard a righteous priest, an eyewitness, tell that from eight almudes10 of corn, 500 fanegas had been harvested. Although they reward well the labor of the worker, the returns in the rest of the province are not so great, rendering 25 to 50 fanegas from one of wheat and yielding 100 to 300 fanegas of corn from one fanega of seed. Similarly, the lands of the Opatas and the Pimas give abundant returns of lentil beans and other legumes, but garbanzos, vetches,11 peas, etc., do not come up to expectations except in a few areas. Beans, in some soils as those of Batuc, Mátape and Tecoripa, after two or three plantings, degenerate into a type that the natives call tépari.12 It is of inferior quality, lesser in nourishment and smaller in size. The same thing happens with white cabbage. After two or three plantings, especially in warmer areas, it becomes a less desirable vegetable.13 In colder climates, as in Bacerac, Cuquiárachi, Arizpe, and Pimería Alta, it retains its original quality longer. [Note: The paragraphs that follow are not in the Mexico manuscript but were in the Smith text, Guiteras' translation.] Sugarcane grows in most of the province, more abundantly in the hotter sections. Syrup is extracted from it and panocha14 is made. Sweet potatoes, carrots, turnips, radishes, lettuce, and whatever else grows in truck gardens might be sown and abundant yields obtained were it not for the scarcity of workers, for neither Indians nor whites are willing to apply themselves to such a task. There are several varieties of pumpkins. One is called camat in [page 24] Opata. It may be kept whole or peeled and cut into slices. If it is dried in the sun, it will keep for a year. Another is called baborat. It has a long neck and a hard rind. Sosoc is a small pumpkin that is harvested in the spring and eaten stewed or as salad. Excellent melons and watermelons known as bisicamat are grown in abundance where there is no scarcity of water. These require little or no cultivation. Millet, called sagui in Opata, is sown in small quantities, and pinole15 is made from its seeds. The Jovas have another variety they call coguet, which is ex Mexicani tzoalli.16 It has seeds which are similar to those of quelites17 but yellow in color. The Jovas first gather the leaves, then pick the seeds, which are prepared in the following manner: Six bushels of seed, or as much as desired, are placed in a palm-leaf basket and taken to the river where they are immersed in the running water. The grain is then beaten, usually by stomping with one foot, until the grain bursts and makes a frothy mixture as it combines with the water. The grain is then roasted and ground. The resulting flour when mixed with cold water makes a refreshing drink. All the fruit trees of Spain could be grown here, particularly peaches, apricots, figs, pomegranates, and quinces. Apples, pears, and Castilian nuts do better in the colder regions. Bananas grow well in some places while sweet or sour oranges, lemons, and even citron do well in the whole province. 3.3. The Climate The climate of Sonora is hot rather than temperate, particularly along the Gulf of California, and in the marshes formed by the overflow of [page 25] the Colorado River and on the central and southwestern plateaus, except Onavas and Cumuripa where it is colder, although it never freezes. The central and southwestern plateau area includes the following: With the coming of the rainy season, called quipatas, during January and February the cold at night is severe. The peaks of the Sierras remain covered with snow while on the plains at lower elevations it melts as soon as it falls except in Bacerac, Fronteras, Cuquiárachi, Terrenate, and Santa María Soamca. Father Ignacio Javier Keller, founder and missionary of Soamca for over 30 years, used to say that on St. John's Day18 summer sets in at 11 o'clock before noon and lasts until three in the afternoon of the same day. His long stay at Soamca makes his statement authoritative. Epidemics—Sonora does not have regional diseases. Smallpox, usually fatal, fortunately strikes infrequently. Sonora's climate in general is healthful, not only for Creoles19 but for natives as well. It is not unusual to find individuals from faraway countries such as Germany and Spain, Gachupines,20 or people from the central plateau of New Spain, Mexicans21 and Poblanos22 of 68, 77, or more years of age. Of the native-born Sonorans, there are several close to 100 years of age. The most deadly misfortune, which will be taken up later, has been the arrow of the Seri and the lance of the Apache, scourges which have existed for quite some time as can be proven by the burial records. [page 26] Only the Pimería Alta has proven adverse to the health of strangers, but in my opinion the cause of the trouble is not the climate or the air but the impurity of the water, for all the streams come from swamps and flow through shady, wooded ravines. Perhaps they contain injurious substances either mineral or vegetable that come from the soil over which they flow. For this reason it would be well to experiment boiling and exposing the water to the night dew. Also a sprig of cinnamon or something else such as the root recommended by Father Gumilla23 for this purpose might be added before boiling. There is an ailment, almost regional, particularly among the Pimas, presumably affecting those from both the upper and lower regions, which they call saguaidodo, or yellow vomit,24 that causes several deaths each year. For the treatment of the disease Father José Och25 devised two remedies so efficacious that, as his reverence assured me, no one who took one or the other perished. On the contrary, all got well in two or three days. The first treatment26 consists of burning a handful of dry sage [estafiate], mixing the ashes in atole27 and drinking it. The sage used is called cupiso28 in Opata and not the other specie they call túparo29 which has no known virtue except that of driving away bedbugs. The herb is spread under the mattress if one can stand the offensive odor.30 [page 27] Concerning the nations living along the Gila and Colorado rivers, the most convincing proof of the healthful qualities of the climate is found in the great numbers of people in the villages and their robust natures. According to accounts of priests who have visited them for the last sixty years, neither has decreased. The only decline noted is in their desire to become Christians. It is regrettable that for lack of missionaries so many thousands of souls have been and are being lost. 3.4. Pertaining to Cattle and Their BreedingIn Spanish, cattle (ganado) is a generic word applicable to all animals and subdivided into large (mayor), such as bovines, horses, mules and donkeys, and small (menor), such as sheep, goats, and hogs. Mexico City is well aware that Sonora does not lack the capacity to raise all breeds of stock, as during peaceful epochs, large consignments were sent there from Mátape. The fame of our mules was well known there, although at present even in this province there is a shortage of cattle which includes cows, oxen, mules, and horses. The shortage is so acute that residents do not have enough beef to slaughter or saddle animals to ride in quest of sustenance for their families. The shortage should not be attributed to the climate because there is none better suited for breeding purposes, but to the prowling of the Apaches and the Seris. One needs only to look at the nearly 300 abandoned ranches and estancias that have lost more than 4,000 mules, mares, and horses in the last seven years to realize this is true. Not many years ago, a former governor of New Mexico drove a considerable number of mules of all brands32 without the appropriate markings through Chihuahua. The stolen animals, even if found, are never returned to Sonora. The truth is that many have been stripped of their animals by the enemy, and it is necessary for them, if they are desirous to start anew, to obtain stock from outside the province. The little that remained [page 28] untouched by the thieves was at the Movas Mission, and even that has been claimed by the Seris and their allies, the Pimas, with the assistance of the Babarocos.33 Asses thrive and multiply in Sonora in spite of the frequent and repeated thefts by the Apaches, and because these animals maintain themselves on little and can find food in the refuse heaps of the settlements, those living in the province utilize them as the principal beasts of burden. Sheep do not reproduce so well as cattle. One of the reasons for this, in my opinion, lies in the density and thorniness of the brambles in some places, for in more open terrain the sheep increase in number at a better rate. Another reason could be that the breeders never separate the rams from the ewes, and through the seasons, hot or cold, they mate twice yearly. Because of the strain of being pregnant and nursing at the same time, the ewes age rapidly, grow lean, wander off, and die early. For the same reason, not half or even a fourth of the young survive. Finally, because of the fear of enemy raids, the sheepfolds are kept within the village. If they were in suitable locations, no province could be better provided with sheep than Sonora. 3.5. Wild Beasts Found in the Province The quadruped called lion [cougar or mountain lion] here—naidoguat in Opata—is not the king of beasts he is in other countries. Almost as large as a yearling calf, this animal is so passive and cowardly that it does not fight when cornered but whines and cries instead. It is true that because of its size and strength it does damage and kills domestic animals, but it has neither the mane, color, nor claws of the real lion. Some call it leopard, also a misnomer. The tiger [jaguar or ocelot], tutzi in Opata, found throughout the province, is fiercer and does more harm to beasts of burden and cattle than does the lion, but does not attack man unless cornered. Another fierce and harmful animal is called guaicuri in Opata and resembles a bobcat. The Opatas call the wildcat poro [American lynx, [page 29] Lynx rufus], a rather fierce animal that attacks one whose shot has failed to kill it. Bears, which the Opatas call mava, are found in the higher mountains. And there is another variety which they call pissini. Wolf in Opata is teona; coyote is go, and fox is cao. There seems to be a third species which is unnamed, a mixture of dog, wolf, and fox. Wolves attack the larger cattle, while coyotes and foxes prey on sheep and poultry. The raccoon [Nasua nasica], batepi in Opata, does much damage, gathering ears of corn all night long and carrying them off to its burrow. A similar animal is the badger [Procyon lotor], churei in Opata, which does the same thing. There are also deer, which the Opatas call massot, a kind of stag but only half the size. There is a larger animal of the same species we call bura,34 and the Opatas call xua. These roam the plains of both Pimerías and the Seri country. The males grow antlers, those of the massot being much smaller than those of the bura. In the entrails of the deer, especially those of Seri land, one finds bezoar stones,35 thought to be a coagulum caused by the great thirst they suffer on account of the scarcity of water. The bura has them also, but they are not held in such high esteem. The antlers when dried, broken into pieces, powdered or scraped, and applied to the skin act as an antidote for the bites of poisonous reptiles. [Broken into pieces, the antlers resembled rocks and were known as piedra de la ponzoña, poison stone, in Sonora.] There are many wild pigs, called mutza in Opata, in the mountains, not so large as the European boar but as black and with less dense bristling. In all respects these are similar to the domestic hog except that the navel is up in the loin.36 In order to use its meat, hunters must carry a reed or hollow cane to insert in the navel the [page 30] moment the pig falls dead, for this causes the vaporizing of the musk contained in this area. Otherwise, the musk taints all the flesh and no one can eat it regardless of how hungry one may be. Many wild sheep [Cameros cimarrones], teteso in Opata, are found in the Pimería Alta; there are fewer in the rest of the province. These wild sheep are larger with longer and bulkier horns by far than the tame ones. Wild goats,37 called cubida by the Opatas, roam in herds in open country, and when not grazing they move one behind the other in single file regardless of their number, making a path so narrow that it is hardly wide enough for a man's foot. Sonora has an abundance of hares, called paro in Opata, so many that a garbanzo field sown in October is devastated by winter. Unless they are continually driven off, the whole crop is lost. The way of hunting them or scaring them off is for the natives to form a line beyond the planted patch, the natives standing as close together as their numbers will allow. Then they advance toward the village making as much noise as possible and herding the hares out of the field. Often they are chased into the huts in the village. It is not a bad amusement. There are more than a few rabbits, called tabú in Opata, but the Indians are not inclined to hunt them for food because they do not satisfy the appetite. Squirrels, ardillas or arditas, hore in Opata, are so numerous that they often devastate some crops while the crops are still young and tender, such as garbanzos, vetches and the like, if these crops are located near the area where they have their burrows. There are also flying squirrels, called Sciurus volucella in Latin and tusas in Opata. They live in pine trees in the mountains. There are three small animals similar in appearance to the squirrel with black and white markings and a bushy tail. They are called [skunks in English], zorillos in Spanish and hupas in Opata [zoologically they are Mustelidos of the genus Mephitis americana]. The animal is usually black with white stripes. Another type is called vacahupa in [page 31] Opata and has a white tail. The third type is called doriguino by the Opatas. All three are pretty, but if anyone attracted by their beauty and tameness tries to capture them, for they do not run from those who approach them, they eject an offensive-smelling, musky liquid that scalds the skin and has such a stench that however often one may change his clothes and bathe, he will not rid himself of the penetrating odor. Time will gradually take the smell away. 3.6. Insects and Disgusting Creatures There is no lack of small, fierce, red ants, arit in Opata. Their bite hurts more than the sting of the scorpion, tomevego in Opata, which is not deadly in Sonora although a few people have gotten lockjaw from its sting. If this occurs, it can be cured easily by taking the gum jua, with which we will deal later. Black ants are plentiful in all the province and do much damage to gardens, for they cut the buds and tender sprouts as soon as they appear and carry them off to their anthills. The Opatas call them mocho, and the Spaniards call them mochomos.38 Sonora has three types of vipers: The rattlesnake [Crotalus atrox], co in Opata, the bite of which is fatal to man or beast unless it can be attended to immediately; the black-tailed snake [Crotalus molossus], sadaco in Opata; and the teveco [Bothrops atrox].39 This last viper is feared more than the others because it strikes without warning when one is not even aware of its nearness. The most common and efficacious remedy consists of securing the head of the snake between two sticks, keeping the head in such a position that the snake cannot bite. Then the tail is held firmly and stretched out so that the snake cannot coil. The victim of the snakebite then bites the snake. At this point something truly remarkable happens. The patient does not swell, but the snake does, monstrously so, until it bursts. [page 32] Other treatments consist of burning the bitten spot with a hot iron or piercing it with a knife and applying powdered, parched antler. However, when none of these remedies work, a few swallows of human excrement dissolved in water are taken by the injured one whose love of life makes this imperative. Father José Och of the Society tells me of having experimented successfully with ginger. It is first chewed and mixed with saliva then applied to the wound. There is a four-footed kind of lizard called escorpión [Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum], sacara in Opata, which is very poisonous and has a stumpy tail and markings of various colors. It is claimed that there is no other cure for its bite than to cut away the affected part immediately. It runs fast after its prey and seems to draw its victim to it with its deadly breath, swallowing it whole as does the buyo [boa constrictor], according to Father Gumilla. Someone once told me he had seen an escorpión with half a rabbit in its mouth, having already swallowed the other half. The Opatas speak of a large, bulky, dark-colored snake called coro [black king snake, Lampropeltis nigritus] which is harmless to humans but draws small animals and even deer with its breath and swallows them whole. They are excellent rat hunters; therefore the natives use them instead of cats. Another snake, called macapsino40 by the Opatas, is frequently found in roof tops. It is red and black and resembles the coral snake. They claim it is venomous. Also it is said that if it falls from any height it breaks into pieces. The whip snake [Masticophis flagelum], called setagui by the Opatas, is a nonpoisonous reptile. However, it lashes with its tail, thus making the bare-legged Indian leap briskly when he accidentally treads upon one. There are two other nonvenomous snakes: a spotted one called vabome and the ovisonó, which is dark-colored. The centipede [genus of Myriapoda], massiguat in Opata, is so named because of its many legs. It is very poisonous, and when it attaches itself to a human part, the area becomes painful and turns [page 33] dark. The remedy is simple enough: pour hot water on the bitten part and rub up and down. There is a large black spider with a few yellowish hairs on its back: the tarantula [Lycosa or Mygale tarantula], mariguasoco in Opata. Its sting is said to be fatal. Yet as many as there are here, I have not known of anyone who has died from its venom, although a soldier from the Fronteras presidio assured me that the steed he was riding, having stepped upon one, stopped suddenly. Upon looking for the cause, he found the trampled tarantula dead and his horse's hoof fallen off. We have here a poisonous spider, the sting of which is deadly to children. It is called ubari in Spanish, guitoc in Opata [probably the black widow, Lactrodectus mactans]. The treatment for its sting consists of slicing the area, making it bleed, and applying poison stones41 to draw the venom out, although the pain and itching persist. I was stung, and upon applying a stone, it jumped and broke in two. There are other spiders that are harmless. Bedbugs [Cimex lectolaria] are also found here and are called chinches de Compostela in Spanish. They are small, wingless, nocturnal parasites that sting. And their sting causes more suffering than does the bite of a scorpion because it is followed by a tormenting distress throughout the whole body. The pain is relieved by drinking Sonora gum42 dissolved in warm water, but the burning sensation persists for many hours. A larger black beetle, called pinacate [stink bug], teura in Opata, is found here. Its poisonous sting causes great pain, and what is worse, one cannot harm it or drive it away without great discomfort to one's sense of smell, for the beetle pollutes the atmosphere with its stench. There are also cockroaches, crickets, and other vermin. Let what has been said be enough about disgusting creatures. [page 34] 3.7. The Birds Let us enjoy the sweet songs and behold the harmonious varieties of the colorful plumage of the countless birds that fly through this air. Foremost, let us consider the double-headed eagle, scipipiraigue in Opata, which was seen in these lands long ago, according to tradition.43 There are two other kinds of eagles, both with single heads. One is called pague by the Opatas, and the other is called pichuchu. There is a large bird of the hawk family that is called taguara by the Opatas and a night-hunting bird they call doquetaguara. There are three types of owls, [classified under the generic term of] tecolote:44 one is called muhu45 by the Opatas; another, the lechuza [Strix passerina], they call nacamu, and the third they call teramut. Moreover, there is a bird called guegue [Phainopepla nitus] in Opata, guerrero in Spanish. It has a song which is taken as an omen of war. Because of its ominous portent, it is also known as sumagua [war bird or warrior]. More than a few domestic chickens are raised in Sonora, and in some sections there are ducks, turkeys, red-billed pigeons [Columba flavirostris], called cui in Opata; mourning doves [Zenaidura macroura], tórtolas in Spanish and ococoi in Opata; and mockingbirds, zenzontle in Spanish and tzepa in Opata, the bird with a hundred voices. There is also an abundance of quail of various kinds, some with tufts. There is one kind called coitzi, gambel or desert quail [Lophortix gambelli]. There is another known as cocco that has a larger tuft. [This is probably the Douglas quail, Lophortix douglasii.] And there is a bird called churu by the Opata which the Spaniards call cardinal because its color and crest resemble the clothing and biretta of the empurpled princes of the Catholic Church. [page 35] Furthermore, wild turkeys [Meleagris gallopava] still exist in the extreme northeastern portion of Sonora and are called chiqui in Opata. There are also cranes, gray and white geese with black feathers in the wings, herons, ducks, and many other kinds of fowl, so many that it would require a whole lifetime to learn their names. One I certainly do not wish to omit is the world's tiniest bird, the hummingbird, chuparosa in Spanish and semu in Opata [rose-sucker]. At first glance it appears to be a butterfly, but when one looks closely, one sees that it is a perfectly formed bird in full plumage. At one time it was believed that this bird bore its young expultrix as do humans. But now we know that it builds a nest, lays eggs, and hatches them as do all birds. 1. These are not on Nentvig's map. They are located southwest of Sonoitac, ca. 32 degrees, 5 minutes latitude, 261 degrees, 5 minutes longitude. 2. Nori and San Juan del Rio are not mentioned although they are in this area. 3. In Opata, Chiguicagui means mountain of the guajolotes, or wild turkeys. It is spelled Chiguicagui on Nentvig's map, but the most commonly accepted spelling is Chiricahua. Other variants include Chihuicagui and Chiricahui. 4. Actually, the valley is formed with just the northern portion of the fourth range joining the third one from Térapa to Cumpas. 5. Cumpas, Oposura, and Térapa. 6. Teonadepa, Tamayoa, Técora, Toi-Serobabi, Tonibabi, Pivipa, Tepache, and Badéhuachi. 7. Three of the reales were Todos Santos, Carrizal, and Carrizal de Abajo. The fourth one might have been either Basura or El Mortero. 8. La Junta and El Salto. 9. San Juan Bautista. 10. A dry measure equal to half a bushel. 11. Alberjas or chícharos. Pisum sativum, vetches. 12. Tépari or técari is mentioned in Bolton's Anza's California Expedition, 4, p. 99; also in Velarde's “Relación,” p. 128. 13. Nentvig makes no distinction between repollo, interpreted here as white cabbage, and col, presumably colored cabbage. 14. Panochas are conical or rectangular dark-colored cakes made of the unrefined syrup. 15. A nutritious beverage made of finely ground parched grain mixed with water or milk and sometimes sweetened. 16. A detailed description of this is found in Trens' Mexico de antaño, page 108. 17. Quelites is a familiar weed [Chenopodium album or Amaranthus powelli] commonly known as pigweed or pot greens. It is eaten by the people of Sonora either cooked or raw in salads. L.S.M. Curtin in Healing Herbs, page 168, claims that the Moors had this vegetable under the name qligl, and that it is similar to the Aztec quilitl. 18. June 24th. 19. Full-blooded Spaniards born on the American Continent. 20. Derisive nickname for Spaniards. 21. People from Mexico City. 22. People from Puebla. 23. Joseph Gumilla, S.J., author of Orinoco ilustrado. 24. Very likely yellow fever. 25. Father Och, S.J., a native of Franconia, Würzburg, Germany, was stationed in Sonora from 1756 to 1765. In his reports he mentions and describes the sickness mentioned here and also others not touched upon by Father Nentvig, such as measles, tuberculosis, and lues venerea. Cf. Missionary in Sonora, Treutlein's translation, 1965. 26. The second treatment, not given in the Mexican manuscripts, consisted of dried, ground orange peeling dissolved in atole. Ibid., page 171. 27. A gruel made of boiled maize ground to a pulp and dissolved in water or milk. 28. Salvus, a plant of the mint family. 29. Wormwood. 30. The good father may have confused the words. Túparo is considered to be Artemisia absinthius, known as a tonic and vermifuge; the odoriferous one is probably any one of the various mugwort Artemisiai. 32. This is Father Nentvig's first reference to the branding of cattle. It was customary for the seller to brand the animal a second time. Then the new owner would place his brand below this. The double-brand showed that the animal had been legally sold, and the brand below signified the new owner. 33. Residents along the banks of the Babaroco River on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental, county of Chínipas, state of Chihuahua. 34. Mule deer. 35. Acosta in his Historia natural y moral de las indias, book IV, chapter 42, discusses bezoar stones and their use among the aborigines. 36. In chapter 38 of Historia …, Acosta reports that this animal has the anatomical deviation cited by Nentvig. Oviedo, in De la natural historia de indias, chapter xix, agrees. However, Clavijero in his Historia antigua de México, II, p. 204, explains that the odoriferous substance was secreted by a gland located in the middle of the back which was erroneously taken to be the navel. These animals are musk-hogs and were called peccari by the Opatas. 37. In Spanish, berrendos. They have a chestnut colored body and a white belly. Pfefferkorn's Description of Sonora refers to them as roe deer, which is also correct. 38. The ant called mochomo in Spanish is actually dark red. 39. This is probably the vívora sorda referred to by Pfefferkorn in Description …, p. 126, as “the silent snake.” 40. This might be the glass snake, Ophisaurus ventralis, except that the Ophisaurus ventralis is harmless. 41. Bezoar stones, especially from the entrails of a deer as mentioned in section five, were thought to have great curative powers. Nentvig uses the term piedra de la ponzoña when he refers to powdered antlers. The words mean stone of poison. 42. Sonora gum, gomilla de Sonora, Coursalia glandulosa, is a transparent, reddish-yellow resin exuded by a bush called samota, Heliocarpus attenuatos or Pouzolia nivea. The bush is indigenous to southwest Sonora, and the exudate is the result of the action of the insect Coccus lacca. 43. A specimen was sent to King Philip V in 1723, but one must assume it was a biological abnormality rather than a bird of a separate specie. 44. This is from the Aztec tecolotl. 45. The name is probably derived from the sound the bird makes. This is probably true of many of the other Opata names for birds as well. © Arizona Board of Regents	<urn:uuid:680a27a1-fa2f-487d-9f24-ee934964d026>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.05234271287918091, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9547733068466187, "url": "http://www.library.arizona.edu/exhibits/swetc/rudo/body.1_div.3.html" }
What is Winnipeg? IMG_0135 IMG_0136 IMG_0137 IMG_0138 Theories of Justice: Application Photo taken from cognitivephilosophy.net Photo taken from cognitivephilosophy.net In today’s learning experience, we investigated the concept of Justice and how various people have conceptualized it. We learned what Kant, Bentham, Aristotle, Locke, and Rawls all had to say about the idea of Justice. Michael Sandel helped us realize that Justice is not a concrete idea, but one that is very much up for debate: We tried to match our understandings of justice with the scenarios he posed and then we tried to see how the theorists we explored might view justice in the context of the trolley car example.Here are the resources we looked at in the event you need to refresh yourself: Bentham: https://www.evernote.com/l/AI83q45ycZ9GH7TTeNj4b1iL1Pu8OD5WHAE Locke: https://www.evernote.com/l/AI887xh_MLdLXZ1LRf8FIfZ76XCcKaqIaP8 Kant: https://www.evernote.com/l/AI95p7gavNJEX7OWWY4BL2jQW93iRXlp5DQ Aristotle: https://www.evernote.com/l/AI_asHETlR9CxKYB-Cae1woeL9pcSHswbhM Rawls: https://www.evernote.com/l/AI_ub8cKwTZHNrjVM9wTEIT37apHEQFQMyk Now here are the facts of a real case in Canadian legal history. What we would like you to do is familiarize yourself with the facts of the case and then comment on how your philosopher might perceive justice in this case. Next, what would be justice for you? Comment and/or comment on what someone else has said. Be courteous, concise, and thoughtful. Take time to reflect and read what your peers have offered. On October 24, 1993, Robert Latimer, a farmer from Saskatchewan, placed the helpless body of his 12 year old daughter, Tracy, in his pick up truck and connected a hose from the exhaust to the cab resulting in her asphyxiation by carbon monoxide poisoning. Tracy had been born severely disabled with cerebral palsy and at age 12 still had the mental capacity of a three month old. She was completely dependent on her parents for round the clock care. Just prior to the events that would lead to his arrest, Latimer had been told that his daughter would require further operations to correct a hip dislocation that had been aggravated by her advanced scoliosis- a condition that had reached the point where her spine diverged from a perpendicular position by 75%. He was advised that the operation would place her in even greater pain than the intense pain she was already experiencing. Moreover, because of other anti-convulsive medication she had to take to control her epileptic seizures, she could not be given pain killers of greater strength than regular Tylenol without the risk of inducing a coma. Latimer would later contend that he was faced with the dilemma of subjecting his daughter to ever more agonizing operations without the ability to limit the intensity of her pain because of the adverse interaction between the drugs she was taking and any pain medication stronger than regular Tylenol. It was under these circumstances, he would claim, that he chose to end her life. October 24, 1993- Wilkie, Saskatchewan, Latimer ‘places’ his 12 year old severely disabled daughter- Tracy -in cab of pickup truck- piping CO into the cab through a series of connecting pipes and hoses and resulting in her death by asphyxiation. November 4, 1993- RCMP bring Latimer in for questioning and arrest him on charge of 1st degree murder. Experience: Is Place Essential to Learning and Transformation? The Role of Satire Aristophanes via Notable Quotes. Aristophanes via Notable Quotes. With recent events in Paris and the debate over the role of satire, free speech, and hate laws, there has been a healthy interaction in the Winnipeg Free Press which looks at what satire is, firstly, and then whether it is critical to Canadian and global democracy. St. John’s-Ravenscourt‘s very own Mr. Mark Duncan responded today in the Freep to a letter. The original letter, by Harry McFee, condemned the use of satire. Here is the letter written by Harry McFee: http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/opinion/letters_to_the_editor/letters-jan-19-289002191.html Here is Mr. Duncan’s response this morning (scroll to the last letter): http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/opinion/letters_to_the_editor/letters-jan-23-289547151.html?cx_navSource=d-tiles-1 Based on the debate between McFee and Duncan, where do you stand on the use of satire? How far can free speech be taken? When are Charter rights not absolute? Here’s Rick Mercer’s latest rant. Is Ricks’s satire important to Canada’s democracy? Good luck! Myth & History: #Warof1812 #sirJAM Taken from the Toronto Star This week, we have looked a great deal at how Canada’s history has often been transformed into mythology, for better or for worse. We have analyzed a number of historians, events, and positions related to the supposed mythologies of the Winnipeg General Strike, the War of 1812, and Canada’s first Prime Minister, John A. Mcdonald. We investigated what Desmond Morton referred to in his book Canada: A Short History as the christening of the War of 1812 as Myth (2006, p. 38). From there we looked specifically at the Battle of Queenston Heights from the perspective of two historians, Robert Vineberg and Donald Hickey, who argued that the heroes at Queenston Heights were really Sheaffe and/or Norton, respectively. We then questioned why the Government of would spend $28 Million on commemorations of the War of 1812, when historians, like Morton, seem to deem it not so significant. Here is an article from the New York Times which looks at the War of 1812 and its politicization. Andrew Cohen is featured in this article and I would encourage you to read his linked article form the Ottawa Citizen (although republished in the Calgary Herald). He suggests that the Harper Government mythologized the War of 1812. Why would the Government do this? Do you agree with Cohen? Next, as the 200th anniversary of John A.’s birthday is approaching this weekend and all the major papers will be full of “history buffs” explaining why John A. is a hero or villain. (Watch in Saturday’s Winnipeg Free Press.) We read in class Richard Gwyn’s essay on why we should commemorate John A. and we also researched how the Numbered Treaties were essentially negotiated under duress and how the Canadian Government under John A. arguably committed genocide and other atrocities. Here is a review of Daschuk’s book Clearing the Plains which we referenced in our student-led seminars on Big Bear and Riel/Dumont. How is it that John A. can be deemed the Father Figure of Canada, and at the same time have caused such harm? So…Here we have a few events, people, and positions which have been arguably trumped up as myth. Why do we do this? Why do we create interpretations of history that might be embellished? What does this type of “history” serve? What is our task as critical and historical thinkers when it comes to myth and history? Do some reading. Do some thinking. Call a classmate and have a conversation about the idea of myth and history, referencing specially the War of 1812, John A. and or the Winnipeg General Strike. Upload your conversation to Soundcloud and tweet it out ususingsirJAM, #Warof1812, and #sjrcanhis. Be sure to use the historical thinking concepts to help you analyze and create arguments. Please tweet out your phone calls by Sunday evening. Joseph Campbell, The Power of Myth	<urn:uuid:de6eabc0-7aaf-458d-85ee-f18858068e90>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.10233253240585327, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9534525275230408, "url": "https://hendersonhallway.wordpress.com/2015/01/" }
Now that we understand steam, its properties and quality we can move ahead and learn about how steam is generated and enters the autoclave. Ready? We're moving full steam ahead. The Function of the Autoclave Jacket Did you know that most large autoclaves, like horizontal autoclaves, wear a jacket? Why? One of our upcoming posts in the series focuses on the autoclave jacket, which will reveal why we dress up the autoclave. For now it is important to understand the function of the jacket because it helps us understand how steam from the steam generator reaches the chamber. Steam supplied from the generator heats the autoclave jacket and circulates inside the jacket readily available for instant use. In a CSSD (Central Sterile Supply Department) or SPD (Sterile Processing Department) autoclave that sterilizes medical instruments, the autoclave jacket surrounds the chamber thereby heating the chamber, and in some configurations the jacket functions as the autoclave chamber steam source. A valve located between the jacket and the chamber opens letting steam from the jacket enter the chamber, which is then used for sterilization. There are, however, exceptions. Steam supply from the jacket is applicable to hospital autoclaves, such as those found in the CSSD (also called the SPD). In the case of some autoclaves different steam types are used for different purposes. "Dirty" steam is used to heat up the jacket and is used from either the steam generator or the building's steam. Dirty refers to the quality of steam that is produced. Obviously it is not dirty, it just means that the quality of steam produced is not the highest quality, which is fine in many cases such as instrument sterilization in hospitals or the medical industry. Clean or "pure" steam that comes in contact with materials that require sterilization is generated without coming into contact with any heating elements that can reduce the quality of steam. What is Clean Steam? Conventional steam, also known as dirty steam, contains foreign particles from chemicals, from the metal and from the feed water. Normally this does not cause any problems and can be used in many applications such as in hospitals when sterilizing medical instruments. But even though the steam temperatures and humidity are according to requirements for killing most germs, conventional or “dirty steam” cannot be considered 100% clean. Clean steam is commonly used in high containment BSL3 (biosafety level 3) laboratories that require a higher quality of steam. High quality steam is needed for tissue culture work, sterile water preparation and other special processes. Building steam is not suffiecient to produce clean steam. Clean steam will be produced by a steam generator that uses pipes and fittings that are constructed from stainless steel and brass and pneumatically operated valves, which reduce maintenance and downtime. Stainless steel piping, fittings, and components are made of a higher grade of stainless steel called 316L. The highest grade of pure/clean steam is generated by a steam to steam generator. The steam is produced by using either the buiding steam or steam from a steam generator. The steam produced does not come into contact with heating elements. Typical uses for this type of clean steam include pharmaceutical applications and food processing Which Steam Generator Suites Your Autoclave? Let’s zoom in and examine the different steam supply solutions available. We will understand why and when each solution is used. Ideally, it is preferred to supply steam to the autoclave from a dedicated built-in or stand-alone steam generator, which is designed and constructed for the sole purpose of steam supply for autoclave sterilization. A dedicated steam generator , whether built-in or stand alone is designed with an optimal operating pressure, quality piping and components to ensure that the process of sterilization by steam is not compromised. Is your Autoclave Steam Generator Introverted or Extroverted? Autoclaves don't have personalities, but the autoclave steam generator can be positioned either under the autoclave, this is called a built-in steam generator, or it can be external to the autoclave, an independent standalone steam generator. The main consideration when deciding between a built-in or a standalone steam generator is the size of the autoclave, whether it’s a single or double door autoclave and the steam generator's size. Every CSSD prefers a built-in steam generator with the obvious space saving advantages. Sometimes the autoclave is just too large and then there's no other option but to position it by the side of the autoclave and there were even cases when the steam generator was on top of the autoclave. Tuttnauer Tabletop Sterilizer Tuttnauer autoclave with built-in steam generator Dual Steam Supply for Your Autoclave - Why Not Enjoy Both Worlds? If you want to enjoy both worlds Tuttnauer supplies a hybrid steam supply solution - the dual steam supply autoclave. An autoclave with a dual steam supply has two steam lines connected to the autoclave: One line supplies steam from the building’s steam network and the second line supplies steam from a dedicated steam generator. The main reason for selecting an autoclave with a dual steam supply is in cases when building steam supply is irregular and affected by unstable environmental conditions. Another reason to choose an autoclave with a dual steam supply is that there are times when the availability of steam is turned off. Hospitals sometimes turn off the steam supply in the evenings and nights and often the autoclave needs to function 24/7 to keep up with high instrument turnaround. This is when the dedicated steam generator will kick inn. If the autoclave needs to be ready and functioning at all hours, then having a dual steam supply is important. Tuttnauer Tabletop Sterilizer A Hospital's Boiler Room Standalone Steam Generator Steam to Steam An alternative way to generate steam is the steam to steam generator, which is also called a clean steam generator. As discussed, this steam is used usually only in advanced laboratories or pharmaceutical autoclaves. It is needed in cases that the level of sterilization requires the steam to be pure when the quality of building steam or standard steam generator is not high enough. It uses plant steam which is called “dirty” steam to generate pure steam. The steam that enters the chamber was produced from water that did not come into contact with heating elements. The water turned into steam by steam and therefore the water doesn't come into contact with electrical parts. Clean steam uses the energy of the "black" steam for generating steam, instead of using electricity to generate steam. This saves a connection to a high current steam generator by using the building steam to generate the clean steam. We hope you are now familiar with how steam works, its quality and the different options of autoclave steam generators and steam supply. After we've raised the pressure of the autoclave with steam, we will dramatically reduce it and see how vacuum works in an autoclave and why it is needed. We will explain the ins and outs of the vacuum. What is deep vacuum? Why do we pulse? Why is getting rid of the air important for sterilization assurance? and more. Stay tuned. But before we take the pressure down, we want to hear from you. How is steam supplied to your autoclave? Did you ever encounter any difficulties or challenges with steam supply? Let us know and if you have questions, we can provide some good answers.	<urn:uuid:2cce27aa-2f61-482b-ae53-a96c8490c9ca>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.30025750398635864, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9431161284446716, "url": "https://tuttnauer.com/blog/autoclave/steam-generator" }
AskDefine \| Define marshal Dictionary Definition 1 a law officer having duties similar to those of a sheriff in carrying out the judgments of a court of law [syn: marshall] 2 (in some countries) a military officer of highest rank [syn: marshall] 1 place in proper rank; "marshal the troops" 2 arrange in logical order; "marshal facts or arguments" 3 make ready for action or use; "marshal resources" [syn: mobilize, mobilise, summon] 4 lead ceremoniously, as in a procession [also: marshalling, marshalled] User Contributed Dictionary Alternative spellings Old French mareschal (stable officer, see mare) < from Frankish marhskalk (horse-servant) < Proto-Germanic markhaz (horse), possibly from a Gaulish word of unknown origin, + Proto-Germanic *skalkaz (servant). 3. A person in charge of the ceremonial arrangement and management of a gathering. 4. A sheriff's assistant. 5. The highest ranking piece in the board game Stratego. an officer in the household of a medieval prince or lord A military officer of the highest rank A sheriff’s assistant A piece in the game Stratego Translations to be checked 1. to arrange troops etc. in line for inspection or a parade 2. (be extension) to arrange facts etc in some methodical order 3. to ceremoniously guide, conduct or usher 4. to gather data for transmission to arrange troops to arrange facts to ceremoniously guide to gather Extensive Definition Marshal (also sometimes spelled marshall in American English, but not in British English) is a word used in several official titles of various branches of society. The word derives from Old High German marah "horse" and schalh "servant", and originally meant "stable keeper". As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, the title grew in reputation. During the last few centuries, it has been used for the most elevated offices. The American English spelling of the name ("Marshall") is often confused with the spelling of the title ("Marshal"). It is approximate to the position of Constable, of similar etymology. In many countries, the rank of Marshal is the highest Army rank, outranking Field Marshals, Grand Admirals and Generals. Marshals are very sparsely appointed, and typically only in war-time (although this need not be the case). The special symbol of a Marshal is a baton, and so their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the word Marshal is also used instead of General in the higher Air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are Marshal of the Royal Air Force, Air Chief Marshal, Air Marshal and Air Vice Marshal (although the first, which has generally been suspended as a peacetime rank, is the only one which can properly be considered a marshal). The 5 star rank of Marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth air forces. In the French army and some armies based on the French army, Maréchal des logis ( Marshal-of-Lodgings ) is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant. Some historical rulers have used special Marshal titles to reward certain subjects. Though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous Grand Marshal of Ayacucho Antonio Jose de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France (Maréchaux de France), not least under Napoleon I. Another such title was that of Reich Marshal (Reichsmarschall), that was bestowed upon Hermann Göring by Adolf Hitler, although it was never a regular title. Soviet Union and Russia have both General of the Army and Marshal in their rank system, which leaves the latter as a largely honorary rank. These non-European ranks are considered the equivalent to a Marshal • In feudal times, at many courts one or more of the major dignitaries were styled marshal or a compound such as court marshal (not related to court martial) or grand marshal; their functions varied, also in time, but frequently included formally announcing guests at audiences, balls, dinners, etc. Such prestigious office was often made hereditary in the high nobility, e.g. the English Earl Marshal, or the Scots Earl Marischal. • The term is still used in modern pageantry; for example, the grand marshal of a parade is often an honored guest or dignitary • In the United States, many colleges and universities have marshals. In some cases there is a single "faculty marshal," appointed to the post on a more or less stable basis. In others, there are one or several faculty marshals, and often one or several student marshals appointed for a single occasion. In all cases the post is one of honor given to a senior faculty member or outstanding students, and the functions are generally exclusively involved with the leading of processions or parts of processions during commencement exercises, academic convocations and similar events. Often, they carry maces, staffs or wands of office. Law enforcement United States Particularly in the United States, marshal is used for various kinds of law enforcement officers. Federal Marshals The federal court system in the United States is organized into 94 federal judicial districts, each with a court (and one or several judges), a United States Attorney with assistants as prosecutors and government lawyers, and one marshal, appointed by the president, in charge of federal law enforcement. The courts are part of the independent judicial branch of the government, while the marshals and US attorneys are part of the executive branch Department of Justice. In actual practice, the US marshal for the district mainly oversees court security, and has a unit of appointed deputies (other law enforcement operations and the federal prison system are handled by a variety of federal police agencies) and Special Deputies. The United States Marshals Service is a professional, civil service unit of federal police, part of the system of marshals explained above but made up of career law enforcement personnel rather than the appointed district marshals. The US Marshals Service assists with court security, prisoner transport, serves arrest warrants and seeks fugitives. Federal Air Marshal Service is a separate, armed federal law enforcement service employed to protect commercial airliners from the threat of Skyjacking. (Though called Air Marshals, they are completely unrelated to the military rank mentioned above, and are not to be confused with it.) These officers, like the above marshals, work for the executive branch of the US government. The US Supreme Court maintains its own, separate Marshal of the Supreme Court who also controls the US Supreme Court Police, a security police service answerable to the court itself rather than to the president or attorney general. It handles security for the Supreme Court building, for the justices personally, and undertakes whatever other missions the court may require. State and Local • In many American States marshals could be found acting at the state, local or municipal court level, marshals could be court bailiffs and/or serving process or even full police officers. Although some may be sworn peace officers their job is, in certain cases entirely civil rather than criminal law enforcement. Some communities maintain a Town Marshal who is responsible for general law enforcement as well as court duties, while others are strictly court officers. This is especially true in communities with both police and marshals. • In the American Old West (example, Arizona Territory of the 1880s), marshals, usually called the "Town Marshal", or "City Marshal" (since the larger cities were often punctilious about their titles) were appointed or elected police officers of small communities, with similar powers and duties to that of a police chief, generally with powers ending at the border of the community. By contrast, federal marshals (U.S. marshals) would work in a larger, possibly overlapping area, especially in pioneering country, in an area overlapping with the state or territorial office of county sheriff (who then, as now, policed communities as well as areas between communities). The word is still used in this sense, especially in the Southwest United States. (See List of Western lawmen). Town or City Marshal is still the name for the head officer of some community police forces. • In California, several counties maintained separate county marshal's Offices which served as court officers similar to US Marshals. Most have been merged into or taken over by the local County Sheriff's Office. California also has Fire Marshals and Deputy Fire Marshals. These individuals may work for the State of California Fire Marshal's Office, or various county, city or special districts throughout the state. Fire Marshals and Deputy Fire Marshals are full-time sworn peace officers throughout the state, with powers of arrest state wide under section 830.37 of the California Penal Code. Responsibilities include fire and arson investigation, bomb and explosives investigation, general law enforcement as well as enforcement of the Fire Code. • In Connecticut, marshals serve as court officers. They are separated into two classes: State Marshals are charged with service of process, and Judicial Marshals perform court security and transport detainees to and from court. • In Georgia, the Marshal is a civil law enforcement officer in some counties and may have some patrol duties. • In Indiana, In towns which still have them, Marshals are responsible for law enforcement in a town. His usual duties are the enforcement of local ordinances and code enforcement. He may also be the town's humane officer. • In Maine the State Marshal Service provides physical security and law enforcement duties to the judicial system as well as protection of all state judges. Deputy Marshals are fully sworn state law enforcement officers with statewide authority. • In Missouri the State Marshals provides physical security and law enforcement duties to the judicial system as well as protection of all state judges. Deputy Marshals are fully sworn state law enforcement officers with statewide authority. • At the local level in the State of Missouri, City Marshals are elected Chief Law Enforcement Officers of the city. They have the same police powers as a regular Police Officer within the City limits of their city. The amount of training to be a city Marshal is far less then a regular municipal police officer, as such a Marshal's jurisdiction is strictly limited to the city limits of the city they are elected from. Even if they witness a violation of the Law in their city, they can not pursue a person if they flee beyond the city limits. The position of City Marshal is rare in the State of Missouri and is only found in very small rural cities that do not have the budget to maintain a Police Department. • In California Each county maintains a Marshal's Office for duties of general county court security, bailiff and process of civil service including evictions. • In Colorado Cities, towns and villages decide whether to appoint a Marshal, elect a Sheriff or have the board/council/city manager hire a Chief of Police as the top criminal law enforcement for their jurisdiction. Marshals are elected by the trustees to serve a fixed term, sheriffs are elected by the citizens for a fixed term, chiefs of police can be fired at will by whoever hired them just like any other employee. • In New York City, New York, City Marshals are appointed by the Mayor to 5-year terms, but receive no salary from the city. Instead, the Marshal pays New York City a percentage of the fees he receives for collecting to the judgments. As Public Officials, City marshals may, depending on the court order brought to them by the winning litigant, seize money, moveable property (for instance, inventory from a business), vehicles (as with defaulted car loans), real property return possession of rental premises to the landlord, (they can evict tenants), and so on. Marshals are overseen by the Department of Investigation, a mayoral department. • In Ohio the term village marshal has been used for the same, often without any colleague, directly under the Mayor. • In Texas, city marshals and deputy city marshals have, by law, the same authority as a municipal (village, town, or city) police officer. However, municipalities that have both a police force as well as a city marshal's office often utilize the police as the general law enforcement agency of the municipality, while court security and process service is provided by the city marshal's office. In municipalities that do not have a police department, the city marshal's office sometimes serves as the agency that provides general law enforcement services to residents. • In Washington, the City of Seattle employs Marshals in their Municipal Court, with the senior officer holding the title of Chief Marshal and the subordinate officers being Deputy Marshals. In France the Maréchaussée was the forerunner of the French Gendarmerie. A military corps having such duties was first created in 1337 and was placed under the command of the Constable of France, and therefore named the connétablie. In 1626 after the aboliton of the title of connétable, it was put under the command of the Maréchal of France, and renamed Maréchaussée. Its main mission was protecting the roads from highwaymen. The gens d'armes were originally heavy cavalry in the king's household, the equivalent of the "Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms". In 1720 the maréchaussée was subordinated to the gendarmerie; after the French Revolution the maréchaussée was abolished and the gendarmerie took over its duties in 1791. It was a mounted military police force organised and equipped along military lines. While its existence ensured the relative safety of French rural districts and roads, the marechaussee was regarded in contemporary England (which had no effective police force of any nature) as a symbol of foreign tyranny. In 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution, the marechaussee numbered 3,660 men divided into small detachments called brigades. By law dated 16 February 1791 this force was renamed the gendarmerie nationale. Its personnel and role remained unchanged. In the Netherlands the Koninklijke Marechaussee are the gendarmerie force. Created by King William I to replace the French gendarmerie on October 26, 1814 . The word gendarmerie had gained a negative connotation, so William called the new force "marechaussée" (maréchaussée is an alternate French word for gendarmerie). At that time, the marechaussee was part of the army (landmacht). The marechaussee performed police duties for the army, as well as civilian police work as a part of the national police (rijkspolitie). The marechaussee would form the only police force in many small cities like Venlo, especially in the southern provinces of Limburg and North Brabant. As of 1998, the marechaussee is a separate branch of the Dutch military assigned with military and civilian police tasks. Apart from its military uses, the Polish word marszałek (marshal) also refers to certain political offices: • Marszałek Sejmu and Marszałek Senatu: the respective speakers of the lower house (Sejm) and upper house (Senate) of Poland's parliament, usually nominated by the governing party or coalition; • marszałek województwa (voivodeship marshal): since 1999, the leader of the executive of a voivodeship (one of Poland's 16 provinces), elected by the regional assembly (sejmik), and co-existing with the government-appointed voivode (governor). For other historical uses of the word, see marszałek. Science fiction Star Wars The rank of Marshal has made frequent appearances in science fiction works, both live action productions and literature. In the universe of Star Wars, the rank of Marshal is conjectured to be connected to the TIE fighter forces, being ranks held by senior TIE fighter commanders, equivalent to Imperial Navy Admirals. Several sources of the Star Wars Expanded Universe have conjectured the following Marshal ranks of the starfighter service. • Grand Marshal • High Marshal • Force Marshal • Chief Marshal • Marshal • Vice Marshal In addition to Star Wars, the rank of Marshal may also be found in the novel Starship Troopers where the rank of Sky Marshal is held by the Commander-in-Chief of the military. Marshal is also a military rank frequently found in the universe of Doctor Who where, more often than not, it is held by various villains who seek galactic domination through military force. In the Riddick universe, the leader of the diabolic Necromonger army is called the Lord Marshal. In the computer game StarCraft, the major character Jim Raynor holds the rank of Marshal at the story's outset. In the Warhammer 40,000 universe, the Black Templars Space Marines chapter has Marshals. In the Battletech universe, the British-themed Federated Suns uses the military rank of Marshal for a commander of a Regimental Combat Team or a Polymorphous Defense Zone, and the rank of Field Marshal for top echelon military commanders, typically encompassing the March Lords and the Prince's Champion. Another example of the rank of Marshal in science fiction and fantasy can be found in Mercedes Lackey's world of Valdemar. One of the country's most important ranks is that of Lord Marshal. In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Hide and Q" the entity Q took the appearance of a French marshal. In Outland, Sean Connery plays Marshal William T. O'Niel who runs a police force for a mining colony on Io, one of Jupiter's moons. • A university marshal often leads or guides graduates in a procession to the place where the graduation ceremony will take place. Racing and other competitions marshal in Bulgarian: Маршал marshal in Czech: Maršál marshal in German: Marschall marshal in Estonian: Marssal marshal in Spanish: Mariscal marshal in Esperanto: Marŝalo marshal in French: Maréchal marshal in Japanese: 元帥 marshal in Indonesian: Marsekal marshal in Italian: Maresciallo marshal in Dutch: Maarschalk marshal in Norwegian: Marskalk marshal in Portuguese: Marechal marshal in Russian: Маршал marshal in Slovenian: Maršal marshal in Swedish: Marskalk marshal in Ukrainian: Маршал marshal in Urdu: سالار marshal in Chinese: 元帅 Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words ADC, Abbot of Unreason, CO, G-man, Lord of Misrule, MC, MP, OD, accouple, accumulate, adduce, advance, agglutinate, aide, aide-de-camp, align, allege, allocate, allot, amass, apportion, arrange, array, articulate, assemble, associate, attend, bailiff, band, beadle, beagle, bond, bound bailiff, bracket, bridge, bridge over, brigadier, brigadier general, bring forward, bring on, bring to bear, captain, catchpole, cement, chain, chaperon, chicken colonel, chief of police, chief of staff, clap together, clear for action, clear the decks, collect, collocate, colonel, combine, commandant, commander, commander in chief, commanding officer, commissioned officer, commissioner, company officer, compose, comprise, concatenate, conduct, conglobulate, conjoin, conjugate, connect, constable, convoy, cool off, copulate, couple, cover, cure, deal, deal out, deploy, deputy, deputy sheriff, detective, dispose, distribute, dress, embrace, emcee, encompass, escort, esquire, exec, executive officer, fed, federal, field marshal, field officer, first lieutenant, five-star general, fix, fix up, flic, form, four-star general, gather, gendarme, general, general officer, generalissimo, get ready, glue, government man, grade, guard, guide, harmonize, hierarchize, include, inspector, jemadar, join, junior officer, knot, lay out, lay together, lead, league, lictor, lieutenant, lieutenant colonel, lieutenant general, line, line up, link, lump together, mace-bearer, major, major general, make arrangements, make preparations, make ready, marechal, marry, mass, master of ceremonies, merge, methodize, mobilize, mounted policeman, muster, narc, normalize, offer, officer, one-star general, order, orderly officer, organize, pacify, pair, parcel out, patrolman, peace officer, piece together, place, plan, plead, police captain, police commissioner, police constable, police inspector, police matron, police officer, police sergeant, policeman, policewoman, portreeve, prearrange, prep, prepare, present, pretreat, process, produce, provide, put in shape, put together, quiet, rally, range, rank, ready, ready up, reeve, regiment, regularize, regulate, risaldar, roll into one, roundsman, routinize, senior officer, sergeant, sergeant at arms, set out, set up, settle preliminaries, shavetail, shepherd, sheriff, sirdar, social director, solder, space, span, splice, squire, staff officer, standardize, stick together, structure, subahdar, subaltern, sublieutenant, superintendent, systematize, take in, take out, tan, tape, the Old Man, the brass, three-star general, tie, tipstaff, tipstaves, toastmaster, top brass, tranquilize, treat, trim, trooper, try out, two-star general, unify, unite, usher, wait on, weld, yoke Privacy Policy, About Us, Terms and Conditions, Contact Us Material from Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Dict Valid HTML 4.01 Strict, Valid CSS Level 2.1	<urn:uuid:fac80a72-c740-4c55-98da-d7562671bf2d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.14065581560134888, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9446344375610352, "url": "https://marshal.askdefine.com/" }
Words at Play 7 Words Based on Units of Measure 'Inch,' 'fathom,' and more from the language of precision. The ancient Romans used a system of weights and measures based on units divided into 12 parts. The Latin uncia (from unus, meaning “one”), meaning “a 12th part,” designated the 12th part of a foot. From this is derived Old English ince or ynce and modern English inch. Inch is one of the few units of measure that we have turned into a verb, in this case meaning “to move or progress very slowly” (as in “they inched toward a resolution”). Apparently you can inch even when you’re using the metric system: One of the more intriguing cultural phenomena of the last decade was the wristwatch renaissance. ... They inched toward 50 millimeters in diameter; they flaunted diamond bezels, tourbillion movements and complications galore; ... — David Colman, The New York Times, 3 Dec. 2009 The same uncia that gave us inch also referred to one-twelfth of a Roman pound, and the word followed through Anglo-French and Middle English to become ounce. In the troy system of measurement, twelve ounces make up a pound; in the more common avoirdupois system, the pound is larger and equals 16 ounces. When your mother asks you if you have even “an ounce of common sense,” the system doesn’t matter. She’s using the word simply to mean “a minimal amount.” A fathom, used to measure the depth of water, is a length equal to six feet. The term is usually used in the singular when preceded by a number (as in “six fathom deep”). It appears in the song of sprite Ariel in Shakepeare’s The Tempest: Full fathom five thy father lies; Of his bones are coral made… “Full fathom five” amounts to about 30 feet, and that phrase has been referenced in various works, from a Jackson Pollock painting to a poem by Sylvia Plath. In Old English, fæthm referred to the length of one’s outstretched arms. As a verb, to fathom originally meant to encircle something with the arms as if for measuring as well as to measure depth (as with a sounding line). Now we use the verb as a reference to this literal getting to the bottom of something. A watt is defined as “the absolute meter-kilogram-second unit of power equal to the work done at the rate of one joule per second or to the power produced by a current of one ampere across a potential difference of one volt : ¹/₇₄₆ horsepower.” (Phew. We might need to recharge after that one.) The watt is named for James Watt (1736-1819), known for inventing the Watt steam engine, though his namesake unit of measure probably makes you think of light bulbs. And the figurative use of the noun wattage to mean “dynamic appeal” might make you think of celebrities having their names in lights: Ant Man and The Wasp also introduces a whole slew of new characters with serious star wattage. Janet van Dyne is played by no less than Michelle Pfeiffer, herself no stranger to superhero movies after playing Catwoman in Tim Burton's Batman Returns. Laurence Fishburne makes the jump from DC to Marvel playing a friend and former assistant of Pym's, great news for someone who told Yahoo News he was "more of a Marvel guy" as a kid, and an easy role for The Matrix's Morpheus. — Danielle Burgos, Bustle, 25 Apr. 2018 The meter is the base unit of measurement in the metric system, so basic that it derives from the Greek word for “measure” (metron). For a musician, the meter is the regular background rhythm, expressed by the time signature written at the beginning of a piece or section (e.g. 4/4). Poetic meters are identified by feet; a poem with iambic pentameter, for example, has five iambs per line. Often used in horse racing, a furlong now refers to a distance equal to 220 yards (or one-eighth of a mile), but in olden times it was defined less precisely as length of a furrow in a cultivated field. The furrow made up the long side of what we now call an acre, originally regarded as the amount of arable land that could be plowed by a yoke of oxen in a day. That area settled on a measurement of 220 yards by 22 yards and is now defined as any area measuring 4,840 square yards. A milestone is a stone used to mark a milepost, which designates a point located a certain number of miles to or from another designated point. Metaphorically, it’s a significant point or accomplishment in any journey: Weir's Olympic relay teammate Kara Lynn Joyce, a 20-year-old senior at the University of Georgia, reached a milestone of her own in the 50 freestyle-she won the event in 24.97, her first time under 25 seconds… — Kelli Anderson, Sports Illustrated, 14 Aug. 2006 Milestone probably rolls off the tongue easier than “kilometer stone,” so milestone is still used even in English-speaking countries that have adopted the metric system. Love words? Need even more definitions?	<urn:uuid:0e1f2d4c-7ee8-47f5-abb9-c2cffede47c3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.9375, "fasttext_score": 0.03515881299972534, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9515331983566284, "url": "https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/measure-inch-fathom-units-language/milestone" }
（中学篇）2018年第03期：基于高中英语学科核心素养的阅读教学设计——以北师大版《英语》模块七Unit 19 Lesson 3 Body Language为例（北京：艾慧、郝奇斐）一文涉及的教学内容 1. 教材文本 Body Language Speaks For Itself If you saw a father patting his son on the back while smiling happily, what would you think was going on? You would probably think that the father was congratulating his son on doing something well, maybe passing an exam or winning a race. You would know what was going on because you understood the message conveyed by the father's body language. Syndicate content	<urn:uuid:1f2cd4f3-f21a-465b-9667-8b9a73260b1e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.9568000435829163, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9422620534896851, "url": "http://58808018.com/taxonomy/term/1362" }
• fullersburg How the Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and Ottawa Became One People Updated: Dec 13, 2021 Potawatomi oral tradition about the union of the tribes of the Three Fires, or Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and Ottawa, states that at one time very long ago, these three tribes were enemies. An Ojibwe man had ten sons, and he raised them to be warriors. All died in battle. Likewise, an Ottawa and a Potawatomi man each had ten warrior sons, and they all died in the same manner. All three were left mourning the loss of their children, and each determined that there was no point in living. They wandered away from their tribes to find a place to spend their final days. The Ojibwe man stopped to rest at the base of a beautiful tree, and he noticed that it had four great roots that spread out equally in four directions as well as one that grew straight down into the earth. He was soon joined by the Ottawa man, who was mourning the loss of his sons; subsequently, the Potawatomi man appeared, and he told the other two men about his grief, as well. They realized that fate had brought them together, and the Ojibwe man stated that it was the Great Spirit's will that they had met at that location, and that there had been too much fighting in their lives. Together, the three men decided that they would return to their people and stop the fighting between their tribes, as it was wrong to allow their people to die. They determined that they would live in peace together, and they smoked a pipe together. The Ojibwe man called himself the "eldest brother," as he had found the tree first; the Ottawa became the second brother, as he arrived next. Finally, the Potawatomi was called the youngest brother, as he arrived after the other two men. They agreed to meet at the base of the tree in ten days, each of them bringing their tribes for a council. Ten days later, the meeting took place, and each tribe furnished wood for a fire; it was determined that the Potawatomi people would be the keepers of the fire. They all smoked a peace pipe and determined to live in peace and friendship. The three men who had met each other created rules for the tribes to live by, and they lived in harmony and intermarried. Their bond was observed by the fire they created, which became a symbol of their union. (Courtesy of Potawatomi Oral Tradition Indian Country Wisconsin at: https://web.archive.org/web/20080725041621/http://www.mpm/edu/wirp/ICW-137.html#one. Sue Devick, M.A. 115 views0 comments Recent Posts See All Odawa historian and archivist Eric Hemenway notes that although burial practices varied from tribe to tribe, "caretaking of the dead is something all tribes consider sacred." In his 2017 article, Heme The act of changing an athletic team's Native American name in order to avoid offending indigenous people is ethical and the correct thing to do; realistically, however, this can be compared to tossin	<urn:uuid:3e1de8aa-5d2d-4338-bfb7-6226a725092d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.2175307273864746, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.989382803440094, "url": "https://www.fullersburg.org/post/how-the-ojibwe-potawatomi-and-ottawa-became-one-people" }
The Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women Women with Hand-Drums, Dancing: Bible by Carol Meyers Last updated June 23, 2021 A group of terracotta figurines dating to the eight-seventh century BCE. These small figurines, six–eight inches tall, represent female figures playing the hand-drum, which was probably a woman’s instrument in ancient Israel. These terracottas are in the collection of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. Photo by Carol Meyers, Duke University. In Brief According to several biblical passages, women in ancient Israel—beginning with Miriam after the crossing of the Sea of Reeds—celebrated military victory by singing, dancing, and drumming. An array of archaeological materials and texts from other ancient Near Eastern cultures indicates that the drum was a woman’s instrument. This means that women in ancient Israel were the drummers in the musical ensembles, which played in the secular and religious contexts mentioned in the Bible. Moreover, their dances were circle dances rather than the leaping dances associated with men. As participants in the performance ensemble of drum-dance-song, they had the empowering experience of working together and carrying out a socio-religious function. Biblical Texts Mentioning Women Celebrating Victory After the Israelites escape from Egypt and from the Pharaoh’s army at the Sea of Reeds (NRSV, “Red Sea”), the prophet Miriam leads a celebration. Accompanied by “all the women,” who are dancing and playing hand-drums (Exod 15:20–21), she sings of YHWH’s victory. Most English translations, including the NRSV, use the word tambourines in this passage. That word, however, is anachronistic, for there is no evidence that tambourines were invented until the Roman period at the earliest, and perhaps not for several centuries later. The Hebrew word tof represents a hand-held frame-drum, a hoop-shaped drum with a diameter wider than its depth and well known as a popular membranophone (percussion instrument) from artistic representations preserved from the ancient Near East. The scene of Miriam with her chorus of women drummers and dancers is echoed in several other instances in which song, dance, and drums appear in connection with women musicians. After a victory over the Philistines, David is welcomed by women singing, dancing, and playing frame-drums (1 Sam 18:6–7). Two other passages probably present, elliptically, a similar situation: Deborah sings out after YHWH brings victory for the Israelites over the Canaanites in Galilee (Judg 5:1), and Jephthah’s daughter welcomes her father with dancing and drumming after his God-granted defeat of the Ammonites (Judg 11:34). The elements of drum, dance, and song constitute a women’s performance genre: the musical celebration of military victory. Another elliptical passage, 2 Sam 1:20, claims that Philistine women would perform a victory song if they heard the news that Saul and Jonathan had died. The celebratory nature of the genre is extended, in prophetic eschatology, to the rejoicing that accompanies God’s restoration of Israel (Jer 31:4, 13). The Frame-drum as a Woman’s Instrument The 2 Sam 1:20 passage, which refers to Philistines, suggests that this performance genre was part of the general culture of the eastern Mediterranean in biblical times. Archaeological evidence supports that possibility. Egyptian wall paintings, scenes on metal and ivory vessels from Cyprus and Phoenicia as well as Mesopotamia, and most notably small terra-cotta figurines from many Near Eastern sites all depict musicians playing a significant repertoire of musical instruments. Musicologists have assigned them to various categories: wind instruments, stringed instruments, instruments that are self-striking (such as cymbals), and percussion instruments. In virtually every instance, the frame-drum players are female. This evidence, along with cross-cultural materials as well as a reference to the Canaanite goddess Anath with a hand-drum, suggests that the playing of these percussion instruments was a specifically female role in the ancient Mediterranean world. The identification of the frame-drum as a woman’s instrument has implications for the understanding of several biblical texts mentioning musical performance. The Bible mentions dozens of musical instruments of the various types; but only one percussion instrument is named—the tof, or hand-drum—even though other kinds of drum were known elsewhere in the biblical world. Whenever this word is found, it is quite likely that the presence of female instrumentalists is implied. This is particularly true in a series of psalms that depict cultic processions and celebrations in praise of YHWH. In Ps 68:25, a procession into the temple involves singers, female hand-drummers, and other musicians. The word for drum players is unambiguously feminine. The words for the singers and musicians are masculine, but they may include females and males, given the nature of Hebrew as a gendered language with masculine nouns often used for both genders. The references to musical ensembles in several other psalms (Pss 81:2; 149:3; 150:4) can be interpreted, because they include the hand-drum, as including female instrumentalists in cultic musical performance. Women’s Dances Not only was the drum a woman’s instrument, but also the style of dancing associated with women differed from that of men. The Hebrew word for “dances” in the texts mentioned above is meholot, which denotes a circle dance. In contrast, the root (rkd), which probably means leaping up and down in dance, is used in contexts where men are dancing, as when King David brings the ark of God up to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:29). Women’s Performance in Ancient Israel Clearly the frequent claim that women did not take part in public religious occasions in ancient Israel needs to be contested in light of readings that take extrabiblical artifactual evidence into account. In addition, recognizing the existence of women’s performance traditions allows us to acknowledge that women had the benefit of participating together in professional associations. Gathering to rehearse, compose, and perform provided women with the opportunity to experience leadership and camaraderie, as well as the esteem of their colleagues and also of their audiences. Such experience is empowering. Goitein, Shelomo Dov. “Women as Creators of Biblical Genres.” Prooftexts 8 (1988): 1–33. Ilan, Tal “Dance and Gender in Ancient Jewish Sources.” Near Eastern Archaeology 66 (2003): 135–36. Meyers, Carol. “Of Drums and Damsels: Women’s Performance in Ancient Israel.” Biblical Archaeologist 54 (1991): 16–27. Meyers, Carol. “Miriam’s Song of the Sea: A Woman’s Victory Performance.” February 6, 2020. Have an update or correction? Let us know Help us elevate the voices of Jewish women. donate now Get JWA in your inbox How to cite this page Meyers, Carol. "Women with Hand-Drums, Dancing: Bible." Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women. 23 June 2021. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on September 27, 2022) <>.	<urn:uuid:444fd14f-0c1d-49a6-89bb-074409cfa2c5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.02291029691696167, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9535458087921143, "url": "https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/women-with-hand-drums-dancing-bible" }
You asked: How does a star nosed mole find food? With little use for eyesight, its tentacled nose is its sense organ to locate prey. The pink star on its nose consists of 22 fleshy tentacles, each with about 25,000 touch receptors, which are called Elmer’s organs. The mole’s tentacles move extremely quickly and can touch up to 12 objects per second. Is the star-nosed mole The fastest eater? How does star-nosed mole see? The moles’ use of their stars also resembles the way we (and many other mammals) use our eyes to understand our environment. … Thus, instead of seeing the world with eyes, the functionally blind star-nosed mole apparently ‘sees’ its underground environment with its snout. What’s the fastest eating animal? The fastest eater amongst mammals is the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata). Research published in February 2005 by Dr Kenneth Catania (USA) at Vanderbilt University, Tennessee, USA, recorded an average ‘handling time´ of 230 milliseconds with the fastest time being 120 milliseconds. THIS IS EXCITING: Does sunscreen get less effective over time? Do moles dig with their nose? Moles do a lot of digging, as many gardeners know. But they don’t use whiskers to find their way around in the dark. Instead, they simply follow their noses. A new detailed study of tiny touch receptors, called “Eimer’s organs,” on the tip of a mole’s nose reveals how the animals do it. What do star-nosed moles eat? Diet: Earthworms and aquatic insects are the primary foods, but it also eats snails, crayfish, small amphibians, and fish. Can star-nosed moles breath underwater? The star-nosed mole has several unusual abilities. One of them is “sniffing” underwater by blowing bubbles and quickly re-inhaling them, detecting odors of its prey through the water. … “We suspect that the ‘star’ nose on the mole plays a role in allowing its underwater sniffing,” said Lee. Why do star-nosed moles have eyes? Night ‘Vision’ These sensory receptors are known as Eimer’s organs, so-named for the German scientist who discovered them in 1871. The receptors help the mole to detect details about its environment when it presses each of its 22 “rays” rapidly against the soil. Are moles blind? For instance, many people think all moles are blind or even without eyes entirely. This is not true: All mole species have eyes, though their vision tends to be quite basic. Scientists believe moles are colorblind and nearsighted, but that their eyes are exceptionally good at detecting light. Are star-nosed mole rare? Star-nosed moles are not uncommon, just uncommonly seen, said Catania. The species’ range stretches along the Eastern portions of the U.S. and Canada. THIS IS EXCITING: Can you get a chemical peel at 13? Can a baby mole be a pet? Even though moles are adorable, they should not be kept as pets. For one thing, moles don’t handle stress well. Just a few hours above ground could easily stress a mole to death. How long do moles live for? How many babies do moles have? Moles give birth underground to one litter in the spring, with typically two to eight babies in a litter. Baby moles stay in their nest for about one month before they leave to forage in tunnels. It would be unusual to find a very young mole out of its underground nest unless the nest has been disturbed. Do star nosed moles have eyes? They have very small eyes and are practically blind. Large front paws with thick claws are close to the head and aid the star-nosed mole in excavating tunnels that may run 100 ft. long. Unlike the 38 other mole species they do swim in their hunt for prey.	<urn:uuid:7e7296ba-a8e7-4790-912d-f4fb81c32f8f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.8594645261764526, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9515302181243896, "url": "https://thejediwife.com/dermatology/you-asked-how-does-a-star-nosed-mole-find-food.html" }
Skip to Main Content Stories for being at home. Earth day march 1970. Why the First Earth Day Still Matters Celebrating the 50th Anniversary of April 22, 1970. 04 20 20 Kate Connors Cuyahoga river on fire. Earth day posters. Denis Hayes organizing Earth Day 1970. Earth day march 1970. 1. Header Image: Protestors at Earth Day demonstrations in New York City, April 22nd 1970. / 2. In 1969, the heavily polluted Cuyahoga River caught fire in Cleveland, Ohio. Image via the Cleveland State University Library. / 3. Posters, past and present. / 4. Denis Hayes, one of the key organizers of Earth Day 1970. / 5. A packed 5th Avenue in New York City. 20 million people turned out to events across the country. / 6. The Clean Air act was passed later in 1970. It was spring 1970. After the decade that saw the publishing of Silent Spring, a massive oil spill, and a burning river, Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson saw an opportunity for change. It wasn’t that people didn’t care about the environment already. At the time, groups around the country worked to protect farmworkers from DDT, change the laws around industrial pollution, increase our access to organic foods, and conserve lands for wildlife. But the movements were disparate — according to organizer Denis Hayes, few of those organizers saw the possibility for a larger, all-encompassing environmental movement. After the popular success of anti-war demonstrations on college campuses, Nelson believed the time was right to build a mass movement against rampant environmental destruction. He decided to organize Earth Day. Earth Day 1970 was actually more like Earth Spring. Six months ahead of the chosen April 22 date (Nelson was convinced this Wednesday in April would fall into the sweet spot between spring break and college finals), the senator began reaching out to environmental groups across the country. A small staff of young people spread the word about a teach-in event to be held on college campuses, modeled after successful Vietnam War protests. Soon, it became clear that the activists could reach wider than the progressive youth they originally targeted. United Auto Workers contributed money for a phone line, and calls were made to cities and towns across the country. Soon, local organizers were recruited and events were planned in parks, in libraries, in schools, and even on PBS television programs including Sesame Street. Planned speakers included scientists, outdoor enthusiasts, mothers, veterans, conservationists, indigenous people, and even businessmen. On April 22nd, 1970, demonstrations began across the country. 1500 college campuses held events, often programmed over the course of the week. Sit ins, boycotts, cleanups, lectures, town halls, panels, and marches took place concurrently. The front page of the New York Times, the cover of Time Magazine, and every news network put the spotlight on the movement. It is remarkable how coverage of the event 50 years ago drew the connection between the everyday environmental concerns — like pollution and reliance on fossil fuels — and their cumulative impact on global warming. 20 million people turned out, about a tenth of the US population at the time. It was an unprecedented sense of unity that drove the participation of a broad coalition of participants: liberals, socialists, and conservatives all took part in the group action. Silent spring. Frequently Asked Have a Question? Check the list below to see if we have your answer. {[ section.title ]} {[ topic.title ]}	<urn:uuid:549fcffc-bfd2-4d6d-b67f-d740b1424e62>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.04319697618484497, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.951316773891449, "url": "https://floydhome.com/blogs/livedin/why-first-earth-day-still-matters" }
Definition of 'circuit' Word Frequency In Top 1000 words 1. A journey made on such a path or route. 2. A series of competitions held in different places. 3. A closed path followed or capable of being followed by an electric current. 4. The area covered by such a course, especially by the judge or judges of a court. 5. A configuration of electrically or electromagnetically connected components or devices. 6. A regular or accustomed course from place to place; a round. 7. A group of nightclubs, show halls, or resorts at which entertainers appear in turn. 8. The region enclosed by such a line. 9. A closed, usually circular line that goes around an object or area. synonym: circumference. 10. The act of following such a path or route. 11. A path or route the complete traversal of which without local change of direction requires returning to the starting point. 12. An association of theaters in which plays, acts, or films move from theater to theater for presentation. 13. The circumference of, or distance round, any space; the measure of a line round an area. 15. That which encircles anything, as a ring or crown. 16. The space inclosed within a circle, or within limits. 17. (Law) A certain division of a state or country, established by law for a judge or judges to visit, for the administration of justice. 18. (Law) a longer course of proceedings than is necessary to attain the object in view. 19. obsolete Circumlocution. 20. (Methodist Church) A district in which an itinerant preacher labors. 21. (Law) a court which sits successively in different places in its circuit (see Circuit, 6). In the United States, the federal circuit courts are commonly presided over by a judge of the supreme court, or a special circuit judge, together with the judge of the district court. They have jurisdiction within statutory limits, both in law and equity, in matters of federal cognizance. Some of the individual States also have circuit courts, which have general statutory jurisdiction of the same class, in matters of State cognizance. 22. The act of moving or revolving around, or as in a circle or orbit; a revolution. 25. In the Meth. Ch., to go the rounds of a circuit as an itinerant preacher. 26. A roundabout argument or statement; circumlocution. 27. In mathematics, a closed path on a surface. 28. Hence A circuit court (see below). 30. A number of theaters controlled by one manager. 31. That which encircles; a ring or circlet. 32. In the Meth. Ch., the district assigned to an itinerant preacher. 33. The act of moving or passing around; a circular movement, progress, or journey; a revolution. 34. The space inclosed in a circle or within certain limits. 35. In logic, the extension of a term. See extension. 39. To revolve about or go around in. 40. To move in a circle or circuit; go around. 41. obsolete To move in a circle; to go round; to circulate. 42. obsolete To travel around. 43. To make a circuit or circuit of. 1. Another option would be to join the international political circuit. 2. The two men complete the circuit and prepare to go home. 3. He has become friends with a lot of people on the track circuit. 4. The nature of the circuit also makes it one of the most tiring tracks we race at. 5. After one circuit rest for one minute. 6. The lightning had struck outdoor cables and blown the entire house electrical circuit. 7. One good with wires and rubber and circuit boards and mirrors. 8. These works catapulted him onto the international touring circuit. 9. That is almost twice the annual salary of a circuit judge. 10. Or will it be the lecture circuit? 11. The jockeys set out to complete three circuits of the cobbled surround. 12. It uses the skin as a conductor to complete an electrical circuit. 13. At the moment computer chips have to be wired together into a circuit board. 14. The snag is that the international cricket circuit rolls on ceaselessly. 15. He is more talkative on the lucrative lecture circuit. 16. It is used for systems such as electrical circuits. 17. The ambience is already great before you get to the circuit and the track itself is just phenomenal. 18. The chairman of the body charged with appointing judges feels unfairly under fire over a shortage of circuit judges. 19. And that's given the slower motors on the circuit the chance to catch up. 20. It's simply a matter of pulling out one printed circuit board and inserting another by hand. 21. The twisting street circuit makes it like no other track, with the lowest average top speed of the year. 22. It is like the ones that you get on aircraft, only with a small circuit board over one eye. 23. That race is over a single circuit of this course but it's not impossible that he will last this longer distance. 24. Make your own model aircraft or ride on the miniature train as it circuits its 100ft track at this exhibition of engines and aircraft. 25. Races will be held on the motor racing circuit and on surrounding roads - see map, right. 26. The circuit of a complete pair of cords and plugs with their associated apparatus is called a _cord circuit_. 27. The circuit containing the battery, transmitter, and primary winding of the induction coil is called the _local circuit_. 28. The advantages of putting the transmitter and the battery which supplies it with current in a local circuit with the primary of an induction coil, and placing the secondary of the induction coil in the line, have already been pointed out but may be briefly summarized as follows: When the transmitter is placed directly in the _line circuit_ and the line is of considerable length, the current which passes through the transmitter is necessarily rather small unless a battery of high potential is used; and, furthermore, the total change in resistance which the transmitter is capable of producing is but a small proportion of the total resistance of the line, and, therefore, the current changes produced by the transmitter are relatively small. 29. But his book elides the question of whether this circuit is also the source of IQ differences. 30. But that person, who was behind a desk, noticed that the student was wearing what she described as a circuit board. 32. His arraignment in circuit court is scheduled for Oct. 8. 33. However, if the circuit is closed the energy will be quickly released. 34. As for it being a “bad” idea to cite foreign state cases in circuit courts … the answer is “it depends.” 35. ‘The circuit was almost finished, and I was second.’ 36. ‘He finished a circuit around the main square.’ 37. ‘Grunting, he picked up one sack, bearing it with him as he finished the circuit of the booths.’ 38. ‘I finished my circuit of the town, now also wanting to buy an antiquarian book.’ 39. ‘At present, long haul international freighters are losing capacity because of the need to carry extra fuel to fly circuits around Perth in case the weather is poor.’ 40. ‘The planes end up flying circuits around Perth to burn up fuel or to dump fuel on arrival.’ 41. ‘The walk route is a 1km circuit around the park, so you can do as many laps as you like.’ 42. ‘She had just finished her circuit of the room, when she realized that nothing else had caught her eye.’ 43. ‘We have a witness who was driving a circuit route around this part of the Island.’ 44. ‘The helicopter flew a final circuit and then the show was over.’ 45. ‘On your fourth flight you fly solo and by then you're pretty confident in flying circuits.’ 46. ‘Since 1995, the flight circuits have been directed to the north, north-west and south of the base.’ 47. ‘The race finishes with a circuit race in the centre of Dublin next Sunday.’ 48. ‘It sticks doggedly to its line through numerous fast circuits round large roundabouts.’ 49. ‘In the real tour, 11 circuits of the Champs Elysees are expected to climax in a mass sprint for what has become one of the most prestigious victories in professional cycling.’ 50. ‘Little buggies do circuits round the island as golfers try to discover what's going on.’ 51. ‘Blood flows in a circuit between the heart and the lungs.’ 52. ‘They'd make a few circuits of the church so we all got a good look.’ 53. ‘We boarded the Moorsbus at Cropton, leaving the village buzzing with a group of 30 or more ramblers off to do a local circuit.’ 54. ‘The direction of travel around a circuit is decided by the instructor.’ 55. ‘Talladega is still the fastest track on the circuit.’ 56. ‘Imola is a nice track and a special circuit to open this part of the calendar.’ 57. ‘After the first two days of testing, the official drivers swapped circuits.’ 58. ‘I like the Hungaroring, as it's quite a different track from the rest of the Formula One circuits.’ 59. ‘It is also a circuit designed for Formula One cars as it is very smooth.’ 60. ‘My goal here is to learn the circuit as fast as I can and obviously try to finish the race.’ 61. ‘The track actually consists of 5 separate circuits, including a 2.5km oval and a 1.2km drag strip.’ 62. ‘There used to be a kart circuit opposite the market and that was the only place I raced for the first three years.’ 63. ‘The crowd then briskly moves to the trackside to watch the start and follow the colours of their jockey around the circuit to the finish line.’ 64. ‘Bardon flew around the circuit in an impressive time of 29.84.’ 65. ‘Powering his way around the circuit he finished with three and a half lengths to spare.’ 66. ‘I am very pleased to have crossed the finish line on my home circuit in front of all the celebrating mechanics.’ 67. ‘On the circuit, 600 meters from the finish line, there was a cobblestone section that we passed over every loop we made.’ 68. ‘The winner and their guest will be flown to the circuit by helicopter, where they will be able to watch the race from the best seats in the house.’ 69. ‘The runners had a six-kilometre circuit, within which Mosley finished in 20 minutes, 27 seconds.’ 70. ‘With me in the passenger seat, Mark took me around four laps of the circuit.’ 71. ‘Hislop couldn't afford to take his family to the tour's race circuits with him to cultivate their interest.’ 72. ‘Road racing was popular on the continent but in Britain it was banned, leading to the development of closed circuits on private land.’ 73. ‘Having raced bikes for the past 22 years, this vastly experienced rider made short work of the circuit and fellow riders.’ 74. ‘He had never raced at the circuit before and his performance was excellent.’ 75. ‘A growing theatre company is developing its circuit of rural venues by bringing a piece of contemporary dynamite to local stages.’ 76. ‘She secured the coveted title of Sports Personality of the Year based on her outstanding performances on the international circuit last year.’ 77. ‘The comedian has been a regular performer at major venues on the national circuit.’ 78. ‘Ever since Tiger Woods entered the golf circuit, the sport hasn't been the same.’ 79. ‘In addition to her fairground business, she sells smuggled liquor to the inns and public houses on her circuit.’ 80. ‘Cliff diving is an international sport with a world circuit contested by competitors from as far afield as Iceland and Brazil.’ 81. ‘He studied literature and drama before working the cabaret circuit.’ 82. ‘Her brief career has been dotted with some creditable performances in the domestic circuit.’ 83. ‘The youngster has become firmly established on the showbiz circuit in the past year.’ 84. ‘He said: ‘We've spent years getting the circuit ready for this event, proving we could run it’.’ 85. ‘The Rotherham-born actress started work on the cabaret circuit as a singer touring the north of England.’ 86. ‘The race accompanies the Berlin Marathon, a major event on the running circuit.’ 87. ‘It was one of the biggest shows to tour the country music circuit; the line up was impressive.’ 88. ‘As for the live circuit, nothing beats getting yourself out to a comedy club and checking out new talent first hand.’ 89. ‘No strangers to the tour circuit, these boys have been doing the rounds for several years.’ 90. ‘The films will be introduced by the acclaimed Italian director, whose movies have done the rounds in international film circuits.’ 91. ‘There are actual tour circuits where, twice a month, people will host a show in their homes.’ 92. ‘Since then, she has toured the European circuit.’ 93. ‘He wouldn't want his name to be slandered on the party circuit for being a closed-minded homophobe.’ 94. ‘From Sundance to Venice, each film has trodden the path of the festival circuit.’ 95. ‘If your hotel has a fitness center, this is the day to add a light circuit of resistance training to work all your muscles.’ 96. ‘There will also be a five-week circuit training course beginning on January 12.’ 97. ‘Performing a circuit workout once or twice a week will at least keep you in the habit of training.’ 98. ‘The program involved eight exercises, performed in a circuit manner with a short rest between each station.’ 99. ‘Perform the following four exercises as a circuit for each arm, doing all moves for one arm before switching.’ 100. ‘For variety, moving quickly through a circuit of several weightlifting exercises also can do the trick.’ 101. ‘Complete one or two circuits two or three days a week.’ 102. ‘You team up with a partner and after the warm-up, you do two circuits of 15 different exercises.’ 103. ‘Training consisted of daily sessions of rigorous circuits and sparring to fine-tune skills and fitness for the approaching battle.’ 104. ‘A range of programmes such as aerobics, dance classes and circuit training will be offered to cater for all age groups and various levels of fitness.’ 105. ‘To perform this workout as a circuit, move from exercise to exercise without rest until you complete one set of each.’ 106. ‘Nearly every day the swimmers complete a circuit of hand weights and stretch cords.’ 107. ‘This workout uses a circuit format, which means you don't rest between exercises.’ 108. ‘For maximum definition and toning of your entire body, perform 10 cardio/strength circuits.’ 109. ‘Your circuit training could include kickboxing and weight training techniques.’ 110. ‘Do this workout as a circuit twice a week in conjunction with your regular training.’ 111. ‘Included in the hour long session is a 30-minute exercise circuit, which could prove the ideal way to shed those pounds for Christmas.’ 112. ‘Abdominal muscle tone is important for stability, so a circuit along the following lines should help his performance and reduce the risk of injury.’ 113. ‘To complete the first cycle in the circuit, after you have finished your barbell rows, immediately begin your bent knee sit-ups; perform 30 reps.’ 114. ‘This will include professional tennis coaching, co-ordination circuits and fun team sports and competitions.’ 115. ‘The circuit court judge who heard the case at trial directed the jury to find for the plaintiff.’ 116. ‘A neighbours' squabble over late-night noise ended in court before a circuit judge, 12 jurors and two barristers.’ 117. ‘It was the kind of decision that the liberal judges on the circuit normally ask the court to rehear.’ 118. ‘He cited a case where a circuit court judge made a ruling on a point of law which disadvantaged the prosecution.’ 119. ‘The junior minister urged district and circuit court judges to start using the new law immediately.’ 120. ‘The circuit court judge decided the litigants didn't have a right to sue.’ 121. ‘It is my hope that all appeals will be listed for hearing by circuit judges.’ 122. ‘He returned to the legal profession, becoming a circuit court judge in Gadsden.’ 123. ‘The responsibility is greatest when the circuit judge is asked to issue a search warrant.’ 124. ‘Judicial councils are composed of circuit judges, and they proceed under the direction of the senior circuit judge.’ 125. ‘At 30, Joe McCarthy was the youngest man ever elected a circuit judge in Wisconsin.’ 126. ‘The presiding circuit judge might not have known all the laws relevant to the case.’ 127. ‘When the judge refused, she appealed her decision to a circuit court.’ 128. ‘After the report, a tribunal of Maryland circuit court judges reduced the homicide charge to manslaughter.’ 129. ‘Outside the capital, most divorce cases are heard in circuit courts that do not sit year round.’ 130. ‘To see junior barristers in action, visits to district or circuit courts are a good idea.’ 131. ‘As one of two family law judges on the circuit, she was one of the first to deal with divorce cases.’ 132. ‘The Assize courts were presided over by High Court judges out on circuit.’ 133. ‘The circuit judges' ruling left things as they are for the moment.’ 134. ‘Members attended bi-weekly court sessions, wherein their progress was individually appraised by a resident circuit judge.’ 135. ‘The country was divided by Henry II into six judicial circuits for the purpose of bringing royal justice to all regions.’ 136. ‘Six tourism circuits will be identified for development to international standards during 2002-03.’ 137. ‘The commissioners were major lay and ecclesiastical lords with only small landholdings in the shires of the circuit.’ 138. ‘There are other churches on the Methodist circuit in Accrington so there might be other people in other churches prepared to help.’ 139. ‘The cathedral is set to be packed for the service, with all tickets already distributed through deaneries and Methodist circuits.’ 140. ‘There are currently around 11 Methodist churches in the Keighley circuit.’ 141. ‘In 1863 he took charge of the Ramer circuit in south Montgomery County, Alabama.’ 142. ‘In more than 20 years of studying the Odeon cinema circuit, he had seen this kind of scenario enacted many times.’ 143. ‘He had learned that an inductance coil was a closed circuit with no current of its own.’ 144. ‘When the charges connect, effectively closing a circuit, electric energy flows along that jagged path.’ 145. ‘When air is brought into contact with the second electrode, current flows through any circuit linking the two electrodes.’ 146. ‘If a fuse is in the supply circuit, it will do its job and blow out, opening the circuit and stopping the current flow.’ 147. ‘Increasingly, aluminium circuits were restricting the flow of electrical current, creating signal delay between the millions of transistors inside a chip.’ 148. ‘With the exception of sound, electricity is the only other kinesis that requires a circuit or path to get to a destination.’ 149. ‘In every circuit, voltage, current and resistance are exactly proportional, mathematically speaking.’ 150. ‘When there is a path that goes from the negative to the positive terminal, you have a circuit, and electrons can flow through the wire.’ 151. ‘Follow the path of the circuits back a bit to see where they connect up to solder points.’ 152. ‘Lithography tools are used to draw the lines of a circuit on to a semiconductor wafer.’ 153. ‘The very small particles stream through wires and circuits creating currents of electricity.’ 154. ‘When you pick up a handset it generates a loop current in the circuit.’ 155. ‘The battery forces electrons to flow through the circuit from one terminal to the other.’ 156. ‘In the ordinary telephone system, each time we make a call, we have to establish a circuit between our phone and the phone of the person we would like to talk with.’ 157. ‘She cannot list the major components in an electrical circuit even though they were described in the chapter.’ 158. ‘Power electronics technology uses electronic circuits to convert and control electric energy with optimum efficiency.’ 159. ‘The components of the circuit are checked against specific parameters.’ 160. ‘Applied as very thin films, they create a fabric of nanotube ropes that can conduct electricity in circuits.’ 161. ‘Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical circuit.’ 162. ‘The electron from the hydrogen goes through the electrical circuit to the cathode to make water.’ 163. ‘The control circuits take mere nanoseconds to decide how the laser light must be modulated.’ 164. ‘A control circuit is coupled to the sensors and receives the signals.’ 165. ‘Mauchly's interests were in electrical engineering and he looked for ways to develop electrical circuits for computation.’ 166. ‘The local phone company lost one of its major switching centres, with some 200,000 lines and three million circuits.’ 167. ‘They claim that the company owes other telecoms operators about £1.25 million in fines for the late delivery of telecoms circuits and leased lines.’ 168. ‘Thanks to wireless integration, roughly 20 more lighting circuits became programmable for use in lighting scenes and pathways.’ 169. ‘In the accident identification system, there are circuits to determine when there is an abnormal movement that indicates an accident.’ 170. ‘The heating element includes heating segments connected together in an electric circuit.’ 171. ‘Engineers added the new circuits for the electric air conditioning.’ 172. ‘For electric circuits on a nanoscale, further components are needed in addition to tiny wires.’ 173. ‘A battery is only one source for an electric circuit.’ 174. ‘The chips would be made from silicon or plastic, using microscopic machinery which can fit electric circuits on to objects too small to be seen by the naked eye.’ 175. ‘My grandfather had died in 1913 installing electric circuits when he, my father, was a baby.’ 176. ‘In an electrical circuit, the number of electrons that are moving is called the amperage or the current, and it is measured in amps.’ 177. ‘You will accompany me as we backtrack through art's history, before circuiting the globe in pursuit of art's diverse manifestations.’ 178. ‘There is a railway with model trains circuiting the room.’ 179. ‘An American couple, circuiting the perimeter, had just visited HMS Britannia.’ 180. ‘Very deliberately, like discoursing philosophers, we circuited the diamond.’ 181. ‘Drake's expedition was the second to circuit the globe and also led to his claiming California for Elizabeth.’ 182. ‘Pull up a pillion seat and spend the next hour breezily circuiting the Rock while your driver tells its tale.’ 183. ‘After eight of our orbits Venus has circuited the Sun 13 times, and returns to more or less the same position relative to us.’ 184. ‘Most of those are in the main belt, where some millions of asteroids larger than 1 km in size are thought to circuit the Sun.’ 185. ‘This nine-mile walk circuited through the local forestry.’ 186. a ten-day coach circuit of the island Other users have misspelling circuit as: 1. sericite 14.35% 2. circuito 9.42% 3. circuite 6% 4. circet 2.57% 5. circut 2.57% 6. curcit 1.93% 7. sirket 1.71% 8. Other 61.45% Use Linguix everywhere you write Linguix Apps Browser Extensions Linguix Keyboard Make your content read and look better on mobile. MS Office add-ins	<urn:uuid:ccff7bf3-bc46-4065-8f82-98357b285a07>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.10635936260223389, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9460368156433105, "url": "https://linguix.com/english/misspelling/word/circuit" }
Direction: In the following passage, some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each number. Some diseases have an animal reservoir, meaning they can infect other species besides humans. Yellow fever, for example, (1)______ humans, but can also infect monkeys. If a mosquito (2)______ of spreading yellow fever bites an infected monkey, the (3)______ can then give the disease to humans. So even if the (4)______ population of the planet could somehow be vaccinated (5)______ yellow fever, its eradication could not be guaranteed. Select the most appropriate option to fill in the blank No. 4. This question was previously asked in SSC Matric Level Previous Paper (Held on: 9 Nov 2020 Shift 3) View all SSC Selection Post Papers > 1. full 2. completely 3. absolute 4. entire Answer (Detailed Solution Below) Option 4 : entire 10 Questions 10 Marks 7 Mins Detailed Solution Download Solution PDF The correct answer is entire. Key Points • Let's look at the meanings of the given options: • full- containing or holding as much or as many as possible; having no empty space • completely- totally • absolute- not qualified or diminished in any way • entire- with no part left out • As per the possible context of the sentence, there is no guarantee of the eradication of yellow fever even if the whole human race is vaccinated against it. • Hence, from the given meanings, we find that the 4th option i.e. entire is the correct choice in the 4th blank.	<urn:uuid:3b463afc-4e0b-4fd5-9406-a1e6d1b03565>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.7113943099975586, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8806400895118713, "url": "https://testbook.com/question-answer/select-the-most-appropriate-option-to-fill-in-the--6017d43f3386b3fbb2e31d67" }
Early European Chocolate Customs From frothy Mesoamerican ceremonial beverage to widespread currency system to sugary candy bars consumed by millions daily, chocolate has taken many forms since its discovery thousands of years ago. Its current uses and perception by Western society have been largely influenced by the first Europeans to encounter chocolate in the late 16th century. The use of chocolate as a medicinal and luxury item by the early Europeans is largely the reason why chocolate is still viewed as an insubstantial food item linked with holidays and romance in Western society today. Europeans were first introduced to cacao sometime in the decade following Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the New World, and began paying attention to it after noticing how highly the native Mesoamericans regarded the beans. Explorer Ferdinand Columbus says of the Mayans, “They seemed to hold those almonds [cacao beans] at a great price; for when they were brought on board ship with their goods, I observed that whenever any of these almonds fell, they all stooped to pick it up, as if an eye had fallen” (Coe 109). Explorer Hernán Cortez planted a vast plantation of twenty thousand cacao trees, recognizing their value as currency (Presilla 23-24). The colonizing Spanish who settled in the New World first scoffed at the odd, bitter-tasting beverage that the natives held so dear, but soon grew fonder of the substance. They altered the traditional Mesoamerican recipe of cold, frothy chocolate powder mixed with water and spices by adding sugar and drinking it hot rather than cold (Coe 114-115). This Europeanized form of the beverage was introduced to the Spanish court, where it became a fashionable drink among nobility. Due to cacao’s exoticness and to the high labor intensity required to prepare the cacao for consumption, chocolate remained a beverage for the upper classes only. Intricate porcelain teacups and saucers were specifically designed for the consumption of chocolate so that ladies of the Spanish court would be able to drink the beverage without spilling on themselves (Coe 131). A new cooking utensil, the molinillo, was invented for the sole purpose of frothing chocolate beverages, and special chocolate pots were crafted (Presilla 26). An aura of luxury and exclusivity was built up around the consumption of chocolate among the first Europeans to experience it (Presilla 25). This exclusivity was in stark contrast to chocolate consumption among several Mesoamerican cultures that came before them, or to the South Americans of the same time period, who often mixed chocolate with ground maize, water, and spices, and drank it as a nutrient-providing meal (Presilla 28-30). The Europeans largely ignored this use of chocolate and regarded it only as a sweet treat. Thus, when chocolate was finally introduced to the European working class, it did not occur to European chocolate companies to serve it as anything other than a sugary beverage. Since modern Western culture is largely influenced by early Europe, chocolate has continued to be regarded as a dessert and not as something of nutritional value. An example of this is in Dove chocolate advertising. The inside of the chocolate wrappers contain often contain messages telling consumers to indulge in the delicious chocolate and give themselves a treat, such as in this image. This chocolate wrapper conveys the message to consumers that Dove recognizes the frivolousness of chocolate consumption, but endorses it anyway because it brings joy. Dove does not even try to make chocolate sound healthy, but instead capitalizes on its deliciousness. This current perception of chocolate is very close to and stems from the early European perception of chocolate as a tempting luxury item that should be eaten sparingly. Chocolate had a second purpose in its early days of discovery by the Europeans. Not only was it viewed as an elite product, but it was also praised for its medicinal properties. The Spanish colonists noticed the stimulant properties of chocolate and believed it to be an aphrodisiac (Coe 29). The Spanish physician Francisco Hernandez was sent to the New World by the Spanish king Phillip II to study undiscovered plants in Mesoamerica and document them. He classified chocolate according to the traditional Galenic medicinal method and called it “cold and dry,” thus making chocolate suitable for treating illnesses such as fevers, stomachaches, dysentery, and constipation (Dillinger et al). The medicinal properties of chocolate were touted across Europe, and in the 16th and 17th centuries, “medical complaints treated with chocolate/cacao have included anemia, poor appetite, mental fatigue, poor breast milk production, consumption/ tuberculosis, fever, gout, kidney stones, reduced longevity and poor sexual appetite/ low virility” (Dillinger et al). As such, chocolate was carefully consumed in small quantities; one seventeenth-century noblewoman remarks, “I observe my chocolate diet, to which I believe I owe my health. I do not use it crazily or without precaution” (Coe 136). Physicians often recommended that chocolate be drunk in small quantities with precaution (Coe 123-172). Chocolate was treated almost like a miracle drug in early Europe. The early European view that chocolate has medicinal properties has also continued to have influence on Western perception of chocolate. Coe points out that it is fairly common for products to start out as medicinal items and then eventually be used recreationally. The most famous example of this is Coca-Cola, which was initially used medicinally but became a wildly popular beverage (Coe 126). Chocolate underwent a similar transformation. It was believed to be healthy in small doses, as we can see from this 1935 Hershey’s advertisement. Here, Hershey is telling us that eating chocolate makes one healthy. Although chocolate started to be consumed more for its taste than for its health benefits, the rumor that chocolate was an aphrodisiac stuck around and furthered its recreational usage. This has caused Western society to link certain types of chocolate with romance and sex. Valentine’s Day and wedding anniversaries are often celebrated with a box of chocolates. The message that chocolate is sexually stimulating still makes its way into our advertising. For example, the advertisement below for Aero chocolate features an attractive half-dressed man who talks about chocolate in terms of sexual puns, such as when he remarks, “And that, ladies, makes the pleasure even more intense.” Another advertisement for 1848 chocolate features a woman closing her eyes and making excited noises interspersed with footage of cacao being processed into chocolate. In both advertisements, the companies are pushing the idea that eating chocolate is linked with sexual arousal and that making chocolate can make one sexier. Clearly, chocolate and sex are still linked in popular culture, and this stems from early European optimism that chocolate was a medicine and aphrodisiac. In conclusion, chocolate has had many roles in many different cultures, but its current usage in Western society is largely influenced by early European chocolate customs. These customs will continue to influence Western chocolate consumption for years to come. Works Cited Digital Image. More of the Chocolate, Less of the Sexuality. Accessed March 10, 2017. https://chocolateclass.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/dove-wrapper.jpg. Dillinger, Teresa L., Patricia Barriga, Sylvia Escarcega, Martha Jimenez, Diana Salazar Lowe, and Louis E. Grivetti. “Food of the gods: cure for humanity? A cultural history of the medicinal and ritual use of chocolate.” Journal of Nutrition 130, no. 8 (August 2000): 057S-2072S. Accessed March 10, 2017. http://jn.nutrition.org/content/130/8/2057S.long. Hershey Company. Digital Image. The History of Hershey Advertising. Accessed March 10, 2017. http://imgc.allpostersimages.com/images/P-488-488-90/17/1721/HP13D00Z/posters/hershey-s-syrup.jpg. Kmclan80. “Jason Lewis Looking HOT in new Aero Bubbles ad”. Filmed [April 2007]. YouTube video, 00:31. Posted [April 2007]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Brz8jjXuKyg. Models TV Commercials 3. “SEXY CHOCOLATE Commercial”. Filmed [April 2009]. YouTube video, 00:48. Posted [April 2009]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yzOchsY4RhQ. Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Google photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:9c83fea3-4f32-4f2c-8974-248223d1e884>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.05350857973098755, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9392083287239075, "url": "https://chocolateclass.wordpress.com/2017/03/10/early-european-chocolate-customs/" }
Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty Trista - September 12, 2018 While tuberculosis may seem like a remote and ancient disease threat to many of us today, it was once responsible for 25% of the annual deaths in Europe. With such a deadly presence, one would assume that tuberculosis was feared and reviled, but surprisingly that was not entirely the case. The physical ravages of this particular disease include weight loss, lethargy, flushed cheeks, and pale skin. These symptoms are actually in line with the beauty standards of the Victorian period. The Victorian period, which was the latter half of the 19th Century, was marked by a strong class consciousness in which beautiful, well-bred women were expected to do no physical work whatsoever. Correspondingly, any hints of a suntan or muscle tone were frowned upon as a hallmark of the unattractive working class. Respectable women would be thin, pale and of delicate health. Upper-class women were even considered more prone to tuberculosis, making affliction with the disease an object of class status. The thin, delicate wilting flower of a woman was widely portrayed in the art and literature of the period. Many of the beauty icons of the day were depicted as skeletal thin with pale skin, glinting eyes, and red cheeks and lips. Since tuberculosis provided a woman with these features throughout the natural course of the disease, it managed to become fashionable while stalking European people with deadly consequences. Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty Painting of a woman in white. Ferdinand Georg WaldmÃ¼ller. Wikimedia Victorian Ideals of Beauty When one thinks of the great beauties of the Victorian era, some of the famous portraits of the time, like that of Marie Duplessis, likely come to mind. Such pictures depict thin, soft looking women with ghostly pale skin. They have wide, bright eyes with no color in the skin aside from possibly rosy cheeks and lips. Their chests and shoulders are likely bare, exposing delicate bones. Unluckily for the women of the day, affliction with consumption allowed the sufferer to display all the beauty hallmarks of the day without violating the period’s strict hygiene standards. Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty Marie Duplessis, who died of tuberculosis at the age of 23 in 1847, in a 19th century portrait by Ã‰douard ViÃ©not. Wikimedia The Victorian era was a period of strict, unflinching morals. The use of cosmetics was strongly associated with actresses and prostitutes, both of whom were of meager status in the period. Therefore, the flushed cheeks and perpetually red lips of the consumptive were highly prized and perhaps even envied. While such a look could be replicated with makeup, it would have caused a scandal had the composition been discovered. In addition to the flushed cheeks and ruby lips, tuberculosis often gave sufferers bright, sparkling eyes. Such eyes have long been prized for women, with Italian renaissance women going so far as to nightshade eye drops to dilate their pupils, hence the plant’s common name belladonna for “beautiful woman.” The Victorian era was also, despite being named after a queen, a profoundly patriarchal period where women were viewed as delicate, frail creatures that needed to be cared for by men. The image of the fragile, pale woman on a fainting couch is an iconic scene of the period. Women were viewed as almost childlike in the period, with the need for caretakers and supervision. A thin, fragile birdlike woman was the ideal. Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty A portrait of his sister, who died from tuberculosis, by Edvard Munch. Wikimedia Symptoms of Tuberculosis Tuberculosis was unique in its ability to replicate the beauty standards of the Victorian era. Smallpox, also prevalent at the time, left the victim disfigured and was later extremely feared by the populace. Cholera was concentrated mainly in deprived areas and associated with squalor. Tuberculosis stood alone in its connection to the wealthy while also creating physical symptoms that made the sufferer appear lovely. Tuberculosis is a bacterial infection that typically affects the lungs, although it can change other parts of the body. In the common lung infection, sufferers would have a persistent low-grade fever that was responsible for the flushed lips and cheeks of those affected. In those for whom the disease progress was slow, weight loss and wasting would develop as the lungs’ condition worsened. This process led to the dainty, waif-ish appearance that was so valued at the time. The necessity of bed rest due to weakness and lethargy also helped developed the period’s desired aesthetic. Sufferers were kept indoors and would show an ashen skin that could be further exacerbated by blood loss through coughing up blood. Tuberculosis in Art and Literature Beloved 19th Century author Charlotte BrontÃ« wrote in 1849 that “Consumption, I am aware, is a flattering malady” – the same year that she lost her sister Anne to tuberculosis and a year after she lost her sister Emily to the same disease. She further discussed Anne’s illness, writing “Anne’s illness has of late assumed a less alarming character than it had in the beginning: the hectic is allayed; the cough gives a more frequent reprieve. Could I but believe she would live two years â€” a year longer, I should be thankful: I dreaded the terrors of the swift messenger which snatched Emily from us, as it seemed, in a few days.” Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty “Dropsy Courting Consumption,” color etching by T. Rowlandson. Wellcome Collection Despite losing two dear sisters to the disease, BrontÃ« still displayed an appreciation for the aesthetic that accompanied the oft-fatal infection. Other artists of the time supported this notion as well. Composter Giuseppe Verdi featured a beautiful heroine afflicted with consumption in his opera La Traviata in 1853. He based the opera on a play that was itself an adaptation of Alexandre Dumas’ novel La Dame aux CamÃ©lias. The story was loosely based on the life of courtesan and tuberculosis victim, Marie Duplessis, pictured above. The famous portrait of Duplessis with extremely fair skin and shadowed eyes beautifully demonstrates the consumptive aesthetic of the time. Noble, beautiful victims of tuberculosis were a common theme throughout the period. Countless paintings can be found of delicate, pale victims in bed surrounded by grieving loved ones. The iconography of birds, signifying the spirit ready to leave the body, was commonly included. Numerous literary icons fell to tuberculosis as well, including Fantine in Les Miserables and Katerina Ivanova in Crime and Punishment. Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty “The Common Lot,” color lithograph by J. Bouvier. Wellcome Collection Tuberculosis and Fashion At the start of the Victorian era, the neo-classical style of dress was the main trend among upper-class women. Such clothing included thin, sheer fabrics and tight straight lines that hid the feminine figure. The chest and neck were typically revealed to highlight pale skin and prominent collar bones. Long trains trailed behind dresses to elongate thins silhouettes. The tightness of the corset required for such dresses often caused a stooped figure and left women quite weakened by the lack of ability to breathe deeply. Interestingly, as breakthroughs in identifying the cause of tuberculosis came to light, the fashions tied to consumptive chic began to change. The long, flowing trains of neo-classical dresses were shortened to avoid dragging through mud and waste in the street, which was thought to help prevent the spread of disease. The incredibly tight tubular shapes of dresses were slightly relaxed to give a curvier, healthier looking silhouette and allow for more vigorous movement. The thin, wispy fabrics once popular for both the living and dying were replaced by sturdier, warmer structures that were thought to be more conducive to health. Tuberculosis Became the Victorian Standard of Beauty Empress Elizabeth of Austria in 1865. Painting by Franz Winterhalter. Wikimedia Perhaps unsurprisingly, as tuberculosis fell out of fashion, quite literally, it became associated with the lower and poorer classes. What was once a tragically beautiful disease of the wealthy and the brilliant become associated with squalor and poverty? Healthy and vigorous appearances now became a symbol of wealth. Much of the sympathy towards the afflicted was lost as the disease changed classes. Modern Beauty and Disease While the idea of disease being fashionable may seem outlandish at first, and a relic of the past, much more recent examples of disease chic are easy to find. One needs to look no further than the infamous heroic chic Calvin Klein ads of the 1990s. At the time, the ads were hugely controversial for glorifying drug abuse by featuring the skeletal thin and heroin-addicted model Kate Moss. The ads became a cultural phenomenon with television shows like Seinfeld making jokes about the trend. An even more recent example is the trend of “pro-ana” or pro-anorexia. There are online communities dedicated to glorifying the appearance of sufferers of anorexia and posting “thinspiration” photos of emaciated women. While neither modern examples are contagious diseases, like tuberculosis, they are still cases of our society glorifying the physical ravages of disease on the female body. Where did we find this stuff? Here are our sources: “How Tuberculosis Symptoms Became Ideals of Beauty in the 19th Century.” Allison Meier, Hyperallergic. January 2018 “How Tuberculosis Shaped Victorian Fashion” Smithsonian Magazine. Emily Mullin, Smithsonian. May 2016.	<urn:uuid:b68d429a-2a54-4041-b3d3-2a65698504b7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.03814798593521118, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9665746092796326, "url": "https://historycollection.com/tuberculosis-became-the-victorian-standard-of-beauty/" }
What Is Lustre Give Example? What is Lustre in geology? Luster: A mineral’s luster is the overall sheen of its surface – it may have the sheen of polished metal, or that of an unpolished metal that is pitted by weathering – or it may have the sheen of glass, or look dull or earthy, etc.. How many types of Lustre are there? twoLuster is a very important property that can help us to identify minerals. There are two main types of luster: metallic and nonmetallic. There are several subtypes of nonmetallic luster, namely vitreous, resinous, pearly, greasy, silky, adamantine, dull, and waxy. What is Lustre short answer? Lustre is gentle shining light that is reflected from a surface, for example from polished metal. Gold retains its lustre for far longer than other metals. It is softer than cotton and nylon and has a similar lustre to silk. Synonyms: sparkle, shine, glow, glitter More Synonyms of lustre. What is Lustre give two example? Materials that have a shiny appearance are said to have ‘lustre’. Metals such as gold, silver, copper and aluminium are among materials that have this quality. Is Diamond a lustrous material? Then we can talk about their lustrous property. Diamond is essentially carbon. … On the other hand, Diamond has a very bright lustre, so much that it has the highest non-metallic lustre. What is Lustre material? Lustre is the property of material to shine. Metals are lustrous, e.g., gold and silver. Objects which are difficult to compress or scratch are hard, e.g., stone, wood. What is Lustre define? 1 : a glow of reflected light : sheen specifically : the appearance of the surface of a mineral dependent upon its reflecting qualities the luster of polished metal. 2a : a glow of light from within : luminosity the luster of the stars. b : an inner beauty : radiance. What is Lustre photo? Lustre print is a photograph or artwork with a finish between glossy and matte. … Lustre photo prints have rich colour saturation that gives a vibrant colour finish and, like matte photo prints, they are not vulnerable to fingerprints, whereas glossy photo prints are prone to fingerprints. What is Lustre used for? What is the material? A material is a substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object. Materials can be pure or impure, living or non-living matter. Materials can be classified based on their physical and chemical properties, or on their geological origin or biological function. What are examples of luster? Minerals with a lesser (but still relatively high) degree of lustre are referred to as subadamantine, with some examples being garnet and corundum.Dull lustre. Kaolinite. … Greasy lustre. Moss opal. … Metallic lustre. Pyrite. … Pearly lustre. Muscovite. … Resinous lustre. Amber. … Silky lustre. … Submetallic lustre. … Vitreous lustre.More items… What are 3 types of luster? How many types of nonmetallic luster are there?Vitreous: The luster of glass.Resinous: The luster of resin.Pearly: The luster of pearls.Greasy: Looks like it is covered in a thin layer of oil.Silky: The luster of silk.Adamantine: A hard, brilliant luster.	<urn:uuid:b883f303-e8cb-425d-a237-71836656781e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.02587270736694336, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8948752880096436, "url": "https://kurtzcenter.com/qa/what-is-lustre-give-example.html" }
Massive Science - Jaime Chambers Newly published articles from Jaime on Massive Science en-US daily 1 Tue, 04 Aug 2020 23:30:55 EST 'Hyper urban' coyote genomes are growing apart from their city and rural cousins Humans’ built environment has consequences even for creatures that seem to thrive in cities Coyote coyote Jaime Chambers Imagine a coyote, rangy and resilient. Is she ambling through a canyon dotted with sagebrush — or loping in an urban alley lined with dumpsters? In recent decades, the latter has become a more common sight. As cities expand, coyotes move right in. Rather than shrinking from the big-city lights, they rummage for opportunities. But even as individual coyotes thrive, cities' built features are shaping their genomes across generations, according to a recent study in the Journal of Urban Ecology. A widening genetic gulf separates city coyotes and their country cousins. And as urban space sprawls, coyotes’ genetic diversity declines. This finding suggests that humans’ built environment has consequences even for creatures that seem to thrive in our midst. Scientists already know city coyotes tend to differ from their country counterparts in behavior: they’re bolder and more exploratory, more likely to eat human-sourced foods and occupy a smaller territory. But the picture of what genetic differences — if any — might exist between coyotes has been more murky. About 30 years ago, few genetic differences existed between coyotes across North America — suggesting coyotes moved freely, and so did their genes. Historically, coyotes ranged only across the arid West and Great Plains. Since 1900, they have been pushing out of their home turf, and today they prowl the continent from coast to coast. Scientists assumed that mobile, adaptable coyotes weren't impeded much by urban sprawl. More recent studies have found coyotes clustering genetically by range or region, but few have honed in on specific urban areas. Urban coyote Urban coyote National Park Service By narrowing their focus to the greater Los Angeles area, scientists from Pepperdine University uncovered a more complex picture lurking in urban coyotes’ genes. Pulling DNA from 125 samples of muscle, liver, and skin, they examined coyotes living in mountains, farmland, suburbs, and the city. The team mapped coyotes’ genetic structure alongside the surrounding landscape, accounting for key urban features like freeways and road density. A clear split between urban and rural coyotes emerged. Rural coyotes living among mountains and natural vegetation formed the largest, most genetically diverse group. Urban coyotes, on the other hand, made up three distinct clusters — each with decreased genetic diversity. Researchers could deduce which coyotes roam wide-open spaces and which dodge city traffic. Rural coyotes shared a similar genetic profile even across long distances, suggesting natural barriers didn’t impede their movement or gene flow. Even in coyotes separated by 160 miles, rural coyotes clustered with each other instead of their urban counterparts nearby. The surrounding environment mattered more than the geographic distance. Why this genetic split between city and country coyotes? It could stem in part from “natal-biased habitat dispersal,” the researchers suggest. Animals tend to prefer habitats similar to where they grew up. When an urban coyote knows how to avoid the city’s hazards and harvest its resources, she is more likely to raise babies with those skills. And when generations of street-smart coyotes stick around the same spot, the genetic gap between them and their country cousins widens. But this isn’t the whole story, the researchers argue. City coyotes weren’t just genetically distinct from their rural relatives; their DNA also differed from that of other city coyotes. Rather than forming one large group as the rural coyotes did, urban coyotes split into three genetically distinct populations. The cities’ built features help explain why. One distinct cluster of city coyotes prowled through downtown Los Angeles, lurked by the Hollywood sign, and roamed near the Long Beach Airport. The coyotes in this cluster had both DNA and habitat in common — “hyper-urban” areas with high road density. Scientists found a similar pattern in Orange County. Where major highways and commercial districts sliced through the land, so did a boundary between two distinct coyote populations. Despite roaming a similar urban environment, coyotes on one side of the highway were genetically distinct from their relatives on the other side. Coyotes' genetic structure mirrored the urban terrain. Peter Eades / USFWS These findings suggest humans’ built environment shapes coyotes’ movement, the researchers argue. Major freeways, dense roads, and human development prevent urban coyotes from crossing into other areas. These built barriers keep old residents in, and new migrants out — and thus leave a stamp on coyotes’ DNA across generations. This is important because when a population becomes isolated, their genetic diversity tends to dwindle. Genetic diversity reflects a population’s overall health, as well as an ability to adapt to future changes in the environment. Think of it like a box of tools passed down for a vast, unpredictable, multi-generational home restoration project. If the roof collapses or the plumbing busts, you’re going to need more than just a hammer. The more options you have, the better — whether they’re hand tools or genes. Each genetic characteristic represents another option, in a toolbox of past solutions and potential answers. Even as individual urban coyotes thrive, their collective genetic toolbox shrinks. The city’s built features restrict urban coyotes’ travels more than previously thought, with significant effects on their population genetics. These findings suggest that urbanization even takes a toll on creatures that seem to flourish in human environments. This result also points to the importance of preserving natural corridors in cities — not just for coyotes, but for other urban wildlife, too. Safe passageways allow diverse species to cross between habitats, enabling both physical movement and gene flow. Los Angeles County has made natural corridors a priority by identifying Significant Ecological Areas (SEAs) and planning links between them. In fact, in 2023, Los Angeles is slated to become home to the largest wildlife corridor in the world — a highway overpass in the works since 2019. Coyotes have a reputation as survivors, adaptable and enduring. But urbanization is also here to stay, and scientists are still learning about its genetic implications for our wildlife neighbors. This study highlights the value of better understanding these effects on all creatures in the urban landscape — even the most versatile and wily of them all. ]]> Mon, 03 Aug 2020 09:37:00 EST When wolves solve problems, their bond matters more than their smarts Cooperation wins again Wolves Wolves Two wolves press their noses against a fence, scenting a tray of food on the other side. A rope dangles within their reach — a clue to the puzzle. If only one wolf pulls the rope, it comes loose and no one gets the food. But if they tug together, the snack will be theirs. ]]> Tue, 14 Jul 2020 10:10:00 EST Dogs appear to navigate using Earth's magnetic field New research shows this remarkable ability is not so far-fetched dog dog Life is full of tales of dogs’ remarkable homing abilities: from the movies, to books, to real-life examples such as Bobbie the Wonder Dog, who traveled 2,800 miles to reunite with his family. According to new research published in eLife, a dog's navigation isn’t just led by their nose and heart — but by Earth’s geomagnetic fields. A team of researchers let dogs do what they do best: run to their heart’s content, then return to their favorite human. Scientists set a couple dozen dogs loose in the woods over 600 times — rigged with GPS collars and cameras — and mapped their journeys out and back. Dogs use a variety of navigation styles on their return trip, researchers found. Over half of the dogs “tracked,” opting to follow the same path outward and homeward, while about one-third “scouted,” blazing a new trail on their way back. The “scouts” took seemingly haphazard routes, but their journeys shared an interesting common feature. They all began with a brief “compass run” — a short dash along the north-south geomagnetic axis. This sprint didn’t last long — about 65 feet or so — but it was consistent across the tests. The amount of sun and the wind’s direction didn’t alter the pattern, ruling out the hypothesis that sight or smell were at play. Dogs’ breed, sex, size, and familiarity with the location didn’t have an effect either. What’s up with this north-south oriented dash? It could signify how dogs calibrate their inner navigation system, researchers suggest. They posit it’s a canine orienteering starting point — dogs' way of comparing their mental map with Earth’s geomagnetic fields. If this all sounds far-fetched, consider the mounting evidence for canines’ magnetic sensitivities. Dogs possess a light-sensing molecule called cryptochrome 1, associated with magnetic sensing abilities. Canines even prefer to poop and mark their territory along a north-south axis. It’s likely dogs lean on other senses to navigate, including that remarkable nose. But their sensory universe might be more multidimensional than we can fathom -- rippling with odors that tell stories, and magnetic fields that tug them home. ]]> Mon, 02 Sep 2019 22:17:03 EST Ancient dog bones tell us what was on the menu for both dogs and humans What dogs ate can reveal clues about 12,000 year old lifestyles A dog chewing on the end of a very large bone, from an ostrich. Jaime Chambers If you’ve ever slipped your Labrador a handful of popcorn, or found that she helped herself to the trash while you were away, you know the human-dog relationship is strongly connected with food. Those wary eyes at Neolithic campsites had much in common with the wistful ones following every bite of your dinner. Dogs have been living alongside us for at least 12,000 years, eating many of the same things we do — both given or scavenged. In general, ancient diets can provide a valuable window into the past, revealing how food webs and ecosystems changed as we migrated around the globe. But human evidence isn't always available. When it isn’t possible to crack open human bones for clues, archaeologists have sometimes turned to dogs — assuming that whatever people were eating, the pups were too. The idea of using dog remains to decipher what humans ate has been around since the late 1970s. Known as the “canine surrogacy approach,” (CSA) it offers a clever backdoor to understanding how humans hunted, foraged, and cultivated their way around the world. Plants and animals leave different chemical traces in the hair, bone, and teeth of the living things that eat them, readable as isotopic “signatures.” "Stable isotope analysis" offers a powerful tool for capturing these records within the body, essentially taking snapshots of individual diets and panoramas of food webs. This approach measures the proportions of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements important in biology and traces that signature to the food eaten in the past (they are "stable" because this experiment analyzes non-radioactive elements that don't break down over time, like carbon-14 measured in radiocarbon dating). But it isn’t always possible to use human remains — due to lack of preservation, lack of access, and ethical concerns regarding the destructive nature of the process. Since the 1970s, archaeologists have applied this idea with varying levels of success, finding dog diets both mirroring and diverging from that of humans. But, the approach has its critics. When it comes to isotope values, archaeologists disagree about how close is close enough for dogs to serve as substitutes for human beings. For example, carbon isotope ratios can reflect consumption of different types of plants; similarly, the more animal products someone consumes, the higher their nitrogen isotope ratios generally are. Even a three percent difference in these isotope values between individuals can mean they occupy different levels in the food chain. But until recently, no one had broadly applied the CSA to a living population to test it. This photo has nothing to do with the article they're just very good dogs. Photo by Matt Nelson on Unsplash But in 2018, a team of researchers used this strategy in a contemporary Indigenous community in two Nicaraguan villages, and found, by and large, dogs and humans dine from the same menu. The scientists compared dog and human diets, and discovered that dogs mirrored human diets at the community level, over the villages as a whole. But at the individual level, dogs didn't necessarily reflect the diets of their owners. This demonstrates what the canine surrogacy approach can be good for (showing the spectrum of what a community ate), and what it might not be good for (finding out what a certain household ate). Because the scientists looked at a living population, this team was able to simplify the comparison of dogs and humans: pairing the isotope findings with actual observations of what both species ate. But the strength of this test also illuminates exactly why the CSA can be so complicated in an archaeological context. For example, dogs may eat a lot of things humans don't – not just bone and poop, but also low-status or taboo foods. In a living population we can observe culturally founded eating patterns that people abide by and their dogs do not — but in the archaeological record, this can be more difficult. Even in this study, people from wealthier households and dogs from poorer households both showed high carbon values — although likely for different reasons. Villagers with more resources ate processed food containing corn byproducts with higher carbon values than other plants, and poorer dogs scavenged livestock feces or bone, which has a higher carbon value than meat. Dog playing fetch with ball Just really a terrific dog. Photo by Tadeusz Lakota on Unsplash Of course, this is just one study with a limited population size. Confirming the ability to use dogs as proxies for humans is difficult because of the complex nature of that relationship, which varies widely across time and space. Studies in other cultural contexts are needed, but these findings are the first step in that direction. While dogs do not necessarily mirror the diets of their individual owners, their potential to reflect the spectrum of what a human community eats is still significant. If dog populations generally share the same menu as the people they live alongside, canines might be the key to unlocking new data on ancient diets — and therefore revealing how we feasted our way from the past to the Anthropocene present. ]]> Tue, 18 Jun 2019 11:01:00 EST What happens when you bring a chicken to the Andes? Evolution can take many different courses when adapting to the same environment man and a dog sitting in a field What happens when you bring a chicken to the Andes? Five hundred years later, its descendants might just be suited to mountain climbing. High-altitude ecosystems offer a natural lab for seeing convergent evolution do its dance: the mountains are a shared low-oxygen setting that affects every species living there. In the Andean Altiplani, the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, and the Ethiopian Highlands, this applies to wildlife, humans, and domestic animals alike. Faced with the same physiological problem, natural selection offers up different solutions. According to a recent review, researchers have mapped out many roads that all lead to the same high-altitude adaptation destination. Most of the humans and domesticated animals studied had physiological adaptations to deal with hypoxia (lack of oxygen). But different genetic pathways have been modified to achieve this result, and functions such as development, chemical response, and stress have also undergone selection. Concentration of hemoglobin, the transporter of oxygen in the blood, illustrates this: people living in the Andes show elevated levels in general, while Tibetan humans and Tibetan mastiffs do not show increased hemoglobin levels until they are over 4000 m. A map of all the evolutionary connections shows 15 different gene variants that assist in high-altitude living. The gene EPAS1 is shared between geographically separated populations, such as Tibetan cashmere goats and feral Andean horses. In some cases, it has been inherited through interspecies breeding: Denisovans to Tibetan humans, Tibetan wolves to Tibetan mastiffs. Domesticated animals offer snapshots of selection in motion. Chickens introduced to the Andes less than 500 years ago already show signs of adaptation, via stronger bonding of oxygen to their hemoglobin carriers. High-altitude Ethiopian cattle thrive with oxygen saturation levels of 68%, while lowland breeds die from anything below 80%. This synthesis of the research highlights that natural selection does not always shape the same solution for a single problem, and highlights the diversity of adaptations to high altitude environments across the animal kingdom. ]]> Tue, 04 Jun 2019 12:02:00 EST Being a "dog person" may be in your genes <p>Where ever humans have gone, so have dogs – a mutualistic relationship that has left co-evolutionary traces in their <a href=""... Young girl with her dog Young girl with her dog Where ever humans have gone, so have dogs – a mutualistic relationship that has left co-evolutionary traces in their brains, behavior, and bodies. However, despite dogs’ ubiquity in human societies, keeping dogs is not a universal trait among individuals. Is the predilection for canine company purely an acquired taste, or might dog-keeping also be written in the genes? According to a recent study, maybe there's something in your chromosomes. Genes wield significant influence over whether someone is a “dog person,” with over half of variation in dog ownership explainable by heredity (which means the other half of explaining why someone does or does not have dogs is explained by something else). The authors relied on powerful data sets to analyze dog ownership in 35,035 twin pairs: the Swedish Twin Registry (the largest twin cohort database in the world) and dog registration records from the Swedish Board of Agriculture and Swedish Kennel club (estimated to account for 83% of the country’s dogs, due to national laws requiring their registration). This study is the first to suggest that dog ownership has a notable genetic component, heritable by 57% for females and 51% for males. Identical twins were found to be more likely to own dogs than non-identical twins – offering evidence that genetic factors play a role in that choice, since identical twins share their entire genome and non-identical twins share only half. To be clear, this is pure correlation. No responsible “dog owning” gene has been isolated, but these findings tap into the biggest questions surrounding domestication: not just how, but why, did it happen? A genetic component offers new pathways for probing these layers.	<urn:uuid:369e5d49-0059-4f5b-9667-67531aef1b06>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.09775298833847046, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.937648355960846, "url": "https://massivesci.com/people/jaime-chambers/feed.xml" }

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