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Students at the University of Michigan are learning to design, build and play instruments on their Apple smartphones as part of a course called “Building a Mobile Phone Ensemble”. This course is taught by Georg Essl, a computer scientist and musician who has worked on developing mobile phones and musical instruments.
This class, believed to be the first formal course of its type in the world, merges engineering practices, mobile phone programming, and sound synthesis with new music performance, composition, and interactive media arts.
Students in the class program their iPhones to accept input from the devices’ multitude of input sensors, and to create sound based on that input.
The touch-screen, microphone, GPS, compass, wireless sensor, and accelerometer can all be transformed so that when a performer runs their finger across the display, blows air into the mic, tilts or shakes the phone, for example, different sounds emanate.
Students then compose for these new instruments and ultimately perform their works. Because the course brings together so many aspects of engineering, composition, and performance, the class demands a high degree of both creativity and technological savvy.
Several years ago, Essl and his colleagues were the first known to use the microphone as a wind sensor – a tactic that enables popular iPhone apps such as the Ocarina. Ocarina essentially turns the phone into an ancient type of flute.
About the Author
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In this Book
Traditional narratives of the period leading up to the Civil War are invariably framed in geographical terms. The sectional descriptors of the North, South, and West, like the wartime categories of Union, Confederacy, and border states, mean little without reference to a map of the United States. In Abolitionist Geographies, Martha Schoolman contends that antislavery writers consistently refused those standard terms.
Through the idiom Schoolman names “abolitionist geography,” these writers instead expressed their dissenting views about the westward extension of slavery, the intensification of the internal slave trade, and the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law by appealing to other anachronistic, partial, or entirely fictional north–south and east–west axes. Abolitionism’s West, for instance, rarely reached beyond the Mississippi River, but its East looked to Britain for ideological inspiration, its North habitually traversed the Canadian border, and its South often spanned the geopolitical divide between the United States and the British Caribbean.
Schoolman traces this geography of dissent through the work of Martin Delany, Ralph Waldo Emerson, William Wells Brown, and Harriet Beecher Stowe, among others. Her book explores new relationships between New England transcendentalism and the British West Indies; African-American cosmopolitanism, Britain, and Haiti; sentimental fiction, Ohio, and Liberia; John Brown’s Appalachia and circum-Caribbean marronage. These connections allow us to see clearly for the first time abolitionist literature’s explicit and intentional investment in geography as an idiom of political critique, by turns liberal and radical, practical and utopian.
Table of Contents
1. Cover
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1. Title Page, Copyright, Dedication
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1. Contents
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1. Introduction: What Is Abolitionist Geography?
2. pp. 1-20
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1. 1. Emerson’s Hemisphere
2. pp. 21-68
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1. 2. August First and the Practice of Disunion
2. pp. 69-98
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1. 3. William Wells Brown’s Critical Cosmopolitanism
2. pp. 99-124
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1. 4. Uncle Tom’s Cabin’s Anti-expansionism
2. pp. 125-160
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1. 5. The Maroon’s Moment, 1856– 1861
2. pp. 161-188
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1. Acknowledgments
2. pp. 189-190
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1. Notes
2. pp. 191-224
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1. Index
2. pp. 225-228
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1. About the Author
2. p. 229
3. restricted access Download |
Additional Information
Related ISBN
MARC Record
Launched on MUSE
Open Access
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The ancient study of astronomy
1. The Babylon people created calenders.
2. The Maya people created the Mayan long count calender that uses the base twenty counting system they created.
3. The Greeks created the ptolemaic system that proved that earth was in the centre of the universe a theory that was later disproven.
1. How did we find out that earth isn’t in the centre of the universe?
2. How does the base ten calender work?
1. I now understand how we started to understand astronomy and how much our understanding has grown.
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Making portraits
Painting like Picasso.
3rd and 4th graders make portraits of their classmates in the style of Picasso.
The students visit the Picasso Museum too.
3rd graders focuse on Las Meninas by Picasso and 4th graders on Why do artists paint in different ways?.
Pupils observe, analyse and discuss some works of the artist. 4th grade children also participate in a workshop to develop and explore the theme dealt with during the visit to the rooms.
“Every child is an artist.” (Pablo Picasso)
This entry was posted in General, Perspective, Picasso. Bookmark the permalink.
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Home > GENERAL > Alternating Squint
Alternating Squint
What is squint?
Squintis a condition in which both eyes are not aligned when looking towards an object.
What is alternating squint?
Alternating squint refers to a condition where the patient has a squint in either eye alternately. One eye is used to see objects at a time and then the other eye is used at other time. For example, if the patient’s right eye looks at you, his/her left eye is squint. In the same patients, if his/her left eye looks at you, his/her right eye is squint.
Alternating squint might befound in the following circumstances;
• Alternating divergent squint (exotropia) that is divergent squint in either eye alternately; or
• Alternating convergent squint (esotropia) that is convergent squint in either eye alternately; or
• Alternating vertical squint. For example, a patient has right hypertropia (one eye turn upward) and then switch to left hypotropia (one eye turn downward) alternately.
Figure 2 : Photo of alternating convergent squint
Alternating squint can occurs to all ages.
Causes and contributing factors
• Long-sightedness (hyperopia), near-sightedness (myopia), or large differential power of refractive errors between the two eyes (anisometropia) which are not corrected with glasses/contact lenses.
• Hereditary factor. The risk of squint to occur is higher if there are family members who have squint.
Signs and symptoms
Patients who have alternating squint unable to see with both eyes simultaneously. As a result patients do not have a three-dimensional vision (3D) thus may have trouble estimating distance.
Alternating squintpatients usually has equal vision in both eyes because each eye received stimulation when not in squint position. Thus the risk of lazy eye due to squint is minimum.
• An alternating squint patient who has refractive errors need to wear glasses or contact lenses to correct any refractive errors. This is important for the patient to see clearly.
• Therapy for lazy eye should be given if the child has an alternating squint together with a lazy eye problem.
• Surgery can correct squint and realigned both eyes. Squint surgery is done if the size of squint is significantly large. However, even though squint surgery has been performed, the use of glasses or treatment for lazy eye should be continued.
Alternating squint patient will probably have low self-esteem as a result of the position of the eyes that are not aligned. Therefore early assessment and treatment is crucial.
Reference :
1. Figure 1 : Jabatan Oftalmologi, Hospital Kuala Lumpur
2. Figure 2 : Jabatan Oftalmologi, Hospital Kuala Lumpur
3. http://www.myhealth.gov.my/v2/index.php/my/strabismus-squint
4. http://www.myhealth.gov.my/v2/index.php/en/kids-refractive
Semakan akhir : 18 April 2014
Penulis : Pn. Nor Aishah binti A. Wahab
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Definition of "tephra" [tephra]
• Solid matter that is ejected into the air by an erupting volcano. (noun)
Use "tephra" in a sentence
• "The volcano ejected a minimum of 1.1 km3 of uncompacted tephra, which is equivalent to 0. 20-0.25 km3 of magma or solid rock."
• "Fortunately, a detailed 7,000 year record is preserved in peat bogs and lake beds in the form of microscopic layers of volcanic material, including ash, called tephra."
• "In the air, after it’s blown out of the volcano, it’s pyroclast—broken rock—but on the ground it’s called tephra."
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Department of Physics
Staff profile
Publication details for Professor Gordon Love
Banks, Martin S., Sprague, William W., Schmoll, Jurgen, Parnell, Jared A. Q. & Love, Gordon D. (2015). Why do animal eyes have pupils of different shapes? Science Advances 1(7): e1500391.
Author(s) from Durham
There is a striking correlation between terrestrial species’ pupil shape and ecological niche (that is, foraging mode and time of day they are active). Species with vertically elongated pupils are very likely to be ambush predators and active day and night. Species with horizontally elongated pupils are very likely to be prey and to have laterally placed eyes. Vertically elongated pupils create astigmatic depth of field such that images of vertical contours nearer or farther than the distance to which the eye is focused are sharp, whereas images of horizontal contours at different distances are blurred. This is advantageous for ambush predators to use stereopsis to estimate distances of vertical contours and defocus blur to estimate distances of horizontal contours. Horizontally elongated pupils create sharp images of horizontal contours ahead and behind, creating a horizontally panoramic view that facilitates detection of predators from various directions and forward locomotion across uneven terrain.
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Monday, 14 May 2012
Dust In The Forest
Have you ever seen pale whitish-green dusty patches on the undersides of stumps and boulders - the places that stay dry even on a rainy day? These dusty patches are very common in every forest. They are the dust lichens (Lepraria sp.), and form a whole unique ecosystem in places that are too extreme for anything else. The sites where they grow are micro-deserts within the rainforest. These are the spots that are so dry that mosses and other lichens cannot live here. Such micro-sites are on the lower sides of branches, boulders and stumps, as well as areas on tree trunks that are sheltered from rain or flowing water.
To live in very hostile environments requires special adaptations and the dust lichen has a very special way of dealing with this difficulty. Actually there are a number of different kinds of dust lichens, but many of them cannot be told from each other without complex chemical tests, so it is easier to think of them as one type of organism, unless you have access to a chemistry laboratory. The dust lichen has simplified its structure and life style about as much as it is possible to simplify a structure or life style. All parts of the dust lichen are the same - dust. Rub your finger across the surface of one and it will be covered by a fine layer of dusty particles. All the particles are exactly the same, and are called soredia. An individual soredium is so small we cannot see it without a magnifying lens. What we see as dust are thousands of these particles. Each one is a ball of fungus threads and in the centre of the ball are a few single-celled microscopic plants - green algae. The deep green coatings often seen on rocks and tree trunks are colonies of green algae that are closely related to those in the dust lichen. The little balls bud off other little balls and the whole lichen is entirely made of little balls. This is the way dust lichens live and reproduce. They have no form of sexual reproduction. There are millions of these little particles, each one a simple ecosystem of two organisms - a fungus and a plant. When we walk through the woods we disturb myriads of them, and carry them with us to other sites. Birds, insects, and breezes do the same. Most of the soredia do not find a favorable place to grow, but occasionally a few of them do find a newly created bare surface, and start a new dust lichen. This process of initiation, however, is well below our level of awareness and has never been directly observed in a natural environment.
How do dust lichens live in dark, dry places? They grow very slowly, and do not need much light. Because other organisms cannot grow in these dry spots the dust lichen does not need to worry about competition, and can take its time, depending on how much light it has available. The answer to the second question is very strange indeed. The dust lichen does not need liquid water. Unlike its neighbors it uses water vapor. In the forest during most of the year the air is very humid and this lichen can use the little bit of moisture that is delivered to it in the air. In fact dust lichens repel liquid water. Vapor can enter them but liquid cannot. You can see this quite easily. Pour a little water on a dust lichen and it rapidly runs off. What little remains on the surface pools in small droplets, and does not soak in. Whatever substance is responsible seems to be more effective than many rain-clothes. When viewed under a microscope the dust lichen fungus threads look quite different from the threads of other fungi. Other fungi are transparent and you can see right through them. The dust lichen is opaque. The algae inside its small particles cannot be seen unless the particle is broken open.
Wherever you walk in the woods you will encounter this unassuming little organism with its secret life style. The little lichen that makes its own simple ecosystem, one that is as simple as an ecosystem can be.
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Skip to 3 minutes and 25 secondsWe may look up words, and we highlight phrases that strike us. Then by using specific words and structures as guides, we link the texts to other texts in the period, and we build our interpretation by placing it in its wider cultural and historical context. I choose as an example for Close Reading a snippet of a scene from Shakespeare's comedy 'Twelfth Night'. This play was performed between 1600 and 1602, and it was first published in 'The First Folio' in 1623. Here's the story. A young woman named Viola is shipwrecked on the coast of a country called Illyria and decides to disguise herself as a young man for her safety.
Skip to 4 minutes and 13 secondsShe takes a job as a servant in a large house owned by Duke Orsino, who is in love with Lady Olivia. Lady Olivia lives in a different large house. Orsino sends Viola to Olivia's house to woo Olivia for him. Olivia falls in love with Viola. This is a comedy. And all the couples are matched up traditionally by the final curtain. Now a large house in Illyria in real life was probably different from a country house in England, but Shakespeare's audiences most likely would have assumed that Shakespeare used Illyria to write about English country house owners. Orsino and Olivia are, for purposes of the audience, country house owners.
Making meaning through Close Reading
In this video Susan Fitzmaurice, Professor of English Language and Head of the University of Sheffield’s School of English, looks at what we mean by ‘close textual analysis’ or ‘Close Reading’ and demonstrates how it can help us to explore and understand the literature of the English country house.
Share this video:
This video is from the free online course:
Literature of the English Country House
The University of Sheffield
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Tuesday, 15 March 2016
Colourfloo, Octarabbit, Flonty, Flurtle
Today Year 13 learned about taxes, and practiced answering NCEA questions about imaginary, made up species by using just the cues in the question that they recognized.
To finish the lesson they each made an imaginary critter and made a question about it, to test their classmates understanding of chemo-, gravi-, hydro-, thigmo-, thermo-, photo- taxis.
Here is my critter:
Here is my question:
The colourfloo is an insect with six legs and two wings that flies around and lands on people to paint their nails while they are sleeping. After it paints their nails a fabulous pink colour, it also takes a bite out of the human's finger using it's sharp teeth, then quickly flies away.
What is the environmental stimulus it is responding to?
What is the orientation response it displays?
What is the adaptive advantage for the colourfloo?
1. Your one confuses me!
Environmental Cue: Chemical ? Heat?
Orientation: Positive chemotaxis, positive thermotaxis
Adaptive Advantage: These responses might be adaptive to get food, or to avoid freezing at night:)
1. I might let some other people try answer too before I reveal! I think you're pretty close :) The adaptive advantage is hidden in the question - the benefit that the Colourfloo gets from it's response.
2. Hi Rita,
I am confused too. I am guessing that this is carnivorous and must be attracted to sleeping adults by their body warmth, snoring or perhaps carbon dioxide emissions?
1. Yep, this colourfloo is attracted to the warmth of a human body, like a mosquito. It is displaying positive thermotaxis. Thermo means heat and positive means towards.
3. Hi Nicola, have just explored your Taxes and Advantage, well done. Like the use of the fast forward and on screen alerts from a viewers perspective, helped me connect with your reflection and plan that I had read first.
Wondering if YouTube’s annotations would be useful for this, you can add these directly in the YouTube editor.
By the way…I am beginning to understand taxes in the context of science... will need to watch the video a couple of times before I attempt an answer ;-)
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Main>> Art History
ART LIFE IN FRANCE : 1870-1914
ART LIFE IN FRANCE : 1870-1914
Under the Third Republic, Paris continued to prosper as a center of artistic production, through both private and public enterprise. Throughout this period the artistic population grew, fed by the provinces and foreign immigration. Paris offered artists better support, more opportunities and greater freedom than any other European city: it remained, consequently, an unrivalled creative center both in terms of quantity and quality and as the principal home of international 'modernist' art.
Artists congregated in several districts of the city, mainly those close either to the commercial districts around the Bourse or to the art institutions of the arrondissement-the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and the Musée du Luxembourg. The grandest artists' residences were found near the Parc Monceau in the northwest, but several successful figures, including Auguste Rodin and William Bouguereau, chose to live on the Left Bank. The Impressionists' generation favored the districts between the Gare St Lazare and the Place de Clichy: by the end of the century many artists had migrated even further north in search of cheap rents, into Montmartre. A similar development occurred in Montparnasse, the southern areas of which became a well-known center for poor foreign artists in the years before World War I.
Most young French artists continued to aspire to success through training at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, although the pressure of numbers continually made this more difficult to achieve. The basis of progress within the Ecole remained the competitions ultimately leading to the Prix de Rome. Many students could spend several years working either in a studio attached to the school-for example that of Gustave Moreau, which Henri Matisse and Georges Rouault attended in the 1890s-or in a private establishment such as the Académie Julian, undertaking competition projects but without proceeding to this ultimate academic test. Private schools also catered for the large numbers of foreign students and for those who sought a less traditional art education. Many such students were women, who were denied access to the Ecole until 1897: the rising number of female artists seeking to become professional artists was one of the features of the period.
From the late 1870s, as a result of the Republicans' wish to distinguish their regime from its authoritarian predecessors, liberal principles were applied to artistic organizations, while state power was used to foster a republican ideology, through education and patronage. The Expositions Universelles offered the grandest opportunities to do this: in 1878 stress was laid on the resurgence of France after the crisis of 1870-71; in 1889 the Republic was celebrated as a motor for progress; and in 1900 design was used to promote an 'organic' concept of society in keeping with current trends in political thinking. In each case the fine arts were used to add prestige to the event and assert France's unique contribution to Western civilization.
Major public commissions included murals in the Panthéon (1874-8; 1893-8), the Hôtel de Ville (1887-92) and the Petit Palais (1898-1900). The Panthéon decorations included a frieze of saints by the highly influential Pierre Puvis de Chavannes. The State also continued to purchase work at the Salons for display in provincial museums and at the Musée du Luxembourg. In the art world, official acquisition policy was a matter of controversy, since it inevitably became involved in disputes over the status of different currents in modern art. In 1913 the Musée du Luxembourg owned five works by Albert Besnard, a well-known portrait painter and leading member of the Société Nationale des Beaux Arts, as against two by Paul Cézanne. These, together with almost all the other Impressionist works in the collection, formed part of the Caillebotte bequest of 1895. The hesitation shown by the acquisitions committee in accepting all the works in this collection has often been cited as evidence of the 'retarded' taste of officialdom at this time, although the level of resistance put up to the bequest has sometimes been exaggerated. It is true, however, that the main representation of the modern school in state collections was due to gift rather than purchase. Claude Monet had been instrumental in 1890 in obliging the State to accept the gift of Edouard Manet's Olympia (1863; now Paris, Mus. d'Orsay) for the Musée du Luxembourg. In 1907, again through pressure from Monet and his contacts, the painting was transferred to the Louvre.
Under the Third Republic, the quasi-monopoly of exhibition held by the Salon was finally broken. The republicans decided that market forces should regulate this aspect of artistic life: in 1881 the State relinquished its tutelary role and placed responsibility for the Salon entirely in the hands of the Société des Artistes Français. Within 25 years the pattern of Salon exhibition had changed dramatically, in response to pressure from artists both in terms of numbers and diverging artistic trends. In 1884 a group including Paul Signac and Georges Seurat founded the Salon des Indépendants, based on the principle of jury-free exhibition. This made for a very mixed-and large-exhibition, in which the self-consciously avant-garde was shown next to the work of amateur painters and weak exponents of orthodox styles. One of its most regular exhibitors was Henri Rousseau, who celebrated it in Liberty Inviting Artists to Participate in the 22nd Exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. The Société des Artistes Français split into two rival associations in 1890, more as a result of professional rivalry than other causes, although the new Salon de la Nationale sought to organize rather smaller and more coherent exhibitions and was more tolerant of innovative artistic trends. These, including the movement to revalorize the decorative arts, acquired their own venue in 1903 when the Salon d'Automne was founded. This Salon quickly established itself as a showcase for non-academic fine and applied art, a position it asserted through a policy of retrospectives, including the work of Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1905), Manet (1905), Paul Gauguin (1906) and Cézanne (1907).
Other exhibiting opportunities existed for artists outside the Salons. Throughout this period the number of private galleries grew: many of these could be hired by groups seeking exhibition space; a number of them sponsored individual and group exhibitions; and a few were prepared to support artists by buying up and promoting their work. The Impressionists in particular established a group identity by exhibiting outside the Salon (see Impressionism) in the eight Impressionist exhibitions (1874-86), the last of which contained a room devoted to Neo-impressionism. Exhibitions of individual Impressionists were also held by such dealers as Paul Durand-Ruel. By the turn of the century a powerful commercial infrastructure existed. At its center was a group of dealers-including Durand-Ruel, Georges Petit and Alexandre Rosenberg-who were prestigious suppliers of modern French art to the international market. Their galleries were complemented by smaller establishments, including those of Ambroise Vollard, Eugene Blot and Berthe Weill, partly dedicated to promoting innovative artists, as with Vollard's support of Cézanne and the Nabis.
The 19th-century academicians had resisted the removal of the Salon's monopoly because they believed that commercialization of art would lead to debased standards. From their point of view this decline had taken place, but a concomitant of the market-led system was the promotion of such avant-garde art as Cubism, which, far from being geared to the lowest common denominator of taste, appealed only to an 'exclusive' group of consumers who were ready to accept a radical redefinition of aesthetic conventions. During the decade before World War I the avant-garde attracted a great deal of publicity. Fauvism and Cubism both acquired a public identity through a mixture of Salon exhibitions and dealers' backing. It was symptomatic of the changed Parisian art world that Pablo Picasso was able to make a reputation without participating in a Salon at all, although the Cubist movement as such was largely promoted through the Salon des Indépendants and the Salon d'Automne. Despite its exceptional influence, however, the avant-garde was only one particular subdivision of the Parisian artistic community. By the end of this period several thousand artists exhibited at the Salons, mostly drawing on well-established genres. By no means all of these could hope to live well from their work, but their presence itself is an eloquent indicator of the size and potential of the Parisian art 'machine' after four decades of the republican regime.
P. de Chennevieres: Souvenirs d'un directeur des beaux-arts, 5 vols (Paris, 1883-9)
L. Bénédite: Le Musée national du Luxembourg: Catalogue raisonné (Paris, 1896-7)
--: Catalogue sommaire des peintures et sculptures de l'école contemporaine exposées dans les galeries du Musée national du Luxembourg (Paris, 1913)
G. Coquiot: Les Indépendants (Paris, 1920)
A. Warnod: Les Berceaux de la jeune peinture (Paris, 1925)
F. Jourdain: Le Salon d'Automne (Paris, 1926)
C. White and H. White: Canvases and Careers: Institutional Change in the French Painting World (New York, London and Sydney, 1965)
J. Letheve: La Vie quotidienne des artistes français au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1968; Eng. trans., 1972)
J. Warnod: Le Bateau Lavoir, 1892-1914 (Paris, 1975)
--: La Ruche et Montparnasse (Paris, 1978)
P. Vaisse: 'Salons, exposition et sociétés d'artistes en France, 1871-1914', Saloni, gallerie, musei e loro influenza sullo sviluppo dell'arte de secoli XIX e XX: Atti del XXIV congresso CIHA: Bologna 1979, pp. 141-55
--: La Troisième République et les peintres: Recherches sur les rapports des pouvoirs publiques et de la peinture en France de 1870-1914 (diss., U. Paris IV, 1980)
J. Laurent: Arts et pouvoirs en France de 1793 à 1981 (St Etienne, 1983)
M. R. Levin: Republican Art and Ideology in Late Nineteenth-century France (Ann Arbor, 1986)
J. Milner: The Studios of Paris: The Capital of Art in the Late Nineteenth Century (London, 1988)
T. Garb: '"L'Art féminin": The Formation of a Critical Category in Late Nineteenth-century France', A. Hist., xii (1989), pp. 39-65
D. Silverman: Art Nouveau in Fin-de-siècle France: Politics, Psychology and Style (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1989)
N. Green: The Spectacle of Nature: Landscape and Bourgeois Culture in 19th-century France (Manchester, 1990)
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"url": "http://www.harrisantiques.com/blog/entry/32-ART-LIFE-IN-FRANCE-:-1870-1914"
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Falling around December 22nd, the Winter Solstice is one of the traditional Chinese festivals and also one of the 24 solar terms.Since the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC), by observing the movements of the sun with a sundial, China had determined the point of Winter Solstice. On the day, the Northern hemisphere has the shortest daytime and longest nighttime. After the day, the daytime will become longer and longer. It became a festival from Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). People usually eat dumplings or tangyuan (a kind of stuffed ball made of glutinous rice flour) to celebrate the day.At this event, Chinese staff and campus students were able to show international students the art of making a dumpling. After some practice and many dumplings later, they are kinda the master of it.
The reason why the Chinese people celebrate the Winter solstice is related to the theory of Yin and Yang. According to the Chinese astrology, Yang symbolizes masculine and positive, Yin has the opposite meanings. The ancient people think from the winter solstice, the Yin is at its peak and will disappear gradually. While the Yang or positive things will become stronger and stronger from the day. So winter solstice is regarded as an auspicious day to celebrate.
Traditions and customs for the day vary in different areas of China. In the northern part of China, people usually eat dumplings, wonton, and mutton to celebrate the day. In the southern part, tangyuan and noodles are the festival food. In some places, people also sacrifice to heaven and ancestors on the day. The dumpling is the essential food for people in northern China. After the winter solstice, it will become colder and colder. By eating dumplings, people think they can avoid their ears from being frostbitten as the dumplings look like people’s ear.In China, Dongzhi was originally celebrated as an end-of-harvest festival. Today, it is observed with a family reunion over the long night, when pink and white tangyuan are eaten in sweet broth symbolizeise family unity and prosperity.
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"url": "https://www.omeidachinese.com/winter-solstice-dongzhi-festival-dumplings/"
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Sinhalese language
Sinhalese (/ˌsɪn(h)əˈliːz, ˌsɪŋ(ɡ)ə-/), known natively as Sinhala (Sinhalese: සිංහල; siṁhala [ˈsiŋɦələ]),[3] is the native language of the Sinhalese people, who make up the largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka, numbering about 16 million.[4][1] Sinhalese is also spoken as a second language by other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, totalling about four million.[5] It belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. Sinhalese is written using the Sinhalese script, which is one of the Brahmic scripts, a descendant of the ancient Indian Brahmi script closely related to the Kadamba script.[6]
The oldest Sinhalese Prakrit inscriptions found are from the third to second century BCE following the arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,[7][8] the oldest extant literary works date from the ninth century. The closest relative of Sinhalese is the Maldivian language.[8] Sinhalese is of two main varieties – written and spoken. it is a good example of the linguistic phenomenon known as diglossia.[9][10]
සිංහල sinhala
Word Sinhala in Yasarath font
Native toSri Lanka
EthnicitySinhalese people
Native speakers
17.0 million (2012)[1]
3 million L2 speakers (2012)[1]
Early form
Official status
Official language in
Sri Lanka
Language codes
ISO 639-1si
ISO 639-2sin
ISO 639-3sin
Sinhala (Siṃhāla) is a Sanskrit term; the corresponding Middle Indo-Aryan (Eḷu) word is Sīhala. The name is a derivation from siṃha, the Sanskrit word for "lion"[11] Siṃhāla is attested as a Sanskrit name of the island of in the Bhagavata Purana. The name is sometimes glossed as "abode of lions", and attributed to a supposed former abundance of lions on the island.[12]
According to the chronicle Mahavamsa, written in Pali, Prince Vijaya and his entourage merged with two exotic tribes of ancient India present in Lanka, the Yakkha and Naga peoples. In the following centuries, there was substantial immigration from Eastern India (Kalinga, Magadha)[13] which led to an admixture of features of Eastern Prakrits.
Stages of historical development
The development of the Sinhalese language is divided into four periods:
• Sinhalese Prakrit (until 3rd century CE)
• Proto-Sinhalese (3rd–7th century CE)
• Medieval Sinhalese (7th–12th century CE)
• Modern Sinhalese (12th century – present)
Phonetic development
The most important phonetic developments of the Sinhalese language include
Western vs. Eastern Prakrit features
Pre-1815 Sinhalese literature
In 1815 the island of Ceylon came under British rule. During the career of Christopher Reynolds (1922-2015) as a Sinhalese lecturer at the SOAS, University of London, he extensively researched the Sinhalese language and its pre-1815 literature: the Sri Lankan government awarded him the Sri Lanka Ranjana medal for this. He wrote the 377-page An anthology of Sinhalese literature up to 1815, selected by the UNESCO National Commission of Ceylon[14]
Substratum influence in Sinhalese
According to Wilhelm Geiger, Sinhalese has features that set it apart from other Indo-Aryan languages. Some of the differences can be explained by the substrate influence of the parent stock of the Vedda language.[15] Sinhalese has many words that are only found in Sinhalese, or shared between Sinhalese and Vedda and not etymologically derivable from Middle or Old Indo-Aryan. Common examples are kola for leaf in Sinhalese and Vedda, dola for pig in Vedda and offering in Sinhalese. Other common words are rera for wild duck, and gala for stones (in toponyms used throughout the island).[16] There are also high frequency words denoting body parts in Sinhalese, such as olluva for head, kakula for leg, bella for neck and kalava for thighs, that are derived from pre-Sinhalese languages of Sri Lanka.[17] The author of the oldest Sinhalese grammar, Sidatsangarava, written in the 13th century CE, recognised a category of words that exclusively belonged to early Sinhalese. The grammar lists naramba (to see) and kolamba (fort or harbour) as belonging to an indigenous source. Kolamba is the source of the name of the commercial capital Colombo.[18][19]
Influences from neighbouring languages
In addition to many Tamil loanwords, several phonetic and grammatical features present in neighbouring Dravidian languages, setting today's spoken Sinhalese apart from its Northern Indo-Aryan siblings, bear witness to the close interactions with Dravidian speakers. However, formal Sinhalese is more similar to Pali and medieval Sinhalese. Some of the features that may be traced to Dravidian influence are –
ඒක අලුත් කියලා මම දන්නවා
ēka aḷut kiyalā mama dannavā
it new having-said I know
"I know that it is new."
ඒක අලුත් ද කියලා මම දන්නේ නැහැ
ēka aḷut-da kiyalā mama dannē nähä
it new-? having-said I know-EMP not
"I do not know whether it is new."
Foreign influence
As a result of centuries of colonial rule, modern Sinhalese contains some Portuguese, Dutch and English loanwords.
Influences on other languages
Macanese Patois or Macau Creole (known as Patuá to its speakers) is a creole language derived mainly from Malay, Sinhalese, Cantonese, and Portuguese, which was originally spoken by the Macanese people of the Portuguese colony of Macau. It is now spoken by a few families in Macau and in the Macanese diaspora.
The language developed first mainly among the descendants of Portuguese settlers who often married women from Malacca and Sri Lanka rather than from neighbouring China, so the language had strong Malay and Sinhalese influence from the beginning.
Sinhalese shares many features common to other Indo-European languages. Shared vocabulary includes the numbers up to ten.
Accents and dialects
Sinhalese spoken in the Southern Province (Galle, Matara, Hambantota District and (Puttlam)etc.. uses several words that are not found elsewhere in the country; this is also the case for the Central and North-Central Provinces and south-eastern region (Uva Province and the surrounding area). For native speakers all dialects are mutually intelligible, and they might not even realise that the differences are significant.[20]
The language of the Vedda people resembles Sinhalese to a great extent, although it has a large number of words which cannot be traced to another language. The Rodiya use another dialect of Sinhalese. Rodiya used to be a caste in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka no longer recognizes castes.
Sinhalese also has diverse slang. Most slang words and terms were regarded as taboo and most were frowned upon as non-scholarly. However, nowadays Sinhalese slang words and terms, even the ones with sexual references, are commonly used among younger Sri Lankans.
Writing system
The Sinhalese script, Sinhala hodiya, is based on the ancient Brahmi script, as are most Indian scripts. The Sinhalese script is closely related to South Indian Grantha script and Khmer script taken the elements from the related Kadamba script.[21][6]
Sinhalese is written from left to right and the Sinhalese script is mainly used for Sinhala, as well as the liturgical languages Pali and Sanskrit. The alphabetic sequence is similar to those of other Brahmic scripts:
Sinhalese vowel chart
Sinhalese vowel chart, from Perera & Jones (1919:5)
Labial Dental/
Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Stop voiceless p t ʈ k
voiced b d ɖ ɡ
prenasalised ᵐb ⁿd ᶯɖ ᵑɡ
Fricative (f, ɸ) s (ʃ) h
Trill r
Approximant ʋ l j
f/ɸ and ʃ are restricted to loans, typically English or Sanskrit. They are commonly replaced by p and s is colloquial speech. Some speakers use the voiceless dental fricative /f/ as in English phonology, and some use the voiceless bilabial fricative /ɸ/ due to its similarity to the native voiceless bilabial stop /p/.
Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close i u
Mid e ə (əː) o
Open æ æː a
Nominal morphology
The main features marked on Sinhalese nouns are case, number, definiteness and animacy.
animate sg inanimate sg animate pl inanimate pl
NOM miniha(ː) potə minissu pot
ACC miniha(ː)və potə minissu(nvə) pot
VOC miniho(ː) - minissuneː -
Gloss man book men books
Number marking
In Sinhalese animate nouns, the plural is marked with -o(ː), a long consonant plus -u, or with -la(ː). Most inanimates mark the plural through disfix. Loanwords from English mark the singular with ekə, and do not mark the plural. This can be interpreted as a singulative number.
SG ammaː deviyaː horaː pothə reddə kanthoːruvə sathiyə bus ekə paːrə
Gloss mother(s) god(s) thie(f/ves) book(s) cloth(es) office(s) week(s) bu(s/ses) street(s)
Indefinite article
Verbal morphology
Sinhalese distinguishes three conjugation classes. Spoken Sinhalese does not mark person, number or gender on the verb (literary Sinhalese does). In other words, there is no subject–verb agreement.
1st class 2nd class 3rd class
verb verbal adjective verb verbal adjective verb verbal adjective
present (future) kanəvaː kanə arinəvaː arinə pipenəvaː pipenə
past kæːvaː kæːvə æriyaː æriyə pipunaː pipunə
anterior kaːlaː kaːpu ærəlaː ærəpu pipilaː pipicca
emphatic form kanneː / arinneː / pipenneː /
gloss eat / open / blossom /
Sinhalese is a pro-drop language: Arguments of a sentence can be omitted when they can be inferred from context. This is true for subject—as in Italian, for instance—but also objects and other parts of the sentence can be "dropped" in Sinhalese if they can be inferred. In that sense, Sinhalese can be called a "super pro-drop language", like Japanese.
See also
1. ^ a b c d "Sinhala". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2017-04-06.
4. ^ "Census of Population and Housing 2011". Retrieved 2017-04-06.
6. ^ a b Jayarajan, Paul M. (1976-01-01). History of the Evolution of the Sinhala Alphabet. Colombo Apothecaries' Company, Limited.
8. ^ a b "Introduction ~ හැඳින්වීම - Wikibooks, open books for an open world". Retrieved 2017-04-06.
9. ^ Paolillo, John C. (1997). "Sinhala Diglossia: Discrete or Continuous Variation?". Language in Society. 26 (2): 269–296. ISSN 0047-4045.
14. ^ "UNESCO Collection of Representative Works, Sinhalese Series". London: George Allen and Unwin Limited. 1970.
15. ^ Gair 1998, p. 4
16. ^ Van Driem 2002, p. 230
17. ^ Indrapala 2007, p. 45
18. ^ Indrapala 2007, p. 70
19. ^ Gair 1998, p. 5
20. ^ "Sinhalese Language". American Language Services. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
21. ^ "Ancient Scripts: Sinhala". Retrieved 2016-04-07.
22. ^ Silva, A.W.L. (2008). Teach Yourself Sinhalese. ISBN 955-96926-0-7.
• Van Driem, George (15 Jan 2002). Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-10390-0.
Further reading
External links
Anuruddha (Pali: Anuruddhā; Sinhalese: අනුරුද්ධ මහ රහතන් වහන්සේ) was one of the ten principal disciples and a cousin of Gautama Buddha.
A crore (; abbreviated cr) or koti denotes ten million (10,000,000 or 107 in scientific notation) and is equal to 100 lakh in the Indian numbering system as 1,00,00,000 with the local style of digit group separators (a lakh is equal to one hundred thousand and is written as 1,00,000).
Kalu Ganga
Kalu Ganga (Sinhalese: කළු ගඟ; literally: Black River) is a river in Sri Lanka. Measuring 129 km (80 mi) in length, the river originates from Sri Paadhaya and reach the sea at Kalutara. The Black River flows through the Ratnapura and the Kalutara District and pass the city Ratnapura. The mountainous forests in the Central Province and the Sinharaja Forest Reserve are the main sources of water for the river.
Kandy District
Kandy District (Sinhalese: මහනුවර දිස්ත්රික්කය, Tamil: கண்டி மாவட்டம்) is a district of the Central Province of Sri Lanka. Its area is 1906.3 km². The capital of the district is Kandy.
A lakh (; abbreviated L; sometimes written Lac or Lacs; Devanāgarī: लाख) is a unit in the Indian numbering system equal to one hundred thousand (100,000; scientific notation: 105). In the Indian convention of digit grouping, it is written as 1,00,000. For example, in India 150,000 rupees becomes 1.5 lakh rupees, written as ₹1,50,000 or INR 1,50,000.
Mahaweli River
The Mahaweli River (Sinhalese: මහවැලි ගඟ, literally "Great Sandy River"; Tamil: மகாவலி ஆறு [mahawali gangai]), is a 335 km (208 mi) long river, ranking as the longest river in Sri Lanka. Its drainage basin is the largest in the country, and covers almost one-fifth of the total area of the island. The real creation of Mahaweli ganga starts at Polwathura(at Mahawila area), a remote village of Nuwara-Eliya District in bank Nawalapitiya of Kandy District by further joining of Hatton oya and Kotmale oya.The river reaches the Bay of Bengal on the southwestern side of Trincomalee Bay. The bay includes the first of a number submarine canyons, making Trincomalee one of the finest deep-sea harbors in the world.As part of Mahaweli Development programme the river and its tributaries are dammed at several locations to allow irrigation in the dry zone, with almost 1,000 km2 (386 sq mi) of land irrigated. Production of hydroelectricity from six dams of the Mahaweli system supplies more than 40% of Sri Lanka's electricity needs. One of the many sources of the river is the Kotmale Oya.There is a misconception in Sri Lanka that the Mahaweli starts in the Sri Pada mountain. The Mahaweli gets its source waters from Horton Plains in Kirigalpoththa and the Thotupola mountain range.
Mannar, Sri Lanka
Mannar (Tamil: மன்னார், translit. Maṉṉār, Sinhalese: මන්නාරම, translit. Mannārama, formerly spelled Manar) is the main town of Mannar District, Northern Province, Sri Lanka. It is governed by an Urban Council. The town is located on Mannar Island overlooking the Gulf of Mannar and is home to the historic Ketheeswaram temple.
Formerly the town was renowned as a center of pearl fishing, mentioned in the 2nd-century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.Mannar is known for its baobab trees and for its fort, built by the Portuguese in 1560 and taken by the Dutch in 1658 and rebuilt; its ramparts and bastions are intact, though the interior is largely destroyed.
Matale District
Matale District (Sinhalese: මාතලේ දිස්ත්රික්කය, Tamil: மாத்தளை மாவட்டம்) is a district in Central Province, Sri Lanka. Its area is 1,987 km². The administrative capital of the district is the city of Matale.
Ministry of Education (Sri Lanka)
North Central Province, Sri Lanka
North Central Province (Sinhalese: උතුරු මැද පළාත Uturumeda Palata, Tamil: வட மத்திய மாகாணம் Wada Maththiya Maakaanam) is a province of Sri Lanka. Its capital is Anuradhapura. The province is not densely populated, and it has a weak economy as the land tends to be dry tropical woodlands. Maithripala Sirisena, the Sri Lankan president, hails from the North Central Province.
Sabaragamuwa Province
The Sabaragamuwa Province, (Sinhalese: සබරගමුව පළාත Sabaragamuwa Palata, Tamil: சபரகமுவ மாகாணம் Sabaragamuwa Maakaanam) is one of the nine provinces of Sri Lanka, the first level administrative division of the country. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. The Sabaragamuwa Province contains two districts: Ratnapura and Kegalle. It is named after its former indigenous inhabitants, namely the Sabara, an indic term for hunter-gatherer tribes, a term seldom used in ancient Sri Lanka. Sabaragamuwa University is in Belihuloya.
Southern Province, Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Muslim Congress
The Sri Lanka Muslim Congress (Tamil: ஸ்ரீலங்கா முஸ்லீம் காங்கிரஸ், translit. Srīlaṅkā Muslīm Kāṅkiras; Sinhalese: ශ්රී ලංකා මුස්ලිම් කොංග්රසය Sri Lanka Muslim Kongrasaya) is a political party in Sri Lanka.
It is one of the parties that represents the Muslim community of Sri Lanka.
Sri Lankan rupee
The rupee (Sinhalese: රුපියල්, Tamil: ரூபாய்) (signs: රු, ரூ, Rs; code: LKR) is the currency of Sri Lanka, divided into 100 cents. It is issued by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. The abbreviation is generally Rs., but "LKR" is occasionally used to distinguish it from other currencies also called rupee.
Temple of the Tooth
The temple sustained damage from bombings by Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna in 1989 and by Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 1998 but was fully restored each time.
Vavuniya (Tamil: வவுனியா, translit. Vavuṉiyā, Sinhalese: වවුනියාව, translit. Vavuniyāva) is a city in the Northern Province, Sri Lanka, governed by an Urban Council. It is also the main settlement in the Vavuniya District.
The Security Forces Headquarters - Wanni is located in Vavuniya. The city has a railway station, which is located on the Northern Line. The Vavuniya airport which is also used by the Sri Lankan Airforce is also located here.Vavuniya is situated in the middle of the Vanni region and is the gate to northern province where people can access all the northern cities quickly.
Śuddhodana (Sanskrit: शुद्धोधन; Pali: Suddhōdana), meaning "he who grows pure rice," was a leader of the Shakya, who lived in an oligarchic republic on the Indian subcontinent, with their capital at Kapilavastu. He was also the father of Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as Buddha.In later renditions of the life of the Buddha, Śuddhodana was often referred to as a king, though that status cannot be established with confidence and is in fact disputed by modern scholarship.
Sinhalese language
Sinhala and
other languages
Writing system
Grammar and
Official languages
Semiofficial language
Formerly spoken and Extinct
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
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Class on September 18 2018
Jeremy provided an exercise and follow-on mathematical lecture on ecological efficiency concepts within a food web.
Students started the exercise by reading an assignment hand-out that described a marine food web which students as a group documented on the white board (seen here):
The hand-out provided efficiency ratios for each organism type in the web:
Phytoplankton: 92%
Zooplankton: 24%
Benthic invertebrates: 20%
Demersal fish: 11%
Pelagic fish: 13%
Piscivores: 10%
Jeremy handed out 1160 M&M candy units to the Phytoplankton team and asked that they feed their predators in the food web, using their 92% efficiency ratio to suggest quantity. As there was a known 60%-40% split between feeding Zooplankton and Benthic invertebrates, the Phytoplankton team passed on 641 (1160 * 0.6 * 0.92) M&M candy units (as symbolic of energy) to the Zooplankton team and 427 (1160 * 0.4 * 0.92) M&M candy units to Benthic Invertebrate team. Those teams then passed on their symbolic contributions to the Pelagic fish and Demsersal fish teams, which then forwarded on their contributions to the Piscivores.
As seen in the blue values recorded on the white board above, the Piscivores received 3 total M&Ms (out of 1160 provided by the sun - representing 1160 kcal m-2/year). Not very efficient as a human food choice!
Students were asked to imagine the process of doing such a labor intensive job for a significantly more complicated food web. Then Jeremy suggested there were mathematical methods to solve for energy distributions in a food web and provided an interactive session to develop those in an analog process for the exercise food web (a digital process would be provided in the following class).
The process unfolded on the white board as seen in the image below:
The known formula M.P = C formed the basis for a generation of three matrices to be solved through a linear algebra approach.
Solving is facilitated by multiplying both sides of the equation by M's identity matrix:
M*M-1.P = C*M-1
Since M*M-1.P reduces to P, we were able to calculate P by performing the matrix multiplication of C*M-1 with M-1 defined as:
[[ 1.08695652 0 0 0 0 0 ]
[ -0.6 4.16666667 0 0 0 0 ]
[ -0.4 0 5 0 0 0 ]
[ 0 0 -1 9.09090909 0 0 ]
[ 0 -1 0 0 7.69230769 0 ]
[ 0 0 0 -1 -1 10 ]]
and C defined as:
[ 1160 0 0 0 0 0 ]
we can see the multiplcation leads to:
[ 1067.2 153.6768 85.376 9.39136 19.977984 2.9369344 ]
which aligns well with rounded/truncated solutions performed by transferring whole M&M candy units.
Students were asked to prepare for Thursday's class by reading the Jupyter notes and installing Anaconda on the laptops they could bring to participate. Students were also told they could investigate the Python notes which would be the basis of Thursday's discussion.
A Web-based animation of the distribution of energy in the food web is provided for contemplation as well. In it, black dots represent the energy efficiency lost in the transfer from prey to predator.
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John Mitchell Proposed the Idea Of Black Holes Already In 1783
John Michell (1783) and Pierre-Simon Laplace (1796) were the first people to propose the concept of “dark stars” or object which, if compressed into a sufficiently small size, would have an escape velocity which exceeded even the speed of light. Later, the term “frozen star” was used to describe the last phase of a star’s gravitational collapse, when light unable to escape from its surface would make the star appear frozen in time to an observer. In the 20th century, John Wheeler eventually coined the phrase “black hole” as the object would absorbs all the light that hits it while reflecting nothing back.
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Twelve Dynamic HTML Lessons : Page 5
Making the Earth Move
Now that you've mastered divisions it's time to look at the power of some new style attributes that allow us to control the position of divisions. Why would we want to do that? Well, for a long time now people who build the Web have been complaining about their inability to place things on their pages with accuracy. Now they—and you—can. Not only that, but you can move them around as needed. Take this image of the Earth, for instance:
The Earth
It's just sitting there, not exactly in a spectacular place. So let's have some fun with it, shall we? Here's a form with top and left input fields. Enter a number in each, then press the button to see where the earth ends up.
top: left:
Cool, eh? We think so. Of course, this example isn't the most useful one we could have created. We created it so that you could think about the possibilities. It is not something we expect to see in Web pages.
Now let's examine how this is accomplished. Here's the style declaration for the earth division:
#earth {position: relative; top: 0; left: 0}
Position is set to relative. This means that the position of this division is relative to previous divisions. If we had set position to absolute, it would mean absolute position on the page based on the upper left corner. This attribute determines if the 0,0 coordinates start at the top left of the page, or the top left of the division.
Top and left are both set to 0, the starting point for the division. All positions are calculated based on the 0,0 coordinates and the values can be either positive or negative. Go back up the page and enter negative values to move the Earth to see what we mean.
Don't forget to put the ID in the <div> statement. Here's our division:
<div id="earth"><img src="images/earth.gif" width=37 height=37 alt="The Earth"></div>
The simple part though is that we only needed to name the division to access it via JavaScript. In this case all we are doing is setting earth.style.top and earth.style.left to move the planet. In JavaScript it would look like this:
earth.style.top = 25 earth.style.left = 13
Those JavaScript statements would set the left and top style attributes of the division with the id of "earth" to top position 25, left position 13.
Very simple! Imagine what you can now do via the positioning of overlapping elements. Remember, you don't need to do any scripting to set the style attributes of top and left. Everything is accessible via style declarations. You only need to script if you are going to be changing the page on the fly.
In our next lesson we'll cover still more Dynamic HTML and provide you with a bit of cut & paste JavaScript that you can have some fun with.
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• Back to Teaching and Learning
Common Sense Media
9-12 Grade Band Overview
Go to:
Common Sense Media Lessons
Common Sense Media Unit Assessments
Student Worksheet Packets
Unit 1
1. Digital Life 102
2. Oops! I Broadcast it on the Internet
3. Copyrights and Wrongs
4. Feeling on Display
5. Turn Down the Dial on Cyberbullying
Unit 2
1. My Online Code
2. Who are You Online?
3. Building Community Online
4. Overexposed: Sexting and Relationships
5. Risky Online Relationships (Required 9th Grade)
Unit 3
1. Rights, Remixes, and Respect
2. Taking Perspectives on Cyberbullying (Required 9th Grade)
3. What's the Big Deal About Interent Privacy
4. Becoming a Web Celeb
5. College Bound (Required 9th Grade)
Unit 4
1. Private Today, Public Tomorrow (Required 9th Grade)
2. Does it Matter who has Your Data?
3. Breaking Down Hate Speech
4. Retouching Reality
5. Collective Intelligence
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The amino acids cysteine and cystine contain sulphydril (-SH) and disulphide (-S-S-) groups respectively. Methionine also contains a sulphur atom. Methods for their demonstration often depend on this.
Although sulphuric acid is used in some staining techniques, it is not as commonly used as other acids. This is most likely due to the care with which concentrated sulphuric acid needs to be handled.
Sulphonic groups are important in dyes and are one of the commonly found auxochromes. Often the sulphonic group serves to convert a basic dyes to an acid dye equivalent, acid fuchsin being a case in point.
Some mucosubstances have sulphur containing groups. These mucosubstances are collectively named sulphated acid mucins and are strongly metachromatic with dyes such as the azures and their relatives. Dermatan sulphate and chondroitin sulphate are examples. Some mucosubstances which are not normally metachromatic can be made to be so by sulphation. This is a procedure in which sulphur containing groups are attached to compounds in order to change their staining characteristics, and thus identify them.
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Kenya History and Its People
You are Here: › Kenya history from time immemorial
On this page you learn about Kenya history from time immemorial up to present day.
Some of earliest historical records about Kenya include:
- In 45 A.D, Hippalus, a Roman sailor, was pushed to the East African coast by the monsoon winds. This marked the beginning of the Roman Empire trade and exploration conquest.
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an important discovery of the East African coast was written by an unknown Greek in the 1st century. It was a navigation guidebook dealing mainly with descriptions of places, conditions and trade; it had little information about East Africa's people.
- The "Geographia" by Ptolemy, a Greek, was written in the 2nd century. It described more trading posts along the Somali and Kenyan coastline.
- In the 7th and 10th Century, two Arabs explorers, Al Masudi and Ibn Batuta wrote about the East African coast.
Most of Kenya's history and culture has revolved around one core catalyst: TRADE
Many of the tribe's present in Kenya participated in trade. Trade was very important because it gave rise to a cultures, and a way of life when people got together to engage in business.
Trade also promoted the rise of town and cities, which created settlement and employment, which result to the need to form governments and council to run these establishments. Trade in everyday goods was common among all communities.
Essential items available only from certain communities were exchanged over greater distances. Such items required specialized skills to manufacture, example salt and iron. Important trade items included salt, iron, pottery, copper, cattle and foodstuffs. For example:
Salt was quite rare and much in demand. The Luo bartered salt for finger millet from the Abagusii. The Vinza of Western Tanzania exchanged salt from their brine springs, with digging hoes and cattle from the Nyamwezi.
Iron was very useful and much in demand. The Lango exchanged iron hoes for Banyoro livestock. The Ha and Zinza of northern Tanzania exchanged iron hoes, tools and weapons for Nyamwezi cattle. The Nyamwezi then bartered the hoes for ivory with other communities.
The Nyamwezi brought copper all the way inland from the Katanga copper-producing region. They sold some to the Ha and Sumbwa, who used it to hand-make ornaments. Some Luos of Western Kenya were expert potters and sold all sorts of useful pots.'
Many kinds of extra foodstuffs were traded among communities. Cows, sheep, goats and other domestic animals were also traded. For example, the Kikuyu exchanged food for Maasai cattle.
Archaeological remains in places like Hadaar in Ethiopia, Bigo in Uganda, Olduvai Gorge and Engaruko in Northern Tanzania and Olorgesaille in Kenya have assisted the world in knowing more about evolutionary origins like Zinjanthropus, Kenyapithecus and Lucy.
From a cultural aspect, present day Kenya is multi-racial and multi-ethnic; Africans of all origins live in Kenya: Native Africans, Afro-Arabs, Afro-Asians, and Afro-Europeans.
Kenya history - Prehistoric time
Kenya history - Arabian and Portuguese traders/invaders
Kenya history - British Crown Colony
Kenya history - 1888: Imperial British East Africa starts "economic development" in their possessions (today's Kenya and Uganda).
Kenya history - 1894: Jomo Kenyatta is born in Ichaweri.
Kenya history - 1895: Britain's protectorate is formed and officially named British East Africa.
Kenya history - 1898: The railway reaches half way through Kenya. The city of Nairobi is founded a few years later.
The African inhabitants of the "White highlands" are forced into "native reserves". In the following years several local uprisings are stopped by British soldiers. As in the other African colonies some tribes are favoured by the British. This makes the foundation for jealousy, hatred and ethnic clashes for generations ahead.
Kenya history - 1907: The British colonial administration moves from Mombasa to Nairobi.
Kenya history - 1915: The British settlers requires more land. Another 5186 hectares are taken from the Africans. The "Registration Act" forces all African adult males to carry identification whenever leaving the reserves.
Kenya history - 1921: The protectorate becomes Kenya and gets status of British Crown Colony. A British governor administrates the colony.
Kenya history - 1922: Foundation of East African Breweries (today: Kenya Breweries, producing the popular "Tusker" and other brands).
Kenya history - 1924 : Daniel Arap Moi is born in Baringo.
Kenya history - 1933: American writer Ernest Hemingway visits Kenya and writes some of his most famous stories.
Kenya history - 1947: Jomo Kenyatta becomes leader of KAU.Mau Mau rebellion.
Kenya history - 1952: A political Kikuyu group called "Mau Mau" starts violent attacks on white settlers. The Mau Mau guerillas are organised in Kenya Land Freedom Army (KFLA). Jomo Kenyatta is regarded to be leader of the "Mau Mau" and he is jailed the following year. The Mau Mau rebellion continues and Britain declares a state of emergency in Kenya.
1957: Dedan Kimanthi is executed.
December 12, 1963: : Kenyan independence day.
1977: Big game hunting becomes prohibited by law.
Kenya's second president
The new national slogan launched by Moi is "nyayo" -follow the tracks. But soon Moi starts hitting hard on opponents, banning tribal societies and closing universities. The president makes more and more frequent use of prisons and guns in the coming years.
Kenya history - 1990's: Communist regimes in eastern Europe collapses, putting an end to "the Cold War" era. USA and Western Europe has supported corrupt regimes all over Africa in their attempt to keep communism from the door.
Kenya history - July 7, 1990: An illegal demonstration becomes known as the "Saba Saba" (Seven Seven - the date in Swahili). The government sends in police and military, killing at least 20 and arresting several hundreds, including politicians, human rights activists and journalists.
December 29, 1992: Moi is re-elected as President in Kenya's first multiparty election. All foreign observers reports that KANU manipulated the voters and election in every possible way.
1997: Demonstrations for democracy are frequent in Kenya.
Kenya history - August 1998: 230 people are killed when a bomb explodes in Nairobi's US embassy. At the same time people are killed by a terror bombing in Tanzania. The bombings are later linked to Osama Bin-Laden and the Al-Qaeda terrorist network.
The third president
December 27, 2002: Election in Kenya. Moi is leaving the office to opposition leader Mwai Kibaki. Kibaki soon announces that Kenya will provide free primary schooling for all children.
Other Pages of Interest
The History of Kenya and Its People
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Japan Data Archive
About Japan > Japanese Gifts >
The earliest record of the use of incense in Japan can be found in the Nihon Shoki (The Chronicles of Japan), a book that was completed in 720.
It states that a log was washed up on Awajishima Island where it was found by the inhabitants, who initially used it for firewood.
However it produced such a beautiful scent that they made an offering of it to the Imperial Court.
This book was written approximately 1,300 years ago, so there are various theories concerning what happened to the log, but it is thought to be the same one that is preserved in Horyuji Temple to this day.
In the Shoso-In repository of Todaiji Temple, which dates back to the 8th century, there is a log of incense that is 156 cm long and 43 cm wide at its broadest point.
There are notes on this log recording the fact that various famous historical figures, such as Oda Nobunaga(1534-1582) and Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1435-1490) removed samples from the spot indicated for their personaluse.
The Japanese think of incense as being something holy.
The smoke that rises from it is considered an offering to the gods, and it also has the power to purify the chi in the atmosphere.
Today, it is generally used to help people relax, but once you know its background, it will have a different effect.
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Astronomy for Beginners
Astronomy Dictionary
A small crater ranging from a few millimetres across to a few metres.
Imbrian period
The period in the Moon’s history when the large basins Imbrium, Crisium, Tranquilitatis, Serenitatis, Fecunditatis and Procellarum were formed, and filled with basalts. The Imbrian period occurred between 3.8 and 3.2 billion years ago.
This is the Sun’s outer atmosphere seen from Earth during a total solar eclipse and also with a coronagraph on an orbiting space observatory. The temperature of the corona reaches around 2 million degrees K.
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The Notion of American Conservatism
1925 Words Jan 31st, 2018 8 Pages
Once refined in the U.S. Constitution in September of 1787, what had been left up to speculation was now set as guidelines for the flourishing country. There was always separation in beliefs between American’s, but the constitution truly outlined what America could build upon. This is where American conservatism really came into effect. Conservatism as defined by the Encyclopedia Britannica is “a political doctrine that emphasizes value of social tradition institutions and practices.” Simply meaning that this ideal represented America’s freedom - instilling that the country should always be run by ‘We The People’ as stated in the preamble to the Constitution. Once interpreted more as a preference as to how American’s could live their life, Conservatism has transformed into a distinct lifestyle at which many American’s follow today. With the notable growth of Conservatism it was only imminent that differing divisions of this practice would spark up. The differing ideologies, however, would only be separated by minimalistic technicalities. Although copious different interpretations do exist, many can be synthesized to the same ideas. Ronald P. Formisano’s The Tea Party: A Brief History underscores the significance of holding America to it’s standards set by the documents written by the Founding Fathers. The common style of Tea Party Conservatism is very much so…
Open Document
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by James E. Fargo, FSA Scot
Everyone is familiar with William Shakespeare’s play "Macbeth" in which the two protagonists fight for the Scottish throne. Not so clearly known is that this rivalry began several generations before the events described in the play. Our King Duncan was not the kindly old man portrayed but lived up to what became his clan’s war cry "Fierce When Roused". Macbeth, from the royal house of Moray, had a better claim to the throne on King Malcolm II death, based on celtic tanistry whereas Malcolm had adopted the English feudal system of primogeniture for his own royal line.
In 962 the kingship of Alba (Scotland) was contested between two rival branches of the MacAlpin dynasty after the death of King Malcolm I. The two princes ruled jointly until a falling out between them led to a battle upon a ridge called Duncrub (Dorsum Crup) about seven miles west of Perth in Atholl in 965. King Dub (or Duff) of Cumbria, a prince of the royal house of Alpin, was the son of King Malcolm I. Duff led an army against Prince Cuilen and his army of Moray men. It was the custom then to appoint the heir to the Scots throne, to the sub-kingship of Cumbria as the province had been given by King Edgar of England in return for homage for that province and to defend it from invading Danes.
Although Duff’s army was victorious at Duncrub, Duncan, hereditary lay abbot of Duncalden (Dunkeld) and Dubdon the mormaer of Atholl were killed. At this time in Scotland’s history it was common for senior churchmen to lead the armed forces of their church estates into combat. This abbot Duncan (b.920-d.965) was the father of Duncan of Atholl (b.949-d.990) who became the mormaer of Atholl upon Dubdon’s death in this battle. This Duncan of Atholl became the father of Crinan (born c.976 and killed in 1045) and two younger sons. The second son, Grim (thane of Strathearn and baille of Dull) was killed in 1010 at the battle of Mortlach. The youngest son became an ancestor of the Irvine clan according to Burke’s Peerage.
On King Duff’s death in 967, Prince Cuilen of Moray assumed the kingship until he was killed in 971 during a battle in Lothian with the son of King Dyfnwal of Strathclyde, an ally of Duff’s brother Kenneth. This brother, as King Kenneth II assumed the throne and reigned from 971-995. Kenneth finally killed Cuilen’s brother Olaf in 977 ending the royal house of Moray’s competition for the throne for that generation. Kenneth II was succeeded by his nephew (son of King Dub/Duff) as Kenneth III (King of Scots from 997-1005). On the death of Kenneth III, King Malcolm II (son of Kenneth II) ruled as King of Scots from 1005 to his death in 1034. Malcolm II made his grandson Duncan the King of Cumbria until he became King of the Scots upon Malcolm’s death.
Pinkerton, John "An Enquiry Into the History of Scotland Preceding the Reign of Malcom III, or the Year 1056" Vol. I, 1789, pp 78-99.
Wolff, Alex "From Pictland to Alba 789-1070" 2007, pp 201-202.
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Week 3 (4/7 - 4/13): Fair Use
Week 3 (April 7 - April 13) Limitations to Copyright: Overview. Fair Use.
Congratulations on submitting Case Scenario #1! Now that you've learned about the fundamentals of copyright and the public domain, and the rights of owners, you will begin to look at the limitations on those rights.
Goals: This week you will learn about limitations to an author's exclusive rights, in particular fair use, and how fair use applies to your uses of copyrighted materials as an educator, as well as student use.
Copyright, like all forms of property rights, includes significant limitations. In First Amendment law, for example, you famously "can't shout fire in a crowded building". In property law, property that has been abandoned can be reclaimed by others under "adverse possession" or "abandonment" claims.
In copyright law, limitations are expressed in doctrines such as the "first sale" rights (sometimes called the "principle of exhaustion"), "fair use", and numerous other specific rights. This week we will cover one of the most important of those rights, fair use, and next week we will examine first sale and other specific limitations.
Background on fair use:
The doctrine of fair use was developed by courts as a general "gut instinct" on what was "fair" and "unfair" in copyright law. In 1976, it was codified as 17 USC Section 107 of the US Copyright law.
Section 107 contains a list of the various purposes for which the reproduction of a particular work may be considered fair, such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, and research. Note that five of these six paradigmatic examples of fair use are directly applicable to educators.
Section 107 also sets out four factors to be considered in determining whether or not a particular use is fair. Each of these factors has to be considered in relation to the others -- and although factor 1 is usually considered to be the most important, with factor 2 the second most, all the factors are weighed together.
Factor #1: What is the purpose of the use? Courts look at two major questions here. First, are you using the work for commercial or non-profit purposes? Non-profit purposes tip the scale toward fair use; whereas commercial purposes tip the scale against fair use. For example, showing a documentary to students in your class would weigh in favor of use; while showing it to the general public and charging admission would weigh against use. The statute specifically compares "non-profit educational purposes", suggesting that these would provide the greatest contrast to commercial uses.
Second, are you making a "transformative" use, by adding a new message or meaning? For instance, a parody, collage, scholarly analysis, or textual index all "transform" the original work, thus weighing in favor of "fair use", while copying it exactly and using it in the same way do not transform it, thus weighing against fair use.
Factor #2: What is the nature of the work? Is the work fact-based or fictional? Because ideas cannot be copyrighted, and original expression can, uses of fact-based works are more likely to be fair use than uses of creative or purely original expression. For example, reproducing or distributing a newspaper article would tilt the analysis more towards fair use, while doing the same thing with a novel would tilt the analysis away from fair use.
This factor also considers whether the copyright holder has ever published the work -- if she has never published it or released it to the public, then use of it is less likely to be fair use than if she did previously make it available to the public. Also considered under this factor is whether the work is currently in print, or out of print and not commercially available at a reasonable price. Reproducing and distributing a work that one can easily obtain is less likely to be a fair use than reproducing and distributing an out-of-print and hard-to-find work.
Factor #3: How much of the work will be used?
Generally, small portions are more likely to be fair use. For example, showing 10 minutes of a two-hour movie would weigh more heavily in favor of use than showing the entire movie. However, how much is "reasonable" is determined by the purpose (factor 1) -- if using the whole work is "reasonable," then it can be acceptable under fair use; while even a small fraction, if it is more than you need for your purpose, might not be. Some kinds of works may be more difficult to use in part -- such as images or other single, indivisible works.
Factor #4: What is the effect upon the market or potential market?
Simply put, this factor asks, "If the use were widespread, would it prevent the copyright holder from legitimately making money from the work?" For example, copying and distributing a book that is also available for sale would weigh against fair use, since each distribution of a copy could substitute for a sale. But quoting or taking a small excerpt to teach or write a review would be less likely to substitute for a sale.
Deciding whether a use is a fair use or an infringement can sometimes be tricky. There is no specific number of words, lines, or notes that may safely be taken without permission. Since the question of whether a particular use is considered fair use, some communities have developed "Best Practices" for using copyrighted materials, some of which are provided in the reading list below. These are not hard-and-fast rules, but they can be useful in understanding the contours of the doctrine.
Key words: defenses to copyright infringement, fair use
Reading Assignment:
Optional Readings and Resources:
Discussion Questions:
These are questions provided for your understanding, to be discussed with your group and with the course facilitator in office hours. Answers to these questions do not have to be submitted and will not be part of your grade.
Scenario 1: An English teacher prints a classroom handout, and includes one paragraph from a book to show pithy writing. Is this fair use? Which factors weigh in favor of fair use, and which against? What facts lead you to your conclusion?
Scenario 2: An English teacher makes photocopies of one chapter of an out-of-print textbook on English Composition for each of her students. She keeps a master photocopy on file for future use. Is this a fair use? Which factors weigh in favor of fair use, and which against? What facts lead you to your conclusion? Is the outcome different or the same as Scenario 1? Why or why not?
Scenario 3: A textbook publishing company finds an excellent website by an English teacher made publicly available on the Internet. The publisher copies the website word-for-word in a new edition of an English composition textbook and gives the teacher credit. Is this a fair use? Which factors weigh in favor of fair use, and which against? Is the outcome the same or different from Scenario 1 and Scenario 2? Why or why not in each case?
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The nuclear waste site at the heart of Canada's wildfires
The nuclear waste site at the heart of Canada's wildfires
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Just south of the Canadian city of Fort McMurray, in an area partly ravaged by flames, sits a nuclear waste site.
Situated at the extreme north of the Beacon Hill landfill tip, it contains some 42,500 m3 of radioactive minerals, including uranium and cesium.
But does it pose a threat to society today? According to information gained by euronews reporter Renaud Gardette, the site lies in the middle of the huge wildfires, blazing uncontrollably since May 1.
Why was the landfill created?
To understand the origins of the landfill site, we must first go back to 1982 when Canada launched an extensive exploration and containment of low-level radioactive land programme all over the territory. It was piloted by the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Office (LLRWMO).
In Fort McMurray, radioactive minerals were regularly discharged and used along the Northern Transportation Road. Built in the 1930s, the thoroughfare was initially used to transport uranium from the Port Radium mine (Northwest Territories) to Fort McMurray. From there, uranium was also transported by train to Port Hope, Ontario.
The Port Radium mine closed in 1960. Thefts and pillages occurred along the road and that is where the contamination is most visible.
The LLRWMO detected more radioactive sites around Fort McMurray. Work began in 1992 and, up to 2003, 42,500m3 of waste were sent to a specially-engineered landfill with a double layer of clay, several management systems, protection and monitoring, as well as a layer of earth and grass.
The site is monitored annually by the LLRWMO.
Does the site really exist?
The site’s existence is confirmed in several reports, including the Inventory of Radioactive Waste in Canada, published in 2012 by the LLRWMO.
What if?
Several questions have arisen. Was the site burnt in the wildfires? Have radioactive particles been emitted into the atmosphere? What is the risk to the environment?
For the moment, no specific warning has been triggered.
The response from the Canadian authorities
(Translated from French)
Canadian Nuclear Laboratories and our Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Office are responsible for managing historic low-intensity radioactive waste located in the Beacon Hill dump at Fort McMurray. The site is at the north end of the Beacon Hill landfill site, which itself is south of the city of Fort McMurray and west of Highway 63. The approximate coordinates are: 56 degrees 39 ’10 “ N, 111 degrees 20 ’56 “W.
• CNL manages these sites on behalf of Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd, the federal corporation that is ultimately responsible for the safe management of historic low-intensity radioactive waste.
• The low-intensity waste at Beacon Hill consists of uranium ore residue, mixed with soil and placed in isolation (in a separate cell), which is covered with a thick layer of low-permeability soil, then another, dense layer of clean earth. In total, there are at least 45 centimetres of clean soil over the contaminated soil.
• According to the information available, it appears that the site was affected by the fires. That said, this does not pose any immediate risk to the health and safety of people and the environment. There are also no concerns about the physical integrity of the cell.
• Given the composition of the contaminated soil, that is to say, ore residue mixed with earth, there is no risk that it will catch fire. In a similar way to a field or garden, fire can ignite the grass, but the earth itself does not catch fire.
• We continue to monitor the situation closely.
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You are here: Counterpoints > From Krupp to Aldi
Lethal and lucrative: "Big Bertha", the giant Krupp howitzer World War I
In the Anglophone world Krupp is not just the name of a steel and armaments manufacturer: it will forever be associated with German militarism and its imperialist ambitions. The company became so notorious that its wartime head, Gustav Krupp, was to have been the sole representative of German industry in the dock at the main Nuremberg trial. He was eventually deemed too senile to stand trial and attempts to replace him with his son Alfried — who actually ran the company during most of the war — were vetoed by the British for being too arbitrary.
In his authoritative and surprisingly entertaining new history of the company, Krupp: A History of the Legendary German Firm (Princeton, £24.95), the eminent economic historian Harold James asks whether this was justified. James acknowledges that Krupp's wartime record was appalling but argues that it was no worse than that of many other German firms. So why were the Krupps singled out by the allies?
The Krupps owed their fortune to Germany's 19th-century rise and were inextricably enmeshed with German expansionism. By 1912 Krupp was by far the largest German company and its female owner, Bertha Krupp, was the richest German, with a fortune of 283 million marks (the Kaiser came only fifth).
The firm played a central role in arming Germany in both world wars. Its cannon "Big Bertha" — named after the company's matriarch — was the iconic weapon of the first war. Krupp exploited slave labour from Russian PoWs on a vast scale in the second.
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T.E.R:R.A.I.N - Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network
Snail (NZ Native Giant land snail) Powelliphanta species.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Gastropoda
(unranked): Pulmonata
Family: Rhytididae
Genus: Powelliphanta
Species: Powelliphanta
Common names: Travers land snail, Mount Augustus snail, Paryphanta snail, Kauri snail, Giant Snail.
The powelliphanta snails are a species of large, carnivorous land snails and are the largest in the world. The largest species is Powelliphanta superba prouseorum, found in Kahurangi National Park and measuring about 90mm across and weighs in at 90g. There are at least 21 species and 51 sub-species of Powelliphanta, all of which are listed by the New Zealand Department of Conservation as nationally endangered but the threat status varies between species. They are among our most threatened invertebrates.
They are found in native forests throughout New Zealand, especially around north-west Nelson and north Westland where they have been the centre of controversy. The species Powelliphanta augustus whose habitat was above a coal seam on Mt Augustus, West Coast. 6000 were collected for relocation and placed in a fridge in Hokitika where a technical fault with a thermostat killed 800 of them.
The powelliphanta snails main predators are possums, pigs and rats. Habitat loss is also another factor in their decline. Possums only recently developed a taste for the snails, and appear to be incorporating them into their diet over increasing areas. The periodic use of the biodegradable poison 1080 to kill possums has reversed the decline in snail populations.
Different species can be found from sea level to above the bushline. The alpine species can contend with prolonged snowfalls and bitterly cold winters. Their usual daytime habitat is under damp leaf mould or under logs. They are usually nocturnal but sometimes forage during the daytime if there are dull damp conditions.
Their favourite prey is earthworms which they suck out of the soil like spaghetti. See video link:
The powelliphanta snail's shells come in many sizes, patterns and colours which range from hues of red and brown to yellow and black.
They are hermaphrodites meaning they have both male and female reproductive organs and therefore can mate with any other adult powelliphanta. They lay about 5-10 large eggs a year. Each oval egg is up to 12-14mm long, pearly pink and hard-shelled and their dimensions are seldom constant. It is estimated that Powelliphanta snails can live up to 20 years.
The photo below is of a
Powelliphanta traversi traversi.which is today restricted to the northeastern shores of Lake Papaitonga, the Waiopehu Scenic Reserve and a few fragments of trees in and around Levin city (a total area of about 40 ha).
The photo below is of a Powelliphanta patrickensis found in the ranges of the Northern Westcoast of the South Island.Photographed on the Denniston plateau, Papahaua Range. Westland.
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Home: Operetta: Early Days
In France, the operetta as we know it today was born with Adolphe Adam. Up until 1834, he had written in the conventional Opera Comique style, but in La Chalet, he wrote what is considered to be the first true French operetta, light and frivolous with music nearer to the popular vaudeville idiom. Around the same time, Herve was busy composing operetta-esque works. He earned the nickname "loony composer" by endowing the operetta with the crazed irreverence that was his hallmark.
In the mid-nineteenth century, the French government wanted nothing to compete with state-sponsored opera productions, so a law limited independent managers to no more than three speaking or singing characters per libretto. In the face of such absurd restrictions, a German Jewish cellist, Jacques Offenbach, struck an entertaining blow for sanity.
Offenbach came up with a format that blended operatic vocals, catchy melodies and comic plots. Initially rejected by the celebrated Opera Comique, Offenbach leased the fifty seat Theatres des Bouffes-Parisiens and presented one-act comic musicals that he called "operettes". Each had three singers and many included mute characters to help flesh-out the cast.
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Janissaries carrying their <em>kazan, </em>along with a regimental ladle.
Janissaries carrying their kazan, along with a regimental ladle. Aikaterini Laskaridis
In the spring of 1806, Istanbul was in uproar. Sultan Selim III wanted to modernize his military, with new uniforms and European-style fighting techniques. But other sultans had tried before, and failed. Reform required getting rid of the janissaries, a centuries-old class of soldiers. Unfortunately for Selim, the janissaries would soon give their usual sign of rebellion: publicly overturning their giant cooking pots. For the corps, whose traditions revolved around food, this amounted to a declaration of mutiny.
For centuries, the janissaries had been one of the most feared fighting forces in Europe. Trained as infantry from youth, it was the janissaries who breached the walls of Constantinople in 1453 and devastated Hungarian knights at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. “They were a modern army, long before Europe got its act together,” says Virginia H. Aksan, professor emeritus of history at McMaster University. “Europe was still riding around with great, big, heavy horses and knights.”
Decked out in glorious uniforms and alerting enemies to their presence with thunderous drums, they were “both a cause of terror and a source of admiration for the West,” writes historian Gilles Veinstein. Under a system likely established by Sultan Murad I in the 14th century, Ottoman authorities took boys from Christian families across the Ottoman Empire as a sort of tax. Called a “gathering,” or devşirme, the boys underwent stringent training as archers and later as musketeers, along with conversion to Islam.
In this painting, children are recruited for the janissaries in the Balkans.
In this painting, children are recruited for the janissaries in the Balkans. Public Domain
Accounts abound of Christian families, especially in the Balkans, doing all they could to keep their sons from being taken away. Yet if they became janissaries, the boys were freed and considered the “sons of the sultan,” Aksan says. The best of the best rose to positions of influence and power in the Ottoman bureaucracy. However, Veinstein notes, janissaries could be “a danger for the Ottoman rulers.” Should a sultan cross them, janissaries would rise in revolt.
Their signal to mutiny was overturning their massive cooking pots, or kazan. Tipping over a huge cauldron might seem like a goofy way to start a rebellion. But for janissaries, both the kazan and food in general were potent symbols. Accepting the sultan’s food was a sign of loyalty and dedication to him, writes Ottoman historian Amy Singer, and eating from the kazan helped “create group solidarity.”
The kazan also had a spiritual meaning. One legend held that Haci Bektas Veli, the founder of Bektashi Sufism, founded the janissaries and “served them soup from the ‘holy cauldron,’” writes Singer. Janissaries were often members of the Bektashi order, and to the Bektashi, “the hearth and home were sacred.” Used for Bektashi ceremonies, the cauldrons took on a similar significance to the janissaries. Contemporary illustrations of janissaries show lavishly dressed soldiers proudly parading along with their kazan.
Janissaries sported snazzy uniforms and kitchen-based titles.
Janissaries sported snazzy uniforms and kitchen-based titles. Artokoloro Quint Lox Limited / Alamy
Every three months, when janissaries got their salaries, they paraded to Topkapi Palace, where they also received soup, pilaf, and saffron pudding. Each year during Ramadan, janissaries marched to the palace kitchens in the “Baklava Procession” to receive a massive amount of sweet treats. Well in advance of cauldron-flipping, any hesitance to receive food from the sultan was a warning that an orta, or regiment, was on the verge of mutiny.
Janissaries adopted cook-like titles as well. Their sergeants, the highest-ranking member of each corps, was the çorbacı, or the “soup cook.” According to Aksan, the janissary corps was referred to as the ocak, which meant the hearth. “That comes from the notion that they were the sultan’s sons,” she says. “You have the household, and janissaries are an essential part of that.” Also gathered around the hearth, writes Singer, were “lower-ranking officers” with titles such as aşcis, or cook, and the kara kulluckçus, or scullion.
A troop of janissaries during the siege of Constantinople, around a <em>kazan</em>
A troop of janissaries during the siege of Constantinople, around a kazan Yolanda Perera Sánchez / Alamy
In the early-16th century, janissaries numbered around 20,000, and that number would steadily increase. But the janissaries slowly lost power as a fighting force. Devşirme was abolished in 1638, and the ban on marriage faded as well. The sons of janissaries were allowed into the ranks, and soon free citizens vied to join. It wasn’t long before janissaries were running businesses while still expecting pay from the sultan. As Aksan notes in the Oxford Companion to Military History, by the end of the 17th century, their numbers had swelled to nearly 80,000, and in 1800, the rolls of the janissaries contained nearly 400,000 names. At that point the title was almost meaningless, and only around 10 percent “could be called upon to defend the empire.”
Yet woe betide the sultans who tried to replace the janissaries, or, Aksan notes, to debase the currency. Janissaries never appreciated either attempt, and the mutinies could be devastating. Despite their vaunted loyalty, janissaries deposed several sultans, starting with the murder of the teenage Osman II in 1622. He planned to dismantle the janissaries and, expecting defiance, he closed the coffee shops where they gathered. Rising up in revolt, janissaries killed him. Selim III was forced off his throne by the janissaries, and later murdered. In the end, janissaries became like the Praetorian Guard of ancient Rome. Mutiny was their privilege, says Aksan, and sultans had to appease them.
At this particular banquet given by the sultan, the janissaries don't hesitate to accept their meal.
At this particular banquet given by the sultan, the janissaries don’t hesitate to accept their meal. Public Domain
Aksan calls the janissaries “the central icons of the Ottoman’s heyday.” But as they lost battles across Europe and became more unruly at home, both the sultan and the public had enough. Sultan Mahmud II, seeking to modernize his military forces, had a brutal solution to disbanding the janissaries in 1826. The janissaries overturned their cauldrons at dawn on June 15, but the sultan had planned ahead. He destroyed their barracks with artillery and had them “mowed them down in the streets of Istanbul,” says Aksan. With survivors exiled and executed, it was an ignominious end for the sons of the sultan.
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Logging Ghost Towns
One-story, single room wood slat shack in dilapidated state. Windows and doors have fallen off or out. It stands in a field.
An old shack is surrounded by sagebrush in the Baker County logging ghost town of Whitney. (Oregon State Archives, 2016) Enlarge Image
Logging played a key role in Oregon's economy and cultural identity beginning in the 1800s. Old growth trees provided plenty of logs and jobs for local lumber mills and a growing American population. But in the days before forest replanting, trees were often stripped from an area, leaving abandoned mills and towns. This section explores how logging often resulted in ghost towns.
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Why Tiny Krill Are a Major Link in the Marine Food Chain
Krill are the small, shrimp-like marine invertebrates that feed whales and seals, penguins and other marine birds, and some fish. Krill are considered one of the major links in the marine food chain.
The largest species is the Antarctic krill, or Euphausia superba. In this case, “largest” means it reaches about six centimetres, or 2.5 inches, in length. This species of krill may also be the most abundant.
The Dining Habits of Krill
Krill in a JarPhoto: hcopperm
Most adult krill eat phytoplankton, floating microscopic marine “plants” that can photosynthesize their energy from sunlight. They also eat zooplankton, animals of the same tiny size.
Juvenile and larval krill eat algae which grows on sea ice.
The Living Habits of Krill
Chinstrap Penguin Feeding its ChickPhoto: Chadica
As noted, marine mammals and birds happily eat krill. Since krill congregate in swarms of thousands or many tens of thousands per cubic metre of ocean. A single swarm might extend for several kilometres.
Where krill are plentiful, their predators will congregate.
The Life Cycle of Krill
Krill Euphausia superbaPhoto: Ryan Somma
In the spring, adult female krill release eggs that sink to the ocean floor before hatching. This keeps the eggs safe from surface predators, but means that, upon hatching, the larvae must ascend in order to find food. Some scientists think that, if they miss the Antarctic continental shelf and sink too low, they might starve before reaching shallower water where the plankton dwell.
As with many other crustaceans, the krill larvae molt their exoskeletons as they grow. During the winter, when their section of the ocean freezes over, the krill scavenge whatever organic material they can find adhering to the underside of the ice.
Krill mature more slowly than many crustaceans, presumably due to the cold temperatures and limited food availability. They may live for about eight years.
How People Use Krill
Krill for SalePhoto: sbassi
Commercial fishing for krill has been expanding since the 1970s. In those days, most krill were ground up for use as fertilizer and in pet food. More recently, krill has been included as food for aquaculture. As seen in these images, people will eat krill as seafood.
One newsworthy change has been the use of krill oil as a dietary supplement. Although several uses have been suggested, perhaps the most reliably-tested human use for krill oil is to improve cholesterol levels. The oil is somewhat similar to that found in cold-water fish, although there are some differences that might give krill oil an advantage.
Survival Concerns for Krill
Krill Oil as a Dietary SupplementPhoto: fancycwabs
Overfishing is always a concern, but the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has set annual catch limits and monitors fishing activities.
Climate change may be a bigger problem. If the Antarctic ocean’s temperature rises and the sea ice shrinks, so does the habitat for the young krill.
Celeste Robb-Nicholson, M.D., Harvard Medical School, “Is krill oil better for the heart than fish oil?“, referenced June 13, 2011.
Ice Stories, Exploratorium, “Krill“, referenced June 17, 2011.
Peter H. Wiebe, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, “Voyages into the Antarctic Winter“, April 25, 2005, referenced June 17, 2011.
Bunea R, El Farrah K, Deutsch L, Pub Med, “Evaluation of the effects of Neptune Krill Oil on the clinical course of hyperlipidemia“, Dec. 2004, referenced June 16, 2011.
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Fires have scarred forests for millions of years
Fires have scarred forests for millions of years
21 September 2014
published by
USA — Prehistoric life on Earth can seem so strange, with the plants and animals resembling something out of a science-fiction novel about an alien planet.
Sometimes, however, a fossil is found that shows how similar ancient life was.
A recent paper in the journal Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology reported on the first known fossil fire scar on a tree from the Triassic Period, 211 million years ago.
The fossil comes from the Chinle Formation, the same rock unit that holds the famous Petrified Forest of Arizona (which is not really a petrified forest so much as a petrified log jam). It was found in a place called Bears Ears, Utah, just north of the Utah-Arizona border.
The Chinle was deposited by a large meandering river that flowed northwest from highlands in the panhandle region of Texas across what is now New Mexico, Arizona and Utah to the sea in Nevada. At that time, the area was in the tropics, 5 to 10 degrees north of the equator.
The specimen was an oval section of petrified wood 5.5 by 8 inches across and 4 to 6 inches long before being cut for study. It likely came from the most-common species of tree in the Chinle, which for more than 100 years had been called Araucarioxylon arizonicum but now is called Agathoxylon arizonicum. Its closest living relative is the Norfolk Island pine.
The 3- to 4-inch-wide scar extends vertically along one side of the trunk. On each side of it are curls of wood produced by the tree as it tried to close the wound. At the same radius as the scar is a ring of smaller tracheids elongated cells for conducting water and nutrients that shows the trees growth was slowed by the traumatic event.
Tracheids outside that ring are significantly larger than those produced earlier. Modern conifers that are subjected to fire often exhibit what is called growth release, a burst in growth produced by reduced competition for light, water and nutrients caused by the death of other vegetation and the release of nutrients by the fire.
After the fire, the Agathoxylon arizonicum added about 2 inches of wood to the diameter of its trunk.
The ancient scar perfectly matches modern scars caused by fast-moving ground fires that burn one side of a trunk but dont kill the tree. There are even some cracks or gaps similar to traumatic resin ducts that form in modern conifers that have been burned.
Trees have had to contend with fire for a long time; evidence of forest blazes in the form of fossil charcoal dates to the Late Devonian, soon after the first forests arose 380 million years ago.
During the Pennsylvanian Period, 300 million years ago, fires were even more common, probably because oxygen levels were much higher about 31 percent compared with 21 percent today. With that much oxygen, those fires must have been incredibly intense.
(As an aside, the increased oxygen also allowed insects and other arthropods to get much bigger there were dragonflies with 2-foot wingspans and millipedes that were 5 feet long.)
Another increase in forest fires took place during the Cretaceous Period. It is fun thinking of a dinosaur in a Smokey Bear hat saying, Only YOU can prevent forest fires.
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Hippocampus Function: What Does It Do?
The hippocampus is a central structure within the brain of vertebrates, responsible for handling the storage of memories and the linking of memories to sensations. Another function of the hippocampus is aiding in navigation by enabling spatial memory.
There are two hippocampi in the brain, one in each cerebral hemisphere. The hippocampus is vaguely shaped like a horseshoe, and what bridges the two halves of the hippocampus is a long arch made out of nerve fibers and referred to as fornix.
The hippocampus is located in the temporal lobes of the brain. Without the hippocampus, people wouldn’t be able to link sounds and smells to memories or retrieve the right memories from long-term storage when they are needed.
Structure Of The Hippocampal Formation
The hippocampal formation is located within the temporal lobes and it contains the hippocampus and surrounding material. It is made out of interleaved layers of the cornu ammonis (Ammon’s horn) and dentate gyrus. The subiculum and gyri that make up the folds form the hippocampal formation.
The dentate gyrus is tucked back into the hippocampal sulcus, and at the dentate gyrus is responsible for neurogenesis. Neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons, and this critical area receives information from other brain regions in order to construct the new neurons. Neurogenesis is needed for learning and memory formation, as well as the formation of spatial memory, which allows us to navigate the world around us.
Meanwhile, Ammon’s Horn (AKA the cornu ammonis or hippocampus major) consists of three different subsections: CA1, CA2, and CA3. These areas are responsible for receiving and processing the information that arrives from other parts of the brain. Ammon’s horn is intertwined with the subiculum and the subiculum functions as the primary output system of the hippocampus. The hippocampal region is enveloped by a greater area called the parahippocampal gyrus, and it is connected to it through the subiculum.
Functions Of The Hippocampus
The hippocampus surrounded by other structures of the brain which are part of the limbic system. Note the hippocampus’ proximity to the amygdala and the thalamus. Photo: OpenStax College via Wikimedia Commons, CC-BY 3.0
The hippocampus plays an important role in a few vital brain functions. The hippocampus is involved in the consolidation of new memories, or the transcription of memories from short-term memory to long-term memory. Without this ability, we would not be able to learn and create new memories. The hippocampus is also heavily involved in spatial perception and memory – the perception of information about one’s surroundings and the translation of this perception into memories about those locations.
When memories are formed within the hippocampus, they are often associated with various stimuli such as smell, sights, sounds. The hippocampus also controls emotional responses to similar stimuli. When memories and emotions are strongly linked together with certain stimuli, re-experiencing these stimuli will often conjure a memory linked with them, courtesy of the hippocampus. It accomplishes the intertwining of long-term memories and emotions by working with the amygdala (the hippocampus is also located adjacent to the amygdala).
Damage Of The Hippocampus
The hippocampus surrounded by the various gyri and horns. Photo: Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons
Damage to the hippocampus can result in various memory and cognitive disorders. The primary symptom of damage to the hippocampus is difficulty retrieving memories, being unable to recall memories from storage. Diseases can impact the hippocampus in different ways. For example, Alzheimer’s disease causes tissue loss of the hippocampus, and research into the state of the hippocampus within Alzheimer’s patients has found that Alzheimer’s patients who still have good cognitive abilities have larger hippocampi than those who have developed dementia.
However, while the hippocampus is related to disorders of memory recall, it is also linked with other disorders like epilepsy and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Individuals with epilepsy who experienced chronic seizures are also frequently victims of retrograde amnesia and other memory issues. As for the relation of the hippocampus to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, it is thought that sustained emotional stress can lead to the degradation of neurons within the hippocampus, brought about by the continued release of cortisol by the body in reaction to stress.
Abuse of alcohol can also damage the hippocampus over time. Alcohol has a scattershot effects on the neurons within the hippocampus, activating some receptors while suppressing others. These steroids that are manufactured by neurons under this condition lead to difficulty forming memories and learning, which is the presumed cause of blackouts from heavy drinking. Heavy drinking over long periods of time is also thought to lead to tissue loss, and MRI scans done on alcoholics reveals that they typically have a shrunken hippocampus in comparison to those who don’t drink as heavily.’
The hippocampus tends to degrade as people age, with some studies reporting shrinkage of the hippocampus observed in the elderly compared with the young. Other studies have challenged these findings, although shrinkage of the hippocampus remains heavily tied to memory issues. It is suggested that physical activity can help prevent the hippocampus from degrading during age, and one study found that the even a mild amount of physical activity almost immediately improves memory function.
Recent Research Into The Hippocampus
Recent research into the hippocampus suggests that low-frequency activities within the structure augment sensory responses and enhance conductivity between the different regions of the brain. It is thought that low-frequency activations of the hippocampus help the different parts of the brain integrate with one another and share information, as revealed in experiments done on rodents. FMRI studies done on rodents imply that the thalamus, which has many connections with the hippocampus, initiates neural interactions at various frequencies across the entire brain. Low-frequency activation of the hippocampus is also thought to enhance learning and memory, and the same frequencies are present during slow wave sleep, which is associated with the consolidation of memory and the process of learning.
Other recent studies of the hippocampus have found possible “bravery cells” within the structure. OLM cells, present within the hippocampus, appear to influence both anxiety and risk-taking behaviors, and the stimulation of the cells can influence behavior in different ways. The hippocampus’ association with anxiety is also thought to be an influence on decision-making when weighing what actions should be taken to avoid conflict. Approach avoidance-conflict occurs when a situation can result in either a punishing or rewarding stimuli, and analysis of the anterior hippocampus suggests it’s particularly responsive to conflict and that it could be tied to a larger network that processes decisions relating to conflict.
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Question: What Is The Longest Anaconda?
How big can an anaconda get?
Green anacondas can grow to more than 29 feet, weigh more than 550 pounds, and measure more than 12 inches in diameter. Females are significantly larger than males. Other anaconda species, all from South America and all smaller than the green anaconda, are the yellow, dark-spotted, and Bolivian varieties.
What are the 4 types of anacondas?
The Four Species Of Anacondas
• Green Anaconda –
• Yellow Anaconda –
• Darkly-Spotted Anaconda –
• Bolivian Anaconda – Commonly known as the Beni anaconda or the Bolivian anaconda, the Eunectes beniensis is a nonvenomous species of Boa that is endemic to Bolivia’s Beni Province.
Which is the longest snake in the world?
What’s bigger python or anaconda?
Pythons and Anacondas are no doubt the greatest snakes in the world. Anaconda is the heaviest and the biggest snake in the world. On the other hand, the python is no doubt the longest snake in the world. An anaconda can weigh as much as 550 pounds or more and can grow up to 25 feet.
READ Question: Who Is The Strongest Dog?
How dangerous is an anaconda?
What is the longest anaconda on record?
The largest anaconda ever measured was almost 28 feet long with a girth of 44 inches. She wasn’t weighed at the time she was caught, but scientists estimate that she must have weighed over 500 lbs. The other snake that competes with the anaconda is the Asiatic Reticulated Python (Python reticulatus).
Which is bigger boa or anaconda?
The green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) is the largest snake in the world. Anacondas weigh up to 550 pounds, have a diameter of up to 12 inches and grow up to 30 feet long. Like pythons and boas, anacondas are also predatory constrictors, and are categorized in the class Reptilia, order Squamata.
Are anacondas in the US?
Yellow anacondas have been found in Florida, but FWC doesn’t believe they are breeding. In 2015, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed three anaconda species and the reticulated python as “injurious reptiles” noting that it was criticized for waiting until 2012 to list the Burmese python as injurious.
What can eat a anaconda?
Green anacondas prey on a variety of animals including fish, birds, tapirs, wild pigs, capybaras, and caimans (reptiles similar to alligators). They’ve even been known to eat jaguars. Anacondas are not venomous; they use constriction instead to subdue their prey.
Is Anaconda real snake?
Are black racers aggressive?
Black racers are non-venomous. Black racers won’t generally keep other snakes away. They do sometimes kill and eat other snakes, but they usually prefer other prey. Black racers have been known to hibernate with other snake species, including rattlesnakes and copperheads.
Which is the most poisonous snake in the world?
Inland Taipan
What is the largest recorded snake in history?
READ Question: Who Has The Longest Fingers In The World?
How long is a king cobra?
18 feet
Who is the biggest snake in the world?
How big is a female anaconda?
The anaconda is the heaviest snake in the world. A large individual anaconda might weigh 1,100 pounds (500 kilograms), but will usually top out at a few hundred pounds. Anacondas can measure more than 12 inches (30.5 centimeters) in diameter. Females typically outweigh males.
Do female anacondas eat their mate?
Rivas has documented a few cases of cannibalism in anacondas, in which females have regurgitated mates after eating them. It’s unclear if this female ate her mate; Candisani says they couldn’t see her after she pulled the male into the grass.
How many babies do Anacondas have?
Unlike the majority of snake species, anacondas give birth to live babies—sometimes 40 at a time!
Where are most anacondas found?
Any member of the genus Eunectes, a group of large, aquatic snakes found in South America: Eunectes murinus, the green anaconda – the largest species, found east of the Andes in Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and Trinidad and Tobago.
What is the size of Anaconda?
Are anacondas endangered?
Are anacondas endangered? Not really, but the anaconda belongs to the Boidae (Boa) family of snakes and these species are listed in the CITES II appendix. The CITES II appendix lists species which might become endangered if trade is not controlled.
What is the biggest animal an anaconda can eat?
Besides, anacondas can’t eat an entire, full-grown cow: the largest animal documented to have been consumed by a constrictor is a 130-pound (59-kilogram) impala, eaten by an African rock python in 1955. “It’s absolutely not a capybara,” Indiviglio told LiveScience.
READ Quick Answer: Where In The Us Is The Largest Protected Marine Area?
Do Jaguars eat javelina?
However, if the opportunity presents itself, they will also eat lizards, dead birds and rodents. The main predators of Javelina are mountain lions, humans, coyotes, bobcats and jaguars. In the heat of the day javelina will rest in the shade of a mesquite tree or under rocky outcroppings.
What preys on green anaconda?
Green anacondas feed on large rodents, deer, fish, peccaries, capybaras, tapirs, turtles, birds, dogs, sheep, aquatic reptiles like caiman, and even jaguars. After asphyxiating their prey, they are able to unhinge their jaws to swallow their prey head-first and whole, regardless of size.
Does Anaconda give birth or lay eggs?
Like all boas, anacondas do not lay eggs; instead, they give birth to live young. The young are attached to a yolk sac and surrounded by a clear membrane, not a shell, as they develop in their mother’s body.
Do anacondas eat sloths?
Big forest cats like jaguars and ocelots, birds of prey such as harpy eagles, and large snakes like anacondas prey upon sloths. They defend themselves with their sharp claws and teeth. And, if needed, sloths can move quickly through the trees.
Do snakes give birth or lay eggs?
Only 70 percent of the world’s snakes lay eggs. The rest give birth to live young. Oviparous—or egg-laying—snakes tend to live in warmer climates, which helps incubate their eggs. Viviparous—or live-birthing—snakes tend to live in cooler regions, where the ground is too cold for the eggs to develop on their own.
Are anacondas extinct?
Not extinct
Will anacondas attack humans?
Is Anaconda poisonous or not?
The green anaconda is a member of a family of snakes called constrictors. Constrictors are not venomous snakes. They don’t kill prey by delivering venom through a bite. Instead, constrictors wrap their bodies around their prey and squeeze until it stops breathing.
Photo in the article by “GoodFreePhotos”
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Lamarck maybe because the more nutritious leaves
Published by admin on
Lamarck and Darwin both believed that giraffes developed long necks because that is what they use to consume the leaves high above trees. Lamarck’s theory is that “because their (giraffes) forebears were continually stretching to reach the higher leaves in trees. The desire to reach higher leaves led to longer necks, and later on, the giraffe’s offspring inherited that physical trait”(Natural History, 2005, p. 46). Darwin disagrees with Lamarck when his theory of natural selection stated that the giraffes with longer necks outlived the ones with shorter necks maybe because the more nutritious leaves were at the higher parts of trees.
However, when Lamarck said that unused organs shrivel until they disappear,(Natural History, 2005, p. 46) Darwin was at a loss since his theory of natural selection cannot explain regressive evolution and he finally succumbed to Lamarck’s use it or lose it principle. Darwin, regardless of how great a scientist he is, is not infallible. Robert Simmons has recently voiced out a contradictory view of both Darwin and Lamarck’s theory of why giraffes have long necks. Simmons believes that competition for mates and not stretching for treetop food is what drove the evolution of necks.
According to his observations, when male giraffes battle for mates, they swing their necks of over 6 feet long and weighs over 200 lbs. The momentum of these swings are often lethal, therefore, it is only natural that the victor is the one who possesses the longest and biggest neck. He goes on to say that if the competition for food is what spurred the elongation, then you would expect giraffes to eat the leaves from tall acacia trees rather than grazing on low shrubs. (Discover, 1997, p. 14)
If Simmons’ theory disproves Lamarck’s conclusion that the stretching of the neck was due to food competition, then it can be said that the principle of “Use it or Lose it” can be disproved. To know if whether this principle is still steadfast, we have to consider both sides of the spectrum. The main proponent of Lamarck’s use it or lose it theory is the neutral-mutation hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, “genes controlling the development of unnecessary structures become effectively neutral.
Once the genes neither enhance nor hinder the organism’s survival, the forces that once maintained those genes in good working order no longer operate. The genes accumulate mutation that impair their function, and so the unnecessary genes degenerate” (Natural History, 2005, p. 47). Careful analysis of the use it or lose it scenario shall lead one to believe that if an organ is not anymore needed, it shall degenerate and sooner or later entirely disappear without any effect on the organism except for the loss of an unnecessary part.
A group of scientists that holds a contrary view believes that the loss of one part is due to regressive evolution and not because it is not used. This group espouses the hypotheses that the loss of one organ enhances other organs, in cave fishes for example – “the loss of eyes somehow enhances the efficiency of neural processing or reshapes the fish’s morphology or physiology to better suit a life of total darkness” (Natural History, 2005, p. 47). The main problem faced by this group of scientists is that they need to account for an advantage for the loss of the organ.
The scientists have come up with an answer to their problem, pleiotropy. Pleiotropic effects are the multiple seemingly unrelated characters caused by a single gene. An example of pleiotropy, and the most documented case at that, is the gene associated with sickle cell diseases. People who have this gene suffer from chronic anemia, extreme pain and organ damage but are more immune to malaria because the parasite that causes malaria cannot thrive in blood cells that carry this gene.
The malaria resistance conferred by the sickle-cell gene is a pleiotropic effect, this gene although harmful persists in African communities where there are high incidences of malaria (Natural History, 2005, p. 47). Pleiotropy is now being used to prove why cave-fish lose their eyes and eventually disprove that if you do not use an organ you will lose it. Scientific evidence is now available that tends to prove that cave-fish lose their eyes not because it is not needed and its loss shall not be advantageous or disadvantageous to the fish but because it is evolving.
Borrowsky and Wilken discovered that a gene that controls metabolic rate is closely related to eye development, such that a genetic mutation to improve metabolism can also harm eye development (Natural History, 2005, p. 48). Another group of scientists that came up with evidence to support pleiotropy discovered that a gene called Hedgehog (Hh) was responsible for the development of the size of the eyes of the fish together with its teeth, tastebuds, anterior part of the brain and other craniofacial structures.
They have determined that the development of the eyes was inversely proportional to the number of taste buds, thus the smaller the eyes the greater the number of taste buds and the better is its sense of taste. Another effect of the eyeless sockets is that the bones of the face fill up the empty spaces causing deformity in the fish’s skull, a closer inspection of this showed that due to this deformity the width of the olfactory pit was increased by 13% which likely results in the fish’s enhanced sense of smell.
Finally, there is also evidence that blind people develop above average abilities in specific tasks related to hearing or to touching which can also be explained by pleiotropy (Natural History, 2005, p. 49). In conclusion, the Use it or Lose it principle seems to have lost its appeal among scientists. Gradually, scientists are now discovering new ways to counter this argument and the results are astounding. Evidence such as those enumerated above have already disproved its application to cave-fish and probably eventually, it shall lose its significance in the field of evolution as well.
Categories: Physiology
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Check it out
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Standards Database Logo
World History
Standard 17.Understands the rise of centers of civilization in Mesoamerica and Andean South America in the 1st millennium CE
Level IV [Grade 9-12]
Benchmark 4
Understands urban planning in Mayan culture (e.g., patterns and significance of architectural planning and city planning in Mayan culture and the religious factors that affected these layouts)
Knowledge/skill statement 2
Understands the religious factors that affected the layouts of Mayan cities
Citation reference
BD = benchmark, declarative
BP = benchmark, procedural
BC = benchmark, contextual
K = Knowledge
S = Skill
P = Performance
1st letter/number of each code in parentheses:
B NCHS: Basic Edition
L Lessons from History
W NCHS: World History, expanded edition
2nd letter code :
E = Explicitly stated in document
I = Implicit in document
Page number of the cited document
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Subject: History
Language: English (U.S.)
Pages: 1
write an essay on Arthur Miller’s play Death of a Salesman (1949).
The death of a salesman
The death of a salesman is one of the most famous works of Arthur Miller. The play concerns itself with the painful conflicts that exist for one family and the problems that affect American national values. Ideally, it also focuses on the cost of blind faith in the American Dream. That is, it offers the readers with a post-war American reading related to the personal tragedy in the tradition of Sophocles' Oedipus Cycle. The author sheds light on the capitalist materialism that was promoted by the post-war economy. In this context, the capitalist materialism contributed to obscuring the American Dream by destroying the moral vision and personal truths that the dream was based on. However, Arthur Miller wholly believes in the promise of the American Dream through the idea that a well-liked, attractive, and successful man can acquire the material comforts offered by the modern American life. However, one thing that is odd with Miller in the presentation of the American Dream is his concentration to superficial qualities of attractiveness and likeability which goes against the understanding of the dream that quotes hard work as the key to success.
The primary argument of the American Dream is that any American can achieve financial success and material comforts of life. However, I believe that the focus is a misguided notion and goes against the original dictates of the American Dream. Undoubtedly, the American Dream has been an idea that has raised a lot of contention where a majority of people argue that it is dead while others argue that it ought to be modified to fit the current 21st century. Basically, what everyone cannot contest about is that the American Dream represents a set of ideals for the American citizens where freedom, prosperity, success and social mobility should be achieved through hard work and without many preventable barriers. In the definition of the American what is clear is that riches, or material possessions cannot characterize success.
According to, Khurram, (2013) the American dream is becoming more and more materialistic. That is, Americans are misinterpreting the American dream to mean attainment of luxury goods (Khurram). In the play, Death of a Salesman it depicts the modern and shattered definition of the American dream that lays more emphasis on material possessions rather than what it was intended to provide. Many theorists have proved the fact that Americans are living mundane lives. In another article by White, (2011) she maintains that the desire for financial security has replaced the drive for financial success. That is, Americans are focused on living the American dream by the accumulation of wealth and buying things that they do not need (White). Undoubtedly, the characters in the play achieve success wealth in different ways, and one might argue that Arthur Miller depicts the American Dream in a perfect manner. However, I maintain that success or prosperity is more than material possessions.
The characters in the play achieve financial success in different ways. For example, Ben takes a journey into the wilderness of Alaska where he discovers a gold mine. Howard Wagner attains economic fulfillment by inheriting his father's company. On the other hand, Bernard works hard in school after his brother's success influenced him and later becomes successful. The argument as put forth by Miller is that all the three live the American dream since they finally get rich. Even for Bernard who seems to have taken a long journey towards his desired destination is influenced by the notion that a man who is manly, charismatic, good-looking and well-liked deserves success and he or she will finally achieve it. However, one fact that is not put across is the definition of success in the context of the American Dream.
One character that seems to define the American Dream well is Willy. In the course of the play, Willy falls short of his American Dream. However, it is important to note that the primary focus of the tragedy is not Willy's failure to live up to his promised American Dream but rather the fact that he concentrates so much on the American Dream to ignore the intangible things around him. The elusive dreams in this context refer to the love of his family that he ignores in such of financial security. At the end of the play, he ends up sacrificing himself to give his family money from his life insurance policy. That is, he kills himself for money. Without a doubt, he proves that the American Dream can be a dominant source of aspiration and at the same time it can turn somebody into a product whose value is financial worth.
The American dream motivates Ben, Howard, and Bernard to take the actions that they take. Clearly, the American Dream is different to every one of them. Ben aims at getting to the American Dream through luck by lurking into the African and Alaska wilderness. Finally, he discovers a gold mine, and according to him, he was living the American dream. On the other hand, Howard tends to inherit the dream from his father by owning the company while Bernard becomes a lawyer through hard work and success. In this case, Howard manages to live the full definition of the American Dream that is characterized by freedom, prosperity, success and social mobility (Luttwak). Howard proves that success is not the only attainment of financial success. That is, material possession is only an outcome of hard work and determination which is the main ingredient in living the American Dream. The case of Willy acts as a focal case that sums the entirety of the work that the American Dream is not just about financial worth or tangible assets but also a focus on non-financial things such as love (Luttwak). However, one thing that is odd with Miller in the presentation of the American Dream is his concentration to superficial qualities of attractiveness and likeability which goes against the understanding of the dream that quotes hard work as the key to success.
The play Death of a Salesman is similar to The Iceman Cometh by Eugene O’Neill. The both are similar in that the death of a salesman speaks about the American Dream while The Iceman Cometh focuses on the pipe dream. Similarly, the two has characters who fight to attain a dream. In the play by Eugene, there are characters such as Paritt’s mother who considers the pipe dream as a dream of political salvation. Also, there is another character, Hickey who considers the dream to be explicitly religious.
Furthermore, the two works have characters who are so attached to the dreams that they end up taking rational decisions. Clearly, the two works have a common idea and how the characters achieve the dreams form the activities and events of the entire film.
It is important to understand why Arthur Miller decides to use the theme, American Dream in his work. In the modern time, the American dream has become iconic. In the past, the dream was easy to define since people strived to get a college degree, get a job, buy a good house and get a family. However, after the Great Depression, everything changed where people aimed at attaining financial prosperity and safety net (Bordo, Claudia, and Eugene). More specifically, those attaining the age of retirement have been said to focus a lot on attaining financial safety net. According to statistics, at least half of the American population (44%) claim that they work more than their parents when they were their age. In a survey by Metlife, at least eighty percent of the participants maintained that living the American dream is crucial although measuring it has changed over the years. In the same study, 41% of the respondents posited that the American dream is more of a personal fulfillment agenda (Bordo, Claudia, and Eugene). Based on these statistics and arguments, it is no doubt that Arthur Miller based the theme of the American Dream as the major idea in his play.
Arthur Miller goes a long way in covering the theme of the American Dream. Through different characters, he shows how people can attain and live the dream. However, as mentioned Miller's presentation of the dream where he focuses on superficial attractiveness and likeability goes against the understanding of the dream that quotes working hard as the key to success. The focus on the American Dream has also been likened to Eugene O'Neill's work in The Iceman Cometh where the characters seem to work towards a certain defined dream.
Works Cited
Bordo, Michael D, Goldin Claudia and N Eugene. The Defining Moment: The Great Depression and the American Economy in the Twentieth Century . University of Chicago Press, 2007.
Khurram, Shanzeh. “Is the American Dream Becoming Too Materialistic? .” 17 February 2013. A Huffpost Web site.
Luttwak, Edward N. Endangered American Dream. Simon and Schuster, 2010.
White, Martha C. “American Dream Deferred: We Now Embrace More Modest, Personal Goals.” 1 December 2011. A Time Web site.
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European eel larval migration animation from the Sargasso Sea to Europe: Why do some stay behind?
Published on
September 24, 2018
European eel Anguilla anguilla migrates 5 to 6,000 km from the European continent to the Sargasso Sea to reproduce (Schmidt, 1923). This animation based on length and distribution of the offspring shows how leptochephalus larvae of European eel pop up in the Sargasso spawning grounds at a size of ~3 mm. European eel was identified as having 112-119 myomeres and was therewith distinguished from the American eel A. rostrata with 103-111 myomeres (Smith, 1989). The growing European eel larvae also appear close to the coasts of the USA and islands such as Cuba. The larvae grow steadily up to a size of ~40 mm which they reach in September (Miller et al., 2015), and at this size they appear to leave the Sargasso. They migrate towards the European continent which they reach at a size of ~80 mm. Upon arrival at the continental shelf they metamorphose into small transparent eels called glass eels. Glass eels stay in the brackish tributaries or migrate upstream the fresh waters and start their growth stage as pigmented yellow eels. However, there is a group of larvae that does not migrate towards Europe and that stays behind in the Sargasso Sea. These individuals grow further over 90 mm. What will happen with these larvae? Will they grow even further and will they metamorphose? Will they migrate later and if so, when? A year later together with a new generation of eels? Or will they stay, and will they die?
This animation was made with Tableau ( and based on data from the ICES data portal of eggs and larvae (
Please cite as: Van Mil, J.G.M. and Palstra, A.P. (2018) European eel larval migration animation from the Sargasso Sea to Europe: Why do some stay behind? Retrieved from
This publication was supported by the DUPAN foundation; the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs and the European Union, European Maritime and Fisheries Fund. The authors thank our partners of the international EELRIC consortium (
• Miller, M.J.,Bonhommeau, S., Munk, P., Castonguay, M., Hanel, R., McCleave, J.D. (2015) A century of research on the larval distributions of the Atlantic eels: a re-examination of the data. Biol. Rev., 90, 1035–1064.
• Schmidt, J. (1923) Breeding places and migration of the eel. Nature 111, 51–54.
• Smith, D. G. (1989). Family Anguillidae: Leptocephali. In Fishes of the Western North Atlantic (ed. E. B. Böhlke), pp. 898–899. Sears Foundation for Marine Research, New Haven.
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star-spangledThe “Star-Spangled Banner” is the national anthem, or national song, of the United States. The words are from a poem that was written by Francis Scott Key in 1814. During the War of 1812, on September 13, 1814, Key watched a night-time battle between Great Britain and America that took place in Baltimore, Maryland at Fort McHenry. He was trying to secure the release of prisoners but ended up being detained and held by the British. The bombing of Fort McHenry continued throughout the night, and the American flag, the symbol of our nation, was not always visible. If the flag was not flying or was replaced with a British flag, it would mean that the British had captured the fort.
When he could see that the American flag was still flying in the morning, he wrote a poem that tells the story of his experience. It began with these words:
O say can you see, by the dawn’s early light,
What so proudly we hail’d at the twilight’s last gleaming,
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight
O’er the ramparts we watch’d were so gallantly streaming?
And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there,
O say does that star-spangled banner yet wave
In the 1800’s the song was performed and sung at public events; the poem was written to be sung to a popular British melody called, “To Anacreon in Heaven.”
One of the original flags that flew over Fort McHenry in 1814 is called the “Star-Spangled Banner.” This flag is old and fragile, but is now being cared for at the National Museum of American History in Washington, DC.
“Star-Spangled Banner” facts and figures:
• In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed an Executive Order to make it our national anthem.
• In 1931, President Herbert Hoover signed a Public Law that made it the official national anthem.
• “To Anacreon in Heaven” came from the Anacreontic Society, which was a group that gathered in London in the 1700s to promote interest in music.
To listen to the anthem, view one of the original copies of the poem written by Francis Scott Key, and to view images of the original flag, see the Smithsonian’s Star Spangled Banner site.
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Tuesday, October 31, 2017
The Reformation: Henry & Luther
By Samantha Wilcoxson
Martin Luther and the 95 Theses
by Ferdinand Pauwels, 1872
On October 31, 1517, a monk named Martin Luther nailed his 'Disputation on the Power of Indulgences' to the door of Castle Church in the village of Wittenberg, Germany. He had no way of knowing that his desire to discuss and debate the Catholic Church practice would cause his name to go down in history. Five hundred years later, Luther's name is boldly emblazoned upon the facades of thousands of churches, and his call for discussion is better known as the 95 Theses.
Some historians have questioned whether Luther really posted his comments on the eve of All Saint's Day, wondering if the meaningful date is correct or whether it is a task that the professor of theology would have carried out himself. However, the events and changes that resulted from Luther's actions and writings cannot be denied, even if the theses nailing to the church door may be myth posing as history. Thanks to the boldness of one German monk and the innovation of the printing press, what it meant to be a Christian changed across Europe.
Because of the Gutenberg printing press, Luther's ideas did not remain quietly within the village of Wittenberg. They were translated from Latin into German, and eventually other languages, and spread like wildfire. Unlike reformers of the past, who were often limited by their own geography, Luther became a voice against the corruption of the Catholic Church far beyond his little corner of the world. By the following year, Luther was charged with heresy and had to return from his hearing in Augsburg under the protection of Friedrich III of Saxony.
Martin Luther's
On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church
In England, Luther's ideas were countered by the king himself. Henry VIII wrote his 'Defense of the Seven Sacraments' in response to Luther's treatise, 'On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church.' It was this work of Luther's more than the 95 Theses that outlined his grievances against the Catholic Church. (Some historians question whether the work in Henry's 'Defense' can be completely attributed to him, but we shall assume here that it can.) In 1521, Martin Luther was excommunicated while Henry was awarded by the Pope with the title of Defender of the Faith.
Excommunication did not slow Luther down. He translated the Bible into German (helping define and unite the common German language), attended the Diet of Worms where he made his famous 'I neither can nor will recant' statement, and got into a bit of an argument with the King of England.
The 'little monk,' as Henry had called him in his 'Defense' did not hesitate to respond to his detractor. Luther was perhaps the first to publicly question Henry's authorship of the treatise, claiming that it should not be taken seriously for the king did not even write it. Soon afterward, Luther apologized for the accusation and attacked Wolsey, 'the scourge of thy kingdom,' instead. This, of course, did not earn Henry's forgiveness, but only spurred him to defend the minister he depended upon so heavily at that time.
Henry VIII's
Defense of the Seven Sacraments
In typical Henry VIII style, the king used Luther's accusation later when he wished to dissolve his marriage with Katherine of Aragon. Claiming that it was Wolsey's hand behind his defense of the sacrament of marriage, Henry appealed for support. Luther, who in his booklet 'Against Henry, King of the English' had been open-handed with insults for the king, gave his support to the devoutly Catholic Katherine. Among other choice words, Luther accused the king of being 'a fool,' 'effeminately querulous,' and 'stupid.'
Henry began as a staunch supporter of the Catholic Church while Luther hoped to reform it. Despite their original intentions, it was Henry who broke with Rome while Protestants took up Luther's name to apply it to their own movement. These two men's motivations were completely different, although they led to the same result. Henry began the Church of England to exert his own authority over that of the pope, while Luther had not intended to start his own church but to correct the corruption in Rome.
Both men took their important places in Reformation history, though neither began with the goal of separating from Rome. With the benefit of 500 years of hindsight, we can see how each of these men helped lead the Protestant movement. Henry set the stage for reformation in England, despite the fact that his faith was Catholic in all tenets besides papal authority, with his 1534 Act of Supremacy. Once the break had been made, it was easy for his son, Edward VI, or advisors acting with his authority, to usher in full Protestantism.
Henry VIII and the Barber Surgeons
by Hans Holbein the Younger
Luther agreed with Henry that the Pope was not the highest or an infallible authority. However, while Henry wished to place himself above all others, Luther preached that the Bible alone - sola scriptura - could offer the authority of God. They would have also agreed upon the true presence of Jesus' body and blood in the sacramental bread and wine. Henry had subjects punished for denying transubstantiation, and it was a point that Luther refused to budge on despite the urging of other reformists. Christians today remain divided on the topic.
These two giants of the early 16th century died less than a year apart, Martin Luther on February 18, 1546, and Henry on January 28, 1547. One can only imagine what they would think of the impact that their ideas and actions continue to have on our society 500 years later.
Additional Reading
Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet by Lyndal Roper
Various writings of Henry VIII and Martin Luther
All images in the public domain through Wikimedia Commons
Friday, October 27, 2017
The debacle in Weardale - or how a young king learnt a valuable lesson
by Anna Belfrage
Bannockburn as depicted in Holkham Bible
In 1327, a very young Edward III rode out of York at the head of an army. His purpose was to find and destroy the Scots who were presently raiding northern England, leaving destruction in their wake. Edward was not having it, all of him quivering in anticipation at the thought of teaching these dratted Scots a lesson. After all, Bannockburn was still an open sore for the English, and our gallant young king wanted nothing so much as to show the Scots he too could hammer them. Just like his grandfather had done.
Not everyone was as enthused as Edward. Notably the king’s mother and her constant companion and co-regent, Roger Mortimer, had no desire to provoke a full out war with Scotland. First of all, they were already in some sort of negotiation with Robert Bruce—they had been since 1326 when they promised Bruce a permanent treaty if he did not take advantage of the turbulent situation caused by their invasion of England and subsequent imprisonment and deposition of Edward II. Secondly, England was as yet not fully pacified. Yes, by the summer of 1327 Mortimer had control of most of the kingdom, but there were several very strong barons who were severely disenchanted by the fact that England was now ruled by Isabella and Mortimer. Men like Henry of Lancaster, Edmund of Woodstock (earl of Kent) and several others felt they too should have a say in how the realm was governed during the king’s minority.
Robert Bruce
The reason Robert Bruce had agreed to hold off while Mortimer and Isabella did their invading thing was because he wanted a permanent peace. His country needed peace, and a treaty would not only give Scotland that but also confirm Robert Bruce as king, thereby strengthening the Bruce dynasty. At the time, Robert Bruce was all of fifty-three and fully aware of the fact that he would likely not live much longer. His heir was a boy of three and Robert knew his countrymen well enough to know a boy-king could quickly become a pawn—or even worse, ousted.
Edward III being crowned
Robert watched from afar as Mortimer and Isabella landed in September of 1326, sat on his hands throughout the following months as Isabella and Mortimer took control over the country. Come February of 1327, Edward II had abdicated, Edward III was crowned, and Bruce expected the treaty with Scotland to be the next item on the agenda. It wasn’t. Isabella and Mortimer had a kingdom to heal, an administration to put in order, muttering barons to be put in their place. On the other side of the border, Robert the Bruce grew impatient. When the negotiations were yet again put on hold—or broke down, depending on whose POV you applied—the Scottish king decided to do some serious prodding. He ordered his two captains, James Douglas and Thomas Randolph to invade northern England and create havoc.
Which is why, in July of 1327, Edward III did all that mustering. An impressive English army took the field, led by the Earl Marshal of the realm (Edward’s uncle, the earl of Norfolk), the earl of Kent (Edward’s other uncle) and the earl of Lancaster who was more than happy to ride against the Scots as a lot of the raiding was done on his land plus he suspected the king's campaign against the Scots had seriously twisted Mortimer’s nose out of joint. Whatever Mortimer’s private thoughts on this matter, he too rode with the king. While not given an official command, I think it’s a safe bet to assume Mortimer was very much on top of things—it sort of went with his nature.
Edward was of the firm opinion that Scotland was his kingdom. He had his forces ride under the cross of St George, bright red crosses flapping in the wind as the English army advanced. As an aside, Edward III had a serious thing about St George, whom he considered a far more appropriate saint for his bellicose ambitions than Edward the Confessor. This is why he founded a college dedicated to St George at Windsor (which then took over the chapel previously dedicated to St Edward) and why the red cross is part of the insignia for the Order of Bath. Right: not today’s topic.
James Douglas was as capable as any of the commanders on the English side. This hero of the Scottish people had stood by his king through thick and thin and would continue to do so as long as he had breath in his body. He had only one objective with his raiding: to force the English back to the negotiation table, there to recognise Scottish independence and Robert the Bruce as Scottish king. Made Edward almost choke just to think of doing so. His grandfather had fought long and hard to bring the Scots to bay, and our Edward was not about to give back what he considered his.
So off the English army went, eager to corner the Scots and force them to fight. Douglas was no fool. He'd be outnumbered on the battlefield. Instead, he led his mounted men in a cat-and-mouse game. If Edward and his men rode one way, the Scots would ride the other and set whatever buildings they came across alight. If the English turned towards the destruction, chances were new fires would spring to life behind them. Very frustrating. I imagine Edward took every opportunity offered to call these elusive Scots craven and misbegotten creatures.
The Scots were neither craven or misbegotten. After some weeks of playing the scarlet pimpernel with the English (you know: they seek him here, they seek him there. Is he in heaven or is he in hell, that darned elusive pimpernel?) Douglas found a nice, strong position and set up camp. He also had one of his English captives released, ordering the man to find Edward and tell him the Scots were waiting to do him battle.
James Douglas among his peers
“Yes!” Edward exclaimed. “Finally!” His commanders were not quite as delighted. Mortimer especially had far too much respect for Douglas to believe Sir James had set himself up as an easy kill. He hadn’t. Douglas had chosen his position carefully. A hill, defended by the river Wear and steep slopes, with Douglas’ colours—three silver stars on a blue background—flapping lazily in the wind. Mortimer groaned inwardly, even more so when Edward started talking about what strategies to use to pulverise the Scots.
“You can’t fight them up that hill,” Mortimer told his young king.
“Of course, I can. But I’ll start by inviting him to come down and meet us on the flat ground, prove he is as brave as they say.”
“He’s brave, not a complete idiot,” Mortimer probably replied. “What commander worth his salt would give up that position?”
Mortimer was right. Sir James politely declined Edward’s invitation to come down from his hill, and Edward decided it was time to show the Scots just who had the upper hand. He ordered his archers to advance. The English (and Welsh) archers were the best in the world, and as soon as they came within range, they’d fill those dratted Scots with more arrows than a hedgehog has spines. Douglas was fully aware of how deadly the English archers were. He waited until they were wading the river, or making a hesitant approach up the slopes before attacking them. Dead archers everywhere, making it clear Edward had no hand at all—not in this game of war poker.
An exhausted and dispirited English army settled down for the night. Weeks of chasing the Scots, of more or less constant rain, of insufficient food, had left Edward’s men weak and grumpy. Their Scottish foes were made of sterner stuff: no sooner had the summer night begun to darken, but the Scots began an all-night party, blowing horns and clashing swords against shields. Impossible to sleep in, so to all their other woes, Edward’s men could now add sleep-deprivation.
Come morning, a host of pale and shivering Englishmen did their best to look intimidating and warlike, all of them probably hoping there wouldn’t be a battle this day. There wasn’t. James stuck to his hill and come nightfall the Scots repeated last night’s procedure. Blaring horns, steel against steel, and the English tossed and turned, further plagued by the drifting scents of roasted meat.
A couple of nights of this, and then suddenly, just before dawn, the Scots went quiet.
“Finally!” the English exclaimed, sinking into blissful oblivion. When they woke, it was to discover Douglas had snuck away, leading his men to a new, if possible even more impregnable, position.
Edward spent some time cursing the Scottish dogs to hell and back. Didn’t help much. He ordered the English army to follow Douglas and set up a new camp.
For a change, that August day was a nice day. No rain, and once the tents had been set up and the fires lit, the English had yet another pleasant surprise: the Scots were obviously too tired to repeat the hullabaloo of the preceding nights so the summer night was fragrant and wonderfully silent.
The king and his earls had supper with Mortimer. Plans were drawn up for the next day. Some wine, some good food and they took to their beds—as did the rest of the men. Which is when some of them registered the sound of many horses, approaching at a gallop.
Out of nowhere—or so it seemed—came the Scots. Armed with torches and spears, they charged through the English camp. Some wielded swords to cut the guy ropes, thereby causing the tents to collapse. Others set fire to the tents, or skewered the people trapped within on their spears.
Like witless hens, the English ran before the Scots. Some emerged with sword in hand and began to fight back. Others died. Quite a lot of others. The Scots thundered on, making for the tent flying the royal colours. Swish, and the guy lines were cut. Like a cut soufflé, the tent fell together, trapping the young king inside. The Scots were only moments away from abducting him, but Edward’s men rallied and the Scots backed away. A horn blew. Douglas, calling for help. The horn blew again, and the Scots rode to their lord’s defence. Some moments later, they were gone, leaving a trail of carnage behind them.
Next morning, Douglas and his men were gone, riding hard for Scotland. Standing in the shambles of his camp, the young Edward had learnt a valuable lesson: never underestimate your enemy.
A year or so later, a treaty with Scotland was concluded, sealed by the marriage of Edward’s little sister, Joan, to Robert the Bruce’s little son, David. Edward didn’t want the treaty. He wanted Scotland. But other than never to underestimate, he had also learnt another lesson: bide your time. So he did. For a while.
Thursday, October 26, 2017
Pelagianism: A Greater Threat to Christianity Than Pagans
By Kim Rendfeld
17th-century Calvinist print
6th century fresco, Lateran, Rome
Stained glass window in Truro Cathedral, c.1907
Public domain images from Wikimedia Commons.
Daily Life in Arthurian Britain by Deborah J. Shepherd
Pelagius and Pelagianism” by Joseph Pohle, The Catholic Encyclopedia
Semipelagianism” by Joseph Pohle, The Catholic Encyclopedia
Who Was Pelagius?” 5 Minutes in Church History
Germanus,” Encyclopaedia Romana
“Pelagianism,” Encyclopaedia Romana http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/earlychurch/germanus.html
St. Germain” by Andrew MacErlean, The Catholic Encyclopedia
Antiquities of the British Churches by Edward Stillingfleet
She has also written two novels set in 8th century Europe.
Tuesday, October 24, 2017
Plants vs. Winter: The Origins of English Conservatories
by K.M. Pohlkamp
Your ruthless Viscount patron has commissioned a heinous new poison. Your stores of toxic cuttings and seeds are running low and the backyard garden is blanketed with snow. Dear assassin, how will you grow the plant ingredients you need?
This dilemma developed while writing my historical novel, Apricots and Wolfsbane, set in the early 1500’s England. Yes, my assassin could have simply harvested a sufficient supply of seeds and cuttings during the previous fall. Yawn. She could have purchased supplies from a shadowy figure in the alley. Instead, I had her bartered for access to a solarium.
Since my character exists in early Tudor England, like a good historical fiction author, I began research period solariums only to find the word didn’t exist until about the mid 1800’s.
Well then.
A quick find and replace later, my assassin’s solarium transformed into a greenhouse.
Problem solved, right?
After all, greenhouse technology was first used in about 30 A.D. to provide the Roman emperor Tiberius with an ample supply of “cucumbers” which physicians believed would ward off his ailments. (Historical note: he likely did not eat cucumbers, but rather melons that lacked sweetness.)
The Roman philosopher, Pliny the Elder, described those first Roman greenhouses as:
“beds mounted on wheels which they moved out into the sun and then on wintry days withdrew under the cover of frames glazed with transparent stone.”
The “transparent stone” roofs were thin sheets of mica that were kept warm by maintained fires outside of the stone walls.
It wasn’t until the 13th century that the Italians built the first modern greenhouses (Giardini botanici) which fostered new species brought home by explorers of Africa, the Middle East, Asia and, later, the New World. Development of the concept spread and by 1450, Korea also had “temperature controlled” houses as documented by Jeon Son in his 1459 cookbook, Sanga Yorok.
These early structures comprised of modest wood or metal frames with glass. In southern Europe, a simple roof or a wall of windows maintained sufficient warmth thanks to the “greenhouse effect.” During the day, sunlight warmed the interior of the structure and the glass trapped enough residual heat to keep the plants content throughout the night, even in winter.
This was all great if my assassin was Italian, or Korean, or Spanish. But she’s English. Those early, simple concepts of passive heating proved insufficient against the harsh winter of Northern Europe.
Thankfully for her (and me), the concept of greenhouses finally took root in England in the 16th century. But even before that time, the value of moving plants inside during cold nights was well understood by the English.
The Gardener's Labyrinth, written by Thomas Hill in 1577 under the pseudonym Didymus Mountain, was the first common gardening book written in English. The book describes the concept of a greenhouse by referencing Tiberius’ original inspiration: (You can download the beautiful original document here.)
“The young plants may be defended from cold and boisterous windes, yea, frosts, the cold aire, and hot Sunne, if Glasses made for the onely purpose, be set over them, which on such wise bestowed on the beds, yeelded in a manner to Tiberius Caesar, Cumbers all year, in which he took great delight . . .”
In the 17th century, glasshouses in Britain came to be called “orangeries,” developed to shelter citrus imported from Spain. Orangeries were originally built as extensions to large buildings but evolved to be separate structures. To fight the brutal winter, early English orangeries featured a charcoal underfloor heating system that dispersed warmth through channels called “hypocausts.” The structures had solid roofs and walls, usually with a large door to facilitate relocation of the trees. Maintenance of the greenhouses required attentive care to close at night and prepare for winter weather.
The popularity of orangeries grew in 1689 when William III took the crown of England, Ireland and Scotland. Also around this time in 1661, Louis XIV commissioned a great glasshouse for Versailles measuring 150 m (490 ft) long, 13 m (43 ft) wide, and 14 m (46 ft) high. These events further transformed glasshouses from university, government and scientific institutions into symbols of aristocracy and the social elite. In England, this status was especially bolstered by the 1696 “window tax” and the 1764 “glass tax.”
The great English conservatories were born.
The word “conservatory” is derived from the Latin conservato (meaning “stored or preserved”) and the Latin root ory (meaning “a place for”). However, the word came to invoke glazed structures for conserving or protecting plants from cold weather.
John Nash designed four conservatories for Buckingham Palace in 1825. However, when William IV ordered remodeling of the palace, one of the conservatories was moved to Kew in 1836. The structure remains the oldest, fully glazed greenhouse still standing. The design features structural columns to support the heavy weight of the glass panel roof and walls.
Nash House at Kew Gardens. Photo from Reference [3].
As symbols of prestige, glasshouses became cutting edge with increasing innovations. The magnificent glass and iron greenhouse of the Palm House in Kew was constructed under Queen Victoria between 1844 and 1848 by architect Decimus Burton and iron worker Richard Turner. To achieve construction on the massive scale, architects borrowed techniques from the shipbuilding industry, which provides rationale for why the building resembles an overturned hull. The structure consists of wrought iron arches held together by horizontal tubular structures containing long pressed cables. The center of the greenhouse nave is 19 m (62 ft) high.
Palm House Green House. Photo from www.kew.org
Sir Joseph Paxton, the gardens superintendent for the Duke of Devonshire, supervised the construction of an iron-framed Great Conservatory at Chatsworth house between 1836 and 1841. The conservatory covered three-quarters of an acre, and at the time, was the largest glass building in the world. Shaped like a tent, it measured 20.5 meters (67 ft) high and 84 m (277 ft) long. Eight boilers heated the conservatory, requiring the operation of ten men and seven miles of iron pipe. During the Great War, the massive amounts of coal required became unavailable, but all the gardeners were enlisted anyway. Unattended, all the contained plants perished and the Great Conservatory was demolished in 1920.
However, the Great Conservatory became Paxton’s model for the Crystal Palace. Constructed in 22 weeks, the Crystal Palace covered 19 acres and was the largest enclosed space at the time. Containing 293,625 panes of glass, the palace spread five times as long as the Palm House (undoubtedly on purpose), and higher than Westminster Abbey. For his efforts, Paxton was knighted by Queen Victoria.
The Crystal Palace. Photo from the BBC Hulton Picture Library.
The Crystal Palace was destroyed by fire on the night of November 30, 1936. The two surviving towers were demolished in 1941. The Walt Disney World Magic Kingdom restaurant of the same name was not modeled after the Crystal Palace in London, as you might expect, but rather by after the San Francisco’s conservatory of Flowers.
As all fads, the greenhouse craze would not last. Britain’s expanding empire and new wealth from the Industrial Revolution enabled the construction of an increasing number of glasshouses. However, the Industrial Revolution also decreased the cost of making glass so severely that the glass and window taxes were abolished in 1845 and 1851, respectively. Glasshouses subsequently became affordable to the English middle class and businessmen quickly realized that caste represented a larger consumer base potential. By the early 20th century, plain, self-assembled, small glasshouses were manufactured with iron structures for the common home garden.
After hours of research, I determined it is possible my English assassin could have had access to a rudimentary glasshouse - if her connections possessed sufficient wealth. Such structures were not common in early Tudor England, but the concepts and technology were understood. However my research posed a new dilemma only I could answer: would access to such a luxury allow my ambitious assassin to prevail . . .
[1] Bruno, Gwen. “A Short History of the Greenhouse.” Dave’s Garden. March 1, 2012. Accessed July 13, 2017. http://davesgarden.com/guides/articles/view/3607#
[2] “History of the Conservatory” Richmond Oak Conservatories Ltd. Accessed July 15, 2017. http://www.oakconservatories.co.uk/history-of-the-conservatory/
[3] Hodgson, Larry. “A Brief History of the Greenhouse.” Laidback Gardener. January 27, 2016. Accessed July 12, 2017. https://laidbackgardener.wordpress.com/2016/01/27/a-brief-history-of-the-greenhouse/
[4[ Mountain, Didymus. The Gardener's Labyrinth. 1577.
[5] Paris, H.S. et al. “What the Roman emperor Tiberius grew in his greenhouses.” Cucurbitaceae 2008, Proceedings of the IXth EUCARPIA meeting on genetics and breeding of Cucurbitaceae (Pitrat M, ed), INRA, Avignon (France), May 21-24th, 2008.
[6] “The Crystal Palace.” Disney Vacation Planner. Accessed July 16, 2017. http://www.solarius.com/dvp/wdw/crystal-palace.htm
[7] “The First Greenhouses: From Rome, to America.” RIMOL Greenhouse Systems Blog. February 4, 2013. Accessed July 14, 2017. https://www.rimolgreenhouses.com/blog/the-first-greenhouses-from-rome-to-america
[8] “Way Back When: A history of the English Glasshouse” Hartley Magazine. September 3, 2015. Accessed July 13, 2017. https://hartley-botanic.co.uk/magazine/a-history-of-the-english-glasshouse/
K.M. Pohlkamp is the author of the Tudor-era novel, Apricots and Wolfsbane, following the career of a female poison assassin. She is a proud mother of two, a blessed wife to the love of her life, and a Mission Control flight controller at NASA. Originally from Wisconsin, she now resides in Houston, Texas.
Twitter: @KMPohlkamp
Thursday, October 19, 2017
Henry Mayhew and the London Poor: The Lives of Street Sellers
By Mark Patton.
In an earlier blog-post, I followed the experiences of a stranger from the English countryside, newly arrived in London at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, and I quoted the campaigning journalist, Henry Mayhew, describing the "sauntering forth of the unwashed poor" at the beginning of the day, as observed from the vantage-point of the balcony on the dome of Saint Paul's Cathedral.
Mayhew is one of the most important historical sources for anyone seeking to understand the life of London's streets in the first half of the Nineteenth Century. His writings on downward social mobility were surely coloured, at least in part, by his personal experience. Born in London in 1812, and educated at Westminster School, he ran away to sea as a teenager. On top of a failed career as a merchant seaman, he had failed careers as a lawyer, a playwright, and a theatre impresario, and spent much of his adult life on the brink of bankruptcy. He co-founded Punch magazine in 1841, but was manoeuvred out before it became a profitable venture.
Henry Mayhew, based on a Daguerrotype by Richard Beard (image is in the Public Domain).
He is best remembered for a series of articles that he wrote for The Morning Chronicle in 1849, based on interviews with some of London's poorest residents, ranging from barrow-boys and chimney-sweeps, to mudlarks and prostitutes. These articles were brought together, in 1851, in a three-volume work entitled London Labour and the London Poor, to which a fourth volume was added in 1861. His interviews are thought to have influenced many of the fictional accounts of the time, including Charles Dickens's novel, Our Mutual Friend, Charles Kingsley's Alton Locke, and Elizabeth Gaskell's Ruth.
A young man or woman arriving in London from the countryside between 1800 and 1850 might hope, depending on his or her level of skill and literacy, to find employment as a clerk, a shop-worker, a dress-maker, or a domestic servant, but such positions were rarely secure: employers hired and fired at will; businesses often failed; and few bosses would keep positions open for employees who suffered illness or injury. In such circumstances, people had to fall back on their own resources, and many of those interviewed by Mayhew were, one way or another, precariously self-employed.
A street seller of nutmeg-graters and funnels: this man was crippled from birth, and had to pay someone to help dress him in the mornings (image is in the Public Domain).
A street seller of apples (image is in the Public Domain).
A street seller of oysters (image is in the Public Domain).
A street seller of combs (image is in the Public Domain).
One such was a man who sold ham sandwiches on the streets of the West End. "I hardly remember my father," he told the journalist, "but I believe, if he'd lived, I should have been better off ... My brother had gone into the sandwich trade ... and he advised me to be a ham sandwich-man, and so I started as one. At first, I made 10s., and 7s., and 8s. a week - that's seven years or so - but things are worse now, and I make 3s. 6d. some weeks, and 5s. others ... My rent's 2s. a week, but I haven't my own things ... I used to buy my sandwiches at 6d. a dozen, but I found that wouldn't do; and now I buy and boil the stuff, and make them myself. What did cost me 6d., now only costs me 4d. ... "
The sandwich seller might have been, in modern terms, "just about managing" (he did, at least, have a home to go to at night, with facilities for boiling ham); and, in Victorian terms, one of the "deserving poor" (making a living through his own efforts, rather than seeking charity or resorting to crime), but this did not always protect him from abuse by those better off than he was:
"Six times I've been upset by drunken fellows on purpose, I've no doubt, and lost all my stock. Once, a gent kicked my basket into the dirt ... I've been bilked by cabmen, who've taken a sandwich; but, instead of paying for it, have offered to fight me ... we're knocked about sadly by the Police."
Unlike many on the streets, this man was literate:
"I read a bit, if I can get anything to read, for I was at St Clement's School; or I walk out and look for a job. On summer-days I sell a trotter or two. But mine's a wretched life, and so is most ham sandwich-men. I've no enjoyment of my life and no comfort."
Most of Mayhew's interviews provide us only with a snapshot of an individual's life, and we do not know what became of this young man. On the one hand, he might have found employment a few days later; on the other, the briefest of illnesses could have ended his business and left him destitute, with few opportunities to claw his way back.
Mark Patton blogs regularly on aspects of historical fiction and non-fiction at https://mark-patton.blogspot.co.uk. He is a published author of historical fiction and non-fiction, whose books may be purchased from Amazon.
Wednesday, October 18, 2017
By Derek Birks
Part 1…
Courtesy of Wikimedia
2) for Edward, Earl of March, in 1461
3) for Henry VI upon his readeption in 1470.
Just how powerful and influential was Warwick?
Warwick from the Rous Rolls via Wikimedia
Was the alliance with York the work of Warwick?
Amazon author sites: amazon.co.ukamazon.com
Tuesday, October 17, 2017
The Aristocracy in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries
by Annie Whitehead
Bede depicted in the Nurumberg Chronicle
king, saint, and gospel
the king with his council
Amazon Page
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Caspian gull explained
The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) is a large gull and a member of the herring and lesser black-backed gull complex. The scientific name is from Latin. Larus appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird, and cachinnans means "laughing", from cachinnare, "to laugh".[1]
It is a large gull at 56– long, with a 137to wingspan and a body mass of 680–. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 38.5to, the bill is 4.6to and the tarsus is 5.8to. The Caspian gull has a long, slender bill, accentuated by the sloping forehead. The legs, wings, and neck are longer than those of the herring gull and yellow-legged gull. The eye is small and often dark, and the legs vary from pale pink to a pale yellowish colour. The back and wings are a slightly darker shade of grey than the herring gull, but slightly paler than the yellow-legged gull. The outermost primary feather has a large white tip and a white tongue running up the inner web.
First-winter birds have a pale head with dark streaking on the back of the neck. The underparts are pale and the back is greyish. The greater and median wing coverts have whitish tips forming two pale lines across the wing.
The Caspian gull breeds around the Black and Caspian Seas, extending eastwards across Central Asia to north-west China. In Europe, it has been spreading north and west and now breeds in Poland and eastern Germany. Some birds migrate south as far as the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, while others disperse into Western Europe, in countries such as Sweden, Norway and Denmark or the Benelux and even North of France. Small numbers are now seen regularly in Britain, especially in South-east England, East Anglia, and the Midlands.
It typically nests on flat, low-lying ground by water, unlike the yellow-legged gull, which mainly nests on cliffs in areas where the two overlap. The breeding season starts from early April. Two or three eggs are laid and incubated for 27 to 31 days.
They are scavengers and predators with a very varied diet. During the breeding season, they often eat rodents such as ground squirrels, flying some distance into the steppes to find them.
Classification and subspecies
This form has a troubled taxonomic history, summarised in the herring gull article. The Caspian gull used to be treated as a subspecies of the herring gull, but it is now treated as a full species by many authorities (e.g. the British Ornithologists' Union records committee). Some authorities include the yellow-legged gull (L. michahellis) within L. cachinnans, but it is now commonly considered to be a separate species.
The steppe gull or Baraba gull (L. (cachinnans) barabensis) may be regarded as a subspecies of the Caspian gull or as a separate species. It is also very similar genetically to its northern neighbour, the taimyrensis race of Heuglin's gull. The steppe gull breeds in Central Asia, particularly northern Kazakhstan. Its nonbreeding range is still little-known, but most are thought to winter in south-west Asia from the Persian Gulf to north-west India. There are possible records of this form from Hong Kong and South Korea.
The Mongolian gull (L. (vegae/cachinnans) mongolicus) may be classed as a subspecies of the Caspian gull, a subspecies of the East Siberian gull, or as a species in its own right. It breeds in Mongolia and surrounding areas and migrates south-east in winter.
Further reading
External links
Notes and References
1. Book: Jobling, James A . 2010. The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names . Christopher Helm . London . 978-1-4081-2501-4 . 82, 219.
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The Enlightenment: Hobbes Versus Locke Essay
920 words - 4 pages
The Enlightenment was an 18th century intellectual movement concentrated in France that had lasting repercussions throughout Europe and America. Questioning traditional doctrines and values marked the Enlightenment; there was a notable tendency towards individualism and emphasis on the ideas of human progress. Celebrated philosophes such as Francois-Marie Arouet also known as Voltaire (1694-1778) and the enigmatic Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) marked some of the intellectual catalysts for the new ideas and approaches to old customs that wore down institutionalized traditions. The philosophes crafted the vocabulary for the French and American Revolutions, not by being advocates of violent revolution, but by encouraging free use of reason and the universality of humanity and natural rights. These same principles evoked a rallying cry throughout France and later America for systematic governmental changes; these cries manifested themselves in the form of the American and French Revolutions. The American Constitution and the Bill of Rights are both products of the Enlightenment and ideas of the philosophes, in particular John Locke.The political theorist and elitist, John Locke (1632-1704) wrote the "Second Treatise on Government", in this work he hypothesized that man is naturally a social animal, characterized by reason and tolerance. He also maintained that in man's "State of Nature" men were equal and "free to pursue life, health, liberty and possessions". For this reason he believed that a mythical contract existed to provide common defense and necessities for the people based on mutual consent. Locke being an optimist thought that it is man's human nature to be naturally good and humane towards his fellow man, for this reason he felt that government was organized in order to protect the inalienable rights of man: life, liberty and property. Locke had knowledge of Natural Law; the law asserts that there is some kind of non-conventional relation between law and morality. Natural law is comprised of precepts that govern the behavior of beings possessing reason and free will. As the Natural Law states and Locke believed: every man has an innate ability to reason. Locke believed that reality consisted of both material and spiritual substances and that humans are born without any innate ideas. Locke affirmed that humans become furnished with ideas through experience.In Locke's "Second Treatise on Government" he concluded that there was a social contract that people in a society entered into freely and voluntarily. Locke felt that majority should rule and that political power should be shared and not in the hands of the few. Locke linked economic liberty and private property with political freedom and felt strongly that no government should have the authority to take the property of any man. Locke also stressed common consent...
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Reflection in Java: Examples & Mechanism
Instructor: Martin Gibbs
Martin has 16 years experience in Human Resources Information Systems and has a PhD in Information Technology Management. He is an adjunct professor of computer science and computer programming.
One of the powerful features of Java is the ability to write code that acts as a mirror, showing us run-time features of the code. This lesson will explain reflection and provide code examples.
Java allows reflection, that is the code you write so that you can view and change behavior at run-time. Think of it as a mirror. You don't see that spot on your tie until you see it in the mirror. The same can be applied to reflection. Java can see the information about a class even though it might not be accessible when the program is running.
Before we pull out the mirror, let's build a little class that we can use for our experiments. The following code sets up a class for green tea, including some variables and methods to get and set values.
SELECT emp.empID, emp.empName
FROM employee
(SELECT planCode, COUNT(empID) as emp_count
FROM benefits
GROUP BY plancode) subquery 1
WHERE subquery1.empID = employee.empID;
public class GreenTea {
private double caffeine;
private String blend;
public double totalCaffeine;
public GreenTea(int code) {
if(code == 25) {
blend = "Dragonwell"
caffeine = 42.58;
if(code == 30) {
blend = "Zen";
caffeine = 29.5;
public double getCaffeine() {
return caffeine;
public String getClend() {
return blend;
public void setCaffeine(double caffeine) {
this.caffeine = caffeine;
public String setBlend(String blend) {
this.blend = blend;
public void calcValues(double oz) {
totalCaffeine = oz * caffeine;
System.out.println("Total caffeine = " + totalCaffeine);
There's a lot of code here, but we will be using reflection to find (and change) some of these pieces.
Get the Name of a Class
Before we can do anything with reflection, we will need to import the core Java utility that lets us do this. Java's reflection methods are in the java.lang.reflect package. To use them we place the following import statement before any class that will use these methods:
import java.lang.reflect.*;
The first thing we will do is retrieve some information about the GreenTea class, both its object name and the true name of the class.
//get the class object
Class green = GreenTea.class;
When this code runs, the following output is displayed:
Java reflection class name output
We have one more option that might make more sense. Instead of the long names being displayed, we can also get the simple name of the class. So, what name did we actually give it? The reflection method includes the getSimpleName method:
//Simple name
String greenTeaSimple = green.getSimpleName();
System.out.println("Simple Name = " + greenTeaSimple);
Now the output is much cleaner and gives us a more understandable name of the class:
Java reflection get simple output
Get Methods
We can use reflection to get the methods of a class. There is a method to get methods (like a committee to review committees!) called getMethods(). This works, but it also returns any system-defined methods in a class. We don't necessarily need those for this lesson. Instead, we can focus only on the methods we actually declared in our code. Recall we had three methods, get caffeine, get blends, and set the total caffeine level.
In the following code, we will use the getDeclaredMethods() method to get the methods that we defined. The 'for' loop steps through the methods and returns the value, using the getName() method.
//get all methods
Method[] gtMethods = green.getDeclaredMethods();
//loop through the methods
for(Method method : getMethods) {
System.out.println("Method = " + method.getName());
When the code runs, we get the following output:
Java reflection get methods output
Now that we have the methods, let's try looking at the fields.
Get Fields
This is the part that makes reflection a little dangerous. Remember that Java is great at data hiding. It can protect variables as private, thus protected from other members of the class. Reflection lets you break down that barrier and access private members of a class. This is why you would not update these fields with reflection.
That said, let's look at how we can access members of a class. The following code uses the getDeclaredFields method to return all fields in our GreenTea class. Because we are using reflection, it doesn't matter that they are private! In fact, you'll notice another line of code that highlights the reason that we don't do this on live production. It is easy to circumvent Java's data protection methods.
Class green = GreenTea.class;
Field[] fields = green.getDeclaredFields();
for(Field oneField: fields) {
Field field = green.getDeclaredField("blend");
String gtFieldName = field.getName();
System.out.println("Field = " + getFieldName);
//don't do this on Production!
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159 Murray – Ecole Guigues
Buildings’ Historical Significance
Ecole Guigues was constructed in 1904 and was, at the time, one of the largest schools in Ottawa. The plot of land in which Ecole Guigues was erected has been the home to Francophone Roman Catholic schools since the mid-1800’s. The building today stands as a symbol of Francophone language rights in Ontario due to the unique historical events that took place in and around Ecole Guigues in the early 1900’s.
Only a few years after the school opened its doors, the Ontario Government passed ‘Regulation 17’ restricting French language instruction in the classroom and simultaneously, withheld funds to Francophone schools. This led to major protests between the French community and Provincial Government which were held on the front steps of Ecole Guigues- led by a determined group of women who were referred to as, “Les Gardiennes”. The school was non-operational for a year, yet with the determination of the French community, the school reopened its doors in 1915. Jean Yves Pelletier, a historical consultant with the Provincial Government of the time, was quoted in an “Ottawa Citizen” article (1993) describing the building as, “One of the most powerful symbols in French Ontario today.”
Heritage Designation and Architectural Design
Ecole Guigues was designated as a heritage building on October 9th, 1980. Under the ‘Statement of Reason for Designation’ within the bylaw of 1980, it states, “It was on the front steps at the entrance to the school that the most serious confrontation between the officials of the Government of the Province of Ontario and the members of the Ottawa Francophone community took place” (Bylaws-1980, p1446). The building serves as a reminder of the French struggle for language rights in Ontario.
From an architectural standpoint, the building is a prime example of Richardsonian Romanesque style design. The large protruding stones used in the foundation set the stage for the red brick, flat roof and decorated cornice. The four-story building reveals an architectural statement, as well as, a reminder of Francophone language struggles in the early 1900’s.
Loft Conversion
Ecole Guigues was converted into condominium lofts between 1995-1997. Architect Barry Padolsky was the recipient of the ‘Award of Excellence’ for restorative and reconstruction in 1997. The units boast 12 foot ceiling heights, large open spaces and 8 foot windows providing ample natural light.
Keeping to its historical Francophone roots, the first floor of the building serves as the Centre de jour des aines Francophones d’Ottawa-Carleton.
Please fill out the form below and we will send the information for each condo for sale in 159 Murray - Ecole Guigues that meets your criteria.
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The Full Wiki
Mayflower: Map
Wikipedia article:
Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:
The Mayflower was the famous ship that transported the English Separatists, better known as the Pilgrims, from Southamptonmarker, Englandmarker, to Plymouthmarker, Massachusettsmarker (which would become the capital of Plymouth Colony), in 1620. There were 102 passengers and a crew of 25–30.
The vessel left England on September 6 (Old Style)/September 16 (New Style), and after a gruelling 66-day journey marked by disease, which claimed two lives, the ship dropped anchor inside the hook tip of Cape Codmarker (Provincetown Harbormarker) on November 11/November 21. The Mayflower was originally destined for the mouth of the Hudson River, near present-day New York City, at the northern edge of England's Virginia colony, which itself was established with the 1607 Jamestown Settlementmarker. However, the Mayflower went off course as the winter approached, and remained in Cape Cod Baymarker. On March 21/28, 1621, all surviving passengers, who had inhabited the ship during the winter, moved ashore at Plymouth, and on April 5/15, the Mayflower, a privately commissioned vessel, returned to England. In 1623, a year after the death of captain Christopher Jones, the Mayflower was most likely dismantled for scrap lumber in Rotherhithemarker, Londonmarker.
The Mayflower was used primarily as a cargo ship, involved in active trade of goods (often wine) between England and other European countries,(principally Francemarker, but also Norwaymarker, Germanymarker, and Spainmarker). At least between 1609 and 1622, it was mastered by Christopher Jones, who would command the ship on the famous transatlantic voyage, and based in Rotherhithemarker, London, England. After the famous voyage of the Mayflower, the ship returned to England, likely dismantled for scrap lumber in Rotherhithe in 1623, only a year after Jones's death in March 1622. The Mayflower Barnmarker, just outside the Quaker village of Jordansmarker, in Buckinghamshire, England, is said to be built from these timbers, but this is likely apocryphal.
Details of the ship's dimensions are unknown, but estimates based on its load weight and the typical size of 180-ton merchant ships of its day suggest an estimated length of 90–110 feet (27.4–33.5 m) and a width of about 25 feet (7.6 m).
The ship probably had a crew of twenty-five to thirty, along with other hired personnel; however, the names of only five are known, including John Alden. William Bradford, who penned our only account of the Mayflower voyage, wrote that John Alden "was hired for a cooper [barrel-maker], at South-Hamptonmarker, where the ship victuled; and being a hopefull yong man, was much desired, but left to his owne liking to go or stay when he came here; but he stayed, and maryed here."
Pilgrims' voyage
Initially, the plan was for the voyage to be made in two vessels, the other being the smaller Speedwell, which had transported some of the Pilgrims embarking on the voyage from Delfshavenmarker in the Netherlandsmarker to Southamptonmarker, England.The first voyage of the ships departed Southampton, on August 5/15, 1620, but the Speedwell developed a leak, and had to be refitted at Dartmouthmarker on August 17/27.
On the second attempt, the ships reached the Atlantic Oceanmarker but again were forced to return to Plymouthmarker because of the Speedwell's leak. It would later be revealed that there was in fact nothing wrong with the Speedwell. The Pilgrims believed that the crew had, through aspects of refitting the ship, and their behavior in operating it, sabotaged the voyage in order to escape the year-long commitment of their contract.
After reorganization, the final sixty-six day voyage was made by the Mayflower alone, leaving from a site near to the Mayflower Stepsmarker in Plymouth, Englandmarker on September 6/16. With 102 passengers plus crew, each family was allotted a very confined amount of space for personal belongings. The Mayflower stopped off at Newlynmarker in Cornwall to take on water.
The intended destination was an area near the Hudson River, in "North Virginia". However the ship was forced far off-course by inclement weather and drifted well north of the intended Virginia settlement. As a result of the delay, the settlers did not arrive in Cape Cod until after the onset of a harsh New Englandmarker winter. The settlers ultimately failed to reach Virginia where they had already obtained permission from the London Company to settle, due to difficulties navigating the treacherous waters off the southeast corner of Cape Cod.
During the winter the passengers remained on board the Mayflower, suffering an outbreak of a contagious disease described as a mixture of scurvy, pneumonia and tuberculosis. When it ended, there were only 53 passengers, just more than half, still alive. Half of the crew also died then. In spring, they built huts ashore, and on March 21/31, 1621, the surviving passengers left the Mayflower.
On April 5/15, 1621, the Mayflower set sail from Plymouthmarker to return to England, where she arrived on May 6/16, 1621.
The Mayflower left England with 102 passengers plus crew. One baby was born en route, and a second was born during the winter of 1620-1621, when the company wintered aboard ship in Provincetown Harbor. One child died during the voyage, and there was one stillbirth during the construction of the colony. Many of the passengers were Pilgrims fleeing persistent religious persecution, but some were hired hands, servants, or farmers recruited by London merchants for the originally intended destination in Virginia.
These were the earliest permanent European settlers in New Englandmarker.
Second Mayflower
Mayflower II
After World War II, an effort began to reenact the voyage of the Mayflower. With cooperation between Project Mayflower and Plimoth Plantationmarker, an accurate replica of the original (designed by naval architect William A. Baker) was launched September 22, 1956 from Devonmarker, England, and set sail in the spring of 1957. Captained by Alan Villiers, the voyage ended in Plymouth Harbormarker after 55 days on June 13, 1957 to great acclaim.
The ship is moored to this day at State Pier in Plymouthmarker, and is open to visitors.
Popular culture
The Mayflower voyage and the ship became famous as an icon of a perilous one-way trip to a new life, with many things named for it:
• The Mayflower is the emblem of the English football club Plymouth Argyle F.C., who are known as "The Pilgrims".
• The Mayflower theatre in Southampton is named after the Mayflower ship.
• Yes member Jon Anderson & Vangelis (as "Jon & Vangelis") made a song about the ship called "The Mayflower" released on their album The Friends of Mr. Cairo.
• The space-shuttle parody in the movie Airplane II: The Sequel is called Mayflower One.
• Mark Carew wrote a book titled Flight of the Mayflower where NASA builds an intergalactic space ship (named the Mayflower) to travel to a new world due to the fact that Earth has become a place where terror, geo-political shift, ecological crisis and nuclear war are pandemic.
See also
1. As England used the Julian Calendar and mainland Europe used the modern Gregorian Calendar at this time, dates were frequently recorded in both calendars. Here we continue the practice to avoid confusion, listing the Old Style (Julian) date, followed by the New Style (Gregorian) date.
2. Philbrick, pp. 4-5
3. Philbrick, p. 24
4. Usher, p. 67
5. Philbrick, pp. 61-62
6. Philbrick, pp. 65-70
7. "Saga Of The Pilgrims" (historical analysis), John Harris, Globe Newspaper Co., 1983, webpages (no links between): UCcom-saga1 and UCcom-saga11
• (the only written account of the voyage)
• (originally published in 1918)
External links
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Tribals, Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age (Class 8 History Chapter 4 Notes)
Bhakkarwals of Jammu and Kashmir
The tribals were spread all over the subcontinent and were engaged in various activities such as jhum cultivation, hunting and gathering, and herding the animals.
Jhum cultivators
1. Jhum is another name of the shifting cultivation.
2. It was done on small patches on land and mostly on forest soil.
3. The tribals cleared the land for agriculture by cutting and burning the forest.
4. They spread the potash rich ash left from the fire on the land to fertilise the soil.
5. After harvesting the field for one or two seasons, they left the land to regenerate and meanwhile they grow crops on other land.
6. These cultivators were mostly found in the hilly and forested areas of the north-east and central India.
Hunters and Gatherers
1. In several regions, tribals (such as Khonds of Odisha) lived by hunting animals and gathering the forest produce.
2. They also used several shrubs and herbs for their medicinal values, and sold the forest produce in the local markets.
3. Local weavers and leather workers were dependent on these tribals for collecting dye producing flowers such as kusum and palash.
4. They also collected the seeds of sal and mahua to produce cooking oil.
5. In bad seasons, they usually pick odd labour jobs at nearby markets, which led to their exploitation. However, some tribal groups such as Baigas saw this as an act below their dignity.
6. They often need markets to buy and sell things in order to survive. This was usually done with the help of traders and moneylenders. Often, these traders and moneylenders cheat the tribals by selling the things at higher prices and charging them high interest respectively, leading to debt-trap. Therefore these people were seen as the evil outsider by the tribals.
Animal Herders
1. Several tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or sheep season to the seasons.
2. The Van Gujjars of the Punjab and the Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds, and the Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats.
Permanent Settlers
1. There were tribal groups such as Gonds and Santhals who settled and begun cultivating at one place. They adopted ploughs and other modern agriculture techniques. However, they retained their tribal values such as community land rights and no rigid social heirarchy.
How Did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives?
Tribal Chiefs
1. The lives of tribals went through a darastic change under the British rule. Some of the major changes are
2. Under the British rule, tribal chiefs lost their administrative powers and forced to follow the British orders. They also have tribute to the British administration and discipline their gropus meeting the British standards. However, they were allowed to keep their lands and right to farm or rent.
Jhum Cultivators
1. The British tried to settle down shifting cultivators as settled peasants were a reliable source of revenue income. Henceforth, they fixed and distributed the land for the cultivation. However, due to several reasons, settled cultivation was not successful in hilly regions. This is why they need to allow jhum cultivation.
Forest Laws
1. Under the British administration, several foreset were classified as the reserved forests to meet the demands of timber. In these forests, tribals were not allowed to practice cultivation, collect fruits or hunt animals.
2. Because of such new rules, many tribals were forced to leave these forests. However, this created the problem of labour shortage. In addition, some tribals did not obey these laws and continued to live like old times. This created friction between tribals and British and resulted into several rebellions.
3. The revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam, and the forest satyagraha of the 1930s in the Central Provinces are prime examples of the tribal rebellions.
1. It is observed that innocent tribals were often cheated by the traders and monelenders. They bought the produce from the tribals at cheap rates and sold it in the markets at higher margins.
2. In the case of silk, tribals were paid five times less than their market values.
1. The labour condition for tribals worsen during the 19th century. They were forced to work in unfavourable conditions in tea plantations and coal mines. They were paid miserably low wages and prevented from returning home.
A Closer Look
1. Tribals openly rebelled against the changes in laws, restriction on their practices, and exploitation by traders and moneylenders. Some of the major tribal rebellions are Kols rebellion (1831-32), Santhals revolt (1855), the Bastar Rebellion (1910) and the Warli Revolt (1940).
Birsa Munda
1. Birsa was born in 1875. He was the son of a poor farmer and grew up around the forests of Bohonda. Growing up, he heard the stories of the Munda uprisings and a life free of opression from dikus.
2. He aimed at reforming tribal society and urged the Mundas to give up drinking liquor, clean their village, and stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery.
3. In 1895, he urged his followers to remind their glorious past and established the rule of truth. The Birsa movement identified the English missionaries, Hindu landlords and the Government as the cause of their suffering. They are the dikus in their folk tales.
4. As the movement, the British arrested Birsa and convicted him on the charges of rioting and jailed him for two years. When released in 1897, he started his campaign again from the point where left. They raided so-called dikus and raised the white flag as the symbol of Birsa Raj.
5. In 1900, Birsa died of cholera, but his legacy continued. The movement has significant lessons for the British Government. It forced them to reconsider their strategy toward the tribals and respect their rules.
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The Full Wiki
Frigate: Map
Wikipedia article:
Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:
Sailing frigate
A frigate ( ) is a warship. The term has been used for warships of many sizes and roles over the past few centuries.
In the 18th century, the term referred to ships which were usually as long as a ship-of-the-line and were square-rigged on all three masts (full rigged), but were faster and with lighter armament, used for patrolling and escort. In the definition adopted by the British Admiralty, they were Rated ships of at least 28 guns, carrying their principal armament upon a single continuous deck - the upper deck, while ships-of-the-line possessed two or more continuous decks bearing batteries of guns. Frigates did not carry any guns (or have any gunports) on their lower decks; confusingly, the lower deck was often referred to as the "gun deck" in the British Navy (in the American Navy, it was usually called the "berth deck"), even for frigates, where it did not carry any guns or have gunports. Both types could (and usually did) additionally carry smaller carriage-mounted guns on their quarter decks and forecastles (the superstructures above the upper deck). Technically, rated ships with fewer than 28 guns could not be classed as frigates but as "Post-ships"; however, in common parlance most Post-ships were often described as 'frigates', the same casual misuse of the term being extended to smaller two-decked ships that were too small to stand in the line of battle.
In the late 19th century (beginning about 1858 with the construction of prototypes by the British and French navies), the armoured frigate was a type of ironclad warship and for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term 'frigate' was used because such ships still mounted their principal armament on a single continuous upper deck. The later 19th century battleship thus developed from the frigate rather than from the ship of the line.
In modern navies, frigates are used to protect other warships and merchant-marine ships, especially as anti-submarine warfare (ASW) combatants for amphibious expeditionary forces, underway replenishment groups, and merchant convoys. But ship classes dubbed "frigates" have also more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers and even battleships.
The rank Frigate Captain derives from the name of this type of ship.
Age of sail
The term "frigate" (Italian: fregata; Spanish/Catalan/Portuguese/Sicilian: fragata; Dutch: "fregat") originated in the Mediterraneanmarker in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability.
In 1583, during the Eighty Years' War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch. This soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sail-only vessels that came to be referred to as frigates. Because most regular navies required ships of greater endurance than the Dunkirker frigates could provide, the useful term 'frigate' was soon applied less exclusively to any relatively fast and elegant sail-only ship, such that much later even the mighty English was described as 'a delicate frigate' after modifications in 1651 .
The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first regular navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates. The Dutch navy had three principal tasks in the struggle against Spain: to protect Dutch merchant ships at sea, to blockade the ports of Spanish-held Flanders to damage trade and halt enemy privateering, and to fight the Spanish fleet and prevent troop landings. The first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet. The first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoornmarker in Hollandmarker. By the later stages of the Eighty Years War the Dutch had switched entirely from the heavier ships still used by the English and Spanish to the lighter frigates, carrying around 40 guns and weighing around 300 tons.
The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, triggering most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar innovations.
The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as 'frigates', the largest of which were two-decker 'great frigates' of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as 'great ships' of the time; however, most other frigates at the time were used as 'cruisers': independent fast ships. The term 'frigate' implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed (see hull speed) and also, in turn, helped the development of the broadside tactic in naval warfare.
At this time a further design evolved, reintroducing oars to create the galley frigate such as the Charles Galley of 1676 which was rated as a 32 gun fifth rate but also had a bank of 40 oars set below the upper deck which could be used to propel the ship in the absence of a favourable wind.
In French, the term 'frigate' became a verb, meaning 'to build long and low', and an adjective, adding further confusion.
Under the rating system of the Royal Navy, by the middle of the 18th century, the term 'frigate' was technically restricted to single-decked ships of the fifth rate, though small 28-gun frigates were classed as sixth rate.
Classic design
The classic sailing frigate, well-known today for its role in the Napoleonic wars, can be traced back to French developments in the second quarter of the 18th century. The French-built Médée of 1740 is often regarded as the first example of this type. These ships were square-rigged and carried all their main guns on a single continuous upper deck. The lower deck, known as the "gun deck", now carried no armament, and functioned as a "berth deck" where the crew lived, and was in fact placed below the waterline of the new frigates. The new sailing frigates were able to fight with all their guns when the seas were so rough that comparable two-deckers had to close the gun-ports on their lower decks (see the Action of 13 January 1797marker, for an example when this was decisive). Like the larger 74 which was developed at the same time, the new frigates sailed very well and were good fighting vessels due to a combination of long hulls and low upperworks compared to vessels of comparable size and firepower.
The Royal Navy captured a handful of the new French frigates during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and were impressed by them, particularly for their inshore handling capabilities. They soon built copies and started to adapt the type to their own needs, setting the standard for other frigates as a superpower. The first British frigates carried 28 guns including an upper deck battery of twenty-four 9-pounder guns (the remaining four smaller guns were carried on the quarter deck) but soon developed into Fifth Rates ships of 32 or 36 guns including an upper deck battery of twenty-six 12-pounder guns (with the remaining six or ten smaller guns carried on the quarter deck and forecastle). From around 1778, a larger "heavy" frigate was developed with a main battery of twenty-six or twenty-eight 18-pounder guns (again with the remaining ten smaller guns carried on the quarter deck and forecastle).
In 1797, three of the US Navy's first six major ships were 44-gun frigates (or "super-frigates"), which actually carried fifty-six to sixty 24-pounder long guns and 36-pounder or 48-pounder carronades on two decks, and were exceptionally powerful and tough. These ships were so well-armed that they were often seen as equal to smaller ships of the line and, after a series of losses at the outbreak of the War of 1812, Royal Navy fighting instructions ordered British frigates (usually of 38 guns or less) to never engage American frigates at any less than a 2:1 advantage. , preserved as a museum ship by the US Navy, is the oldest commissioned frigate afloat, and is a surviving example of a frigate from the Age of Sail. Constitution and her two sister ships (USS President and USS United States) were created in a response to deal with the Barbary Coast pirates and in conjunction with the Naval Act of 1794. The three big frigates, when built, had a distinctive building pattern which minimized "hogging" (in which the centre of the keel rises while both ends drop) and improves hydrodynamic efficiency. The hull was designed so that all the weight from the guns was upon the keel itself. Joshua Humphreys proposed that only live oak, a tree that grew only in America, should be used to build these ships. The method was to use diagonal riders, eight on each side that sat a 45 degree angle. These beams of live oak were about two feet wide and around a foot thick and helped to maintain the shape of the hull, serving also to reduce flexibility and to minimize impacts. These ideas were considered revolutionary in the late 18th and early 19th century. A three-layer method was used in which the planks along the sides of the hull were laid horizontally across the ribs, making a crossing or checker board pattern. The sides of the ship could be as thick as 25 inches, and were able to absorb substantial damage. The strength of this braced construction earned USS Constitution the nickname "Old Ironsides".
Frigates scouted for the fleet, went on commerce-raiding missions and patrols, conveyed messages and dignitaries. Usually frigates would fight in small numbers or singly against other frigates. They would avoid contact with ships-of-the-line; even in the midst of a fleet engagement it was bad etiquette for a ship of the line to fire on an enemy frigate which had not fired first.
For officers in the Royal Navy a frigate was a desirable posting. Frigates often saw action, which meant a greater chance of glory, promotion, and prize money.
Frigate armament ranged from 22 guns on one deck to 60 guns on two decks. Common armament was 32 to 44 long guns, from 8- to 24-pounders (3.6 to 11 kg), plus a few carronades (large bore short-range guns).
Frigates remained a crucial element of navies until the mid-19th century. The first ironclads were classified as 'frigates' because of the number of guns they carried. However, terminology changed as iron and steam became the norm, and the role of the frigate was assumed first by the protected cruiser and then by the light cruiser.
Frigates are often the vessel of choice in historical naval novels due to their relative freedom compared to ships of the line (kept for fleet actions) and smaller vessels (generally assigned to a home port and less widely ranging). For example the Patrick O'Brian Aubrey–Maturin series, C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower series and Alexander Kent's Richard Bolitho series. The motion picture Master and Commander features a reconstructed historic frigate, HMS Rosemarker, to depict Aubrey's frigate HMS Surprise.
Age of steam
Vessels classed as frigates continued to play a great role in navies with the adoption of steam power in the 19th century. In the 1830s navies experimented with large paddle steamers equipped with large guns mounted on one deck, which were termed 'paddle frigates'. From the mid-1840s frigates which more closely resembled the traditional sailing frigate were built with steam engines and screw propellers. These 'screw frigates', built first of wood and later of iron, continued to perform the traditional role of the frigate until late in the 19th century.
Modern Age
Second World War
Modern frigates are related to earlier frigates only by name. The term "frigate" was readopted during World War II by the Royal Navy to describe a new type of anti-submarine escort vessel that was larger than a corvette, but smaller than a destroyer. The frigate was introduced to remedy some of the shortcomings inherent in the corvette design: limited armament, a hull form not suited to open-ocean work, a single shaft which limited speed and maneuverability, and a lack of range. The frigate was designed and built to the same mercantile construction standards (scantlings) as the corvette, allowing manufacture by yards unused to warship construction. The first frigates of the River class (1941) were essentially two sets of corvette machinery in one larger hull, armed with the latest Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon. The frigate possessed less offensive firepower and speed than a destroyer, but such qualities were not required for anti-submarine warfare. Submarines were slow, and ASDIC sets did not operate effectively at speeds of over 20 knots. Rather, the frigate was an austere and weatherly vessel suitable for mass-construction and fitted with the latest innovations in anti-submarine warfare. As the frigate was intended purely for convoy duties, and not to deploy with the fleet, it had limited range and speed.
The contemporaneous German Flottenbegleiter ("fleet escorts"), also known as "F-Boats" were essentially frigates. They were based on a pre-war Oberkommando der Marine concept of vessels which could fill roles such as fast minesweeper, minelayer, merchant escort and anti-submarine vessel. Because of the Treaty of Versailles their displacement was officially limited to 600 tons, although in reality they exceeded this by about 100 tons. F-boats had two stacks and two 105 mm gun turrets. The design was flawed because of its narrow beam, sharp bow and unreliable high pressure steam turbines. F-boats suffered relatively heavy losses and were succeeded in operational duties later in the war by Type 35 and Elbing classmarker torpedo boats. Flottenbegleiter remained in service as advanced training vessels.
It was not until the Royal Navy's Bay class of 1944 that a British design bearing the name of frigate was produced for fleet use, although it still suffered from limited speed. These frigates were similar to the United States Navy's (USN) destroyer escorts (DE), although the latter had greater speed and offensive armament to better suit them to fleet deployments. American DEs serving in the Britishmarker Royal Navy were rated as frigates, and British-influenced Tacoma class frigates serving in the USN were classed as patrol frigates (PF). One of the most successful post-1945 designs was the British Leander class frigate, which was used by several navies.
Guided missile role
The introduction of the surface-to-air missile after the Second World War made relatively small ships effective for anti-aircraft warfare (AAW): the "guided missile frigate." In the USN, these vessels were called "Ocean Escort" and designated "DE" or "DEG" until 1975 - a holdover from the World War II Destroyer Escort or DE. The British Royal Navy maintained the use of the term "frigate." Soviet Navy used the term "guard-ship" (сторожевой корабль).
From the 1950s to the 1970s, the USN commissioned ships classed as guided missile frigates which were actually AAW cruisers built on destroyer-style hulls. Some of these ships—the Bainbridge-, Truxtun-, California- and Virginia- classes—were nuclear-powered. These were larger than any previous frigates and the use of the term frigate here is much more analogous to its original use. All such ships were reclassified as guided missile cruisers (CG / CGN) or, in the case of the smaller Farragut-class, as guided missile destroyers (DDG) in 1975. The last of these particular frigates were struck from the Naval Vessel Register in the 1990s.
Nearly all modern frigates are equipped with some form of offensive or defensive missiles, and as such are rated as guided-missile frigates (FFG). Improvements in surface-to-air missiles (e.g., the Eurosam Aster 15) allow modern guided-missile frigates to form the core of many modern navies and to be used as a fleet defence platform, without the need for specialised AAW frigates.File:ORP GTK 273.JPG|Oliver Hazard Perry class frigateFile:RFS Neustrashimy (FF 712).jpg|Neustrashimy class frigateFile:French frigate La Fayette (F-710).jpg|La Fayette class frigateFile:HMCS Regina (FFH 334) 1.jpg|Halifax class frigate
Anti-submarine role
At the opposite end of the spectrum, some frigates are specialised for anti-submarine warfare (ASW). Increasing submarine speeds towards the end of the Second World War (see German Type XXI submarine) greatly reduced the margin of speed superiority of frigate over submarine. The frigate could no longer be slow and powered by mercantile machinery and consequently postwar frigates, such as the Whitby class, were faster. Such ships carry improved sonar equipment, such as the variable depth sonar or towed array, and specialised weapons such as torpedoes, forward-throwing weapons such as Limbo and missile-carried anti-submarine torpedoes such as ASROC or Ikara. Surface-to-air missiles such as Sea Sparrow and surface-to-surface missiles such as Exocet give them defensive and offensive capabilities. The Royal Navy's original Type 22 frigate is an example of a specialised ASW frigate.
Further developments
Stealth technology has been introduced in modern frigate design. Frigate shapes are designed to offer a minimal radar cross section, which also lends them good air penetration; the maneuverability of these frigates has been compared to that of sailing ships. Examples are the French La Fayette-class with the Aster 15 missile for anti-missile capabilities, the Germanmarker F125 class and Sachsen class frigates and also the Turkish Milgem type corvettes and TF-2000 type Frigates with the MK-41 VLS.
The modern French Navy applies the term frigate to both frigates and destroyers in service. Pennant numbers remain divided between F-series numbers for those ships internationally recognized as frigates and D-series pennant numbers for those more traditionally recognized as destroyers. This can result in some confusion as certain classes are referred to as frigates in French service while similar ships in other navies are referred to as destroyers. This also results in some recent classes of French ships being among the largest in the world to carry the rating of frigate.
Also in the German Navy frigates were used to replace aging destroyers; however in size and role the new German frigates exceed the former class of destroyers. The future German F125 class frigate will be the largest class of frigates worldwide with a displacement of 7,200 tons.The same was done in the Spanish Navy, which went ahead with the deployment of the first Aegis frigates, the F-100 class frigates.
Some new classes of frigates are optimized for high-speed deployment and combat with small craft rather than combat between equal opponents; an example is the U.S. Littoral Combat Ship.
Image:HMS Swale K217.jpg|HMS Swale of the River-class, the original modern frigatesImage:HMS Monmouth (F235).jpg|HMS Monmouth, a British Type 23-class frigateImage:Uss vandergif.jpg|USS Vandegrift, an American Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigateImage:HMAS Darwin (FFG 04).jpg|HMAS Darwin, an Australian Adelaide-class frigateImage:ARC Almirante Padilla.jpg|ARC Almirante Padilla, a Colombian Padilla-class light missile frigateFile:Shivalik long shot.jpg|INS Shivalik, an Indian under-construction Shivalik-class frigateImage:FS Surcouf.jpg|Surcouf, a French La Fayette-class frigateImage:F221 Hessen-Kieler Woche 2007.jpg|F221 Hessen, a German Sachsen-class frigateImage:Hr. Ms. Van Speijk (F828).jpg|HNLMS Van Speijk, a Dutch Karel Doorman-class frigateImage:Alvaro de bazan.jpg|Spanishmarker Álvaro de Bazán class frigate
See also
Note that Algerian, Tripolitan and Tunisian sail frigates are listed under Turkey. All Italian city-state frigates are listed under Italy.
Sail frigates
Steam frigates
Modern frigates
Current frigates
Australia Australia
Austria Austria
Canada Canada
China China
Croatia Croatia
Denmark Denmark
Egypt Egypt
Germany Germany Germany Germany
Greece Greece Greece
Italy Italy Italy Italy
Malaysia Malaysia
Netherlands Netherlands
New Zealand New Zealand
Norway Norway
Pakistan Pakistan
Peru Peru Peru
Portugal Portugal Portugal Portugal
Romania Romania Romania Romania
Russia Russia
Spain Spain Spain Spain
Turkey Turkey Turkey
United Kingdom
United States United States United States United States
Republic of China Taiwan
Yugoslavia Yugoslavia
3. Rodger, N.A.M: The Command of the Ocean - a Naval History of Britain, 1649-1815. Allen Lane, London, 2004. ISBN 0-7139-9411-8
6. "Frigate: An Online Photo Album". Retrieved on: 11 February 2008.
• Lambert, Andrew Battleships in Transition, the Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815-1860, published Conway Maritime Press, 1984. ISBN 0-85177-315-X
• Sondhaus, L. Naval Warfare, 1815-1914
• Winfield, Rif. The 50-Gun Ship. London: Caxton Editions, 1997. ISBN 1840673656, ISBN 1861760256
• Lavery, B. Ship. Dorling Kindersly, Ltd (2004). ISBN 1-4053-1154-1
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Who can deny that liquid
Iron oxidation reaction
The first step toward a theory of chemical reactions was taken by Georg Ernst Stahl in 1697 when he proposed the phlogiston theory, which was based on the following observations.
• Metals have many properties in common.
• Metals often produce a "calx" when heated. (The term calx is defined as the crumbly residue left after a mineral or metal is roasted.)
• These calxes are not as dense as the metals from which they are produced.
• Some of these calxes form metals when heated with charcoal.
• With only a few exceptions, the calx is found in nature, not the metal.
These observations led Stahl to the following conclusions.
• Phlogiston (from the Greek phlogistos, "to burn") is given off whenever something burns.
• Wood and charcoal are particularly rich in phlogiston because they leave very little ash when they burn. (Candles must be almost pure phlogiston because they leave no ash.)
• Because they are found in nature, calxes must be simpler than metals.
• Metals form a calx by giving off phlogiston.
Metal calx + phlogiston
• Metals can be made by adding phlogiston to the calx.
Calx + phlogiston metal
• Because charcoal is rich in phlogiston, heating calxes in the presence of charcoal sometimes produces metals.
This model was remarkably successful. It explained why metals have similar properties they all contained phlogiston. It explained the relationship between metals and their calxesthey were related by the gain or loss of phlogiston. It even explained why a candle goes out when placed in a bell jar the air eventually becomes saturated with phlogiston.
There was only one problem with the phlogiston theory. As early as 1630, Jean Rey noted that tin gains weight when it forms a calx. (The calx is about 25% heavier than the metal.) From our point of view, this seems to be a fatal flaw: If phlogiston is given off when a metal forms a calx, why does the calx weigh more than the metal? This observation didn't bother proponents of the phlogiston theory. Stahl explained it by suggesting that the weight increased because air entered the metal to fill the vacuum left after the phlogiston escaped.
The phlogiston theory was the basis for research in chemistry for most of the 18th century. It was not until 1772 that Antoine Lavoisier noted that nonmetals gain large amounts of weight when burned in air. (The weight of phosphorus, for example, increases by a factor of about 2.3.) The magnitude of this change led Lavoisier to conclude that phosphorus must combine with something in air when it burns. This conclusion was reinforced by the observation that the volume of air decreases by a factor of 1/5th when phosphorus burns in a limited amount of air.
Lavoisier proposed the name oxygene (literally, "acid-former") for the substance absorbed from air when a compound burns. He chose this name because the products of the combustion of nonmetals such as phosphorus are acids when they dissolve in water.
Read electro-mechanical engineering blog
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The Aster
The Aster
Aster Flower
The aster is a flower with a bit of a wild appearance, but it fits nicely in many garden settings. The aster flower is the birth flower for the month of September, and is often used to mark twenty years of marriage.
In gardens, asters continue to attract bees and butterflies long after most other flowers have disappeared. People have enjoyed the simple beauty of aster flowers for many generations, and it is likely that these flowers will continue to be celebrated for years to come.
Scientific Name
Aster is the scientific name for an entire genus of flowers, which also belong to the order Asterales. There are a number of flowers that use the word "aster" in their common names, but not as a part of their scientific names.
Scientific names for species within the Aster genus include Aster dumosus (Bushy Asther), Aster patens (Late Purple Aster), Aster vimineus (Small White Aster), and Aster praealtus (Willow Aster).
The word Aster has Greek origins and means "star." The name was originally given by the botanist Carl von Linnaeus to describe the radiate shape of the flower head.
Geographic Origin
There has been quite a bit of confusion in recent years over what qualifies as an aster and what doesn't. Extensive genetic research has determined that many of the flowers once considered a part of the aster genus were incorrectly classified. These flowers look like real asters, but actually fit better in other genera.
Most of the misidentified aster flowers originated in North America, but the Asther alpinus is the only true aster native to North America. The other 180 species within the genus are native to various regions of Europe and Asia. Many asters native to Eurasia have been transplanted and can be found growing in the United States and Canada.
Former Asters
There are two main types of flowers with aster in the common name that are no longer scientifically classified as asters.
The first is the New England Aster, which used to have the scientific name of Aster novae angligae. Now, this flower is called the Symphyotrichum novae angliae. With purple ray flowers and a yellow disc, the New England Aster is easily mistaken for a member of the genus Aster. The main difference is that there are far more ray flowers in the New England Aster than in native asters.
Another flower known commonly as an aster is the Aromatic Aster, formerly labeled Aster oblongifolius. The Aromatic Aster is now classified as Symphyotrichum oblongifolium. The beautiful flowers greatly resemble other asters, but are low growing in comparison to other members of the genus Aster.
Description and Characteristics
Due to the recent narrowing of the Aster genus, identifying asters can be difficult. Every aster species features composite flowers, meaning that the aster has a circular disc flower in the center, as well as several longer ray flowers that radiate out from the disc flower.
The ray flowers are often mistaken for flower petals, but they are actually individual flowers. In general, the disc flower of an aster will be yellow or brown in color, while color of the ray flowers varies greatly from one species to the next.
Asters generally have coarser stems which are often woody near the bottom. The leaves tend to be dark green, and are often long and narrow, much like the ray flowers.
A historic tradition of the Dutch is to collect large bouquets of asters and display them in colorful windowsill decorations. French soldiers used them to decorate another environment: the graves of fallen soldiers. The aster was also commonly featured at the feast of St. Michaelmas, as they were one of the only flowers still in bloom when the festival arrived.
For this reason, certain species of the aster are still referred to as Michaelmas flowers. Currently, the aster is the birth flower for the month of September, which makes sense, since asters bloom near the beginning of September. The red aster and blue aster both signify new beginnings, such as the start of the academic year.
Cultivation and Care
Aster flowers should be planted in areas with plenty of exposure to sunshine. They also require well-drained soil and aren't suited to areas that collect large amounts of water. Aster seeds are best planted in mid Spring, while seedlings can be planted in midsummer.
Most asters need regular care, but are hardy enough to do alright if you have to go on vacation for a week or two. The dwarf aster is especially hardy and may be a good choice for those with little gardening experience.
Water asters regularly with a soaker hose. To enhance the growth of the aster plant, feed it water soluble plant food twice each month. If the asters are growing in well-mulched soil, you may not need to use fertilizer at all. Mulching the environment of the aster is also a great way to keep pests away.
Diseases and Pests
The main pest attracted by aster flowers is the aphid. This pesky little insect consumes the aster leaves and can damage the overall health of the flower. Pesticides can be used to keep aphids away, as can releasing ladybugs in your flower garden.
Asters are commonly seen in bouquets and gardens. Their roots can be used to make a delicious red wine. And the ray flowers are used as a treatment for snakebite in many cultures.
Click thumbnails to see pictures:
Aster Aster Flower Aster Flowers
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"url": "http://www.namesofflowers.net/aster.html"
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Hopp til innhold
1. Home
2. EngelskChevronRight
3. Working with GrammarChevronRight
4. A/An and The (Indefinite and Definite Articles)ChevronRight
Du er nå inne i en læringssti
After completing this learning path, yow will be able to:
• explain what the indefinite articles are and how they are used
• explain what the definite article is and how it is used
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.6826170086860657,
"url": "https://ndla.no/subjects/subject:39/topic:1:189086/resource:d30a3be8-61db-4bca-9e4b-c99687b05cc5"
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15 August 2017
A Small Giant Makes Up For a House
Let's say we're the curious scientists here about to embark on a deep dive, an excursion to around 400 m down Monterey Bay.
What what we're about to witness is a giant, floating... "tadpole"
They're called giant larvaceans, pelagic basal chordates [1]. Most adult species are barely half an inch [2] while giants are typically the size of a pinkie finger, even reaching 3.5 inches. They might look like tadpoles with a distinct head and tail. Aptly so, Larvacea derives its name from its semblance to a larval tunicate [1].
Now, back to our interest, let's maneuver with our remotely operated vehicle (ROV), a video, and a laser. Reaching the deep, dark waters, we spot a head, an undulating tail - a larvacean as we expected it to be. Until...
The Big, Transparent House
Lean closer and we see a fragile, mucus "house" which encases the larvacean. Depending on the species, the creature makes it a home either by being attached to it or by being cocooned within it. For instance, Fritillaria species attach to the outside while Oikopleura species usually live within it [1].
Photo of the giant larvacean Bathochordaeus mcnutti from Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI).
It doesn't take much to build a bubble house. An Oikopleura sp. can inflate its house in a minute, and can construct 4 to 16 houses a day depending on the temperature and food availability. In a lifetime, it can construct 46 houses [1].
What's the house for?
It is a feeding apparatus: an efficient filter-feeding and trapping system [1,2,3].
Take the giant larvacean Bathochordaeus.
The Bathochordaeus' house can reach a diameter greater than a meter. It is basically an outer structure with a mucus screen that excludes larger particles, plus an inner filter which sieves and concentrates plankton and organic material. Attached to one another, the house's tail chamber receives the particle-laden water pumped by the creature's tail. The water is then directed into the inner feeding filter. When it's done, the concentrated particulate is delivered into the animal's mouth [2].
Food particles are shown in some species to be 100 to 1000 times more dense than the surrounding water: It's a rich broth like no other [2].
Fastest Zooplankton Filter Feeder
Larvaceans are second to copepods as ubiquitous marine creatures. In ideal conditions, their number could be massive. In British Columbia, each cubic meter of water holds 25,260 individuals. That's a lot of whipping tails and house expansion [1].
However, attempts to grow a larvacean's house in the laboratory proved impossible; the houses are way too fragile [2,3]. A recent study led by Katija used a tool called DeepPIV which permitted them to directly measure the filtration rates of giant larvaceans on site. To their surprise, each individual can filter 11 gallons (almost 42 liters) of water per hour [2].
That makes them the fastest zooplankton feeder, spearing them ahead of copepods, euphausiids, salps and small larvaceans [2].
At peak density and maximum filtration rate, giant larvaceans have the potential to filter their 200-m depth range in Monterey Bay within 13 days [2].
Fertilizing Discards
When its house gets clogged, the larvacean simply discards it and makes another one. These large, nutrient-laden houses immediately sink to the seafloor without time for mineralization by microbes. Soaked with the ocean's upper productivity, these mucus houses contribute about one-third to vertical carbon flux from near-surface waters to the deep sea benthos [2,3].
Probing further into the mid-water filter feeders and their filtration capacities could someday shed more insights on the connection between deep water biota and their long-term removal of atmospheric carbon [2,3].
If you have more information on larvaceans and other non-fish organisms, we'll be happy to have you as one of SeaLifeBase collaborators. Let us know by sending us an email or visiting our FaceBook page.
[1] Ruppert, E. E., Fox, R. S., & Barnes, R. D. (2004). Invertebrate zoology (7th ed.) A functional evolutionary approach.
[2] Katija, K., Sherlock, R. E., Sherman, A. D., & Robison, B. H. (2017). New technology reveals the role of giant larvaceans in oceanic carbon cycling. Science Advances, 3(5), e1602374.
[3] Yin, S. (3 May 2017). In Disposable Mucus Houses, These Zooplankton Filter the Oceans. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://nyti.ms/2qBhwgD
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"url": "http://sealifebaseproject.blogspot.com/2017/08/"
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Chimpanzee "Conga" May Shed Light On How Humans Learned To Dance
The dancing the movements were maintained with precision and seeming intention as each chimpanzee took turns taking on the role of “pacemaker.” Ari Wid/Shutterstock
Holly and Bahkahri are sisters of sorts. The two chimpanzees were born at different facilities just two weeks apart in 1998 and wound up at the St. Louis Zoo at 4-months-old within one day of each other. They also share a unique talent: dancing.
The chimpanzee duo is the first to be observed swaying their hips from side-to-side, engaging in coordinated and synchronized “whole-body rhythmic entertainment,” which researchers say may provide insight into the evolution of human dance.
“Dance is an icon of human expression. Despite astounding diversity around the world’s cultures and dazzling abundance of reminiscent animal systems, the evolution of dance in the human clade remains obscure,” said study author Dr Adriano Lameira, University of Warwick, in a statement.
Other species have been seen moving to the beat (remember Snowball, the head-banging cockatoo?), but never have two nonhuman animals have been spotted moving to their own beat without being triggered or signaled by humans. Dancing requires that two individuals coordinate together with great motor control using multiple neural circuitries, as well as a developed social bond between the two. Until now, these complexities explained why nonhuman primates did not dance.
To study this behavior, researchers from the University of Warwick, Durham University, and the Free University of Brussels searched for videos of the dancing chimpanzees that had been uploaded to YouTube using terms like “conga line,” “chimpanzees,” or “St Louis”. A total of 23 videos spanning between October 2011 and April 2015 were then analyzed for time and movement measures.
“Between individual analyses, however, revealed that synchronization between individuals was non-random, predictable,” write the authors in Scientific Reports, adding that the movements were maintained with precision and seeming intention as each chimpanzee took turns taking on the role of “pacemaker”.
This "dance" evolution may be influenced by the animals being in captivity and by certain ecological, social, and cultural impositions that come with such an environment. It has also only been observed in two individuals, so it is difficult to draw conclusions from it. This sort of “human proto-dance” may be rooted in social dynamics unique to small groups who benefit from mutual touch and moving rhythmically at the same time in a “rhythmic social ritual”.
Illustration of the two chimpanzee subjects performing synchronous bipedalism. ARL/Nature
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Milky Way
The Milky Way Galaxy.
The Milky Way Galaxy was split into four quadrants, a wedge-shaped measurement spreading out from the galaxy center. A quadrant was a region of space measuring 50,000 light-years by 50,000 light-years. The quadrants were positioned neither clockwise nor counterclockwise. (ST reference: Star Charts)
Other interstellar regions and smaller locations were also known as quadrants, like the Morgana Quadrant. (TNG episode: "Pen Pals")
Galactic quadrantsEdit
Milky Way quadrants
The four quadrants.
The four galactic quadrants were named for Greek letters. These letters were also used as visual shorthand for each quadrant. (ST reference: Star Charts) In the early 25th century, the Delta Quadrant was represented by an upper-case Delta, whereas lower-case letters were used for the three other quadrants. (STO - "Klingon War" mission: "Welcome to Earth Spacedock" in-game "Galaxy" map)
The Delta Quadrant was known as the "First Quadrant" by the Confederacy of the Worlds of the First Quadrant. (VOY novel: Protectors)
Stellar cartography keyEdit
Gamma Quadrant
Delta Quadrant
Alpha Quadrant
Beta Quadrant
Over eons of time, stellar drift caused star systems to move between quadrants over millions of years. (TNG - The Lost Era novel: The Buried Age)
The differentiation between galactic quadrant was in use as early as the 22nd century. In 2152, Captain Jonathan Archer advised Subcommander T'Pol that cybernetic attackers encountered by Enterprise NX-01 had sent a signal to their presumed homeworld in the Delta Quadrant. (ENT episode: "Regeneration")
Galactic regions: quadrantsectorclusternebulastar system
System bodies: starplanetplanetoiddwarf planetasteroidmeteoroidcomet
External linksEdit
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"url": "https://memory-beta.fandom.com/wiki/Quadrant"
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Examples for
Zeta Functions
Zeta functions are a family of special functions defined through a Dirichlet series. The most famous example is the Riemann zeta function. Wolfram|Alpha can compute values for multiple variants of zeta functions as well as help you explore other functionalities, such as visualization and series expansion.
Riemann Zeta Function
Compute the properties for the Riemann zeta function or get a Riemann zeta function calculator.
Compute the exact values of the zeta function:
Numerically evaluate zeta near a nontrivial zero:
Plot the zeta function on the critical line:
Find series representations of the zeta function:
Find a functional equation for the zeta function:
More examples
Hurwitz Functions
Generalize the Riemann zeta function to the Hurwitz zeta function and further to the Lerch transcendent.
Analyze a series for the Hurwitz zeta function:
Plot the Hurwitz–Lerch transcendent:
More examples
Riemann–Siegel Functions
Visualize or compute the Riemann–Siegel Z function and the Riemann–Siegel theta function.
Plot the Riemann–Siegel functions:
More examples
Other Zeta Functions
Visualize or compute other zeta-family functions.
Evaluate the prime zeta function:
Find the integral representations of the Dirichlet eta function:
More examples
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<urn:uuid:f4dfad48-5aa7-43fd-a314-c10f7286cdee>
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"language_score": 0.6595443487167358,
"url": "https://www.wolframalpha.com/examples/mathematics/mathematical-functions/special-functions/zeta-functions/"
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© juancarlos1969/Fotolia
Magpies are bold, noisy birds with long tails that belong to the group of birds known as songbirds. The magpie’s voice, however, is rather harsh sounding. Magpies are known for their intelligence, often hiding objects and then remembering where to find them. There are several different types of magpies; they belong to the family Corvidae (order Passeriformes), along with crows, ravens, and jays.
Magpies are found in many parts of the world but are most common in the Northern Hemisphere. These birds build their nests in tall trees, yet they need open grasslands for feeding, so they are often found at the edges of forests. Magpies eat insects, dead animals, fruit, seeds, and even the eggs and young of other birds. When magpies have had enough to eat, they hide the leftovers to eat later.
Two of the best-known species are the common, or Eurasian, magpie (Pica pica) and the black-billed magpie (Pica hudsonia). They are black-and-white birds with iridescent blue-green wings and tail. They reach a length of about 18 inches (45 centimeters). Common magpies are found throughout Europe and in northwestern Africa and much of Asia. The black-billed magpie inhabits western North America and is noted for making a large round nest of twigs cemented with mud. Several types of magpie found mainly in Asia have bright blue or green feathers.
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"language_score": 0.975911021232605,
"url": "https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/magpie/328873"
}
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Hopp til innhold
1. Home
2. Samfunnsfaglig engelskChevronRight
3. UK HistoryChevronRight
4. Northern Ireland - TasksChevronRight
TasksAndActivitiesOppgaver og aktiviteter
Northern Ireland - Tasks
Pro and Con
Account for the different views of the conflict. Make a table like the one below.
Unionists (Loyalists)
Nationalists (Republicans)
Now, consider the Unionists and Nationalists' general attitudes (pro or con) to the following subjects: Protestantism, Catholicism, The Irish Free State (Eire), Northern Ireland (Ulster)'s independence, the London Parliament (Westminster), the Irish Republic's flag, the IRA, the colour Orange as a symbol, the colour Green as a symbol, England, the United Kingdom, Stormont, the Union Jack, British involvement in the war in Afghanistan, Irish culture and language
Try the cloze test provided in the link collection.
Make a multiple choice task related to the text above in mytask.no. Make 10 questions with three alternative answers (one being the correct one) and challenge your classmates.
1. Why it is not correct to see the conflict in Northern Ireland merely as a religious conflict.
2. To what extent this conflict is about cultural identity - an Irish identity or an English identity.
3. How you consider hunger strikes as a way to protest.
Find Out
1. What is Stormont and which historical and symbolical significance does it have? Why did it create such hatred in the province?
2. More than 3500 people have been killed in Northern Ireland. Find out more about the paramilitary groups operating in the province. As part of your assignment, find out why the IRA launched bomb raids in Britain.
On 12 October 1984, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her cabinet stayed at the Grand Hotel in Brighton. The IRA detonated a bomb at 2:54 a.m. You are a reporter staying at the same hotel. Write a newspaper article for your paper. Give your paper a name, make a heading and use a newspaper layout. Use this Newspaper template.
Working with Film and Literature
1. Steve McQueen has directed the film Hunger (2008) based on the IRA activist Bobby Sands and his companions' hunger strike in the Maze Prison in 1981. Watch a trailer from the film.
2. With the film trailer and further information found on the web as background material, make multimedia presentations (include audio, slides or video clippings) with the following headings:
• Bobby Sands - hero or terrorist?
• The Hunger Strike in the Maze Prison. Make a storyline.
• The Maze Prison Hunger Strike. Why was it launched? What was accomplished?
• Bobby Sands - a hunger strike activist.
• Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and her role in the strike.
3. Watch the entire film. After watching the film, you will find some assignments at Film Education on [i]Hunger[/i] .
4. Another film that deals with the conflict in Northern Ireland is [i]In the Name of the Father[/i] .
5. Irish writers such as Roddy Doyle (e.g. in the novel A Star Called Henry), Bernard McLaverty (e.g. in the novel Cal - which is also adapted to film - and the short story Walking the Dog) and Joan Lingard (in the novels Across the Barricades and [i]Into Exile[/i] portray characters that are deeply affected by the conflict in Northern Ireland.
UK History
Hva er kjernestoff og tilleggsstoff?
Oppgaver og aktiviteter
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"url": "https://ndla.no/subjects/subject:23/topic:1:184811/resource:1:98141"
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How Many Legs Do Centipedes Have? Millipedes? Other Insects?
How Many Legs Do Centipedes Have? Millipedes? Other Insects?
While a majority of people believe all centipedes have 100 legs, that cannot be further from the truth. In fact, the number of legs on a given centipede largely depends on its species. It is difficult to define each type of centipede, as there are thought to be approximately 8,000 species worldwide. Out of that 8,000, only some 3,000 have been described.
Centipedes belong to the Chilopoda class, which means they have one pair of jointed legs per body segment. The number of body segments a centipede possesses is, again, contingent on the species. Centipedes that fall under the orders Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha, for instance, have 15 pairs of legs. Geophilomorphs, on the other hand, can have up to 177 pairs of legs. Meanwhile, members of the Scolopendromorpha order can consist of 21 to 23 pairs of legs.
Interestingly, not all centipedes are born with their entire collection of legs. Only the orders Geophilomorpha and Scolopendromorpha display epimorphic behavior, with all pairs of legs appearing during the embryonic stages. Conversely, centipedes that belong to the orders Lithobiomorpha, Scutigeromorpha, and Craterostigmomorpha grow their legs over time, which makes them anamorphic.
Although the name imparts the idea that centipedes have 100 legs, most species of the multi-legged pests do not even come close. Similarly, millipedes do not have 1,000 legs, despite being named as such. Additional insects with many legs include spiders and ticks, among others.
Importance of a Centipede’s Legs
Importance of a Centipede’s Legs
Centipedes are invertebrate predators. They use their legs located on the body segment behind their heads as hunting fangs. There are also sensory bristles on the last pair of the centipede’s legs. These bristles function as an auxiliary pair of antennae, giving centipedes the ability to travel backward when trapped in confined spaces. Their jointed legs are also longer the farther away they are from the centipede’s head. This helps them with balance and agility.
Another fascinating fact about the centipede’s legs is that they can be discarded when the situation calls for it. Centipedes are able to remove their legs when their life is threatened. However, those legs are not lost forever. The creepy crawlers can actually regenerate them afterward.
Do Centipedes Bite?
While not all centipedes pose a threat to humans, some species do. Centipedes have hollow legs that resemble pincers and are used to pierce the skin. Because their mouthparts are not used in the process, these are not technically “bites.” Regardless, when a centipede does pierce human skin, they release venom into the wound.
Centipede “bites” are not fatal to adults, though they can be very painful. Symptoms include swelling, redness, pain, skin necrosis, local bleeding, headache, fever, weakness, palpitations, itching, and, rarely, nausea, and vomiting. However, these bites are more dangerous to small children and those who have bee allergies, with larger centipedes capable of causing anaphylactic shock.
If a centipede does bite you, it is important to rinse the bite side with cold water and disinfect the wound immediately. Put some ice over it to limit the spread of the venom. The degree of envenomation and the species of the centipede will largely dictate the type of treatment you require. You may be instructed to undergo a urine test or an EKG. Painkillers and other medication may be prescribed. In any case, it is best to consult a medical professional.
How Many Legs Do Millipedes Have?
How Many Legs Do Millipedes Have?
Much like centipedes, the same form of misunderstanding is present when talking about millipedes. Contrary to popular belief, millipedes do not possess 1,000 legs. No known species has been documented to have 1,000 legs. An estimated 12,000 species of millipedes exist in the world today, although the record for the most number of legs belongs to the Illacme plenipes with 750.
While many people continue to interchange centipedes and millipedes, the two invertebrates have several differing characteristics. Centipedes are flatter in appearance and have one pair of jointed legs per body segment. Millipedes, on the other hand, are rounder and have two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments (which means they belong to the Diplopoda class). Centipedes also move quicker than their multi-legged cousins.
Additionally, centipedes have legs attached to the side of their bodies, whereas millipedes have legs attached to the underside of their bodies. Centipedes are predominantly carnivores, while millipedes are detritivores, which means they feed on organic waste. However, some known species of millipedes are herbivores, and a select few are carnivores. The antennae found on centipedes are long and come to a point. In comparison, millipedes have short antennae that have more rounded ends.
Do Millipedes Bite?
Millipedes do not bite nor do they sting, so they are not hazardous to humans. Their diet consists of dead plants and fungi, with only a few species being predatory in nature. While humans can rest easy knowing millipedes do not bite, they can be a nuisance to homeowners and gardeners.
Unlike centipedes, which run or bite when threatened, millipedes curl into a tight coil when they feel predators looming. Millipedes are not fast at all, so their defense mechanism mainly involves protecting their legs and softer underside using their tergites (hardened plates that act as armor found on their back).
Nonetheless, numerous species do secrete chemicals to keep themselves from harm, so they are not entirely defenseless. The foul-smelling compound is emitted through microscopic holes called ozopores also known as stink glands. Some of the chemicals they release can be corrosive and have been known to burn the exoskeletons of other small insects. Larger predators, on the other hand, may suffer burns on their skin and eyes. If you find yourself in contact with a millipede, it is best to give the area a thorough wash for good measure.
Millipedes that belong to the order Polyxenida are unluckier than others as they do not possess tergites or stink glands. Instead, they are covered in bristles. In one species, the Polyxenus fasciculatus, the bristles can disconnect from the body and ensnare ants.
Other Insects with Many Legs
While centipedes and millipedes often dominate the conversation, there are other many-legged critters worthy of being discussed. The two invertebrates, interestingly, do not even fall under the term “insect” as insects are defined as arthropods with six jointed legs. Nevertheless, many people have coupled them under the same classification. Technicalities aside, here are a few other insects known to have several legs.
Other Insects with Many Legs - Woodlouse
The woodlouse is an example of an insect (again, the term is used loosely here) that has several legs. Also known as a sowbug or pill bug, this creepy crawler has 14 legs. Technically speaking, the woodlouse is a crustacean belonging to the Isopoda order. Approximately 5,000 to 7,000 species are thought to exist worldwide.
Some homeowners regard woodlice as pests, although the benefits of having them in your garden often outweigh the negatives. They do like to feed on plants, but they also overturn soil and produce compost. Considering they do not spread disease nor bite, woodlice do not pose a threat to humans. In addition, they do not cause damage to structures.
Other Insects with Many Legs Pauropods
Pauropods are arthropods that belong to the class Pauropoda. They resemble centipedes, but they are regarded as close relatives to millipedes. Pauropods have 9-11 pairs of legs, and they do not possess eyes or hearts. These critters are cylindrical and soft, often found living in the soil because they don’t like the light. Their diet mainly consists of mold and fungi.
other insects with many legs symphylans
Photo: Soniamartinez / CC BY-SA
Another relative of the centipede, Symphylans are arthropods of the class Symphyla. They are comparable in appearance to centipedes and are fast-moving like them, but the similarities usually stop there. Symphylans are much smaller in size and, unlike centipedes, lack venom. As their diet primarily consists of vegetation, they can cause agricultural damage by eating roots and seeds in the soil where they like to live.
Other Insects with Many Legs Spider
Scientifically, spiders do not fall under the umbrella of insects. Instead, they belong to the class Arachnida. There are currently at least 48,200 species of spiders around the world. These household pests have eight legs and strike fear in most humans. And while spider bites are notorious, only a handful of species release dangerous venom. Widow spiders and recluse spiders are thought to be some of the most perilous, but they are believed to only bite when cornered. In most cases, spiders flee at the hint of threat.
Other Insects with Many Legs Ticks
Ticks are parasitic arachnids that consist of eight legs. They attach themselves to other living creatures and feed on their blood. While ticks can be found around the world, they are far more common in areas with warm and humid climates. Apart from blood-sucking, ticks can also be a health hazard to humans and animals because of their ability to transmit infections and diseases. Some species, like the Australian paralysis tick, are venomous and can induce tick paralysis.
Now that you know the main differences between centipedes and millipedes, it will be easier to identify them on the chance of an encounter. While their differing legs serve as the chief distinction, there are several other features that separate the two arthropods from one another. The next time you see an insect with countless legs, remember these points. They will come in handy.
Exterminator's Favorites:
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Ethnic minorities and indigenous people
Lao PDR is the most ethnically diverse country in Southeast Asia. Lao people comprise four main ethno-linguistic families: Lao-Tai (62.4 percent), Mon-Khmer (23.7 percent), Hmong-Iu Mien (9.7 percent), and Chine-Tibetan (2.9 percent)1, which are officially divided into 50 ethnic groups2 The 50 ethnic groups in the country can be further broken down into more than 200 ethnic subgroups.3
Chart by: Open Development Laos. Source: (Lao-Tai, Mon-Khmer, Hmong-Iumien, and Chine-Tibetan)
These 50 ethnic groups are geographically dispersed and were historically referenced in terms of three topographic locations: the Lao Loum (lowlands), Lao Theung (mid-lands), and Lao Soung (uplands). These categorizations also implied traditional agricultural production systems, with lowland peoples generally cultivating paddy rice, and midland and upland peoples pursuing shifting cultivation practices.4
As of the 1981 Conference on Ethnic Minorities, the Lao government officially retired these three geographic categorizations previously applied to ethnic groups, in favor of a system dividing Lao people into the four ethno-linguistic families previously mentioned (Lao-Tai, Mon-Khmer, Hmong-lu Mien, and Chine-Tibetan).5 This step was made due to changing agricultural practices and geographies among ethnic groups that made the classifications somewhat inaccurate. Still, despite this change, the terms Lao Loum, Lao Theung, and Lao Soung are often used colloquially in present-day conversation.
The Lao-Tai ethnic-linguistic family is composed of eight individual ethnic groups, and generally inhabits lowland areas. The Mon-Khmer family includes 33 individual ethnic groups. There are two ethnic groups belonging to the Hmong-lu Mien ethno-linguistic family, and seven groups belonging to the Chine-Tibetan family. Both Hmong-lu Mien and Chine-Tibetan peoples have traditionally inhabited the uplands of Laos. Buddhism is the most common religion in Lao-Tai groups, while animism is prevalent in non-Lao-Tai groups.6
Chart: Trees of ethno-linguistic groups 2018. Created by: Open Development Laos. Source: Douangtavanh Kongphaly. 2018. “List of all ethnicity in Laos.” License: MIT
Of individual ethnic groups, the Lao ethnic group (Lao-Tai family) is the largest, accounting for 53 percent of the total population of Laos. The Khmou ethnic group (Mon-Khmer family) accounts for 11 percent, with Hmong people (Hmong-lu Mien family) accounting for roughly nine percent.
Chart: Proportions of ethnic groups in Laos. Created by: Open Development Laos. Source: Lao Statistics Bureau. 2016. “Results of Population and Housing Census 2015.” and Lao Statistics Bureau. 2006. “Population Census Lao PDR 2005.
The Lao government does not use the word ‘indigenous’. While the expression ‘ethnic minorities’ is sometimes used, the government officially considers all citizens, including ethnically Lao people, to belong to ‘ethnic groups’, which are not specific to minorities.7 This approach is used mainly because the government wants to promote unity among Lao people, by eliminating differences amongst ethnic groups. In this piece, the term “ethnic minorities” will be used to reference people from groups other than the Lao ethnic group, for the sake of clarity.
Legal and institutional framework around ethnic groups
All ethnic groups in Lao PDR are subject to the same legal and institutional framework. The 1991 Constitution of Lao PDR and current Constitution of 2015 state that “the State pursues the policy of promoting unity and equality among all ethnic groups”, and forbids any act of division and discrimination.8 9 The 1992 Ethnic Minority Policy, or Resolution of the Party Central Organization Concerning Ethnic Minority Affairs in the New Era, was intended to gradually improve ethnic groups’ access to services and eradicate discrimination. The policy also called for reeducating ethnic minorities to abandon ‘backwards’ customs, though, suggesting that efforts to promote unity and equality may result in attempted cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities.10
The Guideline on Ethnic Group Consultation (2012) calls for the engagement of all ethnic groups in any relevant development projects and activities, both in regard to the potential benefits, as well as positive and negative impacts on their livelihood and environment. It requires the provision of opportunities for ethnic groups to discuss their concerns.11 Still, meaningful consultation with ethnic groups (and all citizens more broadly) before development projects begin has been a continuing topic of concern among civil society in Laos.
The Land Law (2003) stipulates that all land in Lao PDR is the property of Lao population as a whole, and that the State must secure long-term rights to land by ensuring protection, use, usufruct, transfer and inheritance rights. However, while the law recognizes permanent and temporary land-use rights for individuals, it does not define or recognize communally held rights. Under communal land use, communities often manage common property, including upland areas, grazing land, and village-use forests. Some ethnic communities also have traditionally recognized certain forest areas as sacred forest sites, or spirit forests, which have meaningful cultural and spiritual significance. All community members are entitled to use communal land, and village authorities may grant similar use rights to those from surrounding villages. Although communal land use is an important part of the cultural, political, social and economic frameworks of many ethnic communities, there is no clear government process for registering communal land.12
In recent years, some government initiatives have shown increased potential for communal rights recognition. Communal land titling has been piloted in a handful of villages, and a communal agricultural land management (CALM) project has been pursued by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, but there are little results to report so far.13 The Land Law is also currently under revision, and recognition of customary and communal land tenure has been a key issue put forth by civil society for inclusion in the law.14
Recent Lao government policies have focused on promoting unity, at times negatively impacting certain ethnic minority groups. For example, the 7th National Socio-Economic Development Plan (NSEDP) 2011–2015 directly called for authorities to integrate smaller villages to ensure better administration and provision of services. Strategies to achieve this included requiring ethnic minority groups to relocate, removing them from traditional livelihood sources. These groups have had to struggle to adapt. Some impacts on the relocated groups originally from highland areas include high rates of malaria and dengue due to increased mosquito exposure after relocation to lowland areas.15
In August 2018, the government built off this policy of ethnic group dislocation by releasing a Law on Resettlement and Vocation, which could have sweeping impact on ethnic groups. The law permits “general resettlement” of communities living in “remote and underdeveloped areas”, which include areas pursuing shifting cultivation and “small scattered villages.”16 The law seems to expand the government’s authority to relocate communities, allowing resettlement not only in the event of development projects, but also to suit the government’s own plans. Under this law, compensation for resettlement is available for people with both formal and customary land tenure, although those with no papers may not receive compensation for their land. . The majority voting system is used for the resettlement of affected groups to new living spaces allocated by the development projects.17
The 8th National Socioeconomic Development Plan (8th NESDP) (2016-2020) focuses on a number of goals related to Laos’ development. Relevant to ethnic groups, it promotes (1) improving infrastructure in remote areas, especially those inhabited by ethnic groups; (2) social welfare policy and poverty reduction to meet specific needs and capabilities of ethnic people; and (3) promoting diverse heritage and cultural values of different ethnicities, to enhance equality and unity among multi-ethnic people.18 One strategy highlighted in the plan for promoting cultural heritage is hosting “ethnic minorities’ cultural fairs” and promoting cultural tourism.19 It is unclear whether the government has done consultation with ethnic groups about these strategies. At the same time as promoting ethnic cultures, the plan also calls for efforts to raise awareness of “the nation’s cultural values” to ethnic peoples in order “to establish a livelihood pattern that is in line with the advanced cultures”.20
Besides the national legal frameworks, the government of Laos has also ratified a number of international instruments to protect the rights of Lao people, which includes all ethnic groups. This includes:
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;
• Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities;
• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; and
• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.
Specifically on rights for ethnic groups, the government of Laos has ratified the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.21
Several government agencies and mass organizations have responsibility specifically on ethnic affairs. The Ethnic Minorities Committee under the National Assembly is responsible for drafting and evaluating proposed legislation related to ethnic groups. Under the Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism, the Institute for Cultural Research is responsible for research related to ethnic groups. And the mass organization the Lao Front for National Construction has an Ethnic Affairs Department which is considered to be the leading force for ethnic groups.22 The Department’s mission includes “mobilizing, protecting and promoting the benefits of all ethnic groups” and “relaying the requirements, frustrations and real desires of all Lao people to the higher officials.”23
Because Laos defines itself as a multi-ethnic country, most mass organizations and government agencies do have a mandate to work for all ethnic groups, but not necessarily with specific attention to non-majority ethnic groups. Very few, if any, government documents refer to specific ethnic groups that are in need of support or heightened attention. The result is that, despite the government’s intention to serve “all ethnic groups”, the unique needs of individual ethnic peoples may go unaddressed.
Lives of ethnic minority groups in Laos
Laos’s ethnic groups other than the majority Lao ethnic peoples generally live in more remote and rural areas. Upland peoples continue to practice agriculture using the traditional approach of shifting cultivation. Properly practiced, this method of farming endorses the sustainable use of forestlands. For example, rotational farming with proper management systems, without encroaching on new forestlands, can be environmentally sustainable and even carbon neutral. The Lao government’s land policy discourages shifting agriculture, though, and points to it as one of the contributors to deforestation and poverty.24 There are ongoing discussions around changing perspectives and government policies toward shifting cultivation, as the issue remains debated in Laos.25 26
In addition to discouraging shifting cultivation, the Lao government and international agencies have campaigned for eradication of opium production, which has been historically cultivated in upland (often ethnic) communities. This strategy has included relocating ethnic villages to the lowlands and promoting cash crops as alternatives to opium production. The strategy has had limited success, as many villages previously reliant on opium have not found stable livelihoods and still face persistent poverty.27
Because the lands that ethnic minority groups live on and have a connection to are generally in remote and rural areas, ethnic minorities lack access to basic services, such as education and healthcare. If there are schools or health centers, they lack instructors, staff, and supplies. This results in lower education enrollment rates and higher illiteracy among ethnic minorities, and particularly among ethnic women. It also impacts infant and maternal mortality rates: these are consistently higher in remote northern provinces where road access and electricity are limited. Furthermore, education is generally provided in the official Lao language, rather than the spoken languages of different ethnic groups, which can cause ethnic students to struggle. While the Lao government seems to view learning Lao language as a way to reduce educational inequalities, many civil society organizations see promotion of Lao language instruction as a barrier to ethnic children’s education in itself.28 29
Ethnic minority groups primarily operate under traditional and customary land law, and little legal information is generally available in their languages (as many ethnic groups do not have their written scripts). As a result, there is limited understanding of land rights under the Lao government’s statutory laws, even if there is a full understanding of their traditional claim to the land. Ethnic minorities often lack the tools to challenge land seizures, which have increased as foreign investment in Laos grows. This contributes to the continuing inequalities between the majority Lao ethnic group and the minority ethnic groups.30
Tensions between the government and certain ethnic minority individuals exist. The Hmong ethnic group, for instance, has a violent history with the Lao government. The Hmong fought with the United States government, against the Lao revolutionaries, in the 1960s and 70s in America’s ‘secret war’ in Indochina. When the Lao revolutionaries won the war, many Hmong people, and other ethnic groups that fought with the Americans, were persecuted. Those that were able fled, creating a Hmong diaspora across the world. Ongoing conflict between the government and Hmong people still remains, particularly in the jungles of Saysomboun province, where Hmong soldiers and communities hide. Some international human rights organizations point to this conflict as a sign that some Hmong individuals are still targeted by the Lao government today. 31 32
Women from the Hmong ethnic group. Source:
Recent initiatives to support ethnic groups
The Lao government currently primarily works with international donors to fund more general development projects that also have an impact on ethnic minority groups. Projects funded by large international donors, including the World Bank and Asian Development Bank, often include analyses of how project activities will either benefit or adversely affect ethnic minority groups, although ethnic people are usually not the sole target beneficiaries.
One example of such a development project is the Greater Mekong Region Health Security Project, backed by the Asian Development Bank (ABD). The project dedicated US$12.6 million to capacity-building for health services. The project is centered on health issues most common among rural ethnic groups, such as misuse of antibiotics, and centered in provinces where ethnic groups have a significant presence.33
The World Bank’s Lao Road Sector Project 2 provided US$47.40 million for infrastructure in Laos, while making provision for the ways the project interacts with and protects ethnic groups. The project provides for compensation and resettlement for any lands taken for road projects. The provinces selected for the first stage were remote provinces with large ethnic group communities.34
The Lao government has also previously received funding from the World Bank for community-level development programs. $2.86 million was allocated under the Mobilizing Ethnic Communities for Improved Livelihoods and Wellbeing Project. The program was implemented by the Lao government and helped to reach 85 villages, all predominantly ethnic minorities, with seventy percent reporting improved livelihoods.35
Several other efforts have been undertaken to highlight traditional practices and cultures in Laos’ many ethnic groups. The Lao Women initiative, for instance, documented the lives of nine rural Hmong women in Xieng Khouang province across 2017 and 2018 in a series of videos highlighting their daily lives.36 The retail shop Her Works, based in Vientiane, has a goal to feature and preserve the unique handicraft practices of Laos’ ethnic groups. The business’s website and Facebook page highlight cultural practices and handicraft traditions of several of the groups which with the business works.37 The Traditional Arts & Ethnology Centre, located in Luang Prabang, is a social enterprise which includes a museum and fair-trade handicraft store that promote the diverse cultural heritage of Laos. Exhibitions have included highlights of traditional instruments, carving practices in the Katu ethnic group, and basket weaving in the Khmou ethnic group.38
In general, because of Laos’ emphasis on creating a multi-ethnic nation (where multiple ethnic groups live together in a certain community), , specific initiatives targeting the individual needs of certain ethnic groups are limited. Civil society space for ethnic people is also limited, and there are no government-recognized civil society organizations which work specifically for the needs of ethnic groups.
Last update: 22 March 2019.
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Black codes: Among the many codes that governed the lives of African Americans immediately after the Civil War were vagrancy statutes that made unemployment illegal.
Sundown towns: In an effort to keep towns across the US white, many enacted policies that expressly called for African Americans, Chinese Americans, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and Jewish Americans to be outside of the boundaries of certain towns by sunset.
Stop-and-frisk: According to the New York Civil Liberties Union, hundreds of thousands of residents (overwhelmingly African American and Latino) have been interrogatedthe under NYPD's stop-and-frisk policy. Nine out of ten residents were found to be completely innocent.
Broken windows: The idea behind broken windows policing is that addressing very minor offenses prevents bigger crimes from occurring. The reality, however, is that selectively targeting poor communities in the "crack-down" on the sale of loose cigarettes, loitering, and jaywalking has meant that people of color are targets of daily interrogation, harrassment, indignity, and violence.
Historical and contemporary structural injustices in policing traumatize and demonize entire communities.
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Chapter 1: Erosion, processes and consequences
1. Write in your notebook :
Theme 2: Contemporary issues of the planet
Theme 2A: Geoscience and Soil Dynamics
Chapter 1: Erosion, processes and consequences
How are landscapes modified by erosion and what are the consequences?
2. Watch the video : L’altération et l’érosion. After viewing it, on a blank sheet of paper, write down the main ideas you have selected. Look for at least several minutes before restarting the video to complete or correct your key ideas.
3. Answer on Pronote to the MCQ entitled : « T2A – Chapter 1 – Erosion ». You have until the beginning of the next course to answer the MCQ. Be careful, you will only have 8 minutes to answer the 5 questions and you will not be able to go back. So do the MCQ once the video is well understood.
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Miranda's Coronae
Despite its small size (only 470 kilometers across), Uranus' small icy satellite Miranda has had a surprisingly diverse and complex geologic history, concentrated in three dark oval- to square-shaped regions called coronae. This image shows portions of two coronae, Arden Corona at lower left and Inverness Corona at right. Coronae are 100-300 kilometers across and consist of a central zone of chaotic ridges surrounded by a zone of concentric ridges and fractures. Ridges appear to be extensional fault blocks in some areas and volcanic extrusions in other areas. The extruded ridges are up to 2 kilometers high and may be composed of ammonia-water lavas.
The concentric pattern of volcanism and tectonism within coronae suggests that they formed over plumes of material rising from the core of Miranda. These plumes spread out as they neared the surface, fracturing the crust and triggering local volcanism. The geologic complexity of Miranda is puzzling because it should have been cold and inactive since shortly after its formation. The heat required to melt large parts of the interior may have been provided by tidal interactions with neighboring satellites and Uranus itself. Similar tidal heating powers the volcanism on Jupiter's moon Io. (Voyager 2 images 26846.11, 26846.14, 26846.26.)
MIRANDAS3D_S37.gif (319823 bytes)
Image and text, courtesy of NASA
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3 minute read
Peccaries are wild pigs (order Artiodactyla, family Tayassuidae) of the New World which are relatives of the wild pigs of the Old World. Peccaries are the only pigs native to the New World pigs, all other pigs in North and South America are formerly domestic animals that have escaped and become feral. Taxonomists recognize three species of peccaries: the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) of the southwestern United States and Mexico; the white-lipped peccary (T. pecari), which inhabits plains, forests, valleys, and deserts throughout most of northern South America; and the tagua or chaco (Catagonus wagneri), which was thought to be extinct, but living specimens were found in 1975 in the arid Gran Chaco region of South America in Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil.
Peccaries are even-toed hoofed animals that are sometimes called javelinas (javelins) because their tusks look like javelins or spears. Peccaries have a musk gland on the back near the rump that gives off a very powerful odor, resulting in the alternate common name of musk hog.
The tagua is the largest peccary, reaching as much as 80 lb (36 kg) and a shoulder height of about 43 in (1 m), almost twice the size of the collared peccary. It has a large head that seems out of proportion to its body. The white-lipped peccary's stiff hair is dark reddish brown and the white on it is actually on the sides on its jaws, not on its lips. It is about 3 ft (1 m) long and weighs about 66 lb (30 kg). The collared peccary is grizzled gray with a whitish, collar-shaped stripe of fur on the neck. Adults have a faint black stripe on their backs, which is more visible in young animals. The males and females of all species are the same size.
From the side, a peccary's head looks triangular with a round, flat snout making one corner of the triangle. The snout is used for rooting out their food of bulbs and tender shoots as well as prickly pear cactus, a particular favorite. The long legs have tiny, hoofed feet with four toes on the front and three on the back. Peccaries do not run much except when in danger, and even walking is kept at a minimum, with the animals preferring a quiet life of lazing during the day and leisurely feeding at twilight and dawn.
Peccaries live in groups that may number more than 100 animals and depend on the group for defense. The collared peccary tends to live in smaller groups, usually numbering less than 10 members. A closely packed group of angry, squealing animals with large, jutting canine teeth like tusks does not present an inviting target for jaguars and other big cats. As the group moves, the members mark their territory with their musk glands.
Males and females in the group mate at any time, but the young, usually twins, are generally born in summer after a gestation period that lasts about 115 days for the collared peccary and up to 160 days for the white-lipped peccary. The newborn peccaries can move almost immediately, and they will stay with the mother for several months.
Peccaries serve as a tasty food source for the people who live near them. In some parts of the United States, the collared peccary has come to be regarded as a game animal, and is the target of organized hunting parties. If hounded by hunters, peccaries are apt to turn and try to attack. Hunting and loss of habitat has brought the numbers of these New World pigs down to very low levels, and these animals are now protected in a number of reserves and parks throughout South and Central America.
A javelina (Tayassu tajacu), or collared peccary, at the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Texas. Note the irregular collar (which is yellowish in color) running from shoulder to shoulder. Photograph by Robert J. Huffman. Field Mark Publications. Reproduced by permission.
Burton, John A., and Bruce Pearson. The Collins Guide to the Rare Mammals of the World. London: William Collins Sons & Co., 1987.
Stidworthy, John. Mammals: The Large Plant-Eaters. Encyclopedia of the Animal World. New York: Facts On File, 1988.
Jean F. Blashfield
Additional topics
Science EncyclopediaScience & Philosophy: Pebi- to History of Philosophy - Indifferentism
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Although mainstream education teaches the four seasons of Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter, Western Australia’s Noongar Aboriginal people lived by six seasons. These seasons clearly indicate change in weather. Aboriginal culture dates back tens of thousands of years and reveals an astounding knowledge and understanding of the environment.
Through this ancient wisdom, Noongar Aboriginal people (sometimes spelled Nyoongar or Nyungar) lived across the south west of Western Australia. Life was lived according to the six seasons, moving with the availability of various food sources, weather patterns and cultural habits.
The six Noongar Aboriginal Seasons are:
• Birak (December-January)
• Bunuru (February-March)
• Djeran (April-May)
• Makuru (June-July)
• Djilba (August-September)
• Kambarang (October-November)
In June and July it’s the season of…
Makuru sees strong winds, storms, and rain. It’s cold and wet. Communities generally moved away from the stormy coast and further inland for more sheltered locations. Travelling was limited and campfires formed the heart of communities, providing warmth and a place to gather for music and dreamtime storytelling. Food changed to inland sources such as larger grazing animals. Nothing was discarded as bones and sinew were used to make tools such as spears and hides were added to shelters or used as robes.
Understanding the land and identifying the changing seasons has allowed Aboriginal people to live in harmony with their environment for tens of thousands of years. There was no need to change it. Instead it was respected, adapting to seasonal fluctuations throughout the year. The way of life was respectful to the land and animals and it showed a deep understanding of the natural environment.
The night sky also played an important part in day to day life and worked hand in hand with the six seasons. The knowledge of star patterns and dark regions of the night sky represents a calendar that depicts special times of the year. The night sky plays a significant part in cultural beliefs and dreamtime stories.
Artist, Rikki Garlett
The beautiful image above was created by Rikki Garlett, a local Ballardong artist who grew up in Northam. Her ambition is to create traditional art, inspired by the stories of her culture shared to her as a child. She sees her art as a way to share knowledge and connect with the community. If you would like Rikki for other projects, please contact Wheatbelt NRM.
The Noongar Calendar
Wheatbelt NRM works with the Noongar Elders Advisory Group each year to produce a Noongar Calendar celebrating the Dreamtime. 2020’s calendar features seven original traditional artworks of local Dreamtime stories and totems. It brings together some of the stories shared by the Noongar community.
The Noongar Calendar shows the way to celebrate the year from a different perspective.
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"url": "https://astrotourismwa.com.au/living-by-the-six-seasons-of-the-noongar-aboriginal-calendar/"
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Volcanoes Signaled the End for Dinosaurs
6 m
a large open museum floor with multiple dinosaur skeletons
A new study suggests volcanoes triggered the end for the dinosaurs (image credit: Unsplash/Anthony Delanoix).
A study published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) has concluded that a mass extinction event allowed for the rise of the dinosaurs. At the end of the Triassic period, approximately 200 million years ago, a period of 'pulsed volcanism' radically changed the climate of Earth, leading to the eradication of many species. The vacant ecological niches led to the rise of the dinosaurs. The study relied on measuring the concentration of mercury levels in rocks from 4 different continents; mercury is released when volcanoes erupt, reaching high into the atmosphere and settling globally.
Go To Source Story
Volcanoes Signaled the End for Dinosaurs
Rebecca Morelle
Profile picture for user Jesse Rogerson
Jesse Rogerson, PhD
As a passionate science communicator, Jesse Rogerson loves promoting science literacy to the public. He frequently represents the Canada Aviation and Space Museum on television and radio, social media, and at conferences. A trained and practicing astrophysicist, Jesse holds a PhD in observational astrophysics from York University, and publishes his research in peer-reviewed journals. Jesse enjoys riding his motorcycle, board games, and ultimate frisbee.
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Conductor Splices and Terminations
Line Conductor For Open Wire Transmission, Local Loop and Exchange Construction
A little history on conductor design and manufacturing.
Open “Wire” means just that: the Wire Plant. Transmission of telegraph signals relied upon metalic, or early iron wire strung between supports in rural areas. Where signal circuits were arrayed in urban areas, poles were relied upon less, and supports were generally rooftops and sides of structures, buildings and homes.
In Europe, this practice continues to the present day. However, in the United States and Canada, urban congestion, heavier conductors, necessity of supporting adjunct facilities, such as loading coils, terminals, and the like, along with the challenge of construction and repair access, made this impossible. Even more importantly, with the advent of personal real property rights and need of special easements, joint use aspects and the like, such construction was swiftly made obsolete.
In the old days with telegraph, one single conductor (usually bare) was hung suspended by poles and a single wooden bracket or similar fixture, and the ground beneath the circuit furnished the “ground” return for it to operate.
Telegraphy operated at very low frequencies. Losses were minimal and successful long distance telegraphy was possible from the earliest days of this technology. Repeating, or signal regeneration locations at certain distances along the path of the line, provided with a telegrapher and additional sources of current, made long distance transmission possible. Unfortunately, with the high attenuation, or losses, associated with higher frequency voice wire transmission, could not be accomplished so easily.
Very early pioneering “fence line” telephone system, typical of western Nebraska.
Telephone voice transmission implied higer frequencies–sometimes as high as 100 times that of telegraphy. When the voice circuits were amplified, so in turn, was interference, and remained a problem with wire transmission plant up until the evolution of electronics in the immediate pre-World War I era.
The medium of early voice communication consisted of iron, steel and galvanized steel strand, as well as various sizes of copper conductor. Intermediate supports of wooden poles, to which were attached wooden brackets and screwed upon them, glass or dry process porcelain insulators, prevented the conductor from contacting the ground.
The telegraph industry had relied upon freshly cut, seldom preserved, wooden poles of varying lengths and strengths. It wasn’t until February 1891, that the American Telephone & Telegraph Company began to strictly specify pole line construction. Cedar and Chestnut were early tree species called for in these 1891 requirements and 40 foot lengths were demanded.
Within a few years after this, the specifications became more rigorous and involved, heights lengthened, and strengths proportioned to the standard line spans of tangent pole line construction: 130 feet or 40 poles per mile.
Crossarms, too began to take on their traditional “American” feel, with the first ten foot fur arms incorporating wooden locust pins of once inch diameter threads and inserted at 12″ intervals (with the exception of the “pole pair” which were placed on either side of the pole at 16″ distances between the wires).
109 galvanized steel line wire in the field. Photo by D. G. Schema.
Iron wire and steel wire development were in their infancy. Iron wire had been used with considerable success in the barbed wire industry and the settling of the western frontier.
As the great western frontier was being tamed, the iron and steel industries emerged to offer greater strength and resistant materials for line conductors. While the telegraph industry within the first 40 years of its inception, used iron line wire of two sizes: 12 guage and 14 guage, the burgeoning telephone industry found itself with an array of newer, higher strength and less current resistant materials for conductors.
The introduction of “galvanizing” to steel line wire open up many opportunities to place line wire which was not only physically stronger, but was corrosion resistant and could be made in various sizes unknown to the earlier signals and railroad industries. Iron wire was notoriously difficult to splice, allowing weakness where the ends were twisted, fatigue potential at the beginning of the earlier “twisted” splice, and simply were not electrically sound. These splices, when placed along hundreds of miles of line, created further distortions in the signal, amassed considerable interference and were not very electrically conductive.
With the diversity in line wire sizes, came new measurement aids. In the past, diameters were measured in “guage” sizes exclusively. Now, with the advent of steel and galvanized steel wire, “mils,” came into vogue. So, for example, the commonly used telegraphic 12 guage now became “109 mils” for telephone; the frequently applied 14 guage became “83 mils.”
There were several “universal” wire measurement size classifications. One nomenclature, known as the Birmingham Wire Guage or B.W.G., was dominant to Europe. The American Wire Guage or A.W.G., dominated North America’s open wire conductor diameter and strength standards to the present.
The use of “mils” is an expression of the diameter of the wire in decimal fractions of an inch, or mils. Variations to that measurement were accepted for nominal sizes of wire, e.g. for wire 0.100 inch in diameter and larger, plus or minus one and one-half (1 1/2) per cent; for wire less than 0.100-inch but larger than 0.060-inch nominal diameter, plus or minus one and one-half (1 1/2) mils; for wire less than 0.060-inch but larger than 0.030-inch nominal diameter, plus or minus one (1) mil.
With the onset of noisy circuits caused by simple physical twist physical connections, there had to be a better way to resolve these problems.
The first was to re-define the conductor itself, in order to make it more resistant to corrosion, have superior physical strength and more conductive to the electrical voice signal. This is where “galvanizing” steel wire became highly critical to the progress of the early telephone industry.
To quickly define the art of “galvanizing” is to apply a thin coating of zinc, which is a corrosion-resistant to the outside diameter of the steel surface. Sometimes called electroplating, this practice uses the coating of zinc by a “galvanic cell.” However, there are some subtle differences between this general definition.
When a steel line wire, say of 109 mils, is “galvanized,” it means the ferrous steel is protected from galvanic corrosion. Zinc is nearly rust-resistant–although ultimately, it does corrode over time–but much less than iron or non-treated steel. The zinc is in effect, a “sacrificial anode,” as it cathodically emerses the steel interior with a coating protecting it from superficial physical attacks.
Some people have remarked that “galvanizing” is the same as “electroplating.” This latter type of treatment usually includes “hot-dip zinc coating.” Galvanized steel wire typically uses zinc and is nearly always recognized for this ingredient inclusion.
Metallic Conductivity of Aerial Wire
For short-haul transmission requirements, galvanized steel was useful and applied to many telephone circuits. However, one large challenged still confronted early telephone engineers: conductivity of the line wire material.
If one looked at solid drawn copper conductor, with a resistance about ten percent that of steel, a major step could be taken in order to increase conductivity and decrease attentuation to some extent. But while the solution was fairly simple, the industrial processes which might produce this solution, simply did not exist.
Let’s just consider how wire–of any metallic material–is made: Strips of metal are drawn successively through smaller and smaller dies until the proper diameter is achieved. There was one hitch: copper, for example, suffered from successive decreases in physical strength as it was drawn through dies to its ultimate needed diameter. Soon, at very small diameters, it became hard and brittle.
Metalurgical engineers worked on the problem and deduced that heat would mend the successive draws through the dies, whereby cracks and spaces would merge and achieve a much stronger final product. They also found incidentally–without striving for this express purpose–such heating also created a more conductive metal by a few percentage points.
This “hard drawn” wire goal could be achieved, Thomas B. Doolittle discovered, by drawing the line wire through additional “passes” and substantially altering the strength of the wire. Metallic wire’s strength is determined by one of the three factors to measure “stress.” This was “tensile” strength. Regular mined copper in its basic un-refined state has a “tensile” strength of about 28,000 lbs per square inch.
Such wire also has an “elongation” factor, e. g. “ductility” test, to determine the amount of extension of the metal vs. its original guage length. The necessity of this particular test is clearly seen when a wire is hung between two poles. In this test, two wires are placed parallel. Punch marks are made on the material to be tested to a specific length. A pull test begins. The amount of extension beyond the original location of the marks is measured pre-test and after-test in a manual procedure. A device called a extentiometer can be used on small test pieces to achieve results mechanically and with greater precision.
Doolittle’s ductility test achieved highly impressive results with this new copper drawing procedure. Instead of an elongation of 36% on the original wire sample, he found that strength of the same wire with this new process increased its strength to 65,000 lbs per square inch while decreasing the elongation factor down to about one percent!
Executives in the early telephone industry, most notably Theodore N. Vail, took notice and ordered testing to confirm these astonishing results. As a result, a significant order was placed for this type of conductor in 1883. Positive results were reinforced when the line was completed, put in to operation and the first call placed.
By the turn of the preceding century, the practical use of copper for longer span telephone construction could be demonstrated. Copper clearly demonstrated its essential place in the exchange and toll telephone transmission open wire plant of the next one hundred years.
Advent of “Cladded” Copper and Aluminum Surfaces to Steel Line Wire
The advent of rural electrification in the mid-1930s, brought about a maturing of the electric power industry and consequent evolution of conductor design. Because the Rural Electrification Administration demanded engineering standards and specifications of high quality and durability in the rural environiment, manufacturers were challenged to create new line design products.
As an effect of this technological evolution in the electric power industry, many inventions and standards in the emerging rural cooperative movement had positive repercussions to the telecommunications market as well.
Long span construction for rural electric systems required high strength conductor with an efficient degree of inherent electrical conductivity. It was quite clear that pure copper primary conductors would be extremely expensive. Additionally, with 350 to 500 foot spans, copper would not have the breaking strength to resist the span weight and impacts of climate upon the line conductor.
A manufacturer, Copperweld Bimetallics Group, arrived at a solution to this problem by creating a superior product for the rural electrics, which with a few modifications, was also successfully applied to the farmers’ mutual, independent telephone companies and by the late 1940s, the rural telephone cooperative movement. This was the introduction of a copper clad, later aluminum clad, coating to high strength steel core wire.
Additionally, the coating of copper and alumninum, afforded protection to the steel core, eliminating many problems associated with corrosion. Furthermore, theft of copper wire was virtually eliminated when copperweld conductor is strung, as the high scrap value of pure copper is mitigated.
Copperweld Bimetalics Group products could be specified and available for purchase with two differing types of steel cores: one a strong, heat-treated internal type for both the “High Strength” and and the “Extra High Strength,” while a low carbon steel was available for the “LC” grade wire.
What was even more important for the communications and power industries was the ability of several strands to be joined in lays to create multi-strand cable for guy wires, cable support strand, messengers for power distribution, and a host of other applications.
Aerial bare conductor could be selected and applied to systems based upon five major criteria:
Minimum Breaking Strength (MBS) is defined, based upon a legitimate testing program of various samples, is the minimum value of in-line tension required to break the wire.
Elongation is particularly important when studying the impact of climate upon spans of line wire between supports. The length of the wire is made longer by the stress of loads applied to the conductor, such as ice, snow, rain, wind, sleet or other factors. A physically unbalanced line, due to loss of a support from weather, a traffic accident or other event, can stress the strenth of line wire.
Elastic Limit. Line wire can only be stretched so far and for so much time before it is effected and suffers permanent and fatal collapse. Unless a tension of approximately 60% is applied in breaking strength to the line wire and exceeded, will either require physical “re-sagging” of the wire, or replacement of such spans affected. Another issue is clearance. If a line is permanently distorted, then traffic beneath the affected span, is endangered.
Temperature Coefficient of Expansion (TCE) is the effect upon the conductor with the advent of cooling or heating ambient atmospheric temperatures. Sags and tension of the existing line wire will be impacted by a unit length of the wire per degree of temperature variation. With improper sag resulting from these weather changes, both ground clearance and failure of the line conductors may be experienced.
Fatigue Endurance Limit (FEL). Defined by the REA as the “limit of undamped line wire, defined as the maxium stress that may be applied for an indefinitely large number of cycles ithout producing a beak, is expressed in lbs. per square inch of cross-sectional area of aerial wire.” What confuses many readers is that FEL is not to be confused with Minimum Breaking Strength (MBS). In MBS, the failure is due primarily to exceeding static tension alone. With FEL, both static stress and factors such as “aeolian vibration (wind),” in combination with each other.
F = KV
Where: F is in cycles per second
V is the wind velocity in feet per second
D is the conductor diameter in feet
K is an emperical constant of approximately 0.21
One benefit of brazed or soldered connections on the “LC” type of conductor was that weakening of the line wire through deflection or sag would not be affected.
Copperweld Bimetalics Group published a table demonstrating the physical and conductive properties of their conductor in regards to telephone open wire styles. For example, if we look at three major aerial wire catagories in exchange and transmission wire plant we see:
For 104 mil line wire (bare solid Copperweld Bimetalics Group Wires) both HS and EHS types:
With a diameter of .1040 of an inch, its breaking load in lbs. at 40% conductivity: 1,177 lbs and at 30% conductivity: 1,283 lbs. At EHS around 30% conductivity: 1,325 lbs.
The weight of EHS at 1,000 ft. is 30.01 lbs and at one mile per length: 158.5 lbs.
The resistance of 104 mil line wire was 2,445 ohms per 1,000 feet at 40% conductivity; and at 30% conductivity 3,260 ohms per 1,000 feet.
For 128 mil line wire (bare solid Copperweld Bimetalics Group Wires) both HS and EHS types:
With a diameter of .1280 of an inch, and a 40% conductivity level, the breaking load in lbs. was 1,647. The breaking load in lbs for 30% conductivity in EHS for 128 mil wire 2,188 lbs.
The weight of 1,000 feet of 128 mil line wire was 45.47 lbs. Per mile the weight totalled: 240.1 lbs. per mile.
Resistance in ohms per 1,000 feet at 68-degrees ambiant temperature was 1.614 at 40% conductivity and 2.152 at 30% conductivity per mile.
For 165 mil line wire (bare solid Copperweld Bimetalic Group Wires) both HS and EHS types:
With a diameter of .1650, the breaking load in lbs. at 40% conductivity was: 2,523 for High Strength line wire and 2,780 lbs. for 30% conductivity line wire.
Weight of 165 mil line wire per 1,000 feet was 75.55 lbs and a full mile of the stuff was 398.9 lbs.
Resistance in ohms pwer 1,000 feet was .9715 for 40% conductivity level and 1.295 ohms for 30% conductivity.
This information was taken from “Tables of Physical Properties,” Copperweld Wire Tables and N.E.S.C. Loading Tables; c. 1977. Bulletin: E.D. 1899.
By the 1960s, some telephone companies had adopted, with some success, the aluminum-covered steel wire. With one third the conductivity and eight times the strength, this aluminum welded wire carried with its application significant corrosion resistance for an operating telephone company.
In the Copperweld Bimetalics Group advertising of the period, this aluminum welded conductor was marketed to utilities with the unique property of a ductile and permanent weld, due to a unique manufacturing process. This process “provides a thin ductile diffusion zone between the two metals which permts the bimetallic rod to be cold drawn to wire sizes . . . be[ing] formed . . . without danger of the bond being destroyed or damaged.”
The fatigue-resistant nature of this line wire made it popular in sea-side districts of both coasts, where open wire was strung. Because Copperweld Bimetalics Group guaranteed their wire against surface flaking and peeling, it was clear that they did not use the traditional hot-dipped process of cladding aluminum to steel. The layer laid was a much thicker one, which during tests in marine environments, proved that it was nearly identical in performance over years of use as that of a high purity aluminum Alloy 1350 of the same diameter.
The Rural Electrication Administration (REA) and later the Telephone Borrowers Division of the Rural Utilities Service (RUS), allowed only certain types of bare open wire conductor for use by cooperatives:
Galvanized steel
Copper-covered steel
Aluminum-covered steel.
The attraction of rural telephone borrowers to these types of conductors were long span application use, the fact that galvanized steel wire could be specified for use with any of the three classes of zinc coating. Copper-clad steel wire also demonstrated to REA Engineering folk that it could be requested in various strengths and conductivities. The “skin effect” of copper-cladded steel wire could render a line with nearly the conductivity of pure copper, if care was taken in shipping and construction use of the product. High frequency carrier systems easily took advantage of this operational characteristic.
Line wire selection criteria included not only a differentiation between copper-clad aerial wire, galvanized steel or aluminum-clad conductor types, but demands of service vs. aerial wire types. For example, toll and EAS trunk circuits, with their special circuit designs, were not recommended to be placed on galvanized steel conductors of any guage. If carrier was to be placed on these circuits then it was essential that copper-clad and aluminum-clad conductors be selected. Additionally, for low frequency voice circuit use, galvanized steel did not impose a significant quality of sound problem.
The Skin Effect
In designing telecommunications openwire transmission, exchange and local loop plant, the “Skin Effect” is a genuine phenomenon and is associated with both voice frequency circuit transmission and high frequency transmission. But first, we need to explore the electrical physics associated with a simple openwire pair.
Let’s talk first about “Ohm’s Law.” We have a single pair wooden bracket lead serving eight farms and some acreages beyond a city limit. It is a simple party line circuit using high strength steel wire and runs for about five miles. This three-mile line has a d.c. resistance of 10 ohms per 1000 feet of wire. To find this we take 15,840 feet (3 miles) X 10 (ohms)/1000 (feet) = 158.4 ohms for one conductor; however, we have a pair, so we multiply 158.4 x 2 = 316.8. Now you have the TOTAL resistance of this small lead.
Because we call the dedicated pair from the subscriber to the central office and back again a “local loop,” this resistance we’ve determined in the previous paragraph is called “ohms per loop mile.” This is how we find the d.c. resistance of this particular bracket lead.
Now, our little party line doesn’t carry phantoms, nor carrier, so it is a relatively easy line to design. However, let’s say the pair we’ve designed for resistance is part of a longer lead–say a ten pin arm pair–and carries high frequency carrier.
Here’s the rub. On a typical exchange lead, with say two ten pin arms and some brackets below, these circuits have O-Carrier on the top four circuits. Since carrier is an alternating current combined with d.c. circuits (the two never mix), resistance distributed along the line will depend upon the frequency of these currents. Add to that, the sizes of conductor used–and these might be significant if miles from the central office–with many splices, adding further to the resistance. Thus, we find that the higher the frequency of an a.c. current the more current wants to “hug” or travel along the outside surface of the conductor, and less does it want to run down the center of the line. “R” the series resistance of this telephone pair will be greater than its d.c. resistance to the voice frequency currents.
Conductors And Their Characteristics On Open Wire Lines
Let’s talk a little about a conductor–not on a train–or leader of an orchestra . . . although in the latter, it is the conductor which carries the music of speech, so to speak.
If you were a GTE, REA-affiliated telco association, Independent or Bell company outside plant engineer, it was important to specify the proper conductor for the need of the particular line you were designing. It’s important to have all the facts, so that in the estimate sheet, ordering will be less haphazard and potential for mistakes limited.
So, we have a selection of line wires to choose from. Sizes of line conductor (wire) are based on the various needs and we’re going to simply limit our choice to the most widely specified conductors by the telcos when it came to open wire plant.
Some of the sizes of line wire were:
083, 109, 134, 165, 203 – for various types of steel wire (Steel line, H-steel line, E-steel line)
080, 104, 128, 165 – for various styles of copper conductor
080, 104, 128 – for various copperweld conductor types
To give you an idea of the weights involved–whether you were putting it up on poles, or as a linewrecker, deciding how much vehicular load you were needing to cart it away, here are some facts.
083 type steel line is about 99 lbs. per mile. Doesn’t weigh much, about .019 lbs per foot. But you have to order it in coils of one half mile which consists of a 50 lb coil for a half mile. Pretty hefty! In feet per pound it isn’t much: 53.3.
Now, take 109 steel line, which is used for a lot of old farmer bracket leads–a very common diameter guage: as a little thicker wire, it is 170 lbs. per mile and a little more per foot, say .032; pounds per foot is 31.1 and one half mile will be 85 lbs. in a roll with an inside “eye” diameter of 19 inches.
Let’s say we are building an exchange line between two small towns. Let’s specify our linewire: 134 steel line, which is 258 lbs. per mile, .049 per foot lbs., about slightly over 20 feet per pound and purchased for one half mile rolls–which is a hefty roll: 150 lbs. Let me see you pick that up and throw it in the trunk of your car!
On a major toll lead, selection of steel line conductor might require a little longer spans and greater strength. We’ll use the 165 sized diameter guage. It is 390 lbs. per mile! .074 lbs. per foot, and 13.5 feet per pound with a length of a half mile roll weighing in at almost 200 lbs.!
Copper is another animal altogether. On a hard-drawn copper conductor of let’s say, 080 diameter guage, it is 102 lbs. per mile; about the same as .083 steel, at .019 lbs. per foot, 51.7 feet per pound, and is available in a roll not quite the length of a mile, say .83 of a mile. Weight is slightly more than a comparative steel wire, at 85 lbs. a roll.
Again, we’ll use 104 diameter copper conductor: it is 173 pounds per mile, .033 pounds per foot, 30.5 ft. per pound, available in lengths over a mile: 1.07. A roll of this stuff weighs in at 185 lbs. Try to lift that into your car trunk!
128 is again a little more, at 262 lbs. per mile, .050 pounds per foot, 20.2 feet per pound and available at about .71 of a mile in rolled shipping length. It weighs the same as the 104 in a single roll.
165 is used for high grade, high frequency carrier toll systems. The Nevada Transcontinental Line used this, and so did the Council Bluffs to Sioux City, Iowa 7-armed toll lead. Let’s look at its stats:
435 lbs per mile, .083 lbs. per foot, 12.1 feet per pound and available in a big roll not quite a half mile: .42 of a mile. This big coil would weigh in at exactly 100 lbs.
Copperweld made by the Copperweld Bimetalics Corporation is a registered patented linewire incorporating the conductivity characteristics of copper but coated very lightly on a high strength steel core. This gives it conductivity as well as great strength over long span construction. Say, through mountains or rugged terrain.
Let’s see how this Copperweld-type conductor stacks up against the other styles of conductors.
080 sized Copperweld is about 93.5 lbs. per mile, .018 pounds per foot, 56.5 feet per pound, 1.07 of a mile in coiled lengths. Total weight of coil? 100 lbs. Not bad!
Let’s try 104, a very common bracket lead conductor? 158.5 lbs. per mile, .030 pounds per foot, 33.3 feet per pound available at over a mile in a coiled length of 200 lbs at 1.07th of a mile.
128 is a carrier-type conductor and for pounds per mile, it comes in at 240, .045 pounds per foot, 22.0 feet per pound, .83 of a mile. Rolled into a coil, its weight is about 200 lbs.
If you noted above we provided two key items of knowledge to the I & M (Installation & Maintenance) personnel (the guys and gals who put up this stuff): the inside coil diameter, which is standard: 19-inch “eye” and the weight of the roll.
Now you may roll your eyes at 200 lbs for a single roll, but when you are spinning out openwire for a toll lead’s, or smaller exchange lines’ construction, you are not spinning out one conductor at a time–you are spinning out four (4!) at a time. By doing this you are compounding the amount of labor in less time, equalizing the balance of the pole structures on the weight to be evenly distributed, and maintaining spans at equal drops. Your device for drawing wire consists of placing spools on a trailer which pays out the conductor from the terminal pole to the field at the construction site.
Splices and Wire Termination Devices
Line wire, bridle wire taps, splices and dead-end devices…
Note Hemingray Toll Insulators and simple tie arrangement. Photo by D. G. Schema.
Let us transition from the evolution and history of line wire evolution to the simple act of joining two line conductors together. Sounds simple, right? Every cable reel has an end and so it was with bare open wire line conductor.
The term “Western Union” splice says it all; namely that this formerly mamoth communications organization, devised the most common and perhaps oldest, splice for aerial wire. And . . . for many decades, it was an effective splice for line wire. This style of joining conductors endured until around 1906. It was around that time, some ardent telephony engineering types, decided that for both purposes of physical resiliancy as well as improving the sound quality of open wire systems electrically, it was time to turn a corner on splicing.
There were thoughtful telephony personnel in many independent telcos who aimed their trusty soldering equipment on improving the Western Union type splice so as to create a much more substantial joint. One of the first in Iowa, at Clarinda, sought to make their independent telephone company one of high transmission sound and reception quality by literally . . . soldering . . . all their open wire splices. In fact, this independent telephone company was known for its high business and technical reputation over many decades. It wasn’t until 1965, that the family owning it, sold out to GT&E.
By the early 1900s, the “shotgun” approach heralded a better means to join two (or sometimes three wires) together at a point. This was the “double barreled” parallel sleeve assembly which could mate two similarly sized conductors and then by use of a tool, the Sleeve Twister, build a pretty impressive simple compression joint.
Double barrel shotgun style twisted splicing sleeve.
109 aerial galvanized steel wire with double barrel type twisted splice. Photo by D. G. Schema.
One problem associated with galvanized steel line wire, as opposed to hard drawn copper, was the marring and scratching of the zinc surface of the steel, allowing rust and subsequent corrosion to begin. With two dual tubes, which covered the ends of the line wire for a significant length, any scratches would be covered and consealed. The paralleling of the two conductors with an overlay, also made the joint actually stronger than the actual line wire itself as opposed to previous mechanical hand splices which actually placed a “weak” link in the line wire at point of splice.
These twisted sleeve type joining techniques worked pretty well . . . until the advent of carrier systems and their attendant high frequency attentuation sometimes associated with bad splices, dead-ends and other potential sources of interference. Customers demanded a higher quality of sound transmission and reception. Telephone transmission engineers also were engaged in a battle over resistive unbalances in open wire circuits. Each twisted sleeve created these imbalances, which were usually marginal in effect, but added in total to a 200 mile toll lead, became an accumulative problem.
The test board personnel also did their best to locate faulty splicing, however when the surface of the conductor or splice itself, protected with a thin film of anti-corrosive material was abused by contact with trees, buildings or other physical objects, problems began to re-occur. Additionally, just the act of a lineman’s moving a connection, could cause further problems.
Many telephone companies found themselves judiciously inspecting these Western Union splices and double barrel sleeves for problems and subsequently soldering them for a firmer connection. The soldering would, for the near term, hope to eliminate higher resistance. These tactics served to correct unbalanced electrical resistance for the future, but raised significantly the labor costs required to correct the problem. There had to be a better solution.
Perhaps the first compression-type, non-twisted, non-soldered, aerial wire joint, was that introduced in 1927. By creating a “gas tight” connection between the sleeve and the conductor, little if any moisture could permeate the splice containment and cause resistance problems or corrosion. Additionally, when traditional splices had been cut out of old circuits due to problems, it was often found the circumference of the existing line wire had been corrosively affected–hence the line wire was now of a smaller size than when originally strung. With connectors introducing this new compression joint, the centers could be enlarged to accomodate older wires reduced in size by corrosion. Where line wires were of the same diameter to be inserted to the sleeve, the term “combination” was applied. “Maintenance” sleeves were those used when line wires had been reduced by rust and corrosion.
Where copper conductors were to be joined, the interior of the tubes were made from soft copper which could be compressed with a lineman’s tool. Where galvanized steel line wire was applied to these “rolled” splices, a softer steel material allowed joining. Around the outside of the splice was a layer of zinc, to combat corrosion.
Where bridling runs were joined to sleeves, annealed brass was used. Brass also afforded a higher tolerance for lines under tension and gripped the conductors well.
The Sleeve-Wire Guage
The “B” Bell System Sleeve-Wire Guage
Every I & M employee has to have a guage! Well, when working with open wire, that was. Before we enter into a lengthy discussion about joints within open wire lines, we need to talk a little about this pocket held measuring device. Every teleco construction guy had one in his pocket and was a common issuance in all communications companies working with open wire construction. In the Bell System they called it a “B” Sleeve Wire Guage. Whatever the name, this guage would quickly furnish the proper information in order for the compression connector to be chosen for use joining two line wires together. Can’t have them loose!
The sleeve guage, no matter who issued it, was used primarily in two functions:
Does your existing, but corroded copper line, have sufficient diameter to make a clean rolled joint with the specified copper sleeves available?
To confirm whether or not your Sleeve Rolling Tool has become too worn to properly roll good sleeve joints.
In the World War II and immediate post war days of the 1940s, the telcos used a useful–however slightly ungainly–device called the Rolling Sleeve Tool. It is pictured below:
This is how it was used:
Use an abrasive medium to clean the ends of the linewire until bright and shiny on the surface.
Take the mechanical sleeve joint with one hand and shove the linewire which has been cleaned to one inch into one end. Sometimes it is not easy to do by hand and a tool, such as a wire cutter can hold the sleeve unerringly.
Nick and deform the sleeve with the cutting pliers at the midpoint about 1/4 inch from the outer ends; this will secure the one wire inside without pulling out.
Take your other conductor and repeat the same process.
Now it is ready to be rolled. Take the ratchet wrench and turn it so the flat portions of the rolls are opposing one another.
Push on the roll stop and turn the wrench until the roll stop slides into position without spinning the wrench.
Hold the tool beyond the sleeve ends and place the open wire line between the flat areas of the rolls using the properly sized sleeve connector.
Release the roll stop which will ensure an air-tight connection and centered in the groove.
The sleeve should again be rolled by operating the ratchet with some force, but not overdoing it.
A straight and non-distorted sleeve should be the result.
The Nicopress Tool
No. 31-QC Nicopress Sleeve Pressing Tool
By 1947, a new tool had succeeded the rather awkward press type mechanism illustrated above. The use of pressed sleeve joints was preserved for open wire lines, but the tool changed. This was a tool called the 31-QC in some Bell System quarters, or Nicopress tool to others. Its actions were easily understood and with proper practice, could provide similar compression splices easily without the mess and fuss of the old tool.
How the Nicopress Tool Was Used
The Nicorpess Sleeve Pressing Tool was made by the National Telephone Supply Company, and appears similar to a pair of bolt cutters. The action was simple:
Bring the handles together and the groove in the jaws brings great pressure on the sleeve and wire within.
The tool is designed for several different types and sizes of linewire sleeves. There are two grooves: the “Q” groove will take sleeves with could be rolled in the middle groove of the standard sleeve rolling tool outlined above. However, to best the tool above, there was a second insertion point: the “C” groove which can roll smaller diameter line wire.
Let’s make a joint!
Clean the ends of the line wire to a shiny texture first
Check the line wire dimensions, using the little guage above
Select the properly designed sleeve for the wire guage used
Place the end of one wire into the sleeve–the modern sleeves introduced in the late ’40s, incorporated a permanent “stop” inside the new sleeves to limit the wire’s exposure inside the sleeve
To secure the wire on the sleeve, use your side cutter pliers to make an indentation about 1/4 inch from the sleeve’s center, this won’t allow any play within the unit
Add the second wire to the opposite bore on the sleeve, repeat
Continue using your wire cutter to compress the joint
Don’t make a partial press on the sleeve ends but use the tool with a consistent pressure so that the compression joint looks like this:
Now you have the line secure and the completed splice should have these marks.
By using the B-Sleeve Wire Guage, check the indented portions of the completed compression joint. It should enter the guage without much clearance left. This is not done with every compression sleeve, but should be practiced every couple of sleeves to ensure the tool is properly adjusted so that it is consistently applying pressure to each joint.
If the guage shows some inconsistency in pressure and collapsing of the compression splice, then it may be time for the tool itself to be adjusted. When you bought this little tool, an Allen Wrench was supplied with it. You simply loosened the locking screw after a couple of turns, then in a clockwise way, turn the adjustment screw just slightly–checking with a guage to ensure it is accurate. By using a junk piece of line wire and using the guage, will ensure it is perfectly adjusted back to its manufacturing status. If you do not find this first adjustment works, continue to turn the adjustment screw a small amount each time juntil the compressed sleeve with just pass into the guage slot. When the correct adjustment is obtained turn up the locking screw HARD so that the tool will hold this new adjustment.
Sleeves for accomodating differing sizes of conductor. These were used primarily for connecting drop wire, bridle wire runs and regular line wire. Note 1950s prices.
Conductors which were common galvanized type utilized this splice style.
Conductor sleeves for jumpers at dead-ends.
Multiple compression splices on wooden bracket construction view. Photo by D. G. Schema.
Galvanized steel line wire compression splicing on crossarm pairs.
Sizing the proper sleeve for the conductor to be compressed and spliced.
A Chinese Puzzle Made Practical
Remember this technique as a toy when you were young?
The Wire Link
Remember the old Chinese puzzle game where you stuck your fingers in each end of a tube? When you slowly drew your fingers out, the device tightened around your finger and made it impossible to remove your much needed appendages?
Well, this playful gimmick was made practical in a number of ways, the least of which was this little patented device called the “wire link.” While these were not seen in great abundance on open wire lines for joining the ends of conductors, they did play a role in later 1950s construction and into the 1970s, when the Bell and Indendent telcos removed their open wire outside plant medium.
Here’s how it was made and works. First of all, it was used only on 109 steel wire, so that limited its use to farm service station bracket leads and a few exchange lines. It was basically a shell of aluminum tapered at the ends and about five and a half inches long. Once you stuck the cleaned ends of a line wire in either end and pulled that conductor was there . . . forever! Obviously, they were not reusable, and once you made the connection, or made a mistake, they simply could not be removed from the line without simply physically cutting them out.
One of their drawbacks was use in contaminated areas. So forget about installing them on sea coasts, industrial areas or places where lots of water was present. The insides would rust and decay.
However, for the majority of rural areas across the United States, they performed an admirable place in maintaining the line wire in place despite strong storms and lots of other climate foes.
To install the little wire link, you had to completely clean the cut ends of the line wire so that any rust or galvanizing was clear. The wire would appear shiny on the surface to about one inch. Then you inserted the wire ends to a physical stop inside the link. Then pull back on the wire hard! This would lock the jaws of the little device making it IMPOSSIBLE to remove the linewire. On the other side, you repeated the operation so as to make both line wires meet within the wire link.
Pretty nifty little device!
S-type connectors to join line wire with bridle or other line wire.
1890-1910 means of using two piece transposition insulator for dead-ending.
Single piece HG 1890s (left) and Two-piece AT&T transposition (right). insulators. Photo by D. G. Schema.
Using single Pony-type insulator for loop dead-ends and bridling run.
A typical 109 guage strand vice used by Northwestern Bell on open wire exchange circuits. See also the briding sleeve. Photo by D. G. Schema.
REA specifications for bridging connectors at c-type dead-end assemblies.
REA-accepted bridging connector sleeve from line wires to bridle wires.
Threaded connector tap nut and bolt for bare wire to bridling wire.
Tangent crossarm bridging connectors from line wire to bridling run.
Bridging connectors used on obsolete railroad lead.
Loop-type dead-ends for c-type spool bracket.
Steel line wire loop dead-ends for galvanized aerial conductor.
Continuous loop bail for spool-type deadends.
This “strand vice” was a smaller component of its larger brother used by nearly all utilities and railroads for dead-ending 6.6 strand as guy wire. Early versions of the guy attachment were prone to premature failure. Later versions are satisfactory.
Northwestern Bell four wire, exchange lead with BDE crossarm, C-type dead-ends and strand vice dead-end loops. Note the larger version of strand vice on guy attachment. Photo by D. G. Schema.
Series Inductance of an Open Wire Lead
Inductance is when one current flows through a coil of wire an opposing counter electromotive force is induced in the coil opposing the a.c. voltage. We call this electrical inductance. Now a telephone line may be of significant local loop length. Throughout this and other pairs, a current is flowing–which also may be changing in character because of its use and non-use–thus building an induced voltage along its length. In series, the Series Inductance(L), can be deduced by two factors: the guage of the wires and the separation. Remember we talked about W6 and W8 crossarm design. . . this is where such issues are important.
Hence, the inductance of the line will increase as the distance between the two wires increases; it decreases as the diameter of the wires decreases. In the telephone culture, we calculate series inductance in millihenries (mh) per loop mile. Here’s the calculation:
L = 2 TT F L
Where X
L is the Inductive Reactance (ohms)
2 TT is the constant, expressed as 6.28
F is the freqency (CPS)
L is the henries of series inductance
So for a long toll lead, the series inductance opposes the voice frequency and carrier traveling along the line because of its own inductive reactance properties.
Open Wire’s Capacitive Reactance
Like power transmission lines where air fills the distance and clearances between the energized phase conductors of an 115-kV H-Frame line combined with the metalic fittings on a suspension insulator string and the intervening dialectrics, such features act as “capacitors.” A telephone line, of much lower voltages and currents, also possesses such physical characteristics.
On an openwire lead, each pair is separated not only by air between the pairs, but air between pairs throughout the structure design. Just as air and porcelain in our above example act a dialectric with comparative energized conductors between, we have a simple capacitor. Capacitance is increased with the sizing of the conductors and when the distance between conductors is made closer.
Now, when you also add glass insulators at support points, the capacitance increases noteably. This occurs because the glass is an abruptly greater dialectric (or insulator) than the air itself. Glass doesn’t break down in a voltage arc as readily as air does. Because a multi-pair cable has no air separation and only plastic jacketed insulation is present with a high degree of closeness between the conductors, very high capacitance can result. This was unknown at the time the earliest cables were built and on which ignorance, these early cables failed in service (among other reasons).
Now our toll lead is composed of many, many pairs–sometimes as many as 40 pairs on an 80 wire lead. Capacitance becomes considerable when it isdistributed between the adjacent wire pairs above and below on arms within the structured medium of openwire construction. The combined capacitance of these various combinations of pairs is called the shunt capacitance.
Again, in calculating these lines, we use the letter “C” for capacitance. The amount of capacitance per mile results in what we call microfarads per loop mile. When we combine all these factors of all the various combinations of line and wire pairs in their immediate vicinity along a toll lead, their operation causes a capacitive reactance or Xc to occur across these wires.
. . . and you thought we were finished . . . ?
Leaking Insulators?
We talked previously about the insulating constant or dialectric constant. We know what insulators are: sometimes ceramic, glass, plastic, air, liquids like very pure mineral oil or PCBs, or vacuums.
But none of these are perfect insulators. In fact all can break-down under severe conditions of lightning, overvoltges and overcurrents, changes in their purity, contamination or mechanical failure. Water, for example, would be a near perfect conductor if it weren’t for the added chemicals and bi-metalic salts which permeate the liquid. Lightning can strike, flashing over insulators–literally blowing them up explosively–by exceeding their insulating properties. In oil, moisture can enter an apparatus tank because of a faulty seal, gasket or insecure bolting/welding of unit and cause the oil to break-down and flashover, causing insulation failure or case rupture.
And on that note, we proceed to our little open wire pair–either alone on a bracket lead–or among many of its companions on a 80 wire transcontinental line. The weather along most of its route might be very good . . . one day . . . and very bad the next. Here’s where telephone engineers had to battle the forces of nature. During heavy rains, snow, clinging sleet and ice storms and their aftermath, humidity and temperature changes markedly. Not only does the humidity cause leakage between the pairs through the air, but water on glass insulators furnishes a good path to the steel or wet wooden pin for signal strength to degrade and shorts to occur. For older cables, despite their protective sheath of plastic or lead or copper, humidity can enter, causing significant changes in the amount of leakage through the cable’s interior.
No openwire line is immune to these conditions, as aerial wire crossed various regions, urban and non-urban areas, industrial and rural, mountainous and desert locations throughtout the United States. This leakage issue dominated openwire design throughout its lifetime.
This leakage, or we will call it shunt leakage (G), is a shunt across the voice frequency telephone lines just as resistance acts upon these same wires. We call this part of attenuation, or loss, to a telephone signal. There is a simple way to determine the ohms per loop mile resistance for this shunt conductance:
G=1/R mhos.
What is Characteristic Impedance?
Our openwire lead could not operate properly if we ignored one of the most important characteristics of its design: characteristic impedance or:
This simple symbol denotes the combination of previously explored phyiscal issues associated with telephone design:
series resistance
series inductance
shunt capacitance
A line’s construction is based upon this final analysis. Despite whatever equipment might be placed on the line at the terminals, the length of the openwire lead, or interconnecting terminals, the characteristic impedance is independent of this. Because of the characteristic impedance of any openwire lead, this resulting calculation and derivative dictates to the telephone transmission engineer, the specific required values of equipment connected to the telephone line. Since the amount of power between terminals of a pair, the connecting equipment must have the same characteristics as that of your specifically designed line. For example, in the carrier world, the Bell System’s O-Carrier for 16-channel openwire carrier could not be re-used and connected to cable pairs. N-Carrier was the 16-channel system for cable pairs only. It could not be connected up to be used on openwire. The same for J-Carrier (12-channel openwire) and K-Carrier (12-channel multi-pair cable) could be said for this previous technology. Lenkurt 34A Carrier also was manufactured for only openwire and a companion technology for cable and so forth.
Carrier for open wire imposed some variables to this calculation. For example, a distantly served openwire toll lead might have 600 ohms at 1000 cycles. Because the frequency of the J-Carrier 12-channel system was high, the characteristic impedance was pretty high. So let’s design carrier for both the sending (C. O.) and receiving end (C. O.) of a long aerial toll lead. If the input equipment were 700 ohms impedance, then the output equipment must have a like number of resistance ohms.
We talked about attenuation in a telephone line–or the losses–it suffers when a speech pattern is transmitted through its length. A signal starts out at the C. O. with considerable strength. However, because of resistance, capacitance and inductance along this route, it seriously degrades. Current and voltage waves decrease with distance because of resistance along the conductor. This is Current X Resistance (IXR=voltage drop) along a circuit. This was theseries resistance we previously encountered in our discussion.
Also, we have “leaking” insulators, steel pins which conduct electricity much more fluently than wooden pins and perhaps wet wood arms with steel braces. This also prevents the signal from traveling easily the whole distance at full strength. We use a calculation which describes the power decrease from one end of the line to the other:
E x I = Power
Telephone openwire systems on long-haul transmission plant did not just go from terminus at one large city to a terminal in another large city. They passed through various towns along the way. Because the towns were spaced inconsistently, the toll lead would be broken into “line sections” whereby the various sections might be eight miles for the first, 15 miles for the second, 22 miles for the third, nine miles for the fourth and 28 miles for the last.
Telephone Transmission Engineers would design a toll lead so that the intervening sections would have uniform values. Naturally, an eight mile section would be different in electrical values from the 22-miles of toll lead in another. Because of this difference between each section, the final output at the far end terminus, might have severe attenuation–causing indistinct voice comprehension or a large degree of static and interference.
No Transmission Plant Engineer would allow this to happen and so corrective management was undertaken to prevent this problem and allow clear comprehension of speech.
Not Quite . . . “Warp” Speed . . .
Light travels at a breathtaking amount of speed–unhindered: 186,000 miles per second! When electricity travels along a power line at 60 cycles, the speed is slightly reduced–but no less exciting and invigorating a feat: 176,000 miles per second!
In telephone scale, things get up to speed quickly: an open wire line is NASCAR log 10 and over! In high frequency carrier systems, the signal moves at nearly the speed of unhindered light itself. This occurs with carrier signals over 4000 cycles. Higher speeds equate with higher frequencies; lower voice frequency waves move much slower.
The “skin effect.” Higher speeds are possible with the higher frequencies tending to “hug” the outside of the conductor. Lower speeds of voice-frequency systems whose amplitude and wave heights are not as frequent, travel through the conductor, suffering the effects of resistance.
Speech comprises a broad array of frequencies. These velocities differ dramatically with these patterns. For example, the speed of some speech velocities can reach almost 3,000 cycles–nearly the speed of light. But it can also be low, in the 200 cycle range on voice frequency (only) pairs. Carrier is the big dependent upon speed: various carriers comprise operating efficiencies from 4,000 to 132,000 cycles per second.
Echo . . . Echo . . . Echo . . . Effects
Ever listen to a conversation on a phone where your spoken speech is heard intelligently, but less audibly, as an “echo”? This is a result of a long telephone line with locations within its length where impedance is not the same in all sections. Lots of intervening activities cause this disturbance. Toll cable connections to openwire pairs at junction or terminal structures, changing wire guages with different technical values between sections, excessively long bridle wire runs, installed equipment without equalizing impendance between them.
This is what happens: the power carrying the voice signal or carrier wave travels from its C. O. beginning through a toll lead to a section point where there is a direct connection of a buried (in our little example, perhaps an ANTW-type) cable to an open wire terminal with bridling runs. The cable dips down the riser and comes up where a pedestal splice/with (or without) terminal is seen next to the pole. It in turn, is spliced into a 600-pair 19-guage copper cable which then feeds to the central office in that location. The power hits those rough points and not all the power is transmitted through to the buried cable and c. o. Some is bounced back or reflected back along the telephone line to the transmitting c. o. terminal. This is an echo effect. Sometimes this problem is termed “reflection loss.”
Since this small amount of power is reflected back to the C. O., it conforms to our previous discussion of power transmitted: that is, it consists of voltage and current waves. This is like a trough of water and swishing it back and forth as you lift up on either end. The received voltage and current is less, as it encountered some resistance traveling back towards the C. O. This lost power occurs because there is a mis-match between the impedance of the cable, bridle wire, other cable pair guage sizes and so forth. As in our previous discussion of end-to-end terminal-to-terminal design of openwire toll leads, equal impedance must be designed into that line section–matching apparatus’ impedance qualities as well.
Voice Signal Attenuation
In some systems, especially dense urban areas where many risers, connected cables and coax systems are introduced, it is not always possible to precisely match the impedance. This is where Echo Cancellers are installed in a central office. Now, just because openwire is no longer a medium for transmission technology for telephone, echo effects are still heard today. That is because translating from an electrical signal to converted optical signal on fiber and reduced back again to an electrical signal, can also subvert quality of speech. In fiber, all splices in a fiber cable are fused together–not connected with a crimping or tighening device as with wire. These glass fibers are hollow and hence the ends must be microscopically and with space-craft clean-room efficiency fused with lasers to make good connections.
However, that is not always supremely possible. Echo effects occur in fiber, too, because the light signal on a multi-mode fiber bounces along suffering both resistance and at points of connection, bounce or reflect back. That is called “reflection loss” in fiber–so you see, what has been learned in openwire directly translates to the modern era.
Reflection loss on openwire circuits is particularly aggrevating because:
Terminal Equipment received power is reduced
The distortion caused by the reflection and echo attenuates the speech quality.
Power Ratio and Decibels
Yeah . . . I know . . . more math–but meaningful to the Telephone Outside Transmission Plant Engineer. . .
N= 10 log ___
This is how we convert power to decibels. Yes, I know what a decibel is: basically it is common knowledge that this unit is defined as how we respond to sound waves through our ears.
Now, technically in telephone parlance, it is slightly a different matter. We use the term decibel in radio and telephone engineering based upon the amount of loss caused by one mile of standard copper 19-guage cable at a frequency of 886 cycles. Okay . . . ? But what about . . . open wire?
We use the decibel in both radio and wire communications (now also fiber) to express a basic ratio between:
E, I or Sound Level, or Power
When we amplify speech, or power, or sound, we use the term decibel. Since we don’t measure within our ear power per say, we do materialize the soundwave. That pecularity is reproduced in our head and translated into comprehensible language or tone. We measure the gain or loss of an openwire telephone line in decibels.
Back to our equation above. We need to design an openwire toll lead to conform to transmission characteristics which transmit intelligible speech at lowest loss ratios. Thus, the equation is based upon these constructs: Ndb: number of decibels; PI is the power (doesn’t differentiate between input or output); P2 is the smaller power. Log refers to 10 as a logarithm.
Here’s an interesting comparison between my lives with one foot in the telephone world and one foot in the power T&D domain: in my world of power distribution, for example, the losses of a 13.2-kV distribution feeder can be readily calculated through feeder instrument transformers and metering on its 60-Hz route. The frequency is always 60-Hz (and yes, there are some 50-Hz lines, too, but they are also inflexibly defined at that cycling).
With an ammeter and a voltage tester, it is possible to measure the current status of that distribution feeder quite adequately. However, with telephone systems, where the power levels are reduced markedly and the frequency is varied significantly, such measurements with these tools are not practical.
Can you imagine the difference between the load of a refrigerator on a 120-volt secondary to be compared with the output of your voice frequency? Substantially different in nearly all respects. When you speak into the phone receiver, your personal voice output is about 0.0001 watt! When you take that signal and transmit it to the far end of your caller’s phone, it becomes 0.000001 of a watt! This example used an openwire line around 9-10 miles in length.
Here’s the problem: due to the degradation of the line’s ability to transmit speech over long distances, the talking range decreases speech quality–although still comprehensible to the other subscriber.
But not all lines are within 5-10 miles of any subscriber. This is where the early telephone engineers sought to extend the practical limits of then openwire line construction to distant cities.
Now, loading coils or repeaters were inserted into the line connection, using inductance or electronic systems to “up” the signal. Then these decibels are amplified over 100 times with corresponding power levels increased.
Now . . . here’s where we get to the interesting part. Ever wonder where the term “decibel” was arrived at? The original unit was called the bel in deference to A. G. Bell, one of the telephone’s many inventors; dec (10:1) was the corresponding term preceeding bel to create the word decibel. Pretty neat, right?
Early engineers used the term bel on their calculations but found it to be too broad for practical use in their computations. That was because it was a ratio of ten to one. So it was decided early on to think of decibel as a unit of power ratio–not necessarily of power, per se.
I’m sure you’ve bought or seen stereo equipment or other audio equipment with the configurtion: –5 db or + 8 db? The minus (-) or (+) permutation signifies power loss or power gain.
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Home Page
Tuesday 28th April 2020
Story starter!
The giants ran after it, craning their necks, jostling with one another to see what the outcome would be. As they moved across the beach the ground shook violently, barely able to contain their mighty weight and size.
Finally, the die came to rest. One of the giants let out an almighty roar of delight that reverberated for miles around…
Sentence challenge!
Can you make a list of sounds (onomatopoeia) that the die might make as it is thrown on the beach?
E.g. thump, thud
Can you then start a sentence with a sound?
Thump! The die landed on the beach.
Thud… The die rolled over one final time.
Sick sentences!
The giant threw the die. It was really big and had big black dots on. It landed on the beach and started to roll.
Question time!
What number did the die land on?
Who is playing the game?
What game might they be playing?
What will happen now that the die has stopped?
Is there anybody else nearby who has witnessed the game?
Where have the giants come from? Is this their home?
Perfect picture!
Can you draw a picture of the giants who are playing the game?
Visit and watch the video for Summer Term Week 2 – Lesson 2- Halves and quarters. The video will really help with the activities, which can be found below (with the answers too):
Curriculum - Spanish
Introducing yourself in Spanish
In this lesson, we will recap our alphabet and numbers from last week, then we are going to learn how to greet people and introduce ourselves in Spanish! We will learn how to say our name and age in Spanish. For this lesson, you just need your brain and your voice! But you might want a pen and paper handy in case you want to write anything down.
Follow the link below...
Curriculum - PE
Join Joe Wicks - The Body Coach - every morning at 9:00am on YouTube!
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"url": "https://www.st-martinsoldham.co.uk/tuesday-36/"
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Asked in
Nuclear Fusion
What is pressure and heats role in nuclear fusion?
User Avatar
Wiki User
October 17, 2011 10:27PM
fusion is the union of two or more atoms wich take a lot of heat and after that preassure in order to achieve the fusion. So Preassure and heat play a mayor role in fusion.
About 100,000,000 Kelvin/ 17999540.33 Fahrenheit/ 9999726.85 Celsius is needed plus ungodly amounts of pressure.
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"url": "https://www.answers.com/Q/What_is_pressure_and_heats_role_in_nuclear_fusion"
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The Piano As A Morale Booster | Walter Edgar's Journal
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Description/Standards Tabs
Dr. Thompson outlines the importance of Confederate music publishers, and how they played a crucial role in distributing music throughout the South. He then discusses the different styles of music written during the war. Playing the piano during the war became a morale boosting past-time for people left behind on the home front, especially for women. Dr. Thompson plays a sample of “General Lee’s March,” as an example of morale-boosting music.
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Today’s Wonder of the Day was inspired by Aidan. Aidan Wonders, “Why is Black Friday called boxing day in Canada?” Thanks for WONDERing with us, Aidan!
People around the world celebrate Boxing Day on December 26. Although Americans don't recognize Boxing Day as a holiday, people in many other parts of the world, including Canada, New Zealand, Great Britain, and Australia, look forward to the day after Christmas each year.
Let's take a look at a few of the theories about the origins of Boxing Day. Historically, service workers, such as maids and drivers, had to work on Christmas.
Employers would give them the day off on December 26 and present them with gifts of money, food, and clothing, as a sort of Christmas bonus and token of appreciation. Some say the name “Boxing Day" originated from the practice of putting these gifts in boxes for easier transportation.
Another theory centers on the practice of opening the alms boxes in churches. Clergy placed alms boxes in churches to collect money for the poor during the holiday season. The day after Christmas, they opened the alms boxes and distributed the money to the needy.
Others claim Boxing Day dates back to Victorian-era England. In those days, the poor would go from house to house asking for donations. Compassionate homeowners would fill their boxes with generous donations of food, clothing, and gifts.
Though plenty of families and businesses still celebrate Boxing Day by helping the less fortunate, Boxing Day now revolves around celebrating with friends and family.
Although government offices and banks close on Boxing Day, stores remain open. In fact, Boxing Day has become a bit like America's “Black Friday," a popular shopping holiday the day after Thanksgiving.
Many Boxing Day celebrations include a trip to the mall to shop for bargains. Many families also use the holiday as an opportunity to go outside and get some exercise after spending Christmas indoors.
Wonder What's Next?
Tomorrow’s Wonder of the Day is a necessity if you want to build big!
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Ice and Snow Reflection
Normally, when we think of ice and snowfall, we think of it as ice and snow. However, there are so many different types that have different meanings. Some forms of snowfall are blizzards, flurries, squalls, thundersnow, lake effect snow, and others. On the ground, snow is also found in a variety of forms such as slush, powder, rust, corn, firn, and others. Our experience with snow is limited to our vocabulary. Eskimos possess many different words for ice and snow to distinguish the different kinds. Thus, they possess a better understanding of their environment and can better interact with it. This can be said for many things including wood and even colors. Most people have limited words to describe colors, but an artist can be much more specific in naming colors since they have a wider vocabulary. The more we know about something, the more we can appreciate and better understand the world around us.
Leave a Reply
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The Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble Space Telescope is a powerful telescope that orbits the earth and can show us better pictures of faraway stars than any other telescope on earth can do. It is named after Edwin Hubble, an astronomer who lived in the 1920s.
The telescope is in orbit about 600 km above the earth. It can view the heavens without looking through the earth’s atmosphere.
The atmosphere bends the light that comes through it. When we look at stars from the ground they are blurred because the atmosphere always moves. That is why the Hubble telescope can show pictures that are much sharper than the ones we get from telescopes on earth.
Hubble can also observe light that does not reach the surface . It can see ultraviolet light, which has a shorter wavelength and infrared light which is longer than the light we can see. UV light shows places in the universe with a lot of energy, like exploding stars. Infrared light gives us information on more quiet events such as the formation of dust clouds around new stars.
In 1990 a space shuttle put the telescope into orbit. About one month later, scientists found out that there was a problem with the telescope’s mirror. The pictures that the camera was sending back to Earth were not very sharp.
In 1993 the space shuttle Endeavour was launched and astronauts on board repaired the telescope, so that Hubble could work as planned. In the past 10 years there have been 3 more flights to the Hubble Space Telescope. Astronauts installed better mirrors and cameras that were ten times more powerful than the original ones.
After the space shuttle Columbia exploded in 2003, NASA announced that it would not send any more astronauts up to repair Hubble. Officials were concerned about the safety of the astronauts. Without a new repair mission the telescope would only work for a few more years.
In 2006 NASA finally decided to send one last spacecraft to repair Hubble. In May 2009 the space shuttle Atlantis lifted off on its last mission to Hubble. Astronauts repaired some new instruments and installed a few others. They also changed some of the batteries.
Even though the telescope will still be working for some years to come, NASA is planning to launch a new, more powerful telescope by the year 2014. The James Webb Space Telescope will be able to see even farther than Hubble and may even be able to witness the birth of new stars and solar systems. It will also be able to see light that Hubble cannot detect.
The new telescope will orbit about 1.5 million km above the earth’s surface, much farther away than Hubble. It will have a sunshade as big as a tennis court to protect its instruments from the heat of the sun.
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"url": "https://optimalsolutionscorp.com/blog/828/the-international-space-station"
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How Pharaohs Used Counselors To Rule
As one of the ancient civilizations in the world, Egypt has provided mankind with pyramids and other architectural infrastructures. As a country, Egypt sustained its beautiful historical landmarks and offered some vacation spots. But have you ever wondered how this great civilization was able to maintain itself for thousands of years?
Numerous Egyptian emperors or pharaohs emerged from the Nile Valley three thousand years ago. Pharaohs became the rulers of the people as well as religious leaders. Being a religious figure is acting as a divine mediator between their gods and the Egyptian people. As politicians, pharaohs are involved in making laws, collecting tasks, and waging war. They are also in charge of managing all of the lands that Egypt owns.
Yet, they are not entirely alone in ruling this vast and bountiful land. Pharaohs have counselors or advisors called a vizier who serves them.
What Was A Vizier’s Role And Responsibilities
The vizier was the highest official in ancient Egypt. Viziers held the second most powerful position after the king. In the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, viziers were often appointed by the pharaohs. During the Egyptian dynasty’s 4th and 5th centuries, viziers often hailed from the royal family.
A vizier’s primary responsibility is similar to that of a prime minister: to oversee the country’s administration. It can be as simple as ensuring that the city has enough water supply. Viziers were also responsible for almost every aspect of government operations. Some research also suggests that viziers were not merely counselors but rather administrative heads. They implemented policies made by the pharaoh.
Religious Roles
Viziers helped the pharaoh to carry out their religious and traditional practices. For instance, they supervised the execution of rituals and ensured that they were carried out correctly. Viziers were also responsible for appointing high priests, as well as other people in religious positions.
Financial Roles
These counselors supervised taxation implementation. Viziers ensured that taxes were applied fairly and correctly to both the wealthy and the poor. Viziers were also in charge of treasury and wealth management. Other lesser officials, such as scribes and tax collectors, reported to the vizier.
Judicial Roles
Since viziers sat in the High Court, they were also responsible for appointing judges. If there were issues concerning injustices, they served as the Chief Counselor and provided resolutions. The viziers also appointed the Chief of Police.
Agricultural Roles
When there were any land disputes, the vizier was responsible for overseeing agricultural procedures. They were in charge of deciding how Egyptian land will be used. Lands may be used for business or exclusively for farming. Viziers also oversaw the fair use of agricultural lands. They needed to ensure that there was enough food for the whole city.
Military Roles
As the right hand of the pharaoh, viziers were responsible for appointing generals. They were also involved in planning military strategies and tactics. All military choices made by their subordinates were reported to them, and in turn, they reported directly to the pharaoh about the situation of warfare. Viziers had an enormous role in keeping the military intact and united.
Architectural And Interior Construction Roles
Another role of viziers involves planning and building monuments. They may serve as the Chief Architect responsible for building the pharaoh’s tomb and other infrastructures. Aside from this, viziers also supervise the construction and reparation of roads, dikes, and canals.
Most Important Egyptian Counselors
For viziers to have performed all of their designated duties, they needed to be highly knowledgeable about these different professions and highly educated on how these government agencies function. Viziers received training as scribes to be literate. They also had to master being a lawyer, farmer, judge, historian, architect, and a priest. The following people are some of the most important viziers in Egyptian history:
Imhotep of the third Dynasty is probably the most famous vizier. He was a counselor to the pharaoh, Djoser, and serves as the high priest at Heliopolis. Imhotep is also an architect, engineer, and doctor. During his time, he was given the divine status and called the real father of medicine.
Rekhmire served the king, Thutmose III, during the 18th dynasty. This vizier rose to fame when his tomb was discovered to contain a detailed depiction of his daily life in the New Kingdom of Egypt. Although Rekhmire served various pharaohs for more than 50 years, he was relieved from duty when he was already in his seventies.
As the son of a vizier, Ankhu served the pharaohs Sobekhotep II and Khendjer during the 13th dynasty. Scholars suggest that he served around five kings for only short periods. As a vizier, Ankhu strived to maintain continuity of rule. This was when several kings were deposed, and the country may have been subjected to chaos.
Pharaohs knew what it took to run a government. They knew that the position required a significant amount of knowledge, responsibility, and accountability. They appointed a vizier to oversee the kingdom in their name. This position was a highly coveted one during the Pharaonic period. Ancient Egyptian viziers were expected to be impartial, law-abiding, and level-headed citizens. As a counselor, viziers play various roles to maintain the reign of an Egyptian king.
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Political Organisation of the Venda
Political Structure in Rural Areas
Elements of traditional political organization still exist in rural areas. The smallest unit is the household 'mudi', a family or a group of families of the same lineage, who live together in a collection of rondavels.
©Dr Peter Magubane
The mudi is under a mukoma, the father of the mudi's most important family. Succession to mukoma is usually hereditary, but formal approval must be given by the khosi 'king' of the subgroup to which the mudi belongs. The mukoma is responsible for order and government in the mudi.
His jurisdiction is confined to petty cases between members of the mudi, and his privileges are restricted to the right to expect obedience, free labour and tribute from members of his mudi. In judicial duties he is assisted by his council 'khoro'. Procedure is informal, and there is no voting: after discussion on a subject is exhausted, the mukoma reaches a decision and passes a verdict, which accords with majority feeling.
Should he oppose the khoro, he will try to persuade them to his viewpoint. Failing this, the matter is referred to higher authority. This has seldom happened, as the Venda system is flexible and characterized by a strong desire to avoid confrontation. Several units 'midi' form a kavhelo under a headman, whose privileges, duties and powers are similar to a mukoma's, on a larger scale. He is assisted by councils of heads of the midi, and older men from his own mudi.
A lushaka, people from various districts, under the authority of the same khosi, is the third tier, the largest political unit in Venda society. Today, traditional villages with stone walls may be found nestling under cliffs. Typically the king is at the highest part of the village, with his wives and family in front of him.
Others occupy the lower and surrounding areas, protecting the khosi and his wives. The entrance to the king's residential section is adjacent to the khoro 'public court'; access to the ruler, particularly by strangers, is limited. After permission has been granted to see him, subjects are taken through winding passages and up steps to the large rondavel that is the meeting place.
The King's Authority
Traditionally, a king had great power and influence, his secular authority grounded in spiritual might. He approached the ancestors on behalf of the nation; this marked the apex of a pyramid in which the mukoma could approach the ancestors on behalf of the household. It used to be thought that the king was the high priest, but now we understand the position better. In traditional society, the very young and old were accorded great respect and honour: the young were still close to the ancestors, and the old about to re-join them and become ancestors themselves.
As an extension of this, the khosi was a living ancestor. He had to be approached on hands and knees; he addressed everyone with condescension in the second person singular, but he had to be addressed in the polite third person plural. The distinction was also made between the king and his people in naming objects and actions associated with the king. For example, if the king were drunk, people would say he had 'fallen into a pool of water.
People would not refer to a king's death directly but would say, 'the pool has no more water. The language is spoken in his musanda 'royal capital' was highly symbolic and differed from that spoken by commoners. Because he was considered semi-divine, he was lauded for anything he did, no matter how mundane — coughing, drinking beer, even expectorating. It was not unusual for a king, as he grew old, to perform a solemn solitary dance 'u pembela', which turned him into a god 'Mudzimu'.
The khosi, though powerful, was not a tyrannical despot and had to operate within the laws and customs of society. Only in rare circumstances could he deviate, and this had to be sanctioned by his council. Mahosi were powerless, within taboo and ritual, to make alterations without the sanction of the people.
Some rituals were overseen by khosi's principal sister 'makhadzi', who ensured that tradition was followed. In the past kings were assisted in their functions by a council of the magota and dzinduna, as well as the vhakoma - brothers and cousin-brothers of the king - who lived nearest his palace or Great Place. Kings who tried to deviate too far from established tradition ran the risk of being poisoned by the wider royal family or having their subjects 'vote with their feet' and move away to the area of authority of another ruler.
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Best Answer
The common law system is a system that gives weight to precedential decisions. This law system is based on the principal that cases that bear similar facts to previous cases should be treated the same. If similar a case has been resolved in the past, the court is "bound" to follow the reasoning behind that decision in their case.
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Q: What is a distinguishing feature of a common law legal system?
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Related questions
How did common law arrive in Australia?
Australia's legal system was basically adopted from the British legal system along with common law.
What kind of legal system is based on common law?
The Common Law system is based on legal precedents. Most countries that were part of the British Empire are Common Law jurisdictions.
How does the culture of a country affect its legal system?
Many factors can affect a legal system but religion is the most common.
How was Australia's legal system developed?
The common Law system was developed in the United Kingdoms, the legal system developed at the beginning of Last year.
The british colonies in north America were similar to great Britain in this area of the legal system?
Common Law legal system
Legal system in Papua New Guinea?
The legal system in Papua New Guinea is based on the common and English law.
The what legal system is based on common law?
civil law
What things do the US and the UK have in common?
Common heritage, common language, common legal system, democracy, defence policies.
The roots in the common law system lie in what?
English legal tradtion
What is the most important basis of the US legal system?
Its common law
What is the sources of English law?
The source of English law is common law, judge made law, and legislation. The legal system is a legal system of England and Wales.
What was the french legal system and what was English legal system?
The answer to the " three of the following terms are associated with the development of the english legal system, " "A common law, B petit jury, C grand jury, D exchequer"" The answer is D Exchequer
What is the single most important basis of the US legal system?
Common Law
A judges view of law if of little importance in a common legal system?
Which type of law allows for flexibility within a legal system?
Common Law
What is a legal system based on custom and court rulings called?
Common Law.
What is the definition of Malaysia legal system?
The Malaysian legal system is based primarily on the laws from Australia and India. The system uses the common law system and a dual justice system. In the dual justice system Islamic law is observed only by Muslims.
What are four common elements of civilization?
Some common (though not necessarily universal) elements of civilization include a writing system, agriculture, a legal system, and art.
Is a legal system based on a written code of laws?
It can be, wholly or partly. A legal system can also embody 'common law', the body of jurisdiction by a country's courts. In some countries, traditional customs or the Muslim Sha'ria laws and customs are part of the legal system.
Judges use precedent when deciding a case in a common law legal system?
Do judges use precedents when deciding a case in a common law legal system?
Did the legal system in the US evolve from English common law?
Yes, the basis for US law is English common law.
Common law is an inheritance of what legal system?
Common law originated in and was developed in England as the head of the British Empire. It is based on doctrines established in court decisions (precedent) rather than on any written legal code, though statute is paramount and supreme to this 'common law'. This system is opposed to that originating from the Roman Empire called the Civil law system. This civil system is based on an inquisitorial system of law, whereas the common law system of British heritage is based on the adversarial system of law.
What was the English legal system that reflected the customs and principles established over time?
Common Law
Is unwritten judge made law derived from the traditional English legal system?
Common law
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- Ethos
IB English A: Language & Literature: - Ethos
In Greek the term "ethos" means "character". It can be used to describe the character of an audience, nation or community. For example, one can speak of the "American ethos" as the characteristics that define American culture. A US presidential candidate would have to speak to the ethos of this nation and culture in order to win votes.Understanding ethos is important to understanding speech writing. As we study the rhetorical...
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Ladakh highway | Representational image| Commons
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New Delhi: Union Home Minister Amit Shah introduced the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Bill, 2019 in Parliament earlier this week, which proposes to bifurcate the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories. Shah had announced the proposal to turn Jammu and Kashmir into a Union Territory with a legislature and Ladakh into a separate Union Territory without a legislature.
Ladakh has been considered a part of Jammu and Kashmir since Independence. But the region was an entirely different entity some 180 years ago.
With the Narendra Modi government undoing a historic merger of not only two pieces of land but also their cultures and civilisations, a look at how and why they were brought under a common rule in the first place.
Inhabited by nomadic tribes
The word ‘Ladakh’ emanates from a local word, ‘La Dak’, meaning ‘land of the mountain passes’ — ‘La’ (mountain passes) and ‘Dak’ (country). The region was also known as ‘Maryul’ or low land in the past. Ancient Chinese travellers Fa-Hein and Hiuen Tsang referred to it as ‘Kia-Chha’ and ‘Ma-Lo-Pho’, respectively.
The primary inhabitants of this land are believed to be the Brokpas. This community claims to be members of Alexander’s army which had stayed back. Ladakh has been inhabited by various nomadic tribes at different points of time such as the Dardis near Kargil and Tibeto-Mongolians around Leh, Lahaul and Spiti.
The earliest known reference to political rule in Ladakh was found in an ancient Indo-Aryan language of the Kharosthi script. This inscription refers to the rule of Kushan Emperor Kaniska from 78 to 144 CE.
Based on references found in Tibetan and Arab literature, it has also been said Skitde Nemagon had ruled the region in the 10th century AD.
Nemagon’s kingdom was taken over by King Singge Namgyal who built the historic 9- storey Leh Palace.
Cambridge Scholar John Gray has written that until 1834 when the first Dogra invasion took place, Ladakh was an independent Himalayan state akin to Bhutan.
He also says Ladakh was part of the Tibetan empire which disintegrated after the assassination of King Langdarma in 742 AD. Thereafter, it became an independent kingdom but its borders remained dynamic at different periods of history.
Also read: Art 370 killed because Hindu Jammu, Buddhist Ladakh & Muslim Kashmir only benefitted Pakistan
Rise of Sikh Empire
The Namgyal kings had protected Ladakh from Tibetan threat in the East and the rulers of Kashmir in the West. In the 17th century, Lahaul and Spiti were lost to the Rajas of Kullu but rest of the region remained independent till the rise of Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab in the early 19th century.
Ranjit Singh defeated several kingdoms in north-west India and established a Sikh empire. In 1808 CE, he took over Jammu from the Dogras, while Kashmir was annexed to the Sikh empire in 1819.
In 1802, a weak Namgyal dynasty approached General Zorawar Singh of the Sikh Empire for administrative help. Zorawar Singh marched into Ladakh in 1834.
Ladakh was a strategically important region for both the Dogras and the Sikhs since it oversaw trade routes from Tibet to the rest of India.
Ironically, the Ladakhis had offered to accept British supremacy in 1822 in return for protection against the Sikh empire. The British administration, however, refused to intervene because Ladakh was considered “agriculturally barren”.
By 1835, the king of Ladakh was forced to sign a treaty accepting supremacy of the Sikh empire and to pay an annual tribute to it. Subsequently, in 1841, Raja Gulab Singh of Kashmir finally annexed Ladakh. The Namgyal ruler was given a small jagir (a grant), now known as Stok Palace outside Leh. It is now a heritage hotel.
Becoming a part of J&K
According to the Treaty of Amritsar (1846), Raja Gulab Singh was awarded the kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, which included Ladakh. This inevitably made Ladakh a part of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Post Independence, the region continued to be a part of Jammu and Kashmir.
In 1979, Ladakh division of Jammu and Kashmir was divided into two full-fledged districts of Leh and Kargil. It has one Lok Sabha constituency and two assembly constituencies. This Lok Sabha seat will continue to present Ladakh but the state-level representation will be dissolved since Ladakh will now be a separate Union Territory without a legislature.
Also read: Modi govt’s move to make Ladakh a UT reopens an old front with China
What upsets China
China has been particularly critical of India’s decision to turn Ladakh into an administrative territory directly ruled by the central government.
The neighbouring country claims a 90,000-square-kilometre chunk of Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh — due to the continuing dispute over Aksai Chin.
Pakistan and China had illegally occupied around 78,114 sq km and 37,555 sq km areas of Ladakh, respectively, post Independence. The dispute over Ladakh started when Pakistan ceded 5,180 sq km of the region to China in 1963.
Following this, there have been several intrusions into Ladakh by Chinese army along the Line of Actual Control. One of the most significant ones took place in April 2013 when Indian and Chinese troops camped in front of each other at Daulat Beg Oldie for three weeks.
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"bee" by Pimthida is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 (via Flickr)
Though previously a point of contention with artificial intelligence and apes, consciousness and awareness are now possibly exhibited by insects — most specifically bumblebees and honeybees. In 2012 a group of scientists released the Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness. They had been reevaluating the “conscious experience,” and concluded that “humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness.” This statement revolutionizes the idea that consciousness is reserved for higher mammals.
Since 2016, scientists have been leaning toward looser definitions of consciousness, and honeybees and other insects exhibit many of the newly established characteristics. While insect brains are composed differently than a mammalian or human brain, functionality is notably similar; an insect’s brain serves seemingly the same purpose as the human midbrain, which allows for awareness of environmental factors and memory. Living awareness is itself special: a Roomba vacuum is technically aware, as it can respond to environmental stimulants, but it isn’t conscious. However, a bee can feel that it is a bee – it is aware of itself and of feelings.
Even more groundbreaking, bumblebees now show that not only are they aware, but they are capable of learning new tasks. Bumblebees can be trained to complete tasks that are not naturally intuitive, like dragging a ball to the center of a circle. They seem to learn by observation, and best when they can see another real bee completing the task. However, the bumblebees’ newfound ability shows that despite the size of their brains, they are not limited to simple, naturally encountered tasks.
What’s more, the lead author of the study, Dr. Olli Loukola reports, “The bees solved the task in a different way than what was demonstrated, suggesting that observer bees did not simply copy what they saw, but improved on it.” Typically, the bees learned best by mimicking another bee that had already learned the task and was duly rewarded or a model bee. Other bees, who were trained with a “ghost” magnet that moved the ball to the center of the circle or were presented with the ball already in the center with a reward, did not have such a high rate of success. For a video, check out the New York Times article that reports the findings.
The ethical considerations wrapped up in bees’ brains are subtle but far-reaching. For example, what does it mean to harm insects, which are self-aware and conscious to a degree? To address this question, the Cambridge Declaration has some insights. One of the framing arguments of the declaration is that just because human and non-human animals are often unable to communicate about their internal states, that does not mean such internal states do not exist. I’ll certainly consider that next time I want to swat a fly, but in ways ascribing consciousness to insects imposes on them a sense of intention. Are mosquitos biting with malice? Of course, they likely are not, but they may be more aware of their actions than we often attribute to them.
Consciousness in nonhuman animals also brings up some troubling questions on animal cruelty or abuse. We tend to be more sympathetic to mammals because of their perceived biological similarities to us. However, if insects are also capable of the feelings we ascribe only to apes or our pets, how might that change lab experiments on insects? High school fruit fly labs are now tinged with a greater moral ambiguity.
There is no clear answer for whether one should experience an ethical dilemma on every summer evening outdoors when mosquitoes are out in full force. Perhaps, however, this newfound information about insects and nonhuman consciousness should provoke a greater awareness of our fellow living beings.
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For this assignment, we were expected to pick one object either from the Roman or Egyptian civilisation and write about the origin, form, utility, impact and other important aspects.
OBJECT: Padlocks
Origin: History of padlocks first appeared in Ancient Egypt and Babylon, and slowly started to spread across ancient civilizations such as China, Greece and Rome. Romans encountered first models of padlocks around 500 BC with the help of traders who went to Asia and returned to Europe bringing many new inventions and rare objects.
The practical padlock is actually a Roman innovation. The first padlocks, requiring a metal housing and sprung steel, were invented by Roman engineer-smiths around 100-200 CE.
Utility: Padlocks are small and portable locks that have been used for a long time to defend against theft, unauthorized entrance, vandalism and sabotage.
Form: The simple, practical function of these early padlocks cemented their basic design – lock body, shackle, steel spring and key. The basic technical concept of the first door locks, a bolt that can slide in two directions via a key, is also found in the first padlocks. In fact, padlocks reflect great variations in design and technique, making them a vital part of our technological history. Lock bodies and shackles can be adapted aesthetically and socially through adornment and choice of materials.
The advantages of padlocks compared to door locks is that they are usually small, can tolerate rough handling, are easy to use and are cheaper than door locks. A drawback is that they need to be used with some kind of iron fittings.
The reason why padlocks left an impact on the people during the Roman era is because it was cheap to produce, sturdy, offered a lot of protection and were reliable in frozen, moist and dirty environments.
Roman barrel padlock, about 10 cm long with a diameter of 5.5 cm. The chain is about 40 cm long.
Bronze Roman barrel padlocks for turning key. From the early imperial era. Hanns Schell Collection, Graz.
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Header boek En
15 Linguistic relativity
In the previous chapter it became clear how the evolutionary development of the language led to a gigantic expansion of the number of possible concepts and thus to an equally strong expansion of the human world view, or, to put it another way, of human reality. The question arises whether our world view determines which language we use or whether the language used determines our world view. In this chapter I will discuss a few contributions to this question from both linguistics and philosophy. I give a definition of the concept of 'thinking' and conclude that both the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and Quine's thesis on untranslatability are trivial, so meaningless.
15.1 Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
whorfWilhelmvonHumboldtThe idea that language influences thinking and experiencing reality has a long history. The linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt published about it at the beginning of the nineteenth century, he saw language as the 'soul of the nation' and in 1820 formulated his conclusion that the diversity of languages is not a diversity of signs and sounds but a diversity of worldviews. Much attention was paid to the subject a century later by the publications of Benjamin Lee Whorf, whose ideas became known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Whorf was already interested in language at a young age, but was trained as a chemical engineer. During work for a fire prevention company, he observed that during work with barrels of flammable liquid, workers carefully observed the smoking ban, but saw no danger in smoking in the vicinity of empty barrels. Despite the numerous accidents resulting from the highly flammable vapour that was still in 'empty' barrels, the empty vessels remained safe in the perception of the workers. Whorf concluded that their stubborn but erroneous idea was caused by the linguistic concept of 'empty', which they associated with 'harmless'.
He had the opportunity to study linguistics with ethnologist and linguist Edward Sapir, but did not obtain an academic degree. Like Sapir, he studied American indigenous languages, including the Hopi, and came to the conclusion that, for example, the way Hopi thought about the concept of time, which was different from the usual Western viewpoint, was related to the language and in particular the grammar that they used.
The name Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was not devised by Sapir or Whorf but later named so by a student. Whorf himself preferred to speak of "the principle of linguistic relativity", with which he meant that the world view of a group of people depends on the language used. Whorf's work, however, met with much criticism in the seventies of the last century, on the one hand because it was in conflict with the then-enrolling linguistic universalism, in particular the theory of Noam Chomsky, which meant every human being possess a universal, hereditary linguistic depth structure, on the other hand because of Whorfs non linguistic origin. His intuitive approach delivered a lot of disdain in the academic world, but when a few decades later the hype of Chomsky's universalism had largely faded, his approach got more attention. At the moment most linguists seem convinced that there is some linguistic relativity to some extent. One distinguishes two interpretations of the hypothesis: the strong form or linguistic determinism and the weak form, the linguistic relativism. In the first approach, the world view is entirely determined by language, an interpretation that is no longer adhered to. The weaker assumption that the world view is influenced by the language used is now reasonably confirmed by empirical research and no longer highly controversial.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has become known for its snow story, which says that the Inuit (Eskimos) have many more words for snow than English speakers, with the conclusion that Inuit therefore has snow that the English speakers can not distinguish. The hypothesis also generated many ideas about the possibility that the introduction of artificial languages could influence people's thinking. Apart from Orwell, who introduced an art language in his novel 1984 that made it impossible to criticise political leaders, numerous art languages have been designed to force people to think logically, to think more woman-friendly, and so on. The results of all that work are, however, not impressive, to say the least.
15.2 Linguistic relativity from a conceptual point of view
Two forms of relativity are thus distinguished: the strong form of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis or the linguistic determinism and the weak interpretation, called linguistic relativity. Linguists try to empirically examine the correctness of the hypothesis, but for me the question is different: what can one say about both interpretations analysed from the conceptual approach? This question about the relationship between world view and language first of all raises the question of what exactly one means by a person's world view or, more specifically, what is meant by the notion of 'thinking'. But also: what are actually linguistic means? Does it have to be names or are descriptions and perhaps even complete stories included?
I start with two quotes from the Dutch Wikipedia about Thinking[1]:
"Thinking process
Unravelling a thinking process remains a difficult problem. Thinking can take the form of problem solving. Another form of thinking is more sensory and consists of a process of comparison of patterns or rather pattern recognition. In a "moment of reflection", new situations and experiences are assessed against existing memories. In order to be able to make these assessments it is necessary that the intellect evaluates the current experience and seeks relevant experience from the past. This happens while the past and present are kept absolutely separate. The intellect can compare, merge, separate and sort out concepts, perceptions and experiences. This process is called reasoning. Logic is the science of reasoning".
The Dutch Wikipedia also pays attention to various forms of thinking:
"Analytical versus holistic thinking
Reasoning and logic are aspects of the human mind that distinguish themselves from other mental processes through a strong analytical orientation. According to some researchers of brain functions such as Robert Ornstein, these aspects are mainly related to the left hemisphere. On the other hand, the imagination in the right brain would fulfil a completely different task. It combines the intellect with the feeling, intuition and emotion. This more holistic, integrated approach to reality can - depending on the philosophy of life - produce "magical thinking" or irrational thinking, and can also play a part in creative processes, the development of new scientific insights and scientific revolutions".
The first passage distinguishes between thinking as a form of problem solving and thinking as pattern recognition, which is more sensory in nature. "The intellect can compare, merge, separate and sort out concepts, perceptions and experiences. This process is called reasoning. Logic is the science of reasoning ".
To what extent does these descriptions fit into the conceptualistic model developed here? Pattern recognition, unmistakably an elementary function, has been placed on a primary level in Chapter 6. Experiences are processed into patterns, they create types while concepts in turn are composed of different types. Because of this hierarchy, within this framework of conceptualism it is not possible to "compare, merge, separate or sort out elements" at different levels. That would only be possible if it concerns elements on the same level. It is thus possible to say that the spirit can compare, merge, separate and sort out concepts, although one has to indicate what is meant by that. The next question, however, is whether these processes can be called 'reasoning' and whether logic can be said to be the science of reasoning. Logic consists of elements such as propositions, predicates and operators that are all expressed exclusively in language. If only these linguistic definitions are used, the strong form of linguistic relativism is virtually trivial: thinking or reasoning depends entirely on the language used. Therefore it's no coincidence that logicians use an artificial language to accurately represent the laws found.
However, are these definitions correct? Does no other forms of thinking than reasoning as described here? Or formulated differently: do non-lingual elements occur in the thinking? If pattern recognition is included in thinking, as is stated here, it seems clear, many patterns are visually, auditory or otherwise connected with sensory experiences without any direct relation to linguistic elements. Even if one interprets thinking in a stricter way, as a process of exclusively realised concepts, it may concern concepts that do not contain linguistic types, from which it can be concluded that a way of thinking outside the use of language does exist. With this, linguistic relativism in its strong form lapses.
The linguistic determinism may be approached differently too. Suppose one could only observe things for which a word or name is known, one would never be able to observe something new. However, new concepts are created constantly, most of them disappear quickly without ever getting a name. Only a fraction of all concepts arising in daily life have such a long and important existence that they are given a name. Language is important in the conceptual system, but it certainly does not have the role that the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in strong form attributes to it.
The weak form seems to have more chance, both in linguistic empirical research and within the conceptual framework. After all, in the previous chapter it became clear that the use of language is necessary to communicate about more complex concepts. What the Dutch Wikipedia understands by thinking, I try to compare with the conceptual concepts developed here. Wikipedia says: "In a moment of reflection, new situations and experiences are judged against existing memories". In conceptual terms, the "new situations and experiences" are the patterns which are experienced at a certain point in time. "the existing memories" are the types that are actualised, the "assessment" stands for the realisation of the concept.
Wikipedia continues: "In order to be able to make these assessments it is necessary that the intellect evaluates the current experience and seeks out relevant experience from the past. This happens while the past and present are kept absolutely separate". The search for relevant experiences in the past is in the conceptual frame the search for types that are congruent with elements of the now experienced pattern. How that happens in the mind is unknown, clearly it takes place very quickly, generally completely autonomously and largely unconsciously. Is that an operation of the "intellect"? What is described in the Wikipedia as thinking, is in the conceptualistic image only that which constantly, unconsciously, takes place in all innumerable daily experiences, including many feelings and emotions. Is that what is meant by thinking? No, of course not, thinking is generally seen as a conscious and focused process. For a further evaluation of Sapir-Whorf, a more specific description of the concept of thinking is therefore necessary.
15.3 Thinking
At first instance I come to the following definition:
15.3.1 Thinking is a conscious inner process consisting of a sequence of congruent concepts that are realised chain-wise
What does this definition mean?
First, I see thinking as a process. In the mind things draw along in a movement that, in a conscious state, does not come to a standstill. One can focus on one sensory experience for a long time, one can stare at a flower for a long time or listen to the murmur of the sea. But that is not called thinking. Thinking is a continuous movement.
Secondly, thinking is a conscious process. It is likely many unconscious processes take place in the mind, but those are not called thinking.
The notion inner indicates that it is a process in the mind consisting of non-sensory experiences, experiences that exclusively come from the mind itself, as opposed to sensory experiences.
What comes along in the process are concepts, the notions in which one thinks, each of which consists of a number of types. The successive concepts are congruent, possibly weakly congruent, they have at least some types in common.
Finally, the concepts are realised chain-wise. The realisation of a concept C1 in the mind means one or more constituent types has been actualised. The realisation of C1 then actualises a number of other types also belonging to C1. However, some of these actualised types are also part of the congruent concept C2. The realisation of C1 implies actualising a number of types of C2, that's whi it can lead to realisation of C2, or maybe C3, if that concept has a number of types with C1 in common too. This mechanism creates a chain of realisations of mutually congruent concepts.
Thinking is often understood as a focused process, for example to solve problems. To that aspect, which is not part of the definition, I will come back later.
The realised concepts can be both linguistic and non-linguistic concepts. The kind of thinking in which chains of linguistic concepts pass by is also described as talking to yourself in silence. People who are multilingual sometimes report in which language they think, which indicates sequences of linguistic concepts. Besides, also non-linguistic concepts seem to be able to get past. For example, I see that it is raining outside, so I know I am not going to do any shopping now. For that I do not have to say to myself first that I am not going to do messengers yet because it is raining. I see the parasol in the garden getting wet from the rain and think of the cover that should be around it to keep it dry. It's a bit hard that such streams of thought on paper can only be represented with words, which makes them seem linguistic. When I do the test for myself to look at the parasol in the rain, I can see it clearly wet without the word "parasol" coming to mind. Another indication that I can be aware of the concept without retrieving the name in my mind, I find in the fact that, if I want to talk about it, I do not have to use the name "parasol", just giving a description satisfies. "That grey thing there" or "that umbrella for the sun" are adequate indications that point to the well-known concept. Another indication is the situation one often wants to say something and can not find the words. "The thing is in the what is it called again?" Apparently one has a thought without accompanying words, which in this case are unconsciously present and can appear at any moment, nevertheless absent at the moment of thinking. All this indicates that thinking without words is indeed possible.
15.4 Worldview
The question then arises what is meant by 'world view'. In the conceptual approach, the answer to that question seems simple:
15.4.1. My world view is the open dynamic collection of all my concepts
The whole of all my concepts is an open and dynamic collection consisting of very different concepts, from sharp to out of focus, from powerful to weak, from short to long-lived and from very simple to extremely complex. However, when it's about the concepts in which one thinks, those which form one's the world view, one usually means only the concepts that are relatively sharp, powerful, long-living, among which are very complex ones too. Although one possesses at any time a large number of concepts not bound to a linguistic element, if one wants the more complex of them to acquire a fixed place in consciousness, to communicate them is a condition, for which language is necessary.
Thus thinking and the world view are certainly dependent on the language. The opposite is true too, however: language depends on thinking and the world view. In the development of the language, words are usually added to concepts, not vice versa. When people experience new phenomena they make up their own words. A reverse process takes place in school learning, for example when learning a foreign language or when learning difficult words. In the year that this is written, the word "selfie" in the Netherlands has been chosen as the most popular expression. The use of such a new word follows the habit of taking a picture of yourself with a smartphone, together with friends and preferably at nice tourist attractions. The phenomenon has existed for centuries, in the past it was called a self-portrait, later a photo with the self-timer and now, thanks to the very widespread use of the smartphone, it has become very easy to make, so it has got a short easy name everyone uses. Except, of course, Grandfather who does not have a smartphone and reads in the newspaper about selfies, the grandchildren have to explain what they are.
The creation of a word or expression usually follows its use, but when learning from existing words the order is reversed: first the word is learned, next what it means, for what concept it stands.
What does linguistic relativism say? From the conceptualistic point of view it's obvious that language and thinking are at least partly mutually dependent. The key question is whether the language used, its vocabulary and its grammar, makes it impossible to form certain concepts. As far as vocabulary is concerned, that does not seem likely. It is undoubtedly true that I do not experience all kinds of things because I do not have a name for it. Correspondingly meteorologists see all kinds of cloud formations I neither recognise or ever experience as such. As soon as I get interested and learn the names, I suddenly see cumulus and sheep clouds. And once meteorologists see repeatedly occurred new patterns in the sky it does not cost them any effort to come up with a new term for it. The vocabulary of a language follows its use. If Whorf had been able to give his workers a chemistry class in which the explosiveness of petrol vapour was demonstrated, they would probably quickly change their behaviour and give the term "empty" a different meaning: although empty of petrol, still full of explosive vapour. Whorf himself gives a nice demonstration of this as he was aware of the danger of empty barrels while he spoke the same language as the workers and probably also called the dangerous barrels "empty". The mistake Whorf and supporters make with their linguistic relativism is they see both the language and the conceptual content of man as static, while both are in reality - to a large extent - dynamic.
However, it could be that not the vocabulary but the grammar of a language is limiting the kind of concepts that can be represented. According to linguistic universalists led by Noam Chomski, this could not explain differences between cultures because the basic structure of each language, called the deep structure, is genetically built into the mind of every human being and is therefore universal for every culture. The languages actually used in different cultures show different surface structures that are not inherited and can therefore also change over time and can therefore adapt to the developments of thought. A fundamental limitation for all potentially conceivable concepts can only be found in the deep structure and that is universal for all humanity and leaves no room for differences between cultures. For universalism supporters, that's the end of the matter: there is no place for linguistic relativism on the basis of grammatical characteristics. Unfortunately however, they have never been able to indicate a grammatical structure that occurs in all human languages.
Remain the opponents of universalism who believe that languages of different cultures can differ substantially from one another. Because they do not believe in a hereditary basic structure, they must assume that the grammars of different peoples have evolved in the course of history according to the needs of those peoples and adapted to their conceptual worlds. If that is true, however, the whole point lapse. What happens If in a certain culture, for example through contact with other cultures, grows a need to create concepts unknown in that culture until then? Would not that language, including grammar, because of the insufficiency, develop in such a way that new concepts arise and become communicable? Apparently a language can develop, so a lack of designation possibilities can be solved by further growth of that language. This may take time, but the occurrence of very many mixing languages in the world indicates that there is no fundamental problem here. The existence of a few special cultures in Polynesia and Papua New Guinea with deviating time or space concepts, a well-known example of those who defend the linguistic relativism, does not so much refer to linguistic shortcomings but to the centuries-long isolation of these cultures from the rest of humanity.
It can not be maintained in the long term languages are able to impose fundamental restrictions on the world view of certain peoples or groups. What then remains of Sapir-Whorf is the fact that peoples know both different world views and different languages. But not only do peoples and cultures differ in their world view, also between groups and subgroups within cultures considerable differences exist, also in terms of language use. And, as I showed, the collection of concepts each individual possesses is constantly changing too. However, no Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is required to establish this. Linguistic relativism is, in the only interpretation holding up, trivial and therefore meaningless, seen from the conceptualistic model.
15.5 The rabbit of Quine
quineWillard Van Orman Quine, (1908-2000) was an influential American philosopher and logician in the analytical tradition of the 20th century. He usually wrote his name in full, including Van Orman, the surname of his mother, and was apparently referred to as "Van" by intimates. Quine's philosophy is largely at odds with conceptualism, he thinks logistic, naturalistic and behaviouristic, so almost entirely realistic. However, where he deals with language and meaning, he comes to some relativistic findings. In one of his most famous works, "Word and Object", he develops an ontology which basically means that everything the natural sciences are about are part of the reality, but all other concepts do not, which he motivates with arguments such as the elegance of theories. However, the second chapter of the 1960 book deals with the translatability of sentences and leads to a surprising conclusion.
Based on his behaviourist principles, he states that meaning can only be expressed in perceptible events, which leads to his idea of radical translation that is necessary if someone wants to translate sentences from a language he does not know at all. He undertakes a well-known thought experiment that takes place somewhere in the interior of a distant continent where a researcher discovers a hitherto unknown tribe who speaks a completely unknown language. The researcher wants to make a translation and notices that a rabbit regularly walks by, whereupon the natives invariably pronounce the sound "Gavagai". He writes in his notebook: "Gavagai = Rabbit". However, he an educated chap and realizes that Plato would have handled this differently. He would have interpreted the sensory reality of an along-running rabbit as an instance of the idea 'rabbit', which, according to Plato, only exists in the world of ideas. Reflecting on this, he comes up with the idea that a chef, if present, in the rabbit mainly sees a to roast meat dish, an anatomist, on the other hand, a collection of rabbit parts.
What is the good translation? Does "Gavagai" stands for a word, a sentence (assignment, exclamation), the instance of an idea, a meat snack coming into being or a collection of rabbit parts? According to Quine, this remains indefinite, even if the researcher stays in the tribe for a longer period of time and experiences more actions and events. Quine's conclusion is far-reaching. He states that every human being, depending on his history and frame of reference, has his own idiolect with his own meanings that are fundamentally cannot be (completely) known by others. A clear relativistic conclusion, one would think, entirely in line with conceptualism. Quine, however, seems to attach so strongly to the logical positivism of his master Carnap that he simultaneously constructs an objective concept of meaning with the aid of the concept of stimulus meaning. This meaning comes about in the form of a researcher who does not speak the language and asks a question to someone who speaks the language. The researcher can, for example, point to a along-running rabbit and ask: Gavagaj? ", to which he receives the answer "Yes". If the researcher, on the other hand, points out a tree and asks the same question, he proves to get the answer "No". The set of all possible situations in which the questioned person confirms the sentence positively, is called by Quine the affirmative stimulus meaning. Conversely, the negative stimulus meaning is the collection of all situations in which negative answers are given.
Quine now defines the stimulus meaning of the word Gavangai as the combination of both sets, so as the collection of all situations, both the affirmative and the negative. In this way he achieves an objective definition. Although he, because he realises the whole idea loses its significance as the sentences become longer and more complex, limits himself to very short sentences like "Gavangaj?", we see Quine applying here a technique of objectivation that is frequently used in analytical philosophy. Quine defines a meaning as a collection of all situations in which a positive reaction comes in combination with all situations that evoke a negative reaction. These are two theoretical infinite sets of possible situations that for the most part have never occurred to the researcher. However, if an objectifying definition is sought, this is an elegant and obvious method. At every difference in meaning, however small, at least one situation is conceivable in which the positive or negative reaction of the person who knows the language, determines the right meaning in the other language. By defining an infinite collection of all situations that can occur in theory, virtually every difference between the meaning in the two different languages is brought to light, which makes an exact translation possible. Quine, however, draws an opposite conclusion: with the phrase "Gavagaj!" in another language, someone could for instance refer to an entire rabbit or only to the head or to "rabbit-being". According to him, this is determined by a specific device within the language that lays down the meaning and can not be translated itself.
That seems to be in conflict with his own objectified definition of stimulus meaning: certainly situations occur that discriminate between the meanings of the rabbit as a whole or only the head or whatever, because it concerns the infinite collection of all possible situations. In the next chapter of Word and Object, Quine goes further in the way children learn language, at least according to the behaviourist Skinner. But with that he ends up in the domain of the natural language in which the sentences are longer and more complex than "Gavagaj!" Or "Gavagai?" And in which speakers are never confronted with infinite classes of possible situations.
The concept of Gavangai has become known in Anglo-Saxon philosophy, but in my view Quine has not made his relativistic notion true, in his later work either.
15.6 Translatability
Thus Quine states that sentences are fundamentally untranslatable, in the sense that, although a statement of person A in language TA that is translated into language TB by a person B who does not know the language TA, by B can be understood, B can never be certain that what he understands is the same as what A means by his statement. Quine's claim was based on very simple sentences such as "Ganvangai?", which play only a marginal role in natural languages. If even such simple sentences can not be translated unequivocally, then this applies even more to more complex sentences that consist of more principally untranslatable words.
The phenomenon that translation entails a number of problems because expressions and words in one language do not have to correspond with corresponding elements in another language, is generally known. Proper translation therefore requires, in addition to a thorough knowledge of both languages, knowledge of the cultures in which those languages are spoken, so that where a literal translation is not possible, adequate descriptions can be given that match the perception of the speakers in both languages. Yet this concerns a different kind of translatability than Quine is talking about. If one follows his reasoning accurately, one can conclude his analysis is not exclusively valid for translation, rather a fundamental problem of human communication. Suppose not one but more researchers in the foreign area always hear the word "gavangai" when the rabbits pass by. They have no doubt that it is a rabbit, but that can indeed have a different meaning for each of them. The Platoon philosopher can see it as an instance of the idea 'rabbit' while the cook already sees the beast in the frying pan. However, if they use the word "rabbit" in their own language, exactly the same thing will happen. No two people have exactly the same concept with a certain word.
This phenomenon can easily be explained from the conceptualistic model. Suppose two persons A and B both see a rabbit walking past. For most people, the image of a long-running rabbit is a complete realiser for his understanding of 'rabbit'. Assuming that the rabbit is sufficiently aware of them, the concept of 'rabbit' will be realised in both minds. A's concept consists of a number of types formed by all his experiences with rabbits throughout his life, including his thoughts about it, . The same applies to B. The types of A and B, however, do not, in principle, coincide entirely: A and B have never had exactly the same experiences with rabbits throughout their lives. Perhaps it seems less likely a philosopher sees in a rabbit the instance of a Platonic idea, but the concepts of the city dweller who only sees bunnies from his caravan in the summer, of the baron who is happy that the myxomatosis puts an end to the rabbits infestation on his estate and the poulterer who slaughter hundreds of rabbits at Christmastime, will certainly vary considerably. Yet all three will say they see a rabbit. This means that they each possess a concept that includes the word "rabbit", while their concepts do not fully correspond. As far as the image of the appearance is concerned and undoubtedly also a number of other aspects their concepts will correspond, but in addition to the similarities, their concepts partly differ. The city dweller in his caravan cannot share his warm feelings for the rabbit with the baron or the poulterer, each of them have to a large extent different experiences from their past. If people have had more similar experiences in their lives, they understand each other better, if there are few similarities it becomes difficult to share concepts, so to communicate with each other.
As said, this phenomenon has little to do with translation. However, at translation the phenomenon plays an even stronger role. A word that indicates a concept, "rabbit" in this case, is a complete realiser for normal people who know the language and the animal species rabbit. The word "gavangai" in a unknown foreign language, however, doesn't mean anything to them, only after a number of confrontations with a rabbit comes the idea that it is used in that foreign language for the concept 'rabbit'. However, if the natives wear rabbit fur, "gavangai" could also mean the term "fur". One can only find out by communicating with the natives in more and different situations. If they also say "gavangai" in a robe fur mantle, it probably does not mean "rabbit" to them. In the reasoning of Quine: one can only be sure what the natives mean when they have used the concept in all possible situations. Yet this is a universal phenomenon with every communication, even within one language. The fur trader who says to his client: "Real rabbit madam" means something essentially different from my grandchild who wants to see a movie of the rabbit Miffy.
15.7 Limits to understanding
When people communicate, they exchange information. Person A says something, B hears that and thinks it understands. He often reacts by expressing himself, even if only with a nod or a "hm" sound. What is the result of this interaction? What do we mean exactly when we say that B understands the expression of A? It may be assumed A wants to convey something that consciously or unconsciously corresponds to the state of his mind at that moment. B hears what A says and believes that to understand. Either what he hears corresponds to possible states in his mind. Nevertheless the result is not the state of his mind is completely in line with that of A. In conceptualism this is easy to describe. A's mind contains a number of concepts. Some of them have a name or description that is part of the concept. If he wants to transfer the realisation of those concepts to B, he produces a language expression that contains the names or descriptions concerned. B hears this expression and insofar as it contains full realisers for his own concepts, the corresponding concepts will be realised in him. Do the mental situations of A and B now fully correspond? Certainly not. Firstly, a communication involves only a small number of concepts of the gigantic number a person possesses. But there isn't any certainty that the concepts realised in B's mind correspond exactly with the concepts in A's mind on which the communication was based. In principle, B should therefore be very uncertain of what he hears A is saying.
In daily practice, it's not that bad. When I say that I am hungry and want a sandwich, listeners in my own culture will immediately understand that. Both "hunger" and "sandwich" are full realisers for normal people and the associated concepts are shared by most people. Yet the realised concepts must also fit in the context. If a child says something like this to his lovingly caring mother, she might answer: "With peanut butter or sausage?" However, if that is said at a time when she has just finished the hot food she will understand the hunger but the need for a sandwich not. She will probably answer: "The hot food is almost ready". After all, concepts are related to each other thanks to the corresponding types. 'Hunger' is very similar to 'I have not eaten anything for a while', but 'sandwich' and 'hot food' have few common types. In other words: the concepts of A and B to be communicated must not only agree, also the context, the concepts that both associate with them, must match.
15.7.1 Suppose A wants to communicate the concepts CA1...CAn with B, then that communication can only succeed if:
a. B possess the corresponding concepts CB1...CBn and
b. The set of concepts that in A's mind are bound by common types to CA1...CAn correspond sufficiently to the concepts that are bound in B's mind with the concepts CB1...CBn.
In plain words: B not only has to know the words used by A, the context in which A pronounces the words should invoke the same context at B too. In this way it may seem that communication can seldom succeed, but for people who live in the same community with many similar experiences, both conditions are often met in practice, provided that the relevant concepts are not too complex. "Are you already hungry?" "Yes, I'm in the mood for a sandwich with cheese". "Shall I make it for you?" "Yes, please." "Do you want something to drink?" "Yes, a glass of water please". Such everyday conversations raise hardly questions for both parties. But when two Jehovah's Witnesses ring my doorbell to tell me that Jesus is love, I have as an agnostic no idea what they mean by that, I do not even try to understand it and, without responding on their question, I just wonder how I can get rid of them in a civilized way.
15.8 Untranslatability
As indicated, I define a person's worldview as the whole of all his concepts, consisting of, on the one hand, inherited concepts and, on the other hand, concepts acquired during the previous life. In that sense, two people can not have exactly the same world view. There are, however, many necessary agreements, even between people from completely different cultures, because of biological preconditions for life as such. In this way everyone gets hungry when he does not eat anything, one finds some things tasty and other things dirty, everyone feels pain when he hits his toe, everyone has a mother, and so on. Life has a large number of basic conditions that apply to everyone, causing to exist also many universal concepts everyone in the world needs. Universal in the sense that a number of basic experiences which make up the concept correspond, next to a great number of differences that always exist. Because of biological laws everyone in all cultures will know the concept of 'mother', but apart from the different words that are used for it in different languages people can have very different experiences with the concept of 'mother'. Concepts are therefore never entirely equal, but they can correspond to important aspects and therefore be communicated.
I return to the definition of the Dutch Wikipedia: "Communication is an activity in which living beings exchange meanings by responding to each other's signals". A communication in this definition is not a one-way action but a feedback chain. Communication between two people can be called successful if concepts known in both directions are evoked in an appropriate context. The realised concepts do not have to be the same, they are never completely equal, just as the contexts in which they act for both people. But there must be so much agreement that one both recognises and finds appropriate the expressions of the other, or:
15.8.1 Communication between two parties is a sequence of mutual utterances in which both parties think they understand each other
The assumption they understand each other, it may seem a little meagre, but more agreement can not be reached. One can never be entirely sure that what's understood also reflects the intention of the other. The result is a fundamental uncertainty that manifests itself in the way in which one communicates. More about that in the next chapter.
In addition to universal human concepts, every human being possesses a large number of concepts that only occur within larger or smaller groups. These involve people who have functional contact with each other: nations, peoples, language groups, religious communities, political groups, groups of friends, work communities and so on. That which is communicable within one group without problems can have no or an entirely different meaning in another.
It is said that people can live in different worlds, which is meant by between them no communication is possible. If one sees "his world" as the whole of his concepts, it will be clear that this is always the case in the literal sense of separated worlds, but because of the existence of universal concepts, never completely. An agnostic can not have a meaningful conversation with a believer about God or other matters of faith. In that respect, so with regard to concepts around the faith, believers and agnostics live in different worlds, which does not mean that one can't drink a nice cup of coffee together and chat about the weather.
Quine stated translation can not in principle lead to certainty about what someone meant in the original language. From the analysis given here, one can conclude that the problem of translation is only a special case of the general impossibility of unambiguously transferring concepts to another. However, it is a question of gradation. People who have many congruent concepts, either - partly - hereditary or through parallel experiences during their lives, can communicate relatively well with each other. But they too can never be sure that what they understand is what the other person means. And, if they possess less congruent concepts, it becomes more difficult to communicate. It becomes even worse if they speaks different languages, the uttered words then are no longer complete realisers for concepts, so understanding becomes very difficult, more a form of searching. To understand that, we don't need Quine's rabbit.
[1] The English and Dutch versions of Wikipedia offer different descriptions. I wrote this chapter starting from the Dutch version and made the English version as a translation. However, both versions agree in mentioning the notion of 'thinking' is not quit clear. The English versionThought encompasses an “aim-free flow of ideas and associations that can lead to a reality-oriented conclusion.” Although thinking is an activity of an existential value for humans, there is no consensus as to how it is defined or understood.
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GAMES for Learning about Epidemics, including COVID-19 (coronavirus)
Don’t Touch Your Face!
Purpose of the game: to help people notice and try to reduce how often they touch their faces.
Where to Play: Great for a classroom or other place people gather
How to Play:
Each player gets 6 counters to start. Every time someone sees you touching your face, they can claim one of your counters. (Only the first person to see you gets the reward.) Try to win a counter back by catching someone else touching their face! After a certain length of time, the winner is the one with the most counters.
Learning note: One of the CDC’s prime recommendations for avoiding COVID-19 infection, along with washing hands frequently, is to avoid touching our faces. Easier said than done! Studies show that most people touch their faces around 24 times per hour.
At the end of this lesson, it can also be informative to graph how many people have how many counters. We would expect this to fall into a normal curve with a mean of 6… but let’s find out!
Video: How To Make A Coronavirus Pinata:
Make your own card deck, either from index cards or (a little fancier) by using the templates below to print on card stock.
Purpose of the game: to show how an infection can spread through an enclosed population like a cruise ship or nursing home. Variations demonstrate the impact of a vaccine or of quarantine.
Where to play: In a classroom, afterschool program, or at home.
To make a card deck:
Use 72 index cards. Mark a front and back for each card. For example, the lined side could be the back and the unlined side the front, or you can draw a virus on the back side.
Make one card the INDEX CASE or starter card. Clearly mark its front side.
Mark the faces of all the other cards with a clear up and down (or top and bottom). The upper side reads “SUSCEPTIBLE,” while the bottom side reads, upside down, “IIMMUNE.” It’s good to distinguish these also by color, stripes, or something else easy to see at a glance.
Examples of home-made game cards (back and front of cards):
To print a card deck: Use this template to print 72 cards:
Click to see an example of the game card templates
How toPlay Ro=2
The object of the game is to see how quickly and thoroughly one infected person (card) can infect a whole group (deck of cards). Each infected card is flipped face up for one round of play. After it has a chance to infect two others, it is flipped face down again but rotated to show it is immune—it can’t be infected again.
To play, one student or player flips and shuffles the cards, while another records how many new infections occur at each step.
Ro=2 means that each infected person (card) can infect two others in contact with them. Epidemiologists call this the basic reproductive rate. But note that once infected, a card becomes immune and cannot be infected a second time, so the effective R, or Re, will decrease gradually over time. (Can you explain why?)
Start by challenging everyone to guess how many uninfected people (cards) will remain at the end of the game. Record the guesses. Also ask players how many rounds it will take to infect everybody (all the possible cards).
Find the Index Case card and turn it face up. Arrange all the other cards face down with the tops and bottoms of the cards aligned. Insert the Index Case card face up somewhere near the middle of the deck.
For Round One of play, the card flipper finds the two cards on either side of the Index Case card and turns them face up also. Now they can infect other cards. The recorder notes that 2 cards were infected in the first round.
The flipper shuffles the deck, making sure not to change the top/bottom alignment of the cards. This will shift the face-up, infected cards to new positions within the deck.
Now, in Round Two, check the cards again. The card flipper turns the two cards touching each infectious card face up. But the old infectious cards are no longer infectious. The disease has run its course and they are now immune. Turn them face down again, but with the “IMMUNE” end on top. Record 4 new infections for Round Two. Shuffle and play another round.
Continue play. If the card next to an infectious card is already immune, it cannot be infected. If an infectious card ends up at one end of the deck, it can only infect one card. That way, the number of new cards infected on each turn will NOT be exactly 2,4,8,16, etc., but will be something more like 2,4,7,12, etc.
Play ends when there are no susceptible cards next to any infectious card. The epidemic is over. How many rounds did it take? How many cards remain uninfected?
CHANGE Ro. How will the game change if you have an Ro of 3? 5? 8? What if you have an Ro of 1? How can you play with an Ro of 2.5?
Use one or two decks of cards, but with only one Index Case. Split the remaining cards into two piles. Start play as before with the infected deck (the deck that includes the Index Case). This deck is in quarantine; cards stay in that deck. After each round of play, randomly draw one card from each deck and exchange it with the other deck. (After all, no quarantine is perfect!) Predict: will the infection spread before it dies out? How many cards will remain uninfected at the end?
Scientists have discovered a vaccine for the infection. Decide how many people/cards will get the vaccine. 10? Half? 60? Turn that many cards to IMMUNE before starting play. Then play Ro=2 as before. How long does it take before the infection dies out? How many people remain uninfected?
For this version of the game, add a colored dot to your cards: green for a young, healthy card, yellow for a more fragile person (elderly or with underlying condition) or red (elderly with chronic disease). After play, look at all the cards that have been infected. For each card, see if it survives the epidemic. You will need to roll a die to see each card’s chance of “dying” and being removed from the game.
Green dot card: roll the die three times. If you get three sixes in a row, the card “dies.”
Yellow dot card: roll the die two times. If you get two sixes in a row, the card “dies.”
Red dot card: foll the die once. If you get a six, the card “dies.”
How many cards survive the epidemic?
Video: How To Wash Your Hands The Right Way
Click to see a screenshot of the game
Download the game here:
This requires the latest Netlogo (6.1.1)
Download NetLogo
This game, developed by Tumblehome, is a simplified version of the Netlogo Core Model Library Virus Simulation originally developed in NetLogo by Uri Wilensky and others at Northwestern University.
This simulation represents the spread of infection, followed by immunity, within a closed population.
The game starts with two infected (red) individuals. Changeable parameters are size of population (number-people), chance of recovery, duration of illness, and Ro, the basic reproduction number, which ranges from 1 to 7. You can run the epidemic quickly or slowlyuntil it burns out (if you continue, the illness becomes seasonal, as immunity in the game only lasts a year).
To start, hit setup inthe middle of the page, and then go. To stop at a certain point and look at curves, hit go again; then you can change the parameters and hit setup and go again.
As the simulated infection spreads, green (healthy) people gradually become red or gray (immune); some of them die and disappear off the stage.
We suggest kids look at the different curves at different levels of Ro. They can also imagine different populations (these are all closed populations): a college (very high chance of recovery); a cruise ship (a bit less); a nursing home (a lot less). Also, they can play with Ebola (lower Ro but 50% mortality), MERS (30% mortality), etc.
The Case of the Covid Crisis (Paperback)
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Types of Roofing Materials
Roofing is the covering of a structure, such as buildings, with all materials and structures needed to support it upon the surface of the earth or on uprights, giving protection from the elements, especially rain, sun, snow, and wind. A roof is often part of the total building envelope. The roof is made of many different materials. It can be constructed out of wood, metal, concrete, and tile. The most common types of materials are slate, cedar shakes, and clay tiles.
Flat roofs are simple and flat, with no slope to them. Most often these roofs are constructed from wood, though concrete and tile are also used. These roofs need very little maintenance and are ideal for areas that receive little rainfall, such as desert regions. A flat roof also insulates better than a sloped roof, allowing heat to be trapped within the structure during winter and cooling off the inside during the summer.
Different types of roofing materials include clay tiles, composition shingles, slate, asphalt, and other synthetic materials. The composition shingles are made up of chips of clay or rock particles attached together under high pressure. Chimneys and vent pipes usually use composition shingles because they do not permit the water to build up in the crevices between the tiles. Roofing joints are typically made of metals, although they can also be made of plastics.
Roofing materials are separated into two categories, those used for both ventilation and heating and those used only for ventilation. Base flashing, which forms the face of the roofing material, provides the waterproofing and structural integrity of the roof. It seals against moisture and seepage and prevents rain and snow from entering through the edges. Chimney and vent pipes also use flashing, but their role is limited to ventilation.
Old shingles are called shinglepanes and they have a tendency to break or chip if they are exposed to strong winds, rains and snow for a long period of time. Instead of replacing them, old shingles can be repaired by substituting the flat top of each with a weighted bottom that is installed on top of the damaged shingle panes. Panels that are wider at the bottom than they are at the top will give the roofing enough support to avoid cracking. Once these are replaced, all that is needed to continue to keep the roof free of leaks and water accumulation is to attach an electric fan to the underside of each shingle pan to circulate air.
Roofing flashing is typically a polystyrene membrane attached to the bottom surface of each shingle pan, providing thermal and sound insulation. A metal plate is fastened to the flashing, which helps keep it in place and provides additional strength. Flashing is usually installed over asphalt shingles, but it can also be used over tar and gravel roofs, providing greater flexibility for the roof deck contractor. The tar roofs tend to buckle under pressure from heavy winds, while gravel shingles resist tearing.
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An illustration of an icy shoreline.
Introduction To Twine
Grade 9 - Grade 12
Section Navigation
Kevin Snow
Kevin Snow
About the author
Kevin Snow is a game designer who grew up in the Southern United States. Kevin teaches kids how to use Twine to design and write interactive stories about their experience living with disabilities.
Digital Storytelling
Lesson Plan
By the end of the module, the student will have a working prototype made with Twine. This is a great start for any students who want to learn to code or make games.
Learning Goals
1. Understanding basics of the Twine interface.
2. Use Twine syntax to create an interactive passage.
3. Create a branching narrative with multiple passages.
4. Troubleshoot potential issues.
5. Export Twine story to its own .html file.
Instructions that a computer program uses to perform tasks.
A tool that allows the user to create interactive stories using code.
In Twine, a passage is a narrative unit, a building block for full stories.
The art, technique, or process of telling and structuring a story.
A general term for a program that operates on computer hardware.
An early model of something like a game or machine.
A testing process to identify implementation problems.
Interactive Fiction
A nonlinear story where the reader directly influences the narrative.
Guiding Questions
1. What makes a story funny, dramatic, or exciting?
2. What kinds of stories do you want to tell?
The following is a example of a story you could use. We want to thank Shanese, a member of the Red Sky Métis Independent Nation and Pinnguaq Curriculum Cultural Advisor for this module, for sharing the story about how the Bear (Kaakuush) lost his tail. Shanese is completing her Bachelor of Arts in Indigenous Studies at Trent University.
How The Bear (Kaakuush) Lost His Tail
It was winter, and the lake had frozen. Mahcheshiish (Young Fox) knew the path Kaakuush took by the lake and decided to lure Kaakuush with some fish. Mahcheshiish cut a hole in the ice and stacked many fish next to it. Mahcheshiish knew Kaakuush loved to eat fish, but so did Mahcheshiish. Mahcheshiish didn’t want Kaakuush to fish in this spot, fearing Kaakuush would eat all the fish up.
When Kaakuush saw all the fish he was excited. He asked Mahcheshiish to teach him how to catch so many fish. Kaakuush swore he would do everything Mahcheshiish told him, so Mahcheshiish agreed. Mahcheshiish took Kaakuush to another spot in the lake and cut a hole in the ice.
Mahcheshiish turned to Kaakuush and told him he must put his bushy tail into the water to catch the fish. Mahcheshiish told Kaakuush he must sit very still. Mahcheshiish warned Kaakuush that bear should not think of anything because fish can read thoughts. Mahcheshiish went off into the bushes, and said he would tell Kaakuush when to pull his tail out of the water.
Kaakuush did as he was told. He did not move, and he did not think. Mahcheshiish watched Kaakuush sitting so still and laughed and laughed, rolling upon the ground. But, soon Mahcheshiish grew tired and went home.
The next morning, Mahcheshiish went back to the lake, wondering if Kaakuush had gone home. It had snowed during the night. When Mahcheshiish approached the lake he saw a mound on the ice covered with snow. The mound was Kaakuush, who had fallen asleep. Mahcheshiish burst out laughing.
Quietly, Mahcheshiish crept up to Kaakuush, and began to shout: “Now Kaakuush! Now! Pull your tail up now!’ Hearing the commands, Kaakuush woke up and immediately tried to pull his tail out of the water. As he pulled, a loud snap was heard. Kaakuush turned to look, thinking he had caught a lot of fish. But there were no fish. Kaakuush’s beautiful tail had frozen in the water and broken off when he tried to pull it out.
Groaning, bear yelled at Mahcheshiish. Kaakuush was angry because he lost his tail through Mahcheshiish’s trick. Kaakuush swore he would get even with Mahcheshiish. Mahcheshiish just laughed and laughed at bear and his missing tail. Kaakuush became more angry and leapt at Mahcheshiish. But, Mahcheshiish was too fast and ran away laughing.
To this day, Kaakuush continues to have a short tail, and still does not like Mahcheshiish. Sometimes in the woods a Kaakuush’s groaning can be heard. Kaakuush groans because he is remembering the trick Mahcheshiish played long ago and continues to mourn the loss of his beautiful tail.
Curriculum Links
This module would connect well to curriculum involving web design or creative writing. It’s a fantastic tool to provide alternative ways to share stories.
Twine – Download Twine
Non-Computer Activity
Share a story that you experienced, but with one detail changed to be entirely fictional. This detail can be subtle, so most people hearing the story won’t notice, or it can draw attention to itself by being over-the-top and obviously untrue. Think about the ways we can draw from our experiences in life to tell exciting, compelling stories.
Computer Activity
Learning Twine
Twine is a tool for creating interactive fiction—a type of story that allows the reader to make choices on how the narrative unfolds. Imagine if a television show suddenly paused and asked you, the viewer, how the main character should act in a moment of peril, or what ending you would like to see. With Twine, we can create those interactive stories.
Beneath Floes showing an illustration of an icy shoreline above the story’s text.
With this module, we’ll learn how to use the Twine software. By the end, you’ll have created your own individual passages, which can then be highly personalized.
The Twine software showing there are currently no stories.
Opening Twine for the first time, the screen will be mostly blank, so let’s fix that. First, select the button labeled + Story. Twine will ask what you’d like your story to be named. You can name your story whatever you like, and the name can be changed later. Since we’re going to personalize these, I named mine Grendel the Miinuush (Cat), after my Miinuush (cat).
The Twine software showing a new story with a single blank passage.
After naming our story, Twine immediately takes us to the story editor screen. Take a look at the little box named Untitled Passage, because this is where we’ll focus our attention. In Twine, a passage is a narrative unit, a building block to create full interactive stories. Go ahead and hover your mouse cursor over the box, then select the pencil icon that appears.Tip: Passages in Twine can also be opened for editing by double-clicking on the box.
The passage window in Twine showing default text fields.
Let’s name our passage. Passage names will be invisible in our finished story, so this name just helps remember its purpose for later. Although we could leave the name as the default Untitled Passage, it would become confusing after we add more. I named my passage “Start” because I intend for this passage to be the first one the reader encounters.
Next, let’s write some text we can work with. This can be about whatever you like—I encourage you to write about something you enjoy, like a hobby or a funny anecdote. I wrote about my Miinuush (cat) Grendel. Once you have text, choose a section of text to place [[brackets]] around to create a link.
The passage screen in Twine showing text surrounded by [[brackets]].
Close out of the passage, and Twine will automatically create a link to an additional passage. This new passage’s name will be the same as the text you placed inside brackets.Tip: Modifying text inside choice brackets will break the connection between passages. If you want to separate the choice text from the passage name, insert a pipe symbol between the choice text and passage name: [[choice text|passage name]]
The Twine editor screen showing two passages with a line connecting them.
In the new passage, write a description for the player to read. Try to make it a consequence of the choice text from the previous passage. For example, if the player chooses to move to a new location, describe that location in the new passage.
Next, open your original passage and create a second, different choice. Format it the same way as the first choice using [[brackets]], but make the choice text different. Close the passage window, and Twine will create a third passage next to the second one.
The Twine editor screen showing three passages with lines connecting them.
Notice that Twine automatically creates lines and arrows between passages to track the story flow. Write some text in your third passage relevant to the choice text. Next, let’s test our story: hit the Play button in the lower right-hand corner of the Twine window.
The Twine Play window showing a paragraph of text and two choices.
You should now have a story where the player picks between two choices, and then arrives at an ending. If your story doesn’t work the first time, that’s OK! We can fix that by troubleshooting, a type of problem solving where we do tests to identify issues.
1. Are your [[brackets]] typed correctly, with opening and closing double brackets?
2. Does the choice text inside the [[brackets]] match the connecting passage’s name?
3. Is the capitalization consistent between choice text and passage names?
Just with what we’ve learned so far, you can create a full branching story. Twine automatically saves your work, but you can also export your story as its own file to send to others. In the lower left-hand corner, click on the arrow next to your story’s name, then select Publish to File. This saves your story as an .html file any web browser can open.
The options menu in Twine showing the Publish to File button.
Many excellent Twine stories have been made with only choice text and passages. However, Twine also gives us sophisticated tools to infuse our interactive stories with complex logic.
The foundation of building a story with Twine is connecting passages through choices using code. You can now create full interactive stories, troubleshoot potential problems that come up, and export the story to its own .html file.
You might also like
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Geosciences LibreTexts
10.11: See how the gradient wind has a role in weather.
• Page ID
• \[V_{g}=-\frac{1}{f} \frac{\partial \Phi}{\partial n}\]
Replacing the pressure gradient force \(\left(\frac{\partial \Phi}{\partial n}\right)\) with \(-f V_{g}\) in the gradient balance equation results in an equation that relates these gradient velocities to the geostrophic velocity:
\[\frac{V^{2}}{R}+f V-f V_{g}=0 \quad\) or \(\quad \frac{V_{g}}{V}=1+\frac{V}{f R}\]
In a regular low (middle, figure below), R > 0 so that Vg > V. The velocity in a curve around a low-pressure area is subgeostrophic.
In a regular high (right, figure below), R < 0 so that Vg < V. The velocity in a curve around a high-pressure area is supergeostrophic.
屏幕快照 2019-10-13 下午6.53.41.png
Gradient balance in Northern Hemisphere. left: Geostrophic balance; center: regular low balance; right: regular high balance. Note that the PGF is independent of velocity but both the Coriolis force and the centrifugal acceleration are dependent on velocity. In the figure the geostrophic velocity is represented by vg and the gradient wind velocity is represented by vgr.
Credit: H.N. Shirer
Think of it this way. The pressure gradient force is independent of velocity and so is always there for a given geopotential gradient. In a regular low, the centrifugal and Coriolis forces, both dependent on velocity, sum together to equal the pressure gradient force, whereas for geostrophic flow, only the Coriolis force does. Thus, the velocity in the gradient balance case must be less than the geostrophic velocity for the same geopotential gradient.
So how do subgeostrophic and supergeostrophic flow affect weather?
Supergeostrophic flow around ridges and subgeostrophic flow around troughs helps to explain the convergence and divergence patterns aloft that are linked to vertical motions.
Look at the figure below, starting on the left. Going from geostrophic flow in the straight section to supergeostrophic flow at the ridge’s peak causes divergence aloft. This divergence causes an upward vertical velocity, which causes a low pressure area and convergence at the surface. As the air rounds the ridge’s peak, it slows down to become geostrophic, and then continues to slow down even more as the flow becomes subgeostrophic around the trough, thus causing convergence aloft. This convergence aloft causes a downward velocity, which causes high pressure and divergence at the surface.
屏幕快照 2019-10-13 下午6.56.05.png
Subgeostrophic and supergeostrophic velocities in flow aloft in the Northern Hemisphere.
Credit: H.N. Shirer
So downwind of a trough is the favored location for divergence aloft, upward motion, and a surface low. Downwind of a ridge is the favored location for convergence aloft, downward motion, and a surface high. Since ridges form around high pressure aloft and troughs form around low pressure aloft, we see that the high aloft is offset relative to the surface low and the low aloft is offset relative to the surface high.
Thus subgeostrophic flow and supergeostrophic flow aloft are directly related to the formation of weather at the surface. Other factors like vorticity are also very important. The video below (1:09) describes how the gradient wind flow aloft can affect surface weather.
Trough Aloft Surface Low Video
Click here for transcript of the Trough Aloft Surface Low video.
Let's see how the gradient wind flow aloft can affect surface weather. Look at how the velocity changes as air flows around the ridge and then a trough aloft. Initially, the velocity is about geostrophic and straight-line flow. As it rounds the ridge, it speeds up. And then it slows down again to geostrophic in the straight section. As it goes through the trough, around the low pressure loft, it slows down to subgeostrophic and then speeds up to geostrophic in the next straight section. The speeding up causes divergence aloft. And the slowing down causes convergence aloft, just as you learned in lesson nine. You also saw how convergence aloft can lead to divergence at the surface. This contributes to a surface high. And how divergence aloft can lead to convergence at the surface, which contributes to a surface low. Thus, gradient flow contributes to surface weather. We often see a surface low forming on the downwind side of a trough.
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Best Answer
The spikes of a cactus prevents a herbivore from eating it as well prevents water loss through transpiration.
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2011-02-11 11:04:02
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Q: What are the spikes on the cacti used for?
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Related questions
How many spikes does the average cactus have?
There is no such thing as an "average" cactus, because there are many different kinds, and the cacti may be big or small, young or old. Most cacti will have thousands of spikes on them. Big cacti may have tens of thousands of spikes.
What is the plant called in the desert with spikes?
Yuccas and agaves have spikes, cacti have spines.
How do cacti get spikes?
A natural growth of spines in the body.
What is the purpose of the spines or needles on a cactus?
the spines or spikes on a cacti are actually leaves. in order to conserve water, prevent evaporation, and serve as a form of defense the leaves have turn into spikes. instead of in the leaves cacti photosynthesis in the stem and that is why cacti are green
What are the Modified leaves of cacti called?
they are called spikes or spines.....
Can a cactus shoot its spikes at animals?
No, cacti cannot 'shoot' spikes. An animal would have to touch the plant to be stabbed.
Why do cacti have spikes?
Cacti have spikes to use as their defense mechanism to animals that may try to eat them. The spikes deter the animals by pricking them in the nose and mouth putting them off trying to eat it. The spikes also help collect water vapor by increasing the plant's surface area and the spikes also help stop transpiration loss of water through pores.
Are the spikes on the cacti flowers or leaves?
None of the two. They are just a way the cacti protects its self from parasites and damage. They are in fact modified leaves. The function of leaves has been taken over by the stem of the cacti that is why they are green.
Why do cacti have short spikes instead of leaves?
Cactus' leaves are modified into short spikes so as to prevent the excess loss of water through the process of transpiration.....
How can a cactus wren protect itself?
By hanging around cactuses or cacti so the spikes can keep their predators away.
What kind of plants has spikes and can survive in hot climate?
cacti, small leafless bushes and some types of trees
What are facts about a cactus?
all cacti produce photosynthesis in the stem of the plant and not the leaves, even though theyre are a few cacti that have leaves. every cacti has areolas, in which either new arms, flowers or spikes/glochids grow from. if a plant doesnt have areolas it is not a cacti. all cacti are succulents which means they drink up as much water and store it in their spines for later use because of their habitat in arid zones, that is why cacti have ribs so they can expand and contract with water. cacti also multiply by loosing limps or new stems that go on to root and grow on their own
How are cacti suited for a desert environment?
by their skin that surrounds them and the water they store when it rains.the spikes help it from being eatan by birds or by becoming a house for an owl.
How does prickly pear adapt to the desert?
well first they grow spikes and then they go to the desert to find a male and then they make babies but cacti have to have dry soil to thrive on!
How are cactus' adapted to it's environment?
== == Cacti are adapted to living in desert and they can store lots of water. They have spikes to protect themselves from predators. Cacti are adapted to the desert as that is where they grow and therefore they need special features to live in that environment. Over time the cacti has adapted to hot, desert conditions which means that they can live in the desert without needing lots of water.
What did the stegosaurus dinosaur use its spikes for?
it used its spikes so that he could defend him self
What is Tequila Cacti?
It is not a cactus at all, it is the Blue Agave that is used to make tequila. Agave plants are succulents not cacti.
How has vegetation adapted to survive the climate in deserts?
long roots, no leaves, cacti have the spikes to defend themselves, plants have short life cycles during the rainy months
How many spikes did the stegosaurus have on the end of its tail?
There were four spikes at the end of a Stegosaurus's tail that it used as a weapon for self defense. The spikes are called thagomizers.
What are a hedgehogs spikes used for?
Well hedgehogs have their spikes for self-defence, protection and all that but I don't know if there are any commercial uses for hedgehog spikes.
Are cactus poisonous?
Some cacti can indeed be poisonous. As in: the fluid in the cacti is. Some cacti have juice that is used to remove warts. If you accidently drink that, your intestines will burn and start rotting within hours.
What is a cacti?
There is no such thing as a cacti. Cacti is plural for the singular cactus.
What are cacti leaves called?
cacti dont have leaves Cacti have spines.
Why do Cacti have many roots?
Because they are plants, the roots are used the same way in cacti as in every plant, to take in water for the plant to use.
Do some desert cacti have beautiful flowers?
Yes: Prickly Pears, Barrel cacti, Saguaro cacti, Aztekium cacti, and Echinopsis cacti a.k.a the hedgehog cactus
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This is a highly aggressive and extremely venomous species of serpent that is reputed to be the unholy progeny of Medusa and is said to have venomous heads at either end of its elongated, worm-like body.
While modern herpetologists will recognize the name “amphisbaena” as a genus belonging to the family “amphisbaenidae” or worm lizards, mythology mavens are more likely to associate the term with a unique and exceedingly dangerous species of two-headed serpent, which was first chronicled by Gaius Plinius Secondus (or as he is more commonly known, Pliny the Elder) sometime before A.D. 79. According to a clearly bemused historian:
“The amphisbaena has a twin head, that is one at the tail-end as well, as though it were not enough for poison to be poured out of one mouth.”
Other Medieval bestiaries by such esteemed historians as Lucan and Isidore of Seville also catalogued the Amphisbaena (sometimed referred to as the Anphivena). The Roman author and teacher Claudius Aelianus (better known as Aelian) even described the creature’s efficient method of locomotion, stating:
“The Amphisbaina (Amphisbaena) is a snake with two head, one at the top and one in the direction of the tail. When it advances, as need for a forward movement impels it, it leaves one end behind to serve as tail, while the other it uses as a head. Then again if it wants to move backwards, it uses the two heads in exactly the opposite manner from what it did before.”
Although it apparently had the ability to travel (or strike) in either direction at a moment’s notice, the Amphisbaena was also reportedly capable of clamping its two heads onto one another enabling it to roll like a bicycle wheel. This trait, as many investigators have noted in the past, bears an incredible likeness to the single-headed, North American cryptid known as the HOOP SNAKE.
Blanus is a genus of amphisbaenians
As aforementioned, the appellation of “worm lizard” is applied to the family Amphisbaenidae, which (while decidedly mono-headed) look like their name imples: reptilian earthworms. They are found in most of the Western Hemisphere, some Caribbean islands and sub-Saharan Africa. There is even one primordial and rather unusual genus, Blanus, which is native from the Mediterranean region of Europe and North Africa, and may represent the original inspiration for the legends.
Tales of these ancient creatures come to us originally from Greek Mythology where it is said that the Amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from the severed head of the GORGON known as MEDUSA as the Legendary Perseus flew over the Libyan Desert with his prize. It has also been chronicled that Cato’s army plagued by the venomous serpents on their renowned march.
Unlike other multi-headed beasts (such as the HYDRA) this reptile’s torso does not split into separate necks, rather the animal is purported to have a head at each end of its body. In fact, its name — when translated from Greek — means “goes both ways“.
The Amphisbaena is also reputed to have incredible regenerative capacities, which include the ability to weld itself back together if its two sections are severed. This may indicated that the animal is not a reptile at all, but perhaps more in line with parasitic worms (helminthes) of some variety.
English author and physician, Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) further described the Amphisbaena’s bizarre attributes in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica, stating that an Amphisbaena is:
“…a smaller kind of Serpent, which moveth forward and backward, hath two heads… Which double formations do often happen unto multiparous generations, more especially that of Serpents; whose productions being numerous, and their Eggs in chains or links together (which sometime conjoin and inoculate into each other) they may unite into various shapes and come out in mixed formations.”
The last statement is particularly intriguing and instills (in me at least) visions of the old-school Transformers cartoon wherein various robots were able to combine to create a larger super robot such as the Constructicons who were able to merge into the super-sized Devastator. Perhaps these Amphisbaenas were able to turn themselves into a gigantic Mega-hydra. Or maybe I’m just a geek full of wishful thoughts. It’s almost certainly the latter.
Bestiaries have also described the Amphisbaena as having eyes that: “…glow like candles“. Still others zoological catalogues from the era have claimed that this twin-headed serpent incorporated elements of domestic fowl including strong legs, taloned feet, a bulky torso and even wings! This is a description which closely tallies with the notoriously toxic BASILISK; a creature that has been referred to as the “mother of ants” because it’s particular fondness for the insect delicacy.
The medical properties of the Amphisbaena were also recorded. According to Pliny, the wearing of a live Amphisbaena is a supposed safeguard in pregnancy, which makes sense seeing as anyone wearing a venomous, two-headed snake like a feather boa is likely to repulse most members of the opposite sex. Pliny also suggested that those suffering from rheumatism need only to drape the carcass of an Amphisbaena across their neck for instant relief.
As if that weren’t enough, Pliny insisted that those hearty souls who dared to consume the flesh of this fanged fiend would thereby become irresistible to the opposite gender, which — as in the tragic modern cases of rhinos, pangolins and tigers (just to name a few) all being massacred in the name of traditional medicine — could well have resulted in the inevitable extinct of this animal.
On top of everything else, legend had it that anyone of pure heart who had the fortune of slaying an Amphisbaena during a full moon would allegedly gain remarkable powers… I’m rooting for x-ray vision.
rob_morphy© Copyright Rob Morphy 2002 — 2018
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Quick Answer: What Does Precipitate Mean In Medical Terms?
What does precipitate mean?
3 : to separate from a solution The procedure called for precipitating salt from seawater..
What is precipitate give example?
What is precipitation very short answer?
Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the Earth. It comes in many forms, like rain, sleet, and snow.
What are the 5 common types of precipitation?
What are the three examples of precipitation?
What is another word for precipitate?
SYNONYMS FOR precipitate 1 accelerate. 4 crystallize. 12 reckless, impetuous.
What are 4 types of precipitation?
What are two examples of a precipitate?
What is precipitation reaction explain with example?
What is 100% precipitation?
A precipitation chance is a probability that precipitation will occur at a particular location in the forecast area. … A 100% chance guarantees precipitation will occur. A 100% chance will be issued when it is already precipitating or mechanisms are in place to guarantee precipitation.
What does precipitate look like?
In chemistry, a precipitate is an insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid solution. The emergence of the insoluble solid from solution is called precipitation. Often the precipitate emerges as a suspension. Precipitates can form when two soluble salts react in solution to form one or more insoluble products.
What is a precipitate and how is it formed?
A precipitate is a solid formed in a chemical reaction that is different from either of the reactants. This can occur when solutions containing ionic compounds are mixed and an insoluble product is formed. The identity of the precipitate can often be determined by examining solubility rules.
What does precipitation mean in medical terms?
Medical Definition of precipitant : something that precipitates especially : a chemical agent that causes the formation of a precipitate.
How do you use the word precipitate in a sentence?
Precipitate sentence examplesThe precipitate is washed, collected, and dried at a very moderate heat. … A white precipitate rapidly turning brown indicates manganese. … Precipitate, red, and all oxides of mercury.More items…
What are the characteristics of precipitation?
The characteristics of rainfall are the amount, the intensity, the duration, the frequency or return period, and the seasonal distribution.
Is fog a precipitation?
Fog is not a form of precipitation, but of condensation. Fog is defined as minuscule water droplets suspended in the air that produce a cloud layer in contact with the ground reducing horizontal visibility to less than 1,000 meters.
At what precipitation does it rain?
How do you identify a precipitate?
An Example of Identifying a Precipitate We would expect them to undergo a double displacement reaction with each other. By examining the solubility rules we see that, while most sulfates are soluble, barium sulfate is not. Because it is insoluble in water we know that it is the precipitate.
How does a precipitate form?
How many days after fog Will it rain?
90 DaysRain 90 Days After Fog — Science or Folklore? – RealAgriculture.
What does precipitate out mean?
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2 Chestnut Category
Battle of Hastings
KS1 took part in a workshop about the Battle of Hastings. We played Anglo Saxon games and learnt different battle strategies.
Tree Identification
This week in Forest School we are learning to identify the different trees on our school grounds. We used the different shapes of the leaves to identify the Oak , Sycamore, Lime and Ash tree on the KS1 playground. This is the Sycamore leaf which has five fingers.
Getting to know you
In Chestnut Class we have been getting to know each other as part of the new school year. We have lots of Harry Potter fans in our class so we had a wizarding theme. We told the class all about ourselves and also thought about what our patronus and boggert would be.
The Colour Purple
Chestnut thought about the colour purple for their latest poetry work. They read the poem ‘Purple is…’ which is a free verse poem and they then composed their own as a class.
Moving Pictures
For their DT topic Chestnut learnt about simple machines and made their own moving pictures. They identified different types of lever and slider and made their own. As our topic is space they designed and made a planet with moving characters using a lever mechanism made from split pins and card.
When the Dinosaur Came to Stay
During their poetry lessons Chestnut have been working on dinosaur poems. They read ‘When the Dinosaur Came to Stay’. They wrote their own poems using different types of sentences such as, questions, commands, statements and exclamations.
Fairy Tales
Chestnut were reading Rapunzel and learning about Fairy Tales. They wrote their own recipes for writing a fairy tale! They used imperative verbs to write command sentences like ‘stir’, ‘mix’ and ‘pour’.
Who lives in our Pond? Today in Chestnut the children pond dipped. We found some very interesting creatures. Did you know? Smooth newts eat insects, caterpillars, worms and slugs while on land, and crustaceans, molluscs and tadpoles when in the water. They are most active during the night. Did you know? Dragonflies lay their eggs […]
Why do leaves change colour in Autumn?
We have been learning about our trees, which ones we can identify and what happens to them in the Autumn. The leaves have started to change colours and the leaves will soon fall off the trees. As Autumn begins, the days get shorter and shorter. With fewer daylight hours, leaves are not able to make as […]
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Knot Terminology
Picture showing some common knot terminology and the parts of a rope
Knot tying has several commonly used terms. The ancient Latin word for knotting is ‘nodology’, the Greek referred to this art as ‘kompology’.
These references are seldom used today, some modern knot tyers prefer the term ‘knottology’ and class themselves as ‘knottologists’. Here is a brief summary of some common knotting terms.
Common Knotting Terms
1. The Working End
In knotting terms the end of the rope that is used to actually tie and form the knot is known as the Working End, such as the end used to tie a Figure of Eight Re-Threaded. The working end can also be referred to as the tag end.
2. A Bight
A bight is a U-shaped section of rope usually used to tie knots on the bight. A knot tied on the bight will normally form a Loop-Knot.
3. The Crossing Point
A crossing point is where the rope crosses itself, this will happen if we take a bight of rope and twist it to form a loop.
4. An Overhand Loop
Depending on which direction we twist a bight to form a loop, we will either end up with an overhand loop or an underhand loop. An overhand loop is created when the working end of the rope lies over the top of the standing part.
5. The Interlocking Elbows
Interlocking elbows occur when a bight of rope is twisted twice to form two crossing points. Knots such as the Alpine Butterfly are tied by firstly forming interlocking elbows.
6. An Underhand Loop
If the standing part of the rope lies over the top of the working end, then an underhand loop is formed. An underhand loop is the opposite of the overhand loop.
7. The Standing Part
The standing part is the length of rope, cord or twine that lies between the working end and the standing end. If we were to abseil or rappel down a rope, we would attach to and descend down the standing part.
8. The Standing End
The standing end is the opposite of the working or tag end of the rope. When abseiling or rappelling this would be the end of the rope that we send down to the ground or landing point. Never forget to tie a stopper knot near the standing end, even if the ropes do touch the ground or landing point.
Picture showing some common knot terminology and the parts of a rope
Knot Terminology Reference Diagram
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ropebook beta testers
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Genetic Haemochromatosis : An Overview
GH is the most common genetic disorder amongst Caucasians worldwide, especially Northern Europeans of Celtic and Nordic descent. GH causes the body to absorb excessive iron from the diet leading to increased iron deposits within the body. If left untreated, can cause systemic iron overload in some patients. Over time this iron overload can cause inflammation and damage to multiple organs with the potential to lead to heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and cirrhosis of the liver. Therefore, diagnosing people at an early stage is critical.
In 2019, a study on the UK Biobank estimated that approximately 380,000 people are affected by GH in the UK (Melzer & the Exeter Research Group, 2019) making this a common disorder. In the UK, as many as 1 in 150 people in England & Wales, or 1 in 113 people in Scotland & Northern Ireland (image 1) are affected by the condition, but most are unaware that they have it. However, data gathered by HUK from NHS Trusts, discovered less than 20,700 people in the UK are currently being treated (Mortimore & McClements, 2020) highlighting that this is an underdiagnosed condition.
GH is also known by other names such as hereditary haemochromatosis, familial haemochromatosis and bronze diabetes. However, for the purpose of this module it will be referred to as GH.
The Role of Iron In The Body
Iron is an essential element in the body. It helps transport oxygen around the body, aids DNA synthesis and is an essential component in red cell production.
In genetic haemochromatosis the iron regulation mechanism in the gut that controls the amount of iron we absorb is faulty. Consequently, the body absorbs all the iron ingested. As the body is not able to excrete the iron, any that it has left over has to also be stored which causes increased build-up of iron deposits around the body
We absorb iron through our duodenum and the amount of iron absorbed from our diet is regulated. We typically eat 10 – 15mg iron a day however we only absorb about 1-2 mg a day as that’s what the body needs.
However, too much iron (especially over prolonged periods of time) can be harmful.
Iron as a free radical is toxic so once absorbed it is bound to a protein called transferrin which safely carries it around the body to do its various functions. The body cannot naturally excrete iron (although a small amount is lost by desquamation of skin cells and any blood loss such as menstruation). Any excess iron is then stored in a protein called ferritin, in various parts of the body ready for use if needed. We all have and need a certain level of iron stores. These stores can be measured through assessing serum ferritin levels.
Learning points
• GH is a common genetic condition which is underdiagnosed
• Over time, if left untreated the excess iron is deposited throughout the body which can lead to life-threatening complications of cirrhosis, cardiomyopathy, and diabetes
• Approximately 1 in 113 people have this condition in Scotland and Ireland and 1 in 150 in England and Wales
Next step
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Neuropathic pain is a pain condition that’s usually chronic. It’s usually caused by chronic, progressive nerve disease, and it can also occur as the result of injury or infection.
If you have chronic neuropathic pain, it can flare up at any time without an obvious pain-inducing event or factor. Acute neuropathic pain, while uncommon, can occur as well.
Typically, non-neuropathic pain (nociceptive pain) is due to an injury or illness. For example, if you drop a heavy book on your foot, your nervous system sends signals of pain immediately after the book hits.
With neuropathic pain, the pain isn’t typically triggered by an event or injury. Instead, the body just sends pain signals to your brain unprompted.
People with this pain condition may experience shooting, burning pain. The pain may be constant, or may occur intermittently. A feeling of numbness or a loss of sensation is common, too.
Neuropathic pain tends to get worse over time.
About 1 in 3 Americans experience chronic pain. Of those, 1 in 5 experience neuropathic pain.
A 2014 study estimated that as many as 10 percent of Americans experience some form of neuropathic pain.
Understanding the possible causes can help you find better treatments and ways to prevent the pain from getting worse over time.
The most common causes for neuropathic pain can be divided into four main categories: disease, injury, infection, and loss of limb.
Neuropathic pain can be a symptom or complication of several diseases and conditions. These include multiple sclerosis, multiple myeloma, and other types of cancer.
Not everyone with these conditions will experience neuropathic pain, but it can be an issue for some.
Diabetes is responsible for 30 percent of neuropathic cases, according to the Cleveland Clinic. Chronic diabetes can impact how your nerves work.
People with diabetes commonly experience loss of feeling and numbness, following by pain, burning, and stinging, in their limbs and digits.
Long-term excessive alcohol intake can cause many complications, including chronic neuropathic pain. Damage to nerves from chronic alcohol use can have long-lasting and painful effects.
Trigeminal neuralgia is a painful condition with severe neuropathic pain of one side of the face. It’s one of the more common types of neuropathic pain and it can occur without a known reason.
Lastly, cancer treatment may cause neuropathic pain. Chemotherapy and radiation can both impact the nervous system and cause unusual pain signals.
Injuries to tissue, muscles, or joints are an uncommon cause of neuropathic pain. Likewise, back, leg, and hip problems or injuries can cause lasting damage to nerves.
While the injury may heal, the damage to the nervous system may not. As a result, you may experience persistent pain for many years after the accident.
Accidents or injuries that affect the spine can cause neuropathic pain, too. Herniated discs and spinal cord compression can damage the nerve fibers around your spine.
Infections rarely cause neuropathic pain.
Shingles, which is caused by reactivation of the chicken pox virus, can trigger several weeks of neuropathic pain along a nerve. Postherpetic neuralgia is a rare complication of shingles, involving persistent neuropathic pain.
A syphilis infection can also lead to the burning, stinging unexplained pain. People with HIV may experience this unexplained pain.
Limb loss
An uncommon form of neuropathic pain called phantom limb syndrome can occur when an arm or leg has been amputated. Despite the loss of that limb, your brain still thinks it’s receiving pain signals from the removed body part.
What’s actually happening, however, is that the nerves near the amputation are misfiring and sending faulty signals to your brain.
In addition to arms or legs, phantom pain may be felt in the fingers, toes, penis, ears, and other body parts.
Other causes
Other causes of neuropathic pain include:
• shooting, burning, or stabbing pain
• spontaneous pain, or pain that occurs without a trigger
• evoked pain, or pain that’s caused by events that are typically not painful — such as rubbing against something, being in cold temperatures, or brushing your hair
• a chronic sensation of feeling unpleasant or abnormal
• difficulty sleeping or resting
• emotional problems as a result of chronic pain, loss of sleep, and difficulty expressing how you’re feeling
A goal of neuropathic pain treatment is to identify the underlying disease or condition that’s responsible for the pain, and treat it, if possible.
An important goal is that your doctor will aim to provide pain relief, help you maintain typical capabilities despite the pain, and improve your quality of life.
The most common treatments for neuropathic pain include:
Over-the-counter pain medication
However, many people find these medicines aren’t effective for neuropathic pain because they don’t target the source of the pain.
Prescription medication
Opioid pain medications don’t usually reduce neuropathic pain as well as they reduce other types of pain. Plus, doctors may hesitate to prescribe them for fear that a person may become dependent.
Topical pain relievers can be used, too. These include lidocaine patches, capsaicin patches, and prescription-strength ointments and creams.
Antidepressant drugs
Antidepressant medications have shown great promise in treating symptoms of neuropathic pain.
Two common types of antidepressant drugs are prescribed to people with this condition:
These may treat both the pain and symptoms of depression or anxiety caused by chronic pain.
Anti-seizure medications and anticonvulsants are often used to treat neuropathic pain. Gabapentinoids are most commonly prescribed for neuropathic pain.
It’s not clear why anti-seizure drugs work for this condition, but researchers believe the medications interfere with pain signals and stop faulty transmissions.
Nerve blocks
Your doctor may inject steroids, local anesthetics, or other pain medications into the nerves that are thought to be responsible for the wayward pain signals. These blocks are temporary, so they must be repeated in order to keep working.
Implantable device
This invasive procedure requires a surgeon to implant a device in your body. Some devices are used in the brain and some are used in the spine.
Once a device is in place, it can send electrical impulses into the brain, spinal cord, or nerves. The impulses may stop the irregular nerve signals and control symptoms.
These devices are typically used only in individuals who haven’t responded well to other treatment options.
Lifestyle treatments
Physical, relaxation, and massage therapies are all used to relieve symptoms of neuropathic pain. These forms of treatment can help ease muscles.
Your healthcare provider can also teach you ways to cope with your pain.
For example, some people with neuropathic pain may experience increased symptoms after sitting for several hours. This might make desk jobs difficult to perform.
A physical therapist or occupational therapist can teach you techniques for sitting, stretching, standing, and moving to prevent pain.
If your doctor is able to identify an underlying cause for the neuropathic pain, treating it may reduce and even eliminate the pain.
For example, diabetes is a common cause of neuropathic pain. Proper diabetes care — which includes a healthy diet and regular exercise — may eliminate or reduce neuropathic pain.
Taking care of blood sugar levels can also prevent worsening pain and numbness.
Multimodal therapy
A multipronged approach can be an effective way to manage the condition.
A combination of medications, physical therapy, psychological treatment, and even surgery or implants may be used to bring about the best results.
Neuropathic pain can negatively impact your life if you don’t take steps to treat it and prevent worsening symptoms.
Over time, this can lead to serious disability and complications, including depression, problems sleeping, anxiety, and more.
Fortunately, researchers are learning more about why this condition develops and what can be done to effectively treat it. That’s leading to better treatment options.
Finding the correct treatment options for you can take time, but you and your doctor can work together to find relief from the symptoms of this painful condition.
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The cruiser tank (sometimes called cavalry tank or fast tank) was a British tank concept of the interwar period for tanks designed as modernised armoured and mechanised cavalry, as distinguished from infantry tanks. Cruiser tanks were developed after medium tank designs of the 1930s failed to satisfy the Royal Armoured Corps. The cruiser tank concept was conceived by Giffard Le Quesne Martel, who preferred many small light tanks to swarm an opponent, instead of a few expensive and unsatisfactory medium tanks. "Light" cruiser tanks (for example the Cruiser Mk I) carried less armour and were correspondingly faster, whilst "heavy" cruiser tanks (such as the Cruiser Mk II) had more armour and were slightly slower. The British cruiser tank series started in 1938 with the A9 and A10 cruiser tanks, followed by the A13, A13 Mark II, the A13 Mark III Covenanter in 1940 and the A15 Crusader which entered service in 1941. The Crusader was superseded by the A27 Cromwell in 1944. The A34 Comet, a better-armed development of Cromwell, began to enter service in late 1944. The Centurion tank of 1946 became the "Universal tank" of the United Kingdom, transcending the cruiser and infantry tank roles and becoming one of the first main battle tanks (MBT).
Dissatisfaction with experimental medium tank designs of the mid-1930s led to the development of specialised fast cruiser tanks, where armour thickness was sacrificed for speed and infantry tanks, in which speed was sacrificed for heavier armour. Financial constraints had made it impossible to produce a vehicle suitable for close support and for exploitation. The thinking was behind several tank designs which saw action during the Second World War. British armoured operations theory flowed from the decision to build two types of tank and equip two types of unit and formation. Cruisers were operated by armoured regiments of the Royal Armoured Corps, established on 4 April 1939, in armoured divisions, some regiments coming from the Royal Tank Regiment (RTR) and some from cavalry regiments converted during the war. Infantry tanks went to Army Tank Battalions, sometimes grouped administratively into Army Tank Brigades of the RTR. Small, fast, lightly armed tanks like the Light Tank Mk VI operated as reconnaissance vehicles. Giffard Le Quesne Martel originated the cruiser concept while Assistant Director and then Deputy Director of Mechanisation at the War Office in the 1930s. Martel considered that medium tanks were too complicated and expensive for infantry support, where they would be too vulnerable to anti-tank weapons and rejected claims that they could fire accurately when moving, so would gain no benefit from their speed. Martel preferred a large number of smaller and simpler tanks to swamp an opponent, instead of a few comparatively expensive medium tanks. Work should continue on a universal tank in the long term but from 1936 to 1939, Martel gave much thought to the infantry tank; he did not want medium tank development to be split but saw the logic of it, given the constraints on tank development. Tanks were necessary for mobile operations in armoured divisions and for infantry support in attacks on fortified defensive positions; a vehicle satisfactory for both tasks appeared to be impossible to attain. Two types of vehicle led to two theories and procedures, infantry tank thinking coming from the experience of tank operations from 1916 to 1918, when British tanks had been used for infantry support. Armoured division theory emphasised the speed of cruiser tanks and independent action to protect flanks, attack the opponent's flanks and rear, to counter-attack and conduct pursuit operations.
Like naval cruisers, cruiser tanks were fast and mobile for operations independent from slower-moving infantry with their heavier infantry tanks and artillery. When gaps had been forced through the opponent's front by the infantry tanks, cruisers were to penetrate to the rear and attack lines of supply and communication centres in accordance with the theories of J.F.C. Fuller, Percy Hobart and B. H. Liddell Hart. The cruiser tank was designed for use in a manner similar to cavalry, which made speed the most important factor and to achieve this, early cruisers were lightly armoured and armed to save weight. The emphasis on speed unbalanced the British designs; on limited engine power, the speed was possible only by sacrificing armour protection (by comparison infantry tanks operating at soldiers' pace could carry far more armour). The idea that "speed is armour" was considered most important in the Royal Tank Corps. It was not realised that the principle of mobility was a liability against the German policy of accepting lower speeds for superior armour and armament, ensuring that even one round from a German medium tank could easily destroy a cruiser. An even bigger problem for most cruiser tanks was the small calibre of their main gun. The first cruisers were armed with the 2-pounder (40 mm) gun. This gun had adequate armour penetration against early war tanks, but was never issued high explosive ammunition. This made the cruisers less able to deal with towed anti-tank guns, which became a major issue with the extended combat ranges of the Desert Campaign. the additional machine gun turret (as mounted on the Crusader) was no substitute for HE rounds. As the armour of German tanks increased British cruisers were up-gunned with the more powerful 57 mm QF 6-pounder gun, starting with the Crusader Mk. III (an interim move pending the introduction of the next cruiser tank). Early marques of what would become the Cromwell were also fitted with the 6-pdr but this gun still did not have a satisfactory HE round. The Cromwell as planned was to have a High Velocity 75 mm gun but the design was not sufficient to mount one and so decided that the new Cromwell tanks would be fitted with the QF 75mm (a bored out 6-pdr design that could take US 75 mm ammunition). The new 75 mm gun providing greater HE capability at the expense of some armour penetration, however it was still adequate to deal with the majority of German armoured vehicles. Part of the Cromwell's success was its high-power to weight ratio, provided by the adoption of the Rolls Royce Merlin engine as the Meteor, which delivered sufficient power for the Cromwell to have a maximum speed around on roads. The new powerplant enabled the tank to be far more heavily armoured and armed than previous cruiser designs. As the Cromwell could not be fitted with the HV 75 mm, work was undertaken to produce a tank for the powerful 17-pdr anti-tank gun, able to take out the heaviest of German vehicles. To this end the Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger was developed, mounting a 17-pdr gun on a lengthened Cromwell hull and a totally new turret. The Challenger was an unhappy compromise, though it was popular with its crews. The cut in armour protection to allow the mounting of the larger gun meant it was not well suited to closer range engagements and it threw its tracks more often than the Cromwell. As the UK had large numbers of US M4 Sherman tanks, an extemporaneous conversion of the Sherman to take a 17-pounder (as the Sherman Firefly) proved effective in providing more 17-pounder gun tanks.The Firefly accompanied Churchills, Shermans and Cromwells generally at a ratio of 1:4. The production of Fireflies greatly outpaced that of the Challenger but in Cromwell-equipped units, the Challenger was generally preferred as the Sherman had a slower road speed and inferior cross-country mobility. The culmination of British efforts was the Comet with a cut down 17-pounder design, the 77 mm HV. The Comet was a further development of the Cromwell, a "heavy" cruiser tank, which sought to remove the need for 17-pdr armoured vehicles, such as the Challenger or Firefly in tank platoons. The Comet reduced its road speed in comparison to the Cromwell to , in favour of better armour protection and a weapon able to penetrate the armour of the heavier German tanks whilst not sacrificing HE capability. The tank had a short service life as design for the Centurion was already well underway, with the first prototype arriving in 1945. Despite the emphasis on high mobility, most cruisers were plagued by mechanical unreliability, notably in the hot and gritty desert of the North Africa Campaign. This problem was usually caused by rushed development and introduction into service. Most of the early cruiser tank designs were ordered "off the drawing board", particularly given the urgent need for tanks following the fall of France. The Liberty engine which also powered early Cruiser tanks was beginning to show its age and was being pushed to its limit in tanks such as the Crusader. This problem was not fully solved until the débût of the Cromwell in 1944, with its powerful and reliable Rolls-Royce Meteor engine.
In 1936, the War Office decided on a light tank for the cavalry, a cruiser tank, a medium tank and an infantry or assault tank. By 1938, the medium tank had stagnated as a research project, in favour of heavier cruiser and infantry tanks and after the outbreak of war, the move towards heavy infantry tanks capable of breaking through the Siegfried Line (''Westwall'') on the German border. In 1934, Sir John Carden of Vickers-Armstrongs had produced a "Woolworth" medium tank to a 1934 specification (General Staff number A.9) for a close support tank, using elements of the Medium Mk III design (which had been abandoned due to financial reasons) but lighter and using a commercial engine to be cheaper. It was accepted as an interim design for limited production as the Cruiser Tank Mark I. It was expected to be replaced by a Christie suspension design. From 1937–1938, 125 A9s were built. The A9 was lightly armoured but capable of and carried a highly-effective 2-pounder anti-tank gun. The Cruiser Mk II (A10), was designed by Carden as an infantry tank, built to the same design with added armour for of protection. It was insufficiently armoured for the role but as a "heavy cruiser", it was put into production in July 1938 as another interim design. It had the same gun as the A9, was the first to be equipped with the Besa machine gun and 175 Mk IIs were produced by September 1940. Experience with the A9 during the Battle of France in 1940 revealed shortcomings, including inadequate armour and a lack of space for the crew, but it saw useful service in France, the Western desert and Greece in 1941. Orders for the Mk I and Mk II Cruisers were limited, for an advanced and faster cruiser tank which would incorporate Christie suspension designed by J. Walter Christie and have better armour. In 1936, General Giffard LeQuesne Martel, a pioneer in tank design who had published works on armoured warfare and pioneered the lightly armoured "tankette" concept to enhance infantry mobility, became Assistant Director of Mechanization at the War Office. Later that year, Martel had watched Soviet tanks at the Red Army's autumn manoeuvres including the BT tank, which they had developed from Christie's work. He urged the adoption of a tank that would use the suspension system and also follow the Christie practice of using a lightweight aircraft engine such as the Liberty L-12 engine or a Napier Lion. The government authorised purchase and licensing of a Christie design via the Nuffield Organization. The tank A13 E1 was rudimentary and too small for British use but the Nuffield suspension was most effective and this became the basis of the Cruiser Mk III (A13). Following testing of two Nuffield-built prototypes (A13E2 and A13E3), the A13 was ordered into production and 65 were manufactured by mid-1939. The Mk III weighed , had a crew of 4, a 340 hp engine which gave a top speed of and was armed with a 2-pounder (40 mm) gun and a machine gun. When it was introduced in 1937, the army still lacked a formal tank division. The trackless element of the Christie suspension was discarded as adding little value for the extra complexity. The Cruiser Mk IV (A13 Mk II) had heavier armour than the Mk III and production started in 1938.
Second World War
The Tank, Cruiser, Mk VI, (Crusader), was used in large numbers in the Western Desert Campaign. The contemporary Covenanter was unreliable and was retained in the UK for training use. The Cavalier, Centaur and Cromwell tanks were the planned successors to the Covenanter and Crusader. Intended to be in production by 1942, the project was delayed and the Crusader was up-gunned as an interim measure with the Mk.III 6-pounder gun; the Cavalier was a development of Crusader. Centaur and Cromwell tanks were an alternative design using the Cavalier engine and the new Rolls-Royce Meteor respectively - the three vehicles were similar in appearance. Orders for the Cavalier were cut back while the similarity between Centaur and Cromwell meant some Centaurs were finished as Cromwells. The Cavalier was used for training while Centaur and Cromwell tanks went into action at the Invasion of Normandy. The Comet tank entered service in north-west Europe in 1945 but neither the Cromwell or Comet tanks were in sufficient numbers to replace American tanks in the British Army. During the war, the development of much more powerful engines and better suspension enabled cruiser tanks to increase in size, armour and firepower while retaining their speed and mobility. With "cruiser" tanks similarly armoured to heavier, slower, infantry tanks, the convergence of cruisers and infantry tank designs made the distinction obsolete. The Centurion tank was designed as a heavy cruiser, by combining the mobility of a cruiser tank and armour of an Infantry tank. The Centurion transcended its cruiser tank origins and became the first modern British main battle tank.
Cruiser tanks in other armies
In the 1930s, the Czechoslovak Army divided its tank into three categories, light tanks - cavalry, light tanks - infantry and medium tanks. The cavalry category was analogical to cruiser-tank concept. The cruiser-tank concept was also employed by the Soviet Union in the 1930s, as exemplified by the BT tank series (, ast tank.
See also
* History of the tank * Tanks of the interwar period * Tanks in World War II * Comparison of early World War II tanks * Tanks in the Cold War * Post-Cold War Tanks * Armoured fighting vehicle * Tank classification
* * * * *
Further reading
Books * * * * * * * * * Theses * * * *
External links
Tanks of World War II (Allies) 30 Aug 2016
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cruiser Tank * Category:Tanks by type Category:Tanks of the United Kingdom Category:History of the tank
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Modern mysticete whales all have baleen plates in their mouths, but before the evolution of these specialized filter-feeding structures the early members of their lineage still had toothy jaws.
Borealodon osedax here was one of those “toothed mysticetes”, living about 30-28 million years ago during the mid-Oligocene off the coast of Washington state, USA.
Unlike modern baleen whales it was small, about the size of a modern porpoise at around 2m long (6’6″), and the wear on its multi-cusped teeth suggest it was a predator taking slicing bites of fish – possibly using suction-assisted feeding like its close relatives the aetiocetids.
Its fossilized remains are also a rare example of an ancient whale fall, with characteristic bore holes in its bones from Osedax worms.
Eons Roundup 8
Once again it’s a PBS Eons commission roundup day!
The earliest baleen whales didn’t actually have any baleen plates in their mouths, and the evolutionary origin of these unique filter-feeding structures is still poorly understood.
It was thought to have been a fairly simple linear process from toothed ancestors to a mix of teeth and baleen and then to fully toothless with just baleen, but more recent discoveries have begun to cast doubt on that idea. The teeth of ancestral baleen whales weren’t suited to filter-feeding at all, instead still being adapted for predatory piercing and chewing – actions which would have been constantly interfering with and damaging any proto-baleen forming alongside them, and making it seem much more unlikely that there would have ever been a transitional form that had both teeth and baleen at the same time.
But then how did baleen whales get their baleen?
Maiabalaena nesbittae here provides a possible solution. Discovered in Oregon, USA, this early baleen whale dates to the early Oligocene, around 33 million years ago, and compared to most of its modern relatives it was comparatively tiny, only about 4.6m long (15′).
And it had no teeth at all, but possibly also no baleen.
Baleen rarely fossilizes, so it’s unclear whether Maiabalaena actually had any or not, but the shape of its skull suggests it probably didn’t – it lacked the broad thickened upper jaw associated with supporting racks of baleen plates. It instead seems to have been adapted for suction feeding similar to modern belugas and beaked whales, using muscular cheeks and tongue to manipulate water pressure and pull small prey like fish and squid straight into its mouth.
Since it lived at a time when the Antarctic Circumpolar Current was forming and cooling the oceans, changing ecosystems and prey availability, it may represent a previously unknown stage in baleen whale evolution – a point when they’d moved towards specializing for suction feeding and lost their teeth entirely, before transitioning again over to filter-feeding with baleen in a completely separate evolutionary development a few million years later.
Waharoa ruwhenua, a whale from the Late Oligocene of New Zealand (~27-25 mya). Part of an early branch of the baleen whale lineage, it’s known from partial remains of an adult and a couple of juveniles and would have reached a full size of about 6m long (19′8″).
It had an unusually long flattened snout, with its nostrils further forward than modern whales, and only had baleen in the back half of its mouth – an interesting comparison to the intermixed teeth-and-baleen of some other early mysticetes. It’s not clear whether it had any vestigial teeth in the front of its jaws, although a single possible tooth has been found associated with its close relative Tokarahia.
The rather delicate nature of Waharoa’s jawbones suggests it wasn’t capable of rapid lunges at swarms of its small prey, instead probably using slow-cruising surface skim-feeding similar to modern right whales.
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Martial Law
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Martial Law
Martial law
Tanks during the martial law in Poland, December 1981
Dunmore's Proclamation declaring martial law in the Colony of Virginia on 27 May 1775
Martial law is the temporary imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to a temporary emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory.[1][2]
Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, as seen in multiple countries listed below. Such incidents may occur after a coup d'état (Thailand in 2006 and 2014, and Egypt in 2013); when threatened by popular protest (China, Tiananmen Square protests of 1989); to suppress political opposition (martial law in Poland in 1981); or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections (Canada, the October Crisis of 1970). Martial law may be declared in cases of major natural disasters; however, most countries use a different legal construct, such as a state of emergency.
By country/region
During the September 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes, Armenian prime minister Nikol Pashinyan declared martial law.[3]
The Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828--effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people.[4] It would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in the history of the British colonies on the Australian continent. As of 2020 martial law has never been declared since the continent became a nation.
The War Measures Act was a Parliament of Canada statute that allowed the government to assume sweeping emergency powers, stopping short of martial law, i.e., the military did not administer justice, which remained in the hands of the courts. The act was invoked three times: During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act.
During the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War in 1775-1776. It was also applied twice in the Province of Lower Canada during the 1837-1838 insurrections. On December 5, following the events of November 1837, martial law was proclaimed in the district of Montreal by Governor Gosford, without the support of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada. It was imposed until April 27, 1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4, 1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, and was applied in the district of Montreal until August 24, 1839.[5]
Martial law in Egypt: Egyptian tanks used in a checkpoint near midtown Tahrir during the 2011 Egyptian revolution.
In Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, a state of emergency was declared. Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since with few short exceptions. Parliament had renewed emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006; plans were in place to replace it with new anti-terrorism laws. But after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years.[6][7] In May 2008 there was a further extension to June 2010.[8] In May 2010, the state of emergency was further extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to 'Terrorism and Drugs' suspects.
The Icelandic constitution provides no mechanism for the declaration of war, martial law nor state of emergency.
On September 7, 1978, in response to public demonstrations protesting the perceived government involvement in the death of the son of Ayatollah Khomeini, Mostafa Khomeini, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi appointed Chief of Army Staff General Gholam Ali Oveisi as the military governor of the capital city of Tehran.[9] On September 8, the government effectively declared martial law on the capital along with several other cities throughout the country, after which further protests erupted that lead to the army opening fire on a group of protesters in Tehran's Jaleh Square on the same day. Estimates on the number of casualties vary; However, according to Iranian human rights activist Emadeddin Baghi, the number of people killed was 88 of which 64 were gunned down in Jaleh Square.[10] The day is often referred to as Black Friday. Unable to control the unrest, the Shah dissolved the civil government headed by Prime Minister Jafar Sharif-Emami on November 6 and appointed General Gholam Reza Azhari as the prime minister whom ultimately failed in his efforts to restore order to the country. As he was preparing to leave the country, the Shah dissolved the military government and appointed Shapour Bakhtiar, a reformist critic of his rule, as the new prime minister on January 4, 1979. Bakhtiar's government fell on February 11 and gave rise to the Islamic Republic and the creation of a new constitution.[9]
Article 79 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran forbids the proclamation of martial law without the approval of the Islamic Consultative Assembly.[11][12]
Military administrative government was in effect from 1949 to 1966 over some geographical areas of Israel having large Arab populations, primarily the Negev, Galilee, and the Triangle. The residents of these areas were subject to martial law.[13][14] The Israel Defense Forces enforced strict residency rules. Any Arab not registered in a census taken during November 1948 was deported.[15] Permits from the military governor had to be procured to travel more than a given distance from a person's registered place of residence, and curfew, administrative detentions, and expulsions were common.[13] Although the military administration was officially for geographical areas, and not people, its restrictions were seldom enforced on the Jewish residents of these areas. In the early 1950s, martial law ceased to be in effect for those Arab citizens living in predominantly Jewish cities of Jaffa, Ramla, and Lod, constituting a total of approximately 15% of the Arab population of Israel. But military rule remained in place on the remaining Arab population elsewhere within Israel until 1966.[16]
This period is remembered for its extreme crackdown on political rights, as well as unaccountable military brutality. Most political and civil organization was prohibited. Flying of Palestinian flag, as well as other expressions of Palestinian patriotism were prohibited. Furthermore, despite theoretical guarantee of full political rights, military government personnel frequently made threats against Arabs citizens if they did not vote in elections for the candidates favored by the authorities.[17] Perhaps the most commemorated incidence of military brutality in this time period was the Kafr Qasim massacre in 1956, in which the Israel Border Police killed 48 people (19 men, 6 women and 23 children aged 8-17) as they were returning home from work in the evening. The Israeli army had ordered that all Arab villages in the proximity of the Green Line be placed under curfew. However, this order came into effect before the residents of these localities, including residents of Kafr Qasim, were notified.
Following the 1967 war, in which the Israeli army occupied the West Bank, Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights in Syria, and the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, martial law over the Palestinian population as well as the Jordanian, Syrian, and Egyptian populations in these areas was put in place. In 1993, the Oslo I agreements facilitated limited self-rule for Palestinians under the Palestinian National Authority. Officially, only parts of Area C in the West Bank are under martial law.[18]
Instructions of the Home Front Command are obligatory under martial law, rather than merely recommended.[19] The order signed by Peretz was in effect for 48 hours[19] and was extended by the Cabinet and the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee over the war's duration.[]
During the Second World War, President José P. Laurel placed the Philippines (then a client state of Imperial Japan) under martial law via Proclamation No 29, dated 21 September 1944 and enforced the following day at 09:00 PST. Proclamation No 30 was issued on 23 September, declaring the existence of a state of war between the Philippines and the United States and the United Kingdom, effective 10:00 that day.
On 4 December 2009, President Arroyo officially placed the Province of Maguindanao under a state of martial law through Proclamation No 1959.[23] As with the last imposition, the declaration suspended the writ of habeas corpus in the province.[24] The announcement came days after hundreds of government troops were sent to the province to raid the armories of the powerful Ampatuan clan. The Ampatuans were implicated in the massacre of 58 persons, including women from the rival Mangudadatu clan, human rights lawyers, and 31 media workers. Cited as one of the bloodiest incidents of political violence in Philippine history, the massacre was condemned worldwide as the worst loss of life of media professionals in one day.[23]
Polish ZOMO squads with police batons preparing to violently disperse protesters during martial law in Poland, 1981-1983. The sarcastic caption reads "outstretched hands of understanding" or "outstretched hands for agreement", with batons ironically symbolizing hands. 91 protesters died at the hands of the ZOMO and the Secret Services (SB)
Martial law was introduced in communist Poland on December 13, 1981, by General Wojciech Jaruzelski to prevent the democratic opposition from gaining popularity and political power in the country. Thousands of people linked to the Solidarity Movement, including Lech Wasa, were arbitrarily arrested and detained. Approximately 91 deaths are attributed to the martial law, including 9 miners shot by the police force during the pacification of striking Wujek Coal Mine. Curfews, censorship and food rationing were in place. A nationwide travel ban was imposed. The martial law was eventually lifted July 22, 1983. Contemporary Polish society is divided in opinion on the necessity of introducing martial law in 1981. It is viewed by some as a lesser evil that was necessary to stop a potential Soviet military intervention as the Warsaw Pact, which Poland signed in 1955, enabled other Eastern Bloc countries to intervene if they believed that communism was in danger.
South Korea
In October 1946, United States Army Military Government in Korea declared martial law as a result of the Daegu Riot.[26] On November 17, 1948, President Syngman Rhee regime proclaimed a martial law in order to quell the Jeju Uprising.[27] On April 19, 1960, Syngman Rhee government proclaimed a martial law in order to suppress the April Revolution.[28]
The martial law regime between the 1963 Syrian coup d'état and 2011 is the longest ranging period of active martial law.[disputed ][31]
Martial law in Thailand derives statutory authority from the Act promulgated by King Vajiravudh following the abortive Palace Revolt of 1912, entitled "Martial Law, B.E. 2457 (1914)". Many coups have been attempted or succeeded since then, but the Act governing martial law, amended in 1942, 1944, 1959 and 1972, has remained essentially the same.[32] In January 2004, the Prime Minister of Thailand, Thaksin Shinawatra, declared a state of martial law in the provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat in response to the growing South Thailand insurgency. On September 19, 2006, the Royal Thai Armed Forces declared martial law following a bloodless military coup in the Thai capital of Bangkok, declared while Prime Minister Shinawatra was in New York City to address the United Nations General Assembly. General Sonthi Boonyaratglin took the control of the government, and soon after handed the premiership to ex-Army Chief General Surayud. Sonthi himself is Chief of the Administrative Reform Council. At 3 am, on May 20, 2014, following seven months of civil and political unrest, Army Commander-in-Chief Gen. Prayut Chan-ocha, declared martial law nationwide.[33]
Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 the Turkish Armed Forces conducted three coups d'état and announced martial law. Martial law between 1978 and 1983 was replaced by a state of emergency in a limited number of provinces that lasted until November 2002. On July 15, 2016, the Peace at Home Council was said to have implied martial law in a broadcast on TRT during the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt.[34]
2018 martial law in parts of Ukraine
The restrictions from martial law were defined in a 2015 law "On the Legal Regime of Martial Law". The President decides on the declaration of martial law and then Verkhovna Rada must approve it.[35][36]
On 26 November 2018, lawmakers in the Verkhovna Rada overwhelmingly backed President Petro Poroshenko's imposition of martial law along Ukraine's coastal regions and those bordering the Russian Federation and Transnistria, an unrecognized breakaway state of Moldova which has Russian troops stationed in its territory, in response to the firing upon and seizure of Ukrainian naval ships by Russia near the Crimean Peninsula a day earlier. A total of 276 lawmakers in Kyiv backed the measure, which took effect on 28 November 2018 and will automatically expire in 30 days.[37]
United States
In the United States martial law has been declared for a state or other locality under various circumstances including after a direct foreign attack (Hawaii after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; New Orleans during the Battle of New Orleans); after a major disaster (Chicago after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871; San Francisco after the earthquake of 1906); and in response to chaos associated with protests and mob action (San Francisco during the 1934 West Coast waterfront strike; Montgomery, Alabama, following the mob actions against the Freedom Riders). It has also been declared by renegade local leaders seeking to avoid arrest or challenges to their authority (Nauvoo, Illinois by Joseph Smith during the Illinois Mormon War and Utah by Governor Brigham Young during the Utah War).[38]
The martial law concept in the United States is closely tied with the right of habeas corpus, which is in essence the right to a hearing on lawful imprisonment, or more broadly, the supervision of law enforcement by the judiciary. The ability to suspend habeas corpus is related to the imposition of martial law.[39] Article 1, Section 9 of the U.S. Constitution states, "The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it." There have been many instances of the use of the military within the borders of the United States, such as during the Whiskey Rebellion and in the South during the Civil Rights Movement, but these acts are not tantamount to a declaration of martial law. The distinction must be made as clear as that between martial law and military justice: deployment of troops does not necessarily mean that the civil courts cannot function, and as the Supreme Court has noted,[] that is one of the keys[vague] to martial law.
In United States law, martial law is limited by several court decisions handed down between the American Civil War and World War II. In 1878, Congress passed the Posse Comitatus Act, which, depending on the circumstances, can forbid U.S. military involvement in domestic law enforcement without congressional approval.[]
See also
2. ^ "Martial law". britannica.com.
3. ^ Safi, Michael (2020-09-27). "Armenia imposes martial law after clashes with Azerbaijan". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved .
5. ^ Françoise Dubuc. "La Loi martiale telle qu'imposée au Québec en 1837 et en 1838", in Les Patriotes de 1837@1838, May 20, 2000, retrieved May 10, 2009
6. ^ Simon Apiku. Egypt to lift 25-year-old emergency laws. Middle East On-line, 23 March 2006."Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-08-24. Retrieved .CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
7. ^ Joelle Bassoul. Egypt renews state of emergency for two years. Middle East On-line, 1 May 2005. [1] Archived 2015-02-18 at the Wayback Machine
8. ^ Adam Morrow and Khaled Moussa al-Omrani. "Egypt: Despair Over Two More Years of Martial Law." Inter Press Service News Agency. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-05-18. Retrieved .CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
10. ^ "Emad Baghi :: English". www.emadbaghi.com.
11. ^ "Article 79", Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1989, retrieved 2017, The proclamation of martial law is forbidden.
12. ^ "Iranian Constitution" (PDF). WIPO. Retrieved 2018.
16. ^ Join Akevot Research Institute in revealing the story of the Military Rule over Palestinian citizens in Israel 1948-1966
17. ^ Raz, Adam. How Israel Tormented Arabs in Its First Decades - and Tried to Cover It Up Haaretz.com. Haaretz, January 9, 2021
18. ^ Cohen, Amichai; Cohen, Stuart (2012). Israel's National Security Law: Political Dynamics and Historical Development. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-54914-1.
22. ^ Butt, Daud (2020-10-24). "On the Same Page - The History of Martial Law in Pakistan". The Wallet. Retrieved .
23. ^ a b "Arroyo declares martial law in Maguindanao province".
24. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-12-07. Retrieved .CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
26. ^ "Special Project - Having an Accurate Understanding of Korea's Modern History". Pyungkangcheil Church. Retrieved .
28. ^ Rhee, Moon Young (April 18, 2011). "4·19? 10 ? ". Hankyoreh. Retrieved .
29. ^ P, Bundeskanzlei. "SR 510.10 Bundesgesetz vom 3. Februar 1995 über die Armee und die Militärverwaltung (Militärgesetz, MG)". www.admin.ch.
30. ^ "Historischer Abriss zum Thema Ordnungsdienst". www.admin.ch (in German). Retrieved .
31. ^ a b "Syria's Assad ends state of emergency". Reuters. 2017-09-04. Archived from the original on 2017-09-04. Retrieved .
32. ^ Pakorn Nilprapunt (April 2, 2012). "Martial Law, B.E. 2457 (1914) unofficial translation" (PDF). Thailand Law Forum. Office of the Council of State (Thailand). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 16, 2013. Retrieved 2014. Reference to Thai legislation in any jurisdiction shall be to the Thai version only. This translation has been made so as to establish correct understanding about this Act to the foreigners.
33. ^ "Thailand Crisis: Army Declares Martial Law" (May 20, 2014). BBC.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
36. ^ "Verkhovna Rada adopts Law 'On legal regime of martial law'". Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. 12 May 2015. Retrieved 2018.
38. ^ "Church History in the Fulness of Times Student Manual". 2003. p. 276,368. Retrieved 2020.
Further reading
External links
Music Scenes
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Sea Urchin
Latin names: Centrostephanus rodgersii, Heliocidaris erythrogramma, Heliocidaris tuberculata
Common names: Urchin, white urchin
• Better Choice
Wild Caught
Key Facts
• Sea urchin fisheries around south-eastern Australia target long-spined, purple and red sea urchins.
• All species are native to Australia, but in some areas numbers have dramatically increased due to warming waters as a result of climate change and overfishing of urchin predators. As a result, urchins are becoming pests in parts of NSW, VIC and TAS.
• High urchin numbers lead to destruction of kelp forests which urchins graze on. Kelp forests are vital ecosystems for many other marine species.
• Sea urchin fisheries are unique in that they operate, at least in part, with overfishing as a goal in an effort to restore damaged ecosystems caused by urchin overabundance.
• Sea urchins are collected by hand, ensuring that other marine animals are not harmed.
Supporting sea urchin fisheries can actually help reduce the impact of climate change on our cool-water marine environment.
Cooking & Recipes
Sea Urchin, often sold as ‘Uni’ (its Japanese name), is a delicacy much prized by those in the know. The small ‘roe’ or ‘tongues’ (neither are truly accurate descriptions) are soft, rich, sweet and briny. They are often eaten raw, served on a cracker or toast as a canapé, or draped over warm rice for a larger meal. They can also be tossed through a simple pasta with little more than olive oil, lemon and parsley. The rich, briny, oceanic sauce that results is a real treat.
More information
Region caught:
NSW Sea Urchin and Turban Shell Fishery (99t in 2017)
SA Dive section of the Miscellaneous Fishery (tonnage not disclosed)
VIC Sea Urchin Fishery (88t in 2017/18)
TAS Commercial Dive Fishery (266t in 2017/18)
Commercial sea urchin fisheries operate around the southeast of Australia, collecting three species: the long-spined, purple and red sea urchin. All these species live on the seafloor, feeding on algae in shallow reef habitats.
While all species occur naturally in Australia, the long-spined sea urchin is considered a pest in Tasmania, as warming waters due to climate change have allowed it to establish populations where it previously could not. Numbers have dramatically increased by 75% in 15 years. Due to previous overfishing of urchin predators, such as snapper and southern rock lobster, long-spined sea urchin don’t have enough predators to keep their numbers in check, and the species is responsible for overgrazing of kelp forests, leading to ‘urchin barrens’ – empty habitats devoid of plant life. Tasmania’s southern kelp forests have been declared as an endangered ecological community due to the voracious grazing from sea urchins.
Long-spined and purple sea urchins are considered a pest in some areas in VIC and NSW where they have become overabundant as a result of climate change and a reduction in predators. Urchins have damaged seagrass and kelp forest habitats, both important ecosystems for many other marine species.
In Tasmania, the sea urchin fishery actively targets long-spined urchins, aiming to overfish the pest species for the health of the marine ecosystem. In areas where they are considered a pest in other states, urchin culling programs are in place to restore kelp forest habitats. Some species are actively collected in VIC and NSW for the same reasons. Sea urchin fisheries are highly unusual in that they operate, at least in part, with overfishing as a goal in an effort to restore damaged ecosystems caused by urchin overabundance.
Sea urchins are hand collected by divers, usually taken while also diving for other species such as abalone and turban shells. The level of take of urchins is fairly poorly controlled, which means there are few ways to cap fishing. With current low levels of fishing activity in NSW, SA and VIC, this is not a concern but would need to be reviewed if catch levels increased.
Hand collecting is effective at only targeting the desired species, resulting in a negligible impact of extraction on any other marine species.
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"url": "https://goodfish.org.au/species/sea-urchin/"
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An artificially intelligent route to better prediction of diabetes risk
A neural network model developed at KAIMRC can identify patients at risk of diabetes with unprecedented accuracy
sanjeri/ E+/ Getty Images
The use of artificial intelligence (AI) to predict risk of certain diseases could not only save lives but also reduce the workload of over-burdened medical staff. Now, KAIMRC’s Riyad Alshammari and his co-workers have developed a highly accurate model to identify patients with diabetes based on simple test results and details about lifestyle.
Diabetes cases are on the rise worldwide, bringing associated risks of complications including heart disease and strokes. In Saudi Arabia alone, experts predict that there will be 2.5 million more diabetes patients by 2030.
Genetic factors account for only a small fraction of diabetes risk, and the disease is more closely associated with obesity and other lifestyle parameters. This means that models based on personal data can be successful without the need for complex laboratory tests.
“AI can help healthcare providers redefine their strategies to prevent and manage diabetes,” says Alshammari. “This will save medical expenses for both patients and healthcare authorities.”
Alshammari and a team at KAIMRC, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, and Simon Fraser University, in Canada used a cloud computing service to build and test four algorithms based on machine learning. They also acquired data on more than 66,000 patients from Ministry of National Guard Hospital Affairs between 2013 and 2015 who had undergone hemoglobin A1c (HgbA1c) tests to determine whether they were diabetic. The dataset included 17 attributes per patient, such as age, body mass index, blood pressure, and several lab tests.
To test each algorithm, the researchers used a 10-fold cross-validation process. “We divided the original data randomly into ten equal-sized sub-datasets,” Alshammari explains. “One of the ten was used to train the model, and the rest were used to validate the model. We repeated the process until every sub-dataset served as the training set.”
The most successful model was a neural network algorithm called Deepnet, which correctly identified 88.5% of patients as diabetic or non-diabetic. “Deepnets are an advanced form of AI that mimics the human brain. They can be trained to learn about data and pick out patterns,” says Alshammari.
The researchers are hopeful that such accurate predictions from routine health checks will lead to earlier detection and allow for improved initial management of the disease. If so, Deepnet could help healthcare authorities save some of the billions of dollars that are currently spent on managing diabetes.
Alshammari plans to explore how models such as Deepnet could empower individuals to monitor their own health risks using the Internet of Things. “AI could be deployed in small devices attached to the body and connected to smart phones,” he says.
1. Alshammari, R, Atiyah, N., et al. Improving Accuracy for Diabetes Mellitus Prediction by Using Deepnet. OJPHI 12(1):e11 (2020) | article
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"url": "https://innovations.kaimrc.med.sa/en/research/552/an-artificially-intelligent-route-to-better-prediction-of-diabetes-risk"
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The Stono Rebellion of 1739 was the largest uprising of enslaved peoples in North America, when a group of enslaved African people marched from South Carolina toward Florida. What followed was The Negro Act of 1740 that banned enslaved people from a number of activities, including assembling in groups and using drums. That didn’t stop the music. It gave rise to the use of bodies as percussive instruments, of chants as background percussion and movements that would later become stepping, a percussive dance that paved the way for modern hip-hop dances. In “Stono,” Step Afrika! harnesses these same resources to tell the story.
See the full article
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"language_score": 0.9595510363578796,
"url": "https://www.stepafrika.org/2020/09/step-afrika-virtual-performance-honors-stono-rebellion/"
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One fish, two fish, red fish, blue fish; in general, all fish of a species look the same to humans. Surprisingly, however, research shows that the individuals in at least once species of fish have no trouble telling each other apart. According to experiments undertaken by researchers at the University of Queensland, Australia, the Ambon damselfish, or Pomacentrus ambionensis, possesses the capacity for facial recognition—ordinary among humans, but unique and undiscovered in fish until now.
Recently presented at an academic conference in Australia, the research, led by marine scientist Ulrike Siebeck, builds on Siebeck's own prior investigation into the damselfish’s ability to recognize the shape of ultraviolet patterns that distinguish one fish species from another. A 2010 experiment found that the damselfish relied on its ultraviolet (UV) sight to determine which particular species of fish was intruding on its territory, and thereby whether or not that particular fish’s presence necessitated an attack. When the damselfish were prevented from recognizing the intruding fish’s UV facial pattern, they were effectively blinded, unable to identify their preferred prey.
This new study finds that the damselfish is capable of even more nuanced facial recognition than previously thought, involving not just making distinctions between different species, but between individual fish as well. Captive damselfish were trained to recognize a given UV facial pattern, reinforced by a food reward. When presented with the familiar face and a strange new face, the Ambon damselfish were able to identify the correct fish face with 75 percent accuracy, a pattern that held true even when the faces were those of a similar but different species, the lemon damselfish.
The Ambon damselfish was even able to recognize the same face when it was blended with other photographs of fish faces to create totally new images, demonstrating a truly impressive sense of feature recognition—and all based on patterns of UV light invisible to the human eye.
While it may seem like a limitation of the damselfish’s ability that its pattern recognition relies solely on ultraviolet patterns, rather than facial topography or other physical identifying features, it is actually a characteristic that may help them survive in the coral reefs of the Western Pacific Ocean. Just as the human researchers were unable to see the ultraviolet patterns their subjects saw without technological assistance, the damselfish’s predators are UV blind. In this way, the damselfish’s ultraviolet sight functions as a superpower of sorts, so that their facial patterns and the ability to recognize them allow the damselfish to “communicate secretly,” Siebeck theorizes
[h/t National Geographic]
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"url": "https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/69703/damselfish-can-recognize-each-others-faces-using-uv-vision"
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Do you know about the history of Valentine’s Day?
Jake Schachter and Ava Lucarelli , Contributing Writers
When you think of Valentine’s Day, you probably think about chocolate, pink, love, and cards, but did you know that there is a darker history behind the holiday? Valentine’s Day is named after St. Valentine who defied the Roman emperor Claudius II by arranging marriages during the third century C.E. It was this desire to marry people that caused his eventual demise.
St. Valentine was a brave person who used his power as a priest to help the Romans. By marrying people so that the husbands wouldn’t have to be conscripted into the army, he saved lives because those who served in the army were likely to be killed. Unfortunately, St.Valentine was caught marrying a couple, jailed, and later sentenced to death.
While he was in jail, St.Valentine fell in love with the jailer’s daughter. On Feb. 14, the day he was executed, he wrote the jailer’s daughter a love letter and signed it “From your Valentine.” This is why we celebrate Valentine’s Day on Feb. 14 and call people “Valentines.”
“I never knew that the saying “from your Valentine” was from ancient Rome! So exciting!” said freshman Lauren Young.
Valentine’s Day is an ancient celebration that dates back to 496 C.E. It started with the Roman festival of Lupercalia, which took place on Feb. 13-15 and celebrated love and fertility. During the festival, young men drew women’s names from a jar, and if by the end of the festival the two people were still together, they would get married. This tradition may have influenced what people do on Valentine’s Day today. Later in the fifth century C.E., Pope Gelasius renamed the holiday to what we now know it as, St. Valentine’s Day.
After William Shakespeare referred to Valentine’s Day in his work, the holiday became much more popular and focused on romance. In the Middle Ages, paper cards became a staple for the holiday because St. Valentine used to hand out paper hearts to his fellow Christians to remind them of their love for God.
“I never knew Valentine’s Day changed so much,” said freshman Isabella Yardeni.
Over the years there have developed many different traditions from all over the world surrounding Valentine’s Day. In Brazil, Valentine’s Day is not even celebrated on Feb. 14 because of Carnival. On June 12, Brazilians celebrate Dia dos Namorados (Lover’s Day). The tradition of giving cards and flowers remains the same, but instead of celebrating St. Valentine, they honor St. Anthony. In the Philippines, mass weddings occur on Feb. 14, which is why it is one of the most common wedding anniversaries in the country. The weddings are usually free and include flowers and sometimes even cake.
For some people, the expectations around Valentine’s Day lead to great amounts of stress.
“In my opinion, it’s mostly a cash grab for companies, and if there was any deeper meaning, it’s been lost. I also feel like it’s another way for society to put pressure on people to be and act a certain way,” said freshman Nayia Tornarites.
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"url": "https://theschreibertimes.com/2021/03/01/do-you-know-about-the-history-of-valentines-day/"
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Paso Doble
Imagine you are sitting in the stands at a Spanish bull-fight. As the trumpet sounds, the matador (or bullfighter) enters the ring. He is both an artistic performer and a brave athlete. He is adorned in a custom-made suit, embroidered with gold or silver thread, accompanied by a live band. The music is Paso Doble, or the literal translation: “two-step.”
In the dance, the leader plays the part of the matador, and the follower is his red cape. Imagine again, the matador exuding an air of pride and superiority as he whips his cape with elegant flair. As the dance continues, the follower takes on the representation of the matador’s shadow, the bull itself, or one of a flamenco dancer.
A Dance Born from Bullfighting
Inspired by bullfights, Paso Doble is a theatrical dance about the preparation for combat and the celebration that follows. The dance is lively and dramatic, as if a story is unfolding with every aggressive step. Like bullfighting, Paso Doble is a challenging, yet rewarding dance. The tempo is sharp and dignified, but not too quick. Its beat is one per second. Much like the matador might stomp the ground to capture the bull’s attention, the lead dancer strongly stomps his foot to the beat. It is clear why the “two-step” refers to the marching nature of the steps. Paso Doble is also called “the dance of the master” because of the leader’s confident and assertive characteristics. It is always danced with the chest out and head held high.
Paso Doble is a performance dance, meaning it is rarely performed on a crowded dance floor. The dance requires a lot of space, so it is most often enjoyed in an exposition or competition. Few dances are as striking and artistic as Paso Doble, but it falls in the same category of dance as Samba, Cha-Cha, and Rhumba, as an International Latin dance.
A Dance With Rich History
Paso Doble was actually invented in Southern France, where its march-like steps were used in the military, coined “Paso Redoble”. The steps easily travelled to Spain because of their close proximity. Beginning in the 18th century, the “Paso Doble” was played during the matador’s entrance into the bullring. The Spanish ritual made its way back to France, where it was interpreted into a dance among the Parisian upper class. It wasn’t until the 1920s that bullfighting was choreographed into a performed dance as we know it today. The most famous Paso Doble music piece, the “Espana Cani,” by Pascual Marquina, was written in the twenties. Since 1945, Paso Doble has been a competition dance and a part of the World Dance Program since 1963.
Although Paso Doble is primarily a competition dance, it is sometimes seen in rare social settings, like in clubs and studios, specifically in Quebec and Ontario, as well as in Spain, France, Vietnam, Australia and Germany.
How We Teach Paso Doble
Paso Doble is fit for serious dancers with significant dance backgrounds. Anyone can achieve the dance, but we recommend beginners learn basic Latin movements first. At Arthur Murray, we begin slowly to establish a basic skill set, and then build on top of it. Intermediate to expert dancers are encouraged to push their comfort zones to achieve some of the most challenging, but remarkably fulfilling levels of dance.
Since Paso Doble’s choreography is challenging, the dance requires a multi-lesson schedule that is organized with enough time to develop all the steps. Learning the Paso Doble has a lot to do with acting. While it features quick, staccato steps, the body movements are dramatic. The “matadors” are taught arrogant manners, where they carry themselves in a strong and masculine character. The follower’s movements are soft, keeping distance from the matador, as he would hold out his red cape around him.
Arthur Murray Studios have Mastered the Paso Doble
We teach Paso Doble at Arthur Murray Dance Studio to carry on the legacy of one of the most historically riveting dances. Dance has no limits when it comes to personal expression, and dancers love coming to Arthur Murray because of the unique experience to communicate with body language. Whether you have a lot of experience, or close to none, sign up for your first class to see the difference dance will make in your life. It is not only a physical exercise, but a mental one. Let our expert, supportive and fun teachers lead you to improve your dance skills, your confidence, and your social life.
Long Beach
Costa Mesa
Lake Forest
Solana Beach
San Diego
Rancho Bernardo
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The History of Mount Pleasant
Located on a broad hill in the heart of Northeast Texas, Mount Pleasant has served as the county seat of Titus County since 1848, after Texas became a state.
A few remaining members of the Caddo Indian Tribe were probably in the area as the first pioneers from the United States began to settle Northeast Texas during the 1830s. The Caddos were known as builders of large burial mounds. Legend has it that they spoke of a "Pleasant Mound" in the central part of what is now Titus County. It is believed that the early Anglo settlers modified this Caddo name and referred to the broad, oak and hickory covered hill as Pleasant Mount. When the county was organized, the small village that would become the seat of government was given the name Mount Pleasant. In 1850, the little town on the hill had a population of 227. One thing that contributed to attracting settlers, and especially merchants, in the early years was the Clarksville to Jefferson Road, which passed through Mount Pleasant. Established by Andrew J. Titus, for whom Titus County is named, this road made possible the movement of goods to and from Jefferson, which at that time could be reached by riverboats. Even with the road, it is said that the trip to Jefferson by ox wagon required at least five days.
Between 1850 and 1860, Titus County's population grew from 3,636 to 9,648, although it must be remembered that the county then included the present-day counties of Franklin and Morris. Cotton and corn were the main cash crops. Hogs were found on virtually every farm, along with oxen, mules and milk cows. In 1861, Titus County voted for secession by a vote of 411 to 285 and sent as many as 1,500 men to fight in the Confederate Army. During the Civil War, Mount Pleasant was the site of a confederate transportation depot which employed blacksmiths, carpenters, harness makers and wheelwrights. The depot's mission was to build wagons and then fit them out with teams of horses and mules and the necessary harness so that men and supplies could be moved to the front.
During the Reconstruction Era, Mount Pleasant and Titus County had to cope with officials appointed by the federal government. It was a difficult time, filled with lawlessness.
As reconstruction drew to a close in the 1870s, the stage was set for the next step in the growth of Mount Pleasant, with the arrival of the first railroads. In 1876, the East Line and Red River Railroad Company laid tracks across the southeast corner of the county. Following in 1878 was the extension to Mount Pleasant of the narrow gauge "Tyler Tap". In 1879, this section of line was acquired by the Texas and St. Louis Railway and within a few years was extended to connect St. Louis and Waco. Another branch, completed in 1887, ran from Mount Pleasant to Sherman. Largely because of this excellent rail system, Mount Pleasant was being recognized as a hub of transportation and trade at the close of the nineteenth century, and had a population of 963 in 1890.
At the national level, largely because of the victorious conclusion, in August 1898, of the brief Spanish American War, the United States was being recognized as an emerging world power. Many Americans were looking to the future with great hope and expectation for peace and prosperity as the twentieth century began.
Locally, this optimistic outlook may have been a factor in the success of efforts to incorporate the city. On September 17, 1900, after an earlier attempt failed, the town's citizens voted for the measure by a vote of 142 for and 18 opposed. T. C. Hutchings was Mount Pleasant's first mayor and John B. Stephens, Sr. became city marshal.
The need for a law enforcement officer may have become more pressing because a small local war was "brewing" in the town. Saloons had been common and apparently profitable, since Mount Pleasant's early days. In the late 1890's a new competitor showed up. A man named Parker started a large licensed distillery on the south side of a spring fed stream known as Town Branch, and was also raising a sizable number of hogs. The hogs were feeding mostly on the spent mash from the distillery. Witnesses reported the animals sometimes became intoxicated from the residual alcohol content of the mash. That some opposition to this early recycling effort soon occurred is not surprising, considering the aroma which must have surrounded it. After Parker added retail sales to his original wholesale operation, local saloon owners as well as prohibitionists made known their displeasure. Then one group or the other dynamited the distillery in 1900, totally destroying it. Many of the hogs were killed, and the remainder were set free to roam the neighborhood for several days before they were returned to their pens. Responsibility for the early morning explosion was never determined. The distillery never got back into operation, and Titus County voted "dry" about 1902.
Even with the demise of the licensed distillery and Titus County being legally "dry", residents who enjoyed a "toddy" or "nightcap" could obtain "moonshine" from numerous "stills" hidden away in the thickly wooded hills. In fact, grocers in Mount Pleasant and other smaller towns in the county sold large quantities of sugar for use in distilling this "white lightning". A small community in the north end of the county near White Oak Creek has the official name of Wilkinson, but is much better known as "Sugar Hill" because of the tons of sugar that went there for making "that good ole mountain dew."
At about the same time the Parker distillery/hog operation got under way, Jessie Reed bought 120 acres of land on Town Branch, just a short distance east of the whiskey making location. Reed began to develop his holdings as a resort area. Numerous chalybeate springs had fed their waters into Town Branch for thousands of years. These colored waters probably caused the Caddo Indians to establish villages nearby. Although the coloration of the water by minerals in the soil gave no magical properties to the liquid, Reed advertised widely that his "Iridescent Springs" could cure many common ailments. He built a cafe and several "camp houses" in a style commonly seen in "tourist courts" in later years. His efforts were only marginally successful, however, and in 1906 the property was sold for taxes to H. W. Peterman for a rather small amount. Peterman apparently was a talented promoter, as he managed to sell the property to M. C. Wolf and Associates in 1907 for almost ten times what he paid. Wolf from Wolfe City, Texas formed a consortium with Mount Pleasant residents Dr. T. M. Fleming and Spill Brown, and W. H. and Spencer Florey of Overton. This group then formed the Red Mineral Springs Development Company, and started construction on a large two-story frame resort hotel with 70 guest rooms. A wood rail tramcar line was constructed to carry guests back and forth between the hotel and downtown district. In spite of many glowing testimonials citing the benefits of the springs, the public's belief in the curative properties of the waters was already waning when the hotel operation began.
In the summer of 1910 a Confederate Soldiers Reunion was held on the hotel grounds and it is said that thousands came and camped in and around the area. In fact, by the third day of the event, all available food in town had been consumed, and the attendees went home hungry. After the 1910 season, the hotel was no longer operated by the developers, but was rented out for two years to a Dr. Speers who operated a prep school there. W. H. Florey then ran a boarding house for another two or three years. Until 1922 or 1923, the park area continued to be a popular place for various conventions and political rallies. About 1925, the hotel burned and the area was vacant and uncared for until 45 acres was purchased by the City of Mount Pleasant in 1951.
Today Dellwood Park is the pride of the city's parks department, offering walking paths, exercise areas, swimming pool, baseball fields, tennis courts and a Boy Scout "hut." Visitors now enjoy the springs by just watching them quietly flow into Town Branch, as in the days when deer and Caddo Indians roamed the area.
During the early years of the twentieth century a new timber-based industry came to Mount Pleasant when the Hoffman Heading and Stave Co. was established. The company produced heads and staves for wooden kegs and barrels, from white oak and gum trees growing in the bottomlands of White Oak Creek, which forms the northern boundary of Titus County. In1906, Mr. Hoffman bought right-of-way and constructed a tram railway from the White Oak Creek area to his facility in Mount Pleasant, so that a steady supply of logs could be brought in, regardless of weather conditions.
Similarly, the difficulty of getting around during the wetter times of the year prompted the formation of the Paris and Mount Pleasant Railroad, which was chartered January 29,1909. Laying of track from Paris toward Mount Pleasant was soon underway. In 1912 Mr. Hoffman sold four miles of his track, immediately north of Mount Pleasant to the fledgling line from Paris and trains were running in 1913. For the next forty years, the "Pa and Ma" line, as it was nicknamed, moved people and locally produced freight of all kinds.
The steady growth in employment opportunities coupled with the expanding rail system helped to keep the area's population growing, with the 1910 census showing 16,422 for Titus County and 3,137 for Mount Pleasant.
But even as the "Pa and Ma" began operations, the next "new thing" which would cause the eventual closing of many railroads, was coming on the scene. Henry Ford's Model T proved popular from the time of its introduction in 1908. But when assembly line production began in 1914 and prices began to fall, America's love affair with automobiles was under way. That year's production at Ford's Highland Park, Michigan plant hit 300,000 and in 1915 it was up to 500,000, with the price sliding downward from $850 to $440.
In Mount Pleasant, long time hardware merchant Henry Willson saw the handwriting on the wall. Henry, who with his brother Willie, had operated Willson Brothers Hardware store since the 1890s, was a member of the first Mount Pleasant City Council. He was quite likely the most civic-minded person of his day, in Titus County.
Realizing that automobiles would soon become "the" method of transportation in America, Willson knew that providing better roads for the ever-increasing number of automobiles would be vital to the area's continued growth and development. Even though he never married, Henry Willson could rightfully be considered the "Father" of good roads in Titus County. Largely due to his efforts, a one million dollar bond issue was passed in 1916 for road construction. Shortly thereafter, he also was able to persuade Titus County Commissioners to take on the responsibility of building and maintaining county roads. Previously, this task had been accomplished by having all able-bodied men of the county donate a required number of days of labor each year.
Another visionary was L. C. Libby, who came to Mount Pleasant in 1902 as school superintendent. Libby saw some potential in the lignite deposits between Mount Pleasant and Cookville, and in the clay subsoil of the area. So in 1908 he formed the Libby Brick and Coal Company. The combined mining and brick making operations employed 35 to 65 men, giving the area economy another nice payroll. Capacity of the brick presses was 20,000 per day, while the three kilns had a combined capacity of 250,000. Production of the lignite mines varied with demand, sometimes reaching 300 tons per day. The Cotton Belt Railroad established a siding named Nodena for loading the lignite and bricks onto rail cars for delivery to customers across the nation. Lignite was also mined in an area about four miles west of Mount Pleasant from about 1920 to the mid 1930s. Production in 1932 was said to average about 270 tons per week.
Certainly we would not want to leave the second decade of the twentieth century without recognizing those from Mount Pleasant and Titus County who took part in "the war to end all wars", World War I. While the exact number of those who served is uncertain, it is believed that about twenty lost their lives in the conflict. One of those who returned was Roger Harbour. Harbour had started working at the Libby Mine at age thirteen and was there until he entered the army. After his return, he worked at the mines and the brick kilns until they closed about 1920.
Demand for lignite dropped rapidly as availability of natural gas grew more common. This would be just one of the changes to be experienced during the 1920s. The area economy, still heavily dependent on agriculture, became more volatile as local farmers found they could feed their animals more economically with Midwest corn than with their own production. Thus, more acres were planted to cotton. When good yields were obtained on more acres and production outpaced demand, the price of cotton fell. This spurred some farmers to sell their land before poorer crop prices caused land prices to drop. Many of them continued the westward migration that the nation had experienced since its founding, by moving to the south plains area, where land prices were appreciating, but still remained lower than in Northeast Texas. Largely because of this resumption of westward migration, the steady population increase in Northeast Texas was reversed for a number of years. Between 1920 and 1930, Titus County's population dropped from 18,128 to 16,003, while Mount Pleasant's fell from 4,099 to 3,541. But even as the agricultural economy experienced wide fluctuations, signs of progress continued in other sectors.
Dellwood Hotel, Dellwood Park.jpg
Pavilion at Dellwood Park.jpg
Dellwood Park.jpg
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