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How the balloon works How does the Ballon de Paris work? According to the Archimedes principle, one cubic meter of helium can lift one kilogram. This means that6,000 cubic meters can lift six metric tons The balloon with its basket, envelope and net weighs around two metric tons. The largest tethered balloon in the world, it can lift up to 30 passengers (about 2.5 metric tons) while keeping 1.5 metric tons of lift in the tether cable to counter the force of the wind. The stronger the wind, the more lift must be maintained and therefore the fewer passengers can be taken up. The cable has a tensile strength of 44 metric tons. The balloon is 115 feet (35 meters) tall with a 74-foot (22.5-meter) diameter and can go up to 492 feet (150 meters) high. In flight, it is visible from 12.4 miles (20 kilometers) away and is seen by 400,000 people every day. It is the least polluting aircraft in the world because it is hoisted by an electric winch!	<urn:uuid:1ecd5cb1-462a-4855-9f8d-5d5c6eb29fb2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.9785662889480591, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9201849102973938, "url": "https://www.ballondeparis.com/en/ballon-de-paris/fonctionnement/" }
Kansan Glacial Stage Select Citation Style Thank you for your feedback External Websites Kansan Glacial Stage, major division of Pleistocene deposits and time in North America (the Pleistocene Epoch began about 2.6 million years ago and ended about 11,700 years ago). The Kansan glaciation followed the Aftonian Interglacial Stage and preceded the Yarmouth Interglacial Stage, both periods of moderate climatic conditions. The Kansan Glacial Stage was named for deposits studied in northeastern Kansas, although more representative and complete deposits exist near Afton, Iowa. The Kansan glaciations appear to have been very extensive. Away from the ice margins, in present Kansas and southern Indiana, well-developed forests and mammalian faunas existed. Areas that are now generally arid or semi-arid were clearly moister. The Kansan fauna was diverse and abundant and essentially modern in composition. Animal ranges and distributions, however, were much different. Characteristic fossil forms of the Kansan Glacial Stage include the mammoth, musk-ox, moose, and extinct giant beaver. In the Midwest a widespread volcanic ash bed, the Pearlette Ash, is an important horizon marker; the Pearlette Ash was probably produced by volcanic eruption in the western Cordilleras. Get our climate action bonus! Learn More!	<urn:uuid:cc00b63a-e6b2-4c50-9528-d6714e240b32>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.06347900629043579, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9377778172492981, "url": "https://www.britannica.com/science/Kansan-Glacial-Stage" }
Aristotle remarks in Politics (I,8,12) that war is a very profitable activity. Sacking a city, taking more land, capturing mines, or even enslaving entire cities was a common source of revenue. Regardless of whether wars broke out for political or economic reasons, they often proved profitable. The importance of naval warfare couldn’t be underestimated. Fleets were one of the most expensive endeavors for the Greek city states, one of the most largest expenses being the costs of building and maintaining fleets. Through the centuries, ambitious cities like Samos, Chios, Rhodes, Corinth, Massalia and Syracuse, spent thousands on ships. But no city was more ambitious than Athens. In the 4th century, Athens built more than 400 ships, most of them triremes (τριηρις). The docks in Piraeus costed 6.000.000 drachmas. Fleets weren’t always a burden, however. Entire regions like Aetolia and Crete relied on piracy as a source of income, even though Philip of Macedon, Alexander’s father, prohibited this practice. In order to build its many ships Athens turned to the citizenry. They introduced the institution of “Litourgia”- “Λειτουργία”. Rich citizens had to pay a part of the cost of the ship, and supervise the implementation of the construction. Citizens responded positively and gladly, because building ships was considered a high honor. It is estimated that each of the rich citizens annually paid 3.000 dramas, and 6.000 in times of war. Citizens in Athens preferred to be given a “Leitourgia”, a contract work to pay and complete themselves rather than pay taxes. It should be stressed that they were not the owners of their Leitourgia. This institution was one proportionate to taxation and the construction or the service belonged or addressed the city. That could be concluded taking on account that it was the people who decided how to collect money for the state, through direct representation. Let us stress again that, “leitourgia” was about rich people who could afford to take the cost . A road to Acropolis, full of inscriptions showed who was given a “leitourgia”, and what it was. One can still read these inscriptions, full of pride and in most cases vanity in the Archaeological Museum of Athens. The Greeks had a mixed economy, with the state playing an important role in an otherwise more or less free market. The state owned strategically important properties such as docks, ports, roads, and mines, while the citizenry enjoyed trade and a flourishing private economy. The state was funded by a well-developed system of taxation. Originating in the Mycenaean era, the leaders of settlements had to pay tribute in kind, to the higher in the hierarchy, in a system similar to that of feudalism. . In the Archaic era, the citizens had to pay a tax to the city, mostly for defense and infrastructure. Broader introduction of coins made the process easier. In Rhodes the rich aristocracy, who exclusively held political power, considered it a moral obligation to feed the poor of the city and they did so voluntarily. Nonetheless, assets and agricultural production were taxed in case the city didn’t have an other source of income.	<urn:uuid:499a0326-f30b-4f87-94ff-6e0d07b790b1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.953125, "fasttext_score": 0.8274825811386108, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9694880247116089, "url": "https://www.ellopos.com/blog/4473/alex-pardalis-ancient-greece-as-a-precursor-of-modern-liberal-economy/5/" }
History & Culture history page Before time immemorial [ 3000 BC / the year that North-west Coast Culture began to develop; Source: Funk & Wagnalls encyclopedia, North American Indian], the people of the river lived here in Northwestern British Columbia, as members of an elaborate and complex society having their own cultural traditions, language, territorial boundaries, and systems of government and law. The most authentic history of Lisims ownership and occupation of the river and its’ approaches is, doubt-less, the living, oral tradition as it is remembered, ex-pressed, and handed down by historians and elders. Land and Resource Management was traditionally conducted through a system of family-owned territories in which the use of, and access to natural resources was regulated by the Head of each family, or House. Some sixty houses held territories, and access by each user was guaranteed through complex kinship relations or mutual arrangements as determined and dictated by the unwritten body of laws and social customs that govern behavior – Ayuukhl Nisga’a [the law of the people]. Together, these family territories form adjacent blocks of land that comprises the territory. Although by tradition, control over each House was uni-laterally exercised by the ‘owning family’, in the early years of this century the hereditary chiefs agreed that land was to be held in common ownership. Thus, the land itself is visualized as a ‘common bowl’ for every-one in the nation. Lisims and its watershed – from glacial headwaters to Pacific estuary—provided the food, fur, tools, plants, medicine, timber and fuel that allowed the people to develop one of the most sophisticated cultures in North America. Since the last Great Ice Age, they traveled, fished and settled along all 380 kilometers of the river and its tribu-taries. The river supports all five species of Pacific salmon, the most important currency Lisims people have ever known. Rich salmon runs were harvested in a manner that allowed them to build their villages and evolve a far-flung trading empire that reached deep into the Interior and ranged up and down the coast.	<urn:uuid:cb1c91bd-4347-4366-8299-5514f1aeccbf>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.34375, "fasttext_score": 0.027217209339141846, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9675914645195007, "url": "https://www.laxgaltsap.ca/history-culture" }
What's new Make a pie chart By David, 26 February 2013 Activity You will need at least three pies. You will need at least three pies. food safety hazard iconSafety: When dealing with food, use clean hands and clean equipment! You will need • About 10 people • 3 different circular pies, about the same size. Open topped tarts of different colours are best. • Paper • Pens • Protractor • Knife Sort the responses and tally them all up. Sort the responses and tally them all up. What to do 1. Write the name of each pie on a piece of paper. Make one copy of this survey sheet for every person. 2. Give everyone a pen and a survey sheet. Show them the pies and ask them to write down the pie they most want to eat. 3. Collect up and count all the survey sheets. 4. Divide 360° by the number of survey sheets. This will give you an angle. 5. Sort the survey sheets, making a pile for each pie. 6. Find the centre of each pie. 7. For each pie, count the survey sheets and then multiply by the angle calculated in step 4. Measure this angle around the centre of the pie and cut a slice accordingly. Calculate the angle you will need to cut out of each pie. 8. Take the three slices you have cut and put them together to make a new pie. The size of each slice will represent how many people wanted to eat that pie the most. What’s happening? Pie charts are graphs. They are often used to show how something limited is shared. For example, a pie chart is good for showing how many hours a day you spend doing different things, or what you spend all your money on. Use a protractor to measure the pieces you're cutting. Use a protractor to measure the pieces you’re cutting. To make a pie chart, convert all the quantities you have into angles. You want two important things to happen. First, the proportions need to remain the same. If you spend twice as long reading as watching TV, you want the reading angle to be twice as large as the TV angle. Second, all the angles need to add up to 360°, or they won’t make a whole circle. The angles at the centre of the circle show the relative sizes of the things you are graphing. Importantly, the areas of the pieces also show this information. If you change the length of the pieces, so some of them are segments of larger circles, the area behaves differently. If you make a pie piece twice as long, keeping the angle the same, it will have four times the area. Although it can look good to make some slices longer, it can make the graph misleading. The finished pie chart. The finished pie chart. Subscribe now! button Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:78fa931c-2ed4-42fd-a7ef-8fbbbcbc9331>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.22425919771194458, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.926842987537384, "url": "https://blog.doublehelix.csiro.au/make-a-pie-chart/" }
- Art Gallery - Asteroseismology is the study of oscillations in stars. Because a star's different oscillation modes are sensitive to different parts of the star, they inform astronomers about the internal structure of the star, which is otherwise not directly possible from overall properties like brightness and surface temperature. Asteroseismology is closely related to helioseismology, the study of stellar oscillations specifically in the Sun. Though both are based on the same underlying physics, more and qualitatively different information is available for the Sun because its surface can be resolved. Theoretical background A propagation diagram for a standard solar model[1] showing where oscillations have a g-mode character (blue) or where dipole modes have a p-mode character (orange). Between about 100 and 400 µHz, modes would potentially have two oscillating regions: these are known as mixed modes. The dashed line shows the acoustic cut-off frequency, computed from more precise modelling, and above which modes are not trapped in the star, and roughly-speaking do not resonate. By linearly perturbing the equations defining the mechanical equilibrium of a star (i.e. mass conservation and hydrostatic equilibrium) and assuming that the perturbations are adiabatic, one can derive a system of four differential equations whose solutions give the frequency and structure of a star's modes of oscillation. The stellar structure is usually assumed to be spherically symmetric, so the horizontal (i.e. non-radial) component of the oscillations is described by spherical harmonics, indexed by an angular degree $ \ell $ and azimuthal order m. In non-rotating stars, modes with the same angular degree must all have the same frequency because there is no preferred axis. The angular degree indicates the number of nodal lines on the stellar surface, so for large values of $ \ell $, the opposing sectors roughly cancel out, making it difficult to detect light variations. As a consequence, modes can only be detected up to an angular degree of about 3 in intensity and about 4 if observed in radial velocity. By additionally assuming that the perturbation to the gravitational potential is negligible (the Cowling approximation) and that the star's structure varies more slowly with radius than the oscillation mode, the equations can be reduced approximately to one second-order equation for the radial component of the displacement eigenfunction $ {\displaystyle \xi _{r}} $, $ {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}\xi _{r}}{dr^{2}}}={\frac {\omega ^{2}}{c_{s}^{2}}}\left(1-{\frac {N^{2}}{\omega ^{2}}}\right)\left({\frac {S_{\ell }^{2}}{\omega ^{2}}}-1\right)\xi _{r}} $ where r is the radial co-ordinate in the star, ω {\displaystyle \omega } \omega is the angular frequency of the oscillation mode, $ c_{s} $ is the sound speed inside the star, N is the Brunt–Väisälä or buoyancy frequency and $ {\displaystyle S_{\ell }} $ is the Lamb frequency. The last two are defined by $ {\displaystyle N^{2}=g\left({\frac {1}{\Gamma _{1}P}}{\frac {dp}{dr}}-{\frac {1}{\rho }}{\frac {d\rho }{dr}}\right)} $ $ {\displaystyle S_{\ell }^{2}={\frac {\ell (\ell +1)c_{s}^{2}}{r^{2}}}} $ respectively. By analogy with the behaviour of simple harmonic oscillators, this implies that oscillating solutions exist when the frequency is either greater or less than both $ {\displaystyle S_{\ell }} $ and N. We identify the former case as high-frequency pressure modes (p-modes) and the latter as low-frequency gravity modes (g-modes). This basic separation allows us to determine (to reasonable accuracy) where we expect what kind of mode to resonate in a star. By plotting the curves $ {\displaystyle \omega =N} $ and $ {\displaystyle \omega =S_{\ell }} $ (for given $ \ell $ ), we expect p-modes to resonate at frequencies below both curves or frequencies above both curves. Excitation mechanisms $ \kappa $-mechanism Main article: Kappa-mechanism Under fairly specific conditions, some stars have regions where heat is transported by radiation and the opacity is a sharply decreasing function of temperature. This opacity bump can drive oscillations through the κ {\displaystyle \kappa } \kappa -mechanism (or Eddington valve). Suppose that, at the beginning of an oscillation cycle, the stellar envelope has contracted. By expanding and cooling slightly, the layer in the opacity bump becomes more opaque, absorbs more radiation, and heats up. This heating causes expansion, further cooling and the layer becomes even more opaque. This continues until the material opacity stops increasing so rapidly, at which point the radiation trapped in the layer can escape. The star contracts and the cycle prepares to commence again. In this sense, the opacity acts like a valve that traps heat in the star's envelope. Pulsations driven by the κ {\displaystyle \kappa } \kappa -mechanism are coherent and have relatively large amplitudes. It drives the pulsations in many of the longest-known variable stars, including the Cepheid and RR Lyrae variables. Surface convection In stars with surface convection zones, turbulent fluids motions near the surface simultaneously excite and damp oscillations across a broad range of frequency.[2][3] Because the modes are intrinsically stable, they have low amplitudes and are relatively short-lived. This is the driving mechanism in all solar-like oscillators. Convective blocking If the base of a surface convection zone is sharp and the convective timescales slower than the pulsation timescales, the convective flows react too slowly perturbations that can build up into large, coherent pulsations. This mechanism is known as convective blocking[4] and is believed to drive pulsations in the γ {\displaystyle \gamma } \gamma Doradus variables.[5] Tidal excitation Observations from the Kepler satellite revealed eccentric binary systems in which oscillations are excited during the closest approach.[6] These systems are known as heartbeat stars because of the characteristic shape of the lightcurves. Types of oscillators Solar-like oscillators Main article: Solar-like oscillations Because solar oscillations are driven by near-surface convection, any stellar oscillations caused similarly are known as solar-like oscillations and the stars themselves as solar-like oscillators. However, solar-like oscillations also occur in evolved stars (subgiants and red giants), which have convective envelopes, even though the stars are not Sun-like. Cepheid variables Main article: Cepheid variable Cepheid variables are one of the most important classes of pulsating star. They are core-helium burning stars with masses above about 5 solar masses. They principally oscillate at their fundamental modes, with typical periods ranging from days to months. Their pulsation periods are closely related to their luminosities, so it is possible to determine the distance to a Cepheid by measuring its oscillation period, computing its luminosity, and comparing this to its observed brightness. Cepheid pulsations are excited by the kappa mechanism acting on the second ionization zone of helium. RR Lyrae variables Main article: RR Lyrae variable RR Lyraes are similar to Cepheid variables but of lower metallicity (i.e. Population II) and much lower masses (about 0.6 to 0.8 time solar). They are core helium-burning giants that oscillate in one or both of their fundamental mode or first overtone. The oscillation are also driven by the kappa mechanism acting through the second ionization of helium. Many RR Lyraes, including RR Lyrae itself, show long period amplitude modulations, known as the Blazhko effect. Delta Scuti and Gamma Doradus stars Main articles: Delta Scuti variable and Gamma Doradus variable Delta Scuti variables are found roughly where the classical instability strip intersects the main sequence. They are typically A- to early F-type dwarfs and subgiants and the oscillation modes are low-order radial and non-radial pressure modes, with periods ranging from 0.25 to 8 hours and magnitude variations anywhere between. Like Cepheid variables, the oscillations are driven by the kappa mechanism acting on the second ionization of helium. SX Phoenicis variables are regarded as metal-poor relatives of Delta Scuti variables. Gamma Doradus variables occur in similar stars to the red end of the Delta Scuti variables, usually of early F-type. The stars show multiple oscillation frequencies between about 0.5 and 3 days, which is much slower than the low-order pressure modes. Gamma Doradus oscillations are generally thought to be high-order gravity modes, excited by convective blocking. Following results from Kepler, it appears that many Delta Scuti stars also show Gamma Doradus oscillations and are therefore hybrids.[7][8] Rapidly oscillating Ap (roAp) stars Main article: Rapidly oscillating Ap star Rapidly oscillating Ap stars have similar parameters to Delta Scuti variables, mostly being A- and F-type, but they are also strongly magnetic and chemically peculiar (hence the p spectral subtype). Their dense mode spectra are understood in terms of the oblique pulsator model: the mode's frequencies are modulated by the magnetic field, which is not necessarily aligned with the star's rotation (as is the case in the Earth). The oscillation modes have frequencies around 1500 μHz and amplitudes of a few mmag. Slowly-pulsating B stars and Beta Cephei variables Main articles: Slowly pulsating B-type star and Beta Cephei variable Slowly-pulsating B (SPB) stars are B-type stars with oscillation periods of a few days, understood to be high-order gravity modes excited by the kappa mechanism. Beta Cephei variables are slightly hotter (and thus more massive), also have modes excited by the kappa mechanism and additionally oscillate in low-order gravity modes with periods of several hours. Both classes of oscillators contain only slowly-rotating stars. Variable subdwarf B stars Main article: Subdwarf B star Subdwarf B (sdB) stars are in essence the cores of core-helium burning giants who have somehow lost most of their hydrogen envelopes, to the extent that there is no hydrogen-burning shell. They have multiple oscillation periods that range between about 1 and 10 minutes and amplitudes anywhere between 0.001 and 0.3 mag in visible light. The oscillations are low-order pressure modes, excited by the kappa mechanism acting on the iron opacity bump. White dwarfs Main article: Pulsating white dwarf White dwarfs are characterized by spectral type, much like ordinary stars, except that the relationship between spectral type and effective temperature does not correspond in the same way. Thus, white dwarfs are known by types DO, DA and DB. Cooler types are physically possible but the Universe is too young for them to have cooled enough. White dwarfs of all three types are found to pulsate. The pulsators are known as GW Virginis stars (DO variables, sometimes also known as PG 1159 stars), V777 Herculis stars (DB variables) and ZZ Ceti stars (DA variables). All pulsate in low-degree, high-order g-modes. The oscillation periods broadly decrease with effective temperature, ranging from about 30 min down to about 1 minute. GW Virginis and ZZ Ceti stars are thought to be excited by the kappa mechanism; V777 Herculis stars by convective blocking. Space missions A number of past, present and future spacecraft have asteroseismology studies as a significant part of their missions (order chronological). WIRE – A NASA satellite launched in 1999. A failed large infrared telescope, the two-inch aperture star tracker was used for more than a decade as a bright-star asteroseismology instrument. Re-entered Earth's atmosphere 2011. CoRoT – A French led ESA planet-finder and asteroseismology satellite launched in 2006. Kepler – A NASA planet-finder spacecraft launched in 2009, repurposed as K2 since the failure of a second reaction wheel prevented the telescope from continuing to monitor the same field. BRITE – A constellation of nanosatellites used to study the brightest oscillating stars. FIrst two satellites launched Feb 25, 2013. TESS – An NASA planet-finder that will survey bright stars across most of the sky launched in 2018. PLATO – A planned ESA mission that will specifically exploit asteroseismology to obtain accurate masses and radii of transiting planets. Christensen-Dalsgaard, J.; Dappen, W.; Ajukov, S. V. and (1996), "The Current State of Solar Modeling", Science, 272 (5266): 1286–1292, Bibcode:1996Sci...272.1286C, doi:10.1126/science.272.5266.1286, PMID 8662456, S2CID 35469049 Goldreich, Peter; Keeley, Douglas A. (February 1977), "Solar seismology. II - The stochastic excitation of the solar p-modes by turbulent convection", The Astrophysical Journal, 212: 243–251, Bibcode:1977ApJ...212..243G, doi:10.1086/155043 Christensen-Dalsgaard, Jørgen; Frandsen, Søren (January 1983), "Stellar 5 min oscillations", Solar Physics, 82 (1–2): 469–486, Bibcode:1983SoPh...82..469C, doi:10.1007/bf00145588, S2CID 125358311 Pesnell, W. Dean (March 1987), "A new driving mechanism for stellar pulsations", The Astrophysical Journal, 314: 598–604, Bibcode:1987ApJ...314..598P, doi:10.1086/165089 Guzik, Joyce A.; Kaye, Anthony B.; Bradley, Paul A.; Cox, Arthur N.; Neuforge, Corinne (10 October 2000), "Driving the Gravity-Mode Pulsations in γ Doradus Variables", The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 542 (1): L57–L60, Bibcode:2000ApJ...542L..57G, doi:10.1086/312908 Thompson, S. E.; Everett, M.; Mullally, F.; Barclay, T. and (2012), "A Class of Eccentric Binaries with Dynamic Tidal Distortions Discovered with Kepler", The Astrophysical Journal, 753 (1): 86, arXiv:1203.6115, Bibcode:2012ApJ...753...86T, doi:10.1088/0004-637x/753/1/86, S2CID 119203028 Grigahc\`ene, A.; Antoci, V.; Balona, L.; Catanzaro, G. and (2010), "Hybrid $ \gamma $ Doradus-$ \delta $ Scuti Pulsators: New Insights into the Physics of the Oscillations from Kepler Observations", The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 713 (2): L192–L197, arXiv:1001.0747, Bibcode:2010ApJ...713L.192G, doi:10.1088/2041-8205/713/2/L192, S2CID 56144432 Balona, L. A. (2014), "Low frequencies in Kepler $\delta$ Scuti stars", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 437 (2): 1476–1484, Bibcode:2014MNRAS.437.1476B, doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1981 Further reading Aerts, Conny; Christensen-Dalsgaard, Jørgen; Kurtz, Donald (2010). Asteroseismology. Astronomy and Astrophysics Library. Dordrecht, New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-5803-5. Christensen-Dalsgaard, Jørgen. "Lecture notes on stellar oscillations". Retrieved 5 June 2015. Pijpers, Frank P. (2006). Methods in Helio- and Asteroseismology. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-8609-4755-1. The Variable Star package (in R language) provides the main functions to analyzed patterns on the oscillation modes of variable stars. An UI for experimentation with synthetic data is also provided. Accretion Molecular cloud Bok globule Young stellar object Main sequence Red-giant branch Horizontal branch Red clump Asymptotic giant branch Spectral classification Early Late Main sequence O B A F G K M Brown dwarf WR OB Subdwarf O B Subgiant Giant Blue Red Yellow Bright giant Supergiant Blue Red Yellow Hypergiant Yellow Carbon S CN CH White dwarf Chemically peculiar Shell B[e] White dwarf Helium planet Black dwarf Neutron Radio-quiet Pulsar Binary X-ray Magnetar Stellar black hole X-ray binary Blue dwarf Green Black dwarf Exotic Stellar nucleosynthesis Symbiotic Remnant Luminous red nova Core Convection zone Microturbulence Oscillations Radiation zone Atmosphere Photosphere Starspot Chromosphere Stellar corona Stellar wind Bubble Bipolar outflow Accretion disk Asteroseismology Helioseismology Eddington luminosity Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism Star systems Contact Common envelope Eclipsing Symbiotic Multiple Cluster Open Globular Super Planetary system Solar System Sunlight Pole star Circumpolar Constellation Asterism Magnitude Apparent Extinction Photographic Radial velocity Proper motion Parallax Photometric-standard Proper names Historical Most luminous Nearest Nearest bright With exoplanets Brown dwarfs White dwarfs Milky Way novae Supernovae Candidates Remnants Planetary nebulae Timeline of stellar astronomy Related articles Substellar object Physics Encyclopedia Hellenica World - Scientific Library Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/"	<urn:uuid:dee2171d-0e4f-4a65-bedc-396f61bc255a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.12916159629821777, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.832892656326294, "url": "https://www.hellenicaworld.com/Science/Physics/en/Asteroseismology.html" }
Sancho II of Portugal, the Pious, fourth king of Portugal, born in September 8 1207 in Coimbra, was the oldest son of Afonso II of Portugal by his wife, princess Urraca of Castile. Sancho became king in 1233 and was succeeded his brother, king Afonso III in 1247. He died in his exile in Toledo in January 4 1248. By the time of his accession to the throne, in 1233, Portugal was embroiled in a difficult diplomatic conflict with the Catholic church. Afonso II, his father, had been excommunicated by Pope Honorius III, for his attempts of reducing the Church power within the country. A treaty of 10 articles was signed between the Pope and Sancho II, but the king paid little attention to its fulfilment. His priority was the Reconquista, the conquest of the southern Iberian Peninsula to the Moors. From 1236 onwards, Sancho II conquered several cities in Algarve and Alentejo, securing the Portuguese position in the region. Sancho II proved a capable commander but in the equally important administrative issues he was less competent. With his total attention focused on military campaigns, the ground was open for internal disputes. The nobility was displeased by the king's conduct and started to conspire. Moreover, the middle class of merchants quarrelled frequently with the clergy, without any intervention from the king. As a result, the archbishop of Porto made a formal complaint to the Pope about the state of the affairs. Since the Church was the super power of the 13th century, the Pope felt free to issue a bule ordering the Portuguese to choose themselves a new king to replace the so-called heretic. In 1246 recalcitrant nobles invited Sancho's brother Afonso, then living in France as Count of Boulogne, to take the throne. Afonso immediately abdicated from his French possessions and marched into Portugal. Sancho II was removed from the throne in 1247 and fled to exile in Toledo where he died in January 4 1248. Sancho married Mecia Lopez de Haro, a Castilian lady, but had no legitimate sons. See also: Kings of Portugal family tree Preceded by: D. Afonso II List of Portuguese monarchs Succeeded by: D. Afonso III	<urn:uuid:94def3fe-775d-4395-a6f6-d066ba7aaaf3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.051932573318481445, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9825069904327393, "url": "https://infomutt.com/s/sa/sancho_ii_of_portugal.html" }
Leaarn to Think Like an Archaeologist This Leaarn to Think Like an Archaeologist lesson plan also includes: Students examine how to act as archaeologists by examining artifacts. The inquiry is meant to teach learners about analysis of ancient civilizations and scientific finds. Fossil evidence is also covered to make connection to the uncovering of scientific knowledge. 3 Views 10 Downloads Classroom Considerations	<urn:uuid:560c35a0-ddfc-45f5-a095-d537d162e7cb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.48482632637023926, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9080215096473694, "url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/leaarn-to-think-like-an-archaeologist" }
Ruling the Countryside NCERT Solution Question 1: Match the following Column AColumn B (a) Ryot(1) Village (b) Mahal(2) Peasant (c) Nij cultivation(3) On ryot's land (d) Ryoti cultivation(4) On planter's own land Answer: (a) → 2, (b) → 1, (c) → 4, (d) → 3 Question 2: Fill in the blanks: 1. Growers of woad in Europe saw __________ as a crop which would provide competition to their earnings. Answer: Indigo 2. The demand for indigo increased in late eighteenth- century Britain because of __________. Answer: Increased cotton textiles production 3. The international demand for indigo was affected by the discovery of __________. Answer: Synthetic dyes 4. The Champaran movement was against __________. Answer: Indigo planters Question 3: Describe the main features of the Permanent Settlement. Answer: According to the Permanent, the rajas and taluqdars were recognized as zamindars and were given the responsibility of revenue collection from the peasants. The amount to be paid was fixed permanently and hence the name Permanent Settlement. Question 4: How was the mahalwari system different from the Permanent Settlement? Mahalwari systemPermanent settlement Village headman was responsible for revenue collectionRaja or zamindar was responsible for revenue collection Revenue demand was to be reviewed periodicallyRevenue demand was fixed and was not to be increased in future. Question 5: Give two problems which arose with the new Munro system of fixing revenue. Answer: The revenue officials wanted to increase the income from land. Hence, they fixed very high revenue demand. Peasants were not able to pay the revenue. The ryots fled the countryside and villages became deserted in many regions. Question 6: Why were ryots reluctant to grow indigo? Answer: The planters paid a very low price for indigo. The ryot was not in a position to even recover his cost, earning a profit was a far-fetched idea. This meant that the ryot was always under debt. Hence, the ryots were reluctant to grow indigo. Question 7: What were the circumstances which led to the eventual collapse of indigo production in Bengal? Answer: The ryots began to refuse to grow indigo. They were supported by the village headmen and some zamindars in their fight. The scale of protest was so much that the government had to intervene. The Indigo Commission of set up to enquire into the problems. The Commission accepted the faults of the planters and allowed the ryots to grow whatever they wished. This led to eventual collapse of indigo production in Bengal. Copyright © excellup 2014	<urn:uuid:9a07aa5c-011b-4e7d-8305-8a0ce7d21899>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.999849796295166, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9686223864555359, "url": "https://excellup.com/ClassEight/sseight/rulingcountryside_ncertSolution.aspx" }
Asked by Jaziya \| 21st Jan, 2010, 03:34: PM Expert Answer: Scientists have come up with scenarios through which the first eye-like structure, a light-sensitive pigmented spot on the skin, could have gone through changes and complexities to form the human eye, with its many parts and astounding abilities. They believe that evolution of eyes may have proceeded along the following lines: The simple light-sensitive spot on the skin of some ancestral creature gave it some tiny survival advantage, perhaps allowing it to evade a predator. Random changes then created a depression in the light-sensitive patch, a deepening pit that made "vision" a little sharper. At the same time, the pit's opening gradually narrowed, so light entered through a small aperture, like a pinhole camera. Every change had to confer a survival advantage, no matter how slight. Eventually, the light-sensitive spot evolved into a retina, the layer of cells and pigment at the back of the human eye. Over time a lens formed at the front of the eye. It could have arisen as a double-layered transparent tissue containing increasing amounts of liquid that gave it the convex curvature of the human eye. In fact, eyes corresponding to every stage in this sequence have been found in existing living species. The existence of this range of less complex light-sensitive structures supports scientists' hypotheses about how complex eyes like ours could evolve. The first animals with anything resembling an eye lived about 550 million years ago. It is estimated that only 364,000 years would have been needed for a camera-like eye to evolve from a light-sensitive patch. Answered by \| 28th Jan, 2010, 07:57: AM	<urn:uuid:da974140-bf8a-4333-9663-a6fd81d5f125>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.96875, "fasttext_score": 0.7789116501808167, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9524205327033997, "url": "https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/eyes/2x684uu" }
What Is an Example of a Static Load? By Staff WriterLast Updated Mar 29, 2020 3:31:26 AM ET An example of a static load is the weight of a roof on the posts of a house. Static loads are stationary forces or weights that do not change in position or magnitude. This is in contrast to dynamic loads, which do change position or magnitude over time. To illustrate the difference between a static load and a dynamic load, imagine a truck in the middle of a bridge. While the truck is parked, it exerts a stationary load upon the bridge via its weight. Once it begins to drive along the bridge, it becomes a dynamic load. Structures designed to handle static loads, such as the walls of a building, are not necessarily up to handling dynamic loads placed upon them; for example, the World Trade Center pancaked under the force of the dynamic loads generated by the floors it had been holding up as static loads for decades.	<urn:uuid:04c914ec-795d-48fe-b401-78255b21551a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.8982083201408386, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.935830295085907, "url": "https://www.reference.com/world-view/example-static-load-9d76a40ceac82f9f" }
Chapter: What We Can't Live Without Folsom Point "Not common to Manitoba" 8000 BCE Folsom projectile point of Texas alibates chert Folsom point-alibates chert The Folsom Point is estimated to be 10,000 years old. Between 8,000 and 10,000 BCE, the Folsom people migrated from Folsom, New Mexico. They came from along the Missouri Plateau (Coteau du Missouri), bringing with them the atlatl, an integral weapon for their survival hunting woolly mammoths. The Folsom Point in our collection is made of alibates chert from Texas, which is the most common material for Folsom Points and least common material to be found in Manitoba. The point was discovered between Whitewater Lake, which was part of Glacial Lake Souris, and the Turtle Mountains.	<urn:uuid:0ebe2610-2439-40cd-93e2-0c493a07224c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.04972970485687256, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9290285110473633, "url": "http://www.museumsmanitoba.com/150/details.php?oid=1988057-01" }
• A talk at Mount Rushmore, 4th of July 2020 • kico20 • 27.09.2020 • Englisch • 9, 10 • watch the video for the first time What kind of a video is this? Which special (US-American) day is it about? Scan me to watch the video :) optional: Take notes on what you know about that day (e.g. where is comes from and what happens on that day in the USA today). watch the video again until 2.02 What's the topic of T.'s speech? • the coronavirus in the USA • people protesting against racism • the importance of the American history • people taking down statues all over the country What's the connection to our topic in class? (You can guess here) Do the worksheet (Indigenous People's Resistance...) to find out why people were protesting. optional: Pick one of the Presidents from Mount Rushmore, and do research about their history with Native Americans. Summarize your findings in German. If you want, you can present this to the class.	<urn:uuid:cfaf4b26-2cb0-47f2-84a1-8614b9fd9d33>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.2797542214393616, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.815661609172821, "url": "https://www.tutory.de/entdecken/dokument/a-talk-at-mount-rushmore-4th-of-july-2020" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search In printing, 2-up, 3-up, or more generally N-up refers to a page layout strategy in which multiple pre-rendered pages are composited onto a single page; achieved by reduction in size, possible rotations, and subsequent arrangement in a grid pattern. The primary purpose of N-up printing is to reduce the number of pages that a printed work would otherwise require without having to re-edit, index, or flow the layout of the individual pages of an existing work.[1][2][3] N-up printing should not be confused with multiple column layout or the pre-press imposition process. The general availability of N-up printing in computerized output was stimulated with the introduction of page layout languages such as PostScript, and later PDF, which made such page compositions very easy; as exemplified by the GNU Enscript program[4] as early as 1995. The Compact Oxford English Dictionary is notable for using N-up printing as a means to physically compress the large multi-volume dictionary into a much smaller and thus more accessible work. The first Compact OED edition of 1971 used a 4-up layout (4 original pages per resulting page); while the second edition of 1991 used a 9-up format, giving a total of 18 original pages being visible when the book is opened so both the recto and verso pages are displayed. The 9-up format, especially considering each original page used a 3-column layout, required such a reduction in font size that it necessitated the use of a magnifying lens to be legible. See also[edit] 1. ^ Print multiple pages per sheet \| Acrobat, Reader "Printing multiple pages per sheet is also called n-up printing (such as 2-up or 6-up)" 2. ^ Printing Lingo: What does “Up” mean…as in 2-Up, 3-Up, Multiple-Up? 3. ^ Kodak EasyShare printer dock series 3 — User's Guide 4. ^ Rossi, Markku. "GNU Enscript". GNU Enscript home page. Retrieved 2003-03-05.	<urn:uuid:2a297765-d8e4-4702-8b59-cd73216d6472>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.09178966283798218, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8961283564567566, "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-up" }
This book takes its name from Esther, the Jewish Queen of the King of Persia, who saved her subjects from annihilation. 485 BC 1. King Ahasuerus holds a banquet and orders his enuchs to bring before him Queen Vashti so he may show her off. She refuses to come and after consulting with his wise men the king rules that the Queen must never again enter his presence. Esther 1:1-22. 2. A new Queen must be found and a Jewish girl from the tribe of Benjamin is among those to be presented to the king for him to choose. This girl is Esther who, on the death of her parents, had been adopted by Mordecai, her parent’s cousin. Mordecai uncovers a plot to kill the king and tells Esther who advises the king. He is attracted to her, she is made queen, and the plotters are hanged. Esther 2:1-23. 3. The king honours one of his officials, Haman, elevating him to a seat of honour higher than any other nobles. Mordecai refuses to bow down and honour Haman. Because of this Haman looks for a way to destroy Mordecai and all the Jewish people. Esther 3:1-15. 4. Mordecai asks Esther for help. Esther enters a period of three days of fasting and asks all the Jews to do likewise. The king can only be approached at his summons. Esther knows that she will put her life in danger if she makes a direct approach to the king. Esther 4:1-17. 5. Queen Esther approaches the king without being summoned. He is pleased with her and asks what is her request. She requests that the king and Haman should attend a banquet which she has prepared. The banquet is duly attended and the king asks Esther the purpose of the banquet "What is your petition, it will be given you". Esther asks that the king and Haman should attend yet another banquet. Esther 5:1-8. 6. Haman is angered by Mordecai’s refusal to honour him. His friends tell him to prepare a gallows and ask the king to have Mordecai hung. Esther 5:9-14. 7. That night the king cannot sleep and orders the book of chronicles to be read to him. It was found recorded that it was Mordecai who had discovered the threat to the king’s life and he had received no recognition for this service. Esther 6:1-3. 8. At that moment Haman enters to ask for Mordecai’s life. The king asks Haman what should be given to one who the king wishes to honour. Haman, thinking that he is the one who will be receiving the honour, decribes an elaborate celebration. The king agrees with Haman and tells him to carry out his suggestions without telling him that Mordecai is the one to be honoured. Esther 6:4-14. 9. At the second banquet the king again asks Esther for her petition. She asks that her life, and the life of her people, should be spared. The king asks who is the person who is endangering their lives. Haman’s plot is exposed and he is hanged on the gallows which he had prepared for Mordecai. Esther 7:1-10. 10. The king revokes Haman’s orders, puts Mordecai in charge of Haman’s estate and, gives the Jews the right to defend themselves. 8:1-17. B.C. 11. The Jews strike down their enemies including Haman’s ten sons. In commemoration of this deliverance the Jews, to this day, celebrate the annual Feast of Purim. (Some Biblical scholars have doubts regarding this being the cause of the Feast of Purim. There may have been some other cause for the traditional Feast of Purim.) Esther 9:1-32. 12. Mordecai was exalted second in rank to the king himself. Esther 10:1-3	<urn:uuid:be169638-e0d7-484a-b592-c4476166ae76>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.12100869417190552, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9728114008903503, "url": "http://religiouswriting.com/esther.htm" }
The Full Wiki More info on Alienation Office Alienation Office: Wikis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Alienation Office was a British Government body charged with regulating the 'alienation' or transfer of feudal lands without a licence from the Government. The first regulatory structure for dealing with alienation of lands was created during the reign of Henry III. The king issued an ordnance prohibiting the tenants in chief of feudal lands from alienating those lands without a proper licence from the state. The penalty for not going through the licencing system was forfeiture of the lands concerned. The next major change occurred in 1327, when the penalty for not following the licensing system was changed from forfeiture to a fine. The fine was payable to the Hanaper of the Chancery. As with many British legal and regulatory systems a gradual evolution took place to an accepted system. The penalty for alienating land without a licence became one year's revenue from that land, and the payment required for an alienation licence was one third of the value of the land to be alienated. In 1576, the Alienation Office itself was first properly established. Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester was granted a 10 year lease which covered the revenues due under the alienation of property licensing regime. The lease also covered the monies payable from 'pre-fines' that became payable during the actual process within the jurisdiction of the Court of Final Pleas. The Office developed from the structures that Dudley created during this period. Ten years later an extension of the lease was granted to Thomas Dudley and Robert Wrotte. They were acting as agents for Robert Dudley. Robert Dudley died in 1588, but the regime he created continued in place, and in 1595 it was further extended. The extension covered fines imposed for writs of entry in the process of common recovery. During the period of the English Commonwealth there was a brief gap in the office's existence. It was abolished in September 1653, but was resurrected a year later once the value of the revenue it produced was realised. More drastic change occurred in 1661. During that year feudal tenures were finally abolished. The concept of tenure in chief was removed from English law, and regulations restricting the free conveyance of land were removed. However, the Alienation Office was to continue in existence for nearly another 200 years. Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the assumption of the throne by William III and Mary II, a new derivation of the powers of control over the Alienation Office was created. From May the following year the Commissioners of the Treasury exercised control over the Office following letters patent. The letters patent were created under the Privy Seal. During the 18th century a small extension of the jurisdiction of the office took place. In 1758, post fines were dealt with by the Office. It both assessed and collected them. However, sheriffs still continued to remit a sum of equal value to the amount that post fines for their country would have been to the Exchequer. The century closed with an extensive inquiry by a House of Commons select committee into the workings and financing of the office. The pace of reform in the United Kingdom gather pace in the 1830s, and the structure of the Alienation Office did not survive that decade. In 1834, land conveyancing was reformed, with the system of fines and recoveries being abolished. That left the Alienation Office with no real function. It was consequently abolished in 1835. • Catalogue of the National Archives of the United Kingdom, record class A full description Got something to say? Make a comment. Your name Your email address	<urn:uuid:2cb70fba-e747-463c-a9d8-0b0fa73739c1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.024129509925842285, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9744220972061157, "url": "http://www.thefullwiki.org/Alienation_Office" }
(redirected from peag) Also found in: Dictionary, Thesaurus, Acronyms, Wikipedia. (wäm`pəm) [New England Algonquian,=white string of beads], beads or disks made by Native Americans from the shells of mollusks found on the eastern coast or along the larger rivers of North America, used as a medium of exchange and in jewelry. Considered sacred, it was also used in a variety of rituals. In general, wampum beads were cylindrical. They were highly prized by the Native Americans, particularly by those of the Eastern Woodlands and Plains cultural areas. On the Pacific coast, shell ornaments (especially gorgets) were also used, but wampum was principally important in trade in what is now the NE United States. Wampum was passed by trade to inland tribes. Used as a currency or shell moneyshell money, ..... Click the link for more information. , there were two varieties—the white, which is the only sort properly called wampum, and the more valuable purple, which went by a variety of names. Wampum was used for the ornamentation of such things as necklaces and collars. Wampum belts were of particular ceremonial importance because they were typically exchanged when a treaty of peace was signed. Frequently the belts had pictograph designs on them. Wampum was also used by white fur traders in their trade with the Native Americans in the early part of the 17th cent. a variety of so-called picture writing. Wampum was widespread among the Indian tribes of North America (the Iroquois, Hurons, and so forth). It consists of shells or beads strung on cords. The cords were woven into a band that was usually worn as a belt. The different colored shells had a symbolic meaning: red meant war; black, threat or hostility; and white, peace, good luck, or prosperity. Colored shells were combined with symbolic designs. For example, a red ax against a black background announced a declaration of war, and crossed dark hands on a white background meant a peace treaty. Wampum is often found with an abstract design—a geometrical decoration that also has symbolic meaning. Wampum was used for the transmission of messages from tribe to tribe, ornamentation, and sometimes currency. Diringer, D. Alfavit [Istoriia pis’mennosti]. Moscow, 1963. (Translated from English.) Istrin, V. Razvitie pis’ma. Moscow, 1961. Friedrich, J. Geschichte der Schrift. Heidelberg, 1966. Jensen, H. Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. Berlin, 1958. (formerly) money used by North American Indians, made of cylindrical shells strung or woven together, esp white shells rather than the more valuable black or purple ones	<urn:uuid:834ca026-890a-4cd5-b53c-8a356a6e44e9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.05723947286605835, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.966456413269043, "url": "http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/peag" }
Letter-Sound Dominoes Amanda Schwabauer Letter-Sound Correspondence Grade: Kindergarten Objective: Students will be able to identify the initial letter in a word based off of letter-sound correspondence. Picture/Letter Domino from fcrr.org -(Activity Master P.016.AM1a - P.016.AM1e) Colored Construction Paper *Laminator (Optional) How to create the game 1.) Go to the fcrr.org website and find the Letter Sound Domino Game. (Link can be found above) 2.) Print off the directions and dominoes. 3.) Cut out all of the dominoes and then glue onto colored construction paper. 4.) Cut out enough extra blank dominoes for all of your students. 5.) Laminate dominoes (optional) Students match initial sounds of pictures to letters while playing a domino game. 1. Scatter domino picture cards face up on a flat surface. 2. Taking turns, student one places the START domino on the table, names the picture on the other side of the domino, and says its initial sound (i.e., “lamp, /l/”). 3. Looks for a domino with the letter that corresponds to the initial sound, names it, and says its sound (i.e., “l, /l/”). Connects the two dominoes. 4. Student two names the picture on the other side of the domino (i.e., “hammer”), says its initial sound (i.e., “/h/”), and finds the domino with the corresponding letter. Names the letter and says its sound (i.e., “h, /h/”). Connects it to the domino. 5. Continue until all dominoes are connected. Variations of the Game 1.) Instead of using beginning sound dominoes you can use the final sound picture and letter dominoes. 2.) If students struggle with identifying their lower case letters then you can do this came with lowercase letter instead of uppercase letters. 3.) Instead of having students work in groups of four, you can have them work in groups of two and make sure that the students who are struggling are matched up with students who excel at letter sound correspondence. Florida Center for Reading Research. (2015). Retrieved November 1, 2015, from http://www.fcrr.org/	<urn:uuid:4bf6ecff-c69e-49a8-97df-401cc91641d0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.3125, "fasttext_score": 0.04778122901916504, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.848060667514801, "url": "https://www.smore.com/mjsq7" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Co-operation) Jump to navigation Jump to search Many animal species cooperate with each other in mutual symbiosis. One example is the ocellaris clownfish, which dwells among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The anemones provide the clownfish with protection from their predators (which cannot tolerate the stings of the sea anemone's tentacles), while the fish defend the anemones against butterflyfish (which eat anemones) Cooperation (sometimes written as co-operation) is the process of groups of organisms working or acting together for common, mutual, or some underlying benefit, as opposed to working in competition for selfish benefit.[1] Many animal and plant species cooperate both with other members of their own species and with members of other species (symbiosis or mutualism).[2] Among humans[edit] Humans cooperate for the same reasons as other animals: immediate benefit, genetic relatedness, and reciprocity, but also for particularly human reasons, such as honesty signaling (indirect reciprocity), cultural group selection, and for reasons having to do with cultural evolution.[1] Language allows humans to cooperate on a very large scale. Certain studies have suggested that fairness affects human cooperation; individuals are willing to punish at their own cost (altruistic punishment) if they believe that they are being treated unfairly.[3][4] Sanfey, et al. conducted an experiment where 19 individuals were scanned using MRI while playing an ultimatum game in the role of the responder.[4] They received offers from other human partners and from a computer partner. Responders refused unfair offers from human partners at a significantly higher rate than those from a computer partner. The experiment also suggested that altruistic punishment is associated with negative emotions that are generated in unfair situations by the anterior insula of the brain.[4] It has been observed that image scoring[clarification needed] promotes cooperative behavior in situations where direct reciprocity is unlikely.[5] In situations where reputation and status are involved, humans tend to cooperate more.[citation needed] Among other animals[edit] Cooperation is common in non-human animals. Besides cooperation with an immediate benefit for both actors, this behavior appears to occur mostly between relatives.[1] Spending time and resources assisting a related individual may at first seem destructive to the organism’s chances of survival but is actually beneficial over the long-term. Since relatives share part of their genetic make-up, enhancing each other’s chances of survival may actually increase the likelihood that the helper’s genetic traits will be passed on to future generations.[6] The cooperative pulling paradigm is an experimental design used to assess if and under which conditions animals cooperate. It involves two or more animals pulling rewards towards themselves via an apparatus they can not successfully operate alone.[7] Cooperation as a managerial behavior[edit] Yves Morieux and Peter Tollman [8] through their original work have highlighted how companies nowadays tend to generate structures and operational mechanisms that increase the organizational complexity. The reason for this is that the traditional organizational approaches based on the prevalent organizational theories (F. W. Taylor and E. Mayo) turn out to be obsolete in offering the right organizational solutions. The main concept they provide to overcome this is cooperation, thus a managerial behavior that tries to synthetize the different needs through confrontation. The thesis is that encouraging cooperative behavior reduces complexity and increases management performance. HOW4 is a platform that, through the Organizational Network Analysis, measures in an effective and objective way the level of cooperation within an organization. Some researchers assert that cooperation is more complex than this. They maintain that helpers may receive more direct, and less indirect, gains from assisting others than is commonly reported. Furthermore, they insist that cooperation may not solely be an interaction between two individuals but may be part of the broader goal of unifying populations.[9] Kin selection[edit] One specific form of cooperation in animals is kin selection, which can be defined as animals helping to rear a relative’s offspring in order to enhance their own fitness.[6][9] Different theories explaining kin selection have been proposed, including the "pay-to-stay" and "territory inheritance" hypotheses. The "pay-to-stay" theory suggests that individuals help others rear offspring in order to return the favor of the breeders allowing them to live on their land. The "territory inheritance" theory contends that individuals help in order to have improved access to breeding areas once the breeders depart. These two hypotheses both appear to be valid, at least in cichlid fish.[10] Studies conducted on red wolves support previous researchers'[9] contention that helpers obtain both immediate and long-term gains from cooperative breeding. Researchers evaluated the consequences of red wolves’ decisions to stay with their packs for extended periods of time after birth. It was found that this "delayed dispersal," while it involved helping other wolves rear their offspring, extended male wolves’ life spans. These findings suggest that kin selection may not only benefit an individual in the long-term in terms of increased fitness but in the short-term as well through enhanced chance of survival.[11] Some research even suggests that certain species provide more help to the individuals with which they are more closely related. This phenomenon is known as kin discrimination.[12] In their meta-analysis, researchers compiled data on kin selection as mediated by genetic relatedness in 18 species, including the Western bluebird, Pied kingfisher, Australian magpie, and Dwarf Mongoose. They found that different species exhibited varying degrees of kin discrimination, with the largest frequencies occurring among those who have the most to gain from cooperative interactions.[12] Cooperative systems[edit] Cooperation is a process by which the components of a system work together to achieve the global properties.[1] In other words, individual components that appear to be "selfish" and independent work together to create a highly complex, greater-than-the-sum-of-its-parts system. The phenomenon is generally known as 'emergence' and is considered an outcome of self-organization[13]. Examples: • Organisms form food chains and ecosystems. • People form families, tribes, cities and nations. Individual action on behalf of a larger system may be coerced (forced), voluntary (freely chosen), or even unintentional, and consequently individuals and groups might act in concert even though they have almost nothing in common as regards interests or goals. Examples of that can be found in market trade, military wars, families, workplaces, schools and prisons, and more generally any institution or organization of which individuals are part (out of own choice, by law, or forced).[citation needed] The prisoner's dilemma[edit] For many years, the prisoner's dilemma game pointed out that even if all members of a group would benefit if all cooperate, individual self-interest may not favor cooperation. The prisoner's dilemma codifies this problem and has been the subject of much research, both theoretical and experimental. Results from experimental economics show that humans often act more cooperatively than strict self-interest would seem to dictate. While economic experiments require subjects to make relatively abstract decisions for small stakes, evidence from natural experiments for high stakes support the claim that humans act more cooperatively than strict self-interest would dictate.[14] See also[edit] 1. ^ a b c d Lindenfors, Patrik (2017). For Whose Benefit? The Biological and Cultural Evolution of Human Cooperation. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-50873-3. 2. ^ Kohn, Alfie (1992). No Contest: The Case Against Competition. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-395-63125-6. 3. ^ Fehr, Ernst. "Altruistic punishment in humans" (PDF). Macmillan Magazines Ltd. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 20 July 2011. 4. ^ a b c Sanfey, Alan G.; et al. "The Neural Basis of Economic Decision-Making in the Ultimatum Game" (PDF). Science. Retrieved 20 July 2011. 5. ^ Wedekind, Claus. "Cooperation Through Image Scoring in Humans". Science. Retrieved 20 July 2011. 6. ^ a b Hamilton, W.D. (1964). "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour". Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1–16. 7. ^ de Waal, Frans (2016). "Are We Smart Enough To Know How Smart Animals Are?" ISBN 978-1-78378-305-2, p. 276 8. ^ "Six Simple Rules, How to manage complexity without getting Complicated", Harvard Business Review Press 2014 9. ^ a b c Clutton-Brock, T. (2002). "Breeding together: Kin selection and mutualism in cooperative vertebrates". Science, 296(5565), 69–72. doi:10.1126/science.296.5565.69 10. ^ Balshine-Earn, S., Neat, F.C., Reid, H., & Taborsky, M. (1998). "Paying to stay or paying to breed? Field evidence for direct benefits of helping behavior in a cooperatively breeding fish". Behavioral Ecology, 9(5), 432–38. 11. ^ Sparkman, A. M., Adams, J. R., Steury, T. D., Waits, L. P., & Murray, D. L. (2011). "Direct fitness benefits of delayed dispersal in the cooperatively breeding red wolf (Canis rufus)". Behavioral Ecology, 22(1), 199–205. doi:10.1093/beheco/arq194 12. ^ a b Griffin, A. S., & West, S. A. (2003). "Kin Discrimination and the Benefit of Helping in Cooperatively Breeding Vertebrates". Science, 302(5645), 634–36. doi:10.1126/science.1089402 13. ^ Mobus, G.E. & Kalton, M.C. (2015). Principles of Systems Science, Chapter 8: Emergence, Springer, New York 14. ^ van den Assem, van Dolder, and Thaler (2012). "Split or Steal? Cooperative Behavior when the Stakes are Large". SSRN 1592456Freely accessible. 15. ^ Olsen, Harrington, and Siegelmann (2010). "Conspecific Emotional Cooperation Biases Population Dynamics: A Cellular Automata Approach". 16. ^ Harrington, Olsen, and Siegelmann (2011). "Communicated Somatic Markers Benefit the Individual and the Species". External links[edit] • An Operation of Cooperation, A book about cooperation and the benefits of this path, as opposed to working alone. •, The Cooperation Project: Objectives, Accomplishments, and Proposals. Howard Rheingold's project with Institute for the Future. •, Cooperation platform for transport research (scientific) •, The Far Games, a list of games using theatrical improvisation to encourage collaboration and distributed leadership	<urn:uuid:e1561f87-965f-4c6b-9d14-6e7b6b795555>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.10564929246902466, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9059001207351685, "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-operation" }
IUCN threat status: Least Concern (LC) Comprehensive Description Read full entry Common Cattail is a wetland species that most people are familiar with. Sometimes it hybridizes with Typha angustifolia (Narrow-Leaved Cattail), producing plants with characteristics that are intermediate between these two parents. Such plants are referred to Typha × glauca (Hybrid Cattail). Because the characteristics of Common Cattail, Narrow-Leaved Cattail, and Hybrid Cattail overlap with each other, it can be difficult to identify individual plants in the field. Generally, Common Cattail is larger in size with green to greyish blue leaves that span over ½" across. Its pistillate spikes are often ¾" across or more and they can exceed 1' in length. The staminate and pistillate spikes of Common Cattail are adjacent to each other or separated by less than ½". Narrow-Leaved Cattail has slender green leaves that are ½" across or less. Its pistillate spikes are less than ¾" across and they are less than 1' in length. The staminate and pistillate spikes of Narrow-Leaved Cattail are separated from each other by more than ½" (usually by a few inches). © John Hilty Source: Illinois Wildflowers	<urn:uuid:593faa34-7582-4912-a23b-4c9169ab8873>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.01984560489654541, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9329881072044373, "url": "http://eol.org/pages/526590/overview" }
Gothic soldiers on the Missorium of Theodosius I, made in 388 AD The Mausoleum of Theodoric, a Gothic monarch, in Ravenna, Italy The Goths (Gothic: Gut-þiuda; Latin: Gothi) were an East Germanic people, two of whose branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire through the long series of Gothic Wars and in the emergence of Medieval Europe. The Goths dominated a vast area,[1] which at its peak under the Germanic king Ermanaric and his sub-king Athanaric possibly extended all the way from the Danube to the Don, and from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea.[2] The Goths spoke the Gothic language, one of the extinct East Germanic languages. It was last spoken in Crimea in the 17th century by the Crimean Goths. Götaland, south Sweden, with the island of Gotland in the east, a possible origin of the Goths; the southernmost and westernmost parts, Scania, Halland, Blekinge and Bohuslän, were originally not a part of Götaland, but were Dano-Norwegian territory until 1658. In the Gothic language of Ostrogothic Italy they were called the Gut-þiuda, most commonly translated as "Gothic people", but only attested as dative singular Gut-þiudai;[3] another name, Gutans, is inferred from a genitive plural form gutani in the Pietroassa inscription.[4] In Old Norse they were known as the Gutar or Gotar, in Latin as the Gothi, and in Greek as the Γότθοι, Gótthoi. The Goths have been referred to by many names, perhaps at least in part because they comprised many separate ethnic groups, but also because in early accounts of Indo-European and later Germanic migrations in the Migration Period in general it was common practice to use various names to refer to the same group. The Goths believed (as most modern scholars do)[5] that the various names all derived from a single prehistoric ethnonym that referred originally to a uniform culture that flourished around the middle of the first millennium BC, i.e., the original Goths. The Roman empire, under Hadrian showing the location of the Gothones East Germanic group, then inhabiting the east bank of the Visula (Vistula) river, (present Poland) Settlements before 750 BC New settlements by 500 BC New settlements by 250 BC New settlements by AD 1 The exact origin of the ancient Goths remains unknown. Evidence of them before they interacted with the Romans is limited.[6] The traditional account of the Goths' early history depends on the Ostrogoth Jordanes' Getica written c. 551 AD. Jordanes states that the earliest migrating Goths sailed from what is now Sweden to what is now Poland. If this is accurate, then they may have been the people responsible for the Wielbark archaeological complex.[citation needed] Modern academics have generally abandoned this theory. Today, the Wielbark culture is thought to have developed from earlier cultures in the same area.[7] Archaeological finds show close contacts between southern Sweden and the Baltic coastal area on the continent, and further towards the south-east, evidenced by pottery, house types and graves. Rather than a massive migration, similarities in the material cultures may be products of long-term regular contacts. However, the archaeological record could indicate that while his work is thought to be unreliable,[8] Jordanes' story was based on an oral tradition with some basis in fact.[7] The expansion of the Germanic tribes AD 1: Sometime around the 1st century AD, Germanic peoples may have migrated from Scandinavia to Gothiscandza, in present-day Poland. Early archaeological evidence in the traditional Swedish province of Östergötland suggests a general depopulation during this period.[9] However, there is no archaeological evidence for a substantial emigration from Scandinavia[10] and they may have originated in continental Europe.[11] the island of Gotland Wielbark culture in the early 3rd century Chernyakhov culture, in the early 4th century Gothic invasions in the 3rd century Upon their arrival on the Pontic Steppe, the Germanic tribes adopted the ways of the Eurasian nomads. The first Greek references to the Goths call them Scythians, since this area along the Black Sea historically had been occupied by an unrelated people of that name. The application of that designation to the Goths appears to be not ethnological but rather geographical and cultural - Greeks regarded both the ethnic Scythians and the Goths as barbarians.[12] The earliest known material culture associated with the Goths on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea is the Wielbark culture, centered on the modern region of Pomerania in northern Poland. This culture replaced the local Oxhöft or Oksywie culture in the 1st century AD, when a Scandinavian settlement developed in a buffer zone between the Oksywie culture and the Przeworsk culture.[13] The culture of this area was influenced by southern Scandinavian culture beginning as early as the late Nordic Bronze Age and early Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 1300 – c. 300 BC). In fact, the Scandinavian influence on Pomerania and today's northern Poland from c. 1300 BC (period III) and onwards was so considerable that some[who?] see the culture of the region as part of the Nordic Bronze Age culture.[14] In Eastern Europe the Goths formed part of the Chernyakhov culture of the 2nd to 5th centuries AD. Migrations and contact with Rome[] Around 160 AD, in Central Europe, the first movements of the Migration Period were occurring, as Germanic tribes began moving south-east from their ancestral lands at the mouth of River Vistula, putting pressure on the Germanic tribes from the north and east. As a result, in episodes of Gothic and Vandal warfare Germanic tribes (Rugii, Goths, Gepids, Vandals, Burgundians, and others)[15] crossed either the lower Danube or the Black Sea, and led to the Marcomannic Wars,[16] which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of what is now Italy in the Roman Empire period.[17] It has been suggested that the Goths maintained contact with southern Sweden during their migration.[18] Goths also served in the Roman military and played a limited role, e.g. Gainas. In the first attested incursion in Thrace, the Goths were mentioned as Boranoi by Zosimus, and then as Boradoi by Gregory Thaumaturgus.[12] The first incursion of the Roman Empire that can be attributed to Goths is the sack of Histria in 238. Several such raids followed in subsequent decades,[12] in particular the Battle of Abrittus in 251, led by Cniva, in which the Roman Emperor Decius was killed. At the time, there were at least two groups of Goths: the Thervingi and the Greuthungs. Goths were subsequently heavily recruited into the Roman Army to fight in the Roman-Persian Wars, notably participating at the Battle of Misiche in 242. The Moesogoths settled in Thrace and Moesia.[19] The first seaborne raids took place in three subsequent years, probably 255-257. An unsuccessful attack on Pityus was followed in the second year by another, which sacked Pityus and Trabzon and ravaged large areas in the Pontus. In the third year, a much larger force devastated large areas of Bithynia and the Propontis, including the cities of Chalcedon, Nicomedia, Nicaea, Apamea Myrlea, Cius and Bursa. By the end of the raids, the Goths had seized control over Crimea and the Bosporus and captured several cities on the Euxine coast, including Olbia and Tyras, which enabled them to engage in widespread naval activities.[20] The 3rd-century Great Ludovisi sarcophagus depicts a battle between Goths and Romans. After Gallienus was assassinated outside Milan in the summer of 268 in a plot led by high officers in his army, Claudius Gothicus was proclaimed emperor and headed to Rome to establish his rule. Claudius' immediate concerns were with the Alamanni, who had invaded Raetia and Italy. After he defeated them in the Battle of Lake Benacus, he was finally able to take care of the invasions in the Balkan provinces.[21] Learning of the approach of Claudius, the Goths first attempted to directly invade Italy.[22] They were engaged at the Battle of Naissus. It seems that Aurelian, who was in charge of all Roman cavalry during Claudius' reign, led the decisive attack in the battle. Some survivors were resettled within the empire, while others were incorporated into the Roman army. The battle ensured the survival of the Roman Empire for another two centuries. In 270, after the death of Claudius, Goths under the leadership of Cannabaudes again launched an invasion on the Roman Empire, but were defeated by Aurelian, who however surrendered Dacia beyond the Danube. Around 275 the Goths launched a last major assault on Asia Minor, where piracy by Black Sea Goths was causing great trouble in Colchis, Pontus, Cappadocia, Galatia and even Cilicia.[23] They were defeated sometime in 276 by Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus.[23] In 332, Constantine helped the Sarmatians to settle on the north banks of the Danube to defend against the Goths' attacks and thereby enforce the Roman Empire's border. Around 100,000 Goths were reportedly killed in battle, and Ariaricus, son of the King of the Goths, was captured. The Goths increasingly became soldiers in the Roman armies in the 4th Century AD, contributing to the almost complete Germanization of the Roman Army by that time.[15] The Gothic penchant for wearing skins became fashion in Constantinople, which was heavily denounced by conservatives.[24] Following a famine the Gothic War of 376–382 ensued, where the Goths and some of the local Thracians rebelled. The Roman Emperor Valens was killed at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Following the decisive Gothic victory at Adrianople, Julius, the magister militum of the Eastern Roman Empire,[12] organized a widescale massacre of Goths in Asia Minor, Syria and other parts of the Roman East.[12] Fearing rebellion, Julian lured the Goths into the confines of urban streets from which they could not escape and massacred soldiers and civilians alike.[12] As word spread, the Goths rioted throughout the region, and large numbers were killed.[12] Survivors may have settled in Phrygia.[12] Although the Huns successfully subdued many of the Goths, who joined their ranks, a group of Goths led by Fritigern fled across the Danube. Major sources for this period of Gothic history include Ammianus' Res gestae, which mentions Gothic involvement in the civil war between emperors Procopius and Valens of 365 and recounts the Gothic War (376-382). Around 375 AD the Huns overran the Alans and then the Goths. In the late fourth century, the Huns arrived from the east and invaded the region controlled by the Goths. The maximum extent of territories ruled by Theodoric the Great in 523 Visigoths and Ostrogoths[] By the 4th century, the Goths had captured Roman Dacia[25] and divided into at least two distinct groups separated by the Dniester River: the Thervingi (led by the Balti dynasty) and the Greuthungi (led by the Amali dynasty). The Goths separated into two main branches, the Visigoths, who became foederati (federates) of the Roman Empire, and the Ostrogoths, who joined the Huns. Both the Greuthungi and Thervingi became heavily Romanized during the 4th Century. This came about through trade with the Romans, as well as through Gothic membership of a military covenant, which was based in Byzantium and involved pledges of military assistance. Reportedly, 40,000 Goths were brought by Constantine to defend Constantinople in his later reign, and the Palace Guard was mostly composed of Germanic peoples since foreign troops were less likely to rebel so far from home and also had less hesitation about using deadly force on the native population. [26] The Gothic missionary Wulfila devised the Gothic alphabet to translate the Wulfila Bible and converted many of the Goths from Germanic paganism to Arian Christianity. The Goths remained divided – as Visigoths and Ostrogoths – during the 5th Century. These two tribes were among the Germanic peoples who clashed with the late Roman Empire during the Migration Period. A Visigothic force led by Alaric I sacked Rome in 410. Honorius granted the Visigoths Aquitania, where they defeated the Vandals and conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula by 475. The Huns fell upon the Thervingi, whose staunchly pagan ruler, Athanaric, sought refuge in the mountains. Meanwhile, the Arian Thervingian rebel chieftain Fritigern approached the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens in 376 with a portion of his people and asked to be allowed to settle on the south bank of the Danube. Valens permitted this, and even assisted the Goths in their crossing of the river (probably at the fortress of Durostorum).[27] The Visigoths, after the Sack of Rome (410) under Alaric I, founded a Visigothic Kingdom in Aquitaine in 418 settled as foederates under the late Roman Empire under which they defeated the Huns confederation of Eastern peoples led under Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains led by their king Theodoric I in 451. They became independent of the Empire under his son, Euric who extended their territory over most of the Iberian peninsula and Gaul. In 507, the Visigoths were pushed into Hispania by the Frankish Kingdom following the Battle of Vouillé in which the combined forces of Franks and Burgundians fell on them. They were able to retain Narbonensis and Provence after the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent by Theodoric the Great. By the late 6th century, the Visigoths had converted to Catholicism. Their kingdom fell and was progresively conquered from 711 when the Muslim Moors defeated their last kings Roderic and Ardo (ruling until 724 over Catalonia and Narbonne) during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Some nobles found refuge in the mountain areas of the East Pyrenees and Cantabrian West and founded different autonomous realms, as Gothia, Pamplona and the Kingdom of Asturias in 718, they all began later to regain control under the leadership of the Visigothic nobleman Pelagius of Asturias, whose victory at the Battle of Covadonga (c. 722) it is taken to be the earliest at the centuries-long Reconquista. It was from the Asturian kingdom that some parts of modern Spain and Portugal evolved.[28] These Goths never became completely Romanized as they became rather, 'Hispanicized'. A completely different body of Society which they were pivotal to transform, from the Late Empire provincial polity with which they merged to into the Medieval entity stratified as an aristocratic Society under a strong centralist Monarchy and even stronger Christian Church for both peoples hitherto differentiated by Laws into a new Code, albeit different from the Feudal World that will devolve into later in France and other parts of Western Europe, organized around Germanic aristocracies too. They were widespread over a very a large territory and body of population, and however isolated or separated on the first centuries by customs, laws and religion practices in this fashion progressively adopted new ones retaining little of their original culture except for practical military customs, some artistic expressions and families traditions, as heroic songs and other folklore including Germanic names still in use in present-day Spain give ample evidence.[29] In the late 6th Century Goths settled as foederati in parts of Asia Minor. Their descendants, who formed the elite Optimatoi regiment, still lived there in the early 8th Century. While they were largely assimilated, their Gothic origin was still well-known: the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor calls them Gothograeci. Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the entire Hunnic thrust into Europe and the Roman Empire was an attempt to subdue independent Goths in the west.[30] It is possible that the Hunnic attack came as a response to the Gothic eastwards expansion.[30][31][32] In the 4th century, the Greuthungian king Ermanaric became the most powerful Gothic ruler, coming to dominate a vast area of the Pontic Steppe which possibly stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea as far eastwards as the Ural Mountains.[33] Ermanaric's dominance of the Volga-Don trade routes made historian Gottfried Schramm consider his realm as a forerunner of the Viking founded state of Kievan Rus'.[34] Ermanaric later committed suicide, and the Greuthungi fell under Hunnic dominance. In 454 AD, the Ostrogoths successfully revolted against the Huns at the Battle of Nedao and their leader Theoderic the Great invaded what is now Italy in 488 and settled his people there, founding an Ostrogothic Kingdom which eventually gained control of the whole Italian peninsula. Under Theodemir, the Ostrogoths broke away from Hunnic rule following the Battle of Nedao in 454, and decisively defeated the Huns again under Valamir at Bassianae in 468. At the request of emperor Zeno, Theoderic conquered all of Italy from the Scirian Odoacer beginning in 488. The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early 6th century under Theoderic, who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom following the death of Alaric II at the Battle of Vouillé in 507. Procopius interpreted the name Visigoth as "western Goths" and the name Ostrogoth as "eastern Goth", reflecting the geographic distribution of the Gothic realms at that time. The Ostrogothic kingdom persisted until 553 under Teia, when Italy returned briefly to Byzantine control. This restoration of imperial rule was reversed by the conquest of the Lombards in 568. Shortly after Theoderic's death, the country was conquered by the Byzantine Empire in the Gothic War (535–554) that devastated and depopulated the peninsula.[35] In 552, after their leader Totila was killed at the Battle of Taginae (552), effective Ostrogothic resistance ended, and the remaining Goths in Italy were assimilated by the Lombards, another Germanic tribe, who invaded Italy and founded the Kingdom of the Lombards in 567 AD. In the late 18th century, Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea, especially in Crimea - then known as Crimean Goths - were still mentioned as existing in the region and speaking a Crimean Gothic dialect, making them the last true Goths. The language is believed to have been spoken until as late as 1945. They are believed to have been assimilated by the Crimean Tatars. An Ostrogothic eagle-shaped fibula, 500 AD, Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg Before the invasion of the Huns, the Gothic Chernyakhov culture produced jewelry, vessels, and decorative objects in a style much influenced by Greek and Roman craftsmen. They developed a polychrome style of gold work, using wrought cells or setting to encrust gemstones into their gold objects. This style was influential in West Germanic areas well into the Middle Ages. The Gothic language is the Germanic language with the earliest attestation, from the 300s, making it a language of interest in comparative linguistics. All other East Germanic languages are known, if at all, from proper names that survived in historical accounts, and from loan-words in other languages. It is known primarily from the Codex Argenteus, a translation of the Bible. The language was in decline by the mid-500s, due to the military victory of the Franks, the elimination of the Goths in Italy, and geographic isolation. In Spain the language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths converted to Catholicism in 589).[36] It is now an extinct language. Reconstruction of the 3rd century Gothic grave from Masłomęcz in the Lublin Museum. Archaeological evidence in Visigothic cemeteries shows that social stratification was analogous to that of the village of Sabbas the Goth. The majority of villagers were common peasants. Paupers were buried with funeral rites, unlike slaves. In a village of 50 to 100 people, there were four or five elite couples.[37] In Eastern Europe, houses include sunken-floored dwellings, surface dwellings, and stall-houses. The largest known settlement is the Criuleni District.[38] Chernyakhov cemeteries feature both cremation and inhumation burials; among the latter the head is to the north. Some graves were left empty. Grave goods often include pottery, bone combs, and iron tools, but hardly ever weapons.[39] Archaeology shows that the Visigoths, unlike the Ostrogoths, were predominantly farmers. They sowed wheat, barley, rye, and flax. They also raised pigs, poultry, and goats. Horses and donkeys were raised as working animals, and fed with hay. Sheep were raised for their wool, which they fashioned into clothing. Archaeology indicates they were skilled potters and blacksmiths. When peace treaties were negotiated with the Romans, the Goths demanded free trade. Imports from Rome included wine and cooking-oil.[40] Initially practising Gothic paganism, the Goths were gradually converted to Arian Christianity in the course of the 4th Century as a result of the missionary activity by the Gothic bishop Wulfila, who devised a Gothic alphabet to translate the Wulfila Bible. During the 370s, Goths converting to Christianity were subject to persecution by the remaining pagan authorities of the Thervingi people. The Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania converted to Catholicism in the 7th Century. The Ostrogoths (and their remnants, the Crimean Goths) were closely connected to the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the 5th Century, and became fully incorporated under the Metropolitanate of Gothia from the 9th Century. In Spain, the Visigothic nobleman Pelagius of Asturias who founded the Kingdom of Asturias and began the Reconquista at the Battle of Covadonga, is a national hero regarded as the country's first monarch. The Gotlanders themselves had oral traditions of a mass migration towards southern Europe, recorded in the Gutasaga. If the facts are related, this would be a unique case of a tradition that endured for more than a thousand years and that actually pre-dates most of the major splits in the Germanic language family. The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and, until the 19th Century, the Swedes were commonly considered to be the direct descendants of the Goths. Today, Swedish scholars identify this as a cultural movement called Gothicismus, which included an enthusiasm for things Old Norse. Gothic language and culture largely disappeared during the Middle Ages, although its influence continued in small ways in some western European states. As late as the 16th century a small number of people in the Crimea may still have spoken Crimean Gothic.[41] The language survived as a domestic language in the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) as late as the 8th Century, and Frankish author Walafrid Strabo wrote that it was still spoken in the lower Danube area and that Crimean Gothic was spoken in isolated mountain regions in Crimea in the early 9th century. Gothic-seeming terms found in later (post-9th century) manuscripts may not belong to the same language. In Medieval and Modern Spain, the Visigoths were believed to be the origin of the Spanish nobility (compare Gobineau for a similar French idea). By the early 7th Century, the ethnic distinction between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans had all but disappeared, but recognition of a Gothic origin, e.g. on gravestones, still survived among the nobility. The 7th Century Visigothic aristocracy saw itself as bearers of a particular Gothic consciousness and as guardians of old traditions such as Germanic namegiving; probably these traditions were on the whole restricted to the family sphere (Hispano-Roman nobles did service for Visigothic nobles already in the 5th century and the two branches of Spanish aristocracy had fully adopted similar customs two centuries later).[42] In Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands, godo was an ethnic slur used against European Spaniards, who in the early colony period often felt superior to the people born locally (criollos). In Colombia, the members of the Colombian Conservative Party were referred to as godos. The Spanish and Swedish claims of Gothic origins led to a clash at the Council of Basel in 1434. Before the assembled cardinals and delegations could engage in theological discussion, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings. The delegations from the more prominent nations argued that they should sit closest to the Pope, and there were also disputes over who were to have the finest chairs and who were to have their chairs on mats. In some cases, they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat. In this conflict, Nicolaus Ragvaldi, bishop of the Diocese of Växjö, claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of Västergötland (Westrogothia in Latin) were the Visigoths and the people of Östergötland (Ostrogothia in Latin) were the Ostrogoths. The Spanish delegation retorted that it was only the "lazy" and "unenterprising" Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the "heroic" Goths had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain.[43] Gutnish is still spoken in Gotland and Fårö. Old Gutnish was the dialect of Old Norse there. In the sagas[] Ancients who wrote about the Goths[] See also[] 1. ^ "Ostrogoth". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 16 January 2015. 2. ^ Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European peoples. New York: Facts On File. p. 575. ISBN 978-0816049646. 3. ^ Hewitt, Winfred P. Lehmann ; with bibliography prepared under the direction of Helen-Jo J. (1986). A Gothic etymological dictionary. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 163–164. ISBN 978-9004081765. 4. ^ Braune, W; Heidermanns, F (2004). Gotische Grammatik. Tübingen: Niemeyer. 5. ^ Dunlap, Herwig Wolfram ; translated by Thomas J. (1990). History of the Goths (New and completely rev. from the 2nd German ed., 1st pbk. print. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 16–56, 209–210. ISBN 978-0520069831. 6. ^ "Who Were the Ancient Goths?". Retrieved 2016-09-09. 7. ^ a b Kaliff, Anders (2001). Gothic Connections. Contacts between eastern Scandinavia and the southern Baltic coast 1000 BC – 500 AD. Uppssala: OPIA. Retrieved 7 September 2016. 8. ^ Kessler, P L. "Kingdoms of the Germanic Tribes - Goths / Ostrogoths". www.historyfiles.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-09-09. 9. ^ Oxenstierna, Eric (1945). Die Urheimat der Goten. Johann Ambrosius Barth. p. 73. 10. ^ Heather, Peter (1998). The Goths (Pbk. ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. p. 26. ISBN 978-0631209324. 11. ^ Kortlandt, Frederik (2001). "The origin of the Goths" (PDF). Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik. 55: 21–25. Retrieved 2017-11-08. ... the original homeland of the Goths must therefore be located in the southernmost part of the Germanic territories, not in Scandinavia ... 12. ^ a b c d e f g h Kulikowski, Michael (2008-05-01). Rome's Gothic Wars: From the Third Century to Alaric (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521608688. 13. ^ Kokowski, Andrzej (1999), Archäologie der Goten (in German), ISBN 978-83-907341-8-7 . 14. ^ Dabrowski, J. (1989). Nordische Kreis und Kulturen Polnischer Gebiete. Die Bronzezeit im Ostseegebiet. p. 73. 16. ^ Gibbon, Edward (1930). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Plain Label Books. ISBN 978-1-60303-405-0. 17. ^ "Germany: Ancient History". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 16 January 2015. 18. ^ Arhenius, B, Connections between Scandinavia and the East Roman Empire in the Migration Period, pp. 119, 134 , in Alcock, Leslie (1990), From the Baltic to the Black Sea: Studies in Medieval Archaeology, London: Unwin Hyman, pp. 118–37 . 19. ^ "Goth". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. 20. ^ Bowman, Garnsey & Cameron 2005, pp. 223–229 21. ^ John Bray, p.290 22. ^ Tucker 2009, p. 150 23. ^ a b Bowman, Garnsey & Cameron 2005, pp. 53–54 24. ^ a b Cameron, Long & Sherry 2013, p. 99. 25. ^ "Goth". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 16 January 2015. 26. ^ "Ancient Rome: The Reign of Constantine". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 16 January 2015. 27. ^ Kulokowski 2006, p. 130. 28. ^ "Spain: The Christian states, 711–1035". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 16 January 2015. 29. ^ Smith, Colin (1994). "Toward a Reconciliation of Ideas about Medieval Spanish Epic". The Modern Language Review. 89 (3): 622–634. JSTOR 3735120. 30. ^ a b Beckwith 2009, pp. 331–332 31. ^ Beckwith 2009, pp. 81–83 32. ^ Beckwith 2009, pp. 94–100 33. ^ Wolfram 1997, pp. 26–28 34. ^ Gottfried Schramm, Altrusslands Anfang. Historische Schlüsse aus Namen, Wörtern und Texten zum 9. und 10. Jahrhundert, Freiburg i. Br. 2002, p. 54. 35. ^ London, Jack (2007). The Human Drift. 1st World Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4218-3371-2. 36. ^ Pohl, Walter (1998). Strategies of Distinction: Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–800 (Transformation of the Roman World. pp. 119–21. ISBN 978-90-04-10846-2. . 37. ^ "Visigothic Society". Magyar Elektonikus Könyvtár. 38. ^ Heather, Peter; Matthews, John (1991). The Goths in the fourth century (Repr. ed.). Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0853234265. 39. ^ The Goths in the Fourth Century (1 ed.). Liverpool University Press. 1991-01-10. ISBN 9780853234265. 40. ^ "The Visigoths' Peasant Economy". Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár. Retrieved 17 September 2016. 41. ^ Bennett, William H (1980). An Introduction to the Gothic Language. p. 27. 42. ^ Pohl, Walter (1998). Strategies of Distinction: Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–800 (Transformation of the Roman World). pp. 124–6. ISBN 978-90-04-10846-2. . 43. ^ Söderberg, Werner. (1896). "Nicolaus Ragvaldis tal i Basel 1434", in Samlaren, pp. 187–95. 44. ^ Ambrose, On the Holy Ghost, book I, preface, paragraph 15 45. ^ Edward Gibbon judged Ammianus "an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary." (Gibbon, Edward, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 26.5). But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: "The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and disgusting accuracy." (Gibbon, Chapter 25.) Ernst Stein praised Ammianus as "the greatest literary genius that the world produced between Tacitus and Dante" (E. Stein, Geschichte des spätrömischen Reiches, Vienna 1928). 46. ^ "However, the seed and origin of all the ruin and various disasters that the wrath of Mars aroused ... we have found to be (the invasions of the Huns)",Marcellinus, Ammianus; tr. John Rolfe (1922), "2", Latin text and English translation, XXXI, Loeb ion . 47. ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Gallienii, 13.8 48. ^ Caldwell, Craig H. "Contesting late Roman Illyricum. Invasions and transformations in the Danubian-Balkan provinces" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2016. A dissertation presented to the Pricenton University in candidacy for the degree of doctor in philosophy. Quote: "The Life Of Probus like much of the rest of Historia Augusta is a more trustworthy source for its fourth-century audience then for its third-century subject"; Robert J. Edgeworthl (1992): More Fiction in the "Epitome". Steiner. Quote: "For a century it has been established to general if not universal satisfaction, that biographies in Historia Augusta, especially after Caracalla, are a tissue of fiction and fabrication layered onto a thin thread of historical fact"; this view originates with Hermann Dessau. 49. ^ The Historia Augusta mentions Scythians, Greuthungi, Tervingi, Gepids, Peucini, Celts and Heruli. Zosimus names Scythians, Heruli, Peucini and Goths. 50. ^ Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Vita Divi Claudii, 6.4 51. ^ Zosimus, 1.42 52. ^ Moorhead & Stuttard 2010, p. 56 53. ^ Eusebius, "IV.6", Vita Constantini 54. ^ Contractus, Hermannus, Chronicon , quoting of Caesarea, Eusebius, Vita Constantini, p. 263 : "Macedonia, Graecia, Pontus, Asia et aliae provinciae depopulantur per Gothos". 55. ^ Jordanes; Charles C. Mierow, Translator (1997). "The Origins and Deeds of the Goths". Calgary: J. Vanderspoel, Department of Greek, Latin and Ancient History, University of Calgary. pp. 24–96. Retrieved 26 October 2013. 56. ^ Beck, Heinrich; Geuenich, Dieter; Hoops, Johannes; Jankuhn, Herbert; Steuer, Heiko (2004), Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (in German) (2nd ed.), Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 452ff, ISBN 978-3-11-017733-6 . 58. ^ Bostock, John. "Pliny the Elder, The Natural History". 59. ^ a b Procopius. History of the Wars. Book III. II 60. ^ Tacitus, Cornelius (2008-11-14). The Works of Tacitus: The Oxford Translation, Revised, with Notes, Volume II. BiblioLife. ISBN 9780559473357. 61. ^ "The Goths". Retrieved 2016-09-09. 62. ^ Zosimus, 1.43	<urn:uuid:97b7489f-305e-4ab6-aa8f-6b23fe6d8bae>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.11165118217468262, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9315166473388672, "url": "http://en.wikibedia.ru/wiki/Goths" }
Leafhoppers may sometimes be confused with aphids or lygus bugs. Look for leafhoppers or their cast skins on the undersides of affected leaves. Look at their actions; they are faster than aphids and run sideways and jump. Lygus bug nymphs are light green and also move much faster than aphids. They can be identified by their red-tipped antennae. Aphids can be distinguished by two tubelike structures, called cornicles, protruding from the hind end. One or more long rows of spines on the hind legs of leafhoppers and characters on their head distinguish leafhoppers from most other insects they resemble. (University of California Statewide IPM Program) life cycle Leafhoppers go through incomplete metamorphosis in their development. Female leafhoppers insert tiny eggs in tender plant tissue, causing pimplelike injuries. Overwintered eggs begin to hatch in mid-April. Wingless nymphs emerge and molt four or five times before maturing in about 2 to 7 weeks. Nymphs resemble adults except that they lack wings; later-stage nymphs have small wing pads. There is no pupal stage. Leafhoppers overwinter as eggs on twigs or as adults in protected places such as bark crevices. In cold-winter climates, leafhoppers may die during winter and in spring migrate back in from warmer regions. Most species have two or more generations each year. (University of California Statewide IPM Program) Recommended controls for leafhoppers Each control will have its own set of parameters that will be best suited for individual environments. Certain controls may only be available for commercial application. Commercial farmers are required to reference their own state laws to ascertain if the recommended controls fall within compliance of their states regulatory guidelines. Beneficial Insects Biological Controls Botanical Controls	<urn:uuid:a3f729d7-18ed-41e6-a167-f693de2583dd>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.022449970245361328, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9082002639770508, "url": "http://www.chascience.com/leaf-hoppers" }
In the Shadow of the Great War Stuck in the muskeg. Photo: Land Titles Survey Authority In 1913 British Columbia commissioned two 18-month explorations to north-eastern BC, the most remote and least known region of the province. George Berry Milligan, a young talented BC land surveyor, led one small party; while E.B. Hart, a self-styled explorer with a controversial past, often worked alone. drawing a map Drawing a map in the sand. Photo: Royal BC Museum The Milligan and Hart explorations produced the first detailed maps and descriptions of the geography of the region. Their accounts showed the difficulty in travelling through the wet terrain of this area. Both men realized that fire played an important role in the ecology of the land. By the time Milligan and Hart completed their explorations in the fall of 1914, World War I had started, and the information gathered was filed away and forgotten in the shadow of the Great War. Dog Sled Team Dog sled team. Photo: Land Titles Survey Authority	<urn:uuid:20f312bb-a649-4949-bb4a-2aba4a99f173>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.031043589115142822, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8949815034866333, "url": "http://surveyingbc.ca/shdw.htm" }
Tweezers are tools used for picking up objects too small to be easily handled with the human hands. They are probably derived from tongs, pincers, or scissors-like pliers used to grab or hold hot objects since the dawn of recorded history. In a scientific or medical context they are normally referred to as forceps. Tweezers make use of two third-class levers connected at one fixed end (the fulcrum point of each lever), with the pincers at the others. Tweezers can be used for tasks such as plucking hair from the face or eyebrows, and whenever small objects have to be manipulated, including for example small, particularly surface-mount, electronic parts, and small mechanical parts for models and precision mechanisms. Stamp collectors use tweezers (stamp tongs) to handle postage stamps which, while large enough to pick up by hand, could be damaged by handling; the jaws of stamp tongs are smooth. One example of a specialised use is picking out flakes of gold in gold panning. It also used in kitchens to remove bones from fillets of fish in a process known as pin boning. Guides that use Replacing gaskets and oil seals Gaskets and oil seals should be replaced if worn or leaking, or whenever removed during servicin...	<urn:uuid:7625bde6-f3c7-4a23-a6e9-54126a4f24fa>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.5209609270095825, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9510048627853394, "url": "http://paul-ryan.info/tools/tweezers" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Variegated) Jump to navigation Jump to search Variegation of fruits and wood in Ficus carica Panascè, a bicolor (yellow-green) common fig cultivar. This Italian cultivar is a chimera Variegation is the appearance of differently coloured zones in the leaves, and sometimes the stems, of plants. Variegated leaves occur rarely in nature. Species with variegated individuals are sometimes found in the understory of tropical rainforests, and this habitat is the source of a number of variegated house plants.[1] Variegation in holly leaves Reflective variegation in Pilea cadierei. Some variegation is due to visual effects caused by reflection of light from the leaf surface. This can happen when an air layer is located just under the epidermis resulting in a white or silvery reflection. It is sometimes called blister variegation. Pilea (aluminum plant) is an example of a house plant that shows this effect. Leaves of most Cyclamen species show such patterned variegation, varying between plants, but consistent within each plant. In Nymphaea lotus, the tiger lotus, leaf variegations appear under intense illumination. Virus infections may cause patterning to appear on the leaf surface. The patterning is often characteristic of the infection. Examples are the mosaic viruses, which produce a mosaic-type effect on the leaf surface or the citrus variegation virus (CVV). Recently[when?] a virus disease, hosta virus X (HVX) has been identified that causes mottled leaf coloring in hostas. At first, diseased plants were propagated and grown for their mottled foliage, at the risk of infecting other healthy hostas.[2] While these diseases are usually serious enough that the gardener would not grow affected plants, there are a few affected plants that can survive indefinitely, and are attractive enough to be grown for ornament; e.g. some variegated Abutilon varieties. Transposable elements can cause colour variegation.[3] Defensive masquerade[edit] It has been suggested that some patterns of leaf variegation may be part of a defensive "masquerade strategy."[4] In this, leaf variegation may appear to an insect leaf miner that the leaf is already infested, and this may reduce parasitization of the leaf by leaf miners.[5] By convention, the italicised term variegata as the second part of the Latin binomial name, indicates a species found in the wild with variegation (Aloe variegata). The much more common, non-italicised, inclusion of 'Variegata' as the third element of a name indicates a variegated cultivar of an unvariegated parent (Aucuba japonica 'Variegata'). However, not all variegated plants have this Latin tag, for instance many cultivars of Pelargonium have some zonal variegation in their leaves. Other types of variegation may be indicated, e.g. Daphne odora 'Aureomarginata' has yellow edging on its leaves. Garden plants[edit] The rare rainforest plant, Cryptocarya williwilliana showing leaf venation and variegated leaves 1. ^ "Variegated Leaves". UCLA College. Archived from the original on 2016-06-15. Retrieved 9 July 2016. 2. ^ "Hosta Virus X". Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 9 July 2016. 3. ^ "Barbara McClintock and the Discovery of Jumping Genes (Transposons)". Nature. Retrieved 9 July 2016. 4. ^ Lev-Yadun, S. (2014). "Defensive masquerade by plants". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 113: 1162–1166. doi:10.1111/bij.12399. 5. ^ Walker, Matt (19 June 2009). "The plant that pretends to be ill". BBC News. Retrieved 13 April 2016.	<urn:uuid:3e1eadba-1f98-4ed4-9ec8-df97ccb755c1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.043260037899017334, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9187164902687073, "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variegated" }
1902 Encyclopedia > Samos, Asia Minor Asia Minor SAMOS, one of the principal and most fertile of the islands in the Aegean Sea that closely adjoin the mainland of Asia Minor, from which it is separated by a strait of only about a mile in width. It is about 27 miles in length, by about 14 in its greatest breadth, and is occupied throughout the greater part of its extent by a range of mountains, of which the highest summit, near its western extremity, called Mount Kerkis, attains to the height of 4725 feet. This range is in fact a continuation of that of Mount Mycale on the mainland, of which the promontory of Trogilium, immediately opposite to the city of Samos, formed the extreme point. Various mythical legends were current to account for the original settlement of the city of Samos, and to connect its founders with the Greek heroic genealogies ; but the earliest record that has any claim to an historical character is that of the occupation of the island by a colony of Ionian settlers under a leader named Procles, at the time of the great Ionian emigration to Asia Minor (about 1050 B.C.). In the historical period Samos figures as a purely Ionic city, and was one of the most in-fluential members of the Ionic confederacy. In the five centuries that intervened from its first settlement to the reign of Polycrates, Samos had rapidly attained to a great height of power and prosperity, had founded colonies at Perinthus and other places on the Propontis, as well as at Nagidus and Celenderis in Cilicia, and possessed a powerful navy, including, according to Thucydides (i. 13), the first triremes that ever were constructed. It was a Samian named Cokeus also who was the first Greek that ventured to penetrate between the Pillars of Hercules into the ocean beyond, and brought back a vast amount of wealth from these previously unknown regions (Herod., iv. 152). Samos was doubtless protected by its insular position from conquest by the Persian general Harpagus; nor did it follow the example of the two other great islands of Chios and Lesbos by voluntary submission to the Persian monarch. On the contrary, it not only preserved its independence for a period of more than twenty years longer, but it was precisely in this interval that it rose to the highest pitch of power and prosperity under the enlightened and able, though tyrannical, government of the despot POLYCRATES (q.v.). Under bis government Samos became "the first of all cities Hellenic or barbaric," and was adorned with three of the greatest public works that had ever been executed by Greeks—an aqueduct tunnelled through a mountain for a length of 7 stadia, a mole of more than 2 stadia in length for the protection of the harbour, and a temple (that of Hera) exceeding all others in size. How far these great works belong to the time of Polycrates cannot be determined with certainty; but there is little doubt that they were enlarged and com-pleted, if not commenced, under his government. He was also the first to lay claim to the sovereignty of the Aegean Sea, or thalassocraty, which at that time there was none to dispute with him. After the death of Polycrates (522 B.C.) Samos fell under the power of his brother Syloson, who established himself in the sovereignty with the support of a Persian army, but this resolution was not accomplished without a massacre of the citizens, which must have given a heavy blow to the prosperity of the island. Henceforth it continued to be tributary to Persia till the great battle of Mycale (480), which not only freed the Samians from the Persian yoke, but became the beginning of a fresh era of great prosperity, during which they, like the neighbouring Chians and Lesbians, were admitted as members of the Athenian confederacy, on free and equal terms, without payment of tribute. An abrupt termination was, however, put to this state of things in 439, when, the Samians having given offence to the Athenians, their city was besieged and taken by Pericles, who compelled them to raze their fortifications, to give up their ships of war, to furnish hostages, and to pay the expenses of the war. From this time therefore Samos became a mere dependency of Athens, and continued in this subordinate condition throughout the Peloponnesian War; but after the victory of the Spartans at Aegospotami, the city was besieged and taken by Lysander (404), and as usual an oligarchy was set up under Spartan control. Other revolutions, however, quickly followed. The victory of Conon at Cnidus in 394 restored the democracy, but the peace of Antalcidas shortly afterwards (387) placed the island under the government of a Persian satrap, and thus exposed it to the attacks of the Athenians, who sent an expedition against it under Timotheus, one of their ablest generals, who after a siege of eleven months reduced the whole island and took the capital city. A large part of the inhabitants were expelled, and their place supplied by Athenian emigrants (366). From this time we hear but little of Samos. It passed without resistance under the yoke of Alexander the Great, and retained a position of nominal autonomy under his successors, though practically dependent, sometimes on the kings of Egypt, sometimes on those of Syria. After the defeat of Antiochus the Great at the battle of Magnesia (190), it passed with the rest of Ionia to the kings of Pergamum, but, having in an evil hour espoused the cause of the pretender Aristonicus, it was deprived of its freedom, and was united with the Eoman province of Asia (129). Henceforth it .of course held only a subordinate position, but it seems to have always continued to be a flourishing and opulent city. We find it selected by Antony as the headquarters of his fleet, and the place where he spent his last winter with Cleopatra, and a few years later it became the winter quarters of Augustus (21-20), who in return restored its nominal freedom. Its autonomy, however, as in many other cases under the Roman empire, was of a very fluctuating and uncertain character, and after 70 A.D. it lapsed into the ordinary condition of a Roman provincial town. Its coins, however, attest its continued importance during more than two centuries, and it was even able to contest with Smyrna and Ephesus the proud title of the " first city of Ionia." It still figures prominently in the de-scription of the Byzantine empire by Constantine Porphyro-genitus, but little is known of it during the Middle Ages. During the Greek War of Independence Samos bore a conspicu-ous part, and it was in the strait between the island and Mount Mycale that Canaris achieved one of his most celebrated exploits by setting fire to and blowing up a Turkish frigate, in the presence of the army that had been assembled for the invasion of the island, a success that led to the abandonment of the enterprise, and Samos held its own to the very end of the war. On the conclusion of peace the island was indeed again handed over to the Turks, but since 1835 has held an exceptionally advantageous position, being in fact self-governed, though tributary to the Turkish empire, and ruled by a Greek governor nominated by the Porte, who bears the title of "Prince of Samos," but is supported and controlled by a Greek council and assembly. The prosperity of the island bears witness to the wisdom of this arrangement. It now contains a popu-lation of above 40,000 inhabitants, and its trade has rapidly in-creased. Its principal article of export is its wine, which was celebrated in ancient times, and still enjoys a high reputation in the Levant. It exports also silk, oil, raisins, and other dried fruits. The ancient capital, which bore the name of the island, was situated on the south coast, directly opposite to the promontory of Mycale, the town itself adjoining the sea and having a large artificial port, the remains of which are still visible, as are the ancient walls that surrounded the summit of a hill which rises immediately above it, and now bears the name of Astypalaea. This formed the acropolis of the ancient city, which in its flourishing times occupied a wide extent, covering the slopes of Mount Ampelus down to the shore. From thence a road led direct to the far-famed temple of Hera (Juno), which was situated close to the shore, where its site is still marked by a single column, but even that bereft of its capital. This miserable fragment, which has given to the neighbouring headland the name of Capo Colonna, is all that remains of the temple that was extolled by Herodotus as the largest he had ever seen, and which vied in splendour as well as in celebrity with that of Diana at Ephesus. But, like the Ephesian Artemis, the goddess worshipped at Samos was really a very different divinity from the one that presided over Argos and other purely Greek cities, and was unquestionably in the first instance a native Asiatic deity, who was identified, on what grounds we know not, with the Hera of the Olympic mythology. Her image, as we learn from coins, much resembled that of the Ephesian goddess, and was equally remote from any Greek conception of the beautiful and stately Hera. Though so little of the temple remains, the plan of it has been ascertained, and its dimensions found fully to verify the assertion of Herodotus, as compared with all other Greek tem-ples existing in his time, though it was afterwards surpassed by the later temple at Ephesus. The modern capital of the island was, until a recent period, at a place called Khora, about two miles from the sea, and the same distance from the site of the ancient city ; but since the change in the political condition of Samos the capital has been transferred to Vathy, situated at the head of a deep bay on the north coast, which has become the residence of the prince and the seat of government. Here a new town has grown up, well built and paved, with a con-venient harbour, and already numbers a population of 6000. Samos was celebrated in ancient times as the birth-place of Pythagoras, who, however, spent the greater part of his life at a distance from his native country. His name and figure are found on coins of the city of imperial date. It was also conspicuous in the history of art, having produced in early times a school of sculptors, commencing with Rhajeus and Theodoras, who are said to have invented the art of casting statues in bronze, and to have introduced many other technical improvements. The architect Rhaecus also, who built the temple of Hera, was a native of the island. At a later period Samos was noted for the manufacture of a particular kind of red earthenware, so much valued by the Romans for domestic purposes that specimens of it generally occur wherever there are remains of Roman settlements. All the particulars that are recorded concerning Samos in ancient times are collected by Panotka (Res Samiorum, Berlin, 1822). A full description of the island, as it existed in his time, will be found in Tournefort (Voyage du Levant, 4to, Paris, 1717), and more recent accounts in the works of Ross (Reisen auf den Griechischen Inseln, vol. ii., Stuttgart, 1843) and Guerin (Patmos et Samos, Paris, 1856). (E. H. B.) The above article was written by: E. H. Bunbury. About this EncyclopediaTop ContributorsAll ContributorsToday in History Terms of UsePrivacyContact Us © 2005-18 1902 Encyclopedia. All Rights Reserved.	<urn:uuid:1aa3d89f-f278-4bff-8d64-d0e6d2d3f033>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.025555312633514404, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.976203203201294, "url": "https://www.1902encyclopedia.com/S/SAM/samos.html" }
How The Dead Brought Death To Norway The Black Death — or simply the Plague — was shockingly devastating. It spread throughout Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia, basically unchecked, for about a decade in the mid-1300s, claiming the lives of between 30 and 60% of Europe’s population and another 33% of the population in the Middle East, and a difficult-to-estimate amount in Northern Africa. In total, the plague may have been responsible for as many as 200 million deaths. The disease is caused by a bacterium called Yersinia pestis which originated in the grasslands of Northern Africa and was carried north by rodents. Vermin infected humans as well as other vermin, and as rat and flea populations spread, so did the plague. If you were in Scandinavia, though, you were relatively safe. It’s not easy to travel from Western Europe to Norway without a plane or a ship, and planes weren’t a thing at the time in 1349. Ships were, but the Scandinavian countries knew of that plight of their neighbors and had time to prepare. Norway came up with a rather simple and not very creative plan to keep the plague from entering its shores: merchant ships were held at the dock in quarantine until they could be inspected. If the ship had signs of rat or flea infestation, it was turned away; otherwise, the crew (if in good health) and supplies were allowed to disembark as planned. Until that determination could be made, though, crew and stores were held in abeyance at the harbor. It was a great plan — until it went wrong. The problem with quarantines is that the people on board the ship need to abide by it — there’s really nothing preventing them from deciding, unilaterally, to come ashore. Sure, the host country could threaten their lives, but what if that didn’t matter to the crew? In 1349, an English ship carrying a shipment of wool ran aground near the Norwegian harbor city of Bergen, and it’s safe to say that no one on board cared about how the people of Norway would react to this obvious violation of the quarantine protocol. The reason? All the people on board were already dead. When the crew left England, everyone was in relatively good health — sick patients weren’t going to be allowed aboard. But, as io9 reported, “during its journey, crew members started dying. Attempts to quarantine the sick [in their cabins] failed. The plague took one person after another, until every last crew member died.” The Black Death had claimed the lives of the crew — but only the crew. The creatures that brought the plague onto the ship — the rats, fleas, etc. — they survived. And then, a stroke of historically bad luck hit. The “ghost ship” could have ended up basically anywhere (or even stayed at sea basically forever), but, unfortunately for Norway, it crashed into its coast. The rats got out and spread the plague throughout the country. From there, the Black Death spread into Sweden and Russia, too, leading to countless more deaths. Bonus fact: The plague came to Scotland in a more karmically-designed way. According to the BBC, when Scotland heard that England had been stricken by the disease, the Scots saw it as divine intervention: they “declared that it had befallen them through the revenging hand of God.” Following that logic, Scotland invaded England, expecting England’s defenses to be worn down from the previous battles. So Scotland marched on its neighbor to the south, and in doing so, Scotland’s soldiers were exposed to the bacteria — which they brought back with them when they retreated. From the Archives: Dying At All is Not Allowed: The place in Norway where you’re not allowed to die.	<urn:uuid:642e711f-ab47-47e7-80e2-b45287dea03c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.06322896480560303, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.979621946811676, "url": "http://nowiknow.com/how-the-dead-brought-death-to-norway/" }
The Camelopardalis Constellation The Camelopardalis Constellation. The Camelopardalis ConstellationCamelopardalis or the Giraffe constellation is a large, faint grouping of stars in the northern sky. Taken apart, the word Camelopardalis means camel (Greek kamēlos) and leopard (pardalis). The giraffe was called the “camel-leopard” because it had a long neck like a camel and a body with spots, like a leopard. The constellation was introduced in 1612 (or 1613) by Petrus Plancius. Camelopardalis is the 18th largest constellation in the night sky, occupying an area of 757 square degrees. It is located in the second quadrant of the northern hemisphere and can be seen at latitudes between +90° and -10°, right ascension 6 hours and declination 70 degrees. It is best observed during February at 9.00pm. The neighbouring constellations are Auriga, Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Draco, Lynx, Perseus, Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor. Camelopardalis belongs to the Ursa Major family of constellations, along with Boötes, Canes Venatici, Coma Berenices, Corona Borealis, Draco, Leo Minor, Lynx, Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor. The brightest stars are only of the fourth magnitude. Beta Camelopardalis is the brightest star in the constellation. It is a binary star with a yellow G-type supergiant for the primary component. It is approximately 1,000 light years distant and has an apparent magnitude of 4.03. CS Camelopardalis, the second brightest star in Camelopardalis, is also a binary. It consists of a blue-white B-type supergiant and a magnitude 8.7 star located 2.9 arc seconds away. The star is located in the reflection nebula vdB 14. CS Camelopardalis A is an Alpha Cygni type variable star, one that exhibits non-radial pulsations (which means that some portions of the star’s surface expand while others contract), with luminosity varying from magnitude 4.19 to 4.23. The star is approximately 3,000 light years distant. Sigma 1694 Camelopardalis, or Struve 1694, is a binary star composed of a white A-type subgiant with a magnitude of 5.3, 300 light years from Earth, and a spectroscopic binary that consists of two A-type main sequence stars. Struve 1694 represents the head of the giraffe. VZ Camelopardalis is an M-type red giant approximately 470 light years distant. It is a semi-regular variable star with a mean apparent magnitude of 4.92. Its luminosity varies from 4.80 to 4.96 with a period of 23.7 days. Other variable stars apart from VZ Camelopardalis are U Camelopardalis and Mira variables T Camelopardalis, X Camelopardalis, and R Camelopardalis. RU Camelopardalis is one of the brighter Type II Cepheids visible in the night sky. In 2011 a supernova was discovered in the constellation. The Camelopardalis Constellation Camelopardalis is in the part of the celestial sphere facing away from the galactic plane. Accordingly, many distant galaxies are visible within its borders. NGC 2403 is located approximately 12 million light-years from Earth with a redshift of 0.00043. It is an outlying member of the M81 Group, a group of galaxies, including M81 and M82, located in the constellation Ursa Major. The group lies within the Virgo Supercluster. NGC 2403 was the first galaxy discovered beyond our local group that contained known Cepheid variables. Two supernovae were also reported in the galaxy in the last century: SN 1954J and SN 2004dj. It is classified as being between an elliptical and a spiral galaxy because it has faint arms and a large central bulge. NGC 2403 was first discovered by the 18th-century astronomer William Herschel. It has an integrated magnitude of 8.0 and is approximately 0.25° long. NGC 1502 is a magnitude 6.9 open cluster about 3,000 light years from Earth. It has about 45 bright members and features a double star of magnitude 7.0 at its centre called Struve 485. NGC 1502 is also associated with Kemble’s Cascade. Kemble’s Cascade is an asterism formed by more than 20 stars between magnitude 5 and 10 that form a straight line in the sky. The line stretches over a distance of five moon diameters and ends at an open star cluster, NGC 1502. The asterism was named after Father Lucian J. Kemble, a Franciscan Friar who discovered it and wrote a letter to Walter Scott Houston describing the sight as “a beautiful cascade of faint stars tumbling from the northwest down to the open cluster NGC 1502.” Houston named the asterism Kemble’s Cascade in his “Deep Sky Wonders” column in Sky and Telescope in 1980. NGC 2366 is an irregular galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 11.4 The galaxy contains a star-forming region, NGC 2363. NGC 1569 is a dwarf irregular galaxy with an apparent magnitude of 11.9. It is approximately 11 million light years distant. The galaxy is notable for the two superstar clusters which it contains. Both clusters have had star-forming activity but, while one cluster (located in the northwest region of the galaxy) mostly contains young stars, ones formed less than 5 million years ago, but also some older red stars, the other cluster (located near the galaxy’s centre) contains mostly old stars; red giants and supergiants. IC 342 is one of the brightest two galaxies in the IC 342/Maffei Group of galaxies. IC 342 is another intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellation Camelopardalis. It has an apparent magnitude of 9.1 and is approximately 10.7 million light years distant. The galaxy was discovered in 1895 by the British astronomer William Frederick Denning. IC 342 lies close to the galactic equator and is obscured by a lot of interstellar dust, which makes it a difficult object to observe. MS0735.6+7421 is a galaxy cluster with a redshift of 0.216, located 2.6 billion light-years from Earth. It is unique for its intracluster medium, which emits X-rays at a very high rate. This galaxy cluster features two cavities 600,000 light-years in diameter, caused by its central supermassive black hole, which emits jets of matter. MS0735.6+7421 is one of the largest and most distant examples of this phenomenon. Tombaugh 5 is a fairly dim open cluster in Camelopardalis. It has an overall magnitude of 8.4 and is located 5,800 light-years from Earth. It is a Shapley class c and Trumpler class III 1 r cluster, meaning that it is irregularly shaped and appears loose. It has more than 100 stars which do not vary widely in brightness, mostly being of the 15th and 16th magnitude. The annual May meteor shower Camelopardalids from comet 2009P/LINEAR have a radiant in Camelopardalis. Meteor Activity Outlook for November 25-December 1, 2017: During this period the moon will reach its first quarter phase on Sunday, November 26th. At this time the half-illuminated moon will lie 90 degrees east of the sun and will set near 2300 (11 pm) local standard time (LST). The moon will interfere with evening observing but will set before the more active morning hours arrive. Toward the end of this period, the waxing gibbous moon will remain in the sky most of the night, obscuring all but the brighter meteors. Credit: Constellation Guide, Wikipedia.	<urn:uuid:104b1691-8cc7-4b7b-b5c0-23ef0afca9e3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.3955281972885132, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8931823968887329, "url": "https://www.livingcoramdeo.com/2017/12/01/the-camelopardalis-constellation/" }
Baby gorilla Aylwyn Scally “Mountain gorillas are among the most intensively studied primates in the wild, but this is the first in-depth, whole-genome analysis,” says Dr Chris Tyler-Smith from the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. “Three years on from sequencing the gorilla reference genome, we can now compare the genomes of all gorilla populations, including the critically endangered mountain gorilla, and begin to understand their similarities and differences, and the genetic impact of inbreeding.” The number of mountain gorillas living in the Virunga volcanic mountain range on the borders of Rwanda, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo plummeted to approximately 253 in 1981 as a result of habitat destruction and hunting. Since then, conservation efforts led by the Rwanda Development Board and conservation organizations such as the Gorilla Doctors, and supported by tourists keen to see the gorillas, have bolstered numbers to approximately 480 among the Virunga population. Researchers interested to learn how such a small gene pool would affect the mountain gorillas were surprised to find that many harmful genetic variations had been removed from the population through inbreeding, and that mountain gorillas are genetically adapting to surviving in small populations. “This new understanding of genetic diversity and demographic history among gorilla populations provides us with valuable insight into how apes and humans, their closely related cousins, adapt genetically to living in small populations,” says Dr Aylwyn Scally, from the Department of Genetics at the University of Cambridge. “In these data we can observe the process by which genomes are purged of severely deleterious mutations by a small population size.” Using blood samples collected over several years by the Rwanda Development Board, The Institut Congolese pour la Conservation du Nature and by Gorilla Doctors, which treats wild gorillas injured by snares, researchers were able to sequence the whole genomes of seven mountain gorillas for the first time. Previously, only easily obtainable but poor-quality DNA from faecal and hair samples have been analysed at a handful of regions of the genome. Scientists discovered that these mountain gorillas, along with eastern lowland gorillas, their closely related neighbours, were two to three times less genetically diverse than gorillas from larger groups in western regions of central Africa. While there are concerns that this low level of genetic diversity may make the mountain gorillas more vulnerable to environmental change and to disease, including cross-infectious strains of human viruses, the inbreeding has, in some ways, been genetically beneficial. Fewer harmful ‘loss-of-function’ variants were found in the mountain gorilla population than in the more numerous western gorilla populations: these variants stop genes from working and can cause serious, often fatal, health conditions. By analysing the variations in each genome, the researchers also discovered that mountain gorillas have survived in small numbers for thousands of years. Using recently-developed methods, the researchers were able to determine how the size of the population has changed over the past million years. According to their calculations, the average population of mountain gorillas has numbered in the hundreds for many thousands of years; far longer than previously thought. “We worried that the dramatic decline in the 1980s would be catastrophic for mountain gorillas in the long term, but our genetic analyses suggest that gorillas have been coping with small population sizes for thousands of years,” says Dr Yali Xue from the Sanger Institute. “While comparable levels of inbreeding contributed to the extinction of our relatives the Neanderthals, mountain gorillas may be more resilient. There is no reason why they should not flourish for thousands of years to come.” Support for the research came from organisations including the Royal Society, the Wellcome Trust and the National Institutes of Health. Xue Y, Prado-Martinez J, Sudmant PH, et al. (2015). Mountain gorilla genomes reveal the impact of long-term population decline and inbreeding. Science. 9 April 2015 Creative Commons License	<urn:uuid:1e90b54f-4181-4329-b290-f775e919dd9a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.03125, "fasttext_score": 0.036312639713287354, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9372150897979736, "url": "https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/mountain-gorilla-genome-study-provides-optimism-about-population-numbers" }
2 Architecture and Symbolism Many anthropological studies of the built environment have explored how architecture exists as a non-verbal expression of culturally shared mental structures and processes (Lawrence and Low 1990; Rapoport 1969; 1982). This is certainly true of circumpolar architecture, as ethnographic and archaeological data indicate that houses were drenched in meaning, and existed as metaphors for both human bodies and important sea mammals. Among the Yupik of the North Pacific, the domestic dwelling symbolised a woman's womb, in which raw materials and food were transformed into finished products (Fienup-Riordan 1994). In the Yupik worldview, the entrances of houses became portals through which hunters accessed the hunted, and the living contacted the dead. Similarly in North Alaskan myths and stories, houses appear to have 'stood for' whales, and entrance passages and roof vents (kataks) were seen as transitional spaces where supernatural events frequently occurred (Lowenstein 1992; 1993). In many cases, the ideological dimensions of these houses appear to have been tied to the use of whalebone as a construction material. This is evident in several myths that are sufficiently widespread across the Arctic to suggest that their origins lie in a common ancestral (Thule) base (Sheppard 1998). In one story, a young woman is abducted by a whale that makes a house for her out of his own bones at the bottom of the sea. In a second related story, Raven flies into the jaws of a surfacing whale. Inside he finds a brightly lit iglu where a young woman sits on a sleeping platform tending a lamp: 'The woman greets the Raven and warns him not to touch her lamp. Now and then the woman disappears and then returns. Raven asks her why she is so restless. "Life", she answers, "life and breathing". The next time the woman leaves, Raven goes out and the young woman falls dead in the iglu. In the darkness the Raven starts to suffocate and lose his feathers. The young woman was the whale's soul. She had left the iglu each time the whale breathed. The lamp was the whale's heart. Raven eventually escapes and floats with the whale and feeds on its skin. When a skin boat paddles near, Raven transforms himself into a man and cries out to the crew. "I killed the whale!" Thus, he became a great man among the people" (Lowenstein 1993, 41). In this myth, the idea of 'house' as metaphor for 'whale' is reflected in the strong associations that exist between women, dwellings, and whaling. By taking on the personae of the whale's soul inside her house, the wife of the whaling captain (umialiq, plural umialit) played an essential role in the whale hunt. During the hunt, a woman would loosen her clothing and sit or lie motionless on the sleeping platform in the house until her husband and his crew had successfully killed a whale. Because the woman represented the whale's soul, it was believed that her inactivity made the whale easier to kill (Lantis 1938, 445-51; Lowenstein 1993, 38-55; Spencer 1959, 338). Furthermore, it was thought that the house in which she waited 'became' the whale itself, thereby playing out the myth of the Raven and the Whale in real life (Patton 1996, 125). Specific architectural features constructed from whalebone, such as entrance passages and kataks (roof vents), were also perceived by historic North Alaskan whaling societies as having ideological significance (Lowenstein 1993, 45). In many of these stories, objects lost at sea miraculously re-appear within the passage, items thrown into the tunnel are later found inside landed whales, and drowned men are lured back from the sea bed through the houses katak (Lowenstein 1993; 143, Patton 1996, 24). The suggestion here is that entrance tunnels and kataks were transitional boundaries that separated land from sea, birth from death, and danger from safety (Lowenstein 1993, 43). It was through the entrance tunnel and katak that women, serving as spiritual midwives, enticed living harpooned whales during the spring hunt. In the process, their domestic dwellings were transformed into enlivened and animate whale-bearing iglus (Lowenstein 1993, 42). Lowenstein (1993) likens this to the practice of tupitkaq, in which Inupiat shamans would gather the parts of dead animals and birds and assemble them into fantastic creatures that were animated and sent off on missions. To the Inupiat of north Alaska, the entrance tunnels and kataks constructed from whalebone represented ready-made tupitkaq creatures that could be re-animated and used for various purposes. In one story, shamans attach two sharpened whale jaws to the katak of a house. Then, in deadly competition, two hunters leap repeatedly in and out of the dwelling until one is sliced in two (Lowenstein 1993, 43). In another, a man is tempted into a house by a woman with a toothed vagina. In order to hinder his escape, the woman causes the entrance tunnel to palpitate (Lowenstein 1993, 43). The possibility that many of these ideological concepts may have been expressed in Thule whalebone architecture is an intriguing one, yet few archaeologists have explored this fascinating possibility. Using a sample of Thule house ruins from Somerset Island, Nunavut, Patton (1996) has searched for examples of symbolism by comparing how specific whale elements were used in the main rooms and entrance tunnels of dwellings. Results demonstrate that the entrance tunnels of certain houses made greater use of mandibles and maxillae in what appears to have been a non-utilitarian fashion. Patton has interpreted this as an archaeological expression of the whale cult in Thule society, or as a manifestation of the socioeconomic status of the occupants (Patton 1996, 103). Patton's interpretations are based on historic accounts of entrance passages from North Alaska. Unlike the rest of the dwelling, which was built from driftwood, these architectural features were built with whalebone so that they would convey a symbolic association with the mouth of a whale. We would argue that using whalebone as a primary building material in driftwood-poor regions of the Canadian Arctic may have resulted in the expansion of this metaphor to include the entire house. Consequently, the differential representation of whalebone in entrance passages versus main rooms might not be telling the whole story. Instead, symbols may have been expressed in ways that were less obvious and perhaps lay hidden within the roof frame itself. For example, the excavation of a ceremonial structure called a karigi (plural karyit) from the north Alaskan site of Utqiagvik revealed that a number of unique ritual items had been deliberately placed in locations which, following the completion of the karigi, would not have been visible to the occupants (Sheehan 1997, 149-53). These items included bird wings, a baleen toboggan, bowhead whale cervical and caudal vertebrae, and composite animals (walrus and bear limbs arranged into a single animal). Sheehan points out that from an occupant's perspective, these buried features were intertwined and hidden within the buildings visible parts (Sheehan 1997, 150). This suggests that some ideological concepts may not have been overtly expressed in Thule whalebone architecture. Instead, their presence and meanings may have been hidden and only selectively revealed to inhabitants. We were interested in exploring the possibility that this might have been achieved through the manipulation and control of sensory information. © Internet Archaeology/Author(s) University of York legal statements \| Terms and Conditions \| File last updated: Wed Sept 27 2005	<urn:uuid:3a179f2a-40d6-4deb-87a0-6a6ffd954168>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.06786400079727173, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9627033472061157, "url": "http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue18/1/2.html" }
Derby was a Danish stronghold in 917. The line of the Medieval defences remain uncertain but are recorded in Medieval documents. There may have been a Saxon village on the site of Derby after the Romans left. However the Danes founded the town of Derby about 873 AD after they invaded England. They created a fortified settlement at Derby. It was an easy place to fortify. To the east the river Derwent protected it. To the east [sic west is meant] and south a tributary of the Derwent protected Derby. All the Danes had to do was to fortify the northern approach between the two rivers. They dug a ditch and erected an earth bank with a wooden palisade on top. (Lambert) During remediation works in March 2007 the remains of a large ditch feature were identified. The fill of the ditch, locally more than 2m in depth, produced a range of medieval pottery. Preliminary analysis suggests the lower fill levels date to the 12th century. It is possible that this is the northern medieval town ditch for which there are 13th century documentary references. If correct, this is the first secure sighting of the town ditch and is important in understanding the layout of medieval Derby. (Derbyshire HER ref. Kinsley; Myers) Lambert statement was unsupported by evidence but he was not unreasonable in expecting the main artificial line of defences to be to the north of the medieval town. A line near King Street is not unreasonable.	<urn:uuid:69f8192e-5aed-4be4-8b87-89d64178628b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.020630359649658203, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9721473455429077, "url": "https://kedlestonderby.wordpress.com/2010/12/03/derbys-town-defences/" }
Home Page Animals including Humans In Spring 2 and Summer 1, we looked at animals including humans. We discussed and investigated the following questions: • What bones make up a human skeleton? • What are the similarities and differences between the skeletons of humans and animals? • What are the skeleton types? • How do muscles attached to my bones create movement? • Why is exercise important for my body? • What are the food groups and why is a balanced diet important? • How are nutrients, water and oxygen transported within animals and humans? Take a look at some of our work. Picture 1 Picture 2 Picture 3 Picture 4 Picture 5 Picture 6 Picture 7 Picture 8 Picture 9 Picture 10 Picture 11 Picture 12 Picture 13	<urn:uuid:c139a1b1-c97a-4457-9dd3-052c19e3bc76>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.9997908473014832, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9039459824562073, "url": "http://www.oversealprimary.co.uk/animals-including-humans-1/" }
Chag haShavuot Links to More Shavuot Pages Shavuot Shiurim Shavuot Humor Shavuot Song: "Stay Up All Night" Future Guarantors Here's a challenging Shavuot quiz This quiz has some tougher questions Interesting and Unusual Shavuot Facts • Shavuot has several different names in the Bible. In Exodus 34:22 and Deuteronomy 16:10 it is referred to as Chag ha-Shavuot, “Feast of Weeks,” one of the harvest festivals on which pilgrims brought offerings to the Temple in Jerusalem. In Numbers 28:26 it is called Yom ha-Bikkurim or “Day of the First Fruits”; Shavuot was a celebration of the harvest of the first fruits of late spring, and dates, figs, grapes, pomegranates, and olives, in addition to wheat and barley, were brought to the Temple by worshipers. In Exodus 23:16 Shavuot is called Chag ha-Katzir, meaning the “Harvest Feast”; Shavuot occurred at the beginning of the wheat harvest, while the barley harvest was commemorated at Passover; in biblical Israel the month of Sivan signaled the end of spring and the beginning of summer. The wheat-harvest aspect of Shavuot was observed by bringing to the Temple an offering of bread loaves baked from the new grain harvest. The pilgrims who came to Jerusalem would gather and celebrate the festival joyously. In modern times this agricultural event is celebrated in Israel’s kibbutzim with dancing and singing. The commandment to celebrate this holiday is found in Leviticus 23:15-21. • In the Talmud Shavuot is known as “Atzeret,” “a festive assembly” of all the people. We know this word from another holiday, Shemimi Atzeret (see Num. 29:35), where its meaning seems to be “remain with Me [God] for another day.” This implies that “atzeret” represents a completion or a final part of a festival; thus Shavuot could be seen as the conclusion of the festival of Pesach just as Shemini Atzeret is the conclusion of the festival of Sukkot. • Unlike other holidays, Shavuot does not begin at sundown. Since the mitzvah to count the Omer is to count a full 49 days, Shavuot does not officially begin until three stars are visible in the night sky—well after sundown. The Shavuot kiddush is not recited till certain nightfall. • Also unlike the other holidays mentioned in the Bible, Shavuot is not given a specific date for its celebration. Before the calendar became mathematically determined, the beginning of each month was established by observation, making the length of the months somewhat variable. Since there are two new moons between Passover and Shavuot, this variability could result in Shavuot falling on either the 5th or 6th of Sivan. • The Torah states the following about Shavuot’s observance: Shiv’ah shavu’ot tispor-lach mehachel chermesh bakamah tachel lispor shiv’ah shavu’ot, “Then count seven weeks for yourself—from the time that you first put the sickle to the standing grain, you must count seven weeks” (Deut. 16:9). But this statement is not terribly useful in setting the date; it’s ambiguous at best. When exactly do you start to count? Leviticus 23:15 attempts to define the start of counting by stating, Usfartem lachem mimochorat hashabbat miyom havi’achem et-omer hatnufah sheva shabbatot tmimot tihyeynah, “You shall count for yourself from the full day following the holiday when you brought the omer as a wave offering [this is Pesach], seven complete weeks they shall be.” Here “shabbat” is translated into its root meaning, “complete” or “perfect,” but it could also mean “Shabbat” itself, so the observance of Shavuot could have actually been based upon counting Shabbatot and not weeks! The Sadducees understood the term “shabbat” in these verses as a proper noun, i.e., that "shabbat" only referred to Saturday, the seventh day, so for them, the day of the first fruits of the grain harvest always fell on the day following a Shabbat, meaning Shavuot would also only fall on a Sunday. The Pharisees, however, properly interpreted “shabbat” as meaning a "time of rest" (c.f. Lev. 25:4 where the entire sabbatical year, shemitah, is called a shabbat), and for them the "time of rest" referred to the previously mentioned festival of Pesach (b. Menachot 95b). Under their view, Shavuot always fell on the 6th of Sivan, the 50th day after the first day of Pesach. During rabbinic times, the Pharisees’ view became the accepted practice. • In biblical times, Shavuot was a major holiday: one of the Shalosh Regalim, the three pilgrimage, or “walking,” holidays (along with Sukkot and Pesach). This holiday has completely changed in character from its biblical purpose and description, more so than any other holiday: the Bible describes Shavuot as being an agricultural holiday whose purpose was for the people to visit the Temple bringing the first of the season’s crops. Agriculture was the basis of the economy, so tithes of agricultural produce were central to the religious observance. No description exists of how Shavuot was observed before the Babylonian exile, but a description does exist in the Mishnah of how Jews celebrated it in the days of the Second Temple. “Those who lived near [Jerusalem] brought fresh figs and grapes, but those from a distance brought dried figs and raisins [fresh fruit would spoil during a long trip]. An ox with horns bedecked with gold and with an olive-branch crown on its head led the way. The flute was played before them until they were nigh to Jerusalem; and when they arrived close to Jerusalem they sent messengers in advance, and ornamentally arrayed their bikkurim [first fruits]. The governors and chiefs and treasurers [of the Temple] went out to meet them. According to the rank of the entrants used they to go forth. All the skilled artisans of Jerusalem would stand up before them and greet them, ‘Brethren, men of such and such a place, we are delighted to welcome you….’” —b. Bikkurim 3 After the destruction of the Temple, the observance of Shavuot—marked by bringing the first fruits of the harvest to the Temple—was no longer possible, so the Rabbis sought to give the holiday a new purpose. Shavuot was the only holiday that the Bible did not associate with any historical or profound religious experience. The Rabbis, in seeking a historical basis for the holiday, noted how the Torah linked Pesach, the Omer counting, and Mount Sinai. Based on Exodus 19:1, which reads, “In the third month after the children of Israel had gone forth out of the land of Egypt, on the same day they came into the wilderness of Sinai,” and using some creative calculations, the sages linked Shavuot to Pesach, and thus Shavuot became the anniversary of the Giving of the Law at Mount Sinai. For the authors of the Babylonian Talmud (Pesachim 68b), Shavuot became Z’man Matan Torateinu, “The Season of the Giving of Our Law.” • Unlike all of the other holidays, there are no special mitzvot associated with Shavuot other than the bringing of the two bread loaves, symbolizing the first fruits of the wheat harvest. • The Rabbis did not write a Talmud tractate for Shavuot as they did for all the other holidays, such as Pesachim for Pesach, Succah for Sukkot, Yoma for Yom Kippur, and others. • At Shavuot it is customary to decorate the synagogue with greenery. Tradition maintains that Mount Sinai, despite being in the wilderness of the Sinai desert, was verdant, which is implied by the verse in Exodus 34:3, “...neither let the flocks nor herds graze.” Then the mountain miraculously flowered and bloomed in honor of the giving of the Law. Another tradition specifically links roses with the giving of the Law; Esther 8:14 states “And the decree [or law] was proclaimed in Shushan.” This verse was reinterpreted to infer that the Law was given with a rose, or shoshan in Hebrew. The custom of decorating synagogues with greenery, including flowers, on Shavuot is mentioned in many halakhic works and possibly dates at least to the time of the second Temple. According to the Mishnah (Bikkurim 3:3), oxen leading the processions bringing the first fruits to the Temple wore wreaths of olive branches entwined on their horns. Because of this tradition, Shavuot is known to Persian Jews as the “Feast of the Flowers,” and to Italian Jews as the “Feast of the Roses.” • All Jewish holidays are intimately associated with food, and Shavuot is no exception. Eating dairy foods is customary on this holiday—cheese blintzes, cheese kreplach, and cheesecake are popular. Where did this food association come from? It’s a long shot, but one possibility can be found in the term har gavnunim, “many-peaked mountain,” found in Psalm 68:16. The Hebrew word gevinah means “cheese,” so some commentators immediately linked Mount Sinai to cheese (Shemot Rabbah 2:4), and the association stuck. Another possible source is the idea that the Israelites who received the Torah at Sinai were like little babies, being introduced to the Torah’s wonders for the first time. Just as the first food of newborns is milk, legend has it that Jews, in commemorating the Law-giving at Sinai, should eat only dairy foods. Yet another explanation for Shavuot’s dairy custom arose from allusion to the verse in the Song of Songs (4:11) that “knowledge of the Torah is like milk and honey under the tongue.” This verse also gave rise to the custom of serving at each meal two challot that are sweet and baked with honey. There are yet other explanations, but one truly interesting one may be characterized as a “kashrut malfunction.” Before the giving of the Torah, the Children of Israel did not follow the laws of kashrut—those laws were unknown. Then on the day of the Law-giving, the first Shavuot, they learned that their utensils were not kosher and thus unfit for use. Since they found themselves without kosher meats or utensils to prepare kosher meats, the Israelites were forced to eat only uncooked dairy foods, since it’s much simpler to kasher utensils that have only been used with foods that haven’t been cooked (Shulchan Aruch, Mishnah Berurah 494:12–14). Yemenite Jews, however, believe otherwise. In their tradition, Abraham knew and followed all 613 mitzvot, and transmitted this knowledge to his children. The Yemenites believe that the Jews of the exodus did have kosher meats and utensils, so the custom of eating dairy on Shavuot never became adopted. Apart from these fanciful reasons for the custom of eating dairy foods, there is one compelling one that might account for this custom. Spring festivals of many ancient societies were based upon dairy products, since the spring was the time for the birth of many agricultural animals such as cattle and goats which were the principal sources of milk products like cheese, curds, and yogurt. These spring festivals were common elements of the societies of the ancient middle east, including those of Canaan. According to Theodor Gaster, the prohibition against cooking a kid in its mother's milk found in the Torah is twice linked with the commandment of the Shavuot first-fruits sacrifice (Theodor Gaster, Thespis: Ritual, Myth and Drama in the Ancient Near East, Anchor Books, 1961). It's possible that such a ritual was practiced by the Canaanites, and its rejection by the Israelites led to their eating only dairy foods at the first-fruits festival. • Jewish tradition maintains that God chose to give the Torah to Israel in the wilderness rather than in the Land of Israel. Why? According to a midrash in Mekhilta deRabbi Ishmael The Torah was given in public, openly in a free place. For had the Torah been given in the land of Israel, the Israelites could have said to the nations of the world: “You have no share in it.” But now that it was given in the wilderness publicly and openly in a place that is free to all, everyone wishing to accept it could come and accept it (Midrash on Ex. 19:2). Why was the Torah not given in the Land of Israel? In order that the nations of the world should not have the excuse for saying, “Because it was given in Israel’s land, therefore we have not accepted it.” Another reason: to avoid dissension among the tribes. Else one might have said, “In my territory the Torah was given.” And the other might have said, “In my territory the Torah was given.” Therefore, the Torah was given in the desert, publicly and openly, in a place belonging to no one. was to demonstrate that the Torah was intended for the whole world, not just the Jews, since the wilderness was not owned by any one nation (Midrash on Ex. 20:2). • Tradition maintains that King David was born and died on Shavuot. In the Book of Ruth, which is read on this holiday, we learn that Ruth was an ancestor of David. Also, Ruth, as a convert to Judaism, accepted the Law of the Torah voluntarily, just as the Children of Israel did at Mount Sinai. Thus there is a link between the spring harvest, which is the major theme of the Book of Ruth, the Giving of the Law, and Shavuot. • Exodus states that when Moses came down from the mountain after receiving the Torah the second time, his face shone. The word used in the Torah to describe this is koran, from the Hebrew root keren, meaning “to shine.” Another meaning for keren is “horn,” which is how early Christian translations of the Bible rendered the term. This is why, when Michaelangelo made his sculpture of Moses, he showed Moses with horns on his forehead. • In a charming custom of pre-modern European Jewish communities, teaching Torah to children began on Shavuot. The children were taken to the synagogue at daybreak, where they were taught to recognize the letters of a Hebrew verse written on a slate, a verse they had been taught to say as soon as they could speak. One such verse was, “Torah tzivah lanu Moshe,” “Moses commanded us the Torah.” The teacher would name each letter and the child would repeat the letter. As the child mastered each letter, it was marked with a drop of honey, which the child then licked off. • The Sephardim practice an unusual ritual for Shavuot. After the ark is first opened on Shavuot morning, congregants read a ketubah (marriage contract) between God, the groom, and Israel, the bride. In the text of the ketubah God invites the bride to His palace and promises to bind Himself to her forever. The bride replies, “Na’aseh v’nishmah,” “We will do and we will listen.” These are the identical words that were said at Mount Sinai by the Children of Israel. And the groom’s gift to the bride is given—the Torah and the oral law. • According to a Jewish legend, at exactly midnight on Shavuot, the heavens open for an instant and God will respond favorably to any prayer that is spoken then. According to one commentator, it’s likely that this story was told to keep children—not to mention sleepy adults—awake and alert during the night’s study session. The origin of the midnight time for prayer and study lies in Psalm 119:62: “At midnight I will rise to give thanks unto thee.” This psalm is attributed to David, who, according to the Talmud (b. Sukkah 29b), was a notorious insomniac, being satisfied with only “sixty breaths of sleep.” • In the Zohar, Judaism’s major mystical work, there is a passage that praises those who stay awake all night in anticipation of receiving the Torah. Why did this custom arise in the first place? A midrash relates that God revealed the Law at Mount Sinai at noon, but the Children of Israel had overslept and Moses had to rouse them. This gave rise to the custom of staying awake all night as a way of atoning for their failure to be awake and alert when God appeared. The Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria of Safed), a major figure in Jewish mysticism, emphasized the importance of prayer and meditation late at night. The custom of saying the tikkun chatzot, “midnight service” had existed for many centuries; the custom had grown out of talmudic practice. By the time of the Ari, the prayer sessions had become divided into two parts: tikkun Rachel, said at night and tikkun Leah, said early in the morning (yes, both prayers were named after Jacob’s wives). Prayer at these times was said to connect the individual with the daily creations of light and darkness. Joseph Karo, author of the Shulchan Arukh, is credited being one of the creators, in Salonica in 1533, of the all-night study session on the eve of Shavuot, called tikkun leil Shavuot (“service for Shavuot night”). Karo moved to Safed in 1536 and introduced the tikkun leil Shavuot to the kabbalists of the town. Fortunately, coffee had been introduced in Safed several years earlier, in 1528. It appears that the availability of coffee greatly facilitated all-night study; people who had participated in tikkun Rachel and tikkun Leah could now spend the entire night in study. Elliott Horowitz (Department of Jewish History, Bar-Ilan University) provides us with a fascinating reconstruction about the development of late-night and all-night rituals as opposed to early morning rituals in 17th–18th century Jewish mystical circles. Coffee arrived in Venice in 1615. The first public coffee house opened there in 1640. In 1655, for the first time, Italian Jews accepted the tikkun leil Shavuot ritual. Horowitz notes that during the next thirty years no less than five editions of tikkun leil Shavuot texts were published in Venice. Similar events occurred in other areas of Europe coinciding with the rise of coffeehouses. In Worms, the Jewish community was charged with supplying coffee specifically for Shavuot night. It seems that coffee thus facilitated greater participation in a ritual that demanded wakefulness through the night. [Horowitz, Elliott, “Coffee, Coffeehouses and the Nocturnal Rituals of Early Modern Jewry,” Association for Jewish Studies Review 14:1 (Spring 1989) 17-46] • Shavuot never begins on Shabbat, but the second day of the holiday can fall on Shabbat (in the diaspora). This leads to two interesting facts: first, the haftarah for the second day, taken from the third chapter of Habakkuk, is never read in Israel, and it is the least frequent haftarah read on Shabbat, since Shavuot II seldom falls on Shabbat. Also, the Torah reading on Shavuot II Shabbat is taken from Deuteronomy 14–16, but in Israel the normal parashah is read, since Shavuot is only one day there. (Reform congregations also only celebrate one day of Shavuot.) This means that the Torah readings in Israel and the diaspora will be out of step until the next double portion is reached, which happens with Chukkat-Balak. (Shavuot II is not the only diaspora holiday that can cause the readings to get out of sync—it also happens in years when the eighth day of Pesach falls on Shabbat, and the same solution is employed, but using a different double portion.) Reform Jews of North America handle the problem of getting their Torah readings out of step with other denominations in the diaspora by splitting Naso into two parts. Since it's a long parashah, it's easily divided into two. Doing this puts the North American Reform community back into step with the rest of the diaspora by the week following Shavuot, while European liberal communities continue to follow the same Torah-reading schedule as Israel. • According to the midrash (Shemot Rabbah 2, Bamidbar Rabbah 1, and Shir Hashirim Rabbah 8), Mount Sinai has eight names, as follows: 1. Har Sinai: from the word sineh, “bush,” referring to the burning bush. Also, Sinai is related to the word sinah, “hatred” or “rejection.” God rejected the angels by giving the Torah to human beings instead of to the angels. 2. Har ha-Elohim: “God’s Mountain,” because the Torah was revealed there to the Jewish people. 3. Beit Imi: “My Mother’s House.” By accepting the Torah, the Jews were born as a nation. 4. Har Choreb: from the word cherev, “sword.” The Torah empowers special Torah courts, called sanhedrin, with authority to try capital cases. 5. Har Chemed: “Desirable Mountain.” God chose Mount Sinai as the place from which to give the most desirable of His treasures, the Torah. 6. Har Bashan: from the word shen, “tooth.” Sustenance and blessing come to the world in the merit of Torah study and observance. Just as teeth prepare the food for digestion, so too the Torah brings nourishment to the world. 7. Har Gavnonim: from the word gevina, “cheese.” Cheese is a metaphor for purity, probably because it’s made from pure white milk. 8. Har Moriah: “Mountain of Teaching,” where God taught Moses the Torah. Contents copyright © 2015 S.R. Return home	<urn:uuid:a1722e0d-5f1b-45fb-814e-59a69bbfb855>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.03292363882064819, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9638509154319763, "url": "http://kehillatisrael.net/chagim/shavuot/index.html" }
Why Did the Schlieffen Plan Fail? The German Schlieffen Plan was devised by Alfred von Schlieffen for Germany to defeat France in World War One. It was a single strategic objective which, is objective. However, if you fail to attain it, you lose. When the Plan failed, Germany was set up for failure and left without supplies. This is the main reason for surrendering.	<urn:uuid:d715a697-c57b-476f-b5a9-0fdcf7fccc87>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.9850600361824036, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9734096527099609, "url": "http://www.internetdict.com/answers/why-did-the-schlieffen-plan-fail.html" }
Imagine the Universe! Imagine Home \| Teachers' Corner \| In the list below you will find terms commonly associated with the study of gamma-ray bursts. Beside each term you will find instructions. Follow the instructions to form a not-necessarily-scientific anagram of the designated term. You may change the order of the letters in the newly formed word. Here is an example: ray (add a d) - yard. 1. light (add a c) 2. energy (add a c) 3. burst (drop a b) 4. emit (add a s) 5. space (add a r) 6. swift (drop the w) 7. Sun (add a b) 8. radio (drop the i) 9. wave (add an e) 10. gamma (drop the g) 11. wave (drop the v) 12. bright (drop the g) 13. radio (drop the o) 14. emit (drop the I) 15. sky (add an e) Back Index Next Download a pdf version. The Imagine Team Project Leader: Dr. Barbara Mattson Curator: Meredith Gibb Responsible NASA Official: Phil Newman This page last updated: Wednesday, 06-Sep-2006 14:45:26 EDT	<urn:uuid:1c8f261c-8ba5-4e52-a750-4fa0ad08db45>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.918614387512207, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7713540196418762, "url": "http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/gammaraybursts/starchild/page17.html" }
Copyright Notice Jacksonian Democrats During antebellum America, the Jacksonian *** were created. This was a group that viewed themselves as protectors of the common people. A powerful executive whose goal * to destroy aris*cracy in *merica, Andrew Jackson, ruled the Jacksonian Democrats. (Schlesinger) Strangely, this * w* not made up of * * people. The Jacksonian Democrats were a wealthy gro* that supported equality between white men, enacted radical economic policies, and disregarded any capabilities of the federal government. Many say * the group was * the introducers * democracy in America but rather users of the system for their own benefit. During the early 1800's, * United States was growing at a rapid pace. A market revolution took place as cash-crop agriculture * capitalist manufacturing re*d the artisan economy. However, this prosperity cre*ed a split between the industrializing, urban north, agrarian, rural South, and the expanding West. The *s passed the Tariff * 1828, creating opportunities for western agriculture and New England manufacturing. (Latner) But this tariff crushed the South. ****** Jackson and * Jacksonians felt that the U.S. bank placed too much control in the hands of a selected, rich group. So J*ckson vetoed the bank's recharter * 1832, in an attempt to * the poorer, blue-collar workers. Federal money was then placed * "pet" state banks. * believed that this veto would increase the economic equality of the * States. Jackson believed that the bank was monopolistic, therefore unconstitutional, even though the bank was declared constitutional in 1819. (Sellers) In Jackson's opinion, this monopoly would favor the wealthy citizens and be detrimental to * poorer citizens. Therefore, the bank was not allowing for * equality. The effect was destabilizing * the national currency. It decreased specie in markets and displayed favoritism * Jacksonian policies. This effort failed * ultimately spred inflation, which * Treasury Act * 1840 could * stop. ****** tried to assist whites through economic policies but was not successful. Jacksonian Democrats *lieved * they * defending the common man * many * ended up seeing them as an inefficient and corr*t group. Their *s * further reform movements wound up decreasing * opportunity. While * supported * rights * individuality, they were also strong nationalists. * example, in the Nullification Crisis, Jackson threatened to use force against the nullifiers. In addition, he issued a proclamation, which prevented *uth Carolina from nullifying federal tariffs. Jackson went against state rights by doing this. (Latner) * demonstrates how Jackson took his powers of presidency beyond what was allotted to him in * Constitution. The *ians justified t* ac*ion by say*g that the * called for a single nation and * a le*gue of states as South Carolina * *. *, the Jacksonians felt he w* defending the Constitution. * strived to preserve * unifying principles that the Constitution contained, but acted in contempt of it when they asserted the overwhelming power of * executive branch. Jacksonian democracy did allow more people *** vote than ever before and made government Purchase a full, non-asterisked paper below \| Order a unique, customized paper 100% Complete, University Essays & Thesis Papers to Buy © 2001–2013 \| Term Paper about Jacksonian Democrats During Antebellum America, the Jacksonian Democrats Were Created. \| Essay Writing	<urn:uuid:806307b3-6303-4051-b6e2-013cbc1ca553>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.1411750316619873, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9356666803359985, "url": "http://www.essaytown.com/paper/jacksonian-democrats-antebellum-america-jacksonian-democrats-created-8144" }
Focus on Treaties for Native American Heritage Month Teaser Image "Tuscarora" comes from Skaroo'ren, "hemp gatherers," their self-designation and possibly the name of one of the constituent tribes or villages. In the 16th century, the Tuscarora were living near Cape Hatteras on the Roanoake, Neuse, Tar, and Pamlico Rivers, in North Carolina. The Tuscarora spoke an Iroquoian language that changed markedly following the northward migration. The Tuscarora believed that after death the immortal soul traveled to a western paradise. There were a number of planting and harvest festivals. The "tribe" was a collection of autonomous villages, each with its own chief, or headman, and council. The office of chief may or may not have been hereditary. Women served in some political capacity. Ultimate political authority was vested in the people and the council. The Tuscarora were at first represented by the Oneida in the Iroquois League's annual council. There were eight matrilineal clans in New York. Women nominated the clan chiefs. For five or six weeks, once in their lives, older children were secluded in a cabin and tortured with hunger and emetic plants. The people may have played a mathematical reed game, in which high-stakes gambling figured prominently. A great deal of ceremony was associated with the burial of men, the degree of ritual and expense being related to a person's social standing. Curing methods included shaking gourd rattles, sucking blood and fluids, and using snakes. Curers also used many herbal and plant medicines. The cures were often quite effective, and early non-Native observers noted that these Natives were generally much healthier than were the colonists and other Europeans. Some villages were palisaded, at least in the early historical period. A village might have hundreds of houses; the average early 18th-century village population was around 400. A village consisted of several hamlets, or cabins near an open ceremonial area surrounded by fields. People who lived in "the country" had more distant neighbors. Corn was the staple food, north and south. People also grew beans and squash. Women gathered wild fruits, nuts, berries, and roots. Men hunted game, including deer, bear, beaver, otter, rabbit, cougar, opossum, raccoon, partridge, pheasant, geese, and ducks. Seafood also played an important dietary role. Bows were carved from black locust wood whenever possible. Animal bones were used as hoes. Men made bowls, dishes, spoons, and utensils from tulip, gum, and other wood. Women made pottery and wove baskets of bark and hemp as well as mats of rush and cane. Men wore hand-tanned breechclouts; women wore a wraparound skirt and a tunic. Both were made from Spanish moss or softened tree bark. Outerwear consisted of turkey feather, fur, or deerskin mantles. Men, especially among the wealthy, wore copper bracelets and other ornaments. Both men and women painted their bodies extensively. The Tuscarora were very active traders, at least in the early to mid-17th century. Their arts included carved wooden items, woven mats and baskets, and pottery. The people navigated rivers and marshes in cypress log canoes. The Tuscarora people came originally from the north, perhaps around the Saint Lawrence Valley–Great Lakes region. They may have moved southward as late as around 1400. In the 16th century, and for some time thereafter, they were the dominant tribe in eastern North Carolina, despite losing upward of 80% of their population to European diseases during the 17th and early 18th centuries. Their somewhat inland location kept them from extensive contact with non-Native settlers until the mid-17th century. The Tuscarora were traditionally friendly to the British settlers, even to the point of helping them fight other Native groups. Active involvement in the deer-skin, rum, and slave trade led to a growing factionalism within the tribe, which was the most intense in villages closest to trade centers. Involvement with rum also contributed significantly to a general decline of the people. Throughout the 17th and into the 18th centuries, non-Natives regularly took advantage of Native generosity, taking their best lands, cheating them in trade, and stealing their children for slaves. War between the two groups broke out in 1711. It was largely a reaction to years of British abuse and to continuing population loss due to disease. Led by Chief Hancock, the Tuscarora raided settlements and killed perhaps 200 British, who took their revenge as they could. Some Tuscarora villages remained neutral because of especially pro-British contact and sympathies; the "neutral" and "hostile" camps each had their Native allies from other tribes. Freed African Americans played a significant role in the construction of European-style forts among the Natives. The conflict soon became a general war, with some tribes, such as the Coree and Pamlico, fighting with the Tuscarora and others, mainly Algonquin, fighting with the Carolina militias. In 1713, as a result of a betrayal by Tuscarora leader Tom Blount, Carolina soldiers killed or captured almost 1,000 Tuscarora. Many of the captives were sold into slavery. Most survivors migrated to New York to live among their Iroquoian-speaking relatives. Those who did not join the initial exodus lived for some additional years on the Susquehannah and Juniata Rivers, and some neutrals continued to live for a time in North Carolina. Virtually all Tuscarora had left by 1802. In 1722 or 1723, under the sponsorship of the Oneida, the Tuscarora were formally admitted into the Iroquois League, although their chiefs were not made official sachem chiefs. The former southerners soon adopted much of northern Iroquois culture. With the Oneida, most Tuscarora remained neutral or sided with the colonists in the American Revolution, although the rest of the league supported the British. The Seneca and a non-Native land company donated land to the Tuscarora consisting of three square miles near Niagara Falls. The tribe purchased over 4,000 acres in 1804. It also received over $3,000 from the North Carolina legislature from the sale of Tuscarora land in that state. Most Tuscarora had become farmers and Christians by the end of the 19th century. Meanwhile, those loyal to Britain in the war settled in Oshweken, Ontario, on the Six Nations Reserve. The Tuscarora rejected the Indian Reorganization Act in the 1930s. In the 1950s, the government proposed that a massive reservoir be built on their land. The Natives' refusal to sell led to many protests and a court battle. Although they ultimately lost, and the reservoir was constructed, the process contributed significantly to their own, as well as other tribes', sense of empowerment and national identity. Barry M. Pritzker Further Reading Debo, Angie. A History of the Indians of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970; Iverson, Peter. "We Are Still Here": American Indians in the Twentieth Century. Arlington Heights, IL: Davidson, 1998; Power, Susan C. Early Art of the Southeastern Indians: Feathered Serpents and Winged Beings. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004; Rawls, James. Chief Red Fox is Dead: A History of Native Americans in the Twentieth Century. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishing, 1996. ©2011 ABC-CLIO. All rights reserved. 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Entamoeba histolytica (amoebiasis/amoebic dysentery) Entamoeba histolytica trophozoite in the stool. Entamoeba is a facultative anaerobic protist that forms trophozoites as well as cysts. The life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica involves trophozoites that live in the host's large intestine and cysts that are passed in the host's feces. Humans are infected by ingesting cysts, most often via food or water contaminated with human fecal material. The trophozoites can destroy the tissues that line the host's large intestine, so of the amoeba infecting the human gastrointestinal tract, E. histolytica is potentially the most pathogenic. In most infected humans the symptoms of "amoebiasis" are intermittent and mild (various gastrointestinal upsets, including colitis and diarrhea). In more severe cases the gastrointestinal tract hemorrhages, resulting in dysentery. In some cases the trophozoites will enter the circulatory system and infect other organs, most often the liver (hepatic amoebiasis), or they may penetrate the gastrointestnal tract resulting in acute peritonitis; such cases are often fatal. As with most of the amoeba, infections of E. histolytica are often diganosed by demonstrating cysts or trophozoites in a stool sample. Visit the Entamoeba home page	<urn:uuid:535ef1b0-1474-43ae-8922-d19838f8977c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.34065377712249756, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8881450295448303, "url": "http://www.icp.ucl.ac.be/~opperd/parasites/enta.htm" }
Understanding Tinnitus Tinnitus is defined as the perception of sound in the absence of an external sound source. It is commonly known as a head noise, ear noise, ringing in the ears. About 15% of people experience tinnitus symptoms. Tinnitus is a noise that lasts at least 5 minutes. Shorter episodes of ear noise that goes away are considered normal and experienced by most of people.Tinnitus sounds are described in many various ways: crickets, wind, dripping water, buzz of fluorescent lights, pulsating tones, hissing, buzzing or ringing in the ear. The intensity of tinnitus varies and can change over time: from “a background noise heard in quiet”, to “so loud that is heard over external sounds”. Causes of Tinnitus There are many different theories to explain what causes tinnitus – however it is still considered one of the big mysteries of the human ear. High exposure to noise increases the risk of developing tinnitus. For example loud environments like concerts, music festivals and night clubs, or listening to personal music players at high volume. Anxiety, fast pace of living or stress can also cause tinnitus problems. “Ear noise” itself is not a disease, but can be a symptom of other health problems of both psychological or physical background. It is often associated with hearing loss. Tinnitus Treatment Tinnitus Treatment The diagnosis of tinnitus requires a comprehensive medical examination, covering a review of medical history, physical check-up and audiological evaluation, including tinnitus assessment tests. The first step towards relief from tinnitus is visiting a General Practitioner (GP). An ENT (Ear, Nose and Throat Specialist) consultation may also be required. Currently there is no approved drug specifically to cure tinnitus. Most of treatment options concentrate on relieving the symptoms and making the tinnitus less distressing. Common methods are based on enriching the sound environment, via hearing aid fitting or providing additional sound sources (noise generators, sound libraries), that direct attention away from tinnitus. These are typically complemented by some form of counselling. Therapies may also incorporate educational elements like relaxation techniques and psychological therapy, or alternative treatment such as acupuncture. Hyperacusis is defined as an over-sensitivity to sound and is often associated with tinnitus. Everyday sounds that are considered normal to most people would be unpleasant to a person with hyperacusis. Treatment of hyperacusis is focused on rebuilding sound`s tolerance, through listening to soft sounds and increasing the volume overtime. Tinnitus and Hearing Loss Tinnitus and Hearing Loss 85% of patients with tinnitus have a hearing loss. Fitting hearing aids improves communication and reduces listening effort and can also provide relief from tinnitus. Tinnitus Products Essential tools to support the chosen tinnitus management approach. Phonak Audéo Q Phonak Audéo Q - Hearing Aid with Tinnitus Balance Delivers state-of-the-art performance in an ultra-discreet form factor. Every Audéo Q model includes a “built-in” feature designed to reduce the annoyance of your tinnitus especially in quiet environments. Tinnitus Balance App A smartphone application that gives you access to a library of sounds and music that you can use to manage your tinnitus. Download iPhone App Download Android App Find a hearing care professional	<urn:uuid:cc674549-42c5-45ba-8e55-9c52ca1cf2ff>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.08882701396942139, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9115959405899048, "url": "http://www.phonak.com/com/b2c/en/hearing/tinnitus.html" }
In the early 1970s, neoliberalist thought rose in response to persistent recessions that Keynesian economics seemed to be unable to resolve. Typified by the work of Milton Friedman and the Chicago School, neoliberalism argued that over-involvement of the state in the economy was the primary constraint on the efficient operation of the market. Neoliberals insisted that the market was superior to any form of government intervention in ensuring the best use of resources for the well-being of humanity as a whole. Therefore, the role of the state should be limited to providing an environment in which the market can operate effectively by protecting property rights; enforcing contractual obligations; allowing resources, including labor, to move easily; and providing basic safety and security for its people. 1. Home 2. Understanding Socialism 3. Socialism in Crisis 4. Neoliberalism Visit other sites:	<urn:uuid:b4efcc12-2b18-48fc-85f2-6e9d314b9dc1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.7771886587142944, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9430443048477173, "url": "http://www.netplaces.com/understanding-socialism/chapter-20/neoliberalism.htm" }
Knowledge Representation Updated on Dec 23, 2009 Knowledge representation refers to how knowledge is stored in long-term memory. Researchers have been keenly interested in this topic for over 50 years and a number of models of knowledge representation have been developed (Miyaki & Shah, 1999). There are four main families of models that are of interest to researchers. These include network, production, dual coding, and connectionist models. Each model is summarized below, compared to other models, and briefly discussed regarding its contributions to understanding learning in the classroom. Network models of knowledge representation became popular in the 1960s. Early models focused on the hierarchical representation of declarative knowledge in memory and the relationship between different knowledge units (Quillian, 1968; Collins & Quillian, 1969). Network models possess three major components, including nodes in which a specific unit of information is stored, properties of information within nodes, and relational links among nodes. This can be explained by reference to the domain of animals. Subsumed within this domain are different types of animals such as birds, fish, and mammals. Network models envisioned each of these categories as nodes, while each node possessed a number of essential properties. The “animal” node included properties such as “breathes, eats, has skin.” The “bird” node included properties such as “has wings, has feathers, and flies” whereas the “fish” node included different properties such as “has fins, has gills, and swims.” Network models emphasized parsimony in mental representation; thus, properties included in a superordinate node were not replicated at a subordinate node. Because birds and fish are both animals, it was not necessary to include the property “has skin” because this property was included already in the “animal” node. Quillian (1968) proposed five different kinds of relational links between nodes, including superordinate and subordinate, modifier, disjunctive, conjunctive, and residual links. These links specified whether properties of one node were shared with another node. For example, the fact that all animals have skin is a superordinate link that is true of all other links subsumed beneath it unless otherwise noted as a disjunctive link. Network models based on the notion of nodes, properties, and links helped explain how people remember information in an efficient manner and why it is relatively easy to search memory and make simple judgments, such as whether a canary eats and has skin. The search process of memory was explained by the concept of spreading activation of attention among nodes. Some concepts activated particular nodes and activation would spread to adjacent nodes. For example, the word “camel” would activate the “mammal” node and all properties of mammals would be activated, whereas properties of distance nodes such as fish would not be activated. Thus, activation spread through memory both vertically and horizontally. Activation spread vertically in an upward (i.e., camel to mammal) or downward (i.e., camel to dromedary). Activation also spread horizontally (i.e., camel to horse, camel to mule). Activation typically spreads further in a horizontal versus vertical direction, although activation is constrained in part by the situational demands of learning. The idea that memory is organized into nodes of specific information that are interrelated to other nodes has been a lasting idea. Almost all other models of knowledge representation incorporate the idea of node, although what a node includes varies from model to model. The assumption that nodes have properties and are linked in a manner that indicates the type of relationship between nodes has not fared as well. Early network models provided a useful description of how declarative knowledge was represented in long-term memory, but they failed to explain the construction and representation of procedural and self-regulatory knowledge. Network models also paved the way for the development of schema theory in the 1970s, which spawned hundreds of practical experiments about the effect of schemata on learning and memory. In recent years, a new class of network models has appeared that focuses on higher order processes such as complex problem solving, creativity, and metacognition (Griffiths, Steyvers & Tenenbaum, 2007). These models frequently describe excitatory and inhibitory processes similar to those described in connectionist models. This new breed of semantic network models often provides a better account of complex mental processes, such as understanding the overall gist of text or conversation. Production models of knowledge representation and learning were first developed in the 1970s. One goal of these models was to explain a broader array of memory phenomena such as procedural learning, in addition to the representation of declarative knowledge. The most comprehensive production model is the ACT-R model (Adaptive Character of Thought, Revised) by John Anderson (1996, 2000). Anderson's model developed from the human associative learning (HAM) model proposed by Anderson and Bower (1973). ACT-R proposes three interactive memory systems that support adaptive thinking, including declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and working memory. The declarative knowledge component consists of schemata and chunks within schemata that encode specific declarative knowledge units. The procedural knowledge component consists of production rules that break down complex action sequences into a number of “if-then” steps, which enable the learner to perform complex actions using a series of simple steps. Declarative and procedural components are connected to each other, as well as a working memory system in which activated declarative and procedural units are used to solve problems, make decisions, and adapt to environmental conditions. ACT-R differs from earlier network models in that it proposes production rules, which are combined into production systems, which enable the brain to represent complex actions. A production rule specifies the action to be taken to achieve a specific goal and the conditions under which each action is taken. For example, imagine that a person has a ring of five keys and needs to open an office door. This scenario can be represented as a simple production as follows: IF a person must open a door, THEN he or she must insert key one and open the door; IF key one fails to open the door THEN the person must insert key two, and so on. This production rule could be subdivided further into finer grained production rules that specify how to use each key until the correct key is identified, or none of the keys open the door. In addition, conditions could be added to each substep in the production sequence to assist the learner. For instance, one might add a condition statement, instructing the person not to attempt to use long, narrow keys with square heads because these keys often open car doors rather than office doors. Anderson states that complex cognitive activity can be understood and explained in terms of small productions, based on simple units of declarative and procedural knowledge. This suggests that learning is a systematic process of acquiring declarative and procedural knowledge through experience and using this knowledge under specific conditions to execute complex actions, which themselves are comprised of many small productions. The theory of ACT-R also discusses how individuals construct and infer new knowledge based on past experiences. Thus, the theory is not entirely experience driven. Nevertheless, ACT-R views learning as a systematic process of acquiring the right knowledge and using that knowledge under the right conditions. Using knowledge repeatedly (i.e., practicing) increases the speed and accuracy of productions. Tuning productions to varying conditions also increases the efficiency of learning and performance. Like network models, ACT-R postulates a process of spreading activation among declarative and procedural knowledge units during the execution of production sequences. Anderson (1996) provides sophisticated weighting systems, which serve as algorithms for which production rules to apply under particular conditions. Activation spreads among production rules as a function of conditions and weights, which highlight some rules and downplay others. Activation is not necessarily hierarchical from superordinate to subordinate nodes, as is often the case in network models. Thus, production systems tend to be less hierarchical than networks. Production system models have two clear advantages over earlier network models. First, they incorporate procedural knowledge into the model and explain how procedural and declarative knowledge are interrelated through working memory. Second, they do an excellent job of explaining incremental skill acquisition and the development of expertise. Production systems have been used to create and model intelligent tutoring systems that might take the place of human tutors. One potential criticism is that production systems are highly mechanistic; that is, they postulate that learning and performance is the sum and nothing more than the sum of a sequence of discrete productions. Related to this criticism is the fact that production systems highlight the role of experience and direct leaning and downplay rational reflection and the role of discovery and creativity. Dual coding theory (DCT) was first postulated by Alan Pavio in the early 1970s and continues to be an important model of processing and knowledge representation in long-term memory (Pavio, 2007). DCT postulates two separate modular stores in long-term memory that include visual-spatial and verbal representation systems. Both systems are assumed to be functionally separate, yet interconnected. This means that visual-spatial and verbal long-term memories can perform tasks independent of one another, yet are able to pool resources when necessary. A number of researchers have speculated that dual-coding systems may be reflected in neurological differences between the brain's right and left hemispheres (Pavio, 2007). DCT also postulates that some learners may have a visual-spatial or verbal preference for information processing. DCT hypothesizes different representational systems for each of the two codes. The visual-spatial system uses mental images as the primary representational code, while the verbal system uses speech as the primary code. DCT assumes that every object and concept has a verbal label in verbal memory, whereas not every object or concept has an imaginal label in visual-spatial memory. Specifically, some concepts such as “automobiles” have concrete referents, while some concepts such as “affection” do not. DCT refers to this distinction as concrete versus abstract concepts. The most important assertion of DCT is that concrete concepts may be easier to process and learn because mental activity can be distributed across the two stores (Reed, 2006; Sadoski, 2005). Thus, a word such as “cat” can be represented separately in each storage system, whereas a word such as “truth” presumably is represented only in the verbal system. Two implications follow from this assumption. One is that information that is concrete in nature or that can be visualized will be better learned (Sadoski, Goetz, & Rodriguez, 2000). This has led to a great deal of research on the use of mnemonic techniques. A second implication is that visual information such as pictures in a book, summary tables, graphs, charts, and other visual aids should facilitate learning (Schnotz, 2002). Research findings generally support the two-store model proposed by dual coding theory. DCT seems to be especially useful as an explanation of beginning reading processes such as vocabulary learning. It also explains why words are easier to learn in context as well as in the presence of visual aids such as pictures. In contrast, the theory does not explain well how congenitally blind individuals learn or how students create integrated visual-verbal representations in memory. Connectionist models of knowledge representation and learning became popular in the 1980s and sometimes are referred to as neural networks or parallel distributed processing (PDP) models (Neath & Suprenant, 2003). Con-nectionist models represent an important paradigm shift from network and production system models because they de-emphasize the intentional role of the learner, while emphasizing the role of experience in building neural pathways and connections, as well as assumptions about cognitive architecture (Bechtel & Abrahamsen, 2002). Although a great deal of attention has been devoted to connectionist models the past 20 years, especially the seminal work of Rumelhart and McClelland (1986), their origin can be traced to earlier researchers such as Selfridge (1959). Connectionist models differ from network and production models in two ways. The first difference is that previous cognitive models used a computer metaphor to describe human information processing. In this view, information passes through an initial sensory system, is acted upon in working memory, and represented in permanent store in long- term memory. Connectionist models replaced the computer metaphor with a neural pathway metaphor modeled on the human brain. In this view, information is represented as patterns of activation across a variety of units, which correspond to neurons in the human brain. A second difference is that network and production models focus on the representation of discrete units of information within a node in memory (e.g., a fact or a simple production rule), whereas connectionist models view knowledge representation as continuous across a number of interconnected units in memory. Thus, information such as facts, concepts, and production rules are not represented within single nodes, but distributed across nodes. Connectionist models propose a rather simple architecture based on units, which maintain elementary information, typically simpler than corresponding nodes in network and production models. Multiple units are connected to create information that one might label as facts or concepts. The connectivity pattern among these units is of utmost importance. Any given unit may be connected to many other units, using a number of different connectivity patterns. Thus, one unit may be part of different knowledge representations much like a single light in a theatre marquee may be used to spell different words. Connectionist theories have proposed different types of units. The most important of these are input units, output units, and hidden units, which are mediating connections between inputs and outputs. Each unit has an activation value assigned to it under different processing conditions. Activation spreads throughout the system, but depends in part on the connectivity pattern among units, as well as connection weights, which determine whether one unit contributes more activation than another unit. There are a variety of activation algorithms; however, the two most important are forward (i.e., input to output units) and backward propagation (i.e., output to input units). Training (i.e., learning) in a connectionist network occurs as units are activated and deactivated, and connection weights change due to environmental conditions and feedback to the connectionist network through back propagation. Connectionist models have several strengths and weaknesses. Strengths include their close physiological analogy to the human brain, the fact that their major claims can be tested using computer simulations, and that they provide a general theory of learning that is not unique to humans, but explains how learning may occur in other mammalian and non-mammalian life forms. Possible weaknesses, depending upon one's theoretical point of view, is that connectionist models are too bottom-up (i.e., learning occurs exclusively through experience and data-based feedback), and the mind is removed from models of learning (i.e., the role of rational reflection and inference construction is downplayed). Each of the models described above has unique strengths. Table 1 provides a summary of these, as well as the main assumptions of each model. Several points should be considered regarding Table 1. First, each of the models is speculative and incomplete in nature. A large number of studies have supported some, but not all, of the assumptions of each of the models. Currently, there are few cross-model comparisons that definitely support one of the four hypothesized representational architectures. Second, all of the models emphasize the bottom-up nature of learning from experience. Network models are most likely to emphasize the role of higher-order knowledge, whereas connectionist models are least likely to make assumptions about higher-order knowledge or conscious self-regulatory skills. Third, all have useful implications for understanding learning. Theories and models of knowledge representation all agree on two important implications for learning. One is that knowledge is represented in complex, multi-dimensional ways in memory. The models in Table 1 assume that learners possess higher-order knowledge that develops from simpler knowledge representations. In addition, all the models assume that knowledge is modular in nature (i.e., partitioned in memory into functional units), albeit each model postulates different modules such as concepts embedded in schemata (i.e., networks), separate declarative and procedural representations (i.e., production systems), or imaginal and verbal processing systems (i.e., dual coding). A second implication is that knowledge is acquired very slowly. Concepts, schemata, and procedural skills are built up slowly over time, automated over hundreds of hours of practice, and often honed under the watchful eye of mentors and master teachers. From an educational perspective, it seems näıve to expect students to become highly knowledgeable within a domain without years of exposure and practice within that domain. Observing and modeling the performance of an expert helps novices develop the knowledge and skills necessary to perform at a high level of expertise. One important difference among the four perspectives described above is how they address very complex representations such as mental models (Radvansky, 2006). A mental model is a cognitive representation of a complex process (e.g., flying a jet), spatial map (e.g., mental navigational map of New York City), or explanatory model of some phenomenon (e.g., Big Bang Theory). Many experts would agree that constructing mental models and using them to reason and solve problems is the height of cognition. Nevertheless, it is unclear presently how individuals construct mental models, represent them in memory, or use them to make complex decisions (Dougherty, Franco-Watkins, & Thomas, 2008). Network and production system models seem better suited to explain them, whereas connectionist models often deny the necessity of complex representations like mental models. Understanding the representation of complex mental phenomenon such as a mental model remains an important goal of cognitive psychology. Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of complex cognition. American Psychologist, 51, 255–365. Anderson, J. R. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its implication (5th ed.). New York: Worth. Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (2002). Connectionism and the mind: Parallel processing, dynamics, and evolution in networks (2nd ed.). London: Blackwell Publishers. Dougherty, Franco-Watkins, A. M., & Thomas, R. (2008). Psychological plausibility of the theory of probabilistic mental models and the fast and furious heuristic. Psychological Review, 115, 199–213. Griffiths, T. L., Steyvers, M., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2007). Topics in semantic representation. Psychological Review, 114, 211–244. Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (1999). Toward unified theories of working memory: Emerging general consensus, unresolved theoretical issues, and future research directions. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Quillian, M. R. (1968). Semantic memory. In M. Minsky (Ed.), Semantic information processing, (pp. 21–56). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Radvansky, G. A. (2006). Human memory. Boston: Pearson. Reed, S. K. (2006). Cognitive architectures for multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 41, 87–98. Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., and the PDP Research Group. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition: Vol. 1. Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sadoski, M. (2005). A dual coding view of vocabulary learning. Reading & writing Quarterly, 21, 221–238. Sadoski, M., Goetz, E. T., & Rodriguez, M. (2000). Engaging texts: Effects of concreteness on comprehensibility, interest, and recall in four text types. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 85–95. Selfridge, O. G. (1959). Pandemonium: A paradigm for learning. In The mechanization of thought processes. London: H. M. Stationery Office. Add your own comment	<urn:uuid:bce620ee-23e4-435b-9af2-b5e1c5bb8a89>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.05139815807342529, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9350408315658569, "url": "http://www.education.com/reference/article/knowledge-representation/" }
African Pipit From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search African Pipit Photographed near Bwindi, SW Uganda Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Motacillidae Genus: Anthus Species: A. cinnamomeus Binomial name Anthus cinnamomeus Rüppell, 1840 The African Pipit (Anthus cinnamomeus) is a fairly small passerine bird belonging to the pipit genus Anthus in the family Motacillidae. It is also known as the Grassveld Pipit or Grassland Pipit. It was formerly lumped together with the Richard's, Australasian, Mountain and Paddyfield Pipits in a single species, Richard's Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae), but is now often treated as a species in its own right. Distribution and habitat[edit] It occurs in grassland and fields in Southern, Central and East Africa, south-east of a line from Angola through the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Sudan. It is also found in south-western Arabia. There is an isolated population in the highlands of Cameroon which is sometimes considered to be a separate species: Cameroon Pipit (Anthus camaroonensis). Adult A. c. lacuum The African Pipit is 15 to 17 cm long and is a slender bird with an erect stance. It is buffy-brown above with darker streaks. The underparts are white or pale buff with a streaked breast and plain belly and flanks. The face is boldly patterned with a pale stripe over the eye and a dark malar stripe. The outer tail-feathers are white. The legs are long and pinkish and the slender bill is dark with a yellowish base to the lower mandible. Juvenile birds have a blotched breast, scalloping on the upperparts and some streaking on the flanks. The song is a repeated series of twittering notes, given during an undulating song-flight or from a low perch. The Cameroon Pipit is slightly larger and darker with buff underparts. Conservation status[edit] BirdLife International has lumped the African Pipit with Richard's Pipit, and therefore has given it no separate conservation status. However, Zimmerman, Turner, and Pearson (1999) call it "the common East African pipit." • Peacock, Faansie (2006) Pipits of Southern Africa. Accessed 25/06/07. External links[edit]	<urn:uuid:cb5661e1-7674-4d31-9936-98ba5feee5fd>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.02348393201828003, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8747907876968384, "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Pipit" }
forging, in metallurgy, process of shaping metal and increasing its strength by hammering or pressing. In most forging an upper die is forced against a heated workpiece positioned on a stationary lower die. If the upper die or hammer is dropped, the process is known as drop forging. To increase the force of the blow, power is sometimes applied to augment gravity. The number of blows struck is carefully gauged by the operator to give maximum effect at minimum wear on the die. For high-speed work in which the heavy impact of the drop hammer is not needed, an adaptation of the old-fashioned smith’s technique, called helve-hammer forging, is used. The striking force is delivered by a wooden helve (handle) operating with the motion of a hand sledge. The helve hammer is usually used for preparatory and finishing operations. Forging presses employ hydraulic or mechanical pressure instead of the blows of the drop forge. Most forging presses can exert only a few hundred tons of pressure, but giant presses, used for forging parts of jet aircraft, are capable of up to 50,000 tons of pressure. Several other forging processes are also used. In roll forging, the metal blank is run through matched rotating rolls with impressions sunk in their surfaces. Impact forging is essentially hammer forging in which both dies are moved horizontally, converging on the workpiece. Counterblow forging is similar, except that the dies converge vertically. A principal advantage of these last two methods is that the two dies mutually absorb energy, eliminating the need for heavy foundations.	<urn:uuid:5a8da85b-4e66-49b6-b434-426aadd4d707>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.20821911096572876, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9472613334655762, "url": "http://www.britannica.com/print/topic/213610" }
Proto-feminist Literature Proto-feminist Literature Before the time period commonly associated with the modern feminist movement, authors such as Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Charlotte Brontë were creating work that challenged and critiqued the treatment of women in U.S. and British society and culture. Influenced by contemporary events like the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, these short stories and novels pre-sage momentous changes in the 20th century, such as the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920 and the Representation of the People Act in Britain in 1928. These stories represent changing attitudes toward the rights of women and the roles women play in society. In addition to fiction, you will find Civil Rights and Conflict in the United States: Selected Speeches which includes Elizabeth Cady Stanton's 1892 "Solitude of Self" speech and Susan B. Anthony's 1872 speech, "Is It a Crime for a Citizen of the United States to Vote?" Jane Eyre (1847) by Charlotte Brontë Jane Eyre is a classic novel by Charlotte Brontë which was published in 1847. Jane Eyre, an orphan, must find her own way in the world while learning about friendship, family, love, trust, societal roles--and how to deal with dark secrets. Wuthering Heights (1847) by Emily Brontë The Scarlet Letter (1850) by Nathaniel Hawthorne Little Women (1868) by Louisa May Alcott	<urn:uuid:5a96f7e5-937e-4aa5-88d8-fec438955db4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.09464907646179199, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9407126307487488, "url": "http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/collections/13/proto-feminist-literature/" }
The Alan Turing Law History is full of notable figures who did the kind of work that shaped the future – take, for example, Alan Turing. Born in London, England in 1912, Turing made major contributions to the mathematical, logistic, and analytic fields, as well as with computer science, cognitive science, and artificial life and intelligence. He studied at the University of Cambridge in the early 1930s and earned his Ph.D. in mathematical logistics from Princeton University in 1938 after having his research published in America. Upon finishing his education, he joined the Government Code and Cypher School in England in 1938. Turing’s Accomplishments World War II began soon after (September 1939) and Turing moved to their wartime headquarters in Bletchley Park, Buckinghamshire in the same year. Turing’s work changed the course of the war because he and his fellow colleagues developed a way to decode Nazi messages; by early 1942, they were intercepting roughly 39,000 messages per month. After the war, he was made an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire for his decoding work. In 1945, Turing was recruited to the National Physical Laboratory in London to work on the first electronic computer. He was responsible for writing the first-ever computer programming manual in 1951 that was used in the Ferranti Mark I, which was the first marketable electronic computer. He also wrote theories and research in regard to artificial life and intelligence. Later that year, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. A Turning Point Alan Turing’s life took a major turn in early 1952 when he was arrested and convicted of “gross indecency”, which was introduced into the British legal code in 1885 and removed in 1967. This charge was used to prosecute gay men in instances where sodomy could not be proven. Instead of going to jail, Turing volunteered for chemical castration, which they called “hormone therapy”. They did this by giving him Stilboestrol, a pill containing female hormones. Doctors believed that the natural male hormone of testosterone increases sex drive, so using female hormones was meant to counteract that and lower the sex drive, if not eliminate it entirely. This was likely successful in Turing, but Stilboestrol comes with mental side effects, such as depression, bipolar disorder, behavioral disorders, and schizophrenia. Turing’s Death The mental risks of Stilboestrol could explain Turing’s death in 1952, which was ruled a suicide. He died of cyanide poisoning with a half-eaten apple on his bedside table. The theory is that he injected an apple with cyanide and ate it to commit suicide. Another theory is that the poisoning was not his own work, but that he was actually murdered. In the 1950s, homosexuals were considered social deviants and dangers to society, Turing even more so because he worked for the British government for many years and could have been considered a threat to national security. There is no evidence to support this theory. One other theory is that his death was completely accidental. Turing had a small laboratory off his bedroom and it was possible that he could have accidentally inhaled cyanide while working there. His Enduring Legacy – The Alan Turing Law After the 1952 conviction, Turing was no longer allowed to work for the government, but he continued his own research and writings. In 2013, some of Turing’s relatives led a very public campaign in favor of pardoning tens of thousands of men who were convicted of homosexuality. Turing was given a posthumous royal pardon by Queen Elizabeth II that same year, and the British government proposed the Alan Turing Law in 2016 to pardon the other men. The British government has apologized for their treatment of Alan Turing and countless others, which proves that a major civilized power is capable of changing laws and national opinions. Today, it’s hard to imagine a time where being gay was punishable by jail time. It’s important to remember the people who suffered in a time before we had the rights and freedoms we have now, like Alan Turing and so many others. Hey you! Hop into the Gaygenda Community: Gaygenda Discord Server: Join 4,000+ Queer Youth Follow us on Instagram: Latest LGBTQ+ News and videos Sign up for our community newsletter: Join the Limp Wrist Club Newsletter gang! Written by Marrisa Doud GIPHY App Key not set. Please check settings Trump’s Last Actions in Office & Biden’s First Actions in Office Valentine’s Day Crafting Valentine’s Day Crafting	<urn:uuid:a5e500e8-41d1-4b9c-8f6c-606a2519cdfb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.1300320029258728, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.976514458656311, "url": "https://thegaygenda.com/the-alan-turing-law/" }
Jste zde Turnaj mladých fyziků – zadání úloh pro školní rok 2011/2012 (25. ročník soutěže) logo soutěže 1. Gaussian cannon A sequence of identical steel balls includes a strong magnet and lies in a nonmagnetic channel. Another steel ball is rolled towards them and collides with the end ball. The ball at the opposite end of the sequence is ejected at a surprisingly high velocity. Optimize the magnet's position for the greatest effect. 2. Cutting the air When a piece of thread (e.g., nylon) is whirled around with a small mass attached to its free end, a distinct noise is emitted. Study the origin of this noise and the relevant parameters. 3. String of beads A long string of beads is released from a beaker by pulling a sufficiently long part of the chain over the edge of the beaker. Due to gravity the speed of the string increases. At a certain moment the string no longer touches the edge of the beaker (see picture). Investigate and explain the phenomenon. 4. Fluid bridge If a high voltage is applied to a fluid (e.g. deionized water) in two beakers, which are in contact, a fluid bridge may be formed. Investigate the phenomenon. (High voltages must only be used under appropriate supervision - check local rules.) 5. Bright waves Illuminate a water tank. When there are waves on the water surface, you can see bright and dark patterns on the bottom of the tank. Study the relation between the waves and the pattern. 6. Woodpecker toy A woodpecker toy (see picture) exhibits an oscillatory motion. Investigate and explain the motion of the toy. 7. Drawing pins A drawing pin (thumbtack) floating on the surface of water near another floating object is subject to an attractive force. Investigate and explain the phenomenon. Is it possible to achieve a repulsive force by a similar mechanism? 8. Bubbles Is it possible to float on water when there are a large number of bubbles present? Study how the buoyancy of an object depends on the presence of bubbles. 9. Magnet and coin Place a coin vertically on a magnet. Incline the coin relative to the magnet and then release it. The coin may fall down onto the magnet or revert to its vertical position. Study and explain the coin's motion. 10. Rocking bottle Fill a bottle with some liquid. Lay it down on a horizontal surface and give it a push. The bottle may first move forward and then oscillate before it comes to rest. Investigate the bottle's motion. 11. Flat flow Fill a thin gap between two large transparent horizontal parallel plates with a liquid and make a little hole in the centre of one of the plates. Investigate the flow in such a cell, if a different liquid is injected through the hole. 12. Lanterns Paper lanterns float using a candle. Design and make a lantern powered by a single tea-light that takes the shortest time (from lighting the candle) to float up a vertical height of 2.5m. Investigate the influence of the relevant parameters. (Please take care not to create a risk of fire!) 13. Misty glass Breathe on a cold glass surface so that water vapour condenses on it. Look at a white lamp through the misted glass and you will see coloured rings appear outside a central fuzzy white spot. Explain the phenomenon. 14. Granular splash If a steel ball is dropped onto a bed of dry sand, a "splash" will be observed that may be followed by the ejection of a vertical column of sand. Reproduce and explain this phenomenon. 15. Frustrating golf ball It often happens that a golf ball escapes from the hole an instant after it has been putted into it. Explain this phenomenon and investigate the conditions under which it can be observed. 16. Rising bubble A vertical tube is filled with a viscous fluid. On the bottom of the tube, there is a large air bubble. Study the bubble rising from the bottom to the surface. 17. Ball in foam A small, light ball is placed inside soap foam. The size of the ball should be comparable to the size of the foam bubbles. Investigate the ball's motion as a function of the relevant parameters. Doporučujeme nahlédnout do materiálů Ilyji Martchenko a kol. na adrese http://kit.ilyam.org/, kde jsou k dispozici podrobnější informace k jednotlivým úlohám i návody k jejich řešení (v angličtině). Byla vydána aktualizovaná verze těchto materiálů!!! Upozorňujeme, že se nejedná o oficiální materiály IYPT. V případě jejich využití je nezbytné na ně uvést patřičný odkaz. Kompilace těchto materiálů také nemůže nahradit vlastní řešení. Obrázek „Woodpecker toy“ © Mike Willshaw – http://www.flickr.com/photos/freakdog/308938937/ Obrázek „String of beads” © Hans Jordens and Leonid Markovich Verze pro tisk Secure Login This login is SSL protected	<urn:uuid:e30bba37-8091-4062-ad2d-f638cfecad8f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.7716476917266846, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.6972360610961914, "url": "https://www.jcmf.cz/?q=cz/node/386" }
• Blue oaks are thick along Dye Creek and atop Campo Seco. (Laura Lukes -- Contributed) • Blue oaks in the spring near Flournoy in Tehama County. (Laura Lukes -- Contributed) You may have noticed that blue oaks are turning brown in the foothills right now. They aren’t dying — they are utilizing an adaptive strategy that they have evolved over time to thrive in their challenging environment. Charles Darwin, the product of a strictly codified class society beset by enormous economic inequalities, identified a major factor of evolution to be competition for finite resources. Those species that clambered to the top of the evolutionary heap benefitted from genetic mutations and/or adaptations that gave them a biological edge over their competitors. Some species cooperate by sharing resources. For example, in Tortuguero, a tiny strip of beach along the northeastern shoulder of Costa Rica, four separate species of sea turtle lay their eggs each year. They migrate to the beach at different times, ranging from early March to October, and feed on different resources. Millions of turtles, and untold numbers of their babies, have shared the same tiny piece of real estate for eons. Here in our own backyard, there are species that have evolved to exploit ecological niches that very few others claim. These are the various oaks, conifers, and woody shrubs that populate the foothill woodland and chaparral zone of the Western Sierra Nevada and Coast Range mountains. A dominant species in this environmental nook is the blue oak (Quercus douglasii). According to Andrew Conlin, Soil Scientist with the Natural Resources Conservation Service, “the presence of blue oak woodlands indicates really rough growing conditions: shallow, tough soils” as opposed to the rich loamy soils of the valley, which are preferred by valley oaks. Quercus douglasii also goes by a number of other common names, including white oak, mountain oak, mountain white oak, and iron oak. But it acquired its most familiar and descriptive common name from the same person from whom its Latin binomial (scientific name) is derived. In 1831 David Douglas, a Scottish botanist, christened it the blue oak for the bluish cast of its deeply lobed leaves. (A digression: Douglas, for whom the Douglas-fir and hundreds of other western plants are named, lived from 1799 to 1834. He made three trips to the American Northwest between 1823 and 1831, encountering the blue oak on his last trip while traveling from the Columbia River in Oregon to San Francisco. He died under curious circumstances, apparently after falling into a bull trap while climbing Mauna Kea in Hawai’i.) Blue oaks are native to California’s foothills, South Coast Range, North Coast Range and San Francisco Bay Area, forming a botanical loop around the Central Valley. Depending on the source consulted, these trees average between 30 and 80 feet tall. But all sources agree that the blue oak is the most drought tolerant of all the deciduous oaks in the state. Surviving drought and fire Adaptations to survive the long, hot, dry summers and sparse winter rains of our Mediterranean climate include thick leaves with a bluish-green color. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, blue-gray-green leaf color reduces heat absorption. During severely hot and dry years, blue oaks will sometimes shed their leaves and go dormant to conserve energy, allowing these tough little oaks to survive temperatures above 100 degrees for several weeks at a time. Like many plants growing in marginal soils, blue oaks are slow growers, usually increasing only a few inches each year. A further strategy to survive drought and fire conditions is the blue oak’s extensive root system, which allows it to grow through cracks in rocks to depths of 80 feet in order to reach ground water, helping it to survive in fire-prone and arid regions (Blue Planet Biomes). Although blue oaks can tolerate fast-burning grass fires, they have less success in surviving hotter brush fires, according to University of California Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. If a tree does survive a fire event, it can reproduce both through seeds and by sprouting from burnt stumps. Blue oaks can produce sprouts after a low- to moderate-severity surface fire, and younger trees have the edge on older trees for fire survival odds. On younger trees, the light-colored bark (hence “white oak”) is thick and helps reduce fire damage, the USDA notes, whereas the bark of mature blue oaks is thin and will flake off as the trees age, making older blue oaks less insulated against fire. After a fire, blue oaks can also re-establish from acorns that have dropped from surviving parent trees and/or been dispersed by animals, among other possibilities. USDA research also reveals that the blue oak’s post-fire recovery is likely aided by the fact that it withstands extreme drought by dropping leaves under water stress and producing a flush of new leaves when wet weather returns. In fact, in wet years, crown-scorched blue oaks may produce a flush of new leaves soon after fire. Native American uses All parts of the blue oak were woven deeply into the culture and survival of California’s native peoples. It was one of more than a dozen oak species whose acorns contributed a major source of dietary nutrients and calories. Because of their superior flavor, blue oak acorns were among the most commonly gathered. A Plant Guide published by the Natural Resources Conservation Service provides an exhaustive list of the ways California Native Americans used blue oak wood, bark and acorns, including as “medicine, dyes, utensils, games, toys and construction materials.” Locally, the Maidu used oak shoots to frame cradleboards and oak posts to construct shelter, and the Yana used an oak paddle in cooking. Traps for birds were baited with acorns, and split acorns became dice for gambling. Besides providing physical sustenance to native peoples, I imagine that the peaceful beauty of blue oak woodlands fed their souls. Twisted, dwarfed blue oak silhouettes are a classic component of the California landscape. These trees are prime examples of successful adaptation to truly demanding habitat and climate conditions. Sources and further information: Calscape: Blue Oak, Quercus douglasii (calscape.org); Blue Planet Biomes: http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/blue_oak.htm; UCANR: Welcome – UC Oaks, Oak Woodland Management (berkeley.edu); NRCS: Quercus douglasii Hook (usda.gov).	<urn:uuid:26c5e175-2a3a-44c4-9385-3964031be065>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.04020470380783081, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9321112632751465, "url": "https://www.chicoer.com/2021/08/06/blue-oaks-in-the-foothills-have-a-strategy-for-drought-the-real-dirt/" }
What was the significance of the stamp on the newspaper? What was the significance of the stamp on the newspaper? It said they had to pay a tax on all sorts of printed materials such as newspapers, magazines and legal documents. It was called the Stamp Act because the colonies were supposed to buy paper from Britain that had an official stamp on it that showed they had paid the tax. What was the main purpose of the Stamp Act? The new tax required all legal documents including commercial contracts, newspapers, wills, marriage licenses, diplomas, pamphlets, and playing cards in the American colonies to carry a tax stamp. The Stamp Act was the first direct tax used by the British government to collect revenues from the colonies. Who did the Stamp Act affect? Passed through Parliament against little opposition and signed into law by George III, the Stamp Act imposed on the British colonies in North America a tax on printed documents, including legal papers, contracts, bills of sale, licenses, wills, ships’ papers, advertisements, newspapers and magazines. Why was the Stamp Act bad? The Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A majority considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consentconsent that only the colonial legislatures could grant. Their slogan was “No taxation without representation”. Why did the colonists consider the Stamp Act unfair? In 1765, Britain passed the Stamp Act. This act taxed anything printed on paper. Many colonists said the new taxes were unfair. Colonists had no say in making tax laws because they did not have representatives in Parliament. Why did the Stamp Act so anger the colonists? The Stamp Act. The American colonies were upset with the British because they put a tax on stamps in the colonies so the British can get out of debt from the French and Indian War and still provide the army with weapons and tools. They wanted them to take back the law to pay taxes on stamps. How did the Stamp Act affect history? The Stamp Act is considered to be one of the primary factors leading to the American colonies’ declaration of independence from the British Empire. It imposed a wide-reaching tax in the American colonies by requiring the colonists to pay a tax on every piece of printed paper used. How did Colonist respond to the Stamp Act? How did the colonists rebel against the Stamp Act? Arguing that only their own representative assemblies could tax them, the colonists insisted that the act was unconstitutional, and they resorted to mob violence to intimidate stamp collectors into resigning. How did the Stamp Act lead to independence? The Stamp Act, however, was a direct tax on the colonists and led to an uproar in America over an issue that was to be a major cause of the Revolution: taxation without representation. The colonists greeted the arrival of the stamps with violence and economic retaliation. How did the stamp act end? What did the Stamp Act do that England did not expect? What did the Stamp Act do that England did not expect? It caused them to buy more paper goods. It united the colonists against England. How did the British respond to the colonists boycotting the Stamp Act? The ultimate response of the British government to these protests was to repeal the Townshend Acts. They revoked all of the taxes imposed by these acts except for the tax on tea. How much was the Stamp Act tax? Why did the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act draw fierce opposition from colonists? Why did the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act draw fierce opposition from colonists? They argued that they were not being represented in Parliament and therefore could not be taxed. The theory that all British subjects were represented in Parliament, whether they had elected representatives in that body or not. What was the primary difference between the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act? The Sugar Act was designed to regulate commerce and trade especially in the New England region. The Stamp Act was the first direct tax on domestically produced and consumed items. It was unrelated to trade and it affected every single colonist across the Southern colonies, Middle colonies and the New England colonies. How did Georgia impact the Stamp Act of 1765? The Stamp Act of 1765 brought the first true rift between loyalist and colonist in Georgia. England saw the colonies as a part of the mother country, populated by Englishmen, and Parliament serves all Englishmen, not just those in England. What best describes the events of the Boston Massacre? The Boston Massacre was a street battle that took place on Ma, between a “patriot” mob, dropping snowballs, bricks, and sticks, and a battalion of British forces. Several colonists were killed, and this led to a project by speech-writers to try and create the outrage of the citizenry. Which best explains why the Stamp Act of 1765 was significant quizlet? Which of the following best explains why the Stamp Act of 1765 was significant? It was the first direct tax imposed on American colonists. The First Continental Congress was a meeting of twelve of the thirteen colonies called in response to the Intolerable Acts. How would you describe the Boston Massacre? The Boston Massacre was a deadly riot that occurred on Ma, on King Street in Boston. It began as a street brawl between American colonists and a lone British soldier, but quickly escalated to a chaotic, bloody slaughter.	<urn:uuid:c383a695-b84f-4517-8167-60daa1a485fb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.9998899698257446, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9838567972183228, "url": "https://www.studiodessuantbone.com/paper-writing-help-blog/what-was-the-significance-of-the-stamp-on-the-newspaper/" }
Folded plaid and unpleated breacan Unfolded plaid used as cloak Question : What are the origins and history of tartans? The ancient Celts wore coats of varied colors with patterns of checks set close together. Similar patterns have been used in Scottish, Irish, and Welsh weaving for centuries. A possible predecessor to the modern tartan was found near the Antonine Wall, between Glasgow and the Firth of Forth. Known as the "Falkirk sett," it dates from the 3rd century and has a checked pattern in two colors identified as the undyed brown and white of the native Soay sheep. The fabric had been used as a stopper in an earthenware pot which contained about 2000 Roman silver coins. Multicolored cloth was used by the Celts from the earliest time, but the variety of colors in garments was greater or less, according to the rank of the wearer. Cloth of the ancient kings had seven colors, that of the druids six, and that of the nobles four. In 1700, the tartans were used to distinguish the inhabitants of different districts and not the members of different families as at present. For centuries, the patterns were loosely associated with the weavers of a particular area, though it was common for highlanders to wear a number of different tartans at the same time. From 1725 the government force of the Highland Independent Companies introduced a standardized tartan chosen to avoid association with any particular clan, and this was formalized when they became the Black Watch regiment in 1739. This tartan has been accepted as one of the universal tartans and is currently in use by families not associated with a particular clan or district. In 1745, Bonnie Prince Charlie led the Jacobite revolution to return the Stuart Kings to the thrones of Scotland and England. The most effective fighters for Jacobitism were the supporting Scottish clans, leading to an association of tartans with the Jacobite cause. The defeat of the Jacobite forces at Culloden led to the 1746 Dress Act banning tartans and other forms of Highland dress. Soon after the Act was repealed in 1782 Highland Societies of landowners were promoting "the general use of the ancient Highland dress". By the 19th century the Highland romantic revival inspired by James Macpherson's Ossian poems and the writings of Sir Walter Scott led to wider interest in tartans, with clubs like the Celtic Society of Edinburgh welcoming Lowlanders. The pageantry invented for the 1822 visit of King George IV to Scotland brought a sudden demand for tartan cloth and made it the national dress of the whole of Scotland, with the invention of many new clan tartans to suit. The naming and registration of official clan tartans began on April 8, 1815 when the Highland Society of London (founded 1778) resolved that all the clan chiefs each "... be respectfully solicited to furnish the Society with as Much of the Tartan of his Lordship's Clan as will serve to Show the Pattern and to Authenticate the Same by Attaching Thereunto a Card bearing the Impression of his Lordship's Arms." Many had no idea of what their tartan might be, but were keen to comply and to provide authentic signed and sealed samples. Lord Macdonald was so far removed from his Highland heritage that he wrote the Society: "Being really ignorant of what is exactly The Macdonald Tartan, I request you will have the goodness to exert every Means in your power to Obtain a perfectly genuine Pattern, Such as Will Warrant me in Authenticating it with my Arms." The tartan of a Scottish clan is a sequence of colors and shades unique to the material, authorized by the clan society for use by members of that clan for kilts, ties, and other garments and decorations. Every clan with a society has at least one distinct tartan. Any tartan specified in a Grant of Arms by the Lord Lyon is registered by him, but there is no legal prohibition against wearing the "wrong" tartan. It is considered proper to wear a clan tartan if the wearer is associated with the clan by name, by blood or by legal adoption. It is also proper to wear a tartan ascribed to the district, county, or shire. (Reference source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ) Return to TARTAN PAGE	<urn:uuid:a2a84ca0-c357-42d2-9f6f-f76321ffd7c9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.03242248296737671, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9677587747573853, "url": "http://ormiston.com/ormiston/tartan/question4.htm" }
From SKYbrary Wiki Article Information Category: Human Behaviour Human Behaviour Content source: SKYbrary About SKYbrary Content control: SKYbrary About SKYbrary FOR-DEC is an aviation decision-making model that was developed in the 1990s by Lufthansa and the German Aerospace Center. It has been described as a method of applying structure and logic to a complex problem. The acronym FOR-DEC stands for the six phases of the decision-making process. The exact wording used to describe each phase varies among different sources, but basically are as follows: Facts: What’s the matter or what is going on here? Options: Possible ways to solve the problem or what are our choices? Risks and Benefits: What can be said for and against the different options? Decision: What are we going to? Execution: Who does what, when, and how? Check: Is everything still ok or did everything work to plan? In addition, the hyphen between the ‘R’ and ‘D’ is intended to make the pilot stop and reflect on whether anything essential was missing and whether all available information had been taken in to consideration. • "Decision-Making Tools for Aeronautical Teams” FOR-DEC and Beyond, by Henning Soll, Solveig Proske, Gesine Hofinger, and Gunnar Steinhardt, Aviation Psychology and Applied Human Factors, 2016. Related Articles	<urn:uuid:b479319f-401d-483a-8294-04658a50362c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.16443312168121338, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9237002730369568, "url": "https://skybrary.aero/index.php/FOR-DEC" }
Ginkgo biloba Ginkgo biloba, common name Maidenhair tree, is the only living species in the division Ginkgophyta, all others being extinct. It is a member of a very old genus, with some fossils dating back 200 million years. Native to China, the tree is widely cultivated, and was cultivated early in human history. Ginkgos are large trees, with an angular crown and long, somewhat erratic branches. It is usually deep rooted and resistant to wind and snow damage. Young trees are often tall and slender, and sparsely branched; the crown becomes broader as the tree ages. During autumn, the leaves turn a bright yellow, then fall, sometimes within a short space of time (one to 15 days). A combination of resistance to disease, insect-resistant wood and the ability to form aerial roots and sprouts makes ginkgos long-lived, with some specimens claimed to be more than 2,500 years old. Ginkgoites australis, fossils have been found in Koonwarra just a few km's down the Tarwin River. They date from the early Cretaceous, 118–115 million years ago. 73.00 Location D4 Latitude; -38.402318073667 Longitude; 146.051916440482 73.01 Location B5 Latitude; -38.401840460000 Longitude; 146.052848880000 73.02 Location A8 Latitude; -38.401425170798 Longitude; 146.054493476849 SKU: 73 This product has been added to your cart	<urn:uuid:1266e2df-2493-412f-9bc8-ad9041b4e116>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.10155600309371948, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9115574359893799, "url": "https://www.mossvalepark.com/shop/product/76446/ginkgo-biloba/" }
Culture \| Classical Wisdom Weekly Skip to Content Category Archives: Culture [post_grid id="10031"] Patricians and Plebians in Ancient Rome by October 19, 2021 by Kevin Blood In the Roman citizenry there existed two distinct social classes or orders. The patricians (patres – fathers) and the plebeians (plebs – multitude). To understand the political, social, economic and military developments that happened in the Roman Republic, it is important to understand how early republican society functioned and was organised according to this class system. The patricians were a select few who owned large amounts of land and they were of noble birth. This gave them a privileged status within the state. To be a patrician you had to be able to trace your ancestry back to the original clans who settled the Seven Hills of Rome. The patricians totally controlled the state by monopolizing authority. They monopolized the senate and the position of consul, and they controlled the assembly. Patricians also controlled the state’s religious bodies through domination of the two major colleges of priests – the Augurs and the Pontifices. Religion and politics were not separate, and religion played a central role in the political decision making process. Furthermore, patricians controlled the courts – all criminal and civil law was their jurisdiction. The fact that the legal code was unwritten and only patricians could administer and interpret it meant they could bend the law to suit themselves, which they did. They could make it up as they went along. In order to maintain the strict separation of the two social classes, patricians could not intermarry with plebeians. Patricians in this era had a special form of marriage, the only one of three at the time thought to be recognized by the gods. They were married by confarreatio, by the pontifex maximus and the flamen Dialis (priest of Jupiter). In this form of marriage the bride was entitled to a share of possessions and of the religious duties of the household. A depiction of a procession of flamines: priests of the Roman religion Patricians owned significant amounts of land and they could afford to lease big tracts of public land (ager publicus) from the state. This aristocratic class did not sully their hands with industry or trade, these aspects of the Roman economy were left to plebeians and foreigners, e.g. Greeks. Patricians also dominated the highest officer ranks of the army, and especially the cavalry. Entrance into the military was based on property qualifications, because a soldier was responsible for providing his own kit. While away on campaign it was easy for a patrician to keep his properties productive, as they could afford the associated expenses. The plebeians were the mass of the Roman citizenry, those not part of the patrician order. They were small farmers, those who worked in in the crafts, labourers and traders. They were excluded from legal, political, economic and religious rights. The Plebeians were subject to the power and authority of the consuls. The consuls had power over the lives of the citizens, against their authority there existed no right of appeal. Plebeians were excluded from public office and the aristocratic senate. In the assembly, plebeians who were not clients (tenants or dependents) of patricians could be outvoted by those who were. Plebeians were also kept out of the administration of the state’s religious institutions and major priesthoods. Subject to a legal system dominated by patricians, the plebians often found themselves suffering cruelty and injustice. They did not have knowledge of the laws, nor could they administer any aspect of the legal system. When a decision was handed down to them, no matter how unjust, they had no right of appeal. Any notion for plebeians and their descendants of climbing the social ladder by marrying a patrician was quashed by the fact that they were not legally allowed to marry a patrician, but if they did marry any children from the marriage would automatically be classed as plebeian. Marriage for plebians took two forms – marriage by coemptio (fictitious purchase of the bride to be from her father), or by usus (co-habitation). Ancient Roman Marriage Plebeians who were clients of a patrician were granted land by them in return for political and economic support. The prospect of dire poverty among the plebeian order was very real, and they often had to be absent from working their land because of a duty to do military service. This often led them to fall into debt, the debt law (unwritten) was very harsh. Also, during wartime they had to pay a military tax (tributum). No share of public lands was granted to them and they could not graze their livestock on them. Trade was one way plebeians could make a lot of money, and some become wealthier than patricians. With the power and influence money brought them they felt that they should have political rights, and they resented the fact that they did not. Plebeians could serve in the army, but while they did they had to leave their lands unattended. It was during military crisis that membership of the Roman army could benefit the plebeian order, it allowed them to exert pressure on the patricians to make reforms. A rich plebeian who could afford cavalry equipment could,within the ranks of the army, achieve a kind of equality with the patricians. At a glance the casual observer can see that the Roman system of the early republic was deeply skewed in favour of the patricians. The grievances of the plebeians, and their striving for equality lasted in Rome’s internal history for over 200 years of the early republic. The unwillingness of the patrician order to share power would be the source of great conflict and social upheaval during this period of Rome’s history. An understanding of the importance of social relationships between Roman citizens, the different degrees of political responsibility each held, the importance of religion in both private and public life and the military obligations of each social class is a vital part of understanding the subsequent changes that occurred in the lives of Romans during the middle and late republican periods, and beyond. Euripides’ Helen – an Alternative View of Helen of Troy by October 14, 2021 by Sean Kelly, Managing Editor, Classical Wisdom She’s probably the single most famous woman from all of Greek mythology. We think we know the tale – the most beautiful woman in the world, and the enormous war that was fought over her. Yet her story is much more complex than many may imagine. Was she really the face that launched a thousand ships? The most well-known version of the Helen of Troy myth is what we get from the Epic Cycle, particularly Homer in the Iliad and the Odyssey. After visiting Menelaus, King of Sparta, the young Trojan prince Paris absconded with the Spartan king’s wife, Helen, and took her to Troy. In retribution, and in outrage at the insult to xenia, Menelaus and his brother King Agamemnon launched a vast expedition against the city of Troy, leading to a siege which lasted for ten years. Following the fall of Troy, Menelaus and Helen returned to Sparta, where they lived as king and queen once more. That’s the most commonly known version of the myth. Yet there is another, very different version of this story. Helen of Troy Helen of Troy The Greek lyric poet Stesichorus, one of the Nine Lyric Poets of Ancient Greece, is attributed with creating an alternative view of the Trojan war. While much of his poetry is lost, a key segment survives in quotation, regarding Helen of Troy: It is not true, the tale. You did not go in the well-benched ships; you did not come to Pergama of Troy.’ In Stesichorus’ version of the myth, it was not really Helen that was taken to Troy by Paris. Rather, Helen was replaced by an eidolon – a sort of Ancient Greek version of a phantom. The eidolon is a completely convincing doppelgänger of the Spartan queen, fooling all who see it, but it is not really her. The real Helen was spirited away by the gods to Egypt, where she lived for the whole duration of the Trojan War. Here she lived under the protection of the Egyptian King Proteus, while the eidolon resided in Troy. None of the Trojans nor the Achaeans knew the truth, and the war was fought, essentially over nothing. This is the version of the myth that Euripides – the most experimental and daring of the three surviving Greek tragedians – used as the basis of his play Helen. Euripides was also influenced by the Encomium of Helen by the Greek Sophist Gorgias, which expressed similar ideas. When we meet Euripides’ Helen, she is a painfully isolated figure, all too aware of the events of the Trojan war, and moreso, of the blame wrongly attributed to her. She cries: O Troy, city of sorrow, for deeds never committed you have perished and suffered a piteous end! The play focuses on the distinction between nomos – the name of thing, and physis – the reality of a thing. It’s an exploration of how what people say about us can conjure up an image that is completely removed from the reality of who we are, and yet remain a potent force. Helen knows that the Greeks consider her to be an adultress, when in reality, she has been completely faithful to her husband. She knows she is blamed for the vast number of deaths in the Trojan War, when she truly had nothing to do with it. Helen and Menelaus Helen and Menelaus The play also follows Menelaus on his homecoming – or nostos – following the Trojan War. Newly shipwrecked in Egypt, Menelaus is now a man who looks like a beggar, claiming to be a king, and unaware of how close he is to finding his real wife. Greek drama is famous for its recognition scenes, and this play features a moving one, when both members of the married couple are baffled and overwhelmed to be in each other’s presence again. Despite the tenderness of their reunion, all is not well. Helen’s protector, King Proteus has died, and his son Theoclymenus plans to swiftly make her his bride, believing reports that Menelaus died in the shipwreck. This Euripides play belongs alongside his other ‘escape tragedies’ like Iphigeneia Among the Taurians, or his lost play on the Andromeda myth. These are somewhat removed from what we typically think of as ‘tragedies’. While they were performed on the same stages as the famous tales of Oedipus or the House of Atreus, they are perhaps closer to a medieval romance: tales of adventure and love, set in faraway lands, with a villainous tyrant lurking. The play ends with the appearance of Castor and Pollux – the Dioscuri. They act as a deus ex machina in the play, resolving the conflict, and ensuring that Helen and Menelaus freely escape. In a play so concerned with how misleading a name can be, it is ironic that these characters have a much more famous name. Elsewhere in myth, they are turned into stars and become a costellation, twins known as the Gemini to the Romans. While they are Helen’s brothers, perhaps the more relevant detail is the fact that they are twin brothers. It is perhaps a fitting image for the drama to end on – two who are alike, and yet not alike. The Pharsalia by Lucan: Epic Poem on the Roman Civil War by October 8, 2021 By Ed Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom Roman literature has been enormously influential in the history of Western culture. The Pharsalia, an Epic poem by Lucan, was once widely read, and inspired many great Renaissance writers, such as Christopher Marlowe and Dante. This work tells the story of the great Roman Civil War between Julius Caesar and his legions on one side, and Pompey and his supporters in the Senate on the other. The Epic is one of the masterpieces of the Silver Age of Roman literature, and it is not only a remarkable work of art, but it also offers many insights into the history of Rome. The Poet and his Epic The author of the Pharsalia was Lucan (39 AD – 65 AD) who was born in what is now southern Spain. He was the grandson of Seneca the Elder, and the nephew of the Stoic philosopher and statesman, Seneca the Younger. He became a close friend of Nero, who helped Lucan to secure the post of Quaestor. Lucan managed to write the Epic which consists of ten books in a remarkably short period of time. In this he was assisted by his loyal wife. At some point, Lucan and Nero had a falling out. Some sources suggest that Lucan dared to criticise the work of Nero. In 65 AD, Lucan became involved in a conspiracy led by Piso. This plot was discovered, and Lucan was implicated. Ancient sources alleged that the poet revealed information about the other conspirators, including his family members, in a bid to save his life. This failed and he was forced to commit suicide by opening his veins by Nero. A modern bust of Lucan The Pharsalia The Epic is also known in Latin as the De Bello Civili (Concerning the Civil War). The work narrates in dramatic detail the events of the war between Julius Caesar and Pompey (49-45 BC), which led to the downfall of the Roman Republic. The work opens with a dedication to Nero and a denunciation of civil war. In Book One it relates how Caesar defied the Senate and marched on Rome. It then narrates how the Senate and Pompey were forced to leave Italy. The poem tells how Caesar campaigned against forces loyal to the Senate in Spain. The poem concentrates on the events surrounding the battle of Pharsalus, which took place in Thessaly in Greece. This was the crucial battle of the Civil War and it forms the centrepiece of the Epic. The poem became known as the Pharsalia by later Roman commentators, naming it after the battle. Lucan relates how Caesar was able to defeat Pompey, and how the latter was forced to flee. The last Books are concerned with the wanderings of the defeated general, and finally his assassination in Egypt. The Epic concludes with the Julius Caesar in Egypt fighting for his life after he became involved in the Egyptian Civil War, and his infatuation with Cleopatra. Scholars believe that if Lucan had lived, the poet would have continued his Epic until the assassination of Caesar, or even the rise of Augustus. The Epic is not an accurate historical document and there are many sections of the work such as Pompey consulting with a witch that are inventions. The Style of the Epic The poem shows the influence of Virgil and Ovid, the key figures in the Golden Age of Roman literature. The influence of oratory on the poet is evident as well, and there are many sententious phrases in the Epic. It is structured in a series of discrete episodes and eschews a linear narrative. Lucan does not respect the Epic convention of portraying divine intervention in human affairs. The Epic minimizes the role of the Gods and even seems to deny that they exist. On the other hand, it focuses a great deal on the supernatural, such as witches and oracles. The work of Lucan is a good example of the type of literature that was favored by Nero and his court. The style of the work has made it difficult to read for many modern readers. Pompey consults with a witch Pompey consults with a witch The Themes of Pharsalia The Epic is often interpreted as being anti-imperialistic. It is clearly sympathetic to the cause of Pompey and the Senate. Many have argued that the poet shows his sympathies to the Republican system of government. The sentiments in the work could also be interpreted as being critical of Nero. There are some academics who believe that this is not the case. They argue that the occasions when Julius Caesar is portrayed negatively were warnings to Nero. An important theme in the book is the importance of character and how it can influence events. The Epic can be seen as being anti-war, and the poet graphically describes the tragedy caused when Romans fought Romans, which is rare in Latin literature. Some have seen Lucan as part of a Neronian Renaissance in Roman literature, along with writers such as his relative Seneca the Younger and Petronius. The Pharsalia influenced literature during the Renaissance but subsequently fell out of favor. While it is not comparable to the work of Virgil and Ovid, it still an important literary work. Today, scholars have revived the study of the Epic poem because it provides insights into the culture of First Century Rome. Leigh, M. (1997), Lucan: Spectacle and Engagement. Oxford. Athena in Ancient Literature by October 6, 2021 by Sean Kelly, Managing Editor, Classical Wisdom She’s one of the most famous and prominent of the Greek deities. Her symbol – the owl – still stands proudly, millennia later, as an emblem of wisdom. Yet what do the ancient texts actually say about her? Who is she, and what does she do? What do we know about the Goddess of Wisdom? Athena in Homer The Iliad and the Odyssey were both of central importance to Ancient Greek society. Even today, it is many people’s first exposure to the world of the Classics. Athena’s role in both, while comparatively small in terms of ‘screentime’, is key to the action of the story. Of the two Homeric poems, Athena plays a much larger role in the Odyssey. She essentially acts as the protector of Odysseus. At various points across Odysseus’ journey, it is Athena’s help and guidance that allow the cunning hero to escape to safety. Moreover, it is Athena’s request to Zeus that allows Odysseus to leave the island of Circe. Some have taken this to diminish the role of Odysseus himself. The interaction between the human and the divine in Greek literature, however, is more complex than that. Odysseus own qualities of cunning and guile are what win him the approval of the goddess. It is his own resourcefulness that makes him worthy of having a god intervene on his behalf. Odysseus own personality is so defined by the traits of cleverness and using his wits. That these are traits similar to those possessed by the goddess herself is significant. A direct parallel is drawn between Odysseus and Athena in two incidents that bookend the epic. Early on in the Odyssey, Athena appears to Odysseus’ son Telemachus in disguise. Towards the end of the epic, it is Athena that allows Odysseus to take on the form of a beggar, which allows him to re-enter Ithaca disguised. Ulysses transformed by Athena into beggar, 1775, by Giuseppe Bottani Ulysses transformed by Athena into beggar, 1775, by Giuseppe Bottani Athena’s presence in the Iliad is notably less prominent. Nevertheless, she also acts as something of a guide to Achilles at key moments throughout. For instance, she is present at the infamous quarrel of Agamemnon and Achille over Breseis which opens the epic. She helps stay the anger of Achilles, preventing him from killing Agamemnon outright! Athena in Greek Tragedy Athena was, naturally enough, the patron of her namesake city, Athens. The Festival Dionysia, where Greek tragedies were staged, actually took place in Athens. So, the audience for Greek tragedies consisted primarily of Athenians. The characterisation of Athena in Greek tragedies is, unsurprisingly, consistently positive. Perhaps Athena’s most important role in Greek Tragedy is in the Eumenides by Aeschylus. Athena appears in the third and final play of the Oresteia trilogy, where she effectively acts as a judge in the world’s first courtroom drama. The deciding vote as to whether or not Orestes should be considered guilty of his crimes is granted to Athena. The ruling frees Orestes from punishment by the Furies, while also granting the Furies a place of honour in a new system of justice. This ruling is seen as representing in dramatic form perhaps the greatest Athenian invention – democracy. Athena in the Eumenides Athena in the Eumenides Athena also appears in a number of Euripides‘ plays, such as Iphigeneia Among the Taurians, The Suppliants and Ion. In each of these plays, she acts in the role of deus ex machina, a term that literally means ‘god from the machine’. Although that term might conjure up the sort of imagery you’d see in a Marvel or Matrix movie, it’s real meaning is much more straightforward than it might sound. The ‘machine’ is in fact the mechane, a sort of crane that formed part of the Ancient Greek stage. It was a heightened platform, placed physically above the action of the rest of the scene, to signify to the audience that the actor was playing a god. Whenever the drama has reached a point near the climax of the story, and all the play’s problems seem unsolvable, a god appeared on this stage. They then go on to very effectively resolve the conflict of the play, by telling each of the characters what they must do. It’s not always been a popular technique in tragedy – Aristotle was critical of the convention of the deus ex machina in his treatise on tragedy, the Poetics. Today, many would still agree with him. Yet it is a fitting role for Athena to fulfil. It’s consistent with how Athena is characterised throughout ancient literature, while also wrapping up the stories of the tragedies There is, of course, an even more vast body of myths that surround Athena. Many of these belonged to the lost poems of the Epic Cycle. We still know many of these stories – for instance, that she was one of the three goddesses Paris had to choose between in the “Apple of Discord” story. Yet so much is also lost. Perhaps the real wisdom is found in the words of Socrates – “I know that I know nothing.” Heroides: Ovid’s Brilliance Through the Female Voice by October 1, 2021 By Visnja Bojovic, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom “Whatever words are here, read on to the end. How could reading this letter hurt you? Indeed, my words might even give you pleasure. These letters carry my secret thoughts over land and sea,” So writes Ovid in the Letter from Phaedra to Hippolytus from his magnificent work, the Heroides. Here, Ovid explores some of the greatest (and some of the most tempestuous) romances of Greek mythology: Odysseus and Penelope, Dido and Aeneas, and Theseus and Ariadne, amongst others. Despite its obvious appeal, however, the Heroides has been unjustifiably neglected and overlooked. This work is a collection of 21 fictional letters. The first fifteen letters are presented as being written by women (all mythical except for the final letter, which is by a fictional version of the Greek poetess Sappho). They are each addressed to their current or former lovers from whom they have been separated. Letters 16-21 are known as the Double Heroides, as they contain three letters from mythical heroes, all followed by a response from their respective female lovers. These letters are all written in elegiac couplets: a pair of sequential lines in poetry in which the first line is written in dactylic hexameter (typical for epic poetry) and the second line in dactylic pentameter. The authenticity of some of these letters, however, particularly the Double Heroides, has been questioned. Yet most critics accept that 1-14 were written by Ovid. Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus by Angelica Kauffmann Ariadne Abandoned by Theseus by Angelica Kauffmann This work is innovative in many aspects. Ovid made a significant change in shifting the perspective of an elegiac poem to a female one. Elegy was all about personal experiences and desires, and an individual’s feelings, but usually from a perspective of a male lover. Instead, Ovid lets women speak up and offer their own perspective. Yet we must be a more careful than to assume that Ovid was some kind of an initiator of the fight for the female voice, however significant this change might be. Speaking of innovation, Ovid did something else that was not common for this type of poetry. He took mythical material, most common in epic and tragedy, and retold it in the elegiac manner, putting love at the center of attention. The reception of the Heroides has varied greatly (and it continues to vary to this day). It achieved great popularity in the Middle Ages. Yet tastes and expectations change over time, and starting with the 19th century, these fictional letters began to receive a lot of criticism. Phèdre by Alexandre Cabanel Phèdre by Alexandre Cabanel One of the greatest objections to Heroides is its artificiality. What this criticism fails to acknowledge, however, is that these letters are not written in an attempt to sound like genuine letters. They are the product of a poet with well-rounded rhetorical knowledge, and a great sense for innovation. Ovid uses the epistolary form as a literary device, placing particular aspects of the mythical narrative in the center. This allows us to hear from the perspective of some of the more marginalized characters and figures from Greek mythology. Many critics have found these letters too monotonous, as they have similar narratives with too much repetition across them. We cannot deny that there is repetition in Heroides. However, this is not accidental. Although Ovid’s heroines are saying the same things, they are doing it in slightly different ways. Moreover, the authors of different letters are alluding to each other and referring to the words of their respective comrades in suffering. This kind of intertextuality shows that Ovid’s repetition was not accidental, but rather a deliberate literary technique. Even though the main themes of these letters are almost the same, and despite the fact that the characters are saying similar things, the tone of these letters is not the same. One would expect all of them to be sad and demonstrate the typical tragic pathos. However, some of these letters are tragicomic, and some are incredibly witty and humorous, while still preserving the tone of suffering and evoking compassion among the readers. So whether you want to experience cathartic emotions or laughter, or even better, a roller-coaster of both, read Ovid’s Heroides. In any case, you will not regret it! Ovid, Heroides, The Latin Library P. Murgatroyd, B. Reeves, and S. Parker (2017) Ovid’s Heroides: A New Translation and Critical Essays, Routledge L. Fulkerson (2005) The Ovidian Heroine as Author; Reading, Writing, and Community in the Heroides; Cambridge University Press If you want to read more about Ovid, this month’s edition of our magazine, Classical Wisdom Litterae, focuses on the famed poet. Get your subscription NOW! The Differences Between Roman and Greek Tragedy by September 29, 2021 by Lydia Serrant, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom There is no doubt that the Romans drew a lot from the Greeks. This included their love of theatre. Roman theatre took a while to take hold, but once it did, it was popularised across the Empire and evolved over the centuries. The Romans adopted many of the Greek gods, so the mythological plays of Attica were a natural choice for the Roman Theatre. However, the Romans had a bloodthirst that was unrivaled by the Greeks, and overall they preferred a violent comedy to the slower and more philosophical tragedies. That was not to say that Roman theatre was void of popular tragedies. The earliest surviving tragedies by Ennius (239 – 169 BC) and Pacuvius (220 – 130BC) were widely circulated and therefore, preserved for later audiences. It was the Greco-Roman poet and former slave Lucius Accius (284 – 205 BC) that popularised theatrical Tragedy and introduced Greek Tragedy for Roman audiences. The Romans liked the adaptations so much that they used Lucius’ translations of Homer’s Odyssey as an educational book for over 200 years. The physical structure of the theatres is the first tell-tale sign of how the Greek plays were adapted for a Roman audience. Greek theatres were traditionally carved out of hillsides, whereas Roman theatres were built brick by brick from the ground up. Standard Floor Plan of a Roman Theatre Standard Floor Plan of a Roman Theatre This was not because the Greeks were incapable of building magnificent theatres; history has left us with some astounding examples of ancient Greek architecture. The Greeks preferred hillsides because they did not use backdrops or props. Hillsides overlooked the city, and most of the Greek plays were set in Athens. Of course, the Romans were not in Athens and therefore incorporated the use of backdrops and stage props to propel audiences back to ancient Greece. This also allowed to make the play more of a spectacle (in fact, the word spectacle derives, from the Latin Spectaclum meaning Public Show). Roman Plays The Romans copied much of the Greek when it came to storytelling and performance. There were some differences but the basic concepts remained the same, and many of the Greek plays were translated for Roman audiences. When the Roman translation of Homer’s Odyssey first hit the Roman Theatre scene, it was quickly followed by Achilles, Ajax, the Trojan Horse, and later popular comedies such as Virgo and Gladiolus. The Romans were not without original imagination when it came to playwriting, but most of the early plays were modelled after 5th-century Greek tragedies. Later comedies favor the newer style of comedy popularised under Alexander the Great that focused not on the epic tales of the gods but on the deeds of everyday citizens. The Seneca Plays Seneca was a known Stoic, and a great admirer and scholar of Greek philosophy. So how much Greek culture did Seneca consciously or unconsciously absorb into his plays? Only eight of Seneca’s plays have survived to this day, Furens, Hercules, Medea, Phaedra, Troades, Oedipus, Thyestes, and Agamemnon. Hercules Oetaeus and Octavia are regularly accredited to Seneca, but are likely not his original work. Bust of Seneca Bust of Seneca While it is probable that Seneca’s plays were performed within his lifetime, historians are not certain of this. What is certain is that the plays had a profound impact on theatrical history. Seneca exclusively wrote tragedies based on Greek myths. The Romans got from Seneca’s plays what they could not get anywhere else, the opportunity to be both entertained and to learn from the philosophical master. Seneca’s plays struck a chord with the masses and are still enacted to this day. They remained popular across medieval Europe and throughout the Classical renaissance. His plays differ from the original Attica (Greek Athenian) plays in that they follow a five-act form instead of the traditional three, and they incorporated rhetoric structures that argued for a particular point of view or philosophical stance. Seneca entrenched his plays in turmoil and personal conflict, and he focused on social and political issues that were relevant at the time and remain relevant to modern audiences. Known as fabulae crepidatae (Latin Tragedy with Greek subjects) Seneca’s characters were the mythological Greek characters of old, but each story was presented as a reflection of the audience’s mental state and condition of the soul. Unlike the Attica plays, Seneca’s stage rarely gave way to the gods. Instead, inspired by the plays of Euripides and Sophocles, Seneca’s plays were bound with witches and spirits, and all manner of mystical and esoteric symbolism that resonated with this audience. Seneca wrote his works primarily to be spoken, not enacted. However, later Roman taste preferred colorful plays to long-drawn-out auditory pieces, so actors were introduced along with costumes, props, and choruses. As time passed and the Roman theatres grew larger and more grand, the spoken word became increasingly more difficult to hear, so the plays eventually incorporated the choir and orchestra to guide the audience’s feelings and emotions, rather than solely relying on Seneca’s rhetoric alone. Seneca’s plays were written to affect the human psyche, and explore the moral and philosophical territory. Like Shakespeare, Seneca did not write for a specific place or time, but through dialogues and soliloquies, his plays could be re-enacted at any point throughout history, which is a testament to their popularity and longevity.	<urn:uuid:3654ba24-df38-4f22-aa80-659ff37602f2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.044247210025787354, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9751365780830383, "url": "https://classicalwisdom.com/category/culture/" }
Biological organisms have evolved a plethora of tactics to survive and reproduce in a wide range of habitats. While some species are what you might call ‘honest’ in their approach to life, many species are rather ‘dishonest’ and take advantage of other species. In particular, parasites exploit their hosts in a number of ways to cheat their way through life. Cuckoos are one such parasite: they escape the energetically costly investment of rearing young by laying their eggs in the nests of other birds. This is very detrimental for the hosts, as many, if not all, of their own young do not survive. While cuckoos are quite adept at sneaking their own eggs into the nests of their apparently unsuspecting hosts, they are not always successful. Many birds actively try to prevent this parasitism, often by attacking the offending cuckoos or by evicting any eggs in their nests that look strange. This enticed Jenny York and Nicholas Davies from the University of Cambridge, UK, to try to discover whether cuckoos have any other clever tricks to enhance the success of their own offspring. York and Davies chose to focus on reed warblers as the host species, as their nests are often the preferred choice of cuckoos. Firstly, they played four different calls to nesting reed warblers, including a female cuckoo, a male cuckoo, a Eurasian sparrowhawk and a collared dove. Theoretically, the reed warblers should not treat the calls of the male cuckoo or the dove as threats; the female cuckoo, while a threat to their clutch, should not pose an immediate threat to the adults; whereas the sparrowhawk would necessitate instantaneous vigilance. Indeed, the reed warblers did not react to the male cuckoo and the dove calls; however, they responded with increased alertness to the female cuckoo and the sparrowhawk calls. However, York and Davies wanted to confirm whether this similarity in response was due to similarities between the calls or whether they are individually perceived as threats. Therefore, they repeated the same experiment on tits, birds which are often preyed upon by sparrowhawks, yet are not typically used as hosts by cuckoos. So, one could expect that the tits’ response to the calls of female cuckoos and sparrowhawks would vary if they do indeed sound different. However, their responses to all four calls were identical to those of the reed warblers, suggesting that while the calls of the female cuckoos and sparrowhawks sound different to us, they sound similar enough to birds. But how does having a similar call to a sparrowhawk help female cuckoos? Well it's the perfect distraction, of course. York and Davies conducted one final experiment where they painted one of the eggs in a reed warbler nest solid brown, ensuring it looked different to their usual splotchy eggs, and then presented the parents with the four varying bird calls. The reed warbler parents that were distracted by either the sparrowhawk or the female cuckoo calls were less likely to reject the odd egg, in contrast to the parents presented with the male cuckoo or dove calls, which often removed the foreign-looking egg from their nest. By diverting the attention of the hosts with a false predatory call, female cuckoos increase the chance of their own offspring being accepted and surviving. While this may be a rather ‘dishonest’ way of ensuring your genes live on, we have to admit that it is a very clever tactic. J. E. N. B. Female cuckoo calls misdirect host defences towards the wrong enemy Nat. Ecol. Evol.	<urn:uuid:d3d88d76-b4b9-4dc1-91dd-0af95819479c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.09375, "fasttext_score": 0.13229382038116455, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9757339358329773, "url": "https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/220/23/4325/33682/Swindling-cuckoos-hawk-like-call-tricks-hosts?searchresult=1" }
Island Weirdness #28 – The Rodrigues Solitaire Located to the east of Mauritius, the small island of Rodrigues is the geologically youngest of the Mascarenes, formed only about 1.5-2 million years ago. And it also had its own large flightless bird – the Rodrigues solitaire, Pezophaps solitaria. It was closely related to the dodo, although it wasn’t a direct descendant. Based on DNA studies their last common ancestor is estimated to have lived about 20 million years ago, so they must have each convergently evolved from separate pigeon lineages that arrived on each island at different times. Standing 70-90cm tall (2′4″-2′11″), with males being larger than females, it had long legs, a long neck, and a slightly hooked beak with a black band described as resembling a widow’s peak. Its plumage was grey and brown, and it was reportedly aggressively territorial and capable of giving a strong bite. It had large lumpy bony knobs on its wrist bones that were used as weapons to clobber each other while fighting. Due to this its wings were less reduced than the dodo, retaining stronger musculature, and it was apparently also capable of using them to create loud low-frequency sounds for communication – possibly in a similar manner to modern crested pigeons’ whistling wings. The solitaire survived for longer than both its dodo cousin and the Réunion ibis, but only because its island was rarely visited by humans until the late 1600s. Once Rodrigues began to be exploited the story became the same as the other Mascarene islands: a combination of hunting, habitat destruction, and predation by invasive species rapidly dwindled its population. It likely went extinct sometime between the 1730s and 1750s, since an exhaustive search for a live specimen in 1755 failed to find a single bird. Island Weirdness #27 – The Réunion Ibis Island Weirdness #26 – The Mauritian Giant Skink Along with its unique birds, Mauritius was also home to many endemic reptile species. In the absence of terrestrial mammals giant tortoises were the largest herbivores on the island, and various geckos, skinks, and snakes helped to fill out the rest of the vertebrate ecosystem. Leiolopisma mauritiana was a very large skink, one of the biggest ever known to have existed with a total length of around 80cm (2′7″). Its ancestors originated in Australasia, over 5600km away (~3500 miles) at least 3-4 million years ago – and they must have endured a particularly long ocean rafting journey without any island hopping stops, since none of the other islands along that route seem to have ever had populations of similar skinks. It probably lived in rocky areas, possibly also being capable of digging burrows, and would have eaten an omnivorous diet of seeds, fruits, invertebrates, and smaller lizards and birds. By the early 1600s it was already extinct, very soon after the arrival of humans, probably due to predation from invasive mammals like rats. However, its half-sized close relative Leiolopisma telfairii does still survive on rat-free Round Island a short distance to the north of Mauritius, and recent conservation efforts have been rebuilding its population and setting up new colonies on other nearby small islands. Island Weirdness #25 – The Broad-Billed Parrot The dodo wasn’t the only unique bird to evolve on Mauritius. While about eight other endemic bird species still survive today, there were at least twice that many before the arrival of humans in the late 1500s – including the broad-billed parrot Lophopsittacus mauritianus. Also referred to as the “Indian raven” in historical accounts, it was a fairly large bird measuring between 45 and 65cm in length (1′6″-2′1″). Unusually for a parrot it had a high degree of sexual dimorphism, with males being significantly bigger than females. Many images depict it as entirely black or blue-grey, but this seems to be based on a misinterpretation. More recent translations of old Dutch descriptions suggest it was actually much more colorful, with a red beak, blue head, and reddish body. It had a proportionally big head and a flattened skull, and seems to have had a highly specialized diet, using its its large strong beak to crack open hard seeds and nuts like modern hyacinth macaws. It was near-flightless, capable of taking to the air only with difficulty, and was said to be “bad-tempered”. Attempts to keep individuals in captivity failed, the birds refusing to eat, and while the wild population had apparently learned to be wary of humans by the late 1660s by that point it was already too late. Much like the dodos they lived alongside, a combination of deforestation, hunting, and predation by invasive mammal species sent them into extinction by the 1680s. Island Weirdness #24 – The Dodo	<urn:uuid:1e58242c-333e-437e-bbbf-6b9d15dc7568>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.23289132118225098, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9776816368103027, "url": "https://nixillustration.com/tag/mascarene-islands/" }
How do you calculate emissions from flights? The combustion of 1 kg of jet fuel in an aircraft engine produces 3.15 kg of carbon dioxide (CO2). However, the volume released per flight is based on a number of factors, such as aircraft efficiency and maintenance, distance travelled, the load carried (passengers and cargo) and weather conditions. Although there are several methods to calculate carbon emissions from a flight, airlines participating in the IATA carbon offset program use a methodology based on the one developed by the United Nation’s International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). IATA has developed this concept further by creating a tool that allows airlines to use their own verified data on fuel burn, passenger and cargo weights, seat configurations and load factors. This tool generates the most accurate calculation of CO2 emissions per passenger yet developed. Note: All values are the averages across all flights and aircraft types for the city pair flown. Powered by Zendesk	<urn:uuid:9e489e1d-7cef-4d0f-8749-4bd6cf8a4ab2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.6149187088012695, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9313222765922546, "url": "https://qatarairways.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/360013226917-How-do-you-calculate-emissions-from-flights-" }
56.4 F Davis, California Wednesday, October 20, 2021 Column: Worms in farms Nematodes are some of the most important animals that we rarely ever see. They’re commonly called roundworms because, well, that’s what they look like. They’re much more diverse than you would expect, though, ranging from microscopic bacteria grazers and plant eaters to foot-long worms in the human intestine. Howard Ferris, professor of nematology at UC Davis, focuses on the microscopic, though humans did discover the larger ones first. “Humans have been aware of nematodes for a long time because they affected us directly,” Ferris said. “People would say, ‘What’s that wriggling in the fecal sample?'” After people discovered nematodes in themselves, it wasn’t too long before they realized it was one of the causes of diseases in their crops, as well. Ferris took me on a short tour of his specialty, the microscopic nematodes that live in soil. We looked through a microscope that had two separate viewers so I could watch as he showed me the worms. The nematodes that are important to agriculture come in countless different varieties, but based on what they feed upon, the layperson can classify them: bacteria-eating, plant-eating and predatory. These differences are just as important to nematodes as the food web differences between plankton, fish and humans. “Some [nematodes] are higher-level predators of nematodes that are plant pests; they can suppress their root-feeding prey, leading to less damage to the plant,” Ferris said. In other words, the presence of predatory nematodes keeps the plant-eaters in check. Both the predatory and the plant-eating nematodes, though tiny, take on a complex and almost sinister appearance. In the mouth of the predatory nematode are sharp teeth; they are the lions of the nematode world. The plant-eaters have an even stranger structure. They have what looks like a sharp pin inside of their head, called a stylet. When the nematode finds a plant cell or root that it wants, the pin ejects out of the mouth and stabs the cell, sucking in its contents. These are the plant pathogens that can cause disease in crops, from potato cyst nematodes to root-knot nematodes. Unfortunately, the predatory nematodes that eat the plant-eaters have weaknesses in a farming environment. “Predatory nematodes are sensitive to fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals; the chemicals dissolve water films around soil particles, which is where the nematodes live,” Ferris said. “Predatory nematodes are also intolerant to soil disturbances. Soil tillage abrades their bodies.” According to Ferris, the plant-eaters are also stronger than their predators in the face of chemical pesticides. The pesticides negatively affect all nematodes, but the plant-eaters tend to rebound more quickly. The result is a less diverse microbial community in the soil and therefore fewer resources that the land can provide through microbial metabolism. Ferris wants the agricultural world to change its thinking, from exterminating every living thing in the soil except the wanted crop to allowing a wide diversity of life to flourish. “The scorched approach to agriculture results in nearly empty soil,” Ferris said. “Once you’ve annihilated the community in the soil, how do you recreate it? Once you’ve lost that soil food web, getting it back requires more effort and time than tearing it down.” As we left his lab, we stopped by an adjacent room. It was fairly small, about twice as large as a walk-in closet, but filled nearly floor to ceiling with books and files. Ferris explained that this room was a result of farmers in Davis, years ago, wanting research on nematodes compiled for reference. The collection now contains about 15,000 reprints of research from the early 1900s to about 1990. The room gives a glimpse of the pre-internet days before scientific journals had an effective way to gather all their research for easy access. Some of the research papers and references in here are old enough that journals didn’t bother archiving them online. Growing up as I did on the cusp of the internet revolution, I only spent my elementary and middle school years needing to look through reference books and encyclopedias to research a topic, and I still felt nostalgic. That feeling of nostalgia was clearly stronger for Ferris as he flipped through one of the many worn books. “I’m forever finding stuff that I knew nothing about,” Ferris said. AMY STEWART can be reached at science@theaggie.org. Please enter your comment! Please enter your name here	<urn:uuid:aac1cb5b-4f0e-486e-9d54-56abc5fdfd37>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.021950125694274902, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9527881145477295, "url": "https://theaggie.org/2011/10/20/column-worms-in-farms/" }
Making Their Mark Museum Exhibit Making Their Mark Museum Exhibit If you are interested in booking the exhibit, please contact Kerry Barrett. This exhibit is related to several Alberta Education programs of study including Aboriginal Studies, Mathematics, Science, Social Sciences and Social Studies. The relationship to the Social Studies program, from Kindergarten to Grade 12, is particularly strong. The exhibit consists of: 1. Fifteen panels describing how surveys were done and the role of surveyors in the development of Alberta. 2. Four display cases showing different types of equipment used by land surveyors in the past. 3. A tent showing how land surveyors lived and worked many years ago. 4. An audio-visual presentation showing the work of land surveyors from 100 years ago to today. 5. Seven hands-on activities for kids -particularly aimed at the Grade 8 level. 1. Panels Panel 1: Making Their Mark Surveyors were among those who initially saw western Canada as it had been for years. They were the forerunners of change,development and prosperity. Panel 2: Western Canada - A Vast Territory to be Surveyed and Settled The Dominion Lands Survey provided the structure and information needed for the rapid and orderly development of the West. Panel 3: An Indelible Imprint on the Prairie Landscape Surveyors establish a framework of meridians and baselines requiring careful measurement and accurate observations. Panel 4: Survey Words in Everyday Life What is a range road? Baseline road? Why is it called a correction line? Panel 5: Placing Monuments - You Better Not Move Them Surveyors mark boundaries with monuments. What do they look like? What is the penalty for removing them? Panel 6: Peoples Facing Change - First Nations The land surveyors had the task of balancing the policies of the government with the interests and demands of First Nations and Metis peoples. Panel 7: "It Would Ruin The Whole Settlement" -The River Lot System Louis Riel steps on the surveyor's chain. St. Albert residents threaten force. Panel 8: Getting There - Trains and Boats and Dog Teams At the beginning of the Dominion Land Survey, travelling to Winnipeg from Eastern Canada took several days, usually by US railways. Panel 9: Life in the Field was Great Except... Summer heat, winter cold, prairie fires, rivers, grasshoppers, mosquitoes, black flies... Panel 10: 1883 - A Banner Year - Land Surveyors Set World Record Land surveyors subdivide 27 million acres as the railway prepares to move west. Panel 11: Opening the West for Settlement Parliament acts to open up the west for settlement by establishing the township system of survey and guaranteed title to the land. Panel 12: Land Surveying in Alberta after 1905 -Boom to Bust The big years of township surveys were ending and Canada entered a recession in 1913. There was little work for land surveyors. Panel 13: Land Surveying in Alberta after 1947 -Bust to Boom The discovery of oil was the single most important factor in the evolution of land surveying in Alberta. Land surveys were required for wellsites, pipelines and other facilities. Panel 14: Day to Day Life in the Field in the1950s Three stories of life as a land surveyor was really like in the 1950s. Panel 15: Land Surveying Today Land surveyors still play an important role in the development of Alberta today. 2. Display Cases Four display cases show different types of equipment used by land surveyors in the past. In one case, see how land surveyors calculated distances with several old calculators, while in another display, see the types of equipment they used. The third display shows how surveyors took observations and measured angles. The different types of monuments that surveyors used to mark property lines can also be seen. 3. The Tent A typical field party in the early 1900s consisted of twelve or more men. The chief had overall responsibility for the survey. Making Their Mark recreates what a typical surveyor's tent would look like. 4. Surveyors and Surveying in Alberta Audio-Visual Presentation Surveyors and Surveying in Alberta is a 124-picture, 10:30 minute presentation showing pictures of transportation, camp life and technology from the early 1900s to today. 5. Hands-On Activities Making Their Mark includes the “Made to Measure” crate (crate 9 of 10) from the Science Alberta Foundation. What do adventure, history, the outdoors and your own backyard all have in common? Math! Use problem-solving skills and other math concepts to explore Alberta’s past and present through the eyes of a land surveyor. Intended Audience: Grade 8 Curricula: Mathematics - Shape and Space Activity 1: Digital Connections Creation and analysis of a digital network using land surveyor descriptions of vertex locations. Activity 2: Looking for Black Gold 3-D modeling of a potential well site by mapping data collected by land surveyors. Activity 3: “Orange” You Glad You’re a Surveyor? Data collection and pythagorean application in a land survey crew fieldwork experience. Activity 4: That was Then, This is Now Composite area estimation using photos and maps of property boundaries. Activity 5: The Big Leak Volume relationship of oil tank to surrounding ditch. Activity 6: The Lost Lemon Quadrilateral classifications as clues to create a treasure map to a lost mine in Alberta. Activity 7: World Survey Application of map scale to visit some international work locales of land surveyors. 10020 - 101A Avenue Suite 1000 Edmonton, Alberta T5J 3G2 1-800-665-2572 (Toll Free)	<urn:uuid:bb1292b2-947e-4143-820a-5eeb2eb63c1f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.025316298007965088, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.895167887210846, "url": "https://www.alsa.ab.ca/Making-Their-Mark-Museum-Exhibit" }
in Blog Jesus’s Stenographers in their Historical Setting • May 10, 2019 • By BVNoort Jesus’s Stenographers in their Historical Setting Jesus’s Stenographers in their Historical Setting Before the year 63 BC we knew nothing about stenography, not among the Greeks and not among the Romans. Then the new art of writing came. Thucydides, Father of Greek Historical Writing (431 BC) In the year 431 BC the war between Athens and Sparta began, and it is generally assumed that Thucydides began in that year with his description of the occurrences. In the introduction of his history he writes about the different speeches that were made: “that it was difficult to recall with strict accuracy the words actually spoken … and that he adhered as closely as possible to the general sense of what was actually said.” Already in the past, it was clear for all that Thucydides tried to be as close as possible to the spoken word in his orations, but not strictly and not always. Nevertheless Thucydides’s method of writing history became the example for Greeks and Romans forever. (Source: Thucydides) Invention of Stenography (ca. 65 BC) It was a slave of Cicero, named Tiro, who invented stenography. It was an elaboration on rapid writing that was already common in the Greco-Roman culture and practiced by slaves. It is remarkable that Tiro used a little and recognizable part of an existing letter for consonants and in the same way he did for the vowels. These parts together were then written as one sign. The result was that he could create one sign for each syllable. In the beginning he probably did not give signs for all the Latin word endings (nouns). (Source: Isidore of Seville, ca. 600 AD) Introduction of the Art (63 BC) Stenography was introduced in the Roman Senate by Cicero in 63 BC. He had been chosen as a consul in that year, and on December 5 he introduced stenography in the Senate, which brought an unexpected turn in political affairs. Rome was in turmoil through the threat by Catilina who wanted to take over political power in Rome as he approached the city with a formidable army. Cicero knew that the last speaker, Cato the Younger, had a harsh point of view about Catilina and his spies who had been taken captive in Rome: for them he wanted the death penalty. Because of the importance of the subject, Cicero positioned stenographers at different places in the Senate. That day the Forum of Rome was crowded with people in a state of great fear for the future of their city. Cicero knew that shortly after the special meeting of the senators everybody in town could learn what was said through the reports produced by the stenographers. The senators understood that they could not risk defending a weak standpoint as writers worked during the discourse with the final decision. It turned out that Catilina had been sentenced to death by default and his conspirators were sentenced to death and were executed the same day. (Source: Plutarch, ca. 90 AD) Latin and Greek Stenography after the Introduction (Since 63 BC) The impact of the introduction of stenography in Rome was great. Not only with the Romans, but also the Greeks began following the art that had proven to deliver an oration with accuracy. There were great communities of Greeks in Rome and other cities of Italy and these were also enthusiastic about the new art of writing. We know this from Plutarch who concluded at the end of his description about the introduction by Cicero: “For one had not yet trained nor possessed the so called sèmeiographous (stenographers), but then at first one began to follow the trail (i.e. the praxis).” Plutarch wrote this in Greek in about 90 AD. By the use of the term “the so called sèmeiographous” we know that not only the Romans but also the Greeks had a tradition of stenography in Plutarch’s time. Furthermore he says in the post clause that then they (one) began to follow the trail (of stenography); consequently he spoke in the post clause about Romans and Greeks. The year 63 was not only important for the beginning of the Roman start of stenography, but this was also the time when the Greek variant of classical stenography began. (Source: Plutarch, ca. 90 AD) Cicero Used the Greek Term (45 BC) In a letter to his friend Atticus, it is said by Cicero that Atticus did not have understanding of a former letter as he had used abbreviations in it. Regarding the number fourteen, he had used the Roman number XIIII. In that second letter he used a remarkable expression: “dia sèmeioon scripseram”. That is: (Greek) through signs (Latin) I had written. “Signs” was the Greek standard expression for steno signs. In the Roman culture, stenography remained a matter for slaves for a long time, but apparently not among the Greeks who often set the tone in the Greco-Roman culture. That was probably the reason for Cicero’s use of the Greek term for stenography. It seemed to be pretty chic to use the Greek expression for stenography in the Latin letter to Atticus. Apparently many Latin characters for numbers were very useful in stenography, even in the Greek variant. (Source: Cicero, 45 BC) Augustus Caesar (ca. 40 BC) He supposed that the oration of Julius Caesar named “For Quintus Metellus”, was not the original version as it did not agree with a copy in Julius Caesar’s legacy. He had assumed that the actuarii (shorthand writers, not stenographers) of the inferior copy, would not have been able to follow the spoken word precisely. In Latin a stenographer was called “notarius”. (Source: Suetonius, ca. 120 AD) Again Augustus Caesar (30 BC–14 AD) In the Golden Age of the Roman Empire improvements have been arranged in the art of stenography. They were implemented by two slaves (liberated) Vipsanius Filagrius and Aquila. As they lived in the surrounding of Caesar Augustus it is to all appearances that they worked under imperial order. They probably worked together with both the Latin as well as the Greek variant of the new art of writing. (Source: Bishop Isidore of Seville, ca. 600 AD) (ca. 30 AD) Luke says in the first two clauses of his prologue (1:1–2) that bystanders of the events of Jesus were informed by eyewitnesses about what they had seen and heard, also being servants of the spoken word! This is of a total different level than the history of Thucydides, who honestly witnessed “that he adhered as closely as possible to the general sense of what was actually said.” Of course Luke could not proudly state that he worked more accurately than the usual Greek history writing. He could do what Thucydides did: telling what his sources were and how he used them. Luke used them just as the many did (1:1), who copied the reports of the eyewitnesses (just as). Luke described the eyewitnesses as real professionals, not as the amateurs as they are always painted in Church history: romantic and idyllic fishermen. In the same way Matthew stated after each long oration “when Jesus had finished these words … etc.” (or sayings, 7:28–29, 11:1, 13:53, 19:1, 26:1). In this way he underlined that the actual words of Jesus had been presented. Only professional stenographers were able to do that. Everybody knew that in the Jewish land before 70 AD. After that period, with high apostolic standards in the Church, a period of great ignorance about the early roots of Christianity set in. Soon the high culture of the Jews was forgotten, as a result of the general contempt and discrimination—also among the Church Fathers—for the Jewish people who had lost their country. (Sources: Luke, Matthew, ca. 30 AD) (ca. 50 AD) In one of his Letters the philosopher Seneca gives a short impression about stenography. He was a wealthy man and the value of stenography could be bought in the form of the lowest slaves at the market place. They were the inventors, he said, and still the most skilled workers of his time. This is the reason that we do not Hear much about stenographers in the first century (silent period), they belonged to the lowest social layers. And yet he expressed their art as: “signs (notas), which enable us to take down a speech, however rapidly uttered, matching the speed of the tongue by the speed of the hand.” It is clear that stenographers were indispensable in the enormous Roman empire. (Source: Seneca, ca. 50 AD) (ca. 70 AD) A great exception was Titus, the son of emperor Vespasianus. He competed with his stenographers in the art. This is an example of how stenography slowly became part of the free world in which ordinary people would also began to learn the art. At the end of the first century there were as many stenography teachers in Rome as there were teachers in grammar and rhetoric. (Source: Suetonius, ca. 120 AD) Later Centuries Later on, all the Church fathers had stenographers at their service to establish their sermons. If there was an open spot through the illness of a stenographer—Augustine said—there was always a volunteer in Church to fill in the gap. (Source: Augustine, ca. 390 AD By BVNoort, May 10, 2019 Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:0eb6e234-1996-4fb8-acc9-3816994acb29>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.09333544969558716, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9836917519569397, "url": "https://www.gospelevidence.com/jesuss-stenographers-in-their-historical-setting/" }
Phoenician cities Byblos and Sidon Postcard showing Byblos port Postcard showing Byblos port Byblos, also known as Gubla, and later Gebal (in the Bible). According to Phoenician legend, Byblos was founded by the God El. Throughout time, they considered it a city of great antiquity. Although its founding is lost within the mists of time, modern scholars believe the site of Byblos is at least 7,000 years old. The current naming of the city and state can be lain at the feet of the Greeks. Sometime after 1200 B.C., they gave the region the name of “Phoenicia”, referring to the coastal area. Phoenicians called the city “Byblos”. On the Mediterranean coast, 23 miles north of Beirut, lay Byblos. It can be found close to the modern Jebail. The Dog River’s headland separates the two cities. In ancient times, it served as an important defensive barrier. Many conquerors documented their passage across the high limestone cliffs. The river, being tremendously fast and having many high waterfalls, made it necessary for travelers to go around. This defense was a double-edged sword, however and caused Byblos to fall into disuse. The camel became the vehicle of choice for transportation and could not easily surpass the raging river. Cities with easy trails became routes of choice, bypassing Byblos. By the time ships came into use by the Greeks and Romans, Byblos was overshadowed by Tyre and Sidon. About 5 miles south of Byblos is the Nahr Ibrahim, recognized in ancient times as the Adonis River. An antiquated road leads up a treacherous track to the village of Afqa. Located within this small town was the famous Temple of Aphrodite. Byblos can boast about being the site in which the oldest fully intelligible Canaanite alphabetic text was found. It contained a five-line inscription revealing the construction of a wall by one of the kings the city. The characters, dating from 1000 BC, are more ancient. With this text, using twenty-two characters, the Phoenicians from Byblos originated the linear alphabet system that is the origin of the modern western alphabet. The Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom of Egypt had a sporadic command over trade routes in Palestine and Syria. At Byblos, they had an important merchant colony. Byblos had timber, tin and resin to trade with Egyptian ships carrying papyrus. During the time, Byblos became an important commercial center for exportation of papyrus. According to information’s that can be found in Bible it can be concluded that people of Byblos were great boat builders and well-versed in the maritime skills. Ruins of Byblos Ruins of Byblos Byblos was the capital of the Giblites people, or ‘mountaineers’. Giblitest peoples were the leading tribe of Lebanon in the days of Joshua. Research about the Giblites people shows they appeared to have been an educated and enterprising people. They were even King Solomon’s chief architects when he built the Temple. Not only were they great architects, but the Giblites were also famous ship-builders. This is known because the ancients of Byblos were the leading men in the dock-yards of Tyre. Apparently, Giblites were members of the same race to which the Hamites and Semites of later times belonged. 20-19th cent. –Mention in both early and late Execration texts. 1400-1350 –City-kingdom according to el-Amarna letters. pre-1280 –Mentioned in Papyrus Anastasi I. Phoenicia map Map of Phoenicia c.1100 –Journey of Wen-Amon. c.1000 –The oldest fully intelligible Canaanite alphabetic text. 333 –Campaign of Alexander: Byblos surrendered without resistance. Scientists believed that area of Sidon was inhabited probably around 4000 BC in Neolithic period. Sidon as the Phoenician city was built on a cape facing an island, which protected its fleet from bad weather conditions. Sometimes Sidon served as a refuge center during military incursions from the interior. In its wealth, commercial initiative, and religious significance, Sidon during the time surpassed all other commercial city states of Phoenicia. Sidon was twice destroyed in war between the 7th and 4th centuries BC. and again during the earthquake in the 6th Century AD. The excavations at Sidon by British archeologists The excavations at Sidon by British archeologists. Source: Geographically position of Sidon was quite good for Phoenician because on east were highlands with altitudes from 2000 to 2600 feet, but still dissected enough to allow merchants to travel on the eastern territories, in first place traveling to Damascus. The Sidonian depression, a geological line of weakness, strikes to the southeast, and finally in the north ending the Lebanon Mountain range and providing usable trade routes inland. The hills are for the most part limestone and chalk, so the forests were not thick. The city was cited on a low hill and a wall separated the city from attack by land. Production of glass was Sidon’s most important enterprise in the Phoenician era. This production of glass conducted on a vast scale and the production of purple dye in which Phoenicians was famous. The small shell of the Hexaplex trunculus (or Murex trunculus) was broken by artisan in order to extract the pigment that was so rare it became the mark of royalty. Textiles were produced in Sidon using the dye and traded in all parts of the ancient world. Production of textiles in Sidon were flourished. It was later found that the sands from the area produced an excellent transparent glass, and this glass was a prized commodity throughout the Near East. Brief historical facts Year (BC) Historical fact 1400-1350 City kingdom according to el-Amarna Letters. 1280 Mentioned in papyrus Anastasi I. 11th cent. Journey of Wen-Amon passes thru Sidon. 1050 Philistines destroyed Sidon; inhabitants fled to Tyre. 980 Joab’s census …reaches Sidon 841 Campaign of Egyptian pharaoh Shalmaneser III 806 Campaign of Adad-Nirari III to Damascus. 701 Sidon submitted to Sennacherib; Luli, king of Sidon, fled. 677 Sidon revolted against Esarhaddon and lost. 351 Persian king Artaxerxes II (404-358) besieges Sidon; city burnt completely. 333 Sidon surrenders to Alexander the Great without resistance. 320 Ptolemy (by sea) and Nicanor by land occupied Sidon 315 Antigonus and Ptolemy fight back and forth thru Phoenicia. 246-217 Ptolemy and Seleucis fight back and forth. 200 Armies of Ptolemy IV were defeated; Scopas flees to Sidon. Sidon remains faithful to Antiochus during Maccabean revolt.	<urn:uuid:a142deaa-87c4-453c-9122-57e41f06bb6e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.036214232444763184, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9672800898551941, "url": "https://www.shorthistory.org/ancient-civilizations/mesopotamia/phoenicia/phoenician-cities-byblos-and-sidon/" }
1st & 2nd Grade Books > The Bug Collector The Bug Collector Text and Illustrations: Alex Griffiths \| translation: Muna Abu Baker After George (Nabil in the Arabic version) visits the Museum of Wildlife with Grandad, all he can think about is bugs! The very next day he goes out hunting, but he soon finds there are no more insects left in the garden, and the ones he has captured in jars don’t look very happy… George is about to learn exactly why bugs are so important. A brilliant, vibrant debut from Alex G. Griffiths, featuring a wonderful grandfather-grandson relationship. Family Activities George (Nabil in the Arabic version) gets excited when he sees the preserved insects in the Wildlife Museum, and dreams about them all night. So, he goes out in the morning to hunt them and lock them up in bottles and jars. However, there is a strange calmness that prevails around his house, which ... Dear Parents, Our gardens and homes are full of various insects, and we interact with them in different ways. Some of us fear them, then flee or kill them, and some of us interact with them as natural beings who share this world with us, and live with them in peace. The book draws the child’s attention to the presence of these organisms in their close environment, inviting the child to examine them, and to identify their role in maintaining the cycle of life. Family Activities • Let’s look together at the illustrations on pages 6 + 7. What other creatures can we find in the Wildlife Museum? If you’ve ever visited one and took pictures there, now is the time to look at these pictures! • What insects did George collect in bottles and jars? Can we distinguish some of them? We can talk about what would happen to insects if we locked them in closed bottles. • We may want to accompany our child on a tour in the garden or outside the house, looking for insects in the grass, on the trees, and under the rocks in a safe way that does not expose us to danger. It is interesting for our child to explore the insects through a magnifying glass, photograph them, and search for their names and characteristics. • Bees, ladybirds, and ants are beneficial to nature, and therefore to humans. Do we know other beneficial insects? which insects are harmful? • George enjoys accompanying his grandfather every week on a new adventure. What “adventures” does our child like to do with their grandfather/grandmother, or any other family member? • Together, we can look at the drawing of the sanctuary that George and his grandfather built. How does it attract beneficial insects? We may want to design our own reservation and draw it on a piece of paper. • Enjoy your reading! רעיונות לשילוב הספר בגן From the Field	<urn:uuid:943dcd59-af56-464b-8556-f59a0bfef690>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.01893085241317749, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.957457423210144, "url": "https://eng-al-fanoos.org/book/the-bug-collector/" }
Menu Close What did Brunelleschi do 1470? What did Brunelleschi do 1470? 1470), commencing with the Old Sacristy (1418-1428), a cubical chapel with an umbrella dome. In its rib construction and pointed arch form, the dome still belongs within the Gothic tradition. With the closing of the oculus in 1436, Brunelleschi designed the lantern (completed in 1467). What was Brunelleschi best known for? the dome of the Duomo Filippo Brunelleschi is best known for designing the dome of the Duomo in Florence, but he was also a talented artist. He is said to have rediscovered the principles of linear perspective, an artistic device that creates the illusion of space by depicting converging parallel lines. What is special about Brunelleschi’s dome? What is special about Brunelleschi’s dome? The dome was built by Brunelleschi and was the biggest dome in the world at the time of its construction. It also is considered one of the most significant architectural achievements of the Renaissance, still today. What happened to Brunelleschi? Brunelleschi died in Florence on April 15, 1446, and is entombed in the Duomo. He is remembered as one of the giants of Renaissance architecture. Is Brunelleschi a Renaissance man? Brunelleschi was a true Renaissance Man and he was polymath and master of several disciplines. It is generally recognized that the Florentine was a master engineer and an accomplished mathematician. How did Brunelleschi build a dome that would not collapse? What kind of pattern did Brunelleschi design to make sure the dome wouldn’t collapse? He used Herring Bone for the walls to keep the dome from falling. Who built Duomo Florence? Filippo Brunelleschi Arnolfo di CambioFrancesco TalentiEmilio De FabrisBernardo Rossellino Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore/Architects Two architects, Lorenzo Ghiberti (1368-1445) and Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) won the competition although it was the latter who actually built the dome, showing a great mastery of technical knowledge, in 1436. How did the Renaissance fall? Scholars believe the demise of the Renaissance was the result of several compounding factors. By the end of the 15th century, numerous wars had plagued the Italian peninsula. Spanish, French and German invaders battling for Italian territories caused disruption and instability in the region. Why did the Renaissance decline in Italy? Posted in Other	<urn:uuid:a8dc5a15-9499-4711-af84-4cf98ae10cf1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.9538567662239075, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9482539892196655, "url": "https://www.thelittleaussiebakery.com/what-did-brunelleschi-do-1470/" }
V, I, and R, the parameters of Ohm's law where I is the current through the conductor, V is the voltage measured across the conductor and R is the resistance of the conductor. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.[3] If the resistance is not constant, the previous equation cannot be called Ohm's law, but it can still be used as a definition of static/DC resistance.[4] Ohm's law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the conductivity of the vast majority of electrically conductive materials over many orders of magnitude of current. However some materials do not obey Ohm's law; these are called non-ohmic. The law was named after the German physicist Georg Ohm, who, in a treatise published in 1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current through simple electrical circuits containing various lengths of wire. Ohm explained his experimental results by a slightly more complex equation than the modern form above (see § History below). In physics, the term Ohm's law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the law; for example the vector form of the law used in electromagnetics and material science: where J is the current density at a given location in a resistive material, E is the electric field at that location, and σ (sigma) is a material-dependent parameter called the conductivity. This reformulation of Ohm's law is due to Gustav Kirchhoff.[5] Georg Ohm Francis Ronalds delineated "intensity" (voltage) and "quantity" (current) for the dry pile—a high voltage source—in 1814 using a gold-leaf electrometer. He found for a dry pile that the relationship between the two parameters was not proportional under certain meteorological conditions.[8][9] where x was the reading from the galvanometer, l was the length of the test conductor, a depended on the thermocouple junction temperature, and b was a constant of the entire setup. From this, Ohm determined his law of proportionality and published his results. Internal resistance model In modern notation we would write, where is the open-circuit emf of the thermocouple, is the internal resistance of the thermocouple and is the resistance of the test wire. In terms of the length of the wire this becomes, where is the resistance of the test wire per unit length. Thus, Ohm's coefficients are, Ohm's law in Georg Ohm's lab book. Ohm's law was probably the most important of the early quantitative descriptions of the physics of electricity. We consider it almost obvious today. When Ohm first published his work, this was not the case; critics reacted to his treatment of the subject with hostility. They called his work a "web of naked fancies"[11] and the Minister of Education proclaimed that "a professor who preached such heresies was unworthy to teach science."[12] The prevailing scientific philosophy in Germany at the time asserted that experiments need not be performed to develop an understanding of nature because nature is so well ordered, and that scientific truths may be deduced through reasoning alone.[13] Also, Ohm's brother Martin, a mathematician, was battling the German educational system. These factors hindered the acceptance of Ohm's work, and his work did not become widely accepted until the 1840s. However, Ohm received recognition for his contributions to science well before he died. In the 1850s, Ohm's law was widely known and considered proved. Alternatives such as "Barlow's law", were discredited, in terms of real applications to telegraph system design, as discussed by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1855.[14] The electron was discovered in 1897 by J. J. Thomson, and it was quickly realized that it is the particle (charge carrier) that carries electric currents in electric circuits. In 1900 the first (classical) model of electrical conduction, the Drude model, was proposed by Paul Drude, which finally gave a scientific explanation for Ohm's law. In this model, a solid conductor consists of a stationary lattice of atoms (ions), with conduction electrons moving randomly in it. A voltage across a conductor causes an electric field, which accelerates the electrons in the direction of the electric field, causing a drift of electrons which is the electric current. However the electrons collide with atoms which causes them to scatter and randomizes their motion, thus converting kinetic energy to heat (thermal energy). Using statistical distributions, it can be shown that the average drift velocity of the electrons, and thus the current, is proportional to the electric field, and thus the voltage, over a wide range of voltages. The development of quantum mechanics in the 1920s modified this picture somewhat, but in modern theories the average drift velocity of electrons can still be shown to be proportional to the electric field, thus deriving Ohm's law. In 1927 Arnold Sommerfeld applied the quantum Fermi-Dirac distribution of electron energies to the Drude model, resulting in the free electron model. A year later, Felix Bloch showed that electrons move in waves (Bloch electrons) through a solid crystal lattice, so scattering off the lattice atoms as postulated in the Drude model is not a major process; the electrons scatter off impurity atoms and defects in the material. The final successor, the modern quantum band theory of solids, showed that the electrons in a solid cannot take on any energy as assumed in the Drude model but are restricted to energy bands, with gaps between them of energies that electrons are forbidden to have. The size of the band gap is a characteristic of a particular substance which has a great deal to do with its electrical resistivity, explaining why some substances are electrical conductors, some semiconductors, and some insulators. Microscopic origins Hydraulic analogy A hydraulic analogy is sometimes used to describe Ohm's law. Water pressure, measured by pascals (or PSI), is the analog of voltage because establishing a water pressure difference between two points along a (horizontal) pipe causes water to flow. The water volume flow rate, as in liters per second, is the analog of current, as in coulombs per second. Finally, flow restrictors—such as apertures placed in pipes between points where the water pressure is measured—are the analog of resistors. We say that the rate of water flow through an aperture restrictor is proportional to the difference in water pressure across the restrictor. Similarly, the rate of flow of electrical charge, that is, the electric current, through an electrical resistor is proportional to the difference in voltage measured across the resistor. More generally, the hydraulic head may be taken as the analog of voltage, and Ohm's law is then analogous to Darcy's law which relates hydraulic head to the volume flow rate via the hydraulic conductivity. Flow and pressure variables can be calculated in fluid flow network with the use of the hydraulic ohm analogy.[20][21] The method can be applied to both steady and transient flow situations. In the linear laminar flow region, Poiseuille's law describes the hydraulic resistance of a pipe, but in the turbulent flow region the pressure–flow relations become nonlinear. Circuit analysis Covering the unknown in the Ohm's law image mnemonic gives the formula in terms of the remaining parameters Ohm's law wheel with international unit symbols Each equation is quoted by some sources as the defining relationship of Ohm's law,[2][23][24] or all three are quoted,[25] or derived from a proportional form,[26] or even just the two that do not correspond to Ohm's original statement may sometimes be given.[27][28] The interchangeability of the equation may be represented by a triangle, where V (voltage) is placed on the top section, the I (current) is placed to the left section, and the R (resistance) is placed to the right. The divider between the top and bottom sections indicates division (hence the division bar). Resistive circuits Resistors are circuit elements that impede the passage of electric charge in agreement with Ohm's law, and are designed to have a specific resistance value R. In schematic diagrams, a resistor is shown as a long rectangle or zig-zag symbol. An element (resistor or conductor) that behaves according to Ohm's law over some operating range is referred to as an ohmic device (or an ohmic resistor) because Ohm's law and a single value for the resistance suffice to describe the behavior of the device over that range. Reactive circuits with time-varying signals Equations for time-invariant AC circuits take the same form as Ohm's law. However, the variables are generalized to complex numbers and the current and voltage waveforms are complex exponentials.[29] and for a capacitor, We can now write, For the common case of a steady sinusoid, the s parameter is taken to be , corresponding to a complex sinusoid . The real parts of such complex current and voltage waveforms describe the actual sinusoidal currents and voltages in a circuit, which can be in different phases due to the different complex scalars. Linear approximations In a true ohmic device, the same value of resistance will be calculated from R = V/I regardless of the value of the applied voltage V. That is, the ratio of V/I is constant, and when current is plotted as a function of voltage the curve is linear (a straight line). If voltage is forced to some value V, then that voltage V divided by measured current I will equal R. Or if the current is forced to some value I, then the measured voltage V divided by that current I is also R. Since the plot of I versus V is a straight line, then it is also true that for any set of two different voltages V1 and V2 applied across a given device of resistance R, producing currents I1 = V1/R and I2 = V2/R, that the ratio (V1V2)/(I1I2) is also a constant equal to R. The operator "delta" (Δ) is used to represent a difference in a quantity, so we can write ΔV = V1V2 and ΔI = I1I2. Summarizing, for any truly ohmic device having resistance R, V/I = ΔVI = R for any applied voltage or current or for the difference between any set of applied voltages or currents. There are, however, components of electrical circuits which do not obey Ohm's law; that is, their relationship between current and voltage (their IV curve) is nonlinear (or non-ohmic). An example is the p–n junction diode (curve at right). As seen in the figure, the current does not increase linearly with applied voltage for a diode. One can determine a value of current (I) for a given value of applied voltage (V) from the curve, but not from Ohm's law, since the value of "resistance" is not constant as a function of applied voltage. Further, the current only increases significantly if the applied voltage is positive, not negative. The ratio V/I for some point along the nonlinear curve is sometimes called the static, or chordal, or DC, resistance,[31][32] but as seen in the figure the value of total V over total I varies depending on the particular point along the nonlinear curve which is chosen. This means the "DC resistance" V/I at some point on the curve is not the same as what would be determined by applying an AC signal having peak amplitude ΔV volts or ΔI amps centered at that same point along the curve and measuring ΔVI. However, in some diode applications, the AC signal applied to the device is small and it is possible to analyze the circuit in terms of the dynamic, small-signal, or incremental resistance, defined as the one over the slope of the VI curve at the average value (DC operating point) of the voltage (that is, one over the derivative of current with respect to voltage). For sufficiently small signals, the dynamic resistance allows the Ohm's law small signal resistance to be calculated as approximately one over the slope of a line drawn tangentially to the VI curve at the DC operating point.[33] Temperature effects Relation to heat conductions Other versions The voltage between two points is defined as:[37] The electrical resistance of a uniform conductor is given in terms of resistivity by:[38] A perfect crystal lattice, with low enough thermal motion and no deviations from periodic structure, would have no resistivity,[39] but a real metal has crystallographic defects, impurities, multiple isotopes, and thermal motion of the atoms. Electrons scatter from all of these, resulting in resistance to their flow. Magnetic effects In the rest frame of the moving conductor this term drops out because v= 0. There is no contradiction because the electric field in the rest frame differs from the E-field in the lab frame: E′ = E + v×B. Electric and magnetic fields are relative, see Lorentz transformation. Conductive fluids In a conductive fluid, such as a plasma, there is a similar effect. Consider a fluid moving with the velocity in a magnetic field . The relative motion induces an electric field which exerts electric force on the charged particles giving rise to an electric current . The equation of motion for the electron gas, with a number density , is written as where , and are the charge, mass and velocity of the electrons, respectively. Also, is the frequency of collisions of the electrons with ions which have a velocity field . Since, the electron has a very small mass compared with that of ions, we can ignore the left hand side of the above equation to write where we have used the definition of the current density, and also put which is the electrical conductivity. This equation can also be equivalently written as where is the electrical resistivity. It is also common to write instead of which can be confusing since it is the same notation used for the magnetic diffusivity defined as . See also 1. ^ Consoliver, Earl L. & Mitchell, Grover I. (1920). Automotive Ignition Systems. McGraw-Hill. p. 4. 3. ^ Oliver Heaviside (1894). Electrical Papers. Vol. 1. Macmillan and Co. p. 283. ISBN 978-0-8218-2840-3. 4. ^ Young, Hugh; Freedman, Roger (2008). Sears and Zemansky's University Physics: With Modern Physics. Vol. 2 (12 ed.). Pearson. p. 853. ISBN 978-0-321-50121-9. 6. ^ Fleming, John Ambrose (1911). "Electricity" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 182. 8. ^ Ronalds, B. F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4. 9. ^ Ronalds, B. F. (July 2016). "Francis Ronalds (1788–1873): The First Electrical Engineer?". Proceedings of the IEEE. 104 (7): 1489–1498. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2016.2571358. S2CID 20662894. 10. ^ G. S. Ohm (1827). Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (PDF). Berlin: T. H. Riemann. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26. 12. ^ Hart, Ivor Blashka, Makers of Science, London, Oxford University Press, 1923. p. 243. 13. ^ Herbert Schnädelbach, Philosophy in Germany 1831–1933, pp. 78–79, Cambridge University Press, 1984 ISBN 0521296463. 15. ^ Purcell, Edward M. (1985), Electricity and magnetism, Berkeley Physics Course, vol. 2 (2nd ed.), McGraw-Hill, p. 129, ISBN 978-0-07-004908-6 16. ^ Griffiths, David J. (1999), Introduction to electrodynamics (3rd ed.), Prentice Hall, p. 289, ISBN 978-0-13-805326-0 17. ^ Weber, B.; Mahapatra, S.; Ryu, H.; Lee, S.; Fuhrer, A.; Reusch, T. C. G.; Thompson, D. L.; Lee, W. C. T.; Klimeck, G.; Hollenberg, L. C. L.; Simmons, M. Y. (2012). "Ohm's Law Survives to the Atomic Scale". Science. 335 (6064): 64–67. Bibcode:2012Sci...335...64W. doi:10.1126/science.1214319. PMID 22223802. S2CID 10873901. 18. ^ Drude, Paul (1900). "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle". Annalen der Physik. 306 (3): 566–613. Bibcode:1900AnP...306..566D. doi:10.1002/andp.19003060312.[dead link] 19. ^ Drude, Paul (1900). "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle; II. Teil. Galvanomagnetische und thermomagnetische Effecte". Annalen der Physik. 308 (11): 369–402. Bibcode:1900AnP...308..369D. doi:10.1002/andp.19003081102.[dead link] 20. ^ A. Akers; M. Gassman & R. Smith (2006). Hydraulic Power System Analysis. New York: Taylor & Francis. Chapter 13. ISBN 978-0-8247-9956-4. 22. ^ Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2006). "Chapter 14: Overview of the Circulation; Medical Physics of Pressure, Flow, and Resistance". In Gruliow, Rebecca (ed.). Textbook of Medical Physiology (11th ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Elsevier Inc. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-7216-0240-0. 23. ^ James William Nilsson & Susan A. Riedel (2008). Electric circuits. Prentice Hall. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-13-198925-2. 24. ^ Alvin M. Halpern & Erich Erlbach (1998). Schaum's outline of theory and problems of beginning physics II. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-07-025707-8. 25. ^ Dale R. Patrick & Stephen W. Fardo (1999). Understanding DC circuits. Newnes. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-7506-7110-1. 26. ^ Thomas O'Conor Sloane (1909). Elementary electrical calculations. D. Van Nostrand Co. p. 41. R= Ohm's law proportional. 27. ^ Linnaeus Cumming (1902). Electricity treated experimentally for the use of schools and students. Longman's Green and Co. p. 220. V=IR Ohm's law. 30. ^ Hughes, E, Electrical Technology, pp10, Longmans, 1969. 33. ^ Horowitz, Paul; Winfield Hill (1989). The Art of Electronics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-37095-0. 34. ^ Normal Lockyer, ed. (September 21, 1876). "Reports". Nature. Macmillan Journals Ltd. 14 (360): 451–459 [452]. Bibcode:1876Natur..14..451.. doi:10.1038/014451a0. 36. ^ Seymour J, Physical Electronics, Pitman, 1972, pp. 53–54 39. ^ Seymour J, Physical Electronics, pp. 48–49, Pitman, 1972 External links and further reading	<urn:uuid:7493c883-a2b7-4ae6-b397-9f010aacc221>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.24672484397888184, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9041866064071655, "url": "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law" }
No, thank you British Library asks for help deciphering a medieval sword The River Witham sword. The British Library A sword on display at the British Library has an 800-year-old mystery engraved on its blade. Dating back to between 1250 and 1330 AD, the sword was discovered in the east of England, in the River Witham near Lincoln, in the 19th century. The sword is a particularly fine double-edged steel weapon of English design. It was most likely forged in Germany and belonged to a wealthy man or a knight. The hilt is cross-shaped, which is normal for swords from this period of the Middle Ages, and is heavy enough to have cloven a man's head in twain if swung with sufficient strength. But the sword, on loan to the library from the British Museum, does have a couple of highly unusual features. Down the centre of the blade, it has two grooves known as fullers, where most blades only have one. On one side, it also bears an inscription: It's not the presence of the inscription that has researchers nonplussed, but its content: Experts don't know what the inscription means. "An intriguing feature of this sword is an as yet indecipherable inscription, found along one of its edges and inlaid in gold wire," wrote curator Julian Harrison on the library's blog. "It has been speculated that this is a religious invocation, since the language is unknown." A close-up of the inscription on the blade of the River Witham sword. The British Library The River Witham sword is not unique in this. According to archaeologist Marc van Hasselt of Utrecht University and Hastatus Heritage Consultancy in the Netherlands, inscribed swords were "all the rage" in Europe at the turn of the 13th century, and religious invocations would have made sense. He has studied around a dozen such swords. Most notable was a sword found in Alphen aan den Rijn in the Netherlands, likewise bearing an indecipherable inscription, this time on both sides of the blade: "There is some debate on the language used in the inscriptions. But looking at the other European finds, it seems most likely that this language is Latin. This makes sense in the context of 13th-century Europe, as Latin was the international language of choice (like English is today)," van Hasselt wrote. "To elaborate, let's compare the River Witham sword to the sword from Alphen: Both start with some sort of invocation. On the River Witham sword, it is NDXOX, possibly standing for Nostrum Dominus (our Lord) or Nomine Domini (name of the Lord) followed by XOX. On the sword from Alphen, the starting letters read BENEDOXO. Quite likely, this reads as Benedicat (A blessing), followed by OXO. Perhaps these letter combinations -- XOX and OXO -- refer to the Holy Trinity. On the sword from Alphen, one letter combination is then repeated three times: MTINIUSCS, which I interpret as Martinius Sanctus -- Saint Martin. Perhaps a saint is being invoked on the River Witham sword as well?" Most guesses put forth on the blog post also agree with the idea that it could be Latin, with some readers suggesting the letters, or some of the letters, could be acronyms. If you want to give it a shot, head on over to the British Library's blog post and post your hypothesis in the comments. If you want to see the sword itself, it's on display as part of the exhibition Magna Carta: Law, Liberty, Legacy at the British Library in London until September 1.	<urn:uuid:128f9151-a359-49f9-ba85-b47949de785a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.018156230449676514, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9516997337341309, "url": "https://www.cnet.com/culture/british-museum-asks-for-help-deciphering-a-medieval-sword/" }
Revision 12 as of 2003-11-23 21:25:28 Clear message Handling Exceptions The simplest way to handle exceptions is with a "try-except" block: 1 (x,y) = (5,0) 2 try: 3 z = x/y 4 except ZeroDivisionError: 5 print "divide by zero" If you wanted to examine the exception from code, you could have: 1 (x,y) = (5,0) 2 try: 3 z = x/y 4 except ZeroDivisionError, e: 5 z = e # representation: "<exceptions.ZeroDivisionError instance at 0x817426c>" 6 print z # output: "integer division or modulo by zero" General Error Catching Sometimes, you want to catch all errors that could possibly be generated, but usually you don't.In most cases, you want to be as specific as possible (CatchWhatYouCanHandle). In the first example above, if you were using a catch-all exception clause and a user presses Ctrl-C, generating a KeyboardInterrupt, you don't want the program to print "divide by zero". However, there are some situations where it's best to catch all errors. For example, suppose you are writing an extension module to a web service. You want the error information to output the output web page, and the server to continue to run, if at all possible. But you have no idea what kind of errors you might have put in your code. In situations like these, you may want to code something like this: 1 try: 2 untrusted.execute() 3 except Exception, e: 4 write_to_page( "<p>Error: %s</p>" % str(e) ) MoinMoin software is a good example of where this is done. If you write MoinMoin extension macros, and trigger an error, MoinMoin will give you a detailed report of your error and the chain of events leading up to it. To Write About... Give example of IOError, and interpreting the IOError code. Give example of multiple excepts. Handling multiple excepts in one line. Show how to use "else" and "finally". Show how to continue with a "raise". See Also: WritingExceptionClasses, TracebackModule, CoupleLeapingWithLooking Is there an easy way to find all of the exceptions, and parameters to the exceptions, that a class has? -- LionKimbro I'm not sure what you mean. Do you want to know what exceptions a class can raise or what parameters an exception class can take when raised? -- JohannesGijsbers Both, actually. I'm thinking: "I'm writing some code, and I want to be reasonably aware of things that could go wrong, that I might not think of otherwise. Then, I want to know the parameters for the exceptions, when I learn what could go wrong." I can look up the "Dict" builtin class in the Python manual, but it doesn't say, right there, that it emits the KeyError. Now, you and I know about the KeyError, but there are times when I need the exact word of the exception, and I want to know the parameters. So, where to people find it? Or is there just no such easy way to look up, yet? -- LionKimbro DateTime(2003-11-23T21:25:28Z) Unable to edit the page? See the FrontPage for instructions.	<urn:uuid:0edbe9e8-198d-4755-b858-326bdcc45060>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.8091710209846497, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8661550879478455, "url": "https://wiki.python.org/moin/HandlingExceptions?action=recall&rev=12" }
Hosea chapters and history At the time of the prophet Hosea’s ministry (the eighth century BC) the ancient Israelite nation was divided into two kingdoms, Israel in the north and Judah in the south. Hosea 1Hosea 8 Hosea 2 Hosea 9 Hosea 3 Hosea 10 Hosea 4 Hosea 11 Hosea 5 Hosea 12 Hosea 6 Hosea 13 Hosea 7 Hosea 14 Hosea comments Hosea began his ministry late in the reigns of Jeroboam II of Israel and Uzziah of Judah, and continued it through the reigns of succeeding kings (Hosea 1:1). Unfaithful religion Hosea’s work was concerned with the north more than the south. Israel’s religion had been corrupted through Baal worship, with the result that the nation was heading for judgment and would be taken captive to a foreign land. Because the covenant between Israel and Yahweh was likened to a marriage covenant, Israel’s association with other gods was really spiritual adultery (Hosea 4:17; 5:4; 6:10; 7:16; 8:5-6; see BAAL). Hosea saw a fitting illustration of this when his own wife Gomer left him for other lovers. She became a prostitute (Hosea 1:2; 2:2). Gomer’s pleasures did not last and she was sold as a slave. Hosea, who still loved his erring wife, had remained faithful to his marriage covenant, and when he found Gomer a slave, he bought her back (Hosea 3:1-3). Hosea’s covenant love for Gomer pictured Yahweh’s covenant love for his people. They too would go into captivity but, after being cleansed of their adulterous association with the Canaanite gods, would be brought back to live in their land again (Hosea 2:17-20; 3:4-5; 14:4-7). Corrupt society During the reigns of Jeroboam II and Uzziah, Israel and Judah enjoyed political stability, economic prosperity and territorial expansion greater than at any time since the days of David and Solomon (2 Kings 14:23-27; 15:1-2; 2 Chron 26:1-15). This development, however, brought with it greed and corruption on a scale that neither Israel nor Judah had experienced previously. The two prophets who began to attack the social injustice and religious corruption of the age were Amos and Hosea. They came from different parts of the country, but both were concerned more with the northern kingdom than with the southern. The particular social evils that the prophets attacked were connected with the exploitation of the poor by those of the upper classes. The people who benefited from the prosperity of the age were not the farmers (who made up the majority of the population) but the officials and merchants. They could cheat and oppress the poor as they wished, knowing that because of the corruption of the courts, the poor had no way of defending themselves (Hosea 4:1-2; 6:8-9; 12:7-8). Again, the judgment announced upon the nation was that of conquest and captivity (Hosea 5:14; 9:6; 10:3-8,13-15; see also AMOS). Outline of Hosea’s prophecy Hosea recounts his unhappy family experiences and shows how those experiences reflect the state of affairs in Israel (1:1-2:1). Like Gomer, Israel has been unfaithful to her husband God (Yahweh) (2:2-23), but as Hosea redeemed Gomer from slavery, so God will redeem Israel from the coming captivity (3:1-5). The central section of the book is a collection of various short messages that Hosea preached over the years. The messages are not in chronological order, but all are connected with Israel’s moral corruption. Corrupt religion produces a corrupt nation, whether in its everyday life (4:1-5:7), its foreign policy (5:8- 14), its loyalty to God (5:15-6:6) or its concern for justice (6:7-7:7). The nation has rebelled against God by making alliances with foreign nations (7:8-16) and by giving itself to Baal worship (8:1-14). Israel’s punishment is therefore certain (9:1-17). The nation will reap what it has sown (10:1-15). The people have despised God’s love (11:1-11) and exploited each other (11:12-12:14), and thereby have guaranteed captivity for their nation (13:1-16). But when the people repent, God will forgive them and bring them back to their land (14:1-9). Privacy Policy	<urn:uuid:c284c900-4be3-44d5-a045-8316e1a2e3c7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.038828492164611816, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9646624326705933, "url": "https://kjvonline.org/Hosea-chapters-and-history/" }
How did the Ice Ages affect three Scrubwrens in the highlands of Papua New Guinea? Genomic study looks for signatures of population expansion or contraction. For many bird species, their evolutionary history is a series of population expansions and contractions. This is especially apparent during the Pleistocene (between 2.5 million and 11,000 years ago) when the climate fluctuated between cold and warm periods. As the climate warmed, certain vegetation types expanded, followed by the bird species that reside within them. These expansion and contraction dynamics leave traces in the genetic make-up of the bird populations. Several population genetic statistics have been developed to detect the signatures of these processes. In 1989, for example, the Japanese researcher Fumio Tajima introduced a statistic to discriminate between population expansion and contraction: Tajima’s D. I will not go into the mathematical details (you can check out the excellent video by Mohamed Noor below), but in general you can interpret this statistic as follows: a negative Tajima’s D points to population expansion, while a positive Tajima’s D suggests population contraction. However, similar patterns can also arise due to different selection events (e.g., balancing selection or selective sweeps). That is why it is important to calculate other population genetic statistics to tease these processes apart. Or you could take a modelling approach where you compare different demographic models and see which one explains the data best. And that is exactly what researchers in a recent study in the journal BMC Evolutionary Biology did. ABC Models Kritika Garg and her colleagues focused on three scrubwren species on Mt. Wilhelm, the highest mountain of Papua New Guinea. These small passerines occur at different altitudes along this mountain. The buff-faced scrubwren (Aethomys perspicillatus) is restricted to lower montane forest at 1500–2450 meters, while the Papuan scrubwren (A. papuensis) can be observed in the upper montane habitat above 2000 meters. The third species – the large scrubwren (Sericornis nouhuysi) – can be found across the widest range, from 1500 to over 2000 meters. The researchers sequenced the DNA of 74 individuals and applied Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) analyses to the data. This computational method allows you to estimate the likelihood of several parameters under particular demographic models. In this case, we are interested in the population sizes over time. A topographical map of Papua New Guinea indicating the sampling locations in black and red dots. The inset shows the area around Mt. Wilhelm. From: Garg et al. (2020) BMC Evolutionary Biology. Ålesund Interstadial The demographic analyses revealed that all three species experienced a population expansion between 27,000 and 29,000 years ago. This timeframe coincides with the Ålesund Interstadial that occurred about 30,000 years ago when a drop in global temperatures impacted the distribution of vegetation on Mt. Wilhelm. The strong cooling would have shifted elevational belts down the slope, expanding the area of habitat available to montane forest birds such as the three scrubwrens, and sometimes even connecting populations that would have previously been stranded on separate mountain ranges. The genetic consequences of these population expansions are also reflected in the lack of population genetic structure in the three species. As individuals expanded their range and potentially interbred with other populations, any differences between subpopulations would be erased. The researchers also calculated Tajima’s D for the three scrubwren species and unsurprisingly it was negative in all species. Hence, all the evidence clearly points to population expansions. For all three species, Tajima’s D was clearly negative, suggesting population expansions. From: Garg et al. (2020) BMC Evolutionary Biology. Garg, K. M., Chattopadhyay, B., Koane, B., Sam, K., & Rheindt, F. E. (2020). Last Glacial Maximum led to community-wide population expansion in a montane songbird radiation in highland Papua New Guinea. BMC evolutionary biology20(1), 1-10. Featured image: Large Scrubwren (Sericornis nouhuysi) © Katerina Tvardikova	<urn:uuid:963f19d0-c513-411b-a1aa-60be4e14a22a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.06683647632598877, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8890665173530579, "url": "https://avianhybrids.wordpress.com/category/acanthizidae/" }
Macaca sinica Geographic Distribution and Habitat Toque macaques are found only in Sri Lanka, an island country of South Asia, located in the Indian Ocean to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea and considered one of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots. Locally, these Old World monkeys are referred to as rilewa or rilawa. They are accordingly recognized as three separate subspecies for the three distinct regions in which they are found, occupying a variety of forest types at varying altitudes—depending on the subspecies, up to 6,890 ft (2,100 m), with an average elevation of 3,281 ft (1,000 m). • Dry-zone toque macaques, also known as common toque macaques (Macaca sinica sinica), live in dry zones of the north and east regions of the island; they inhabit dry evergreen forests near water. This subspecies is often referred to by its nickname, “temple monkey.” The monkeys are often sighted at Sri Lanka’s Cultural Triangle, where many ancient monuments including temples are located. • Wet-zone toque macaques, also known as pale-fronted or dusky toque macaques (Macaca sinica aurifrons), live in wet zones of the southwestern region of the island; they inhabit lowland and midland tropical rainforests and wet zone lowland forests. • Highland toque macaque, also known as hill-zone or mountain toque macaques (Macaca sinica opisthomelas), live in the highlands of the central region of the island; they inhabit montane tropical rainforests. Toque macaque range, IUCN 2020 Size, Weight, and Lifespan The species exhibits sexual dimorphism: males are physically larger than females, and males are fitted with larger canine teeth. Male toque macaques weigh between 8.8 and 12 lb (4.0–5.5 kg); head-to-body length is about 18.7 in (47.5 cm). Female toque macaques weigh between 5.5 and 9.9 lb (2.5–4.5 kg); head-to-body length is about 15.7 in (40 cm). Both males and females are fitted with exceptionally long, thin tails that add another 16–24 in (40–60 cm) to their bodies. These monkeys have the distinction of being the smallest species belonging to the genus Macaca with the longest tails relative to their body size. The potential lifespan for wild toque macaques is up to 35 years. However, the realistic lifespan for most of them is less than 5 years. Sadly, all three subspecies are susceptible to high infant mortality rates; furthermore, adolescent males frequently meet a tragic demise when they leave their birth group in a quest to join a new troop or form of a troop of their own. Those toque macaques who attain sexual maturity, researchers believe, have a greater chance of fulfilling their natural lifespan. Lifespan for captive toque macaques is reported as 29 to 35 years. What Does It Mean? Biodiversity hotspot: A biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is under threat from humans. Commensal/ commensalism: Living in close association in a way that allows one species to benefit without harming the other. Genus (plural, genera): A biological classification, or ranking, of living beings that includes a group(s) of species that are structurally similar or “related” to one another through evolution. The fur, hair, or wool of a mammal. Visit the Glossary for more definitions The pelage that cloaks the upper side of toque macaques varies in color according to subspecies. Generally, the coloring ranges from golden or orange-brown to yellowish or olive. Their furry underside is white, and wisps of white hair fan out from the monkeys’ large, scalloped, conspicuously protruding black ears. The long tail is dark on the upper side and pale white on the underside. An elongated hairless muzzle gives way to a prominent chin; the narrow lips are black. As they age, the faces of females become pink (varying shades from pale to bright, almost red). This pink coloration is especially obvious in dry-zone toque macaques. Males have ho-hum tan hairless faces. One of the most distinguishing features (if not the most distinguishing feature) of toque macaques is their unkempt, moppy hairdos. Nature has unapologetically teased a whorl of hair at the crown of each monkey’s head. This decorative whorl has been compared to a brimless cap (called a “toque”). Like their fur coat, coloring and the outrageousness of their whorly hairdo differs according to subspecies and the regions where these monkeys live. • Dry-zone toque macaques are cloaked in a chestnut-colored coat with a white underside. Their whorly crown of hair fans out like a whisk broom; the short hairs are golden brown. This might be the least unkempt of the three hairdo styles. • Wet-zone toque macaques are cloaked in a dusky yellowish coat that gives way to a dark brown color on the rump; the underside is white. Their hairdo may be the most unruly of the three subspecies, with long hairs sticking out randomly from the crown of their head (think of a serious case of “bed head”). • Highland toque macaques are cloaked in a golden-brown coat with grayish-olive hues with a white underside. Their wild, long-haired, straw-colored whorl is somewhat reminiscent of a hairdo favored by songstress and international pop culture icon Cyndi Lauper during her punk-rock phase. Toque macaques are mostly frugivorous; that is, they eat lots of fruits. However, their consumption of insects along with the occasional reptile, bird, or mammal—such as the Indian palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) and the Asiatic long-tailed climbing mouse (Vandeleuria oleracea)—makes them omnivores. Flowers, buds, leaves, seeds, nuts, and mushrooms complement their meal plan. One of toque macaques’ favorite meals, of the 40 different types of trees that provide their nourishment, comes from the flowering plant commonly known as the golden shower (Cassia fistula). The drooping clusters of yellow flowers are irresistibly succulent to the monkeys. In the dry zone, toque macaques eat the so-called stone fruits of the understory shrub Zizyphus, along with ripened figs of the Ficus tree and fruits and flowers of the flowering plant Cordia. During the dry season when water obtained from their food sources is not enough to sustain them, toque macaques venture daily to watering holes. Toque macaques are savvy opportunists, or scavengers—depending on your point of view. They are known to pick through garbage, looking for anything edible, left at human campsites. These monkeys are sometimes seen near human dwellings that abut a patch of forest, where they brazenly raid fruit plants (including plantains, pineapples, mangoes) and other crops (including rice, cocoa, and coconut) during daylight hours and then retreat to the forest at night. Toque macaques’ cheek pouches conveniently allow them to store food for later eating—particularly useful when “dining and dashing” with their stolen bounty. A lack of fear toward humans or toward humans’ canine companions bolsters the monkeys’ raiding escapades. Toque macaques live peaceably with other species (excepting humans), often befriending these animals. They enjoy commensal relationships with two species of monkeys: Hanuman langurs, also known as gray langurs (Semnopithecus entellus), and purple-faced langurs (Trachypithecus vetulus). Toque macaques often forage with purple-faced langurs, but the two species eat different foods, so there is no competition for food sources. Behavior and Lifestyle Toque macaques are diurnal animals—they are active in daylight hours. They are both arboreal (they spend much of their time in trees), and terrestrial (they are also found on the ground). While in the trees, they travel quadrupedally; that is, on all four limbs. On the ground, they walk on their digits. If necessary, such as when they are carrying food in their hands (these monkeys have superb dexterity), toque macaques can walk bipedally (upright), which is a testament to their agility. Much of their day is spent foraging. Lower-ranking individuals are forced to forage for food in poorer resource areas, displaced by dominant individuals who claim better areas for themselves. These monkeys may feel more comfortable foraging in the trees where they can avoid (or at lessen their risk to) their many predators, who include mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris), leopards (Panthera pardus), Indian pythons (Python molurus), Russell’s vipers (Daboia russelii)—and humans. Their safety measures include selecting sleeping sites that are high in the forks of trees far from the central trunk, sleeping huddled together, and changing their sleeping site each night. When foraging on the ground, safety measures include traveling together as a compact group and avoiding open spaces whenever possible. Should they detect danger, these monkeys will shove food into their cheek pouches using both hands, for later eating, and flee to safety in nearby trees. If they find themselves in dense foliage when danger presents, toque macaques are known to “freeze in place.” Perhaps most impressively, these monkeys—who are skillful swimmers—are known to hide beneath the water’s surface to escape a predator. They also appear to take great joy in splashing around in the water together, as can be seen in footage filmed by cameraman and wildlife biologist Alex Barczkowski: Individuals are known to defend their territory against outside groups of toque macaques. Fun Facts Macaca, the genus to which each of the three toque mancaque subspecies belongs, is the Portuguese word for “monkey.” Toque macaques are excellent swimmers and will dive underwater to forage for their favorite plants. Toque macaques befriend other species. It is not unusual for toque macaques that live near humans to befriend and groom the family dog. Daily Life and Group Dynamics Toque macaques are social animals who live in multimale/multifemale family groups, known as “troops.” Troop size ranges from 8 to 40 individuals, with an average troop size of 21 individuals. About half the members of a troop are adults; the other half comprises juveniles or infants. Members abide by a strict dominance hierarchy, with the oldest male being the alpha (or dominant) member and the troop’s leader, followed by other adult males, subadult males, adult females, and juveniles. Infants are born into their social classes based on their mothers’ hierarchal position in the troop. In larger troops, tempers are known to flare and the ensuing drama can lead to in-fighting. Fights between individuals, often involving adults and subadults, may result in facial wounds, eye injuries—even broken arms. Females, who would normally remain with their birth group, flee these hostile situations, particularly when they are being harassed by an alpha male. Males typically leave their birth group just before reaching adolescence, between 6 and 8 years old. If they don’t depart on their own volition, they are forced out. Their absence reduces the possibility of in-breeding and allows the current alpha male to retain his position in the troop. Leaving their birth group is the only path for young males to possibly find a position as alpha in another group—assuming they don’t succumb to environmental dangers during their quest. Wildlife biologists have recorded 30 different vocalizations for toque macaques. Each of these nuanced calls conveys a specific meaning. The most common vocalizations include the following calls. • Loud call: Sounded by an alpha male; used to maintain adequate spacing between members and to let his group know that it’s time to move on from their foraging site. • Warning or alarm call: Sounded by individuals to alert others to potential danger. • Scream call: Sounded by individuals when approached by a toque macaque from an outside group. • Food call: Sounded by individuals upon discovering a desirable foraging site rich with food sources. • Other calls accompany daily activities, such as playing. Facial expressions are important indicators of mood or intent in the three subspecies. Contrary to its appearance, the fear grimace, which resembles a smile, is meant to appease or reduce escalation in aggressive encounters. Lips are retracted, revealing the toque macaque’s clenched teeth. An open-mouth stare is meant as a threat—and is not indicative of a state of awe; the monkey’s mouth is agape—open—but the teeth are not visible. An intense stare accompanies this expression. As with most nonhuman primates, social grooming is an important activity among members that helps foster social bonds. Juveniles learn social bonds by playing in groups with other members who are the same age. They learn further life skills by watching older members of their troop. Excellent stereoscopic vision (depth perception) and color vision allow toque macaques to easily discern objects. In fact, they rely more on their vision than they do their sense of smell when identifying specific food sources. Olfactory communication is still important, however. During breeding season, females secrete a pungent mucous from their vagina to let males know that they are ovulating and wish to copulate. Reproduction and Family Female toque macaques reach sexual maturity (capable of conceiving and bearing offspring) at age 5; males lag behind a little bit, reaching sexual maturity (capable of siring offspring) at age 7. Breeding season occurs between July and September; the exact month varies with location of subspecies. During breeding season, females come into estrus (the period when they are most fertile and likely to conceive) once a month. Toque macaques are polygynandrous, a scientific and polite way of saying that they are promiscuous: both males and females take multiple mating partners. If a female’s pungent vaginal secretion were not enough enticement to attract a male mating partner, the area surrounding her anus and genitals (known as the perineum) becomes bright red and swollen—guaranteeing male attention. While females might send out an invitation to copulate, males always initiate mounting. The copulating couple typically seeks out privacy for the act, but younger males—opportunists—often linger nearby, hoping for a chance to mate with the female once she and her partner are finished. Despite a troop’s dominance hierarchy, copulation is not restricted to dominant males. That said, researchers report that it’s possible for a single alpha male to father all of the troops’ offspring—now that’s virility! The likelihood of infants surviving to reproductive age is linked to their mothers’ hierarchy among other females in the troop. A female with a high social status is likely to have a higher birthrate then females with a lesser rank. After a five- to six-month gestation period (pregnancy), a female gives birth to a single infant. The interval between births is about 18 months. Infants are considered weaned at about 6 months old and are considered independent at age 2. For the first two months of their lives, infants cling to their mothers. During this period, mothers teach their young important life skills. Mothers are the primary caregivers and protect their young. Fathers do little to help, likely because they cannot be sure that they sired the offspring. Males will, however, break up any fights that occur between juveniles. A researcher’s account of highland toque macaques offers more specific details related to birth in this subspecies. As reported, births rarely occur during the day or on the ground. As she prepares for childbirth, a female isolates herself from her troop, putting a distance of about 0.062 mi (100 m) between herself and other troop members. Standing upright, she uses her hands to assist the delivery of her infant. After licking her infant clean, the mother places her newborn at her breast to suckle; then she eats a portion of the placenta, which provides a significant source of protein. A troop’s alpha female takes the remaining placenta for herself to eat. A mother resumes foraging activity within 20 minutes after giving birth. Should her infant cry out for her—mothers and their offspring recognize one another’s voices—she returns to provide care and comfort. Ecological Role Toque macaques play an important role in helping to regenerate their forest ecosystem. Thanks to their largely frugivorous diet, they disperse the seeds of the many fruits they eat—via their feces—thereby encouraging new plant growth. Conservation Status and Threats Toque macaques are listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2015), appearing on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Extreme habitat loss and habitat fragmentation have taken a grave toll on all three subspecies. More than half of these monkeys’ environment has been razed and converted for agricultural use, tea plantations, logging, and firewood. This devastation of habitat has forced toque macaques to venture close to human settlements, where they sift through garbage piles and spent campfires looking for food. They’ve become brazen crop raiders, a practice that has earned them the reputation as pests, causing farmers to set poison bait and traps to rid themselves of these unwelcome visitors. Furthermore, farmers routinely shoot these endangered monkeys on sight. The illegal pet trade has taken a heavy toll on toque macaques, particularly the dry-zone and wet-zone subspecies. Countless others have been shot to death—used for target practice—by the Sri Lanka Army and by a militant organization known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Conservation Efforts Toque macaques are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), an international agreement between governments whose goal is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. As is often the case with endangered species, however, laws created to protect them are largely ignored and difficult to enforce. Furthermore, out of all the wild animal species native to Sri Lanka, toque macaques are the only animals not afforded any protections under local law. No doubt, their reputation as crop pests has been a detriment to their protection status. Conservation International is one environmental group working to improve local sentiment toward these stigmatized monkeys. The organization’s approach includes creating community education programs (that foster an appreciation of each of the three subspecies and the importance of saving them from extinction), creating new economic opportunities for 15,000 people living near protected areas, introducing alternative cooking technologies, and planting thousands of trees. In 2010, Sri Lanka issued a mandate to increase its forest cover from 23 percent to 36 percent. At present, dry-zone and wet-zone toque macaque populations occur in numerous protected areas (reserves and national parks). No populations of highland toque macaques are found in such areas, however. • Written by Kathy Downey, June 2019	<urn:uuid:5ac47354-e2fb-4f3e-bb70-e538c060f3a6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.0829308032989502, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9313448667526245, "url": "https://neprimateconservancy.org/toque-macaque/" }
Are porifera bilaterally symmetrical? Only members of the phylum Porifera (sponges) have no body plan symmetry. However, the larval fish are bilaterally symmetrical. What is the symmetry of porifera? What phylum is bilateral symmetry? Platyhelminthes phylum Apart from the fundamental features, there are several other features which are specific for each phylum or class. Therefore, from the above-given comparison Platyhelminthes phylum has bilateral symmetry and no body cavity. What is symmetry example? What does one line symmetry mean? Are humans radial or bilateral? The body plans of most animals, including humans, exhibit mirror symmetry, also called bilateral symmetry. They are symmetric about a plane running from head to tail (or toe). Bilateral symmetry is so prevalent in the animal kingdom that many scientists think that it can’t be a coincidence. What kind of symmetry does a Porifera have? Type of Symmetry: Porifera are most commonly asymmetrical but can also have radial symmetry. One may also ask, what type of symmetry do jellyfish have? Radially Symmetric Organisms In fact, most members of the phylum to which jellyfish belong, Cnidaria, exhibit radial symmetry, including most hydras, corals and sea anemones. What kind of symmetry does a bilaterian have? As adults they have pentameral symmetry which is a form of radial symmetry, but their larvae show bilateral symmetry and molecular data indicates that their ancestors had bilateral symmetry. So we consider them to be bilaterians. What kind of coelom does a Porifera have? Type of Coelom: Porifera have no coelom. Type of Body Plan: Porifera use canals and pores (diffusion) to perform life functions. Number of body layers: Porifera have no real body layers but they do have 2 cell layers; an outer layer that makes up the epidermis, and an inner layer that makes the inner cavities. Are there any animals that have bilateral symmetry? The vast majority of animals display bilateral symmetry; also known as plane symmetry, this is a trait that applies to 99% of all animals, in the majority of phyla: Chordata, Annelida, Arthropoda, Platyzoa, Nematoda, and most Mollusca.	<urn:uuid:60c10cd2-5289-4159-950a-4a66a6dea25e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.9375, "fasttext_score": 0.99202960729599, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9405800104141235, "url": "https://diaridelsestudiants.com/are-porifera-bilaterally-symmetrical/" }
KS2 Music: The Anglo-Saxons There are six songs to learn and seven dramas to explore, including Alfred the Great, Athelstan, the story of Beowulf (told in three episodes) and the end of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty in 1066 at The Battle of Hastings. 1. The Anglo-Saxons arrive 2. Alfred the Great 3. Beowulf - Part one 4. Beowulf - Part two 5. Beowulf - Part three 6. 1066 - The year of three kings Using the Anglo-Saxons web pages The content for The Anglo-Saxons is structured on the six songs to learn. Each song appears on its own dedicated page and includes the following resources, which are currently a mix of audio and video: • Song tutorial - each about 10 minutes in length (audio) • Karaoke full vocal version of the song (video with lyrics text) • Drama episode (video) • Music activity - each about 5 minutes in length (audio) • Listening music to appraise - a mix of video files and external links • Lyrics for each song to display or download (pdf) • A transcript of the drama episode (pdf) • Teacher Notes describing all the content and how best to use it (pdf) Use the Tutorial audio to begin learning each song: Nigel Pilkington guides pupils through each song methodically, giving extra attention to any difficult passages or activities in groups. Refer to the Teacher's Notes for each song to establish whether the class needs to be split into groups before starting the tutorial (for example to sing in harmony). Use the Drama episode to listen the story element. Each episode links to the song on the same page and is about 5 minutes long. Use the Full vocal versions of the songs to revise them in preparation for a performance. The Anglo-Saxon story of 'Beowulf' Beowulf is one of the most important texts in Old English and is believed to date from somewhere between 975 and 1025 - the time of Alfred, Athelstan and the Anglo-Saxons. The author is unknown. The poem consists of 3,182 lines and exists in a single copy, housed in the British Museum. The events of the poem are set in Scandanavia. Hrothgar - King of the Danes - builds a mead hall called Heorot but comes under attack from a monster called Grendel. Beowulf, a prince of Geatland, hears of the Danes’ suffering and sails to their assistance. Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot waiting for the inevitable attack. When Grendel breaks in Beowulf seizes the monster by the arm and will not let it go. Eventually Grendel’s arm is severed and the monster limps away to die. The Danes and Geats celebrate their victory not knowing that Grendel’s mother is also about to terrorise Heorot, seeking vengeance for the death of her son. Beowulf tracks her to her underwater cave and fights her. In the original poem Beowulf returns to Geatland and, fifty years later as king, must fight a dragon. The dragon is killed but Beowulf has received a mortal wound. He dies and is ritually burned on a great funeral pyre. Series resources Teacher's Notes Extracts from the six songs Join Nigel for his brief vocal warm up More content from KS2 Music KS2 Music: Viking Saga Songs KS2 Music: Treasure Island KS2 Music: Heroes of Troy	<urn:uuid:7bd8dbce-9bfc-426d-a625-58823a8769e9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.03462451696395874, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9022515416145325, "url": "https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/music-ks2-anglo-saxons-index/zv43382" }
The Idea of Marathon Nevin, Sonya. 2022. The Idea of Marathon: Battle and Culture. London: Bloomsbury. The Battle of Marathon changed the course of history in ancient Greece. To many, the impossible seemed to have been achieved – the mighty Persian Empire halted in its advance. What happened that day, why was the battle fought, and how did people make sense of it? This bold new history of the battle examines how the conflict unfolded and the ideas attached to it in antiquity and beyond. Many thought the battle offered lessons in how people should behave, with heroism to be emulated and faults to be avoided. While the battle itself was fought in one day, the battle for the idea of Marathon has lasted ever since. After immersing you in the battle, this work will help you to explore how the ancient Athenians used the battle in their relations between themselves and others, and how the battle continued to be used to express ideas about gods, empire, and morality in the age of Alexander and his successors, at Rome and in Greece under the Roman Empire, and in the ages after antiquity, even in our own era, in which Marathon plays a remarkable role in sport, film, and children’s literature with each retelling a re-imagining of the battle and its meaning. A clash of weapons, gods, and principles, this is Marathon as you’ve never seen it before! Table of Contents 1. Athenians at a Turning Point 2. The Greek World 3. Persia 4. Revolt in Ionia 5. The Plain of Marathon 6. The Fight 7. Surviving Marathon 8. Events after Marathon 9. Memories of Marathon in Fifth-Century Art and Literature 10. Marathon beyond the Fifth-Century 11. Marathon under Rome 12. Marathon after Antiquity	<urn:uuid:b04e7a48-933c-43fa-b4da-bb0a74aaf6de>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.415748655796051, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9359424710273743, "url": "https://www.biblioiranica.info/the-idea-of-marathon/" }
Scientific English: how is a rainbow formed? \| DailyStep English Scientific English: how is a rainbow formed? This is Jane Lawson's Audio Blog #056 at DailyStep English Hello, I’m Jane at DailyStep English and welcome to my Audio blog. In this blog I want to show you a photograph that I took in London recently of a rainbow, and tell you a little bit about how rainbows are formed. Then, in the Audio Word Study, we will look at some of the scientific words from the article, and some other meanings that they have. You can then find out what is coming soon in the DailyStep subscriber audio lessons and at the bottom there is an Audio Proverb, as usual. If you are new to DailyStep, hello and welcome, and you can join my mailing list and also get 5 free lessons if you register on my site – there are instructions at the bottom of this blog for that. OK, so let’s move on and look at how a rainbow is formed! To download this premium audio, please subscribe to DailyStep English Audio LessonsThis will give you 5 Audio Lessons per week, plus full access to hear and download all DailyStep blogs. (by Jane Lawson at Isn’t it wonderful when a rainbow suddenly appears in front of you? There is something truly magical about it! The rainbow in this picture appeared while we were driving in the late afternoon. As soon as I saw this rainbow, I jumped out of the car and took this picture. We all know that rainbows occur when it is raining and sunny at the same time. These weather conditions can cause white light to split into its full spectrum of coloured light. There are 7 colours in the spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. But how exactly does a rainbow form? Interestingly, the location of the rainbow totally depends on the position of the person who can see it, and on the position of the sun relative to that person. If the sun is shining towards your eyes, you will never see a rainbow. The sun needs to be behind you – so you will never be able to see a rainbow and the sun at the same time. What happens is this: Light from the sun enters the raindrops, and because the density of the rain water is different from the density of the air, the sunlight refracts, that is, it bends slightly. When the light bends, it splits into a spectrum of coloured light because different colours of light refract at slightly different angles. Some of this coloured light is reflected back off the internal surface of the raindrop, similar to a mirror. When we see this reflected light, the reason that we see each colour separately is that each colour of light bends back out of the raindrop at a slightly different angle, so we see all red light at an angle of 42 degrees between us and the sun, and all violet light at an angle of 40 degrees between us and the sun and the other colours at angles between 40 and 42 degrees. You can see a diagram of how this works in the bottom picture!. So that’s the science! But there are legends and myths surrounding rainbows as well. My favourite is that there is a pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. It is impossible to find the end of a rainbow, though, so this gold will always be out of our reach!. Anyway, that’s enough about rainbows for now! Let’s move on to our Audio Word Study where I’ll teach you more about some of the scientific words in this article, and some of their other meanings. Here is Audio Word Study #056 from Jane Lawson at .. . . Some of the scientific words from the article above about how rainbows are formed also have other meanings too. Let’s take a look at some of these words now: SPECTRUM (noun) Meaning: the set of colours into which a beam of light can be separated, or a range of waves, such as light waves or radio waves. We also talk about ‘the political spectrum’ when we mean ‘the range of political viewpoints’ Examples: 1. Rainbows occur when raindrops split sunlight into the seven colours of the spectrum – red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. 2. This policy has been popular across the political spectrum. (note: this means ‘ across the range of political opinions’.) DENSITY (noun) Meaning: the number of particles, people or things in a space when compared with the size of the space Examples: 1. Water has a higher density than air, which means there are more particles in water than in the same volume of air. 2. South East England has a higher population density than South West England, which means there are more people per square kilometre living in South East England than in South West England. REFLECT (verb) Meaning 1: If a surface reflects light, heat, sound, or an image, it sends the light, etc. back and does not absorb it. Example: In my photo, you could see light of the camera flash reflected in the mirror. Meaning 2: Show or reveal Example: The results of the opinion poll reflect a change in people’s attitudes. (note: this means that we can see from the results of the opinion poll that people’s attitudes have changed.) ANGLE (noun) Meaning 1: the space between two lines or surfaces at the point at which they touch each other. Angles are measures in degrees, for example "an angle of 42 degrees." Example: The room is a strange shape – instead of having 4 walls and the usual right angle corners of 90 degrees, it only has 3 walls and is shaped like a triangle. Meaning 2: a way of considering, judging or approaching something, especially a problem or controversial view Example: I think you are approaching the problem from the wrong angle – try looking at it another way! DEGREE (noun) Meaning 1: any of various units of measurement, especially of temperature or angles, usually shown by the symbol ° written after a number. Examples: 1. Water boils at 100° centigrade (one hundred degrees centigrade) 2. An angle of 90° is called a right angle. Meaning 2: (an) amount or level of something Examples: 1. This task requires a high degree of skill. (note: here, we could also say ‘ a high level of skill.) 2. I agree with you to a certain degree. (note: here, we could also say ‘ to a certain extent’.) Meaning 3: a qualification from university Example: He has a degree in mathematics. That’s all for Audio Word Study #056 on What is a DailyStep English Audio Lesson? More English Courses more \| plus \| más \| altro \| 続き \| 자세히 Best wishes, How does a DailyStep subscription work? • There are no advertisements to distract your attention.	<urn:uuid:b85dc139-2e86-4ee0-a519-5357bb6774af>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.11825019121170044, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9153980612754822, "url": "https://www.dailystep.com/ja/node/54516" }
Social Classes In the mediæval period, the ranks of society were sharply defined. Each person was born into a specified rank and was likely to stay there for most of their life. 1086: At the time of Domesday Book 1. King 2. Tenant in chief responsible directly to the king 3. Sub tenant responsible to Tenant in chief 4. Burgess and Royal Knight both responsible directly to the King • Knight responsible to the Tenant in chief • Sokeman responsible to the Sub tenant and to the Tenant in chief 5. Villeins 6. Bordars 7. Slaves The 12th-14th Century Information ascertained from documents of the period. 1. King 2. Prince of the blood / Archbishop 3. Duke 4. Marquis (originally commanders of the marches) / Bishop 5. Earl (equivalent to the Norman count in Norman French). 6. Viscount (representative or deputy of an Earl in the government of a district – a sheriff 7. Baron (the lowest order of hereditary nobility. Held land by military service). 8. Knight. Knights were usually of noble birth which governed their social status. Knight of the Shire represented the Shire or County at court. • Minor Nobles: Titles used in local documents varied area to area and over time, as sometimes it seems, did their exact meaning and the status given to the men named. One can find the same man being given differing titles in different documents 9. Thane / Lord / Franklin 10. Mesne Lord / Marchaunt / Gentleman 11. Tenant 12. Villager (?) - people appear in the Manor Rolls identified only by the Vill in which they lived, or their father's name, John son of James or by trade, John the carpenter. In the subsidy rolls they are listed by name only, with the added and wife where appropriate. 13. Bondsman © Malcolm Bull 2021 Revised 12:32 / 17th May 2021 / 4873 Page Ref: X357 search tips advanced search site search by freefind	<urn:uuid:aaa4eb7d-b704-4069-9d4a-7ef5bdebb465>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.2987855076789856, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9383850693702698, "url": "https://www.calderdalecompanion.co.uk/x357.html" }
Ans'pa yaxw (Kispiox) Ans’pa yaxw or Kispiox, which means 'Hiding Place' in Gitxsan, is located in a central area amongst the other Gitxsan villages on the Skeena River. The village sits where the Skeena River and the Kispiox River meet, and is surrounded by tall mountain ranges to both the east and west, as well as Roucher Déboulé Mountain to the South. Ans’pa yaxw was originally a winter village with eleven long houses situated to face the Skeena River and was home to more than twenty totem poles, some of which date back to as early as 1880, and some as recently as 1995. Traditionally, the three crest groups of Ans’pa yaxw were: Frog/Raven (Lax See’l), Wolf (Lax Gibuu), and Fireweed (Giskaast). Families of the same crest would generally share one of the longhouses, with the highest ranking chief as the head of each house. In the spring, the people of Ans’pa yaxw would hike the so-called ‘grease trails’ to the Nass River to trap oolichan fish. The amount of oolichan grease needed by the people to survive the next year required any member of the family who was able to help carry the grease home to lend a hand. Following this, the families would split off to their fishing camps along the Kispiox River and the Skeena River. Before the arrival of winter, the people hunted land animals to provide meat and pelts. Both hunting areas and fishing stations were divided between crests and houses as was true for most of the Gitxsan. Like many First Nation communities along the Northwest Coast, the people of Ans’pa yaxw experienced a a large loss in population due to the various epidemics brought on by the contact with Europeans in the late 19th century. Today, Ans’pa yaxwis still home to approximately 1,500 people. Textual Information for this page: Cassidy, 1984; Halpin and Seguin, 1990; Indian and Northern Affairs Canada:	<urn:uuid:8c45ad12-5a2d-44fa-9e67-a5d75ed4ad6d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.2193736433982849, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9686653017997742, "url": "https://www.sfu.ca/brc/virtual_village/gitxsan/Ans-pa-yaxw.html" }
Wednesday, May 1, 2013 The Mystery of Parna In the Adelaide region of South Australia, the arrival of autumn was signalled by the heliacal rising of a star the local Aboriginal people called Parna. The appearance of Parna just before sunrise warned the Aboriginal people that the annual autumn rains (Figure 1) would soon arrive and that they needed to build large, waterproof huts. Local place names illustrate this: a hilltop campsite south of Adelaide was named Parnangga, which meant “autumn rains" and referred to the appearance of Parna in the morning sky. The identity of Parna has remained a mystery, as the identity of the star in Western terms was never given. Figure 1: Autumn thunderstorm over Adelaide. Image from But if we do a little research, we can figure out the most likely candidate for Parna. First, we look at the autumn rains. The autumn rains occur around the end of March and beginning of April. According to the Bureau of Meteorology, the average monthly rainfall in the period from 1977 to 2010 increased from 19.9mm during the summer months (December-February) to 40.9mm in April, after which it surpasses the monthly average of 45 mm and increases throughout the winter to reach a peak of 79.7mm in June (see Figure 2). The March average (24.9mm) is just above the summer average (19.9mm), showing that the increase in rainfall during April rises significantly from that in March. This suggests that Parna would rise just before dawn in mid-March. Figure 2: The average rainfall for Adelaide between 1977-2010. Taken from Hamacher (2012). Therefore, Parna is most likely a bright star (probably 1st or 2nd order magnitude) that rises just prior to sunrise in mid-March in the southeastern sky. This leaves only one obvious candidate. The bright star Fomalhaut, in the constellation Piscis Austrinus, rises at dawn on 15 March. At sunrise, it is ~ 22 degrees above the horizon at an azimuth of ~ 112 degrees, corresponding to the southeasterly direction. The star Fomalhaut is the best candidate for the star Parna as it meets the criteria set out and is the only bright star in that region of the sky visible at sunrise (see Figure 3). Figure 3: The star Fomalhaut visible in the southeastern skies of Adelaide just before sunrise. Image from Stellarium Astronomical Software. Hamacher, D.W. (2012). On the Astronomical Knowledge and Traditions of Aboriginal Australians. PhD Thesis, Department of Indigenous Studies, Macquarie University, pp. 79-82. 1. Forgive me, as an American, I know very little about the current state of the Aboriginal people in Australia, but why not just ask? Are the people who called the star Parna all gone? 2. While the people are still alive, many of their traditions have been damaged or lost. So no, it's not always as simple as asking someone (although sometimes it is!).	<urn:uuid:874b1766-9fde-4d3b-8ae3-2ec6bd446e05>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.04553937911987305, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9485041499137878, "url": "http://aboriginalastronomy.blogspot.com/2013/05/the-mystery-of-parna.html" }
you're reading... Biology, chemistry, Sustainability, Uncategorized Trees store air pollutants Klingborn et al (2022) examined the levels of a specific type of pollutant in both deciduous (leafy) trees and coniferous (cone bearing) trees. They found that both types absorbed the pollutants based on how much was in the air. This means that trees are pulling potentially dangerous pollutants out of the air. This is important data because we need to identify ways of working with nature to overcome the many stresses that we put onto the environment. This is similar to using spaces like wetlands to filter water, something called ecosystem services. The benefits of these are quite extensive and often result in cost-savings compared to industrial solutions. However, I do have a question. What happens to the pollutants once they have been absorbed? Is the tree able to process the pollutants or do they just sit in the tree until it dies? This could have implications for how long term a tree purifier is. In addition, is the tree impacted by the pollutants? Does it change its growth at all? Regardless, with yet another benefit of having urban trees, it’s important for cities to invest in trees and make sure that there is equitable distribution so that everyone, regardless of where they can live can experience the benefits. About Tai Munro No comments yet. Leave a Reply WordPress.com Logo Google photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s Join 534 other followers Follow me on Twitter %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:705191eb-6cda-44c9-bee2-62fee459f315>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.08160465955734253, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9154513478279114, "url": "https://connectingwithscience.org/2022/01/04/trees-store-air-pollutants/" }
Traditional Irish clothing 1800s Dress and Costume in Ancient Irelan Dress and Costume in Ancient Ireland. 2. Dress. Materials .—Woollen and linen clothes formed the dress of the great mass of the people. Both were produced at home; and elsewhere in this book the mode of manufacturing them will be described. Silk and satin, which were of course imported, were much worn among the higher classes, and we find. All of his tyrades against Irish traditional clothing failed however, and it was not until around the mid 1600's that the clothing fell out of use. Chancellor Gerrarde in 1578 complained that even the English in Dublin were using Irish styles Irish Clothes of 1850. In the year 1850 Ireland had been ravaged by the potato famine, which destroyed the main food of the Irish people. It is estimated that a million Irish people died of hunger. Millions more emigrated to the US and elsewhere. By 1850 the population of Ireland was decimated and the remaining Irish people were desperately poor The painting of Irish men and women by Lucas de Heere (right) is a great example. The 1575 watercolor painting by Dutch artist Lucas de Heere depicts a group of wealthy elite Irish men and women. The two women are wearing English-style clothing and the Irish Kern (soldier) is in a traditional dress uniform. 4 By the late 16th century, many of. Irish clothes are generally very well-made and have a long history of significance attached to them. Aran jumpers were invented in the early 20th century, and are not a historical part of Irish culture. There is no such thing as a Clan Aran. Irish Tweed is a woven fabric incorporating mutli-coloured neps - scraps of wool said originally to have. In the late 1950s, noted clothing historian Henry Foster McClintock published Handbook on the Traditional Old Irish Dress as an attempt to set the record straight. Ireland declared itself a republic in 1949 and sought a National Costume to go along with its new nationhood Traditional Irish Clothing: The Leine. Nobles and freemen alike wore a leine. The leine was a Celtic tunic that bloused at the elbow on the sleeve and was wide at the bottom—often extending beyond the knees. These were normally made of plain linen. Over the leine, they wore a brat, which you pronounce like the sausage, not the spoiled child Weather also plays a significant role in traditional Irish dress. Ireland's ocean climate is generally mild, but sudden rainfall is common, as are strong breezes. Many natives dress in layers that they can shed or add depending on abrupt shifts from hot to cool, wet, and windy. To that end, the famous Aran sweater poses a sensible solution Traditional Irish daily eating habits, influenced by a farming ethos, involved four meals: breakfast, dinner (the midday meal and the main one of the day), tea (in early evening, and distinct from high tea which is normally served at 4:00 P.M. and is associated with British customs), and supper (a light repast before retiring). Roasts and. Irish immigrants came to America wearing clothing that was 20 years out of fashion, according to HistoryPlace.com. They wore traditional outfits, with men and boys wearing jackets and trousers or kilts and the women and girls wearing dresses with lace collars. The Irish immigration began in 1847 and at that time, many Irish immigrants arrived. The accompanying article stated that this splendid specimen of an Irish farmer wore clothes made of grey frieze that was common in the south west of Ireland. It was made of wool by the peasants and lasted forever. Frieze is a coarse plain woven wollen fabric with an uncut nap on one side Irish Cottage History. Although it seems cottages have been around forever, they are a relatively recent occurrence dating back to around the 1700's. Prior to that, our ancestors lived in round hut style dwellings built of wattle and daub, these dwellings would be built together in a community and surrounded by a 'moat' type defense. NATIVE CLOTHING - MacGinley Ginnell Irish History Ginnel Nov 13, 2019 - Actual Clothing that Was Worn in Ireland. See more ideas about irish dress, irish, ireland Irish Cultural Costumes. There may be no more stereo-typed look than that of traditional Irish costume. The popularity of St. Patrick's Day in the United States, as well as, to a lesser extent, that of Lord of the Dance, has led to a long history of misconceptions about Irish clothing The starchy carb was first sold in Spain in 1573 and by the 1590s had spread throughout Europe. Whilst the exact date of its arrival in Ireland is unknown, by the mid-1600s, it was the cornerstone of Irish diets. In the time before the Potato famine in the 1800s, a diet of oats and potatoes helped sustain the Irish peasantry The shawl is an Irish fashion statement of old, worn through the centuries, created out of necessity, and wrapped around shoulders with pride in the face of dire poverty. Image Credit. The shawl featured prominently in photographs of Irish women from the 19th century. After a little research into this subject I now view the shawl as a garment. Irish Clothes of 1850 Our Everyday Lif The Cóta Mór (pronounced coata moar) is rendered in English as Great Coat or Big Coat. The Cóta Mór reached to about the knees and also had the open sleeve design to accomodate the hanging sleeves of the Léine. It was used in winter time instead of the Ionar. The open sleeve of the Cóta Mór was a little different in that the opening was. 100 years of Irish fashion in 10 key pieces With an eye on both tradition and modernity, Emer O'Reilly-Hyland chooses her top fashion items from the past century, one for each decade Sat, Dec 28. The basic Irish soda bread recipe. View these recipes. Until the ebooklet mentioned above is published, you can view these not-so-traditional but definitely Irish recipes: Black and white perfection: Irish coffee. An old Irish whiskey cake recipe. Bailey's Irish Cream Cheesecake. Easey Peasy: Bailey's Cake This category describes traditional and historic Irish clothing. Modern Irish clothing should be categorised under Irish fashion. Pages in category Irish clothing The following 8 pages are in this category, out of 8 total. This list may not reflect recent changes. Irish dancing is an age-old art form. However, it was popularised in contemporary culture during the 1990s, as a result of shows such as Riverdance. Jigs, reels, step dancing, and ceili dances all make up this inherently Irish dance style, and its unique form and fashion are known worldwide today. It's truly one of the top Irish traditions. 3 Irish & Celtic Women's Clothing. We've gathered a veritable treasure chest of traditional Irish women's clothing in our stunning collection, specially selected from the very best Ireland has to offer.. From the finest hand finished Aran sweaters and Irish sweater jackets crafted from the highest quality yarns to luxurious walking capes and stylish woollen shawls and Irish ponchos Irish Clothing Save Up To 60% Off Now. Welcome to our stunning range of traditional Irish clothing. Here at The Irish Store, we have searched the island of Ireland to bring you the very best of Irish apparel. Browse our selection of Irish & Celtic clothing including the finest Aran sweaters and Irish cardigans for him and her This exhibition displays clothing and jewellery worn in Ireland principally from the 1760s to the 1960s. Although many still think of 'Irish Dress' in the context of woollens worn in the West of Ireland, this exhibition shows that in the past the majority of Irish people, even those who wore locally woven fabrics (silk, linen, wool and cotton), dressed in styles that competed with the. Irish traditional music began as an oral tradition, passed on from generation to generation by listening, learning by ear and without formally writing the tunes on paper. This is a practice that. Although the people of Ireland do not strictly wear their traditional costume, yet it has retained its importance through folk music and folk dance. Pinterest. Today. Traditional Irish Clothing Traditional Fashion Traditional Dresses Irish Step Dancing Irish Dance Celtic Dance Celtic Dress Costumes Around The World Irish Girls Traditional Irish New Year food customs New Year's Eve. The last night of the old year was known in Irish as Oiche na Coda Moire--The Night of the Big Portion--because of the belief that a big supper on this night ensured full and plenty for the year to come Piano, mandolin, guitars and bouzoukis (a type of lute) add traditional Irish flavor to songs old and new. And of course, music and singing would be incomplete without an Irish dance. There are several styles of Irish dance, including set dancing, step dancing, and ceili (or social) dances. Ceili dances may include anywhere from two to 16. 100% Irish Merino Wool Aran Button Men's Sweater by Westend Knitwear. 4.6 out of 5 stars. 1,617. $59.99. $59. Free Shipping on eBa IRELAND TRADITIONAL DRESS \| The Dress Shop \| Traditional Historical Irish Clothing - Bellator In present times, Irish dancers are the best example to witness the traditional clothing of Ireland. In the early 1800's female dancers wore ordinary peasant dresses often embellished with ribbons formed into flowers or crosses. The crimson homespun skirt reached till the ankles worn with a simple black bodice. From the late 1800's onwards. Brats, Tunics and Tailoring in Viking Ireland. Irish clothing, for both men and women, generally consisted of two important pieces: a léine and a brat. The léine was a tunic-like garment, usually made out of linen and reached to about the knee. If you were wealthy you could also wear a garment made out of silk to impress your friends and neighbours In the Highlands and Islands, men did not go back to the traditional belt-kilted plaid after 1782, although it was no longer forbidden. During the late 18th century, clothing for men became more similar to that of men in the Lowlands. At the beginning of the 19th century, clothing made in the Lowlands began to appear in the Highlands and. Really, every combination of home and outside professional endeavor went into the providing of fibers, fabrics, and garments in the 1830s. Often the whole family helped to produce the cloth used for their clothing, especially if the family were rural or frontier. Sheep were fed and sheared by the men of the household Christine offers a line of authentic, unique, custom and ready-made rendezvous clothing. The mountain man, woman and child can be clothed in 18th or 19th century apparel for the next rendezvous, renaissance, or cowboy shooting event. Christine can custom make or tailor any shirt, vest, pant, dress, skirt, frock, bonnet, apron, capote or under. What types of traditional clothing do Irish people wear? Irish people wear quilts and long socks. people in the 1800s wore long dresses and bonnets and the boys wore pants and suspenders Piano, mandolin, guitars and bouzoukis (a type of lute) add traditional Irish flavor to songs old and new. And of course, music and singing would be incomplete without an Irish dance. There are several styles of Irish dance, including set dancing, step dancing, and ceili (or social) dances. Ceili dances may include anywhere from two to 16. Charles Stewart Parnell, a Protestant from a wealthy family, became a leader of Irish nationalism in the late 1800s. Known as Ireland's Uncrowned King, he was, after O'Connell, perhaps the most influential Irish leader of the 19th century In step with 1800s traditions, farmers' wives usually had long hair worn in a simple bun for daily activities. Traditional hats included the bonnet or sunbonnet to protect a woman's face from the elements. Bonnets had deep brims and tied under the chin. In England, farm wives wore straw hats they made themselves from wheat Irish Traditions Brought to America. Irish immigration to the United States has left a lasting impression on American culture. Although the Irish had been immigrating to America since colonial times, the largest waves of immigrants came in the 1850s -- during the Irish Potato Famine. Once they settled in the United States, the Irish imported. The Irish have been known for their fine cotton lace-making since the early 1800s. Handknitted sweaters are another famous Irish product, especially those made on the Aran Islands. Tweed—a thick cloth of woven wool used for pants, skirts, jackets, and hats—is another type of textile for which the Irish are known It already suffered a major famine that has a major impact on the Irish population. Traditions Sheelah's Day falls on March 18, the day after St Patrick's Day, and was once widely recognized all over Ireland as part of the ol It is hard to emphasize enough the lack of information about clothing in the Scottish Highlands until the middle of the 1600s, but around the late 1500s to early 1600s, Scottish Highland clothing became more distinct from Irish clothing of the same period Irish clothing - Wikipedi 2. Women's Clothing. We carry the finest Victorian clothing. Beautiful detailed blouses, riding skirts, walking skirts, bustle skirts, saddle seat pants, figure flattering vests, custom Victorian hats, head turning dresses, and 19th century corsets 3. The costumes of today's dancers reflect the clothing of Ireland from the eighth century. The dresses worn by women are copies of the traditional Irish peasant dress and they are adorned with hand-embroidered Celtic designs based on the Book of Kells and Irish stone crosses. In the early 1800s female dancers wore ordinary peasant dresses and. 4. Irish clothing and the culture of clothing in Ireland is interesting and goes back hundreds of years. One thing that has not been lost is the quality and traditional methods in how some Irish clothing products are still made to this day. Our range has a long history of significance attached to each piece 5. Traditional Clothing of Ireland in comic style Vintage engraving of Costumes of Ancient Irish Brehons. Brehon is a term for a historical arbitration, mediative and judicial role in Gaelic culture 6. Researching the history of mills. Water cornmills tend to remain on the same site, however often rebuilt. So a mill that now looks 18th or 19th-century could be concealing a much longer history. The Domesday Book lists around 6,000 mills in England in 1086. Many of these mills continue to be mentioned in documents in succeeding centuries and eventually appear on maps Video: What is Traditional Irish Dress - Reconstructing Histor The sensation that became 'Riverdance' saw a new interest in Irish traditional music sweep the world. The tradition of having Irish dancers attend at a wedding is a relatively recent one though. It has to be remembered that until Catholic emancipation in the nineteenth century and the revival of the Gaelic consciousness at the turn of the. Traditional Irish Beliefs. Belief in fairy folk: These beliefs are almost died out now, but for many centuries the Irish were convinced of the existence of magical creatures such as leprechauns, pookas, selkies (seal-folk), merrows (mer-people) and the dreaded Banshee. Older folk will still tell tales of hearing a Banshee, or even of an encounter at night with a fairy sprite Ancient Highland Dress The Belted Plaid - The Feileadh-mhor(pr: feela more) The belted plaid or the breacan-an-feileadh (pr: BRE-kan an Feelay) . . . the great kilt, appears to have been the characteristic dress of the Highlander from the late sixteenth century onwards and had probably been worn for quite some time before that over the saffron tunic - the main article of clothing worn by the. women's irish costumes late 1800s - Google Search i 2020 Traditional Irish Clothing: 6 Great Tips to Express Your Required Cookies & Technologies. Some of the technologies we use are necessary for critical functions like security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and to make the site work correctly for browsing and transactions This traditional Irish shirt is sharp enough for a day at the office while relaxed enough to wear while you sip a pint at the pub. Made in the Celtic style worn for more than a century, this shirt features small buttons placed evenly along a long front placket to create a pullover or Henley look 1000+ images about Ireland 1850-1900 : Men and Women on The bodice is in the 'cuirasse' style, extending into a point below the waistline. The dress bears the label of the maker: Halling, Pearce and Stone. Following the example set by Charles Worth in Paris, dressmakers had begun to identify the clothes they made. This can be seen in professionally made clothing from the late 1870s onward In the 17th century, the English navy was the first to adopt uniforms for officers and a slop system, after which all sea clothing were referred to as slops. In both England and the United States, non-officers supplied and wore their own slops until the early 19th century, when non-officer uniforms were standardized (Hill) Traditional Irish Clothing - How Irish Traditions Work 1. Queen Victoria had a huge influence on the fashions of the mid to late 1800s. After the death of her husband, Prince Albert in 1861, Queen Victoria wore black clothing until her own death in 1901. During Victorian times, the type of mourning dress and the length of time one wore it was circumscribed by etiquette instead of sumtuary laws 2. Next on our list of instruments used in traditional Irish music is the Irish flute. Again, many Irish children would have been taught this instrument due to its simple mechanism. Similar to the tin whistle, air is blown through a mouthpiece while holes are covered and released to produce varying tones. Unlike the tin whistle, however, the Irish. 4. In the 1500s, wider sleeves were more popular throughout Europe, and one sees a wider sleeve in Irish clothing, too (albeit in a particularly Celtic form). However, from Clan tartans are a relatively recent innovation, due to renewed interest in Scottish heritage in the early 1800s, when the laws against the wearing of kilts and tartans. 5. RH1511 — 1949 New Look Dresses with Full Skirts. $12.95 - $18.95 Select options. Sale 6. Irish Dress . Hibernian dress, Caledonian Custom. a brief history of Irish kilts & tartans. By Matthew Newsome & Todd Wilkinson. While the traditional tartan kilt is seen generally as an icon of Scottish culture, many people, especially Americans of Irish heritage, also associate the garment with Ireland as that nation's traditional dress In this way a rich heritage of Irish dances was assembled and modified over the centuries. Today, jigs, reels, hornpipes, sets, half sets, polkas and step dances are all performed. Solo dancing or step dancing first appeared at the end of the eighteenth century. The costumes worn by Irish dancers today commemorate the clothing of the past During the early 1900s, Edwardian men's clothing was relatively formal, with specific outfits worn at different times of the day. Interestingly, it was during the 1900-1919 years that for the first time, clothing started to be mass-produced. This reduced the need to have something tailor-made and ready made clothing more accessible for all, regardless of wealth or social position The traditional Russian costume used to be a part of the country's history up until the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Peter the Great proclaimed the Russian dress to be 'peasant and non progressive'. He introduced a law that fined anyone who entered the city in traditional national clothes, as well as anyone with a beard.The citizens, aristocracy, merchants and other. promo. Evie Long Button Cape - Lavender Blue. US$234.50. Was US$335.00. Fringed Plaid Shawl. US$85.00. Galway Fringe Poncho. US$115.00. Herringbone Wool Poncho The Irish Brown Herringbone Tweed suit will become the standard of business dressing and by far the most ubiquitous option. Crafted from 100% wool, the Irish Brown color of the suit will surely influence a veteran dresser to buy the suit for building a sharp wardrobe. Team it up with a matching waistcoat, a white shirt and dark brown derby shoes. Look IncludesIrish Brown Herringbone Tweed. Culture of Ireland - history, people, clothing, traditions White cotton Victorian shirt. 1800s mens clothing. Steampunk. Re-enactment. Steampunk wedding. 19thC shirt. 1800s collarless men's shirt SecretChateauAttire 5 out of 5 stars (60) $ 92.91. Add to Favorites ON HOLD Please Do Not Purchas ALONGWAYBACK 5 out of 5 stars (689. The traditional Scottish Cranachan is a dessert that is often served at celebrations. The red raspberry puree layered with whipped cream flavored with whiskey and honey create a festive treat that is bursting with flavor. Toasted oats add a nutty taste and crunchy texture. 12 of 14 What Did Irish Immigrants Wear As Their Clothing Ireland, the peopl History of laundry - after 1800 Washing clothes and household linen: 19th century laundry methods and equipment The information here follows on from a page about the earlier history of laundry.Both parts offer an overview of the way clothes and household linen were washed in Europe, North America, and the English-speaking world, and are also a guide to the other laundry history pages on this. Meet The Medieval Irish Gallowglass Warriors. On this page, meet the Gallowglass or 'Galloglaigh', an Irish equivalent of the Samurai warrior. Their existence is an almost forgotten piece of Ireland's history. Yet, in medieval Ireland, galloglaigh were indispensable. Every Norman war lord or Gaelic chieftain made sure to have his own well. Plain clothing also carries important traditional symbolism. The specific style of plain clothes worn by the Amish are a marker of the people, with variations in clothing often indicative of a particular Amish affiliation. Amish discern differences in plain clothing styles between different groups which can help them place the origin community. A Glimpse from the Past: Traditional Bavarian Clothing Each country has its own set of cultural values making it special: language, cuisine, traditions, etc. Dress is also a national peculiarity. Speaking of Germany, Bavaria in particular, a Dirndl dress and Lederhosen are the typical traditional pieces of clothing Clothing of 18th Century England - page three of three - 1770 to 1800. 1770-1775. Close caps, resembling night-caps, were much worn in 1773, even in fashionable circles. Sometimes they had lace wings at the sides, giving a somewhat grotesque appearance to the head when seen from behind. For a very short period men attempted to vie with women. Blacks called Irish Americans this during the 1800's in retaliation to being called Nagurs Not copyrighted in any way, shape or form. This database was created entirely from data gleaned off the 'net and via submissions from people like you and your parents Lucas, A.T. (1991) Irish Food before the potato Munster Express Cork. Lysaght, P (1987) Innovation in Food - the Case for Tea in Ireland Ulster Folklife XXXIII 1987 p45 Mokyr, J (1985) Why Ireland Starved A quantitative and analytical History of the Irish Economy 1800-1850 2nd Edition Weidenfeld & Nicolson Londo Irish Cottage History What are Irish Cottages Cottageolog Please contact us if you have any questions! Find Traditional Mens Trousers at Historical Emporium! We have thousands of unique, hard-to-find items in vintage and antique styles. Historical Emporium - Authentic Period Clothing for Men and Women. Serving living history, theater, movie and TV production customers since 2003 The fact that girls can wear both pink (feminine) and blue (masculine) colors, while boys wear only blue, illustrates an important trend begun in the late 1800s: over time, garments, trims, or colors once worn by both young boys and girls, but traditionally associated with female clothing, have become unacceptable for boys' clothing From Jane Austen and Queen Victoria through to the hippies of the 1960s. British Costume Fashion through the Ages - Part One. 1050 to 1490: 11th to 15th century, including the Wars of the Roses. British Costume Fashion through the Ages - Part Two. 16th and 17th centuries: Tudors and Stuarts and the English Civil War 2. Put on a full-length dress with a petticoat and bustle. Women in the 1800s wore dresses with long, full skirts that reached the ground, but the exact style of the dress shifted throughout the century. If you're looking for a more general costume, go with a long, full skirt of plain fabric in a muted, solid color Servant Jobs. Irish men often became man servants and personally cared for the man of the house or the horses in the stables. The Irish men also worked as kitchen staff, gardeners, horse groomers, stable muckers and caring for animals. The men would work long, hard hours doing jobs for less pay than other city residents 1908 Irish lace dress36 Ireland 1850-1900 : Men and Women ideas \| victorian22 Stunning Color Portraits of Women in Their Traditional Darcy Clothing supplies accurate replicas of men's clothing from C16th to 1950s. We use original patterns and custom woven fabrics for maximum authenticity. All items are kept in stock for immediate despatch This past week, thousands of dancers competed in the North American Irish Dance Championships in Chicago. The end of the competition tomorrow seemed to offer the perfect occasion to follow up on a recent Look, The Jig Is On, and find out more about those flashy Irish dance costumes. So I got in touch with John Cullinane, a former Irish dancer and instructor Late 1800's Farm Clothing. In the late 1800s, families who owned and worked farms were self-sufficient people. They provided their own food and clothes. Garments were hand-sewn and made to be practical before fashionable. Clothes would be mended and patched often Traditional Welsh dress was worn by women in rural areas of Wales. The distinctive dress was based on a form of bedgown made from wool, of a style dating from the 18th century, worn over a corset. This was teamed with a printed neckerchief, a petticoat, apron and knitted stockings. The dress was completed by a high crowned hat reminiscent of.	<urn:uuid:93d0043a-f072-4f4c-ba6a-060244e6aeb3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.02282005548477173, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9592934250831604, "url": "https://geboren-aktenskap.com/what-kind-of-clothing-did-the-pioneers-wear-12078462-epw5376rkf-y1.html" }
• Join over 1.2 million students every month • Accelerate your learning by 29% • Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month AS and A Level: Modern European History, 1789-1945 Browse by 4 star+ (16) 3 star+ (22) Word count: fewer than 1000 (595) 1000-1999 (822) 2000-2999 (208) 3000+ (133) Submitted within: last month (35) last 3 months (36) last 6 months (38) last 12 months (49) Meet our team of inspirational teachers find out about the team 1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4 5. 5 6. 65 1. In the years 1925-37, successive British Governments felt that Germany had legitimate grievances and this largely explains the policy of appeasement. How far do you agree with these judgements? A majority of Germany's grievances throughout the whole period stemmed from the Treaty of Versailles. Those grievances can then split into groups relating to specific sections of the treaty. Germany had mistrusted France, and since the Treaty of Versailles had never been happy with its eastern borders. To prevent any disagreements escalating the treaty of Locarno was signed, guarantying Germany's western borders, and stating that eastern borders would not be changed by force. This is therefore an example of appeasement caused by a German grievance. • Word count: 968 2. Levels of Literacy in France during seventeenth-century French absolutism under Louis XIV and during the reign of Louis XVI immediately before the French Revolution of 1789 There then was a division in France's society. They were divided into three estates, the clergy, the nobles, and the rest of the citizens which was a population of ninety-seven percent that was called the Third Estate. Most of the population were not allowed to participate in the decision-making process. The divisions in French society at the time had some obvious reasons, an example of one is the different social classes were either illiterate or literate. Divisions existed during king Louis reign, in men and women, the northern and southern regions of France. • Word count: 753 3. How far does the North South divide in Italy explain the weaknesses of the Liberal State in the years 1896-1914? Farms run by capitalist tenant famers employing landless farm labourers on short contracts became the norm. This picture of economic acceleration and industrialisation was in complete contrast to the economy of southern Italy. The south consisted of the poorest farming areas as the hot dry climate mountains and malaria ridden coastal plains reduced the amount of land suitable for agriculture. In addition the system of landholding compounded the problem of economic underdevelopment in the south. The south was the region of the latifundia enormous noble-owned estates. They tended to show little interest in their lands, rejecting new agricultural methods. • Word count: 1140 4. What caused the great terror? The seventeenth party congress of February 1934 is seen by many as the birth of Stalins Great terror, probably the most brutal era in Russias civil history. This however was not all, when Stalin finds out some of the elder communist party members tried to convince Kirov to run for party leader. Stalin's trust in the communist leaders is destroyed- he now knows he is not secure as the leader and his already deep-seated paranoia is worsened, he realises that he is not safe within his own party- this is the start of his extreme paranoia of just about everyone in the whole of Russia, but especially of people who held power. • Word count: 968 5. The treaty of Versailles was shaped by French determination to exact revenge and to ensure Germanys permanent weakness How far do you agree with this view? It is extremely important when we look at the final draft of the treaty of Versailles to judge who had to the most influential role in the final draft of the treaty by first looking at the aims of the big three- Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George. Clemenceau and Wilson polarised views on what should be done to Germany by the treaty - Wilson famous for his epically liberal views in his 'fourteen points' and Clemenceau wanting the precise opposite, wanting to Germany to suffer for destroying France. • Word count: 1116 6. What is meant by the term responsive national state ? Why did it come to serve as a new unifying principle? Give examples of how this concept of state worked. How did this state differ from earlier ones in terms of its objectives and its appeal? Which nat One of the most prominent features of the period of the responsive national state was that the right to vote became a common thing. Universal male suffrage became a rule rather than an exception by 1914, with men not denied the right to vote due to economic condition or a lack of education. To this effect, the ability to influence the government became more or less universal as well- in an industrial society, this was an important aspect of living as the government's jurisdiction highly impacted the ways of production and labor, among other things. • Word count: 1459 7. Agriculture-18th century. In Western Europe, from roughly seventeen-hundred to eighteen-hundred, there was a surge in economic and population growth. In this system, common lands were set aside for community use, and hard labor was abundant and common in relation to the land. This system was both inefficient and unjust, as it employed both hard labor and a complete lack of capitalism. The farming methods to come would be highly capitalistic. But by the middle of the eighteenth century, the vast majority of peasants in Western Europe had been freed from serfdom and many owned land. However, it still was not possible for peasants to increase their landholdings by taking land from more affluent landowners. • Word count: 1351 8. To what extent is the most important reason for the rise of the Nazis Hitler himself? Hinderburg did think about Von Papen for chancellor but he realises this could bring problems to himself. In the end Von Paper insists that if Hitler is the Chancellor, there would only be a limited number of sits for the Nazis in the council. Hinderburg thought that if Hitler was appointed the Chancellor position he would be able to oversee what he was getting up to and what his future plans were. Hitler was given power in a seedy political deal by Hinderburh and Papen who foolishly though they could control him. • Word count: 1038 9. Identify and analyze the political and cultural issues in the debate over Pan-Slavism. The political center of the Pan Slavic movement lay in the quest of power through unification. However, more people were doubtful of this idea rather than in favor of it. When looking at the distribution of the Slavs across various empires in Documents 1 and 2, we can see that while they were spread across a fairly range range of land, they were particularly concentrated the the Russian Empire, though most diversified in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The magnitude of the Russian empire in its own right thus almost repulsed some members of it from any sort of unification with other • Word count: 951 10. How far were the domestic reforms of Alexander II mere window dressing by a Tsar whose main intention was to prevent more radical change? why the Tsar was really instigating the reforms, it shows that he was very aware of the feeling of unrest among the peasants, and as they made up 80% of the Russian population, the Tsar felt it would be wise to improve their situation and as a result this would strengthen Russia as a whole. This can therefore be seen as an act of the Tsar to keep control of his country and his seat in power. For that reason I feel that this shows that the main intention of this reform was to prevent any radical changes. • Word count: 672 11. Revision notes - Russia to 1924 / in 1866 a student attempted to assassinate the Czar ? tighter control of education / reduction in # of poor at Univs. / increased censorship / power of Zemstvo reduced / increased activity of the Secret police / political trials were taken to military court. o The Land and Liberty Party ? rebellion from below (the peasants) led by the anarchist Michael Bakunin o Evaluation of his reign: o Serfdom was ended o Reduction in the power of nobles o Develop. of industry. o Failure to carry out political change ? • Word count: 1325 12. Bismarck did not plan the unification of Germany. He merely reacted to events. Moreover, with the extreme nationalism happening all over the European countries, the appearance of Bismarck was the most critical point of the whole unification process. As a Prussian, Bismarck is uncommonly loyal to his homeland and therefore, he would only allow the unification of Germany to happen with Prussia as the leader. War was necessary for unification because the balance of great powers would be imbalance as a result and so, Bismarck reformed the army till the point that he was known as Iron Chancellor. • Word count: 656 13. How far had Mussolini achieved his aims in domestic policy by 1939? He therefore needed to alter this unfavourable circumstance decisively and carefully to take control of the parliament as a means to establish a totalitarian state which was the core in his domestic policy. In the totalitarian ideology basis, the supremacy over the individual rights of its citizens shouldn't be questioned as the popular Fascism slogan stated, "Everything within the State, nothing against the State, nothing outside the State.". This means liberalism was seen as the national enemy. In his domestic view, Mussolini saw that by having a liberal mind, people would soon voiced out their opinions and soon, his dictatorship would be in the stage of shattering. • Word count: 960 14. How far do you agree that Parnell was the most effective leader of Constitutional Nationalism during the period from 1798-1921? Home Rule did not happen in Parnell's lifetime however, he is said to have set it in motion which is a fair statement due to his contribution, his consistent pushing of the Irish question at Gladstone helped make sure the Home Rule Bill came to fruition. O'Connell may have been the first Irish Nationalist Leader who made a positive impact in the field of Irish Nationalism. It was in 1798 that O'Connell set up his legal practice which was the stepping stone that helped prepare him for his career in politics. • Word count: 1682 15. Assess the reasons why the Russian Revolution of 1917 ended in victory for the Bolsheviks. In fact, it can be seen as a transitional period for the Bolsheviks to take over and it was meant to be a temporary administration before a legitimate government was elected. Thus, it was powerlessness and was not a representative of the Russians as most of them were Duma politicians who like the Tsar, were also blinded by their powers and superior positions. In many ways, they cannot be considered as a revolutionary although they replaced the Tsar. As a matter of fact, they serve as a vehicle to prevent a revolution for the time being. • Word count: 1187 16. How far do you agree that the Dumas were nothing more than rubber stamp assemblies? The Tsar pledged to introduce further civil liberties, provide for broad participation in a new "State Duma", and to endow the Duma with legislative and oversight powers. The first Duma opened on 27 April 1906 with roughly 500 deputies. Many radical left parties, such as the Socialist Revolutionary Party had boycotted the election, leaving the moderate Constitutional Democrats aka The Kadets with the most deputies. Second came an alliance of slightly more radical left wing parties, the Trudoviks, with around 100 deputies. • Word count: 967 17. How did the Bolsheviks consolidate their power between 1917 and 1924? Lenin's 'April Thesis' in 1917 was a crucial step toward change as he called for a worldwide revolution, an end to the war and an end to the provisional government. The war with Germany was still happening but food production was plummeting and soon Russia was embraced by a devastating famine leading Russia to an economic crisis. As the Bolsheviks took control they immediately stopped all the freedoms that the proletariat had gained, as Lenin described Russia as "the freest country in the world." • Word count: 980 18. In the process of consolidating his position, Napoleons reforms, had by 1808, destroyed the principles of the French Revolution. Discuss. In crowning himself Emperor, Napoleon had placed himself in a position above the rest of the country and whilst the Directory was, albeit corrupted, but run by five Directors which was an attempt at restraining those in power to change to dictatorship. This meant that Napoleon was the sole ruler of the country and that his descendants would take control after him, this mirrored the hereditary principle of a monarchy; which made the constitution even more of a return to the Ancien R�gime. • Word count: 3993 19. How and why did the Weimar Governments collapse between October 1929 and January 1933? It appeared that Ludendorff's plan to shift blame from the army to the politicians had been very effective, but would lead to the violence and political unrest that would eventually destroy the Weimar Republic and, ultimately, democratic Germany. This almost instantaneous association between democracy and defeat did not serve well for promoting the new form of government. The German nation was a nation not familiar with the freedom of being able to rule themselves, having been under monarchical rule for centuries. Because of this, Germans looked to those who filled the role of leader (a new king, if you will) • Word count: 2930 20. How accurate is it to suggest that the Treaty of Versailles was mainly responsible for the political and economic instability in Germany 1919-23? In fact, with the treaty taking 48% of Germany's iron ore, 16% of its coal and 15% of its agricultural land the country was effectively plunged into economic disarray, unable to export the materials and goods that had previously seen the country thrive. With such significant losses in land and resources, and therefore her productive output, coupled with the major reparations that the treaty forced the country to pay, it is clear that the Treaty of Versailles played a large role in the economic instability of 1919-23 within Germany. • Word count: 1385 21. Was Stalins personality the most important reason behind the Purges? (24 Marks) Later Kirov was assassinated by a younger party member. It is unknown who had hired this assassin, but whether it was an enemy of his or the enemy in Stalin he had create, Stalin used his death to his advantage. This was done through the claim that spies and conspiracy against older party members was present. From here he introduced the Purges. Another reason it is said that the purges took place was to allow Stalin to assert his power on to the party, to allow his ways as a leader to continue. • Word count: 1345 22. Stalins cult of personality was the result of the peoples desire for a leader to worship. How far do you agree or disagree with this statement? To begin with, the cult of Stalin grew with the people's psychological want for a leader. Considering the Russian people as 'Tsaristic', he was seen to be a worshipped character that was dearly idolised by his people. Tsaristicness' justified the cult in a way, as the Russian people had been exploited to a way of life which required loyalty and devotion to the cause found in a leader. However it went against the principle of Marxism. Although some records suggest that Stalin encouraged the cult, his daughter said that her father was particularly 'embarrassed' by the attention of the cult. • Word count: 845 23. Describe the Russia that Tsar Nicholas II inherited Finally, Russia's large land mass made it difficult for communication and travel resulting in delays in enterprise and modernisation. Alexander III had been a conservative autocrat who during his reign in power (1881-1894) had reversed the reform of the political & social system begun by his father Alexander II. Alexander II had realised that Russia needed to modernise in order to compete against growing nations such as the US, France, Germany and the British Empire. He emancipated the serfs, giving them greater freedoms. • Word count: 1629 24. How far do you agree that the only aim of the radical parties was to overthrow the Tsar? The Populists hoped that this would cause the old fashioned strong central government to fade away. This means that it was one of the aims of the Populists to remove the Tsar from power, although they were more opposed to the entire Russian system of Autocracy, and it's removal was to achieve further goals than to simply overthrow the leaders that they did not like, or did not feel were running the country affectively. The plans of the Populists to win the support of the peasants and serfs failed, as they were simply not interested in reform. • Word count: 870 25. Assess the view that Russias communist leaders did less than the Tsars to improve the lives of the working class in the period 1855-1964. • Word count: 1668 Marked by a teacher Peer reviewed Peer reviewed	<urn:uuid:b1802fdb-d1c9-4791-849a-0e079c1cccf6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.3125186562538147, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9815031886100769, "url": "https://www.markedbyteachers.com/as-and-a-level/history/modern-european-history-1789-1945/?p=4" }
3D Animation Techniques with XNA Game Studio 4.0 2 min read Object animation We will first look at the animation of objects as a whole. The most common ways to animate an object are rotation and translation (movement). We will begin by creating a class that will interpolate a position and rotation value between two extremes over a given amount of time. We could also have it interpolate between two scaling values, but it is very uncommon for an object to change size in a smooth manner during gameplay, so we will leave it out for simplicity’s sake. The ObjectAnimation class has a number of parameters—starting and ending position and rotation values, a duration to interpolate during those values, and a Boolean indicating whether or not the animation should loop or just remain at the end value after the duration has passed: public class ObjectAnimation Vector3 startPosition, endPosition, startRotation, endRotation; TimeSpan duration; bool loop; We will also store the amount of time that has elapsed since the animation began, and the current position and rotation values: TimeSpan elapsedTime = TimeSpan.FromSeconds(0); public Vector3 Position { get; private set; } public Vector3 Rotation { get; private set; } The constructor will initialize these values: public ObjectAnimation(Vector3 StartPosition, Vector3 EndPosition, Vector3 StartRotation, Vector3 EndRotation, TimeSpan Duration, bool Loop) this.startPosition = StartPosition; this.endPosition = EndPosition; this.startRotation = StartRotation; this.endRotation = EndRotation; this.duration = Duration; this.loop = Loop; Position = startPosition; Rotation = startRotation; Finally, the Update() function takes the amount of time that has elapsed since the last update and updates the position and rotation values accordingly: public void Update(TimeSpan Elapsed) // Update the time this.elapsedTime += Elapsed; // Determine how far along the duration value we are (0 to 1) float amt = (float)elapsedTime.TotalSeconds / (float)duration. if (loop) while (amt > 1) // Wrap the time if we are looping amt -= 1; else // Clamp to the end value if we are not amt = MathHelper.Clamp(amt, 0, 1); // Update the current position and rotation Position = Vector3.Lerp(startPosition, endPosition, amt); Rotation = Vector3.Lerp(startRotation, endRotation, amt); As a simple example, we’ll create an animation (in the Game1 class) that rotates our spaceship in a circle over a few seconds: 3D Animation Techniques with XNA Game Studio 4.0 We’ll also have it move the model up and down for demonstration’s sake: ObjectAnimation anim; We initialize it in the constructor: models.Add(new CModel(Content.Load<Model>(“ship”), Vector3.Zero, Vector3.Zero, new Vector3(0.25f), GraphicsDevice)); anim = new ObjectAnimation(new Vector3(0, -150, 0), new Vector3(0, 150, 0), Vector3.Zero, new Vector3(0, -MathHelper.TwoPi, 0), TimeSpan.FromSeconds(10), true); We update it as follows: models[0].Position = anim.Position; models[0].Rotation = anim.Rotation; Please enter your comment! Please enter your name here	<urn:uuid:270fb7ee-9e4e-4b47-836e-b7800d042f26>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.03125, "fasttext_score": 0.394425630569458, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7418846487998962, "url": "https://hub.packtpub.com/3d-animation-techniques-xna-game-studio-40-2/" }
The Cat In The Car Wash Creativity Exercise When we think in different ways, our eyes move in different directions. Have you ever noticed that when you try and remember what something looked like, you tend to look up and to your left? This is because when we try to see pictures of things in our memory, our eyes naturally move to that position. When we are creating a picture of something in our head, this works best if our eyes move up and to the right. This means that we can boost our creativity if we move our eyes up and to the right. ‘The Cat in the Car Wash’ is a simple exercise to practice this. Magazines for 12 year olds Look up and to your left and see a picture in your head of a cat sitting in a shopping trolley. These should both be things that you can easily find in your memory of pictures. • What does the cat look like? • What colour is it? Magazines for girls and boys Now picture the cat moving forwards towards the rollers of a car wash machine. As the cat moves towards the car wash notice that your eyes follow it and move from left to right. When you see the cat come out from behind the rollers your eyes will be firmly up and to the right. • How does your cat look now? • What has happened to it? • How do you see it? • Has it changed? When you are looking up and to your right you will find it much easier to think creatively. Using this eye exercise is a good way to help boost your creativity. “Creativity is intelligence having fun!” ~ Albert Einstein	<urn:uuid:d85aa42c-4cb9-46e7-94d3-90b08ebb6d2a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.48432832956314087, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9390285611152649, "url": "https://www.brilliantbrainz.com/wellbeing-in-children/creativity-the-cat-in-the-car-wash-exercise/" }
What are the different types of access specifiers in Java? Java provides four types of access modifiers or visibility specifiers i.e. default, public, private, and protected. What are the types of access specifiers? The access specifiers are listed according to their restrictiveness order. • private (accessible within the class where defined) • default or package private (when no access specifier is specified) • protected. • public (accessible from any class) What is access specifier and its types? Public – The members declared as Public are accessible from outside the Class through an object of the class. Protected – The members declared as Protected are accessible from outside the class BUT only in a class derived from it. Private – These members are only accessible from within the class. What are access specifiers in Java Explain with examples? The access modifiers in Java specifies the accessibility or scope of a field, method, constructor, or class. … There are four types of Java access modifiers: Private: The access level of a private modifier is only within the class. It cannot be accessed from outside the class. IMPORTANT: Is MySQL cheaper than SQL Server? What are different types of access modifiers specifiers? There are four access specifiers Java supports, public, protected, default (not specified at all) and private with different access restrictions. Why do we need access specifiers? Access Modifiers or Access Specifiers in a class are used to assign the accessibility to the class members. That is, it sets some restrictions on the class members not to get directly accessed by the outside functions. What do u mean by access specifiers? Access modifiers (or access specifiers) are keywords in object-oriented languages that set the accessibility of classes, methods, and other members. … When the class is declared as public, it is accessible to other classes defined in the same package as well as those defined in other packages. What is difference between access specifier and inheritance? In a nutshell, when members are inherited, the access specifier for an inherited member may be changed (in the derived class only) depending on the type of inheritance used. 17.5 — Inheritance and access specifiers. Access specifier in base class Access specifier when inherited protectedly Protected Protected Private Inaccessible How do you access objects in the classroom? Follow the class name with the member-access operator ( . ) and then the member name. You should always access a Shared member of the object directly through the class name. If you have already created an object from the class, you can alternatively access a Shared member through the object’s variable. What is the difference between public and private access specifier? Only the member functions or the friend functions are allowed to access the private data members of a class. Difference between Public and Private. IMPORTANT: How do you shift an array to the left in Java? Public Private All the class members declared under public will be available to everyone. The class members declared as private can be accessed only by the functions inside the class. What is the use of access specifiers and types in Java? Java provides entities called “Access Modifiers or access specifiers” that help us to restrict the scope or visibility of a package, class, constructor, methods, variables, or other data members. These access modifiers are also called “Visibility Specifiers”. What is overriding in Java? In any object-oriented programming language, Overriding is a feature that allows a subclass or child class to provide a specific implementation of a method that is already provided by one of its super-classes or parent classes. … Method overriding is one of the way by which java achieve Run Time Polymorphism. What is private access specifier in Java? Code Academy	<urn:uuid:ab56930d-de74-465b-8257-786034a30083>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.16113990545272827, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8966174721717834, "url": "https://php5dp.com/other/what-are-the-different-types-of-access-specifiers-in-java.html" }
Crayfish plague This disease is caused by Aphanomyces astaci representing the family of Leptolegniaceae. It is deadly disease for every European crayfish species, while American species are disease vectors. Aphanomyces astaci arrived to Europe (Italy) from the North America in 1860, probably with ballast waters of ships. It spread quickly in Europe decimating native crayfish populations. This protozoan infects the crust and its fungal spores grow in the inner parts of the body. In the North American crayfishes: the spiny-cheek crayfish and signal crayfish, fungal spores infect only the surface of the cuticle. The first symptoms of crayfish plaque are: progressing loss of limb co-ordination, staying on the land and shedding legs. There is no cure for crayfish plague. Crayfish plague is primary and basic reason for crayfish extinction; however there are also other reasons determining this process. In the water reservoirs, in which crayfishes are extinct, the parasite „loses“its host and disappears.	<urn:uuid:6d2b2708-9ffe-4d56-9fe3-5c0859517745>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.07183438539505005, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9406250715255737, "url": "http://en.rakipomorskie.pl/crayfish-plague/" }
Skip to main content Ancient DNA from Viking Graves Proves the Fierce Fighters Rode Male Horses Modern Icelandic horses are likely descended from the horses that Vikings were buried with, more than 1,000 years ago. (Image credit: Albína Hulda Pálsdóttir) A sliver cut from a horse's molar found in Berufjörður, Iceland provided enough ancient DNA to reveal the sex of the animal, buried by Vikings long ago. (Image credit: Agata Gondek) Prior interpretation of horses' remains from other Viking sites suggested that male horses played an important role for Vikings. And researchers suspected that learning the sex of the buried Icelandic horses would provide valuable insights into funeral rituals. Experts can differentiate between the remains of male and female horses by looking at the shape of the animal's pelvis and from the canine teeth, which typically appear only in males, according to the study. But this type of analysis works only if the remains are in good condition, study co-author Albína Hulda Pálsdóttir, a doctoral candidate with the Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis at the University of Oslo in Sweden, told Live Science in an email. "Since horses are so hard to sex morphologically unless fairly well-preserved, whole skeletons are found, we know very little about the varying roles of male and female horses in the past," Pálsdóttir said. "The sex ratio and age distribution of the killed horses suggests that there was a well-formed structure behind the rituals, in which the chosen horse acted as symbolic representative," she explained. "The conscious choice of males was perhaps linked with the characteristics of stallions; virility and aggression could have been a strong symbolic factor," Pálsdóttir added. However, the remains of three horses that were found outside graves had not received the ceremonial treatment of the buried horses. All of these animals were found to be female, and they had probably been eaten, the study authors concluded. In further analysis of their samples, the scientists will compare them with evidence of horses from other Northern European countries dating to the Viking age, Pálsdóttir told Live Science. They hope to find the geographical origins of Viking horses and physical traits such as the horses' colors, she added. The findings were published online in the January 2019 issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science. Original article on Live Science. Mindy Weisberger	<urn:uuid:4c1c342e-60c1-425a-bb45-455766b5da7e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.0192071795463562, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9767706990242004, "url": "https://www.livescience.com/64432-vikings-buried-with-stallions.html" }
Sight Words What are Sight Words? Sight words are the words that I want my students to be able to read quickly by sight. I do the program called Sight Word 60 to help my students learn these words. Sight Word 60 is a research based program that was created by renowned Kindergarten teacher, Greg Smedley. Every week I will introduce 3 or 4 new words and the kids will get over 60 exposures to each of those words during each week. "Brain research says we need 21 exposures to learn something and move it into long term storage and be able to recall the information. So, why not triple that and get 60 or more exposures" (Smedley)?! Every four weeks we will have a review week and review all of the words that we've learned so far. There will be no new words on the review weeks. Also on the review weeks we will have a sight words assessment to see what words the students know. We will also have an assessment at the end of every nine weeks where the students will have to know all of the words. Each nine weeks has its own set of words. Please make sure you practice these words with your children at home so that they can become great readers Our Words 2nd Nine Weeks (22 Words): Week 1-at, had, ask Week 2-red, yes, get Week 3-it, if, in Week 4-on, got, not Week 5-Review and Test Week 6-us, up, but Week 7-he, me, be, we Week 8-go, no, so Week 9-Review and Test 3rd Nine Weeks (23 words): Week 1: am, an, can, and Week 2: is, his, as, has Week 3: him, did, will Week 4: big, six, sit Week 5: Review and Test Week 6: to, do, who Week 7: of, are, you Week 8: they, play, away Week 9: Review and Test 4th Nine Weeks (18 words): Week 1: my, by, why Week 2: the, was, said Week 3: this, that, them Week 4: run, must, jump Week 5: Review and Test Week 6: see, three, here Week 7: come, little, look Week 8: Review and Test Week 9: Review View text-based website	<urn:uuid:71ebbb8a-6271-4790-8c13-546f1d5db0d2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.026380479335784912, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9568378329277039, "url": "https://www.southingtonlocal.org/SightWords11.aspx" }
In Big Architecture the finch beak forms are lifes architecture being sculpted by slightly different environmental information on each island, for more efficient access to energy flow (seeds in this case). The birds with the improved beaks for breaking open the energy sources would have slightly better access to food (energy), with better-fed birds tending over thousands of years to take over the genetic pool with their beak forms. The evolution of Darwin’s finch beaks took 1000’s of years of trial and error between environmental information (leading to the best energy source) and the chance mutation of DNA. The Sapient architecture built on these islands has been evolving for just hundreds of years. The evolution of building form is a little faster by added layers of Sapient information: 1. ENGINEERING: The ingenuity, artistry and agency of human craftspeople, utilizing past experience to make more climate-adapted and comfortable habitats. 2. SOCIAL VALUES: Projecting the social values and/or status of the residential or commercial buildings inhabitants.	<urn:uuid:043234b7-468f-4edd-b060-757a2de47a57>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.15892314910888672, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9303807020187378, "url": "http://www.hastudio.com/2021/11/27/1256/" }
The winter is coming - the solstice is approaching! How does the season come about and what science experiment can you do at home to learn more about it? Kids Corner: Solstice Science Fun! Welcome to the Winter Edition of Kid’s Corner! Welcome to the dark days of December. It’s dark when we get up for school and dark when we get home from school. If you are unlucky enough to live in the far north, near the Arctic Circle, it’s dark most of the time! Why is this? Well, unlike what ancient cultures believed, there is nothing mystical is behind it. Our planet Earth just doesn’t sit up straight, it leans a little. Imagine the Earth traveling through space like a toy top. A top, as it loses speed, tilts a little. The Earth isn’t losing speed, but it tilts too. As it circles the sun, one half is always tilted towards the sun and the other away. This is how we get our seasons. The half that is tilted in the direction of the sun experiences summer thanks to the amount of direct sunlight it receives. Oppositely, the half that tilts away receives less sunlight and experiences winter. Which way do you think we are tilting now? If you answered away, you would be correct! This is also why it seems darker and our days shorter, less sunlight is reaching us. Have you noticed this? Have you also noticed how shadows even seem longer? This too is because of the tilt of the Earth. When the Earth tilts away from the sun, the sun appears lower in our sky. Think of walking into a room with a lamp. Stand in front of the lamp and it will cast your shadow across the room. If that same room had an overhead light instead of a lamp, your shadow would be cast downward. Each day will seem to get darker and each shadow will grow longer until December 21st; the shortest day of the year, the day the northern half of the worlds tilt is farthest away from the sun. Try this fun activity and home and witness some of the science of the season! • An open space outside (for best results use a flat, paved space.) • Measuring tape, yardstick, etc. • A partner to help with measuring • Something that can mark length (chalk, marker, flag) This activity works best on a paved space, but since one may not be available that works, any flat, open surface will do. If working on the ground, you can use flags, rocks, sticks; anything that can mark the spots where your shadow falls. It is also important to do this at the same time each day, mid-afternoon works best. 1. Standing with you back to the sun, mark the spot on the ground at the tips of your toes. You will return to this spot each day. 2. Next, standing straight and still, have your partner mark the end of your shadow. This will be the top of your shadows head. 3. Now using your measuring device, measure the distance from your toes to your head and take note of it. 4. Do the same for your partner and anyone else who is curious. Make sure that everything is marked well! 5. Come back the following day and stand in the same exact spot as the day before. Line your toes up just right and measure again. Did you notice any change? 6. Continue doing this leading up to December 21st, noting each days results. What happens? Keep going beyond the 21st to witness even more solar magic! Have fun with this easy experiment. There will be much more to come in the new year! Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:8c9acb7e-fc14-431f-9615-bbf380e4f31d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.5326878428459167, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9370596408843994, "url": "https://blogbcas.wordpress.com/2018/12/10/kids-corner-solstice-science-fun/" }
Inspired by nature \| KS2 \| Year 5 \| Grammar Relative clauses: African elephant 1 - Learning Objective Learning Objective We are learning how to write sentences that contain relative clauses. Context: African elephant To enable embedded content please change your cookie preferences. Credit: BBC One - Nature's Epic Journeys Clip Description African elephants are the biggest land animals on Earth. To fuel their massive bodies, adults need to eat up to 150 kilograms of vegetation every day. In this fascinating clip, a younger male African elephant challenges an older male to a fight. The weaker of the two bulls will be forced to retreat. The competition will be settled through a trial of strength that will involve pushing, tusking, wrestling, and ramming. Both elephants are in musth. This is when a hormone called testosterone pumps through a male elephant’s body, causing it to be extremely aggressive. The clip doesn’t reveal the cause of the tusk-shattering battle; why do you think they are fighting? Word Challenge Can you list some adjectives that describe the elephants, their body parts or the fight itself? See if you can include some compound adjectives. A compound adjective is made up of two (or more) words. e.g. hot-headed, tusk-shattering, bad-tempered,…	<urn:uuid:8dd4fb36-b899-4d91-9bc9-ddbbba447b45>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.984375, "fasttext_score": 0.4045063257217407, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9049744009971619, "url": "https://www.naturalcurriculum.co.uk/grammar/year-5-grammar-lessons/relative-clauses/african-elephant/screen-1/" }
An online resource based on the award-winning nature guide – Animal Architecture The Architecture of a Bald-faced Hornet Nest 11-29-17 hornet nest 049A8063The exterior of a Bald-faced Hornet nest consists of an outer envelope of paper that is made up of a myriad of horizonal stripes of chewed up wood fibers that have been mixed with hornet saliva. Each stripe represents a single hornet’s contribution. The different colors represent different sources of wood. This outer envelope is only one of several (up to 12 or more) that serve to insulate the innermost, active part of the nest. Inside these outer sheets are three or four horizontal tiers of hexagonal cells in which eggs are laid and brood are raised. Access from one level to another is at the periphery of the tiers, just inside the shell. The queen begins the nest, building a few cells and raising female workers that then take over the cell-building while the queen continues to lay eggs. As the number of hornets increases, so does the number of cells they build, and as a result the tiers become wider and wider. When space runs out, the hornets remove one or more of the innermost layers of insulating paper that form the envelope, while constructing new sheets on the outside. The nest continues to grow in this fashion until the queen’s egg-laying slows down at the end of the season. The construction of these tiers of cells takes place upside down in total darkness, which is, in itself, quite a feat. When they are constructing a cell, the hornets keep one antenna inside the cell and the other on the outside. By monitoring the distance between the two antennae tips they can judge thickness of the wall. They do a similar thing with their mandibles, with one on each side of the wall, in order to straighten the cell walls and squeeze the pulp flat to remove water. If the cells were built sideways or upwards they would require constant attention from the hornets until they dried in order to prevent them from sagging. Given that the cells are downward-facing, one might wonder why the hornet larvae don’t fall out. Water has a great affinity for uncoated paper (think of paper towels sucking up water against the pull of gravity). Because the larvae are damp, they actually stick to the paper cell walls. When they are ready to pupate, they must separate from the walls. They do this by attaching themselves to the cell with silk and then spin a silk cocoon. In order to fully appreciate the intricate architecture of a Bald-faced Hornet nest, you must dissect one (they are only used for one season). Just be sure to wait until there have been a number of hard frosts, in order to assure that there are no residents. (Photo: Bald-faced Hornet nest – (left) envelope consisting of 12 layers & (right) cluster of cells it surrounded; inset: dissected inner section showing four tiers of cells) A Beaver’s Winter Quarters 2-1-17-beaver-lodge-interior-img_4899What exactly is it like inside an active beaver lodge in winter? It’s dark, damp and around 32°F. The living chamber inside usually has a ceiling no more than two feet high with a diameter of 4 to 6 feet, depending on the number of individuals in the family. (A typical beaver family is composed of an adult male and female, 2 to 3 yearlings, and 2- 4 kits that were born in the spring.) Fresh air enters and carbon dioxide leaves through a central vent (where mud is not applied) and through small holes that remain under logs on the side of the lodge. When there isn’t much snow and the outside air falls well below zero, the temperature inside may drop to a degree or two below freezing, but if the sun is out, it warms right back up again during the day. The dampness is due to the beavers’ repeated need to enter the water both to retrieve sticks from their nearby food supply pile and to defecate. Upon returning to the lodge, the humidity inside increases due to the water draining from the beavers’ fur. No small wonder that if a January thaw permits, beavers will exit their pond for some fresh air, food and a little bit of sunshine. Bird Nests Visible A Variety of Beaver Lodge Designs 10-20-14 beaver bank den 080Beavers are hard at work refurbishing their mud and stick lodges in preparation for the coming winter, when their movements will be restricted and they will spend both days and nights inside their lodge. When we think of a beaver lodge, we picture it in the middle of a beaver pond. This was not always the case, however, and still isn’t today. The earliest and most primitive beaver lodges consisted of a burrow in the side of a high bank with the entrance under water (see exposed bank lodge entrance in photo insert). The next advance was the addition of sticks and mud piled over the top of the bank as added protection from predators (see photo). Eventually beavers started building a complete lodge on top of the bank which had an underwater entrance. The most advanced design is the lodge we most commonly associate with beavers — one that is built up from the bottom of the pond and is completely surrounded by water. It requires the greatest amount of work but offers the greatest amount of protection to the beaver. Signs Of An Active Beaver Pond 4-7-14 floating beaver logs IMG_0159Beaver ponds have finally started to melt, making it easy to determine whether or not there have been beavers living in any existing lodges over the winter. The tell-tale sign is floating de-barked sticks and branches. During the winter, beavers leave their lodge and swim out to their underwater food supply pile and haul branches back into the lodge where they chew them into foot-long pieces for easy handling. The bark is removed and eaten as the beaver holds the stick and turns it, much as we consume corn on the cob. When little or no bark remains, the stick is discarded out in the open water. These sticks remain hidden underneath the ice on the surface of the water until warm weather arrives and the ice begins to melt. At this point the sticks and branches become visible, and often extend several feet out from the lodge. These sticks will not go to waste, but will be used for dam and lodge repairs. (Photo taken standing on lodge.) A New Book for Budding Naturalists Winter Mouse House 2-5-14 mouse nest with insulation roof IMG_4629White-footed Mice and Deer Mice are known for their keen ability to recognize a potential winter home when they see it. Abandoned bird nests provide firm foundations, and more often than not, mice will create an insulated roof made out of thistle down or milkweed fluff when renovating a nest. There are exceptions to this rule, however. If you look closely you’ll see that the roof of this nest has a slightly greenish tint, the reason being that the roofing material selected was none other than green insulation “borrowed” from a nearby human dwelling. (Thanks to Heidi Marcotte and Tom Wetmore for photo op.) Beaver Breath 12-2-13 beaver breath 074It’s very subtle, but in winter, especially when it is very cold outside, there is a way to tell if a beaver lodge is occupied. The temperature inside the lodge remains relatively stable at around 34 degrees Fahrenheit. When snow falls, it provides added insulation, raising the interior temperature of the lodge slightly. A layer of fat and thick fur keep beavers warmer than the air inside the lodge, plus they raise their body temperature even more by sleeping piled on top of one another. All the moist, warm air that beavers give off through breathing and evaporation escapes through the (mudless) vent that goes up through the center of the roof of the lodge to its apex. The vent’s purpose is the exchange of air; when the warm air inside the lodge rises and hits the cold air outside the lodge, it condenses and forms water vapor that is visible, indicating that there is life inside. Cecropia Moths Pupating Ribbed Pine Borer’s Winter Pupal Chamber Red-eyed Vireo Nest Mice Preparing for Winter Some Spiderlings Hatch in the Fall Beavers Gathering & Storing Winter Food Supply 10-15-13 beaver winter food supply pile 292(Part 3 of 3 Beaver posts) In the fall, beavers spend weeks cutting, transporting and piling sticks and branches whose bark, twigs and leaves will hopefully provide them with sustenance through the winter. With no access to land once ice forms, beavers rely on the food that they have had the foresight to store on the bottom of the pond in the fall, as close to the main entrance to their lodge as possible. Initially the beavers dive down and stick the butt end of the branches into the mud. Once anchored, these branches form the base of a growing pile which often sticks out above the surface of the pond. (The portion of the pile above the water is not accessible to the beavers once the pond freezes.) According to beaver biologist Leonard Lee Rue, a beaver colony needs to store between 1,500 and 2,500 pounds of edible bark, twigs and leaves (this weight doesn’t include the wood, as they don’t eat wood) if it is to sustain them through the winter. As one would suspect, southern beavers do not need nor make winter food supply piles. Beavers Reinforcing Dams 10-15-13 beaver dam 208(Part 2 of 3 Beaver posts) Beavers repair and strengthen their pond’s dam much as they do their lodge in the fall. New sticks are added and mud is retrieved from the pond bottom just below the dam, making the water deeper there than in the rest of the pond. Beavers dive down, dig up a load of mud and carry it beneath their chin and front feet to the dam. They then use their front feet to push the mud on top of and in between the pieces of brush on the dam (see front foot prints in mud, insert A). Because beavers spend so much time reinforcing their dam, it is not unusual to find their 1 1/2 –inch long, fibrous scat (insert B) in the water right below the dam (they keep their lodge relatively clean by defecating only in water). Beavers Refurbishing Lodge 10-14-13 refurbished beaver lodge 248This is the time of year when the industriousness of beavers can determine whether or not they survive through the winter. There are three major tasks for a beaver colony to tend to in the fall: refurbishing their lodge; strengthening and repairing their dam; and cutting and storing their winter food supply. They tend to perform these tasks in this sequence, tackling the lodge first. If the water level is high, the beavers will raise the floor of the lodge and the roof of the sleeping chamber. Every fall they add new material to the exterior of the lodge to strengthen the entire structure – typically sticks intertwined that create walls two feet thick or more. At this point the beavers coat the lodge with mud that they dredge up from around the base of the lodge (which greatly increases the depth of the water near the lodge). The apex of the lodge is not coated, allowing fresh air to filter down into the sleeping chamber. Once cold weather arrives, the mud hardens to the consistency of concrete, making the lodge is impenetrable to predators that can approach the lodge once the pond freezes. (In photo, note the fresh eastern hemlock branches and mud that have recently been added to the lodge.) Beaver Ponds & Waterfowl Beaver Scent Mounds 4-30-13 beaver scent moundsThis is the time of year when two-year-old beavers leave their lodges and strike out on their own, primarily because the woods surrounding a pond usually can’t support more than one family of beavers. Beavers are exceptionally territorial; once they’ve established a lodge, they do not take kindly to interlopers. In order to make this perfectly clear to house-hunting young beavers, in the spring resident beavers build what are called scent mounds — piles (up to three feet in height, but usually much smaller) of mud, leaves and pond-bottom debris — around the perimeter of their territory. They then smear castoreum, a substance that comes from their castor sacs, over the mound. Chemicals in the castoreum convey to roaming young beavers that this particular pond is spoken for. Eastern Chipmunks Soon to Give Birth Goldenrod Ball Gall Fly Larva Coyotes and Beavers 3-12-13 coyote & beaver lodge2 IMG_6223A study of coyote prey (through stomach contents) in the Adirondack Mountains of New York revealed that beavers were second only to white-tailed deer. This photograph shows that, possibly for the last time this winter, a coyote recently took advantage of a still-frozen-but-fast-thawing pond by walking across it in an attempt to reach an active beaver lodge. Once there the coyote attempted to dig into it in order to reach the inhabitants. A hard, two-to three-foot-thick wall of frozen mud, logs and sticks kept the beavers well protected, as it was designed to. Hibernating Queen Wasps Renovated Bird Nests Most songbirds only use their nest once. After their young have fledged, the nest is usually abandoned. In the natural world, recycling has been a way of life for a long time, and abandoned bird nests are not about to be wasted. In the spring, the material used in old nests is often re-used by birds building new nests. But long before this occurs, white-footed mice and deer mice, both of which remain active year round, often use old nests as larders where they store food for the winter. Occasionally they even renovate a nest in the fall in order to make a snug, winter home. They do this by constructing a roof (of milkweed fluff in this photograph) over the nest, which serves to insulate it. Use caution if you come upon such a nest– it could well be inhabited! (Thanks to Sara and Warren Demont for the photo op!) A Great Christmas Present!	<urn:uuid:c78f1865-7728-469d-b2f8-333ce8d6c27f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.953125, "fasttext_score": 0.06290137767791748, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9493263363838196, "url": "https://naturallycuriouswithmaryholland.wordpress.com/category/animal-architecture/" }
Esperanto is an international auxiliary language devised in 1887 by Dr. Ludwig Lazarus Zamenhof (1859-1917), an eye doctor, under the pseudonym of "Doktoro Esperanto". He originally called the language "La Internacia Lingvo" (The International Language), but it soon became known as Esperanto, which means "the hoping one". The majority of Esperanto roots are based on Latin, though some vocabulary is taken from modern Romance languages, and from English, German, Polish and Russian. Roots can be combined with affixes to form new words, for example: lerni = to learn, lernejo = a school, lernanto = a pupil/student, lernejestro = a headmaster. The affixes can also stand alone: ejo = place, estro = leader/head, etc. The grammar has many influences from Slavic languages, although it is greatly simplified in comparison to them. Spelling conventions are somewhat similar to Polish, though Zamenhof came up with some new letters for Esperanto (Ĉĉ, Ĝĝ, Ĥĥ, Ĵĵ, Ŝŝ, Ŭŭ). These letters are often replaced with ch, gh, jh or cx, gx, jx, or c', g', j', etc. Zamenhof recognised this problem and favoured using ch, gh, etc when the special letters were not available. Today Esperanto is the most widely used international auxiliary language. The Universal Esperato Association (UEA) / La Universala Esperanto-Asocio has members in 120 countries, and there are national Esperanto associations in 70 countries. Esperanto is most spoken in Japan, China, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, the USA, Brazil, Belgium and the UK. The number of Esperanto speakers is not known for certain, however the UEA estimates that there are hundreds of thousands and possibly millions of them. According to Ethnologue, there were about 2 million Esperanto speakers in 2015, and in 2004 there were about 1,000 native speakers of Esperanto. Recordings in the text by Jan Jurčík Esperanto alphabet & pronunciation Esperanto alphabet & pronunciation A recording of the Esperanto alphabet by Jan Jurčík Download an alphabet chart for Esperanto (Excel) Sample text in Esperanto A recording of this text by Oliver Ash Another version of the sample text by Julijan Jovanovic Ĉiuj homoj naskiĝas liberaj kaj egalaj en digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu la alian en spirito en frateco. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) Sample videos in Esperanto Note: the people in this video are native speakers of Esperanto. Information about Esperanto \| Phrases \| Numbers \| Time \| Family words \| Video lessons \| Tower of Babel \| Articles \| Learning materials Information about Esperanto UEA: Universala Esperanto-Asocio Esperanto group on Facebook Online Esperanto lessons Online Esperanto phrases Online Esperanto dictionaries Online Esperanto translation Esperanto radio & TV Esperanto news Esperanto literature and translations Esperantomuseum (Vienna) International Auxiliary Languages Languages written with the Latin alphabet Page last modified: 23.04.21 Green Web Hosting - Kualo Why not share this page: Learn a nuevo language while you browse with toucan	<urn:uuid:dc0d5c28-b164-409d-9017-a3b64dd0c768>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.03594815731048584, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8057007789611816, "url": "https://omniglot.com/writing/esperanto.htm" }
Get up to 60 % extra points for free! More info discount week 60 Lesson 14 - Datetime Library for Python In this Python tutorial, we'll look at working with the datetime module, which, in addition to the time and calendar modules, is used to work with the date and time and supports a more pleasant, object-oriented approach. We must always import the datetime library at the beginning of the program: import datetime This library offers more object-oriented approach than the one we showed last time. It works with its own specialized datetime objects. This will allow us, for example, to easily subtract individual data from each other, or compare them with each other without having to deal with the number of seconds since 1970 or the indices in the tuple. We'll now show how these objects are created and how to continue working with them in individual modules. A very important class in this library is the datetime class of the same name and its datetime() method. We can use this to create instances that we'll work with further. It also provides useful methods that we'll use extensively. Let's create an instance of a date and time from a specific year, month, and day: import datetime # datetime.datetime(year, month, day, hour, minute, second, microsecond) d1 = datetime.datetime(2019, 11, 24) If we want to use only the part of the library that's related to the datetime class, we can modify the import into a variant: from datetime import datetime d1 = datetime(2019,11,24) Methods on datetime Next, we will show several methods on the datetime class. The now() method simply allows us to get the current date and time: import datetime now = This method creates an instance of the datetime.datetime class mentioned before, in which we can find current information. We can get to the individual data very easily using the attributes year, month, day, hour, minute and second: import datetime now = print("Year: {}".format(now.year)) print("Month: {}".format(now.month)) print("Day: {}".format( print("{}:{}:{}".format(now.hour, now.minute, now.second)) Again, we call the method on a pre-created instance. It finds out its day of the week. Let's try to call it on the current date and time, which we can already find out too: import datetime now = #List of days of the week with indices days_of_week={ 0:"Monday", 1:"Tuesday", 2:"Wednesday", 3:"Thursday", 4:"Friday", 5:"Saturday", 6:"Sunday" } day = days_of_week[now.weekday()] print("Day of the week: {}".format(day)) Here we have to pay attention to the correct indexing again: Monday = 0 - Sunday = 6. This method allows us to create a usable and easy-to-read date and time format for users: import datetime now = text1 = now.strftime("%H:%M:%S") text2 = now.strftime("Hours:%H, Minutes:%M, Seconds:%S") text3 = now.strftime("Day:%d, Month:%m, Year:%Y") When used, we must define what our desired output should look like in strftime(). 6 specific characters are used to indicate what to print. They are: • %d - day • %m - month • %Y - year • %H - hour • %M - minute • %S - second • %a - abbreviation of the day of the week • %A - day of the week • %w - day of the week - numeric value • %b - month abbreviation (not numeric) • %B - month (full name) strptime() function works in the opposite way. We insert the date and time in it, written in text form, e.g. entered by the user. Then we need to specify what format is used and the function returns a datetime instance: import datetime #Predetermined information info = "25/5/2000 12:35" date = datetime.datetime.strptime(info, "%d.%m.%Y %H:%M") There are many possibilities for us in this method, and it's up to us which format we choose to obtain the date and time. Working With Data The fact that we store everything as an instance of the same class brings us many benefits when working with data. Arithmetic Operations For example, we can perform basic mathematical operations with data, such as addition and subtraction: import datetime #Initialize current date now = #Initialize the date 1/1/2000 d2000 = datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1) d3 = now - d2000 In this case, the date d3 contains the number of days, hours, minutes and seconds that have elapsed from the beginning of the 3rd millennium to the present day. For a similar purpose, we can also use the function total_seconds(), which returns the number of seconds elapsed between the two intervals. We can also compare two dates with each other using ordinary operators, which we would use when comparing numbers: import datetime # Initialize current date now = # Initialize the date 1/1/2000 d2000 = datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1) print(now > d2000) # Returns True print(now == d2000) # Returns False For other possibilities of working with time, there is timedelta. For example, if we subtract two dates, we get an instance of the datetime.timedelta class, which is not a specific date, but an interval (difference) between some two dates. We can also create this object ourselves. We can easily find out what day will it be in 10 days: import datetime # Current day now = print("Today's date: {}".format(now)) # timedelta object with a 10 day shift td10 = datetime.timedelta(10) d1 = now + td10 d2 = now - td10 print("Date in 10 days: {}".format(d1)) print("Date 10 days ago: {}".format(d2)) The timedelta() constructor does not always have to be used with whole days. If we want to work with a different value, we have the option. When creating a timedelta object, we can select many parameters: datetime.timedelta(days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0, milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0) The timedelta instance has properties like days and more. Unfortunately, it does not have the number of years, because a year is not a full-fledged time unit and does not have a fixed number of days (some years are leap years). We'll do more about this issue in the exercise. replace() method is also very useful. This, like timedelta(), allows us to change already created time objects. For example, let's increase the year and day on a datetime object by 1: import datetime # Current day now = r1 = now.replace(year = now.year + 1) d1 = now.replace(day = + 1) We can use the replace() method on any time object. In it we have to specify what we want to change (e.g. year = ...) and indicate to what value it should change. It's only a change of the value of an already created variable. All the methods we mentioned earlier work with datetime objects (date and time). If we want to use only the date, it's advisable to use the date object instead. It then doesn't have information about the date and time, which could otherwise make operations (e.g. comparisons) uncomfortable for us. We get the date object from the datetime object using the date() method: import datetime #Current day now = d =, 12, 24) print("Year: {}".format(d.year)) print("Month: {}".format(d.month)) print("Day: {}".format( There is nothing complicated about it. The only change from datetime is to use the today() method, which directly replaces now(). All methods used above are fully compatible with this format. So if we don't need time information in our programs, we can get rid of it relatively easily. In the next lesson, Type System and Type Hints in Python, we'll discuss how we can make the code more readable and easier to analyze using types. Previous article Magic Methods in Python - Collections and Descriptors All articles in this section Object-Oriented Programming in Python Article has been written for you by Shift Do you like this article? As an author I'm interested mainly in industry automation. I'm also writing music and literature. In my spare time I'm working on a few games in Game Maker Studio. No one has commented yet - be the first!	<urn:uuid:56e78835-ce32-430f-b291-45c008fa2e1b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.921875, "fasttext_score": 0.23247963190078735, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.849546492099762, "url": "https://www.ictdemy.com/python/oop/datetime-library-for-python" }
STEM Activities At-Home Edition Candy Structures Materials needed: • Candy: starburst, gummy bears, or jelly beans work well! • toothpicks How to: 1. Gather up your candy! If using Starburst, use a plastic knife to cut candy into halves or quarters. 2. Use a small piece of candy to connect two toothpicks together. 3. Try building different shapes like a square and a triangle. Can you connect them to make a pyramid? A cube? 4. Can you make a tower? Try testing out your tower with weights like books to see how much it can hold. 5. Build two structures and try to connect them with a bridge. 6. What other kinds of structures can you build? Look at the architecture books in this kit for inspiration! Architecture Fun Facts: • The tallest building in the world is the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE. It reaches 2,717 feet in height. • Besides Egypt, pyramids of various types and sizes were built in many parts of the ancient world including Mexico and Central America, Greece, and China. • It took 1 year and 45 days to build the Empire State Building in 1931 with about 3500 workers. • The Eiffel Tower took 18,000 pieces of iron and 2.5 million rivets to make. It was built as the entrance to the 1889 World’s Fair to celebrate the 100-year anniversary of the French Revolution. (From https://kidworldcitizen.org/world-architecture-for-kids/, 2019) Want to learn more? Check out these eBooks (available on Hoopla with your library card): amazing feats of civil engineering.jpg	<urn:uuid:7926ea83-7c39-4c9e-b83a-adb33bf56d97>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.125, "fasttext_score": 0.11485427618026733, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9182727932929993, "url": "https://www.rivervalelibrary.org/stem-kit-2" }
Pastoralism is a lifestyle in which economic activity is based primarily on livestock.Archaeological evidence suggests that by 3000 B.C., and perhaps even earlier, there had emerged　on the steppes of Inner Eurasia the distinctive types of pastoralism that were to dominate the　region's history for several millennia. Here, the horse was already becoming the animal of prestige　in many regions, though sheep, goats, and cattle could also play a vital role. It is the use of horses　for transportation and warfare that explains why Inner Eurasian pastoralism proved the most　mobile and the most militaristic of all major forms of pastoralism. The emergence and spread of　pastoralism had a profound impact on the history of Inner Eurasia, and also, indirectly, on the　parts of Asia and Europe just outside this area. In particular, pastoralism favors a mobile lifestyle,and this mobility helps to explain the impact of pastoralist societies on this part of the world. 　　The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While　agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result,pastoraksts, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being　equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same　amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than　farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that　terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within　pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it,'The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism.' A modern　Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have　to move.	<urn:uuid:b1f80eee-5199-4427-9d3d-b0669163e8a8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.7285867929458618, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8490403890609741, "url": "https://www.smartstudy.com/toefl/article/2794839.html" }
Historical Sheet Music Documenting the social, political and cultural realities of the times American Sheet MusicMost recently the Knohls have added over 40,000 pieces of illustrated large format sheet music from the mid-19th century to the early 20th centuries, including music by both American and foreign composers. The illustrations include portraits of bandleaders and dignitaries, historical events, and patriotic scenes. The artists who illustrated the covers of large format sheet music were some of the nation’s most prominent artists: Winslow Homer, James McNeill Whistler, David Claypoole Johnston, and Fitz Hugh Lane. Consequently, this category of sheet music is in high demand. In addition to the intrinsic value of the music itself, historical sheet music and their illustrated covers are a glimpse into the minds of their creators, as well as a visual record of the social perceptions and attitudes toward foreign conflict, labor unions, race relations, and women’s rights during this particular period in history. The collection includes approximately 5,000 illustrated sheet music from the prevalent blackface minstrelsy shows in America, a very popular form of entertainment during the mid–nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Cover illustrations on blackface music often depicted African Americans with exaggerated physical features, such as bug eyes and large lips, and many times they were shown dancing or eating chicken and watermelon. It was not unusual for the titles to feature words like “coon” and “nigger.” Oriental or Asian cultures were also depicted in degrading terms, sometimes shown with grossly exaggerated slanted eyes, consuming opium, or doing laundry, and often included derogatory slangs, like “chink.” The quality of the cover artwork varied, from crude racist and heavily caricatured images to more refined and generally positive illustrations of Black life from the overthrow of slavery to the beginning of the Great Depression. The minstrel and vaudeville compositions, featuring Al Jolson, Eddie Cantor, and Amos & Andy, primarily written and performed by Blacks, were also subject to negative caricature. Despite their distasteful and offensive depictions, the images provide documentation of the social, political and cultural realities of the times. Sheet music at the turn of the century was still prevalently issued in the larger format with illustrated title pages. However, as World War I progressed, paper became scarce. To cooperate with the government regulations and to conserve paper, publishers came out with a variety of smaller format sizes. By 1919, large format music had almost completely disappeared from the sheet music marketplace.	<urn:uuid:37c7b767-58ec-4566-91a1-72e94bcf58f9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.04704117774963379, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9559309482574463, "url": "https://www.theknohlcollection.com/the-collection/sheet-music/page/2/" }
Poetry if rudyard kipling What does the poem If by Rudyard Kipling mean? The purpose of If by Rudyard Kipling is to give advice to a boy on how to be a man. He is defining what it means to be a real man, someone who doesn’t blame others for mistakes, listens to both sides of an issue, takes risks and accepts losses. What kind of poem is if by Rudyard Kipling? Lyric poetry What inspired Rudyard Kipling to write if? In 1896, thirty-one-year-old Rudyard Kipling was an internationally-renowned poet and story-teller when he wrote a poem with a one-word title: “If.” The poem was inspired by “The Jameson Raid,” an 1895 military action in the Boer War in South Africa. What feelings does the poem If awaken in you? The poem is about moral lessons and conduct. It contains advice from a father to a son on how to grow up to be a better person and a true man. He reminds his son that he will be a Man if he can hold on to his values and not be swayed by others. If he follows his advice, he will have a rewarding and enriching life. Why are triumph and disaster called impostors? The poet personifies “Triumph” and “Disaster” and calls them 2 impostors. Impostor are those who come in disguise and deceive you. He means to say that if we get carried away with triumph it would soon lead to a downfall(disaster). Similarly if we work hard after a disaster it would lead us to success(triumph). What is the main theme of the poem If? Central Idea of IF by Rudyard Kipling: … In course of the thirty two lines of the poem, Kipling advocates the virtues of composure, patience, integrity, modesty, control, perseverance, tolerance determination, confidence – for a few to cite. This poem is the like a rule book to perfect the art of living and being human. You might be interested: Poetry for music What qualities of a man are mentioned in the poem If? Here is the detailed analysis of the poem ‘If-‘. According to the poet a man should have a clear head, belief in himself, patience, honesty, forgiveness, intelligence, modesty, tolerance and should live to the fullest. What are the values represented in the poem If? The values of the poem are old-fashioned, conservative, and even aristocratic. Kipling comes by all these values honestly. Recall that he was born in British India and spent parts of his life in England, America, and South Africa. Why is the poem titled If? The poem is titled as “if” because at first the poet tells us about the moral values and at the end the poet tells about the outcomes. So, all the lines in the poem begin with if and this is the conditional clause. What’s more you’ll be a man my son? ‘if’ by rudyard kipling Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:89a20c0b-375c-40d7-aceb-8a03fa9f07bd>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.9723750948905945, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9646884202957153, "url": "https://www.inkbottlepress.com/interesting/poetry-if-rudyard-kipling.html" }
< > Climate change in the Amazon river may cause the river to dry up and cause the fish to have to repopulate .Piranha’s are however quite adaptive and can adapt to new surroundings in a day or less.It will most likely seek warm water with and abundance of plants and other fish to eat .their teeth and thin fins can help them swim quickly and to eat flesh with their large sharp teeth . The piranha has sharp teeth and bright colours to keep predators away.However in the future, the will grow feet to get back on land and if the lakes dry up they can repopulate on land .Their teeth will grow to be 2 feet long .Also they will have have spikes along their vertebrae to shout”Don't touch me”.The animal will also be amphibious so they can breath on land and water . Piranhas hunt in packs .But in the future they may have to hunt alone because fish could be sparse so,in my imagination the piranha will be qble to change colour to become part of where the fish is .this will also create a way to get away from predators .the diet may have to change in order to survive on land so while on land their ideal food may be bugs and small animal carcasses Over time the piranha will grow feet to get away from predators .As well as develop better stamina for running and swimming away from predators longer and faster.their skeletons will also be made of cartilage to increase hydrodynamics and be quicker to the food.their fins when swimming will be made of graphene,the strongest most th	<urn:uuid:abd88c02-a8be-45bc-b3fb-c603c33ef8dc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.12584495544433594, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9552785754203796, "url": "https://www.futureengineers.org/futurecreatures/gallery/3014" }
Study the graph given below Study the graph given below and answer the questions that follow. (i) Write the status of food and space in the curves A and B. (ii) In the absence of predators, which one of the two curves would appropriately depict the prey population? (iii) Time has been shown on X-axis and there is a parallel dotted line above it. Give the significance of this dotted line. (i) A-Unlimited food and space 5-Limited food and space (ii) Curve B (iii) The dotted line represents the carrying capacity. It is the capacity of a given habitat having enough resources to support maximum possible number, beyond which no further growth is possible.	<urn:uuid:e9c00a19-ba1f-4dc6-b724-7d4515831a3d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.986471951007843, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9374775290489197, "url": "https://ask.learncbse.in/t/study-the-graph-given-below/11183" }
BBC News Who, what, why: What is a famine? image copyrightOther image captionA woman binds her stomach to stave off hunger The United Nations has declared a famine in two regions of southern Somalia, as it suffers the worst drought in more than half a century. When does mass starvation turn into a famine? Aid agencies and international organisations call it the f-word. Famine is an emotive word, and while in the strict sense it means people are starving on a massive scale, aid organisations do not use it lightly to describe a humanitarian crisis. "It is a very strong word, with a strong impact," the DEC's Brendan Paddy told the BBC. "We have to be precise about how we use it. We have to raise the alarm before it's too late, but we also don't want to be accused of crying wolf." Most major aid agencies - the FAO, the WFP, the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, Save the Children UK, CARE International, the European Commission Joint Research Centre and Oxfam - only describe a crisis as a famine when the situation on the ground reaches level five on the Integrated Phase Classification (IPC) system. This means: • at least 20% of the population has access to fewer than 2,100 kilocalories of food a day • acute malnutrition in more than 30% of children • two deaths per 10,000 people, or four child deaths per 10,000 children every day It is usually up to governments to declare a famine. But in the case of Somalia, the UN stepped in because of the lack of central government. The classification system was created by the UN in 2005 to objectively classify need to help allocate resources. It uses information from surveys conducted by the UN and other agencies on the ground. Ian Bray, of international aid agency Oxfam, says just because a situation is officially a famine does not mean it was not a crisis beforehand. "It gives us an idea of the level of human suffering. If it is at level four, it is a huge crisis. If it is at level five [officially a famine], it is a massive crisis." Calling a famine helps raise awareness of the crisis - and it can help raise emergency funds. "Using the f-word gives a very strong message to donors and politicians. It brings in publicity and puts it on the news agenda - without it, the public doesn't know it is happening." Bad image? Aid agencies are not the only ones to exercise prudence. The word famine is politically contentious, and governments also shy away from using it. Ireland, Russia and Ethiopia have at various times struggled to move away from their image as famine-ravaged countries. More recently, in 2005, Niger's President Mamadou Tandja lashed out at the international community's use of the word in relation to his country. According to the UN's criteria, he was right. Governments believe the f-word has too many negative political associations, says Simon Levine, a research fellow with the Overseas Development Institute, a UK think-tank. "It's the spectre of what happened in Ethiopia in 1984, it's a sign of failure. Famines have brought down governments," he says. And declaring a famine can create more problems, he says, because often donors do not respond until a famine - or at least an emergency - has been declared. Other governments are simply less willing or able to deal with crises, says the BBC's international development correspondent Mark Doyle. "The situation in the Horn of Africa is a humanitarian crisis, but its roots and potential solutions are almost entirely political," he says. "Many other countries have little water, but what they do have are structures and mechanisms to deal with that. In the case of Somalia, such structures are almost completely absent because of the political failures there to create and sustain a modern nation state." For those who are starving, whether or not their plight is a famine or an emergency makes little difference. "It is already clear that they need immediate assistance," says Oxfam's Ian Bray. Additional reporting by Alizeh Kohari	<urn:uuid:3880c7a1-4b42-43e0-b40c-c23e3315ffb5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.031780242919921875, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9546898603439331, "url": "https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14199080" }
History of the Church in Hawaii History of the Church in Hawaii (Then and Now) -Around 1820 (when Joseph Smith was receiving his first vision in upstate New York), the first Protestant Christian missionaries arrived to Hawaii. The missionaries found that the traditional Hawaiian religion had just been abandoned, and that the people were looking to find a new spiritual practice that fit with the new world. The missionaries taught christianity and set up schools and congregations across the islands. The people were eager to learn how to read and write. -Mormon missionaries arrived in Hawaii in 1850. A decision was made to focus missionary work on native Hawaiians (1865). Finding a Gathering Place in Hawaii -There was a large push for the Saints to gather to Zion (SLC), the problem for the new saints in Hawaii was that the Kingdom of Hawaii prohibited Hawaiians from emigrating. -In 1853, President Brigham Young instructed Elder George Q. Cannon to find a temporary gathering place in Hawaii, until they could prepare themselves to gather with the rest of the saints. -In 1854, Elder Joseph F. Smith proposed that Laie be the gather place in the Hawaiian islands. Instead the elders selected the Palawai Basin on Lana’i …. Laie would have to wait. The saints began moving to Lana’i (property on Palawai) under the direction of the missionaries. The community was named “City of Joseph.” Only 5% of the members actually moved. The Elders of Laie taught several of the Sisters in our group how to make Lays. Laie is Chosen as the Gathering Place -On December 23, 1864 Elders George Nebeker and Francis A. Hammond arrived in Honolulu for the purpose of establishing a plantation where the Saints could gather. Elder Hammond heard about a plantation on O’ahu called La’ie. Thomas T. Dougherty, United States Vice-Consul in Honolulu, was eager to sell his ranching operations. He demanded that the sale must be effected at once. In his quick decision on the Laie plantation, Brother Hammond prayed and had this dream: President Young and Heber C. Kimball came and went with him over the plantation, calling his attention to the many desirable features it presented for the gathering place of the native Saints, and also saying in a very positive manner that this was the chosen spot. All doubts were set at rest and the purchase was made. Elder William W. Cluff shared a similar experience: One day when I was walking along one of these paths, I saw President Brigham Young approach me. Said he, “This is the place to gather the native Saints to.” He seemed to fully comprehend the surroundings, and in that easy, familiar way, so characteristic of him, indicated the advantages afforded for a settlement. No matter what my bodily condition might have been at that time, the apparent meeting was in the open air and in the broad light of day. It was the facilities of the place as represented them, and ever afterwards that appeared to me the best place on the Islands for the gathering of the Saints. -Elder Hammond negotiated the sale for $14,000 on January 26, 1865. Farming operations began immediately. -President Young wanted La’ie to be a gathering place that would provide spiritual and physical well-being for the natives. -Lanier Britsch, in Moramona, his history of the Church in Hawai’i, sums up the purpose for selecting La’ie as a gathering place… Laie was not to be a gathering place in the normal sense of the term. It is clear that it was to be a refuge from the world. But it was also to be a school in proper behavior, in hard work, in virtue, and in mortality. It was to be not only a place where the Saints could gather to strengthen each other in their determination to live Christian lives, but also a center for learning.” (page 26) -The Church was growing and sugar plantations were being cultivated (and were helping the island become prosperous). -Some people moved down coast to Kahana, some challenges to the area, Relief Society, youth auxiliary, and Primary was organized (1875-1876) Here’s some fascinating facts around the significance of Laie for the Church.HistoricLaieSignificance La’ie Temple Laie Temple In 1915 the Hawai’i Temple was announced. Hawai’i Mission President Samuel E. Woolley said, “Now, this particular land, the land of Laie, now owned by the Church since 1864, was a city of refuge in olden times, because that people are of the pure blood of Israel, and we find among them until this day rites and ceremonies that were practiced by ancient Israel, and they had cities of refuge and Laie was one of those, and it will be an eternal city of refuge to the remnant of that portion of the house of Israel.” The Temple was dedicated on Thanksgiving Day in 1919 by President Heber J. Grant, which was a fulfillment of prophecy. From the earliest Mormon missionary efforts in Hawaii, there existed the belief that a temple would be built there. Elder John S. Woodbury made the first known prophecy Later, 1864, William W. Cluff further affirmed the prophecy of the temple. He was one of the missionaries sent to Hawaii to establish the church. George Q. Cannon Also made a prophecy by saying that if they would only be faithful enough, the time would come when someone would be given the power to seal husband and wife for time and eternity so that their children would be born under the covenant. During a 1915 visit, President Joseph F. Smith dedicated the land for a temple to be built. John A. Widstoe said the location couldn’t have been more beautiful. World War II Pearl Harbor: On December 7, 1941, as most people in Laie were getting ready for Church in a social hall, they noticed many noisy planes flying overhead toward kaneohe. Some members claimed they saw a japanese plane attempt to drop a bomb on the temple without success. Because of WWII, few missionaries were called to serve in Hawaii. Laie survived the rationing and shortages better than any other place in Hawaii because of the cohesiveness of the community. After the War (and cultural celebration) After the war, members wanted to build another chapel, but could not afford to pay for it so they started to raise money. Therefore, they decided to stage a hukilau for tourists in order to help pay for it. The Hukilau: Thousands of people came out to enjoy one of these in order to raise money for the new chapel. Almost 2000 visitors participated (1930). A Hukilau includes all kinds of authentic dancing and other cultural performances. Many of the volunteers that dedicated their time and talents to the Hukilau also ended up working in the PCC. Church College of Hawaii later to become BYU Hawaii PresidentDavidOmcKay David O. Mckay was passionate about education and ever since his first visit to Laie in 1921, he wanted to do something about the education of the great people there. For 20 years, nothing happened to the President Mckay’s vision, but finally in 1941 he returned to hawaii to dedicate the Honolulu Tabernacle. At the dedication he said: “Don’t forget Laie. That is the educational center and spiritual center of our people in these islands.” When President McKay was made president of the church in 1951, the education of members in the south pacific took priority. In 1954, PBYUHawaiiresident McKay selected Laie for the site of what would become the Church College of Hawaii (CCH) The school taught curriculum for the last two years of high school and first two years of college. The college opened in the fall of 1955 with a temporary campus while the permanent campus was being built. The permanent Campus was built by “building Missionaries.” Tuition was $75 per year. The permanent campus was dedicated 3 years after the temporary campus was built. Many bishops, stake presidents, temple presidents, and even mission presidents and General Authorities in the pacific and Asia are products of the CCH. We were very fortunate to get to tour BYU Hawaii the successor to CCH. We got to meet many wonderful sHungarianStudentExecutiveAssistMarriedMexicantudents and see what a special place BYU Hawaii is. We had a great time visiting with one of the Executive Assistants at BYU-H who was originally from Hungary. She met her husband from Mexico on campus. Neither one would’ve been able to go to a University if it weren’t for the IWORK program offered which allows students who wouldn’t be able to afford college otherwise to be able attend BYU-H and work. If they go back to their home country upon graduation their student debts are forgiven. A pretty amazing program and the students are very grateful and work hard. A Sister Missionary helping the International students to practice their english. A Sister Missionary helping the International students to practice their english. The Polynesian Cultural Center The influx of new ethnic groups to Laie sparked a new twist to the gathering concept. Elder Cowley first expressed the idea of creating a cultural center at an O’ahu Stake conference on March 11, 1951. The idea behind this cultural was to help entertain and inform visitors as well as providing for a solid way for the students to pay for their travels and tuitions. The PCC was dedicated in 1963 by President Hugh B. Brown. Not all of the brethren of the church were in favor of the idea of creating a revenue generating center. Even though there were many pessimistic predictions about how much attention the PCC would get since it was so far away from other tourist attractions, it successfully became Hawaii’s most-visited paid attraction, giving thousands of students the opportunity to share their cultures with millions of visitors. The theater went from 600 seats to 1300 seats and then a new theater was needed to be built to accommodate for 2800 spectators. In June 1966, Elvis Presley came to film a segment of his movie Paradise Hawaiian Style at the PCC. In the 1970s, the PCC went through a major expansion and the First presidency modified the role of the center. Priority shifted from providing student employment and financial support for CCH to fulfilling its role as a major missionary tool in giving large numbers of visitors a favorable experience with the Church. The people who had made the former Hukilau’s successful transferred their talents over to the PCC. Growing Laie The newly added college and cultural center caused the population to triple. The biggest change in Laie was a social change. It was a cost. Before the rapid growth, no one would lock their doors and people would just walk into each other’s homes. With the additions of the PCC and College, life seemed to get a more complicated and busy on Laie. Refining Laie By 1973, all land in Laie that was zoned for residential housing had been filled, so the gathering had to stop. The carrying capacity of Laie is still the biggest frustration to expansion. The bulk of Hawaii has the impression that Laie wants to stay isolated from the rest of the world. However, the church and its entities in laie have worked to change that perception and to integrate Laie into a larger world. The legacy and history of Laie continues to get passed down by story in the families that live on the island. This is a special city with special people. The history and culture make Laie it amazing place to experience. Please follow and like us: Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:e7d6b31f-3bd0-4d6f-b555-f70dd6c8b714>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.020207583904266357, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9751880168914795, "url": "https://www.sugardoodle.net/history-of-the-church-in-hawaii/" }
Has Evidence of King Midas’ Demise Been Found? 1 Archaeologists in Turkey may have finally identified the remnants of an ancient metropolis on the Konya Plain in the south of the country. The discovery happened when a local farmer told them about a strange inscribed stone that was half-submerged in a nearby irrigation canal. The stone block recorded information about a 3,000-year-old victory that provides tangible historical evidence for the demise of King Midas, he of the famous “Midas Touch.” The stone itself was discovered and translated last summer by scholars from the University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute as part of an international project to survey a large Bronze and Iron Age settlement (3500-100 B.C.) in Türkemn-Karahöyük. Archaeologists knew that the settlement was an unexcavated ancient city, but they didn’t know its historical significance or even who had lived there. The stone, which contained ancient writing, had the potential to change things. Chicago professor James Osborne described how, having spoken to the farmer, he and colleague Michele Massa, of the British Institute at Ankara, rushed to the canal and waded in waist-deep water looking for the stone. “Right away,” he said, “it was clear that the stone was an ancient artifact.” They instantly recognized the inscription as Luwian (a hieroglyphic language used in the region during the Bronze and Iron Ages) and set about trying to remove the block from the water. Once the stone was dragged out of the irrigation canal by tractor, cleaned, and photographed, Osborne and his Oriental Institute colleagues got to work on translating the partially eroded inscription. They realized that it was an announcement of King Hartapu’s military victory over the neighboring kingdom of Phrygia (identified in the stone block, or stele, as Muska), the ancient kingdom that was ruled over by King Midas. According to the translation, “The storm gods delivered the [opposing] kings to his majesty [Hartapu].” Linguistic analysis determined that the stele was probably created in the late eighth century B.C., when Midas ruled in Phrygia. Osborne thinks that the city at Türkemn-Karahöyük, which was one of the largest ancient cities in the period, was the capital city of King Hartapu. Hartapu himself was, until this discovery, very much a mystery to scholars. He was a late Hittite king who was known to us from inscriptions, but no one was certain where his kingdom actually was. Now, it seems, we know where his kingdom was based even if we still don’t know exactly what it was called. For those interested in mythology, the fact that the stele dates to the tail-end of the eighth century, the period when King Midas lived, is very exciting. Though there were three historical members of the Phrygian monarchy known as Midas, the most famous is associated with wealth and, in particular, gold. According to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Midas acquired his powers as a gift from the god Dionysus (also known as Bacchus) for offering Dionysus’ foster father Silenus hospitality. Silenus had wandered off in a drunken stupor and found himself at the court of King Midas, where he spent 10 days drinking and regaling the court with stories. When Silenus returned to Dionysius, Dionysius told Midas he could choose his own reward. Midas hastily responded that he wanted anything he touched to turn to gold. The problem, of course, was that Midas was unable to eat anything. In Ovid’s version a distraught and hangry Midas begs Dionysus for help and the ‘gift’ is revoked. In the 19th century children’s version written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Midas accidentally turns his own daughter into gold. Aristotle is less forgiving and writes in his Politics that Midas’s insatiable greed led to his death from starvation. In all three versions the lesson is clear: wealth is less important than family and food. Other versions of the Midas story also have him dying in unpleasant ways. According to Hyginus, the Roman-era author of a collection of fantastic tales called the Fabulae, Midas didn’t learn much from his run-in with Dionysus. After losing his alchemical powers he became a devotee of the half-goat deity Pan. In a musical contest between Pan and Apollo, Midas foolishly pronounced that Pan was the winner. The incensed Apollo punished Midas by turning his ears into those of a donkey. Unable to conceal his disfigurement, Midas committed suicide by drinking bull’s blood. If dying in this way seems improbable, bear in mind that bull’s blood was thought to have killed an Athenian politician, an Egyptian pharaoh, and, of course, Midas. Ancient medicine held that ox blood congealed more quickly than other forms of blood so drinking it would result in death by choking. In her book Gods and Robots, Adrienne Mayor notes that bovine thrombin (the blood-clotting enzyme) has been used in surgery since the 1800s and that it, in fact, still sometimes carries the risk of a “fatal cross reaction.” None of these were happy ways to die, but when it comes to burial places, Midas had it pretty good. An enormous tomb in Gordium (modern Yassihüyük, Turkey), the capital of the ancient Phyrgian empire, has been identified in the modern period as the tomb of King Midas. Also known as the Great Tumulus, the vast tomb was clearly built for a man of great importance, although it is unclear if that man was actual Midas. If it is his tomb then we may even have a sense of Midas’s physical appearance from the remains of the person buried there. A reconstruction of the face of the skull from the Great Tumulus is on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara. If there’s a moral to these stories it is surely this: careful what you wish for, steer clear of ox’s blood, and monuments to even the greatest conquerors end up buried in ditches.	<urn:uuid:c94ad282-e725-4578-9bdc-788df3be7438>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.055898189544677734, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9757424592971802, "url": "https://helpmevote.com/has-evidence-of-king-midas-demise-been-found/" }
A demonym (/ˈdɛmənɪm/; from Ancient Greek δῆμος, dêmos, "people, tribe" and ὄνυμα, ónuma, "name") or gentilic (from Latin gentilis, "of a clan, or gens")[1] is a word that identifies a group of people (inhabitants, residents, natives) in relation to a particular place.[2] Demonyms are usually derived from the name of the place (village, city, region, province, state, continent).[3] Demonyms are used to designate all people (general population) of a particular place, regardless of ethnic, linguistic, religious or other cultural differences that may exist within the population of that place. Examples of demonyms include Cochabambino, for someone from the city of Cochabamba; American for a person from the country called the United States of America; and Swahili, for a person of the Swahili coast. As a sub-field of anthroponymy, the study of demonyms is called demonymy or demonymics. Since they are referring to territorially defined groups of people, demonyms are semantically different from ethnonyms (names of ethnic groups). In the English language, there are many polysemic words that have several meanings (including demonymic and ethonymic uses), and therefore a particular use of any such word depends on the context. For example, word Thai may be used as a demonym, designating any inhabitant of Thailand, while the same word may also be used as an ethnonym, designating members of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms. For example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Briton or, informally, a Brit. Some demonyms may have several meanings. For example, the demonym Macedonians may refer to population of North Macedonia, or more generally to the entire population of the region of Macedonia, a significant portion of which is in Greece. In some languages, a demonym may be borrowed from another language as a nickname or descriptive adjective for a group of people: for example, "Québécois(e)" is commonly used in English for a native of Quebec (though "Quebecker" is also available). In English, demonyms are always capitalized.[4] Often, they are the same as the adjectival form of the place, e.g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek, though a few exceptions exist, generally for places in Europe; for instance, the adjectival form of Spain is "Spanish", but the demonym is "Spaniards ". English commonly uses national demonyms such as "Ethiopian" or "Guatemalan", while the usage of local demonyms such as "Chicagoan", "Okie", or "Parisian", is more rare. Many local demonyms are rarely used and many places, especially smaller towns and cities, lack a commonly used and accepted demonym altogether.[5][6][7] Often, in practice, the demonym for states, provinces or cities is simply the name of the place, treated as an adjective; for instance, Kennewick Man. National Geographic attributes the term "demonym" to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990.[8] The word did not appear for nouns, adjectives, and verbs derived from geographical names in the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary nor in prominent style manuals such as the Chicago Manual of Style. It was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals.[9] However, in What Do You Call a Person From...? A Dictionary of Resident Names (the first edition of Labels for Locals)[10] Dickson attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names' Names: A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon (1988),[3] which is apparently where the term first appears. The term may have been fashioned after demonymic, which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as the name of an Athenian citizen according to the deme to which the citizen belongs, with its first use traced to 1893.[11][12] List of adjectival and demonymic forms for countries and nations List of adjectivals and demonyms for cities Continents and regions Constituent states, provinces and regions Constituent states, provinces, regions and cities Countries and regions Often used for European locations and Canadian locations • Åland → Ålandish people • Bangka Island → Bangkish • Britain, Great Britain and United Kingdom → British people (demonym "Britons") • Cornwall → Cornish people (demonym "Cornishmen, Cornishwomen") • Denmark → Danish people (demonym "Danes") • England → English people (demonym "Englishmen, Englishwomen") • Finland → Finnish people (demonym "Finns" or "Finnic") • Flanders → Flemish people (demonym "Flemings") • Ireland → Irish people (demonym "Irishmen, Irishwomen") • Kent → Kentish people • Kurdistan → Kurdish people (demonym "Kurds") • Luxembourg → Luxembourgish people (demonym "Luxembourgers") • Niger → Nigerish (also Nigerien) • Northern Ireland → Northern Irish people • Poland → Polish people (demonym "Poles") • Scotland → Scottish people (demonym "Scots" or "Scotsmen, Scotswomen") • Spain → Spanish people (demonym "Spaniards") • Sweden → Swedish people (demonym "Swedes") • Turkey → Turkish people (demonym "Turks") • Wales → Welsh people (demonym "Welshmen, Welshwomen") Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. • Inverness (UK) → Invernessians • Kingston-upon-Hull (UK) → Hullensians • Leeds (UK) → Leodensians • Reading (UK) → Readingensians -ese, -nese or -lese "-ese" is usually considered proper only as an adjective, or to refer to the entirety.[citation needed] Thus, "a Chinese person" is used rather than "a Chinese". Often used for Italian and East Asian, from the Italian suffix -ese, which is originally from the Latin adjectival ending -ensis, designating origin from a place: thus Hispaniensis (Spanish), Danensis (Danish), etc. The use in demonyms for Francophone locations is motivated by the similar-sounding French suffix -ais(e), which is at least in part a relative (< lat. -ensis or -iscus, or rather both). -i(e) or -i(ya) States, provinces, counties, and cities Mostly for Middle Eastern and South Asian locales. -i is encountered also in Latinate names for the various people that ancient Romans encountered (e.g. Allemanni, Helvetii). -ie is rather used for English places. • FinlandFinnic (rather used for the group of peoples and languages situated along the Baltic Sea, in contrast to Finnish) • Antarctica → Antarctic • Greenland → Greenlandic (also Greenlander) • IcelandIcelandic (also Icelander) • Iran → Iranic (also Iranian and Irani) • Slav → Slavic • New Zealand → New Zealanders (Maybe New Zealandics) -iot or -iote • Chios → Chiots • Corfu → Corfiots • Cyprus → Cypriots ("Cyprian" before 1960 independence of Cyprus) • Phanar → Phanariotes Used especially for Greek locations. Backformation from Cypriot, itself based in Greek -ώτης. Often used for Italian and French locations. Often used for British and Irish locations. -ois(e), -ais(e) • Benin → Beninois(e) (also Beninese) • Gabon → Gabonais(e) (also Gabonese) • Seychelles → Seychellois(e) From Latin or Latinization • Botswana → Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural) • Burundi → Umurundi (singular), Abarundi (plural) • Lesotho → Mosotho (singular), Basotho (plural) Non-standard examples Demonyms and ethnonyms Since names of places, regions and countries (toponyms) are morphologicaly often related to names of ethnic groups (ethnonyms), various ethnonyms may have simmilar, but not always identical forms as terms for general population of those places, regions or countries (demonyms). In a few cases, where a linguistic background has been created, non-standard gentilics are formed (or the eponyms back-formed). Examples include Tolkien's Rohirrim (from Rohan) and the Star Trek franchise's Klingons (with various names for their homeworld). See also 1. ^ "Dictionary". Merriam Webster. Retrieved 25 July 2015. 2. ^ Roberts 2017, p. 205. 4. ^ "Gramática Inglesa. Adjetivos Gentilicios". 5. ^ "Google Ngram Viewer". 6. ^ "Google Ngram Viewer". 7. ^ "Google Ngram Viewer". 11. ^ "Oxford English Dictionary". Oxford University Press. 14. ^ Gilbert, Simon (18 November 2014). "What makes a Coventrian ? New online tool will tell you". coventrytelegraph. 16. ^ Finn, Robin (10 October 2014). "Investing in Future Quiet, Quiet Manhattan Apartments Next to Construction Sites". The New York Times. 18. ^ "Corkonian". 20. ^ Waterloo, City of (October 30, 2013). "Waterluvians! Don't forget about our trail renaming contest". 21. ^ Mettler, Katie (January 13, 2017). "'Hoosier' is now the official name for Indiana folk. But what does it even mean?". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 31, 2020. 23. ^ "Massachusetts: General Laws, Section 35". • Roberts, Michael (2017). "The Semantics of Demonyms in English". The Semantics of Nouns. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 205–220. ISBN 9780198736721.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) External links • Alphabetical list of world demonyms. • Demonyms of the World. • CIA World Factbook – NATIONALITY • Demonyms of the United Kingdom.	<urn:uuid:68f35d67-36f3-4ff7-8307-bd3ebc26ef7e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.039233505725860596, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8798151016235352, "url": "https://www.knowpia.com/knowpedia/Demonym" }
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