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Tây tiến
translated and annotated
Dr. Đàm Trung Pháp
Professor Emeritus
Texas Woman’s University
“Tây tiến”
Quang Dũng
Quang Dũng penned the ballad Tây tiến (Westward march) in 1948, a year after his Capital Regiment (Trung Đoàn Thủ Đô) left Hà Nội. This regiment first saw action on “the day for a nation-wide uprising” in 1946, when 8,000 intellectual youths of the capital city defense forcefaced 4,500 French troops. The battle was the first effort by these young people to prevent the return of the French colonialists [1].
Quang Dũng was the pen name of Bùi Đình Diệm (1921-1988), who was born inPhùng village, Phượng Trì district, Sơn Tây province. His father was a literary man and a canton chief.Quang Dũng was the oldest child and had four sisters and one brother. In 1954 his mother, one of his sisters, and his brother left North Việt Nam for South Việt Nam when the Geneva Accord halved the country.
He attended Bưởi High School and then the Normal School (Trường Sư Phạm) in Hà Nội. He graduated from the teacher-preparation institution, but he soon gave up his teaching career to become the chief of Yên Bái railroad station. At this time he joined the People’s Party (Quốc Dân Đảng); the French even went to his native village to look for him, but all their efforts to arrest him were in vain. Among the young people who supported the secret activities of the People’s Party was a young woman named Bùi Thị Thạch, who later became Quang Dũng’s wife.
The ballad Tây tiếnwas written by Quang Dũng in his notebook. His fellow soldiers in the Tây Tiến Regiment [2] cherished it and it was widely circulated. It was the heartfelt appeal from not just one member of that regiment, but from almost every Vietnamese youth who participated in the resistance against French rule, leaving behind their beloved capital city.
The famed ballad was banned in the North, but it was valued in the South. Its author, because of his past affiliation with the People’s Party, was discharged from the military. Later, because of his participation in the Humanities – Fine Literary Works (Nhân Văn – Giai Phẩm) movement, he was imprisoned and forbidden to write. After that, he had to earn his living by working as a proofreader for a newspaper. While Quang Dũng’s poetry was published, read, recited, and set to music in the South after 1954, his poem Tây tiến was not published in a poetic collection until 1986 in Hà Nội, two years before his death. The bed-ridden poet was too weak to autograph his books for his admirers.
The anguished appeal radiating from the hearts of Hà Nội’s youths shines through every line of Tây tiến.But their lives in the poem were totally different – they were now living, not in that capital city, but on a Northwest battlefield in the middle of deep jungles and high mountains. As the Westward March was winding down, Quang Dũng started having the sentimental recollection of this military expedition, the jungles, the mountain slopes, the ethnic minority hamlets, the worn-out troops. It was this nostalgic longing that inspired him to write this exquisite ballad.
Tây tiến is a matchless ballad about the Vietnamese people’s valorous resistance against French colonialism. It recalls the daunting expedition of the Westward march soldiers. Each recollection of the expedition is a salient painting and a stirring song about an unforgettable martial experience. Through such vicarious experiences involving strong emotions and harrowing adversity, readers can catch a glimpse of the perilous selfless life led by the brave soldiers of the Westward March. Among poems on resistance written by different individuals between 1945 and 1954, Tây tiến stands out, head and shoulders above the rest. It does not mention leaders, it does not touch on patriotism, yet every verse in it is imbued with an ardent love for the country, nature, friendship, and a determination to go to war to stamp out French colonialism.
Below is my English translation of the entire ballad, stanza by stanza, followed by annotations and references.
Tây tiến
Sông Mã xa rồi Tây tiến ơi!
Nhớ về rừng núi, nhớ chơi vơi
Sài Khao sương lấp đoàn quân mỏi
Mường Lát hoa về trong đêm hơi
Westward march
Way behind us is the Mã River [3], Westward march troops!
Yet thinking of jungles and mountains is still a staggering nostalgia
In Sài Khao [4] fog concealed the worn-out soldiers
In Mường Lát [5] on a steamy night the flowers returned
Dốc lên khúc khuỷu dốc thăm thẳm
Heo hút cồn mây, súng ngửi trời
Ngàn thước lên cao, ngàn thước xuống
Nhà ai Pha Luông mưa xa khơi
The upward slope was dauntingly tortuous
Among desolate banks of cloud, gun muzzles sniffed the sky
A thousand meters ascending, another thousand descending
Someone’s house in rainy Pha Luông [6] far away
Anh bạn dãi dầu không bước nữa
Gục lên súng mũ bỏ quên đời!
Chiều chiều oai linh thác gầm thét
Đêm đêm Mường Hịch cọp trêu người
A weather-beaten companion stopped marching
Slumping on his helmet and gun, he left life behind!
In the evening thundered majestic waterfalls
At night in Mường Hịch tigers teased people [7]
Nhớ ôi Tây tiến cơm lên khói
Mai Châu mùa em thơm nếp xôi
Oh Westward march, with the scent of steaming rice
Her season of fragrant glutinous rice in Mai Châu [8]
Doanh trại bừng lên hội đuốc hoa
Kìa em xiêm áo tự bao giờ
Khèn lên Man điệu nàng e ấp
Nhạc về Viên Chăn xây hồn thơ
The barrack brightened up for a bridal gala
Lo and behold, she was already dressed up
Coy she was as the pan pipe [9] played a Man tune
Toward Vientiane [10] the music inspired poetry
Người đi Châu Mộc chiều sương ấy
Có thấy hồn lau nẻo bến bờ
Có nhớ dáng người trên độc mộc
Trôi dòng nước lũ hoa đong đưa
Those of you who left for Châu Mộc [11] that misty evening
Did you notice the spirit of reeds along riverbanks
The allure of lasses in dugouts
Floating on swift-flowing water like flowers [12]
Tây tiến đoàn binh không mọc tóc
Quân xanh màu lá dữ oai hùm
Mắt trừng gửi mộng qua biên giới
Đêm mơ Hà Nội dáng kiều thơm
Westward march troops went bald [13]
Pale like leaves yet we stayed fierce like tigers
With wide-open eyes we sent reveries across the border [14]
At night we dreamt of Hanoi and its charming beauties [15]
Rải rác biên cương mồ viễn xứ
Chiến trường đi chẳng tiếc đời xanh
Áo bào thay chiếu, anh về đất
Sông Mã gầm lên khúc độc hành
Scattered along the frontier were graves away from home
Of those who left for battlefields without regretting their youth
Shrouded in military uniforms instead of reed mats, they returned to earth[16]
The Mã River roared a solo-journey dirge
Tây tiến người đi không hẹn ước
Đường lên thăm thẳm một chia phôi
Ai lên Tây Tiến mùa xuân ấy
Hồn về Sầm Nứa chẳng về xuôi
Westward march soldiers left without promises
Their remote expedition meant in itself a separation
Those who joined Westward March that spring
Had their minds set for Sam Nua, not the plains [17].
[1] There was a huge mismatch in weapons in this battle in Hà Nội. While the Vietnamese youths armed themselves with small guns, sticks, and spears, the French used machine guns and tanks [Ngô Văn Chiêu, as cited by Hoàng Cơ Thụy (2002) in Việt Sử Khảo Luận, Paris: Nam Á.]
[2] Less than two months after the Hà Nội battle, in early 1947, the youths in the city defense force had to flee from the city. Some took refuge in China while others joined the Westward March campaign as soldiers in the newly-formed Tây Tiến Regiment, leaving behind 1,300 killed or missing in action and 2,500 injured [Hoàng Cơ Thụy (2002). Việt Sử Khảo Luận. Paris: Nam Á.]
[3] The Mã River starts in Northwestern Vietnam, winding from Điện Biên through Sơn La, Laos, and Thanh Hóa before joining the sea at the Gulf of Tonkin.
[4] and [5] The town of Mường Lát and the village of Sài Khao are in Thanh Hóa province. The town and the village are separated by steep slopes and tricky trails. The area is also notoriously foggy. In such poor visibility at night, the troops had to use torches, making them look like “flowers.”
[6] The Pha Luông mountain is in Thanh Hóa province. It was on this mountain that many worn-out Tây Tiến troops simply “slumped on their helmets and guns, leaving life behind.”
[7] and [8] The village of Mường Hịch is a short distance from the town of Mai Châu in Hòa Bình province. Mường Hịch was known for its daring tigers which brazenly stole pigs for food.
[9] The pan pipe (khèn) is a wind instrument consisting of bamboo tubes connected to a wooden sound box. It is very popular with such ethnic groups in Vietnam as the Thai, the Man, and the Hmong.
[10] Vientiane (Vạn Tượng) is the capital city of Laos. It is in the central part of the country, on the Mekong River.
[11] Châu Mộc is a beautiful town in Sơn La province. In this ethnically diverse place, festivals are organized every spring for boys and girls to meet.
[12] Girls in dugouts often helped troops get across the river. Maneuvering their dugouts on swift-flowing water, the lasses looked like floating flowers.
[13] A scourge for the troops, malaria was caused by anopheles mosquitoes that infested their area of operations. The disease made their hair fall and their skin turn pale.
[14] and [15] This elegant couplet became an albatross around the poet’s neck. His detractors charged that the verses were too embarrassingly sentimental and thus could adversely affect the troops’ morale.
[16] The dead soldiers’ burials were worse than those for paupers, whose corpses would be shrouded in reed mats (chiếu) before interment.
[17] Sam Nua (also written as Xam Nua and Sam Nuea) is the major city of Huaphan province in Laos, adjacent to Vietnam’s Sơn La and Thanh Hóa provinces.
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Saber and Scroll
Excerpted on author's behalf:
The Carolingian period was of significant importance to the development of medieval history writing. Charlemagne (c.742-814) surrounded himself with scholars in an effort to promote learning and the arts, which had been in decline for centuries. Within this Carolingian Renaissance, there was one scholar who established his place in history by writing a concise but remarkable, and mostly accurate, biography of the greatest king and emperor of the early Middle Ages. This scholar was Einhard (c.770-840), who created impressively original works that had both an immediate and lasting influence on the writing of biographies and hagiographies. A closer look at these works reveals a great deal about the man who wrote them and the social and political climate that shaped them. From his classical education and the influence of Charlemagne’s court, Einhard developed a unique style of writing and created works which, in addition to giving him personal power, had social and political significance for the Carolingians.
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Spina bifida: A birth defect (a congenital malformation) in which there is a bony defect in the vertebral column so that part of the spinal cord, which is normally protected within the vertebral column, is exposed. People with spina bifida can suffer from bladder and bowel incontinence, cognitive (learning) problems and limited mobility.
Spina bifida is caused by the failure of the neural tube to close during embryonic development. The neural tube is the embryonal structure that gives rise to the brain and spinal cord.
The risk of spina bifida varies according to country, ethnic group and socioeconomic status. In the US as a whole, spina bifida occurs in about one in every 1-2,000 births. The risk of spina bifida and other neural tube defects such as anencephaly can be decreased by women taking folic acid supplements before they conceive and during the first months of their pregnancy.
For more information about neural tube defects, see Spina Bifida & Anencephaly. Spina bifida is sometimes referred to as meningomyelocele.
glossary/spina_bifida.txt · Last modified: 2012/10/16 14:40 (external edit)
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Mass center problem
1. Jan 22, 2006 #1
three uniform disks of the same mass per unit area, and radii a, 2a, 3a are placed in contact with each other with their centers on a straight line. how far is the center of mass of the system from the center of the smallest disk?
m1=pi a^2
m2=4pi a^2
m3=9pi a^2
Xc = (m1/mtotal)Xo + (m2/mtotal)(Xo+3a)+(m3/mtotal)(Xo+8a)
Xc = 1/14Xo + 4/14Xo + 6/7a + 9/14Xo + 72/14a
Xc = Xo + 6a
therefore center of mass of system is 6a from the center of the smallest disk.
is this correct?
2. jcsd
3. Jan 22, 2006 #2
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No, that is not correct. Think about what your answer means if a is made arbitrarily small. Also, it appears there is missing information in the way you state the problem. Don't you suppose the thickness of the disks matters?
4. Jan 23, 2006 #3
i dont really understand whats wrong with it
but here is the diagram, i guess i did miss this
http://img63.imageshack.us/img63/9140/phys27rv.jpg [Broken]
Last edited by a moderator: May 2, 2017
5. Jan 23, 2006 #4
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Homework Helper
I misunderstood your original description of the arrangement. I had them stacked one on top of the other - thanks for clarifying with your drawing.
With the revised configuration, yes, your answer is correct!
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Bruce Watt, Central Tablelands Local Land Services, Bathurst
Worldwide, brucellosis remains a major source of disease in humans and domesticated animals. Although reported incidence and prevalence of the disease vary widely from country to country, bovine brucellosis caused mainly by B. abortus is still the most widespread form. In humans, ovine/caprine brucellosis caused by B. melitensis is by far the most important clinically apparent disease (Corbel 1997).
Posted Flock & Herd March 2016
In 1887, British Army surgeon Sir David Bruce first isolated a bacterium he named Micrococcus melitensis, later named Brucella melitensis, from the spleens of soldiers dying of ‘Mediterranean or Malta fever.’ Bruce was able to infect monkeys, killing four of seven, produce an undulating fever in the survivors and re-isolate the bacterium. However, the source of the infection remained a puzzle (Tan and Davies 2011).
Nearly twenty years later, in 1905, Maltese doctor Themistocles Zammit found that five out of six goats reacted to the blood test for human brucellosis, still known as Mediterranean or Malta fever. This finding led to the discovery that apparently healthy goats could be carriers of the disease, a finding that has been described as 'one of the greatest advances ever made in the study of epidemiology.' It soon led to the eradication of the disease among British soldiers and ‘revolutionized ideas about animal vectors of disease’ (Wyatt 2005).
Figure 1. Bruce and Zammit commemorated on a Maltese stamp
While sheep and goats are the preferred host of Brucella melitensis, it is regarded as the most pathogenic species of Brucella and can infect cattle, rodents and dogs. It is also the most common and serious zoonosis of the Brucella genus (Castrucci 2007, Aparicio 2013).
B. melitensis, the causative agent of Malta or Mediterranean fever, is, not surprisingly, prevalent in the Mediterranean countries of Spain, (and Portugal), Southern France, Italy, Greece and Turkey. It is also widespread in the Middle East, Central and South America and Asia.
While goats are the ‘classic and natural hosts,’ sheep are also favoured. B. melitensis infection is characterised by abortions or stillbirths in the last trimester of pregnancy in previously naïve does and ewes. Rams and bucks occasionally develop orchitis and epididymitis (Aparicio 2013).
Aborting and infected kidding and lambing animals shed large numbers of bacteria in the birth fluids, abortus, foetus and placenta. Bacteria are also shed in the milk and in the birth fluids of recovered animals (Aparicio 2013).
Bacteria shed by infected animals invade new cases via the nasopharynx (and potentially the skin). Bacterial spread may be halted in regional lymph nodes but if bacteria overwhelm phagocytes they spread via the circulatory system, to the udder and pregnant uterus, infecting the placenta and foetus, usually leading to abortion and chronic shedding (Castrucci 2007).
B. melitensis can survive for up to four months inside shelters, for about 35 days in the shade and for 15 days on pastures in the sun. It is killed by pasteurisation and common disinfectants (Castrucci 2007).
B. melitensis infection of cattle has emerged as a ‘serious public health problem’ in Israel, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and some southern European countries. Infection is primarily through exposure to aborting sheep and goats. In cattle, B. melitensis abortions are rare but inapparent udder infections can lead to the shedding of large quantities of bacteria in the milk, hence the public health hazard. The problem is exacerbated because B. abortus vaccines do not adequately protect against bovine B. melitensis infection.
Of interest, an outbreak of B. melitensis infection in the 1300 head zero grazing dairy operation at the Kibbutz Revivim in the Negev Desert in Israel, in which 135 head were found to be infected and destroyed, is presumed to have originated from neighbouring flocks of sheep and goats, though the route of infection has not yet been determined (ProMED 2015).
Dogs (and presumably some other carnivores) can both become infected and spread the bacteria by translocating foetuses and placentae (Aparicio 2013).
As an aside, Corbel (1997) noted that in some areas in South America, B. suis has become established in cattle, which are now a more important source of infection than pigs.
B. melitensis is the most significant cause of human brucellosis. However, B. abortus, B. suis and B. canis are also human pathogens. B. ovis has not been shown to cause infection in humans but a case of laboratory acquired infection to B. maris suggests its zoonotic potential (Corbel 1997).
It is estimated that half a million new human cases of brucellosis develop each year throughout the world. In the acute form, symptoms include a waxing and waning (undulant) fever that may progress to the chronic form characterised by headaches, joint, muscle and abdominal pain, anorexia, weight loss and depression. The bacterium can localise in the skeletal system (Mousa et al 1987), heart valves (Al-Kasab et al 1988), urinary tract (Kelalis 1962) and nervous system (Lulu at al 1988 amd Annesley 1968).
Brucellosis is most commonly acquired when people living or travelling in endemic areas consume contaminated (unpasteurised) dairy products or contact infected animals (particulary infected vaginal discharges, foetuses or placentae). However, brucellosis can be acquired by the respiratory and conjunctival routes and has on rare occasions been (presumed sexually) transmitted from person to person (Vigeant et al 1995).
In a recent Portuguese case, 13 people were confirmed to have become infected with ‘Malta fever’ after eating cheese ‘produced in an artisan fashion,’ (presumably from unpasteurised milk) from an unauthorised home-based factory (ProMED 2014). In Algeria the number of human brucellosis cases, which has tripled since 2013 (from 113 to 363 cases annually), is attributed to the sale of ‘healthy, naturally sterile’ raw cow, goat and camel milk sold in plastic water bottles. In turn the increased incidence of brucellosis is the result of both livestock owners and consumers ignoring hygiene practices, refusing to vaccinate their livestock (fearing that vaccination leads to abortions) and the use of infected male animals (ProMED 12/18/2015).
Figure 2. Artisanal cheese production in Romania
In Australia, people have become infected after eating imported unpasteurised cheese (NSW Health 2012).
Brucellosis is regarded as a serious risk to laboratory workers and is readily acquired from cultures and infected samples.
There is an Ausvetplan for B. abortus but not for B. melitensis. Presumably given the similarity of the diseases, some of the observations on B. abortus apply equally to B. melitensis. The Ausvetplan (2005) for bovine brucellosis states that;
‘The greatest risk of introduction of bovine brucellosis would be with cattle imported from countries with endemic infection. With current import requirements, however, this method of introduction is unlikely. The disease could also be introduced with imported semen but this risk is minimised by effective import controls.’
Travellers, infected overseas, have introduced B. melitensis to Australia but a reverse zoonosis seems unlikely.
B. melitensis introduced into an Australian sheep or goat flock would be expected to cause a spectacular abortion storm in a naïve population. Such an event would be observed in flocks grazing under more intensive conditions but could pass unnoticed in flocks run under extensive conditions. Foxes and wild dogs would be expected to spread the infection locally while the transport and sale of shedding and latently infected animals would spread the disease more widely. It would pose a serious threat to people exposed to aborted foetuses and to vaginal and mammary discharges, including farmers, veterinarians and laboratory and abattoir workers.
A routine abortion investigation should detect B. melitensis, presumably initially through bacterial isolation. Because the bacterium is intracellular, it may exist without being detected by serological methods.
Many countries have eradicated B. melitensis using test and cull methods. The techniques used in Australia to eradicate B. abortus from our cattle herd would no doubt be valuable in eradicating B. melitensis from our sheep and goat (and possibly cattle) populations.
1. Al-Kasab S, Al-Fagih MR, Al-Yousef S, et al. Brucella infective endocarditis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1988; 95: 862-7. cited by Beeching N in ProMED-ahead Digest, Vol 34, Issue 46, May 21 2015
2. Alton, G.G., (1990). Brucella melitensis in “Animal brucellosis”. (Nielsen, K., Duncan, J. R., eds). CRC Press Boston, 383-409
3. Annesley PT. Schizophreniform psychosis with chronic brucellosis. Br J Psychiatr 1968; 114: 353-4. cited by Beeching N in ProMED-ahead Digest, Vol 34, Issue 46, May 21 2015
4. Aparicio, E. Díaz (2013) Epidemiology of brucellosis in domestic animals caused by Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis and Brucella abortus. Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2013, 32 (1), 53-60
5. AUSVETPLAN, Disease Strategy, Bovine brucellosis. Version 3.0, 2005
6. Beeching N in ProMED-ahead Digest, Vol 34, Issue 46, May 21 2015
7. Castrucci G (2007). Brucella melitensis infection, chapter 20 in Diseases of Sheep, Fourth Edition, edited by ID Aitken, pp 137-142
8. Cook DR and Noble JW (1984). Isolation of Brucella suis from cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 61:8:263–264
9. Corbel MJ (1997). Brucellosis: an overview. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(2):213–221
10. European Commission 2001, Report of the Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Welfare. Brucellosis in Sheep and Goats (Brucella melitensis)
11. Kelalis PP, Greene LF, Weed LA. Brucellosis of the urogenital tract: a mimic of tuberculosis. J Urol 1962; 88: 347-53. cited Beeching N in ProMED-ahead Digest, Vol 34, Issue 46, May 21 2015
12. Lulu AR, Araj GF, Khateeb MI, et al. Human brucellosis in Kuwait: a prospective study of 400 cases. Q J Med 1988; 66: 39-54. cited by Beeching N in Mousa ARM, Muhtaseb SA, Almudallal DS, et al. Osteoarticular complications of brucellosis: a study of 169 cases. Rev Infect Dis 1987; 9:531-43 cited by Beeching N in ProMED-ahead Digest, Vol 34, Issue 46, May 21 2015
13. NSW Health Communicable Diseases Factsheet (2012) Brucellosis
14. ProMED-ahead Digest, Vol 34, Issue 46, May 21 2015
15. ProMED 2015. Brucellosis – Israel (05): Hadarom melitensis, bovine spread, Vol 41, Issue 9 Dec 4 2015
16. ProMED 2015. Brucellosis – Algeria: (Ghardaia), Vol 41, Issue 19 Dec 18 2015
17. Tan S Y and Davis C (2011). Medicine in Stamps, David Bruce (1855–1931): discoverer of brucellosis. Singapore Med J 2011; 52(3):138
18. Vigeant P, Mendelson J and Miller MA (1995). Human to human transmission of Brucella melitensis. Can J Infect Dis. 6(3): 153–155
19. Wyatt HV (2005). How Themistocles Zammit found Malta Fever (brucellosis) to be transmitted by the milk of goats. J R Soc Med. 2005 Oct; 98(10): 451–454
20. Department of Microbiology, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec
21. Corresondence and reprints: Dr Jack Mendelson, Department of Microbiology, SMBD-Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, 3755 Côte Ste-Catherine Road, Montreal, Quebec H3T 1E2. Telephone (514) 340-8294, Fax (514) 340-7546
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Tutoring Physics, Centripetal Acceleration
We looked at problems involving centripetal acceleration, movement in circular paths.
The new equation we used was that a(centripetal) = v^2/r
Looked at three problems. Also had to convert units a few times to SI units for the calculations to work.
One problem involved a person on a bike, another an object on a string, and the third an approximation of the Earth’s orbit as a circle in which we had to think about the period of rotation as being a year.
You can approximate the number of seconds in a year as being pi multiplied by 10^7. To be more accurate, you should account for leap year, making there be 365.25 days in a year.
Speak Your Mind
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Reaction to Pearl Harbor: Japanese American Internment Camps Created by: Abby Helton, Katie McAfee, and Lauren Sharpe.
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Presentation on theme: "Reaction to Pearl Harbor: Japanese American Internment Camps Created by: Abby Helton, Katie McAfee, and Lauren Sharpe."— Presentation transcript:
3 December 7, 1941, was much like September 11, 2001. It was a great surprise, and there was not much to be done to stop it. Following the attack at Pearl Harbor, all Japanese were blamed and weren’t given much respect. Just as we began to stereotype Muslims in September and show hatred, much of the same was done to the Japanese. The Americans did something very demeaning to the Japanese people living in America…they placed them in internment camps.
4 This sign would not let people of Japanese descent past these lines! Area Limits Sign
5 “From which any or all persons, Japanese or Japanese American descent may be excluded." -Franklin Delanor Roosevelt Japanese people were removed from the west coast and south Arizona and then the United States government created detention camps and established curfews for all Japanese Americans.
6 In 1944, Americans realized what injustice they had caused the Japanese Americans and camps began to close. Years later, there was a law passed stating that the United States was sorry for the injustice it had caused the people of Japanese ancestry. Camps Closed
7 The United States government paid $2,500 to each Japanese American individual who was put into an internment camp. This was the United States’ way of saying, “We’re sorry.”
9 Purposes of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 with respect to persons of Japanese ancestry included the following: 1) To acknowledge the fundamental injustice of the evacuation, relocation and internment of citizens and permanent resident aliens of Japanese ancestry during World War II;
12 4) To make restitution to those individuals of Japanese ancestry who were interned;
15 He also stated that by passing the Civil Liberties Act in 1988, “We acknowledge our wrong doing and understand the racial prejudice, and we will strive to do better under the circumstances.”
16 Top: Rows and rows of cabins at Gila River, AZ. Right: People wander around at Heart Mountain, WY. -> Internment Camps
17 Above is a map of the internment camps throughout the western part of the United States.
18 There were nearly 70 internment camps spread out over the United States. The previous page was a map of only western America! Some camp names were: Gila River, AZ (opened July 20, 1942-closed November 10, 1945), Heart Mountain, WY (opened August 12, 1942-closed November 10, 1945), Jerome, AR (opened October 6, 1942-closed June 30, 1944). Camps were also found in Tennessee, Hawaii, Florida, Georgia, and Illinois.
19 The following camps were the only ones in our state of Tennessee: Millington was a federal prison camp next door to Memphis Naval Air Station. Nashville contained more than two buildings that were on state property.
20 Emotionally, politically and racially charged, the issue of the Japanese American Relocation during World War II is an event that just won't go away. Claims have been made that American citizens were imprisoned against their will in concentration camps, and that the entire fiasco was motivated by war time hysteria, racial bigotry, and opportunistic businesses that wanted to snap up property left behind by the evacuees. Counter claims have suggested that there was complete documented evidence to justify an evacuation of Japanese Americans and Japanese nationals from the west coast of the United States, and that no American citizen was detained against their will by their own government.
21 We recently read an autobiography on George Takei (Star Trek’s Mr.Sulu). As a child he was put in an internment camp in Rohwer, Arkansas. He, along with his brothers and sister, was given a tag to wear which identified his family. They were transported on buses and trains. Most of their family possessions were either sold for very low amounts of money, or left behind. They had to evacuate very quickly and were only given a limited amount of space for luggage.
22 Audio file used by permission of Brad Altman, business manager for George Takei.
23 Different people have different perspectives on this situation. Some people think that it was right for the United States to put the Japanese people into internment camps, yet others think it was an act of injustice. We did not have access to any Japanese Americans in our town, so we interviewed someone who is a role model in our community.
24 We interviewed our mayor, Darrell Helton. His perspective was that the United States was right in putting the Japanese people in internment camps because Japan was the first to bomb us. “Not knowing how the people would act, we did the smartest thing we could do, because they could have been spies and could have felt sorry for their homeland.”
25 In another interview with Mark Finchum, a member of the National Council for the Social Studies Board of Directors, he stated, “The United States government should not have interned the Japanese Americans because the United States Constitution should be upheld first and foremost.”
26 Others think that because they were already US citizens, they wouldn’t serve as Japanese spies. Some believe we could have distinguished the difference between the Japanese citizens and American citizens. Despite current thoughts, they don’t change the fact that the United States did intern the Japanese Americans!
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This course looks at the concept of “boundaries” in 5 short lecture segments. After each lecture, you’ll be asked to do various activities to internalize and apply the concepts taught in each segment.
Boundaries include internally-motivated moral constraints, external rules, social expectations, laws, and any other internal or external demarcation that defines us as individuals.
This course includes:
• 5 video segments:
1. Boundaries, Growing up, & Bill of Rights
2. Internal & External Boundaries
3. A Visual Model for Boundaries
4. Safety & Intimacy
5. Final Thoughts
• Total video run-time: approx. 20 minutes
• Written homework activities
This course is intended for anybody who:
• Feels guilty when advocating for themselves
• Has unresolved trouble in any relationship and does not know why or how to handle it
Part 1 includes:
• Why are boundaries important?
• How do we develop boundaries?
• Why do we need to maintain boundaries?
• What happens if boundaries are not created or maintained? (Monumental confusion results)
• You’ll also learn about your own boundaries in the form of rights as an individual
Part 2 is a discussion of internal and external boundaries, and how we can appropriately and wholly connect with other people by establishing and maintaining boundaries.
Part 3 explains how we differentiate ourselves from others & stay connected to them. This section includes definitions and discussions about healthy boundaries, intimacy, and why we need intimacy in our relationships.
Part 4 examines the ideas of safety & intimacy in greater detail, along with their natural opposite, “undefined boundaries.”
Part 5 discusses why boundaries are needed in relationships, and how good boundaries create closeness.
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Raster processing using Python Tools
Geospatial Concepts: Raster Data
Teaching: 5 min
Exercises: 0 min
• What is a raster?
• What sorts of information does a raster typically model?
• What are the major characteristics of a raster dataset?
• What assumptions does the format imply?
• Understand the raster data model
What is a raster?
Unlike vectors, where features have discreet boundaries (which is useful for storing data like country borders, land parcels and streets), rasters are useful for storing data that varies continuously. At its heart, a raster is:
In the 1950’s raster graphics were noted as a faster and cheaper (but lower-resolution) alternative to vector graphics.
Bands in Landsat 7 (bottom row of rectangles) and Landsat 8 (top row)
Graphic created by L.Rocchio & J.Barsi.
Landsat 8 Band 1 (“Ultra Blue”) Landsat 8 Band 3 (“Green”) Landsat 8 Band 9 (“Cirrus”)
Landsat 8: Ultra Blue Landsat 8: Green Band Landsat 8: Blue Band
What makes a raster geospatial?
A raster is just an image in local pixel coordinates until we specify what part of the earth the image covers. This is done through two pieces of metadata that accompany the pixel values of the image:
Spatially-aware applications are careful to interpret this metadata appropriately. If we aren’t careful (or are using a raster-editing application that ignores spatial information), we can accidentally strip this spatial metadata. Photoshop, for example, can edit GeoTiffs, but we’ll lose the embedded CRS and geotransform!
Common Types of Raster Datasets
Examples of common raster datasets include:
Limitations of the Raster Format
Key Points
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viernes, 28 de febrero de 2014
The Architecture of the Louvre
The building of the Louvre Palace is one of the longest and most complex in the history of European architecture. The Louvre was originally a fortress built in the 12th century, which later became a royal residence and was expanded and embellished over the next two centuries.
The transformation into a renaissance palace began during the reign of Francis I, who in 1527 had ordered the demolition of the round keep at the centre of the fortress. It took another twenty years, however, before the king returned his attention to the Louvre and hired Pierre Lescot to replace the medieval building.
The first section of the new courtyard palace was built in 1547-51, by which time the crown passed to Henry II. The courtyard has since quadrupled in size and several of the facades have been altered, but the original Lescot wing has survived mostly intact. The relief work is attributed to Jean Goujon, though the statues in the niches are from the 19th century.
Lescot clearly modelled his facade on the courtyards of Italian palaces, though the result is both more ornate and complex. The projections introduce a vertical element to the composition, which is absent in most Italian examples. Arranging the facade in this way would later become typical of French architecture, but doesn't seem to have been the original intention. Lescot was following the French tradition of creating a projection in the facade to accommodate the staircase. He wanted to place it in the centre but this became difficult when the king insisted on having a reception hall across the entire ground floor. The ramp of the staircase was therefore pushed to the right, but Lescot still kept the central frontispiece of the original design and introduced a third on the left for the sake of symmetry. The idea of having a ground-floor arcade with recessed windows was probably borrowed from the project to build a new city hall, which began in 1533. The roof is the first known mansard, which would also become a staple of French classical architecture. The break in angle of the sloping roof was probably used to diminish the visual impact.
The attic storey is richly decorated in relief sculpture, executed by Jean Goujon.
The figures in the central frontispiece are the god and goddess of war, Mars and Bellona, while the window is flanked with kneeling captives. The theme of war is further emphasised in the winged victories on the pediment. The monogram of Henry II is also displayed.
Work began on a second wing in 1553. This was to be known as the Queens' wing and was intended primarily as living quarters for the queen and the queen mother, who had been widowed when Henry II died in a jousting accident in 1559. The decoration had not been fully completed when Lescot died in 1579 and the attic floor was replaced in the 19th century. Lescot also built a tower-like pavilion (Pavillon du Roi) at the corner of the two wings, which was removed in the 18th century.
The queen mother, Catherine de Medici, ruled France to varying degrees during the reigns of her three sons: Francis II, Charles IX and Henri III. She apparently didn’t like the still half-medieval Louvre very much and chose instead to build an entirely new palace outside the city walls to the west of the Louvre. Construction on the Tuileries palace began in 1564 to designs by the architect Philibert de l’Orme, while work on the Queens' wing at the Louvre came to a halt the year after and would only be completed during the reign of Henri IV.
Nevertheless, work at the Louvre did not stop completely and the idea of a long gallery to link the Louvre with the Tuileries appears to have originated during this time.
The first step in this plan was the little gallery, which was built as an extension of the Louvre toward the river. The ground floor design appears to be from 1566-67, but the first floor was only completed by Henry IV and its design is probably of a later date. The original architect is not known but could have been Philibert de l’Orme or Pierre Lescot, who after all was still the architect in charge of the Louvre. The gallery was rebuilt after a fire in 1661 to an altered design by Louis le Vau but some elements of the original was restored by Felix Duban in the mid-19th century.
The little gallery was initially built as a ground-storey terrace overlooking the Louvre gardens. The use of black marble strips on the Doric pilasters suggests some influence from de l'Orme's design of the Tuileries palace, though the result is more conventional. The decoration of the frieze may also point to de l'Orme in adhering to a 'correct' formula for the Doric order, though the decoration in the spandrels of the arches has been seen as indicative of Lescot's style. The absence of pilasters in some of the bays on the ground floor is due to le Vau's rebuilding in the 17th century, while the dormers and the frontispiece is the result of 19th-century restoration.
Meanwhile, Jean Bullant took over as architect of the Tuileries when de l’Orme died in 1570. Catherine de Medici soon lost interest and work ground to a halt after 1572, though plans to expand the palace were made.
Things really started to pick up with the end of the religious wars and the ascension of Henry IV. The Queens' wing was finally completed, the first floor of the little gallery was built in 1594-96 and the 400-metre grand gallery linked the Louvre and the Tuileries in 1603-06.
The job of designing the grand gallery was given to two architects, resulting in two different designs. The first section has been attributed to Louis Métezeau, who designed a single-storey building with a mezzanine between the ground and first floors.
The composition is based on alternating triangular and segmental pediments, except over the main entrance, where a more elaborate frontispiece is introduced. Paired columns and a balcony also adds emphasis to this part of the facade, which has been named Porte Barbet de Jouy after a 19th-century curator.
Certain changes have been made to Métezeau's original design. The two-storey pavilion at the eastern end, adjoining the little gallery, was built by Louis le Vau in the 17th century. A corresponding pavilion at the other end was later added for symmetry. Most of the statues and the ornament in the pediments and central frontispiece is from the mid-19th century.
The rest of the grand gallery was originally designed by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau, but his work was entirely demolished in the 1860s. The earlier facade consisted of colossal pilasters, which can still be seen in copy on the Rivoli wing built under Napoleon I, while the new river facade is closer to Métezeau.
At the transition between the two different sections stood Pavillon Lesdiguières, which still exists though incorporated into a wider composition, known as les Guichets du Carrousel. The pavilion was previously named after the lantern at the top of its cone-shaped roof.
After the assassination of Henri IV, a second Medici queen became regent and royal building works shifted to the new Luxembourg Palace. It was only after Louis XIII came of age that attention returned to the Louvre.
Work began in 1624, on a scheme that apparently originated with Henri IV: to quadruple the size of the Louvre courtyard. The northern walls of the fortress were razed and a pavilion was built adjoining the Lescot wing. A new wing, which has since been named after the architect in charge, Jacques Lemercier, was then built as an extension of the western side of the courtyard.
The Clock Pavilion (Pavillon de l’horloge) has since been renamed after the duke of Sully, a minister of Henri IV. The design of the of the caryatids has been attributed to Jacques Sarrazin and were executed by sculptors Guérin and De Buyster.
The Lemercier wing (right) is identical to the original Lescot wing (left), except in the details of the relief work, which was mostly completed in the early 19th century. At least one of the motifs on the ground floor have been attributed to Gerard van Opstal and dated to 1638.
Louis XIII died in 1643 and his widow, Anne of Austria, moved the royal residence across the street to a palace originally built for Louis XIII’s chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu. This building is still known as the Palais Royal. Anne of Austria was forced to flee Paris due to a revolt of aristocrats, and the Fronde, as the conflict was known, was only ended in 1653. Anne of Austria subsequently moved back to the Louvre and employed a new architect: Louis le Vau.
One of his first jobs was to rebuild the little gallery after a fire in 1661, turning the first floor into the Galerie d'Apollon. He also expanded its footprint by creating the vestibule Rotonde d'Apollon, Pavillon du Salon Carrée and Cour de la Reine, which is now called Cour du Sphinx.
He then turned his attention to the completion of the main courtyard. The north and south wings were both built on the same lines as the earlier work by Lescot and Lemercier. Le Vau's only original design seems to have been confined the river front, which he intended as a counterpoint to the Collège des Quatre-Nations, which he also built.
Work continued on the northern wing and some progress was also made on the final eastern wing. Meanwhile, the facade of the Tuileries had been extended in 1659-61 and le Vau and his assistant François d'Orbay redesigned the facade there in 1664-66.
But the Louvre was soon to take a new direction, which would undo much of le Vau's original work. He was challenged in his role as chief architect and the work was stopped. In 1665, the Italian architect and sculptor Bernini was invited to Paris and submitted designs. But in the end, the east front was designed by a committee of three members: Louis le Vau, Claude Perrault and Charles le Brun. Le Vau died in 1670 and the east facade, known as the Colonnade, is mostly attributed to Claude Perrault, though François d'Orbay may also have played a significant role.
In 1964-67, the moat in front of the east front was redug and surrounded with a balustrade. It had been filled in during construction in the 17th century.
The colonnade is taller and wider than the other wings, and in 1668 work started on a completely new facade on the river front, even though Le Vau had completed work here as recently as 1663. Perrault apparently also produced a design for the north wing, though this was completed much later.
All work on the Louvre was stopped in 1672 when Louis XIV made Versailles his permanent residence. The three new wings were all left in a state of incompletion. The new riverside facade by Perrault was left as an empty shell obscuring the previous river front by Le Vau, with the domed and coned shaped pavilions still visible on the skyline.
Not much happened in the 18th century, but the top storey on the courtyard-side of the Colonnade was designed by Soufflot and Gabriel around 1756. The flat and taller roofline of the Colonnade made it impossible to copy the attic storey of the Lescot wing so a full storey was built instead. The central pavilion was capped with a pediment, originally carved by Guillaume Coustou.
The south and north wings were also finally roofed. The domed and cone-roofed pavilions, including that of the King's Pavilion, were removed, leaving Lemercier's Clock Pavilion as the only silhouette above the now flat palatial skyline. The Colonnade, which had suffered damage during its decades of semi-completion, was restored.
Further work of any significance had to wait for the revolution and Napoleon. The emperor employed architects Charles Percier and Pierre Fontaine to complete the courtyard and finalise the grand design, which would link the Louvre with the Tuileries via a gallery, equivalent to the one completed at the start of the 17th century, along the new street of Rue de Rivoli.
The architects first completed the courtyard, completing the facade on the north wing, after a design attributed to Perrault.
The mis-match of facades within the courtyard was also addressed, with the architects favouring the 18th-century design of Soufflot and Gabriel. A compromise was found, resulting in the removal of the Lescot attic storey on the north and south wing but not on the original west wing. The new courtyard pediments on the north and south wings were carved by Claude Ramey and Jean Pierre Sueur in 1811. Some of the niches of the colonnade were made into windows and the decoration on the pediment was replaced. Some of this work was completed after Napoleon, in 1822 by François-Frédéric Lemot.
The architects subsequently turned their attention to the new gallery, beginning with the section adjoining the Tuileries and working eastward. On the side facing what would become the courtyard of Cour du Carroussel, Percier and Fontaine copied the design of Androuet du Cerceau, which then still existed.
Percier and Fontaine introduced a new design on the side facing Rue de Rivoli, where the same architects had created a long line of uniform facades in line with a decree issued by Napoleon. The new gallery is now referred to as the Richelieu wing and is designed to fit the austerity of Rue de Rivoli.
Pavillon Rohan was completed in 1816 and can be seen as the counterpoint to the 17th-century Pavillon Lesdiguières, which faces the river. Percier and Fontaine did not get much further east than this point, leaving the rest of the grand design to be completed by later architects. They did, however, get started on the section adjoining the courtyard, which essentially became a copy of Le Vau's Rotonde d'Apollon.
Percier and Fontaine had also built the Arc du Carrousel in front of the Tuileries palace in 1806-08. The design is based on the Arch of Constantine in Rome and originally featured the horses of St Mark, which were returned to Venice in 1815 and replaced with a quadriga by Francois Joseph Bosio in 1828. The name carrousel first appeared in 1662 and refers to the military drill staged in front of the Tuileries palace.
Some work was carried out during the reigns of Louis XVIII, Charles X and Louis Philippe; but it was under Napoleon III that really ambitious plans developed, beginning in 1852. The architect Louis Visconti developed a plan for the completion of entire Louvre-Tuileries complex and work was continued after his death in 1853 by Hector-Martin Lefuel.
The first step was to complete the gallery on Rue de Rivoli begun by Fontaine and Percier. The new section has some similarities with Métezeau's riverside facade of the grand gallery, but omits the mezzanine and features a central pavilion, named Pavillon de la bibliothéque, which stands opposite Palais Royal. The caryatids were sculpted by Astyanax Bosio, nephew of Francois Joseph Bosio.
Visconti's plan was to obscure the difference in angle between the Louvre west front and the Tuileries palace, by creating new wings with inner courtyards to frame the space between old Louvre and Place du Carrousel. This space was named Cour Napoléon, with the work completed in 1857.
Lefuel completed six new pavilions: Daru, Denon and Mollien on the south side of Cour Napoléon; and Colbert, Richelieu and Turgot (pictured above) on the north side. Visconti had planned to copy the style of Lemercier, Lescot and le Vau but Lefuel opted for something a bit more ornate.
The Louvre west front as designed by Lescot and Lemercier in the 16th and 17th centuries had been quite austere in style compared to the lavish courtyard facades, but was heavily revamped in the 1850s. Lemercier's Clock Pavilion, now usually referred to as Pavillion de Sully, was covered in relief decoration, while the idea of embellishing the ground floor with half-columns was borrowed from Fontaine and Percier. The columns are capped with a total of 86 statues representing various figures of prominence.
Lefuel also added profuse decoration to Pavillon de Rohan on the side facing Place du Carrousel.
At this point, the whole complex was finished. But in 1861-69, work resumed. Pavillon de Flore was redesigned and much of the grand gallery was demolished and replaced. Lefuel also pierced the river facade with the Grands Guichets.
Pavillon de Flore was given a lot more florid look than the original designed by du Cerceau. It is one of only two pavilions of the Tuileries that was restored after the fire in 1871. The rest of that palace was demolished in 1883.
Lefuel destroyed du Cerceau's part of the grand gallery in 1863 and replaced it with a copy of Métezeau’s section. The central gateway is knows as Porte de Lions. Lefuel added an annex to the new gallery on the north side in 1863-68, called Pavillion des Sessions.
The Grand Guichets were built in 1866-69. It incorporates the old Pavillon Lesdiguières with a copy added for symmetry, named Pavillon La Trémoille. The decoration in the pediment was changed after the fall of Napoleon III.
The facade on Cour du Carrousel, with Pavillon des Sessions at the end.
The Tuileries was damaged in a fire during the commune in 1871 and was subsequently demolished in 1883. The pavilions at either end were rebuilt. Pavillon de Marsan was rebuilt as a copy of the redesigned de Flore.
Lefuel also started work on remaking Percier and Fontaine's copy of du Cerceau's design for the grand gallery on the same lines as had been done with the original. Work was carried out in 1875-78 but was never completed.
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Bean Bags, Steady Beat, and Good Friends
The All-Stars and Ducks are focusing on friendship and teamwork in their classes. For a musical experience, we sung a little song and tossed bean bags with a steady beat to recognize the good friends around us. While tossing the bean bag from our own hand to hand, we sung:
I have a good friend, a good friend, a good friend.
I have a good friend, and their name is _______.
(toss bean bag to friend)
The students worked on making eye contact, choosing different friends, waiting, listening for their name, and hand-eye coordination. Through initiating contact with their classmates, they let them know that they are a good friend. The students felt really good when someone sang to them and told them that they are a good friend. They smiled and the person who threw it to them smiled back in return.Ducks
After the students were successful playing with one bean bag, I added another, and another, and another! This was to challenge the students’ ability to listen and be attentive for their name and watch out for bean bags that may be coming from any direction. In addition, we could toss it to the same person to recognize how great they are. Both classes did very well and we had about 8 or 9 bean bags tossed around the room at the same time! It was neat to hear the students all toss it between their own hands, making it sound like egg shakers with the steady beat. And then we all tossed to our friends at our own pace, with some students receiving more than one. That person really felt special when several friends sang to them in one turn! There is joy in having friends sing to you. They really enjoyed the activity and we played for about ten minutes where afterwards, everyone was happy with warm fuzzies about their friends.All-Stars
Each of the students worked to keep the steady beat by tossing it hand to hand, which in turn helps them attend, to sing together, and follow the directions of the activity while keeping an eye out for bean bags that may be coming from 8 different directions. It was a surprise to see where the bean bags would fly next! Developing and maintaining steady beat is important for predictability, focus, and helping students organize and coordinate movement with timing (running, jumping, walking, writing, using scissors). In addition, a steady beat helps develop better readers, become successful in math, and the ability to speak and read with a smooth cadence. Steady beat helps children to understand and organize their world, such as expressing to their friends, following directions, and throwing bean bags.
About Hilary Yip
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From Middle English writen, from Old English wrītan (to incise, engrave, write, draw, bestow by writing), from Proto-Germanic *wrītaną (to carve, write), from Proto-Indo-European *wrey- (to rip, tear). Cognate with West Frisian write (to wear by rubbing, rip, tear), Dutch wrijten (to argue, quarrel), Low German wrieten, rieten (to tear, split), Norwegian rita (to rough-sketch, carve, write), Swedish rita (to draw, design, delineate, model), Icelandic rita (to cut, scratch, write), German ritzen (to carve, scratch). See also rit and rat.
A painting of a man writing.
The pupil wrote his name on the paper.
Your son has been writing on the wall.
My uncle writes newspaper articles for The Herald.
3. (transitive) To send written information to.
(UK) Please write to me when you get there.
(US) Please write me when you get there.
The due day of the homework is written in the syllabus.
5. (intransitive) To be an author.
I write for a living.
8. To impress durably; to imprint; to engrave.
truth written on the heart
• (Can we date this quote?) John Milton
Derived termsEdit
Related termsEdit
write (plural writes)
How many writes per second can this hard disk handle?
Middle EnglishEdit
1. Alternative form of writen
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Delft, The Netherlands,
60 seconds: How do wind turbines generate electricity
Wind turbines generate electricity from kinetic energy in wind, but how do they do it? Our new 60 second video lecture shows how wind turbines work, by giving an overview of the most important components in a common type of wind turbine. From the sensors that collect wind data to the electric amplifiers that are needed to connect the turbines to the grid. Of course, every turbine type is different, this video shows one example of a turbine design.
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Birds Might Dive But Squids Can Fly!
Red Flying Squid (Ommastrephes bartramii) in flight. It expands its body to make the most of the propulsion and later adjusts itself to become more aerodynamic.
When you think of squid, what do you think of? You may be repulsed by their image, you might get hungry at the thought of eating them, or you may forget what squids really even look like. One thing that doesn’t cross people’s minds however is “I wonder if they can fly?” Ask almost anyone that question and they will most likely ask you to get serious. “Of course they cant fly,” they will say, ” It’s just another fish in water!” Well, besides the fact that they do indeed live in water, these people are wrong! They don’t mean to be but facts are facts! Not only are squids not fish (they are mollusks) but they CAN fly! No, they haven’t sprouted wings since the last time you checked but with the same jet propulsion they use when moving through water. Flying squids are truly a wonderment because as retired Oceanographer Richard Young says, “It’s the first time we’ve ever had any information comparing flight in air with flight in water” and it is here that we have untapped knowledge that will one day lead to great innovation.
So which squids fly? For now, scientist have full lab and field data (including pictures) of 4 species: Sthenoteuthis pteropusDosidicus gigas, Illex illecebrosus and Loligo opalescens. But don’t get me wrong, there still are many more squid that can fly! The Red Flying Squid (Ommastrephes bartammi) for example is known to fly as proven by the picture above, but merely hasn’t been thoroughly studied. In theory, most squids could fly as the jet propulsion is the main source of movement for any squid and this is why the number of squids with this ability is still not fully understood.
The amazing part about these creatures is that no matter in what medium they travel, their body is made to maximize their efficiency. Their streamlined bodies create minimum drag when traveling and their lack of a vertebrae allows for a wide body expansion that quickly turns into a contraction that creates the jet propulsion that sends them blasting forward. However, different methods are applied when flying or swimming. Swimming depends entirely on the propulsion with no effort created by the squid other than creating the least amount of surface area possible to create as little drag as possible. Flying requires a different set of skills entirely. Once blasted into the air, they stay there by using their fins, arms and even their fin flaps to create lifting surfaces. These mini wings allow for them to maximize their glide time as they catch the air currents over the ocean waves (much like the Albatross.)
Now you may be asking yourself, “Why would they choose to fly? Just because they can doesn’t mean they should…” Good question and it has a better answer. Using photography and calculating the distance traveled over the time in which the photos were taken, squids were recorded going over five times as fast in air than in water! This saves the approximately five times the energy they would have spent going the same distance and when an animal migrates thousands of miles a year, it is energy well saved.
All in all, their are still so many questions to be answered when dealing with these squids. If they go further with less energy, why isn’t it seen more often? Is this a learned ability or a natural one? What allows for some squid to fly and others not to? As we study the habits of the flying squids and just squids in general more and more, we can always get closer to the answers. Squids are an untapped source of knowledge and I can not wait until the day were we put their methods of flight and propulsion to great use!
1. Marshall, Jessica. “Squid Can Fly to Save Energy.” Nature Publishing Group, 20 Feb. 2012. Web. 26 Sept. 2012.
2. O’Dor, R., and J. Steward. “TOS/ASLO/AGU 2012 Ocean Sciences Meeting.” Oceanography Society, 20 Feb. 2012. Web. 27 Sept. 2012.
3. O’Dor, RonAU , Stewart, JuliaAU – Gilly, WilliamAU – Payne, JohnAU – Borges, Teresa CerveiraAU – Thys, TierneySN, Squid rocket science: How squid launch into air – Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography
One Comment
Lorena Barba posted on September 28, 2012 at 9:23 pm
After your effusive first paragraph, I have to ask — do they really fly? or is this just a leap out of the water with a short glide back in?
Because you didn’t give any number (is there any measurement of the length of a glide?), it feels like an exaggeration.
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Home Page
Term 5 Week 3 How do ants communicate?
In topic this week we looked at the question - How do ants let others know where there is food? So we set up and experiment.
Jake H explained what we did.
"We went outside on the field. We had some sticks and put some drops of honey on the end of them. We found a good place where we thought that some ants would come. After 20 minutes we went back outside and found a lot of ants. They used their antennae to smell the food and then left a smell trail to tell the other ants where the food is."
Austin added that the trail was called a pheromone trail and that they also communicate by rubbing two parts of their abdomen together to make a squeaky sound.
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Penicillium is best known as the mold type that gave birth to the first of the antibiotics, Penicillin. In microscopic analysis, Penicillium is often grouped with Aspergillus. That grouping is generally shown as Penicillium/Aspergillus or Pen/Asp. The reason for this grouping is that the two spore types cannot be distinguished one from the other microscopically. To differentiate the two requires seeing the underlying structure which often means culturing (or growing) the organism.
Penicillium is found under normal conditions in soil, decaying plant debris, compost piles, and fruit rot. One species has even been detected in diesel fuel.
Indoors Penicillium will grow on a wide variety of materials (substrates) including building materials, fabrics, as well as a wide variety of foodstuffs, herbs and spices. The green mold often seen on oranges is likely Penicillium. Colors range in various shades of blue, green and white.
In air conditioning systems Penicillium can often be detected on cooling coils and/or interior fiberglass liner. On building materials Penicillium is one of the first or primary invaders along with Aspergillus. Both can produce toxins for the purpose of discouraging other molds invading space they have already claimed. It is speculated that some of these toxins could be harmful to humans, but this has never been clinically established. The primary invaders can be joined by a secondary invader, usually Cladosporium. With a continuation of high levels of moisture, they can be overgrown by Stachybotrys or possibly Chaetomium.
Industrial uses include cultures to help produce some cheeses, salami and sausages. Its most well known industrial use is of course the production of antimicrobial Penicillin.
Most people think that the antibiotic effects of Penicillium were first discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming, but there is a much longer history about the use of molds for medicinal purposes. The history goes as far back into the BC times. There is evidence that the ancient Egyptian, Greeks, and Indians. Uses of molds and concoctions including molds were used to combat infections in various places in Europe from the 16th through the 19th centuries. Reportedly the antibacterial properties were noticed and investigated as early as 1871, an activity in which Joseph Lister, English surgeon, famed for promoting antiseptic medicine. Even Louis Pasteur observed in 1877 that a Penicillium strain inhibited the growth of the Anthrax bacilli.
Never-the-less, it did take the organizational efforts of Dr. Fleming, after an accidental discovery to bring penicillin to the fore establishing it as a wonder drug. Returning from a vacation in September of 1928, he found Petri dishes of Staphylococcus aureus (a bacterium) contaminated with Penicillium notatum. This contamination prevented the normal growth of the Stephylococci. This accidental discovery totally changed medical history.
As Dr. Fleming famously wrote about that red-letter date: “When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn’t plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world’s first antibiotic, or bacteria killer. But I guess that was exactly what I did.”
What’s the harm?
Many people are allergic to Penicillin. Being so allergic myself and due to some family history, I am acutely aware of this situation. My mother’s brother, whom I never met, died at a time when Penicillin was considered a miracle drug that could cure virtually anything. He had a minor illness and was given Penicillin to treat it. He got worse and developed a rash. He was given more Penicillin and got worse. They continued to increase the dosage until he died. He was one of the first documented cases of a patient dying of Penicillin allergy.
While certain individuals can develop allergies to virtually any mold, research shows that Penicillium species are known to cause a number of specific allergies. Some of the more familiar health effects related to Penicillium include asthma and hay fever. Some allergies have names that are specific to certain professions or activities. Some of these are: Cheese washer’s lung, Woodman’s lung, and Moldy wall hypersensitivity.
There is a species of Penicillium that can cause infection in humans, but it has not been found in the United States.
Penicillium is a very common mold type around the world. Its metabolites form a microbial volatile organic compound (MVOC) that produces a heavy musty odor.
Check out "Handling Mold"
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Kushan Empire Explained
Native Name:Κυϸανο (Bactrian)
Sanskrit: कुषाण साम्राज्य (Sanskrit)
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν (Greek)
Conventional Long Name:Kushan Empire
Common Name:Kushan Empire
Region:Central Asia
South Asia
Country:Afghanistan, Pakistan, India
Era:Classical Antiquity
Status:Nomadic empire
Event Start:Kujula Kadphises unites Yuezhi tribes into a confederation
Year Start:30
Event End:Subjugated by the Sasanians, Guptas, and Hepthalites[1]
Year End:375
P1:Indo-Parthian Kingdom
S1:Sasanian Empire
S2:Gupta Empire
S3:Hephthalite Empire
S4:Khasa kingdom
Image Map Caption:Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka the Great (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription.[2]
Capital:Bagram (Kapiśi)
Peshawar (Puruṣapura)
Taxila (Takṣaśilā)
Mathura (Mathurā)
Common Languages:Greek (official until ca. 127)[3]
Bactrian[4] (official from ca. 127)
Unofficial regional languages:
Gurjari-Gandhari, Sogdian, Chorasmian, Tocharian, Saka dialects, Prakrit
Liturgical language:
Bactrian religion
Currency:Kushan drachma
Government Type:Monarchy
Leader1:Kujula Kadphises
Year Leader1:30–80
Year Leader2:350–375
Title Leader:Emperor
Stat Area1:3800000
The Kushan Empire (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; Κυϸανο, Kushano; Sanskrit: कुषाण साम्राज्य Kuṣāṇa Samrajya; BHS: ; Chinese: 貴霜帝國; Kušan-xšaθr[7]) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of Afghanistan,[8] present-day Pakistan and then the northern parts of India at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great.[9] Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward toward the Indian subcontinent the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority.[10] [11]
The Kushans were one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation,[12] [13] a possibly Iranic[14] or Tocharian,[15] Indo-European[16] [17] nomadic people who migrated from Gansu and settled in ancient Bactria.[13] The Kushans possibly used the Greek language initially for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian language.[18] Kanishka sent his armies north of the Karakoram mountains, capturing territories as far as Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkant, in the Tarim Basin of modern-day Xinjiang, China. A direct road from Gandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraging travel across the Karakoram and facilitating the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to China.
The Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Aksumite Empire and Han Dynasty of China. While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese.[19]
The Kushan empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sasanians invading from the west, establishing the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom in the areas of Sogdiana, Bactria and Gandhara. In the 4th century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by invaders from the north, known as the Kidarites, and then the Hepthalites.[1]
Chinese sources describe the Guishuang (貴霜), i.e. the Kushans, as one of the five aristocratic tribes of the Yuezhi, with some people claiming they were a loose confederation of Indo-European peoples,[20] though many scholars are still unconvinced that they originally spoke an Indo-European language. As the historian John E. Hill has put it: "For well over a century ... there have been many arguments about the ethnic and linguistic origins of the Great Yuezhi or Da Yuezhi (大月氏), Kushans (貴霜), and the Tochari, and still there is little consensus".[21]
The Yuezhi were described in the Records of the Great Historian 史記 and the Book of Han 漢書 as living in the grasslands of Gansu, in the northwest of modern-day China, until their King was beheaded by the Huns from Siberia (the Xiongnu 匈奴) who were also at war with China, which eventually forced them to migrate west in 176–160 BCE.[22] The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history as Xiūmì (休密), Guìshuāng (貴霜), Shuāngmǐ (雙靡), Xìdùn (肸頓), and Dūmì (都密).
Early Kushans
Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the area of Bactria and Sogdiana. Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin, Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in the palace of Khalchayan. Various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers,[23] and, significantly, men with artificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan[24] (a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia). The Chinese first referred to these people as the Yuezhi and said they established the Kushan Empire, although the relationship between the Yuezhi and the Kushans is still unclear. On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such as Ai-Khanoum, the Kushans are known to have built fortresses.
The earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, was Heraios. He calls himself a "tyrant" in Greek on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation. He may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises.
The Chinese Hou Hanshu 後漢書 chronicles gives an account of the formation of the Kushan empire based on a report made by the Chinese general Ban Yong to the Chinese Emperor c. 125 AD:
Diverse cultural influences
Gradually wresting control of the area from the Scythian tribes, the Kushans expanded south into the region traditionally known as Gandhara (an area primarily in Pakistan's Pothowar and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region but going in an arc to include the Kabul valley and part of Qandahar in Afghanistan) and established twin capitals in Begram[26] and Peshawar, then known as Kapisa and Pushklavati respectively.
The Kushans "adopted many local beliefs and customs, including Zoroastrianism and the two rising religions in the region, the Greek cults and Buddhism".[27] From the time of Vima Takto, many Kushans started adopting aspects of Buddhist culture, and like the Egyptians, they absorbed the strong remnants of the Greek culture of the Hellenistic Kingdoms, becoming at least partly Hellenised. The great Kushan emperor Vima Kadphises may have embraced Saivism (a sect of Hinduism), as surmised by coins minted during the period. The following Kushan emperors represented a wide variety of faiths including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and possibly Saivism.
Territorial expansion
Other areas of probable rule include Khwarezm,[28] Kausambi (excavations of Allahabad University),[28] Sanchi and Sarnath (inscriptions with names and dates of Kushan kings),[28] Malwa and Maharashtra,[29] and Odisha (imitation of Kushan coins, and large Kushan hoards).[28]
The recently discovered Rabatak inscription confirms the account of the Hou Hanshu, Weilüe, and inscriptions dated early in the Kanishka era (incept probably 127 CE), that large Kushan dominions expanded into the heartland of northern India in the early 2nd century CE. Lines 4 to 7 of the inscription[31] describe the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka, among which six names are identifiable: Ujjain, Kundina, Saketa, Kausambi, Pataliputra, and Champa (although the text is not clear whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it).[32] [33] [34] The Kushan state was bounded to the south by the Pārata state of Balochistan, western Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan was known for the kushan Buddhist city of Merv.[28] As late as the 3rd century AD, decorated coins of Huvishka were dedicated at Bodh Gaya together with other gold offerings under the "Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence in the area during that period.[35]
Northward, in the 2nd century AD, the Kushans under Kanishka made various forays into the Tarim Basin, where they had various contacts with the Chinese. Both archaeological findings and literary evidence suggest Kushan rule, in Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan.[36]
Main Kushan rulers
Kujula Kadphises (c. 30 – c. 80)
These conquests probably took place sometime between 45 and 60 and laid the basis for the Kushan Empire which was rapidly expanded by his descendants.
Kujula Kadphises was the great-grandfather of Kanishka.
Vima Kadphises (c. 95 – c. 127)
Vima Kadphises added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan. He issued an extensive series of coins and inscriptions. He issued gold coins in addition to the existing copper and silver coinage.
Kanishka I (c. 127 – c. 140)
See main article: Kanishka. The rule of Kanishka the Great, fifth Kushan king, lasted for about 13 years from c. 127. Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a huge territory (virtually all of northern India), south to Ujjain and Kundina and east beyond Pataliputra, according to the Rabatak inscription:
The Kushans also had a summer capital in Bagram (then known as Kapisa), where the "Begram Treasure", comprising works of art from Greece to China, has been found. According to the Rabatak inscription, Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises, the grandson of Sadashkana, and the great-grandson of Kujula Kadphises. Kanishka's era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 on the basis of Harry Falk's ground-breaking research.[37] [38] Kanishka's era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.
Vāsishka (c. 140 – c. 160)
Vāsishka was a Kushan emperor who seems to have had a 20-year reign following Kanishka. His rule is recorded as far south as Sanchi (near Vidisa), where several inscriptions in his name have been found, dated to the year 22 (the Sanchi inscription of "Vaksushana" – i.e., Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (the Sanchi inscription of Vasaska – i.e., Vasishka) of the Kanishka era.
Huvishka (c. 160 – c. 190)
Vasudeva I (c. 190 – c. 230)
Vasudeva I (Kushan: Βαζοδηο "Bazodeo", Chinese: 波調 "Bodiao") was the last of the "Great Kushans". Named inscriptions dating from year 64 to 98 of Kanishka's era suggest his reign extended from at least 191 to 225 AD. He was the last great Kushan emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of the Sasanians as far as northwestern India, and the establishment of the Indo-Sasanians or Kushanshahs in what is nowadays Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India from around 240 AD.
Kushan deities
The Iranic entities depicted on coinage include:
Representation of entities from Greek mythology and Hellenistic syncretism are:
The Indic entities represented on coinage include:
Kushans and Buddhism
The Kushans inherited the Greco-Buddhist traditions of the Indo-Greek Kingdom they replaced, and their patronage of Buddhist institutions allowed them to grow as a commercial power.[45] Between the mid-1st century and the mid-3rd century, Buddhism, patronized by the Kushans, extended to China and other Asian countries through the Silk Road.
Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. Along with his predecessors in the region, the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda) and the Indian emperors Ashoka and Harsha Vardhana, Kanishka is considered by Buddhism as one of its greatest benefactors.
Kushan art
During the Kushan Empire, many images of Gandhara share a strong resemblance to the features of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian figures. These Western-looking stylistic signatures often include heavy drapery and curly hair,[48] representing a composite (the Greeks, for example, often possessed curly hair).
Contacts with Rome
See main article: Roman trade with India. Several Roman sources describe the visit of ambassadors from the Kings of Bactria and India during the 2nd century, probably referring to the Kushans.
The summer capital of the Kushan Empire in Begram has yielded a considerable amount of goods imported from the Roman Empire--in particular, various types of glassware.
Contacts with China
In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested a Han princess, but were denied,[49] [50] even after they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 86 with a force of 70,000, but were defeated by a smaller Chinese force.[49] [50] The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire during the reign of emperor He of Han (89–106).
The Kushans are again recorded to have sent presents to the Chinese court in 158–159 during the reign of emperor Huan of Han.
After the death of Vasudeva I in 225, the Kushan empire split into western and eastern halves. The Western Kushans (in Afghanistan) were soon subjugated by the Persian Sasanian Empire and lost Sogdiana, Bactria, and Gandhara to them. The Sasanians deposed the Western dynasty and replaced them with Persian vassals known as the Kushanshas (also called Indo-Sasanians or Kushano-Sasanians).
In 360 a Kidarite Hun named Kidara overthrew the Indo-Sasanians and remnants of the old Kushan dynasty, and established the Kidarite Kingdom. The Kushan style of Kidarite coins indicates they claimed Kushan heritage. The Kidarite seem to have been rather prosperous, although on a smaller scale than their Kushan predecessors.
These remnants of the Kushan empire were ultimately wiped out in the 5th century by the invasions of the Hephthalites, the Alchon Huns and the Nezak Huns in the northwest, and the rise of the Gupta Empire in the east.
See also
. Bopearachchi. De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale. 2003. Association imago-musée de Lattes. Lattes. French. 2-9516679-2-2.
. J. P. Mallory. 1989. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth. Thames and Hudson. 050005052X. 29 May 2015. harv.
. J. P. Mallory. 1997. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. 1884964982. 29 May 2015. harv.
. Edwin G. Pulleyblank. 1966. Chinese and Indo-Europeans. University of British Columbia, Department of Asian Studies. February 14, 2015. harv.
Further reading
. Craig Benjamin. 2007. The Yuezhi: Origin, Migration and the Conquest of Northern Bactria. ISD. 250352429X. 29 May 2015. harv.
External links
Notes and References
1. Web site: Afghanistan: Central Asian and Sassanian Rule, ca. 150 B.C.-700 A.D.. 2012-08-16. Library of Congress Country Studies. United States. 1997.
6. The Silk Road in World History By Xinru Liu, Pg.61 https://books.google.co.in/books?id=FJ8RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61&dq=kushans+mahayana+buddhism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi9oLKHqKfXAhUDsY8KHWSIAHAQ6AEIKjAB#v=onepage&q=kushans%20mahayana%20buddhism&f=false
7. The Dynasty Arts of the Kushans, University of California Press, 1967, p. 5
10. Book: Grégoire Frumkin. Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. 1970. Brill Archive. 51–. GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB.
11. Book: Rafi U. Samad. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. 2011. Algora Publishing. 978-0-87586-859-2. 93–.
12. Book: Runion, Meredith L.. The history of Afghanistan. 2007. Greenwood Press. Westport. 978-0-313-33798-7. 46. The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi..
13. Book: Liu, Xinrui. Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history. 2001. Temple University Press. Philadelphia. 978-1-56639-832-9. 156. Adas, Michael.
14. Web site: Ancient Iran: The movement of Iranian peoples. Girshman. Roman. Roman Ghirshman. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. 29 May 2015. At the end of the 3rd century, there began in Chinese Turkistan a long migration of the Yuezhi, an Iranian people who invaded Bactria about 130 bc, putting an end to the Greco-Bactrian kingdom there. (In the 1st century bc they created the Kushān dynasty, whose rule extended from Afghanistan to the Ganges River and from Russian Turkistan to the estuary of the Indus.).
15. Benjamin. Craig. Craig Benjamin. October 2003. The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia. Transoxiana Webfestschrift. Transoxiana. 1. Ēran ud Anērān. 29 May 2015.
16. Web site: Zhang Qian. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. 29 May 2015.
19. Hill (2009), p. 36 and notes.
20. Web site: Kushan Empire (ca. 2nd century B.C.–3rd century A.D.) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art. metmuseum.org. 2015-10-23.
21. Hill (2009), p. 311.
22. Book: Loewe, Michael A.N.. Introduction. 1–70. China in Central Asia: The Early Stage: 125 BC – AD 23; an Annotated Translation of Chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. Anthony François Paulus. Hulsewé. Brill. 1979. 978-90-04-05884-2. pp. 23–24.
23. Lebedynsky, p. 62.
24. Lebedynsky, p. 15.
25. Book: Grousset, Rene. The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. 1970. 0-8135-1304-9. 32.
26. S. Frederick Starr, Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013, p. 53
27. Starr, p. 53
28. Rosenfield, p. 41.
30. Book: Hall, D.G.E.. A History of South-East Asia, Fourth Edition. 1981. Macmillan Education Ltd.. Hong Kong. 0-333-24163-0. 17.
34. Web site: Sims-Williams. Nicholas. Nicholas Sims-Williams. Bactrian Documents from Ancient Afghanistan. 2007-05-24. yes. https://web.archive.org/web/20070610192252/http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html. 10 June 2007.
35. British Museum display, Asian Art room.
36. https://www.academia.edu/33275660/The_Sino-Kharosthi_coins_of_Khotan_part_2_Numismatic_Chronicle_1984_pp.129-152 The Sino-Kharosthi coins of Khotan part 2, Numismatic Chronicle (1984), pp.129-152., by Joe Cribb
37. Falk (2001), pp. 121–136.
38. Falk (2004), pp. 167–176.
40. Sivaramamurti, p. 56-59.
43. Book: Sims-Williams, Nicolas. Bactrian Language. Encyclopaedia Iranica. 3. London. Routledge & Kegan Paul. .
47. Neelis, Jason. Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks. 2010. p. 141
51. https://books.google.com/books?id=P7TpDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 The Glorious History of Kushana Empire, Adesh Katariya, 2012, p.69
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Discuss! :
"Q. Why do lobsters turn from black to red when cooked? Does the effect
have practical applications in business or medicine?
A. The color change was explained on a molecular level by 2002
research done in England, and other researchers suggest that the way
the pigment, called astaxanthin, is hidden until the lobster is heated
may have a medical application in delivering drugs.
Free astaxanthin appears red or orange because it absorbs blue light.
Researchers led by John Helliwell, working with low-intensity X-rays
at the Daresbury Laboratory in Warrington, found that when astaxanthin
was held in the embrace of protein molecules in the shell of a live
lobster, its color was masked, changing its light-absorption
properties and giving the lobster its dark, mottled appearance. But
heat makes the protein, called beta-crustacyanin, change shape, so
that its subunits relax their bonds with the pigment, allowing the red
color to appear.
Astaxanthin is found in many marine animals, like shrimp and fish, and
is also responsible for the pink color of flamingos that feed on
crustaceans rich in the pigment. It is a very active antioxidant.
Astaxanthin is not soluble in water, and scientists plan to study the
way it bonds to beta-crustacyanin in the hope that it may point to a
way to deliver non-water-soluble drugs..."
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Cite This Page
To Go
The Pit and the Pendulum
The Pit and the Pendulum
by Edgar Allan Poe
group rates for schools and districts
The Pit and the Pendulum Theme of Death
In "The Pit and the Pendulum," Death is on the narrator's mind from the very first line, right up until the final moment. The strange thing is, for a story that's as morbid as can be, it ends with life. Of course, we realize that the narrator obviously has to live in order for him to tell us how he almost died. Thus, in giving his character life, Poe is able to make us ponder death. Very cool. What do you think: can a story in which no one dies really be about death?
Questions About Death
1. For our narrator, death isn't a simple thing; what are the different ways he describes the process of death and dying?
2. Why are the inquisitors so interested in killing the narrator in such strange ways? Wouldn't they be happy just to have him dead?
3. What do our narrator's "near-death" experiences teach him about the nature of death?
Chew on This
"The Pit and the Pendulum" is, when you get down to it, an examination of death and dying – despite the fact that no one in the story actually dies.
If no one dies, it's not about death. Period. End of sentence.
Next Page: Fear
Previous Page: Summary
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Learning from Sharks
by Vanessa C. McMains (NIDDK), Special to The Catalyst
Back in the early 1990s, the shark cartilage craze was in full bloom. Inspired by a best-selling 1992 book "Sharks Don't Get Cancer," both healthy people and those stricken with cancer were popping pills of pulverized shark cartilage with hopes of staying healthy or even completely curing themselves of malignant tumors.
The logic, according to author William Lane, was that sharks rarely get cancer compared with most other animals, and the defining feature of their biology, aside from a healthy diet of fish, was a skeletal system made of cartilage rather than bone.
Mass hysteria ensued as holistic enthusiasts sought over-the-counter quick preventatives at the expense of the shark population. Unfortunately, shark cartilage did not live up to its reputation. Contrary to the book's bold title, sharks do sometimes get cancer. Up to 42 different types of cancer have been documented so far, including cartilage cancer.
Yet all animal cartilage does have anticancer properties. While the use of cartilage as medicine has not yet proven fruitful, NIH intramural scientists have identified unique characteristics in cartilage that someday could be exploited to slow or stop cancer growth. The research hopes to bring out the shark in all of us.
Sharks reportedly are not pleased with the use of their cartilage as a cancer cure. Photo courtesy of NOAA/NMFS/OPR
From the Ashes of Clinical Trials
Researchers have known for decades that cartilage has therapeutic properties. Studies from the late 1960s revealed that bovine cartilage reduced inflammation. Building on this, research from the 1970s found that bovine cartilage contains a substance that blocks angiogenesis and thus could check tumor growth.
The 1980s brought laboratory and animal studies and the first clinical trials testing bovine cartilage as a treatment for cancer. Gradually the research turned to shark cartilage, because pound for pound, sharks have more cartilage than cows. Also, researchers thought that shark cartilage might be more active than bovine cartilage in preventing new blood vessels from being formed.
To date over a dozen clinical trials have been conducted on shark cartilage as a cancer treatment. Seven of these studies have been published. Even though preliminary experiments in cell culture showed reduced cancer cell growth, none of the trials have yielded positive results.
The most recent clinical trials, sponsored by the NCI and the Mayo Clinic, involved a liquid extract of shark cartilage called Neovastat, administered orally. These, too, failed to produce positive results in cancer patients and have since been halted.
But the research isn't dead. Research at NIH demonstrates how following up on the anticancer properties found in cartilage or other tissues has led to new types of therapeutics. Labs are focusing on identifying specific candidates in tissues, rather than using whole slurries of dead animals, and they are showing much more promising results.
Enter the Matrix
Cartilage is composed of sparsely distributed chondrocytes and an extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM is a web of structural proteins—such as fibronectins, collagens, laminins and proteoglycans—that provides a scaffold that holds the tissue together. Because this tissue needs to be mechanically strong, there are fewer cells and blood vessels than in other tissues.
Cartilage's unique and imposing structure makes it nearly immune to cancer growth. It is difficult for cells to penetrate through the network of ECM, thus thwarting metastasis.
"Sharks may be less likely to get cancer than humans because of their abundance of ECM, which just so happens to be a major component of cartilage," said David Hall, group leader of the NIAMS Cartilage Biology and Orthopaedics Branch, who had studied the cartilage-anticancer connection for several years before turning more of his attention to osteoporosis and arthritis.
For cancerous cells to thrive and spread, they need an abundance of nutrients to aid in growth and ways to escape to new tissues. Many cancers secrete high levels of matrix metalloproteases, or MMPs, which essentially chop up the ECM, allowing the cancer cells unhindered movement to invade other tissues. Cancers also secrete angiogenesis factors to create new blood vessels so that nutrients and oxygen can be brought to the tumor.
Cartilage and the ECM have protection mechanisms in place to ensure that their environments limit the movement of invading cells, MMP activity and blood vessels formation. In addition to its structural components, ECM contains regulatory proteins that control how cells behave.
"It's the normal ECM that is a physical and biochemical barrier that has to be overcome in order for metastasis to occur," said William Stetler-Stevenson, a senior investigator in NCI's Cell and Cancer Biology Branch. "There are components of the ECM that function to suppress the process and the events associated with growth, invasion and metastasis."
Stetler-Stevenson's group's studies of the anticancer properties of ECM have lead to promising new therapies and may reveal the initial anticancer effects that were observed using shark cartilage in cell-culture studies.
There Will be Blood, Or Not
David Roberts, head of the Biochemical Pathology Section in NCI's Laboratory of Pathology, has focused on two angiogenesis-inhibiting thrombospondin proteins that are released in the ECM, TSP1 and TSP2. These proteins bind to the components of the ECM and activate receptors that tell the cell not to grow or migrate. In many cancers found in animals and humans, levels are thrombospondin are reduced, which allows new blood vessels to form and deliver a supply of fresh nutrients to the tumor.
Therapeutics have been designed to block the angiogenesis pathway based on research from Roberts' lab and others. Although they have been proven somewhat effective, they are flawed. "They extend life by several months, but there is a problem because these patients get hypertension," he said.
Roberts' lab has shown that TSP1 is a potent antagonist to nitric oxide. The lab first observed that TSP1 was 100 times less effective in cell culture assays than it was when circulating in the bloodstream. They discovered if they added back nitric oxide to the cells, TSP1 increased in potency.
It is through inhibition of nitric oxide signaling that TSP1 is responsible for preventing angiogenesis. But "nitric oxide wears different hats in the vascular system," Roberts said. Nitric oxide is responsible, for example, for normal homeostasis of blood vessels by causing them to relax. When nitric oxide signaling is repressed, the blood vessels contract, which leads to high blood pressure.
Roberts' research has undoubtedly demonstrated that specific angiogenesis inhibitors will have to be selected more carefully to not interfere with blood pressure homeostasis.
David Roberts William Stetler-Stevenson cells
David Roberts and William Stetler-Stevenson. Stetler-Stevenson' lab's latest research reveals: (top) when cells are immuno-stained with an integrin antibody, normal integrin is found distributed evenly on outer cell membrane; (bottom) when cells have TIMP2 added and immunostained with integrin antibody, TIMP2 causes the integrin to clump, causing programmed cell death to occur in the cells.
The Matrix: Reloaded
Stetler-Stevenson works on a very different ECM protein that is a major soluble component of cartilage, called TIMP2, for tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases. As the name suggests, TIMP2 can bind and directly inhibit MMPs. MMPs are responsible for inducing cell proliferation in response to growth factors, signaling proteins that promote cell growth. Adding TIMP2 to cells inhibits MMPs, causing a reduction in growth even in the presence of growth factors.
As a result of the TIMP experiments, MMP inhibitors seemed like a great potential cancer therapy. "Drug companies invested hundreds of millions in MMP inhibitors that worked great in mouse models but had no effect in human cancers," said Stetler-Stevenson. Naively, it was not realized that MMPs are both positive and negative enhancers of growth and migration.
Stetler-Stevenson's lab created a version of TIMP2 with an extra alanine at the beginning of the protein that prevented TIMP2 from binding and inhibiting the MMPs. Surprisingly enough, this variation of TIMP2 was still able to prevent cell growth, demonstrating that TIMP2 had a function aside from MMP inhibitor. The lab soon determined that TIMP2 also binds to a cell receptor known as α3β1 integrin, which sends signals to inhibit growth responses. This integrin response regulates normal homeostasis in the cartilage.
"Tumor cells make such a large and diverse spectrum of MMPs that acts as a sink, and the TIMP gets bound to all those and there is none left to act with the α3β1 integrin," Stetler-Stevenson said. His group injected a small protein version of the TIMP2 with the extra alanine into tumors, which did not bind the MMPs, but bound α3β1 integrin. The integrin then sent signals telling the tumors to not grow or migrate. These studies have been done successfully in cell culture and now the lab is moving on to mouse models.
"[TIMP2] is a good potential cancer therapeutic because it's an endogenous protein, and we're trying to use what the body already makes," Stetler-Stevenson said.
"People used to think that matrix proteins were just the glue that holds cells together," said Roberts. Sharks may have clued us in that there is something special about cartilage, and by focusing on cartilage and ECM biology, we may find cancer therapeutics right in our own bodies.
Return to September-October 2008 Catalyst index
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Aim higher, reach farther.
The Beaver Wars
The American beaver by John James Audubon. ENLARGE
The American beaver by John James Audubon. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia/CORBIS
In 1661, the celebrated English diarist Samuel Pepys spent £4.25, more than 1% of his annual income, on a hat. This was no ordinary piece of headgear but a prized and prestigious "beaver."
From Pepys's day until the early 19th century, hats made from processed beaver fur were the crowning glory of Europe's kings, generals and men of fashion, coveted as status symbols. These were boom years for hatters and trappers, although, as Alan Axelrod points out in "A Savage Empire," they were less auspicious for North America's largest rodent. By the time of the American Revolution, the buck-toothed beaver had been hunted to near-extinction in its eastern habitat. And it was not just wildlife that suffered to satisfy the insatiable consumer demand; as rival groups of incoming colonists and Native Americans alike fought over the trade and its profits, the human cost was also high.
From medieval times, Europeans had obtained furs from Russia and Scandinavia. American pelts began coming on the market during the 16th century—decades before the French, English and Dutch established permanent settlements and trading posts on the continent—after Basque fishermen chasing cod off Newfoundland's Grand Banks bartered with local Indians for beaver robes to help fend off the numbing Atlantic chill. Back home, these second-hand garments were eagerly bought by hat makers who knew that the simple act of wearing them had already begun the process by which fur could be transformed into high-quality hats—human sweat helps to break down the tough fibers. A market was born.
While nothing like as arduous or dangerous as trapping beavers, hat making was not without its own hazards. Before it could be formed into impressively brimmed and crowned hats, the soft "beaver fluff" scraped from the pelts had to be steeped in highly toxic salts of mercury. Prolonged exposure to the fumes released when the material was steamed for final shaping had dire effects on the nervous system, hence the expression "mad as a hatter."
Such snippets suggest that "A Savage Empire" is a book along the lines of Mark Kurlansky's best seller "Cod," with historical and ecological strands woven into a full portrait of the North American fur trade. But the focus is instead on human conflict. Mr. Axelrod contends that the enmities and alliances fostered as settlers, trappers and their Indian contacts struggled to dominate the lucrative business during the mid-17th century set in motion the course of war that ultimately led to an independent American republic.
The book's early chapters certainly demonstrate fur's role in fomenting strife. By the time that Pepys acquired his pricey hat, competition for pelts had triggered a ferocious sequence of "Beaver Wars" in which the Mohawks—one of the original Five Nations of the Iroquois League spread across modern upstate New York—ruthlessly plundered their tribal neighbors, hijacking furs to swap for prized European goods like spun cloth, iron hatchets and liquor.
This "blitzkrieg," as Mr. Axelrod terms it, was all the more devastating because the Mohawks had been armed with guns by their Dutch trading partners in Albany. Their victims included the Hurons, fur trade "middlemen" who supplied the French in Canada with the thicker—and therefore more valuable—pelts from the colder north. Escalating tribal warfare generated a nightmarish cycle of violence in which those not slain outright or spared for adoption were ritually tortured to death and communally cannibalized—the flesh consumed for reasons that baffle anthropologists (the best guess is that it was a means of absorbing an enemy's courage).
A Savage Empire
By Alan Axelrod
Thomas Dunne Books, 336 pages, $25.99
When the story moves forward into the 18th century, and the fur trade further and further west as stocks are depleted, a direct link between fur trading and widespread frontier warfare becomes much harder to establish. Far more was increasingly at stake—for Indians and colonists alike. France had traditionally used the fur trade to cultivate militarily useful tribal allies, yet its "invasion" of the Ohio Valley in the 1750s was not about monopolizing supplies of beaver pelts but about penning English colonists east of the Appalachians: Imperial territorial friction, not competition for furs, kindled the pivotal French and Indian War that eliminated France as a power broker in North America. "A Savage Empire's" central thesis, that fur fueled nation-shaping conflict, becomes weaker with subsequent wars. The American colonists who defied the British Empire and the Indian tribes that struggled to stem white settlement beyond the Ohio River were fighting for nothing less than independence.
Mr. Axelrod makes some more specific factual errors as well. The 400 firearms that the Dutch supplied to the Mohawks in 1648 with undeniably bloody consequences were not "rifles" but smoothbore muskets: It would be another century before rifles became common among either whites or Indians on the frontier. Maj. James Grant was not killed when the French and their Indian allies defeated his raiding party outside Fort Duquesne (modern Pittsburgh) in 1758: Grant survived to boast in 1775 that he could march the length of the rebellious American colonies with just 5,000 redcoats, a statement that proved optimistic to say the least.
And even though Mr. Axelrod's emphasis upon recounting successive wars dictates an overwhelmingly narrative approach, he sometimes becomes sidetracked. He gives over four chapters, for example, to the efforts of the young George Washington to counter French expansion in 1753-54. Such digressions over much-trodden ground leave scant space to explore more interesting facets of this specific story—for instance, how the demand for furs prompted Indians to replace traditional hunting, where prey was afforded a spiritual respect, with indiscriminate slaughter; or how the vagaries of European fashion granted the hard-pressed beaver a belated reprieve in the first decades of the 19th century.
Likewise, more might have been said about the lifestyles of the tough, independent voyageurs and coureurs de bois (literally "woods runners") of French Canada. Their feats of endurance and exploration anticipated the trappers who ranged the Rockies during the fur trade's Far West phase of the 1830s and '40s. These trappers are mentioned in a brief coda to Mr. Axelrod's chronicle of colonial and revolutionary warfare. Yet in their quest for increasingly elusive pelts, the semi-legendary "Mountain Men" blazed the westward trails for wagon trains that surely shaped America as profoundly as any frontier war.
—Mr. Brumwell's books include "White Devil: A True Story of War, Savagery and Vengeance in Colonial America."
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Chegg Textbook Solutions for English Essentials 2nd Edition: Chapter 5.1
Chapter: Problem:
Combine the group of simple sentences below into a compound or a complex sentence. Write your sentence in the spaces provided. Use each of the following words in this order: because, and, so, but, and if.
V has never seen Cambodia. He relies on his parents to tell him about it.
• Step 1 of 1
1. Because V has never seen Cambodia, he relies on his parents to tell him about it.
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Piano/How Piano Works
From Wikibooks, open books for an open world
< Piano
Jump to: navigation, search
Upright Piano: When a key is depressed by one's finger, the capstan button on the back of the key pushes up the wippen. Wippen raises and the jack escapes from the butt then the hammer get leaned towards the string. When the felt hammer strikes the string it causes it to vibrate. This energy is transferred through the bridge into the soundboard, which resonates. Pianos can be played softly (piano) and loudly (forte), unlike previous keyboard instruments which produced sound by plucking the string--instead of striking like pianos do today.
For further description, including an animation of the piano action working, visit: [1]
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About Us
What is shell disease?
Researchers in the Northeast region first noticed shell disease in the 1980s. At that time, the disease appeared as little black spots affecting lobsters' shells. But in the past several years, shells have sometimes become fully infected by the disease with the worst cases rotting the shells entirely. This new disease is called epizootic shell disease.
Shell disease is caused by bacteria that invade from the outside of the lobster through pores in its cuticle (the outermost layer of the shell) that cannot be seen by the naked eye. There is a range in the severity of the disease from shallow pits that eat away at the cuticle and cause those unsightly black spots to ulcerations-holes that fully penetrate the shell, causing the shell and the membranes underneath it to fuse together. This can stop the lobster from releasing its shell and can cause it to become stuck during the molting process and die. A lobster needs to molt in order to grow. It has been suggested that molting may be a defense mechanism against shell disease. By molting, the animal can get rid of the disease, if only temporarily, by losing its shell.
The disease does not taint the lobsters' meat, but makes shells so unattractive that they are too unappetizing to serve whole. The meat may be used for canning. Larger female lobsters are the most severely affected because they retain their shell for a longer period of time while carrying eggs. It can weaken egg-bearing lobsters so much that they die prematurely.
Some preliminary studies suggest the lobsters may be contracting the disease from alkylphenols, chemicals that are byproducts from industrial sources. These compounds are found in everything from detergents to surfactants (a surface-active substance), paints, and plastics, and have been found in higher concentrations in lobsters with shell disease than in unaffected animals. These compounds may be interfering with the lobster's normal hormonal system. In the laboratory, it has been found that levels of the molting hormone in shell diseased lobsters are much higher than unaffected lobsters. Egg-bearing females should not molt during the nine month period when they are carrying their eggs. Molting during this time would cause the female to lose her entire clutch of eggs.
More lobsters are getting shell disease, and the problem is now found from southern New England waters all the way to Maine. Thirty percent of lobsters in coastal areas of southern New England and Long Island Sound are affected by shell disease. It's still unclear what's causing it to spread. Shell disease is not contagious from lobster to lobster, and biologists suspect that environmental factors such as water temperature or polluted run-off may be weakening the lobster's immune system and allowing the bacteria to grow faster than the lobster can fight it.
For more information, download "Shell Disease in Lobsters: A Synthesis," by J. Stanley Cobb and Kathleen Castro. See also Long Island Sound Lobster Initiative for information about research into lobster disease and mortality in Long Island Sound (New York Sea Grant website).
What is being done: New England Lobster Research Initiative: Lobster Shell Disease
Research on lobster health is paramount to understanding the causes and consequences of shell disease and other diseases affecting the lobster stocks. Several lobster diseases have been discovered that have occurred concurrently with the outbreak of the lobster epizootic shell disease in SNE. In 1997, a Vibrio fluvialis-like organism was implicated as the etiological agent for the limp lobster syndrome found in Maine (Tall et al., 2003). Lobsters affected with this syndrome were weak and lethargic, had slow or ineffectual responses to sensory stimuli, and had poor survival. The extreme lobster mortality event that occurred in Long Island Sound (LIS) in 1999 brought to the forefront the link between stressed environments, lobster health, and population-level effects. Believed to be precipitated by the "perfect storm" of conditions (Pearce and Balcom, 2005), a combination of high water temperature and low dissolved oxygen, amoebae were found in the nervous, glandular, connective, and branchial tissues of the dead lobsters (Robohm et al., 2005). Also in LIS, calcinosis, a non-infectious fatal disease of lobsters, was determined to be caused by the anomalously high bottom seawater temperatures during the spring and summer of 2002 causing changes in the acid-base status and calcium metabolism resulting in calcium deposits in the gills and antennal glands (Dove et al., 2004).
In 2000, a comprehensive lobster health initiative began for LIS after the lobster mortality event lead to the declaration of a fishery failure. This initiative was established with a Congressional allocation of $6.6 million in federal funds to NOAA for scientific research into the causes of the die off and to monitor stock recovery. This program was cooperatively managed by the New York and Connecticut Sea Grant programs with their respective state fisheries agencies and the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC).
The continuation of funding dedicated to lobster health is the backbone of understanding the effects of these diseases on both the resource and the fishery. With this new initiative, Congress has appropriated $3 million specifically to establish a cooperative research program to study the causes and consequences of lobster shell disease. This funding will be jointly managed by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the University of Rhode Island (URI) and Rhode Island Sea Grant. A solicitation for research proposals is expected to be issued in late May 2006. The goal of this project is to describe the disease agent and how it works, and to determine the extent and severity of the disease in New England waters.
The specific objectives are:
• Provide spatial and temporal data on shell disease.
• Produce new information that can be used for understanding the outbreak of shell disease and the consequences of shell disease.
• Relay that information to other researchers, industry and the general public.
• Develop a plan for continued funding beyond this initiative.
University of Rhode Island Fisheries Center
East Farm Campus
Building 83
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, RI 02881
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Brown dwarf
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The difference between a very-low-mass brown dwarf and a giant planet (~13 Jupiter masses) has been recently debated.[3] One school of thought is based on formation; another, interior physics.[3]
Dwarfs are categorized by spectral classification, with the major types being M, L, T, and Y.[3] Despite their name, brown dwarfs are different colours.[3] Many brown dwarfs would likely appear magenta to the human eye according to A. J. Burgasser,[3] whereas another source has noted orange/red.[4] The term brown dwarf was not chosen to indicate their colour.[3]
Another debate is whether brown dwarfs should have experienced fusion at some point in their history. Some planets are known to orbit brown dwarfs: 2M1207b, MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb, and 2MASS J044144b. Brown dwarfs may have fully convective surfaces and interiors, with no chemical differentiation by depth.[5]
What became known as brown dwarfs were theorized to exist in the 1960s.[3]
Brown dwarfs, a term coined by Jill Tarter in 1975,[4][6] were originally called black dwarfs, a classification for dark substellar objects floating freely in space that were too low in mass to sustain hydrogen fusion. The term black dwarf currently refers to a white dwarf that has cooled to the point that it no longer emits significant light. Alternative names for brown dwarfs have been proposed, including planetar and substar.
Today, GD 165B is recognized as the prototype of a class of objects now called "L dwarfs".[citation needed] Although the discovery of the coolest dwarf was highly significant at the time, it was debated whether GD 165B would be classified as a brown dwarf or simply a very-low-mass star, because observationally it is very difficult to distinguish between the two.[citation needed]
The first confirmed brown dwarf was discovered by Spanish astrophysicists Rafael Rebolo (head of team), Maria Rosa Zapatero Osorio, and Eduardo Martín in 1994.[7] They called this object Teide 1 and it was found in the Pleiades open cluster. The discovery article was submitted to Nature in spring 1995, and published on September 14, 1995.[8] Nature highlighted "Brown dwarfs discovered, official" in the front page of that issue.
• 10\,\mathrm{g/cm^3} \,\lesssim\, \rho_c \,\lesssim\, 10^3\,\mathrm{{g}/{cm^{3}}}
• T_c \lesssim 3 \times 10^6\,\mathrm{K}
• P_c \sim 10^5\,\mathrm{Mbar}.
Distinguishing high-mass brown dwarfs from low-mass stars[edit]
• Lithium is generally present in brown dwarfs and not in low-mass stars. Stars, which achieve the high temperature necessary for fusing hydrogen, rapidly deplete their lithium. This occurs by a collision of lithium-7 and a proton producing two helium-4 nuclei. The temperature necessary for this reaction is just below the temperature necessary for hydrogen fusion. Convection in low-mass stars ensures that lithium in the whole volume of the star is depleted. Therefore, the presence of the lithium line in a candidate brown dwarf's spectrum is a strong indicator that it is indeed substellar. The use of lithium to distinguish candidate brown dwarfs from low-mass stars is commonly referred to as the lithium test, and was pioneered by Rafael Rebolo, Eduardo Martín and Antonio Magazzu. However, lithium is also seen in very young stars, which have not yet had enough time to burn it all. Heavier stars, like the Sun, can retain lithium in their outer atmospheres, which never get hot enough for lithium depletion, but those are distinguishable from brown dwarfs by their size. Contrariwise, brown dwarfs at the high end of their mass range can be hot enough to deplete their lithium when they are young. Dwarfs of mass greater than 65 Jupiter masses can burn off their lithium by the time they are half a billion years old,[10] thus this test is not perfect.
• Unlike stars, older brown dwarfs are sometimes cool enough that, over very long periods of time, their atmospheres can gather observable quantities of methane. Dwarfs confirmed in this fashion include Gliese 229B.
• Main-sequence stars cool, but eventually reach a minimum bolometric luminosity that they can sustain through steady fusion. This varies from star to star, but is generally at least 0.01% that of the Sun.[citation needed] Brown dwarfs cool and darken steadily over their lifetimes: sufficiently old brown dwarfs will be too faint to be detectable.
• Iron rain as part of atmospheric convection processes is possible only in brown dwarfs, and not in small stars. The spectroscopy research into iron rain is still ongoing—and not all brown dwarfs will always have this atmospheric anomaly.
Distinguishing low-mass brown dwarfs from high-mass planets[edit]
The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 25 Jupiter masses, and the Exoplanet Data Explorer up to 24 Jupiter masses. Objects below 13 Jupiter-mass are sometimes studied under the label "sub-brown dwarf".
Classification of brown dwarfs[edit]
Spectral class M[edit]
Artist's vision of a late-M dwarf
Spectral class L[edit]
Artist's vision of an L-dwarf
Spectral class T[edit]
Artist's vision of a T-dwarf
Spectral class Y[edit]
Artist's vision of a Y-dwarf
There is some doubt as to what, if anything, should be included in the class Y dwarfs.[17][18] They are expected to be much cooler than T-dwarfs. They have been modelled,[19] though there is no well-defined spectral sequence yet with prototypes.
In 2009, the coolest known brown dwarfs had estimated effective temperatures between 500 and 600 K, and have been assigned the spectral class T9. Three examples are the brown dwarfs CFBDS J005910.90-011401.3, ULAS J133553.45+113005.2, and ULAS J003402.77−005206.7.[20] The spectra of these objects display absorption around 1.55 micrometers.[20] Delorme et al. have suggested that this feature is due to absorption from ammonia and that this should be taken as indicating the T–Y transition, making these objects of type Y0.[20][21] However, the feature is difficult to distinguish from absorption by water and methane,[20] and other authors have stated that the assignment of class Y0 is premature.[17]
In April 2010, two newly discovered ultracool sub-brown dwarfs (UGPS 0722-05 and SDWFS 1433+35[22]) were proposed as prototypes for spectral class Y0.
In February 2011, Luhman et al. reported the discovery of a ~300 K, 7-Jupiter-mass 'brown-dwarf' companion to a nearby white dwarf.[18] Though of 'planetary' mass, Rodriguez et al. suggest it is unlikely to have formed in the same manner as planets.[23]
WISE data has revealed hundreds of new brown dwarfs. Of these, fourteen are classified as cool Ys.[9] One of the Y dwarfs, called WISE 1828+2650, was, as of August 2011, the record holder for the coldest brown dwarf – emitting no visible light at all, this type of object resembles free-floating planets more than stars. WISE 1828+2650 was initially estimated to have an atmospheric temperature cooler than 300 K[27]—for comparison the upper end of room temperature is 298 K (25 °C, 80 °F). Its temperature has since been revised and newer estimates put it in the range of 250 to 400 K (−23–127 °C, −10–260 °F).[28]
Spectral and atmospheric properties of brown dwarfs[edit]
Typical atmospheres of known brown dwarfs range in temperature from 2200 down to 750 K.[15] Compared to stars, which warm themselves with steady internal fusion, brown dwarfs cool quickly over time; more massive dwarfs cool slower than less massive ones.
Observational techniques[edit]
Estimated relative size of the planet Jupiter and brown dwarfs Gliese 229B and Teide 1
• 1998: First X-ray-emitting brown dwarf found. Cha Halpha 1, an M8 object in the Chamaeleon I dark cloud, is determined to be an X-ray source, similar to convective late-type stars.
• December 15, 1999: First X-ray flare detected from a brown dwarf. A team at the University of California monitoring LP 944-20 (60 Jupiter masses, 16 ly away) via the Chandra X-ray Observatory, catches a 2-hour flare.
• 27 July 2000: First radio emission (in flare and quiescence) detected from a brown dwarf. A team of students at the Very Large Array reported their observations of LP 944-20 in the 15 March 2001 issue of the journal Nature.
Brown dwarf as an X-ray source[edit]
Chandra image of LP 944-20 before flare and during flare
Using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, scientists have detected X-rays from a low-mass brown dwarf in a multiple star system.[29] This is the first time that a brown dwarf this close to its parent star(s) (Sun-like stars TWA 5A) has been resolved in X-rays.[29] "Our Chandra data show that the X-rays originate from the brown dwarf's coronal plasma which is some 3 million degrees Celsius", said Yohko Tsuboi of Chuo University in Tokyo.[29] "This brown dwarf is as bright as the Sun today in X-ray light, while it is fifty times less massive than the Sun", said Tsuboi.[29] "This observation, thus, raises the possibility that even massive planets might emit X-rays by themselves during their youth!"[29]
Recent developments[edit]
NASA's WISE mission has detected 200 new brown dwarfs.[32] There are actually fewer brown dwarfs in our cosmic neighborhood than previously thought. Rather than one star for every brown dwarf, there may be as many as six stars for every brown dwarf.[32]
Planets around brown dwarfs[edit]
Artist’s impression of the disc of dust and gas around a brown dwarf.[33]
The planetary-mass objects 2M1207b, GQ Lupi b and 2MASS J044144 that are orbiting brown-dwarfs may have formed by cloud collapse rather than accretion and so may be sub-brown dwarfs rather than planets, which is inferred from relatively large masses and large orbits. However, in 2013, the first low-mass companion (OGLE-2012-BLG-0358L b) in a relatively small orbit was discovered orbiting a brown dwarf.[34]
Disks around brown dwarfs have been found to have many of the same features as disks around stars; therefore, it is expected that there will be accretion-formed planets around brown dwarfs.[35] Given the small mass of brown dwarf disks, most planets will be terrestrial planets rather than gas giants.[36] If a giant planet orbits a brown dwarf across our line of sight, then, because they have approximately the same diameter, this would give a large signal for detection by transit.[37] The accretion zone for planets around a brown dwarf is very close to the brown dwarf itself, so tidal forces would have a strong effect.[36]
Superlative brown dwarfs[edit]
• WD 0137-349 B: first confirmed brown dwarf to have survived the primary's red giant phase.[38]
• In 1984, it was postulated by some astronomers that the Sun may be orbited by an undetected brown dwarf (sometimes referred to as Nemesis) that could interact with the Oort cloud just as passing stars can. But this theory has fallen out of favor.[39]
Table of Firsts
Brown Dwarfs
Title Brown Dwarf Name Spectral Type RA/Dec Constellation Notes
First discovered Teide 1 (Pleiades Open Star Cluster) M8 3h47m18.0s +24°22'31" Taurus Imaged in 1989 and 1994
First imaged with coronography Gliese 229 B T6.5 06h10m34.62s −21°51'52.1" Lepus Discovered 1994
First with planemo 2MASSW J1207334-393254 M8 12h07m33.47s −39°32'54.0" Centaurus
First with a planetary mass in orbit about it 2M1207 Planet discovered in 2004
First with a dust disk
First with bipolar outflow
First field type (solitary) Teide 1 M8 3h47m18.0s +24°22'31" Taurus 1995
First as a companion to a normal star Gliese 229 B T6.5 06h10m34.62s −21°51'52.1" Lepus 1995
First spectroscopic binary brown dwarf PPL 15 A, B [40] M6.5 Taurus Basri and Martin 1999
First eclipsing binary brown dwarf 2M0535-05 [41]
M6.5 Orion Stassun et al. 2006, 2007 (Distance ~450 pc)
First binary brown dwarf of T Type Epsilon Indi Ba, Bb [43] T1 + T6 Indus Distance: 3.626pc
First trinary brown dwarf DENIS-P J020529.0-115925 A/B/C L5, L8 and T0 02h05m29.40s −11°59'29.7" Cetus Delfosse et al. 1997, mentions
First halo brown dwarf 2MASS J05325346+8246465 sdL7 05h32m53.46s +82°46'46.5" Gemini Adam J. Burgasser, et al. 2003
First Late-M spectra Teide 1 M8 3h47m18.0s +24°22'31" Taurus 1995
First L spectra
First T spectra Gliese 229 B T6.5 06h10m34.62s −21°51'52.1" Lepus 1995
Latest T spectrum ULAS J0034-00 T9[44] Cetus 2007
First Y spectrum CFBDS0059 – pending.[21] This is also classified as a T9 dwarf, due to its close resemblance to other T dwarfs[44] ~Y0 2008
First X-ray-emitting Cha Halpha 1 M8 Chamaeleon 1998
First X-ray flare LP 944-20 M9V 03h39m35.22s −35°25'44.1" Fornax 1999
First radio emission (in flare and quiescence) LP 944-20 M9V 03h39m35.22s −35°25'44.1" Fornax 2000
Table of Extremes
Brown Dwarfs
Title Brown Dwarf Name Spectral Type RA/Dec Constellation Notes
Metal-poor 2MASS J05325346+8246465 sdL7 05h32m53.46s +82°46'46.5" Gemini distance is ~10–30pc, metallicity is 0.1–0.01ZSol
Farthest WISP 0307-7243[45] T4.5 03h07m45.12s −72°43'57.5" Distance: 400pc
Nearest Luhman 16 Distance: ~6.5 ly
Brightest Teegarden's star M6.5 jmag=8.4
Dimmest WISE 1828+2650 Y2 jmag=23
Coolest WISE 1828+2650[26] Y2 Temperature 300 K
Most dense COROT-3b[46] Transiting brown dwarf COROT-3b has 22 MJ with a diameter 1.01±0.07 times that of Jupiter. It is slightly denser than osmium at standard conditions.
Least dense
See also[edit]
3. ^ a b c d e f g "A. J. Burgasser - Brown dwarfs: Failed stars, super Jupiters (2008)" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-03-16.
5. ^ Ian O'Neill (Sep 13, 2011). "Violent Storms Rage on Nearby Brown Dwarf". Retrieved January 30, 3013.
12. ^ The Jovian Planets: Uranus, and Neptune
13. ^ "Working Group on Extrasolar Planets: Definition of a "Planet"". IAU position statement. 2003-02-28. Retrieved 2006-09-09.
23. ^ Rodriguez, David R.; Zuckerman, B., Melis, Carl, Song, Inseok (10 May 2011). "THE ULTRA COOL BROWN DWARF COMPANION OF WD 0806-661B: AGE, MASS, AND FORMATION MECHANISM". The Astrophysical Journal 732 (2): L29. arXiv:1103.3544. Bibcode:2011ApJ...732L..29R. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/732/2/L29. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
26. ^ a b "WISE Finds Few Brown Dwarfs Close To Home". 8 June 2012.
37. ^ Pan-STARRS SCIENCE OVERVIEW, David C. Jewitt
38. ^ Maxted P. F. L. et al. (2006). "Survival of a brown dwarf after engulfment by a red giant star". Nature 442 (7102): 543. arXiv:astro-ph/0608054. Bibcode:2006Natur.442..543M. doi:10.1038/nature04987. PMID 16885979.
41. ^ "[Discovery of two young brown dwarfs in an eclipsing binary system". Nature. 2006-03-16. Retrieved 2013-07-08.
External links[edit]
• S. S. Kumar, Low-Luminosity Stars. Gordon and Breach, London, 1969—an early overview paper on brown dwarfs
• The Columbia Encyclopedia
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Manatee: Trichechus manatus
The West Indian manatee's range is from the southern United States throughout the Caribbean Islands, Central America, and to northern South America. In the United States, a sub-species—the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris), lives in many Florida waterways or travels up the eastern coastline into Georgia, the Carolinas, and as far north as Massachusetts during warm months. In the Gulf, Florida manatees are occasionally sighted as far west as Texas. During cold months these manatees migrate to the warm waters of south Florida, or find a source of warm water such as artesian springs or industrial discharges.
Manatees are large, aquatic mammals that eat plants. Also known as "sea cows," these herbivores usually spend up to eight hours a day grazing on seagrasses and other aquatic plants. A manatee can consume up to 10 percent of its body weight in aquatic vegetation daily. The manatee uses its muscular lips to grab and tear plants much like an elephant uses its trunk to pick up items. Manatees consume freshwater and marine plants of all kinds.
Like other mammals, manatees breathe air. They must surface approximately every five minutes to breathe, but can hold their breath for as long as twenty minutes when resting. The manatee's nose is usually the only part of its body that comes out of the water when it breathes.
Manatees rest from 2 to 12 hours a day either suspended near the water's surface or lying on the bottom, usually for several hours at a time.
Anatomy facts and trivia:
• Manatees can hear very well despite the absence of external ear lobes.
• A manatee's heart beats at a rate of 50 to 60 beats a minute. The heart rate slows down to 30 beats a minute during a long dive.
• Manatees have no "biting" teeth, only "grinding" teeth. A manatee's teeth (all molars) are constantly being replaced. New teeth come in at the back of the jaw and move forward about a centimeter a month. The front molars eventually fall out and are replaced by the teeth behind them. This tooth replacement is an adaptation to the manatee's diet, as it consumes plants that often hold sand that can wear down its teeth.
• Manatees have only six cervical (neck) vertebrae. Most other mammals, including giraffes, have seven. As a result, manatees cannot turn their heads sideways; they must turn their whole body around to look behind them.
• The manatee's rib bones are solid, there is no marrow. They make red blood cells in their sternum where marrow is found.
• The manatee has pelvic bones, but they are not attached to its skeletal frame and are fairly small. They are remnants of a time when manatees lived on land. The bones are found in a cartilage tissue area of the body in the vicinity of the reproductive organs and the urinary bladder. The bones are soft when the manatee is young and later harden as they mature.
• Other remnant bones found in the manatee are the hyoid bones located near the neck region. These bones are similar to the Adam's apple in humans. Today, there is no known use of these bones in the manatee.
• The bones in a manatee's flipper are similar to a human hand. The jointed "finger bones" of the flipper help the manatee move through the water, bring food to its mouth, and hold objects. Three or four nails are found at the end of each flipper.
Additional Information:
Florida Manatee Program
Manatee Education Not a Mobile-Enabled Link
What to Do if You See a Sick, Injured, Dead, or Tagged Manatee
Image Credit:
FWC Facts:
Learn More at AskFWC
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Behavioral Thermoregulatory
Sea Otter with feet out of water
picture courtesy of Jimmy's Sea Otter Page
Sea otters also have several behavioral thermoregulatory adaptations. One adaptation involves using their feet to minimize or maximize heat loss when water temperatures are too cold or too warm, respectively. When water temperatures are cooler, sea otters have been shown to reduce heat loss due to convection by floating on their backs with their feet out of the water. As discussed in the section on countercurrent heat exchangers, lack of fur, large surface to volume ratios and thin skin makes feet more susceptible to heat loss. When the animals are trying to loose heat, they spread their feet out underwater to maximize surface to volume ratios and heat loss. To dissipate or conserve smaller amounts of body heat, sea otters spread out or fold up their feet.
(Tarasoff, 1974)
Picture courtesy of Jimmy's Sea Otter page
Sea otters have also been shown to increase and decrease their buoyancy in response to change in water temperature. Sea otters have a lung capacity 2.5 times that of other mammals the same size. They manipulate their lung volume to increase buoyancy in cold water temperatures, thus minimizing exposure to the water, and decrease lung volume to decrease buoyancy in warmer waters. (Costa and Kooyman, 1982)
main page habitat thermoregulationmetabolism
other physiological adaptations
behavioral adaptations
oil spills and sea otters
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Croup definition - Medical Dictionary definitions of popular medical terms easily defined on MedTerms
Our Croup Main Article provides a comprehensive look at the who, what, when and how of Croup
Definition of Croup
Croup: An infection of the larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes that occurs mainly in children. It is usually caused by viruses but sometimes by bacteria. Symptoms include a cough that sounds like a seal's bark and a harsh crowing sound during inhalation. A low-grade fever is common. A major concern with croup is difficulty breathing as the air passages narrow. Treatment may include administration of moist air (as from a humidifier), saltwater nose drops, decongestants and cough suppressants, pain medication, fluids, and, if the infection is bacterial, antibiotics. The breathing of a child with croup should be closely monitored, especially at night, when croup usually gets worse due to prone body position while sleeping. Although most children recover from croup without hospitalization, some may develop life-threatening breathing difficulties. Therefore, close contact with a physician during croup is especially important.
Last Editorial Review: 3/19/2012
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Online Collections
A Jolly Good Fellow
By the time Thomas Nast (1840-1902) painted this Santa Claus in 1874, he had drawn the "jolly good fellow" hundreds of times for "Harper's Weekly," the most influential and widely read of the era's magazines. Modeling his Santa on Clement Moore's 1823 poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas," Nast worked to rid the image of its Old World, religious austerity, creating instead the portly, avuncular, and thoroughly American fellow with the white beard. "His eyes how they twinkled! His dimples how merry!/His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry;/His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow,/And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow." At the request of "Harper's Weekly," Nast created his first Santa in 1863, during the Civil War. The fiercely pro-Union Nast depicted a Santa decked in stars and stripes, distributing packages from home to Union troops. Amid the turbulence of the war, Nast's Santa recalled a sense of domestic tranquility that would become the trademark association for this icon of the American Christmas. Even in this spare 1874 depiction, Santa, adorned in characteristic furs trimmed with holly and mistletoe, toasts us from the warmth of the domestic hearth.
ArtistThomas Nast
Materialoil | canvas
Object ID77.784
All artifact images, interpretive information, and website text
© The Strong.
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Creatures of the Night
Chase away nighttime fears by reading books and drawing creatures of the imagination.
1. Share ideas about scary creatures of your imagination. Describe the creatures in terms of shapes, colors, textures, sounds, and sizes. Compile a list of descriptive words.
2. On a large sheet of dark construction paper, lightly sketch a scary Creature of the Night with Crayola® Construction Paper Crayons.
3. Fill the shape with color. Experiment first on scrap paper if these are new techniques: Blend colors by overlapping them. Make a heavy layer of color, then draw over it with another bright or deep color. Put a pad of paper or a magazine underneath the paper for smoother crayon laydown. Do crayon rubbings by removing the paper wrapper, placing paper on a textured surface (such as screens or doilies), and rubbing with the side of the crayon. Make two thick layers of crayon, then scratch off the top layer with an open paper clip. If a technique works well, cut it out with Crayola Scissors. Use Crayola Glue Sticks to attach any crayon rubbings.
4. Glue the list of descriptive words to the back of the drawing. Children describe characteristics of each other's creations, and see how closely the word list matches these descriptions.
Safety Guidelines
• Especially with young children, make certain that they feel comfortable during the discussion and creation of their artwork. Fears can be very real to preschoolers. Offer plenty of reassurance.
• Write original stories that involve the imaginary creatures, either in small groups or individually.
• Create a crayon rubbing center. Ask families to donate textured items such as sandpaper or plastic mats, as well as broken crayons. Children can experiment with different textures, inside and outdoors, and with various types of paper.
Related Lesson Plans
Lesson Plans
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crayola supplies
• Construction Paper™ Crayons
• Glue Sticks
• Blunt-Tip Scissors
• Construction Paper
household supplies
• textured items (optional)
• paper clips (optional)
• Pre-K and Kindergarten
• Grades 1 to 3
• Grades 4 to 6
• Special Needs
• Language Arts
• Visual Arts
• Less than 1/2 hour
• 30 to 60 minutes
• Students brainstorm a list of words describing scary creatures they imagine now or imagined when they were younger.
• Students read books such as There's a Nightmare in My Closet, and share how they deal with scary experiences.
• Students represent imaginary nighttime creatures using various color techniques such as blending, layering, rubbing, and etching.
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Romare Bearden
Eastern Barn
about this work
look closer
What clues do you see that tell you who these people might be?
What might these people be doing? How do you know?
Describe this place. Where do you think they might be?
Romare Bearden, Eastern Barn, 1968 69.14 For Teachers
Romare Bearden’s collages of rural Southern scenes are recollections of his birthplace in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, where he spent summers with his grandparents during his childhood. Eastern Barn is one of many collages in which Bearden portrayed the daily lives of African Americans. Look closely at Bearden’s work—who might these people be, and what might they be doing? Why might this scene be special to Bearden?
Ask your students to think about a place that was or continues to be special to them. For example, it could be a room in their home, school, a park, a vacation spot, or a local hangout spot. Ask them to spend five minutes writing down notes about this place. Who would be there? What was it like to be there? What would you smell, see, and hear there? What details can you remember about the place and the people there?
Read more
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Vocabulary Word
Word: profound
Definition: deep; not superficial; complete; Ex. profound thinker/remark/silence/deafness; N. profundity
Sentences Containing 'profound'
The Night Shadows A wonderful fact to reflect upon, that every human creature is constituted to be that profound secret and mystery to every other.
In the midst of a profound stillness, she faintly began:``When the gentleman came on board''``Do you mean the prisoner?''
I had kept the matter a profound secret, even from my wife; and this, too, I resolved to state in my letter.
And in art,``he that would save his work must often lose it,''if you will excuse the paraphrase of a profound saying which, like most profound sayings, is applicable to many things in life besides what it originally referred to.
All the more profound qualities, the deeper emotional notes, are on this side of the subject.
On this contrast of line and form, so in sympathy with the profound sentiment to which this picture owes its origin, the expressive power of this composition will be found to depend.
In their work we see a world where the saddening influences of profound thought and its expression are far away.
``How vast and profound is the influence of the subtile powers of Heaven and of Earth!''
Faria replied to this sarcasm with a glance of profound contempt.
and as the old man slowly pronounced those words, an air of profound resignation spread itself over his careworn countenance.
After continuing some time in profound meditation, the young man suddenly exclaimed,``I have found what you were in search of!''
During these hours of profound meditation, which to him had seemed only minutes, he had formed a fearful resolution, and bound himself to its fulfilment by a solemn oath.
The two men remained opposite one another, Morrel trembling in every limb, the stranger gazing at him with an air of profound pity.
``Alas,''returned the captain with an accent of the most profound pity,``we ought always to help one another.
Diavolaccio advanced amidst the most profound silence, and laid Rita at the captain's feet.
``No, excellency; and never shall I forget it,''returned Peppino, with an accent of profound gratitude.
Then, by the gleam of a lamp, similar to that which lighted the columbarium, Albert was to be seen wrapped up in a cloak which one of the bandits had lent him, lying in a corner in profound slumber.
When he had gone, Monte Cristo breathed a profound sigh, and said,``Enough of this poison, let me now seek the antidote.''
The Count, with a smile of profound tenderness, extended his hand, and she carried it to her lips.
The doctors open the body and say with an air of profound learning,`The subject has died of a tumor on the liver, or of typhoid fever!'''
``Yes, I understand,''was the reply contained in his look; and this look expressed a feeling of strong indignation, mixed with profound contempt.
The king -LRB- Don Carlos -RRB- has not left Bourges, and the peninsula is in the enjoyment of profound peace.
Noirtier looked at her with a glance of the most profound scrutiny.
Mercedes opened the door of the study and had disappeared before he had recovered from the painful and profound revery into which his thwarted vengeance had plunged him.
After Mercedes had left Monte Cristo, he fell into profound gloom.
``You remember,''said the count, during the most profound silence,``that the unhappy wretch who came to rob me died at my house; the supposition is that he was stabbed by his accomplice, on attempting to leave it.''
The figure advanced towards the bed and appeared to listen with profound attention.
Then walking towards Morrel, he took his hand; the tumultuous agitation of the young man was succeeded by a profound stupor.
There was a moment's silence, during which one could have fancied the hall empty, so profound was the stillness.
His grief was so profound that he was nearly unconscious.
The clerk continued to write for the next five minutes; the man preserved profound silence, and remained perfectly motionless.
The Russian empire, however, had enjoyed a profound peace for near twenty years before, and could at that time have very few soldiers who had ever seen an enemy.
When the Spanish war broke out in 1739, England had enjoyed a profound peace for about eight-and-twenty years.
The most profound peace, of 17 years continuance, had taken no more than
According to this account, the whole debt paid off, during eleven years of profound peace, amounted only to
Sancho shrugged his shoulders, obeyed, and sat down, and all the duchess's damsels and duennas gathered round him, waiting in profound silence to hear what he would say.
The squires made a ring round them, both victors and vanquished maintaining profound silence, waiting for the great Roque Guinart to speak.
As the duke and duchess mounted the stage Don Quixote and Sancho rose and made them a profound obeisance, which they returned by bowing their heads slightly.
There are other more profound arguments against the senses, which admit not of so easy a solution.
I don't profess to be profound; but I do lay claim to common sense.'
I looked up into his face, and answered, with an attempt to be very profound: 'Oh!'
He sat down, looking intently at me, and listened in profound silence to all I had to tell.
At last, stepping on board the Pequod, we found everything in profound quiet, not a soul moving.
But vain to popularize profundities, and all truth is profound.
More Vocab Words
::: shaving - very thin piece, usually of wood (cut from a surface with a sharp blade)
::: mannered - affected; not natural; Ex. mannered way of speech
::: presumptuous - going beyond what is right; excessively forward; arrogant; taking liberties
::: bludgeon - club; heavy-headed weapon; V.
::: hierarchy - arrangement by rank or standing; authoritarian body divided into ranks; body of persons having authority
::: outspoken - candid; blunt
::: append - attach
::: compunction - remorse; strong uneasiness caused by guilt
::: gesticulation - motion; gesture; V. gesticulate: make gestures (while speaking)
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1. Education
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Synesthesia in a sentence from James Joyce's Ulysses (1922)
In semantics and cognitive linguistics, a metaphorical process by which one sense modality is described or characterized in terms of another, such as "a bright sound" or "a quiet color." Adjective: synesthetic.
See also:
From the Greek, "perceive together"
Examples and Observations:
• "An expression such as 'warm color' is a classic example of a synesthetic expression. It involves the mapping from the tactile sense referred to by the adjective warm onto the visual referred to by the noun color. On the other hand, warm breeze is not a synesthetic expression, because both warm and breeze refer to the tactile sense, and there is no 'sensory mismatch' in this expression as one sees in warm color."
(Yoshikata Shibuya et al., "Understanding Synesthetic Expressions: Vision and Olfaction With the Physiological=Psychological Model." Speaking of Colors and Odors, ed. by Martina Plümacher and Peter Holz. John Benjamins, 2007)
• "I see a sound. KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK. It looks like KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK. It looks like gravity ripping. It looks like the jets on a spaceship.
"I catch the sound and it takes me into the cold."
(Emily Raboteau, The Professor's Daughter. Henry Holt, 2005)
• "I hear the bouncing hills
Grow larked and greener at berry brown
Fall and the dew larks sing
Taller this thunderclap spring, and how
More spanned with angles ride
The mansouled fiery islands! Oh,
Holier then their eyes,
And my shining men no more alone
As I sail out to die."
(Dylan Thomas, final verse of "Poem on His Birthday")
• "I am hearing the shape of the rain
Take the shape of the tent and believe it . . .."
(James Dickey, opening lines of "The Mountain Tent")
• "Meaning may be transferred from one sensory faculty to another (synesthesia), as when we apply clear, with principal reference to sight, to hearing, as in clear-sounding. Loud is transferred from hearing to sight when we speak of loud colors. Sweet, with primary reference to taste, may be extended to hearing (sweet music), smell ("The rose smells sweet"), and to all senses at once (a sweet person). Sharp may be transferred from feeling to taste, and so may smooth. Warm may shift its usual reference from feeling to sight, as in warm colors, and along with cold may refer in a general way to all senses, as in a warm (cold) welcome."
(John Algeo and Thomas Pyles, The Origins and Development of the English Language, 5th ed. Thompson, 2005)
• "Many of the metaphors we use every day are synesthetic, describing one sensory experience with vocabulary that belongs to another. Silence is sweet, facial expressions are sour. Sexually attractive people are hot; sexually unattractive people leave us cold. A salesman's patter is smooth; a day at the office is rough. Sneezes are bright; coughs are dark. Along with pattern recognition, synesthesia may be one of the neurological building blocks of metaphor."
(James Geary, I Is an Other: The Secret Life of Metaphor and How It Shapes the Way We See. HarperCollins, 2011)
Also Known As: linguistic synesthesia, metaphorical synesthesia
1. About.com
2. Education
3. Grammar & Composition
4. Grammar & Rhetoric Glossary
5. RAS Syndrome - Systrophe
6. synesthesia - definition and examples of linguistic or metaphorical synesthesia
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First genetic code of Neanderthal reveals interbreeding
06 May 2010
The genetic code of the Neanderthals has been revealed for the first time, giving surprising clues to their intimate relations with modern humans, scientists report in the journal Science today.
Neanderthals are usually regarded as a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis. They were our closest relatives and they died out about 30,000 years ago.
An international team, including those at the Max Planck Institute in Germany, analysed DNA from the remains of 3 Neanderthal individuals. They produced a sequence of the whole Neanderthal genetic code, or genome, the first time this has been done.
They also compared the Neanderthal genome to modern humans, Homo sapiens, from different parts of the world.
Evidence for interbreeding
Until now, scientists could only speculate whether Neanderthals ever interbred with modern humans, but the team’s results revealed some surprises.
Model head of a Neanderthal man
Model head of a Neanderthal man
They show that modern humans outside of Africa share genetic information with Neanderthals. This means modern humans probably interbred with Neanderthals soon after they left Africa around 60,000 years ago.
Professor Chris Stringer, the Natural History Museum’s human origins expert, comments on the research and explains, 'This research suggests that the genomes of people from Europe, China and New Guinea lie slightly closer to the Neanderthal sequence than do those of Africans.
'The most likely explanation for this finding is that the ancestors of people in Europe, China and New Guinea interbred with Neanderthals (or at least with populations that had a component of Neanderthal genes) in North Africa, Arabia or the Middle East, as they were exiting Africa, but before they spread out across the rest of the world.’
Prof Stringer is one of the architects of the Out of Africa theory, which explains how all humans living today share an African origin and that those outside Africa migrated out in small groups during the last 60,000 years. His book The Origin of Our Species will be published early next year.
As well as comparing the Neanderthal genome with modern humans, the team also compared it with chimps. They found that genetic changes linked to skin and bone, metabolism, and brain functions, were unique to Homo sapiens.
Previous genetic studies
There have been genetic studies on Neanderthals before, as Prof Stringer explains. ‘The first tiny piece of DNA from a Neanderthal fossil was published in 1997, and since then, with improvements in recovery techniques and computing power, 20 Neanderthals have yielded up increasing amounts of ancient DNA.’
These DNA studies support evidence from the fossil record, showing that Neanderthals split from modern humans around 400,000 years ago. And similarly, studies on DNA from living people support fossil records showing that modern humans share an African origin within the last 200,000 years.
A new look at Neanderthal relations
Prof Stringer concludes, ‘As one of the architects of 'Out of Africa', I have regarded the Neanderthals as representing a separate lineage, and most likely a separate species from Homo sapiens.
‘Although I have never ruled out the possibility of interbreeding, I have considered this to have been small and insignificant in the bigger picture of our evolution – for example, the results of isolated interbreeding events could easily have been lost in the intervening millennia.
'Any functional significance of these shared genes remains to be determined, but that will certainly be a focus for the next stages of this fascinating area of research.’
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Reclaiming Crochet, and its American History
Colored Women's League of Washington D.C, turn of the century
Colored Women's League of Washington D.C, turn of the century
Venetian style crochet lace on headband
Venetian style crochet lace on headband
Design by Antonie Ehrlich
Design by Antonie Ehrlich
Design by Mary Card
Design by Mary Card
This was a new item called a Bridge Jacket
This was a new item called a Bridge Jacket
Silk and beaded purse, Harper's Bazaar
Silk and beaded purse, Harper's Bazaar
The real history of crochet has yet to be discovered. In the United States, there is virtually no written history of crochet. Of the few books providing historical treatment of crochet, only one had a portion dedicated to American crochet history.
The Progressive Era, one of the most dramatic periods of American societal change, is particularly worthy of study. The beginning of the 20th century was a significant time of social upheaval. Women were questioning and redefining their roles at home and in the workplace. This, in turn, placed the needle arts in a new perspective.
The Historical Background -- The Progressive Impulse
Even before the 20th century began, many in the United States believed in the need to deal with the problems -- political, social, and moral -- associated with the rise of urbanization and industrialization. This impulse toward reform took firm root roughly from 1900 - 1915, in what historians have termed the Progressive Era. No corner of American life was left untouched, from the way we processed beef, to the way we treated immigrants, to the number of hours in a workday, to the arrangement of domestic life.
The Progressive Era incited the birth of the women's movement. A mere century ago, women in most states did not have the right to vote, could not own property, were not welcomed in most professions (except those deemed traditionally "female", such as teaching and social work) and held an extremely low profile in the public sphere. Women were thought to belong, virtually exclusively, in the domestic domain.
The changing social landscape, brought on by rapid industrialization, made many women question their public, as well as domestic, roles. The push for female suffrage dominated this period. Attempts were made to join the ranks of the professions -- engineering, law, and medicine -- some were successful, others not. A critical percentage of women remained single (around 10% at the turn of the 20th century), and for the majority of those who did marry, mechanization of many household chores, along with longer school hours for children, freed up much of their time. Finally, divorce was on the rise -- by the end of 1915, approximately one in nine marriages ended in divorce, up from one in every twenty-one in the last decades of the 19th century.
All of this led to women taking a more public role in society, whether in clubs (cultural organizations where middle- and upper-class women gathered for intellectual pursuits), as activists, in settlement houses, or within government.
Crochet in the US at the Turn of the 20th Century
Most American needlecraft had declined dramatically during the middle of the 19th century. There was, quite simply, a drastically reduced need to spin yarn and create fabric in such a time-consuming manner. At the turn of the 20th century, crochet was not receiving much American public attention, although it had made inroads on the Paris fashion runway. As one example illustrates: the "crochet" entries in the Reader's Guide to Periodic Literature between 1900 and 1904 numbered only five articles devoted solely to crochet during that entire period! One factor in the relative scarcity of crochet in 19th century America was the need to put distance between this country and perceptions associated with English royalty. Crochet had deep English roots and lace had all but been banned as an export to England during America's founding.
As a new wave of immigrants came ashore via Ellis Island, however, they brought with them the "stuff" of their home countries, and needle arts were a part of that rich, immigrant experience. Women were in the midst of redefining their public and private roles, and the ability to choose to create crocheted garments, accessories and home fashions played an ever-expanding role. It helped that materials were easier to obtain (the Sears Roebuck catalogue was an excellent source of wool for many), and the manufacture of crochet cotton was well underway by companies such as Coats and Clark Thread Company and Columbia Cottons. Additionally, continued American westward expansion not only was tailor-made for crochet's sturdier and more practical fabric, but aided in its popularity as an American art either to be engaged in during leisure time, or for additional income. Women no longer needed to be exclusively dependent on a husband's income.
There was also a rise in the use of crochet and knitting for social change. Needlecraft programs were developed in many settlement houses as a way to provide an outlet for immigrant expression, and for middle-class women to come into contact with that expression. Home economics courses were developed and adopted as college requirements. Many school girls took afternoon classes in knitting and crochet, with the hope that they would be able to earn a living through these skills. As in the 19th century, crocheted items were used to support charitable works of all kinds through church- or community-sponsored events.
The Designers
Very little attention, unfortunately, has been paid to early 20th century crochet designers, although they were known in their time for their art, and many gained a loyal following. Women such as Anne Champe Orr, Mary Card, Anna Wuerfle Brown, Antonie Ehrlich, Sophie T. La Croix, Helen Marvin, and Anna Valeire are only some of the designers who helped pave the crochet design path during the Progressive Era. These designers were proficient in many crochet techniques brought from other countries -- Irish crochet, Australian crochet techniques, Venetian and French lace crochet -- as well as other needle arts.
Antonie Ehrlich had many crochet designs published in magazines in the latter portion of the Progressive Era. In certain instances, since only written instructions were included in magazines (and often they were incomplete), women were required to send money for complete instructions directly to Ehrlich.
Anne Champe Orr's career began at Coats and Clark Thread Company; she eventually went on to publish her design pamphlets through her own publishing company, and charted patterns became one of her areas of expertise. She was a trailblazer not only as a designer, but also for her ability to provide employment for many others. She was also heavily involved in charitable works in her Tennessee community.
Another designer, Mary Card, has a particularly compelling story. Although not born in the United States but in Australia, Mary Card turned to designing and teaching crochet when she experienced deafness in adulthood. She published many designs in America, and devised a method of charting her crochet designs. Charting became a great Card teaching tool; it not only allowed her to pursue a career despite her disability, but also to reach a far greater student audience; she eventually made her charts larger to accommodate those with poor eyesight. Many who have crocheted a Mary Card design say they are some of the best examples of craftsmanship from the period.
Patterns and Sources
Crocheted dress collars, baby garments, hats, slippers and sweaters for adults and children made up a large portion of the patterns designed during this period. Of particular note were crocheted golf sweaters for women - as their involvement in the sport increased, so did the desire for patterns. Bedspreads, lace edgings for curtains, tablecloths, doilies and other home fashions were also very popular, as well as gorgeous crocheted handbags. In many instances, the genesis of today's patterns for crocheted bags can be seen in the designs originating during the Progressive Era.
For many, magazines were a great source for crocheted patterns. The Delineator, Ladiesí Home Journal, Womens Home Companion, The Modern Priscilla, and Harper's Bazar were among the many nationally published magazines from which middle-class women followed not only current crochet trends and patterns, but also gained general information on personal and home fashion trends. Antonie Ehrlich was published in Ladies' Home Journal; Helen Marvin was a frequent contributor to Women's Home Companion. Many of the designers mentioned earlier had individual publications devoted exclusively to their designs published by magazine companies.
The lasting legacy of the Progressive Era is still debated by historians, including the legacy of women's activism during the period. I keep coming back to words by Kim Werker from one of her essays in Crochet Me, her 2007 book regarding why crochet, now:
"My pet theory, though, the post-feminist theory of our lovely crafty revolution, is that fiber arts are popular these days because we're reclaiming the 'women's work' from which our mothers fought so hard to break free."
Given all that women had to fight for, and against, during the Progressive Era, I am convinced that many women back then would agree with Werker's current statement. One of the hallmarks of crochet at the beginning of the 20th century was that for American women, for the first time, it was a choice. Reclaim on!
Denise J. Lavoie lives in the crafty Pacific Northwest, where she teaches at the college level and occasionally drinks wine.
Add a new comment
Reclaiming Vintage Filet Crochet Patterns
Hello, loved the article. I've fallen in love with the work of these designers. I found your site in my internet search for info on them. I've begun designing new cross stitch pieces and including some of the motifs from this time in them.
Male designers of the epoch
Hello Denise,
Excellent article! Do you happen to know of any men who were contemporaries of the female designers you have cited?
I regret that I never recorded the name of a man who, I am certain, was designing at the time. I recall seeing a number of his pubications on eBay. I know that Dvorak is often cited, but was he not a publisher rather than a designer?
Not sure if you can shed any light on this, but would be most grateful if you could.
Crochet Entrepreneurialism!
Excellent overview of the women who contributed to crochet's development and expansion in the early 20th century. I particularly enjoyed reading about the entrepreneurial spirit of these designers and the positive impact they had on the the ability of the women of that time to achieve more independence and self-sufficiency. Looking forward to reading Part 2.
Wonderful article! Thank you
Wonderful article! Thank you for sharing such pertinent information. :)
thank you for this! Â I
thank you for this! I enjoyed how specific and focused this article was. much needed information.
You're welcome, and I
You're welcome, and I appreciate your kind comments. I agree with you - this information needs more modern treatment.
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National History
History of the Fraternity
The American fraternity system is the outgrowth of the human desire to band together. The fraternity system has worked in conjunction with higher education for more than two hundred years and is uniquely American.
Phi Beta Kappa, founded in 1776 at the College of William and Mary as a social and literary society, was the first college fraternity. Thirty years later, during the Anti-Mason movement, it was forced to reveal its ritual and became a scholastic honorary. The objectives and philosophy of purpose of Phi Beta Kappa became the model for future fraternities. Other characteristics adopted by fraternities and sororities were a degree of secrecy, an initiation ceremony, oath of allegiance, a motto, a badge, a seal, passwords, a tradition of high idealism and strong bonds of friendship. Since the founding of the first Greek-letter organization, the American college fraternity system has proven to be one of the most durable institutions in association with higher education.
History of Sigma Kappa Sorority
Colby College, in Waterville, Maine, was the first college in New England to admit women on an equal basis with men students. During this period of change for women, they were insulted, boycotted and denied a share of the more prized college rights. But they were courageous and determined to make a place for women in the collegiate world. This feeling inspired the formation of sororities on the basis of scholarship, friendship, mutual interests and ideals.
Mary Caffrey Low was the first woman to be admitted to Colby in 1871.She remained the only female student until 1873, when four more young women from Maine, Elizabeth Gorham Hoag, Ida Fuller, Frances Mann and Louise Helen Coburn joined her. The five young women frequently found themselves together. During the school year of 1873-74, they decided to form a literary and social society. College administrators informed them that they needed to present a constitution and bylaws with a petition requesting permission to form Sigma Kappa Sorority. They began work during that year with an eager glow of enthusiasm. Their purpose at the outset was that the sorority should become what it is now, a national organization of college women. On Nov. 9, 1874, the five young women received a letter from the faculty approving their petition. Thus, this date has since been considered our Founders' Day.
In the first constitution, chapter membership was limited to 25. The original group was known as Alpha Chapter, and as the sorority grew, Beta Chapter and Gamma Chapter were also established at Colby College. Early records indicate that the groups met together; but in 1893, the Sigma Kappa members decided intramural expansion was not desirable. They voted to fill Alpha Chapter to the limit of 25 and to initiate no more into Beta and Gamma chapters. Eventually, the second and third chapters would vanish from Colby’s campus. Finally, the Sigma Kappas realized if the organization was going to continue to grow, it had to expand beyond the walls of Colby College.
In 1904, Delta Chapter was installed at Boston University. Elydia Foss of Alpha Chapter transferred to Boston and met a group of women who refused to join any of the other groups on campus. When asked if Sigma Kappa was a national organization, Elydia replied, "No, but it is founded on a national basis." Elydia then took the necessary steps to make Sigma Kappa a national sorority. It was incorporated in the state of Maine on April 19, 1904. The new status as a national sorority made Sigma Kappa eligible to join what was then called the Interfraternity Conference, now known as the National Panhellenic Conference.
Boston University |
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1. Education
Women and World War II: Comfort Women
Women as Sexual Slaves of the Japanese Military
During World War II, the Japanese established military brothels in countries they occupied. Women, many from occupied countries including Korea, China, and the Philippines, were forced to provide sexual services to personnel in the Japanese Imperial Army -- though the claims of how many were sexual slaves and how many were simply recruited as prostitutes is disputed. Estimates of the number of "comfort women" range from 80,000. Many of the surviving comfort women charge that they were forced to serve and were treated badly in the centers, often sustaining permanent health damage.
A number of former "comfort women" have filed lawsuits against the Japanese government, and have raised the issue with the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Japanese government, which initially claimed no military responsibility for the centers until papers were discovered in 1992 showing direct links, still maintain that recruitment tactics by "middlemen" were not the responsibility of the military, and have refused official apologies. Surviving comfort women have been offered unofficial apologies and financial awards but many have refused until the government of Japan takes full responsibility.
©2014 About.com. All rights reserved.
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The Myth of Kraken
The Legendary Kraken
According to the Scandinavian mythology, the Kraken is a giant sea creature (said to be 1 mile long) that attacks ships and is generally described as an octopus or squid. According to some tales, the Kraken was so huge that its body could be mistaken for an island. It is first mentioned in the Örvar-Oddr. This is a 13th century Icelandic saga involving two sea monsters, the Hafgufa (sea mist) and the Lyngbakr (heather-back). The Hafgufa is supposed to be a reference to the Kraken.
Around that time (circa 1250), another report about the Kraken was documented in the Norwegian scientific work Konungs skuggsja work. It said that only two existed because they could not reproduce and would need so much food that they could not survive. It goes on to describe the Kraken’s feeding habits, claiming that it would trap the surrounding fish by stretching its neck with a belch releasing food from its mouth. The fish would be lured by the food and would enter the Kraken’s mouth to feed. As a result, vast quantities of them would be trapped.
The Kraken was also mentioned in the first edition of Systema Naturae [1735], a taxonomic classification of living organisms by the Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist Carolus Linnaeus. He classified the Kraken as a cephalopod, designating the scientific name Microcosmus marinus. Although any mention to Kraken was omitted in later editions of the Systema Naturae, Linnaeus described it in his later work, Fauna Suecica [1746], as a "unique monster" that "is said to inhabit the seas of Norway, but I have not seen this animal".
Although the Kraken was usually described as a giant octopus or squid, it has also been described as a "crab-like" creature. It was believed to cause large whirlpools. The Swedish author Jacob Wallenberg described the Kraken in the 1781 work Min son på galejan ("My son on the galley") as follows: "Gradually, Kraken ascends to the surface, and when he is at ten to twelve fathoms, the boats had better move out of his vicinity, as he will shortly thereafter burst up, like a floating island, spurting water from his dreadful nostrils and making ring waves around him, which can reach many miles. Could one doubt that this is the Leviathan of Job?"
The Kraken was said to lie at the bottom of the sea and surface in search of food or when disturbed, probably by a large ship.
The myth of the Kraken is believed by many historians to have originated from the giant squid. The giant squid can reach 18 meters in length and has been rarely seen by humans as it lives in very deep waters.
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by Robert Louis Stevenson
group rates for schools and districts
Kidnapped Theme of Contrasting Regions
The Lowlands are the southeastern part of Scotland, and they are (as you might expect) low. We mean that literally: they're relatively flat, whereas the Highlands in the northwest are mountainous. Even though it's all Scotland, you might be forgiven for thinking that the Lowlands and the Highlands are entirely different countries after reading Kidnapped. As we say in our section on "Characterization," Stevenson sets up a clear set of oppositions between the religion, politics, and even clothing that's popular in the two regions. But what really distinguishes Stevenson's Highlands is their rugged, barren, deserted landscape. On the run with Alan, Davie finds a whole series of forests, nooks, and crannies that hide not only Alan and Davie, but other Highland clan folk on the run from England's soldiers. The impression is one of the Highlands as a highly secret place, only available to Davie (and us) thanks to the grace of Alan Breck Stewart.
Questions About Contrasting Regions
1. When do you start noticing Stevenson using the word "Highland" to describe the setting of Davie's adventures? What kinds of adjectives does he associate with the Highlands?
2. It is relatively easy to find descriptions of the Highlands in Kidnapped (see, for example, Chapter 15, "The Lad With the Silver Button: Through the Isle of Mull"). But what about the Lowlands? Are the Lowlands merely the opposite of the Highlands? What distinguishes a Lowlander from a Highlander?
3. What are the politics of the Highlands? Of the Lowlands? What can we tell about the politics from the novel?
Chew on This
Davie's surprise at the generosity of the Highlanders he first meets on the island of Mull suggests that he expected them to be miserly and mean.
Davie only defines the Lowlands in relation to the Highlands. For example, he describes his speech to Cluny Macpherson on the subject of cards as "[smacking] somewhat of the Covenanter" and "little in [its] place among wild Highland Jacobites" (23.26).
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NAME: ________________________
World History I The High Middle Ages ch10 Test
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5 Written Questions
5 Matching Questions
1. charter
2. Suger
3. Romanesque
4. chivalry
5. Cistercian order
1. a a code of ideals demanding that a knight aid the poor, defend the weak, and fight bravely for his three masters: his earthly feudal lord, his heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady
3. c abbot of the monastery of Saint Denis he developed the Gothic style cause he disliked the Romanesque style
4. d in the middle ages a written list of special privileges, tax exemptions, and rights granted to a town
5. e order founded in 1098 who vowed to built their monasteries only in the wilderness, their movement led to clearing of forests and creation of farm fields
5 Multiple Choice Questions
3. the feudal ceremony of investiture performed by a person who is not a member of the clergy
4. mock battles between knights
5. gatherings on which goods were sold
5 True/False Questions
1. tithethe popes staff and advisors, supplied the pope with information, advice, and carried out decisions
2. Richard the LionheartEnglish king who went to the kings crusade to recapture Jerusalem fought with Saladin but respected him, in the end they came to an agreement
3. friara member of the Roman Catholic Church who takes the same vows as a monk but travels around preaching instead of living in a monastery
4. Summa Theologiaewritten by Thomas Aquinas and in the book he attempted to answer 631 philosophical questions about God and the universe
5. flying buttresstown southwest of Paris, it is where the famous Cathedral of Chartres is which was rebult by nobles and the people of the town. marked the beggining of the Age of faith
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Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of several past and present organizations in the United States that advocated white supremacy, anti-Semitism (anti-Jews), anti-Catholicism, racism, homophobia, anti-Communism and nativism (anti-immigrants). These organizations used terrorism, violence, lynching (Execution of a presumed offender by a mob without trial, under the pretense of administering justice. It sometimes involves torturing the victim and mutilating the body.)and cross burning to oppress African Americans and other religious, social or ethnic groups.
The first Klan was founded in 1866 by veterans of the Confederate Army. Its purpose was to restore white supremacy in the aftermath of the American Civil War. The Klan resisted Reconstruction by intimidating "carpetbaggers," "scalawags" and freed slaves. The KKK quickly adopted violent methods, causing a backlash by many Southern elites who saw the Klan as an excuse for federal troops to continue their activities. The organization declined from 1868 to 1870 and was destroyed by President Ulysses S. Grant's action under the Civil Rights Act of 1871.
In 1915, the second Klan was founded. The film The Birth of a Nation and the sensationalized (To cast and present in a manner intended to arouse strong interest, especially through inclusion of exaggerated or lurid details) newspaper coverage of the trial, conviction and lynching of Leo Frank of Georgia sparked the Klan's revival. It grew amid rapid changes in many major cities absorbing immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe and the Great Migration of Southern blacks and whites to the North and Midwest. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4-5 million men. The second KKK is known for preaching racism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Communism, nativism, anti-Semitism and ceremonial cross burning. Some local groups took part in lynchings and other violent activities. Violence occurred mostly in the South, which had a tradition of lawlessness. Its popularity fell during the Great Depression, and membership fell further during World War II because of scandals resulting from prominent members' crimes and its support of Nazi Germany.
The name "Ku Klux Klan" has since been used by many independent groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often acted with impunity by alliances with Southern police departments, as during the reign of Bull Connor in Birmingham, Alabama; or governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama. Several members of KKK-affiliated groups were eventually convicted of manslaughter and murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Alabama, the assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers, and the murders of three civil rights workers. Today, researchers estimate there are 150 Klan chapters with up to 8,000 members nationwide. The U.S. government classifies these groups, with operations in separated small local units, as hate groups. The modern KKK has been repudiated by all mainstream media, political and religious leaders
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Clays Aided First Life?
Clays Aided First Life?
"... some warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, light, heat, electricity etc...", Charles Darwin, on the origins of life in tidal pools
HHMI investigator Jack W. Szostak and colleagues Martin M. Hanczyc and Shelly M. Fujikawa at Massachusetts General Hospital also demonstrated that these vesicles could be induced to grow and to split into separate vesicles under laboratory conditions. They reported their studies in the October 24, 2003, issue of the journal Science.
Szostak and his colleagues were prompted to perform their experiments by the earlier work of other researchers who had found that clays could catalyze the chemical reactions needed to construct RNA from building blocks called nucleotides. They reasoned that if clays could foster the formation of vesicles, it would not be inconceivable that clay particles that had RNA on their surface could end up inside such vesicles. If that were true, the result would offer conditions amenable to the eventual evolution of living cells that could self-reproduce.
"Other researchers had observed that if fatty acid micelles, which are stable at basic conditions, are exposed to more acidic conditions, they spontaneously assemble into vesicles," said Szostak. "This reaction has a long lag period, and some sort of nucleation surface is required to trigger the process. We reasoned that if the right kind of mineral surface was present, this lag phase would be eliminated."
In their experiments, Szostak and his colleagues found that adding small quantities of the clay, montmorillonite, to fatty acid micelles greatly accelerated the formation of vesicles. They also discovered that many other substances with negatively-charged surfaces also catalyzed formation of vesicles.
When the researchers loaded montmorillonite particles with a fluorescently labeled RNA and added those particles to micelles, they detected the RNA-loaded particles inside the resulting vesicles. And, going a step further, Szostak and his colleagues showed that when they encapsulated labeled RNA alone inside vesicles, it did not leak out.
However, he said, even primitive, non-living, cell-like structures need a mechanism to grow and divide. Thus, the scientists explored the behavior of vesicles to which micelles had been added finding that acidic conditions induced the micelles to become unstable and somehow incorporate themselves into a growing vesicle.
"After we showed that efficient growth was possible, the next problem was how to complete the cycle by persuading these vesicles to divide," said Szostak. The scientists discovered that if they extruded larger dye-containing vesicles through smaller pores, the result was a proliferation of smaller vesicles, which still contained dye.
"Exactly how this proliferation happens is not clear, and there are different models for the processes," said Szostak. "The important thing is that it all works. You end up with small vesicles in which the contents stay mostly inside. This is important if the process is to be vaguely analogous to biological cell division," he said.
A 3D structure of RNA.
Credit: SpaceDaily
"Now that we have a proof-of-principle that growth and division is possible in a purely physical-chemical system, we are working on a way to get this cycle to function in a way that is more natural," said Szostak. "Clearly, there are a lot of complicated and interesting processes going on here, and how this pathway leads to biological systems is not at all straightforward.
"We are not claiming that this is how life started," emphasized Szostak. "We are saying that we have demonstrated growth and division without any biochemical machinery. Ultimately, if we can demonstrate more natural ways this might have happened, it may begin to give us clues about how life could have actually gotten started on the primitive Earth."
In particular, said Szostak, further research should aim to demonstrate that the formation of RNA or a related polymer molecule could occur concurrently with vesicle replication. "Ultimately, we'd like to put them together and have replicating RNA inside a replicating vesicle," said Szostak. "If we could demonstrate both processes under arbitrary laboratory conditions, we could begin to work toward making them work under more and more natural conditions."
Related Web Pages
Biology's Theme Park: RNA World
Life's Baby Steps
UV Light
The Origin of Life
Freeman Dyson: Biography
Life from Scratch
Digital Life Laboratory
Researchers Mutate Digital Organisms
Survival of the Flattest
Digital Organisms Used to Confirm Evolutionary Process
Terrestrial Origins
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Compare and Contrast Oedipus rex/othello
Compare and Contrast The definition of a tragedy is a narrative poem or tale which describes the downfall of a great man. Both Othello and Oedipus Rex fall under this category of literature, even though they were written by two different authors and in two completely different time periods. These two works share many comparisons to each other, while having a fair amount of differences as well. Othello and Oedipus Rex both featured main characters with prominent power. Othello was a greatly respected general with an impeccable service record within the Venetian Army, while Oedipus was the newly appointed king of Thebes. Each of these characters were well respected and honored members of their community. Both Oedipus and Othello had to overcome obstacles to gain their respected positions. Othello was a black member of society in a time when the caucasian race was viewed as superior to other races. While he was respected as a general, he was still looked down upon as a human being. An example of this would be the opposition of Desdemona’s fath
More sample essays on Compare and Contrast Oedipus rex/othello
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.... November 22, 1999 Compare/contrast Oedipus and Creon as Leaders In the plays Oedipus of .... and Antigone by Sophocles, Oedipus and Creon exert similar .... (956 4 )
Comparison :Hamlet & Oedipus Rex
.... therefore they are similar, permitting one to further compare them. .... Hamlet is a tragedy of inaction, while in contrast, Sophocles"tm Oedipus Rex is a .... (1680 7 )
Sophocles"tm Oedipus Rex and Shakespeare"tms Othello are both considered great examples of tragedy throughout literary history. He chooses to live with his consequences and not take his own life, but rather gouges his own eyes out and chooses to be exiled from Thebes. This happens in both Oedipus Rex and Othello, each having trouble uncovering the truth. To fulfill the definition of a tragedy, the main character has to lead to his or her own downfall. Throughout his investigation, he had trouble seeing the truth that the prophets provided. In both dramas, the main character made accusations against their right-hand man. When he later discovers the truth, he takes the cowardly way out and punished himself by taking his own life. He then begins to believe the prophesies of the oracle. He continues his accusation by charging him with the desire to overthrow Oedipus. He had to solve the riddle of the great Sphinx, and in doing so, he freed the city of Thebes from the wrath of the Sphinx and was made king. er, Brabanzio, in the marriage between Othello and Desdemona. This is similar to the fate of Desdemona. Oedipus had his own conflict to gain his power. At first, Othello did not believe this rumor, but after having ocular proof, Desdemona"tms handkerchief in Cassio"tms possession, he was convinced the rumor was in fact true.
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Spanish Administration in Texas
As an administrative unit, Texas was a part of the Kingdom of New Spain. The government of Texas, apart from the missions, was almost entirely military. The official head of the province was the governor. He exercised both civil and military power. Governors were examined through vistas, or inspections, and through a residencia, or investigation, at the end of the governor's term. All important matters of administration, such as the founding of new missions, new presidios, and new colonies, were referred directly to the governor. All decisions of the governor needed royal approval, but often the act needing approval had already been fulfilled.
The positions of governor and presidial commander were made attractive largely by the opportunity which they afforded for making money in addition to the fixed salaries. The pay of soldiers was made chiefly in food, clothing, and equipment, purchased by the governor and commanders, and charged to the presidial soldiers at enormous profits. Thus the post of governor or captain was almost as much a merchant as a solider.
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7th Grade Math - What's The Savings?
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In this Number Talk, Debbie Borda and Antoinette Villarin engage their 7th grade students in mentally calculating the savings received by a student who paid $54 for an item that was discounted 40%. The students in the class first think their way through the problem, then share their strategies with a partner, then share strategies and answers with the class as a whole.
7th grade math - what's the savings?
Taught by: Debbie Borda and Antoinette Villarin, Jefferson Elementary School District, Daly City, California
Mathematical Strand:
- Number & Operations in Base Ten
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The Full Wiki
Hanged, drawn and quartered: Map
Wikipedia article:
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To be hanged, drawn and quartered was the penalty for high treason in medieval England, and remained on the statute book but seldom used in the United Kingdom of Great Britainmarker and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandmarker until abolished under the Treason Act of 1814. It was a spectacularly gruesome and public form of torture and execution, and was reserved only for this most serious crime, which was deemed more heinous than murder and other capital offences. It was applied only to male criminals, except on the Isle of Manmarker.Richard Burn (1836), The Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer, Volume III (Criminal Law) of V volumes. T. Cadell. p. 928 Women found guilty of treason were sentenced to be taken to a place of execution and burned at the stake, a punishment changed to hanging by the Treason Act of 1790 in Great Britain, and 1796 in Ireland. It was also practiced, with variations, in other countries. The variations involved the torturing process and the crimes for which it was reserved.
Until reformed under the Treason Act 1814, the full punishment for the crime of treason was to be hanged, drawn and quartered in that the condemned prisoner would be:
1. Dragged on a hurdle (a wooden frame) to the place of execution. This is one possible meaning of drawn.
2. Hanged by the neck for a short time or until almost dead (hanged).
3. Disembowelled and emasculated and the genitalia and entrails burned before the condemned's eyes (this is another meaning of drawn—see the reference to the Oxford English Dictionary below)
4. The body beheaded, then divided into four parts (quartered).
Typically, the resulting five parts (i.e., the four quarters of the body and the head) were gibbeted (put on public display) in different parts of the city, town, or, in famous cases, in the country, to deter would-be traitors who had not seen the execution. After 1814, the convict would be hanged until dead and the mutilation would be performed post-mortem. Gibbeting was later abolished in England in 1843, while drawing and quartering was abolished in 1870.
There is debate among modern historians about whether "drawing" referred to the dragging to the place of execution or the disembowelling, but since two different words are used in the official documents detailing the trial of William Wallace ("detrahatur" for drawing as a method of transport, and "devaletur" for disembowelment), there is no doubt that the subjects of the punishment were disembowelled.
Judges delivering sentence at the Old Baileymarker also seemed to have had some confusion over the term "drawn", and some sentences are summarized as "Drawn, Hanged and Quartered". Nevertheless, the sentence was often recorded quite explicitly. For example, the record of the trial of Thomas Wallcot, John Rouse, William Hone and William Blake for offences against the king, on 12 July 1683 (see Rye House Plot ) concludes as follows:
The Oxford English Dictionary notes both meanings of drawn: "To draw out the viscera or the like, to the place of execution". It states that "In many cases of executions it is uncertain [which of these senses of drawn] is meant. The presumption is that where drawn is mentioned after hanged, the sense is [the second meaning]."
The condemned man would usually be sentenced to the short drop method of hanging, so that the neck would not break. The man was usually dragged alive to the quartering table, although in some cases men were brought to the table dead or unconscious. A splash of water was usually employed to wake the man if unconscious, then he was laid down on the table. A large cut was made in the gut after removing the genitalia, and the intestines would be spooled out on a device that resembled a dough roller. Each piece of organ would be burned before the sufferer's eyes, and when he was completely disembowelled, his head would be cut off. The body would then be cut into four pieces, and the king would decide where they were to be displayed. Usually the head was sent to the Tower of London and, as in the case of William Wallace, the other four pieces were sent to different parts of the country. The head was generally par-boiled in brine to preserve the appearance of the head in display, while the quarters were more often prepared in pitch, for longer-lasting deterrent displays.
Middle Ages
H. Thomas Milhorn claims that hanging, drawing and quartering was first used against William Maurice, who was convicted of piracy in 1241. This would make Henry III the first practitioner.
The punishment was more notoriously and verifiably employed by King Edward I ("Longshanks") in his efforts to bring Wales, Scotland, and Ireland under English rule.
In 1283, it was inflicted on the Welsh prince Dafydd ap Gruffydd in Shrewsburymarker. Dafydd had been a hostage in the English court in his youth, growing up with Edward and for several years fought alongside Edward against his brother Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, the Prince of Wales. Llywelyn had won recognition of the title, "Prince of Wales", from Edward's father King Henry III, and both Edward and his father had been imprisoned by Llywelyn's ally, Simon de Montfort, the Earl of Leicester, in 1264.
Edward's enmity towards Llywelyn ran deep. When Dafydd returned to the side of his brother and attacked the English Hawarden Castlemarker, Edward saw this as both a personal betrayal and a military setback and hence his punishment of Dafydd was specifically designed to be harsher than any previous form of capital punishment. The punishment was part of an overarching strategy to eliminate Welsh independence. Edward built an "iron ring" of castles in Wales and had Dafydd's young sons incarcerated for life in Bristol Castlemarker and daughters sent to a convent in England, whilst having his own son, Edward II, assume the title Prince of Wales. Dafydd's head joined that of his brother Llywelyn (killed in a skirmish months earlier) on top of the Tower of Londonmarker, where the skulls were still visible many years later. His quartered body parts were sent to four English towns for display.
Two decades later, on 23 August 1305, Sir William Wallace was the next person to be hanged, drawn and quartered, which occurred as a result of Edward I's Scottish wars. This established the precedent as the ultimate penalty for treason against the English crown. Both Dafydd ap Gruffydd and William Wallace asserted at their trials that they were not traitors for having fought in defence of Wales and Scotland against foreign invaders. Wallace, unlike his Welsh counterpart, had never fought for Edward before fighting against him.
During the Wars of Scottish Independence, it became a much used sentence and numerous Scots were so executed including Sir Alexander Seton, three of King Robert Bruce's brothers: Alexander, Thomas and Nigel Bruce, and Sir Simon Frasier.
Tudor era
The leaders of the first Cornish Uprising of 1497, Michael An Gof and Thomas Flamank, were hanged, drawn and quartered on 27 June 1497 at Tyburn, Londonmarker.
In an attempt to intimidate the Roman Catholic clergy into taking the Oath of Supremacy, Henry VIII ordered that John Houghton, the prior of the London Charterhousemarker, be hanged, drawn and quartered, along with two other Carthusians. Henry also famously condemned Francis Dereham to this form of execution for being one of Catherine Howard's lovers. Dereham and the King's good friend Thomas Culpeper were both executed shortly before Catherine herself, but Culpeper was spared the cruel punishment and was instead beheaded. Sir Thomas More, who was found guilty of high treason under the Treason Act of 1534, was spared this punishment; Henry commuted the execution to one by beheading.
In the aftermath of the Babington Plot to murder Queen Elizabeth I and replace her on the throne with Mary Queen of Scots, the conspirators were condemned to this method of execution in September 1586. On hearing of the appalling agony to which the first seven condemned were subjected while being butchered on the scaffold, Elizabeth ordered that the remaining conspirators, who were to be dispatched on the following day, should be left hanging until they were dead. Other Elizabethans who were executed in this way include Elizabeth's own physician, Dr. Rodrigo Lopez, a Portuguese Jew who was convicted of conspiring against her in 1594, and the Jesuit Edmund Campion.
Seventeenth century
Other notable deaths from the punishment include Guy Fawkes and his co-conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot to assassinate James I in 1605. Fawkes, though weakened by torture, cheated the executioners. When he was to be hanged until almost dead, he jumped from the gallows, so his neck broke and he died. A co-conspirator, Robert Keyes, had attempted the same trick, but the rope broke, so he was drawn fully conscious. Jesuit Father Henry Garnet was executed on 3 May 1606 at St. Paul's. His crime was to be the confessor of several members of the Gunpowder Plot. Many spectators thought that his sentence was too severe. Antonia Fraser writes:
Early in the English Civil War, John Lilburne, a prominent Parliamentarian who because of his radical views was known as "Free Born John", was captured by the Royalists while serving as a captain in the Parliamentary army. Moves were taken to try him and some other prisoners of war as traitors, but when on 17 December 1642 Parliament declared lex talionis (to retaliate in kind) he was instead exchanged for Royalist prisoners. From then on in England during the war Royalist prisoners of war were not tried and executed as traitors, but the Parliamentary side were well aware of what could happen if they lost the war, as the Earl of Manchester a Parliamentarian general said "We may beat the king 99 times, and yet he will be king still. If he beats us but once, we shall be hanged".
Under the Commonwealth, Miles Sindercombe a member of a plot to assassinate the Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell only avoided being hanged, drawn and quartered because he took poison before the sentence could be carried out. St John Southworth, being a priest, was prosecuted under the Elizabethan anti-priest legislation which prescribed the sentence of hanging, drawing and quartering. He was hanged but spared the drawing and quartering.
Over six days in October 1660, after the Restoration of Charles II, nine of those convicted of the regicide of Charles I in 1649 were executed in London in the prescribed manner. Those executed were: Thomas Harrison, John Jones, Adrian Scroope, John Carew, Thomas Scot, Gregory Clement, Daniel Axtel, Hugh Peters, and John Cooke. Three more regicides suffered the same fate within two years: John Okey, John Barkstead and Miles Corbet. Additionally, the corpses of Oliver Cromwell, John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton were disinterred and hanged, drawn and quartered in posthumous executions for their involvement in the regicide.
Only a few months later on 6 January 1661, about fifty Fifth Monarchists, headed by a wine-cooper named Thomas Venner, made an effort to attain possession of London in the name of "King Jesus". Most of the fifty were either killed or taken prisoner, and on 19 and 21 January, Venner and ten others were hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason.
In October 1663 twenty-six men were arrested, imprisoned, and tried in York for their participation in The Farnley Wood Plot. Twenty three were hanged, drawn and quartered in York, but three rebels escaped from prison only to be recaptured in Leeds early the next year where they were then executed in a similar manner.
In 1676, Joshua Tefft was executed by this method at Smith's Castlemarker in Wickford, Rhode Islandmarker. He was an English colonist who fought on the side of the Narragansett during the Great Swamp Fight battle of King Philip's War. He may be the only person ever hanged, drawn and quartered in North America. Metacomet, leader of the Narragansett, was himself beheaded and quartered, but not hanged, after his death.
Oliver Plunkett, Archbishop of Armagh and the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland, was arrested in 1681 and transported to Newgate Prisonmarker, London, where he was convicted of treason. He was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburnmarker, the last Roman Catholic to be executed for his faith in England. He was beatified in 1920 and was canonized in 1975 by Pope Paul VI. His head is preserved for viewing as a relic in St. Peter's Church in Droghedamarker, while the rest of his body rests in Downside Abbeymarker, near Stratton-on-the-Fossemarker, Somersetmarker.
Following a large rebellion against the Crown, only a few of the ringleaders would be hanged, drawn and quartered; most would either be hanged, sent to penal colonies, or pardoned. The Bloody Assizes of Judge Jeffreys after the Monmouth Rebellion is a notorious post Civil War English example, but in the aftermath of rebellions in Ireland and Scotland punishment was often just as ruthless.
From the eighteenth century
Nine soldiers from the Manchester Regiment who had taken part in the Jacobite Rising were hanged, drawn and quartered at Kennington Commonmarker, London, on 30 July 1746.
During the American War of Independence (1775–1783), notable captured colonists, such as signers of the American Declaration of Independence, were theoretically subject to being hanged, drawn and quartered as traitors to the King. (At the signing, Benjamin Franklin is quoted as having replied to a comment by John Hancock that they must all hang together: "Yes, we must, indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately.") However, during the war, American sailors and soldiers were treated as prisoners of war, as to do otherwise invited retaliation.
The penultimate use of the sentence in England was against the French spy François Henri de la Motte, who was convicted of treason on 23 July 1781. The last occasion was on 24 August 1782 against Scottish spy David Tyrie in Portsmouthmarker for carrying on a treasonable correspondence with the French (using information passed to him from officials high in the British government). A contemporary account in the Hampshire Chronicle describes his being hanged for 22 minutes, following which he was beheaded and his heart cut out and burned. He was then emasculated, quartered, and his body parts put into a coffin and buried in the pebbles at the seaside. The same account claims that, immediately after his burial, sailors dug the coffin up and cut the body into a thousand pieces, each taking a piece as a souvenir to their shipmates. Little else is known of his life.
British courts continued to apply the sentence in Dublin, in Ireland. The last execution was of Robert Emmet on 20 September 1803, who was hanged and then beheaded once dead. Emmet had led a failed uprising against British rule earlier that year.
Edward Marcus Despard and his six accomplices were sentenced to hanging, drawing and quartering for allegedly plotting to assassinate George III but their sentence was commuted to simple hanging and beheading.
The Treason Act 1814 changed the law so that quartering would happen after death by hanging.
In 1817, the three leaders of the Pentrich Risingmarker, convicted of high treason, suffered hanging and beheading only.
In 1820, Arthur Thistlewood and other participants in the Cato Street Conspiracy were condemned to this punishment, though the court record shows that the drawing and quartering was omitted from the completion of the sentence. The sentence was passed on the Irish rebel leader William Smith O'Brien in 1848 but commuted to transportation.
In Lower Canada (now Quebecmarker), David McLane was hanged, drawn and quartered on 21 July 1797 for treason; however, Hangman Ward let McLane hang for 28 minutes. This ensured he was not alive to suffer the disembowelling, decapitation and quartering part of the sentence. Ignace Vailliancourt was "hanged, dissected and anatomized" on 7 March 1803 for murder; however, part of the sentence was that his body "be delivered to Dr. Charles Blake for dissection", so this was likely not a true drawing and quartering. During the War of 1812, in May 1814 at Ancaster, Upper Canada (now Ontariomarker), Attorney General John Beverley Robinson orchestrated a show trial to discourage any tendencies to join with the American side in the war because many residents of Upper Canada were immigrants from the American Colonies or closely related to Americans. The judges indicted 71 traitors and sentenced 17 to be hanged, drawn and quartered. They finally pardoned nine, hanged eight and quartered none.
Drawing and quartering were abolished in 1870.
A letter to the London Review of Books, February 12, 2009, p. 4, from a Bill Gilmour refers to three people being hanged, drawn and quartered in Scotland in 1820. Gilmour notes that the punishment remained on the statute book until 1947.
Details of the crime
The crime of treason, or offences against the crown is often thought of in terms of attempted regicides, such as Guy Fawkes and others mentioned above. However, the crime was interpreted at different periods of English history to include a variety of acts which, at the time, were deemed to threaten the constitutional authority of the monarchy.
For example, on 12 December 1674, William Burnet was condemned to this punishment for offences against the king: namely that he "had often endeavoured to reconcile divers of his Majesties Protestant subjects to the Romish Church, and had actually perverted several to embrace the Roman Catholique Religion, and assert and maintain the Pope's supremacy." In other words, he had come to England and attempted to convert Protestants to Roman Catholicism. In a similar vein, John Morgan was also sentenced to this punishment on 30 April 1679, for having received orders from the See of Rome, and coming to England: there being "very good Evidence that proved he was a Priest, and had said Mass".
On the same day in 1679, two other people were found guilty of offences against the king, at the Old Bailey. In this case, they had been "Coyning and Counterfeiting". Again, they were sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. In a similar case on 15 October 1690, Thomas Rogers and Anne Rogers were tried for "Clipping 40 pieces of Silver" (in other words, clipping the edges off silver coins). Thomas Rogers was hanged, drawn and quartered and Anne Rogers was burned alive.
Lord Hale mentions in his History of Pleas of the Crown that although sometimes people were sentenced to this punishment for counterfeiting coins, this sentence was in fact unlawful, as the proper sentence for this kind of treason omitted quartering.
Similar, lesser punishments for treason
Men convicted of the lesser crime of petty treason were dragged to the place of execution and hanged until dead, but not subsequently dismembered. Women convicted of treason or petty treason were burned at the stake.
Class distinctions in its application
In Britain, this penalty was usually reserved for commoners, including knights. Noble traitors were beheaded, a much less painful punishment, at first by sword and in later years by axe. The different treatment of lords and commoners was clear after the Cornish Rebellion of 1497: lowly-born Michael An Gof and Thomas Flamank were hanged, drawn, and quartered at Tyburnmarker, while their fellow rebellion leader Lord Audley was beheaded at Tower Hillmarker.
However, this class distinction was not applied in the Second Scottish War of Independence when many noblemen suffered this form of execution including three of the brothers of King Robert the Bruce and his brother-in-law Sir Christopher Seton who were all members of the nobility.
This class distinction was brought out in a House of Commonsmarker debate of 1680, with regard to the Warrant of Execution of Lord Stafford, which had condemned him to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. Sir William Jones is quoted as saying "Death is the substance of the Judgment; the manner of it is but a circumstance.... No man can show me an example of a Nobleman that has been quartered for High-Treason: They have been only beheaded". The House then resolved that "Execution be done upon Lord Stafford, by severing his Head from his Body".
Religious considerations
Dismemberment of the body after death was seen by many contemporaries as a way of punishing the traitor beyond the grave. In western European Christian countries, it was ordinarily considered contrary to the dignity of the human body to mutilate it. A Parliamentary Act from the reign of Henry VIII stipulated that only the corpses of executed murderers could be used for dissection. Being thus dismembered was viewed as an extra punishment not suitable for others. There are cases on record where murderers would try to plead guilty to another capital offence so that, although they would be hanged, their body would be buried whole and not be dissected.
Attitudes towards this issue changed very slowly in Britain and were not manifested in law until the passing of the Anatomy Act in 1832. Respect for the dead is still a sensitive issue in Britain as can be seen by the furor over the "Alder Hey organs scandal" when the organs of deceased children were kept without their parents' informed consent.
Eyewitness accounts
An account is provided by the diary of Samuel Pepys for Saturday 13 October 1660, in which he describes his attendance at the execution of Major-General Thomas Harrison for the regicide of Charles I. The complete diary entry for the day, given below, illustrates the matter-of-fact way in which the execution is treated by Pepys:
At 26-27 Great Tower Street, Tower Hillmarker, London, there is a pub called "The Hung Drawn and Quartered". On the wall is the altered quotation from Samuel Pepys, shown above. The pub is close to the site of several executions, but not to Charing Crossmarker.
Similar techniques in other countries
French quartering
In France, the traditional punishment for regicide (whether attempted or completed) under the ancien régime (known in French as ) is often described as "quartering", though it in fact has little to do with the English punishment. The process was as follows: the regicide offender would be first tortured with red-hot pincers, then the hand with which the crime was committed would be burned, with sulphur, molten lead, wax, and boiling oil poured into the wounds. The quartering would be accomplished by the attachment of the condemned's limbs to horses, who would then tear them away from the body. Finally, the often still-living torso would be burned. Notable examples include:
These executions were carried out (along with most others under the ancien régime) in the Place de Grèvemarker.
Gérard's execution took place on the market square in Delftmarker, the Netherlandsmarker.
Russian quartering
In Russia, quartering ( ) or division into five parts ( , according Prince Mikhail Shcherbatov, a Russian Enlightenment author), referred to a punishment in which the executioner severed the limbs one by one, and then decapitated the convict. It was a common punishment for mutiny or rebellion until the beginning of 18th century.
Persons who were quartered in Russia include:
The problem of political crime in Russia in the early Modern age and the punishment for it is discussed in a work of the Russian modern historian, Professor E. V. Anisimov "Dyba (the Rack) and knout" which was published in 1999 in Russian.
Five activists of the Decembrist revolt in 1826 were sentenced by an extraordinary "Supreme" Court to be quartered but were executed by hanging after royal clemency was extended.
See also: Capital punishment in Russia.
Polish quartering
The quartering was a quite usual qualified method of capital punishment in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for revolt and high treason in early Modern Age.
Danish quartering
The practice was also used in Denmarkmarker.
In literature and popular culture
See also
1. The Straight Dope (04-Aug-1995). What do "drawn and quartered" and "keelhauling" mean?
2. Drawn Dictionary Deffinition15 of Drawn
3. Extracts from the transcript of the October 1660 trial and execution of 10 regicides At the end of the article there is a description of the executions. They were all hanged, drawn and quartered apart from Francis Hacker who was hanged.
4. George Neilson, "Drawing, Hanging and Quartering" published in Notes and Queries, 15 August 1891; s7-XII: 129–131.
5. Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 1989
7. Brown, Chris. William Wallace. The True Story of Braveheart. Stroud: Tempus Publishing Ltd, 2005. ISBN 0-7524-3432-2
8. Scott, Ronald McNair, Robert the Bruce, King of the Scots
9. An Gof and the Cornish rebels in Deptford, 1497
10. Andrew Sharp, "Lilburne, John (1615?–1657)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Oct 2006
11. Andrew Sharp (1998). The English Levellers, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521625114, 9780521625111. p. 40
12. Royle, Trevor, Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms 1638-1660. Abacus 2006, (first published 2004). ISBN 978-0-349-11564-1. p. 728
13. Diary of Samuel Pepys. Monday 7 January 1660/61, Saturday 19 January 1660/61 and Monday 21 January 1660/61
14. Hopper, Andrew. The Farnley Wood Plot and the memory of the Civil Wars in Yorkshire, The Historical Journal (2002), 45: 281-303 Cambridge University Press.
15. Sheldon Samuel Cohen. Yankee Sailors in British Gaols: Prisoners of War at Forton and Mill, 1777-1783, University of Delaware Press, 1995. ISBN 0874135648, 9780874135640
16. Jedidiah Morse (1824). Annals of the American Revolution: Or, A Record of the Causes and Events which Produced..., s.n. pp. 363-366
17. Hampshire Chronicle, Monday, 2 September 1782. Transcript available online: see Some Selected Reports from the Hampshire Chronicle
18. Irish Historical Mysteries: The Grave of Robert Emmet
19. Canada Legal History
20. Sir John Robinson, 1st Baronet, of Toronto
21. citation needed, web reference has been removed, available in cache 1 June 2007
22. Hale's History of Pleas of the Crown (1800 ed.) vol. 1, pp. 219-220, (from Google Books).
23. Ronald McNair Scott, Robert the Bruce, p. 90
24. Anchitell Grey, Grey's Debates of the House of Commons: volume 8, London, 1769. Online at Debate on the Warrant of Execution of Lord Stafford, Thursday, 23 December 1680.
25. Alder Hey organs scandal: the issue explained by David Batty and Jane Perrone Friday 27 April 2001 in The Guardian
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glacial erratics
glacial stratigraphy
Lodgement till. South Harbour, Fair Isle (HU 203699). Note the mix of clast types and the manner in which the stones float in a matrix of sand and mud. The brown colour of the till probably reflect the incorporation of debris from Devonian and Permian sandstones from offshore. Photo by Hamish Ross.
A till composed of ripped-up blocks of underlying sandstone on the cliffs at Sandness
Definition: accumulations of unsorted, unstratified mixtures of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders deposited directly from glacier ice.
Till content and structure provides evidence of the mode of formation of the associated glacial landforms and of former directions of ice flow. Till is also of interest where it occurs within sequences of other sediments as it provide evidence of glacial conditions within the stratigraphy.
Till is generally only thinly developed on Shetland and tends to be thickest on lee slopes. Its character and content depends on the rocks over which the ice has passed and the distance of travel. Many tills contain erratics, ranging in size from boulders to sand grains. Locally-derived tills are dominated by local material and often can be traced to nearby outcrops of glacially-disturbed and dragged bedrock. The direction of over-turning and dragging of blocks can often indicate the direction of ice flow.
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Calendar History
Calendar History 1
The Source
Japan's first calendar came from China via Korea. In the middle of the 6th century, the Yamato Imperial Court, which ruled Japan at the time, invited a priest from a country called Paekche (Kudara in Japanese), in what is now Korea, to learn from him how to draw up a calendar, as well as astronomy and geography. Reportedly, Japan organized its first calendar in the 12th year of Suiko (604).
Nihonshoki. Vol.19Nihonshoki. Vol.19
Title Creator Physical data
Nihonshoki. Vol.19 - 1v.
Date Publisher Place
1610 - -
Note Subject(NDC) Call No.
An old edition of type printing. 210.3 WA7-120
An entry dated June of the 14th year of Emperor Kinmei (553) in the Nihonshoki, Japan's oldest chronicle, states that the government planned to invite a calendar expert from Paekche to introduce a calendar to Japan, making it the first reference to a calendar in all Japanese records.
Back then, all matters relating to the calendar were determined by the Imperial Court. Under the Ritsuryosei system of centralized administration under the Ritsuryo legal code of the Taika Reformation, the Onmyoryo of Nakatsukasasho was in charge of the task. An Onmyoryo was a government office that had jurisdiction over calendar preparation, astronomy, divination, etc. It was a time when calendars and divination were inseparable. From the end of 10th century, the task of preparing the calendar was handed down in the Kamo family, while astronomy passed through generations of the Abe family, its patriarch being Abe Seimei (921-1005), noted as an Onmyo-shi, or specialist in the realm of calendars and divination.
The calendar used then was called "Tai-in-taiyo-reki," a lunisolar calendar, or "Onmyo-reki."
Each month was adjusted to the cycle of moon's waxing and waning. Since the moon orbits the earth in about 29.5 days, adjustment was required and this was done by making months with either 30 days or 29 days, the former, "Dai-no-tsuki (long month)," the latter, "Sho-no-tsuki (short month)." Aside from the moon's orbit round the earth, the earth orbits the sun in 365.25 days, which, as we all know, causes the seasonal changes. Thus, merely repeating long and short months gradually produced a discrepancy between the actual season and the calendar. To compensate for this, a month called "Uru-zuki," or intercalary month, was inserted every few years to produce a year with 13 months, with the order of longer and shorter months changing year by year.
Unlike our contemporary calendar in which there is no change in the order of months, back then the fixing of a calendar was deemed so important that it was placed under the control of the imperial court and, in the later Edo period, under the superimposed military shogunate regime.
Spread of the Guchu-reki and Kana-goyomi calendars
The calendar established by Onmyo-ryo was called "Guchu-reki," one in which various words indicating seasons, annual events and daily good omens were written in Chinese characters and called "Reki-chu (calendar notes)." The Guchu-reki derives its name from the fact that the notes were written in detail.
This Guchu-reki, which was in service until the Edo period, was used particularly by noblemen in ancient and medieval times, individuals based their everyday activities on the calendar. They often wrote a personal diary in the blank spaces or on the back of their personal calendar. These entries remain left valuable historical records of the era.
20th year of O-ei (1413) Guchu-reki (Mansai Jugo nikki)
Title Creator Physical data
20th year of O-ei (1413) Guchu-reki (Mansai Jugo nikki) - 1 scroll
Date Publisher Place
- - -
Note Subject(NDC) Call No.
On verso: Mansai Jugo nikki (the diary of Mansai Jugo) 499.81/210.46 WA1-1
This is a Guchu calendar made in the 20th year of O-ei (1413), on the back of which is a diary written by Mansai Jugo (1376-1435), the high priest of the Daigoji Temple, upon whom the emperor conferred the lofty rank of "Jusango." He was highly regarded and taken into the confidence of three Muromachi shoguns, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, Ashikaga Yoshomichi and Ashikaga Yoshimasa, and known as the "Priest in Black." His diary is treasured as a historical record giving an insight into the political affairs of the era.
With the spread of kana, Japan's phonetic alphabet, "Kana-goyomi," a simplified edition of Guchu-reki written in kana, appeared. In the middle of the 14th century calendars started to be printed and soon reached a broader range of users.
3rd year of Koei (1344) Kana-goyomi (Moromor-ki. Vol.16)
Title Creator Physical data
3rd year of Koei (1344) Kana-goyomi (Moromor-ki. Vol.16) - 1 scroll
Date Publisher Place
- - -
Note Subject(NDC) Call No.
On verso: Moromori-ki (The diary of Nakahara Moromori) 449.81/210.45 WA27-1
On the back of a Kana-goyomi of the 3rd year of Koei (1344) was the diary of Nakahara Moromori (dates unknown), an official of the imperial court.
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Alkaloids have complex ring structures containing nitrogen. Some plants produce alkaloids as part of its defence system to protect themselves from diseases and pests. Why plants produce alkaloids still remains as a question but various theories proposed that they are by-products of normal plant metabolism. The presence of alkaloids may not be due to a specific reason and may have multiple purposes to be synthesised in plants. For example, alkaloids may be a reservoir for molecules that plants often use. Plants that synthesise alkaloids include seed-bearing plants such as berries and alkaloids are normally deposited in the bark, fruit, roots, and leaves. Often, they are bases thus tastes bitter but most importantly the physiological effects play a fundamental roles for today’s medicinal uses. Some commonly seen alkaloids for medical purposes are illustrated as follow.
The opium poppy contains a variety of alkaloids and Morphine is one of them, which is practically used as painkiller. It is often given to patients before surgery as anaesthetic or for immediate relieve of pains. Codeine, similar in structure to morphine, is also obtained from the poppy, also helps to relieve pain. Heroin is a synthetic derivative of morphine that is highly addictive. It exhibited a relaxing effect which is commonly describe as feeling “high” if given to mammals.
Other members of alkaloids include quinine, cocaine and lysergic acid. Natural source of quinine is derived from Quechua, also known as Cinchona tree bark. Quinine was indeed a very important medicine for the treatment of malaria. It is effective to halt shivering due to cold temperature of malaria disease and its anti-malaria properties are essential for muscle relaxant.
(Seeman, 2007)
Lysergic acid is produced by a type of fungus that grows on rye. A synthetic variation of this compound called lysergic acid diethylamide is a powerful hallucinogen called LSD. Another class of alkaloids are based on structures called piperidine rings. These include compounds such as cocaine. Cocaine is a powerful stimulant that can be addictive like heroin.
(Cordell, 2002)
Cordell, G. A. (Ed.). (2002). The alkaloids (58th ed.). San Diego, California, USA: Elsevier Science.
Seeman, J. I. (2007). Review paper on: The woodward-Doering/Rebe-Kindles total synthesis of quinine: setting the record straight. J Angew Chem Int. 46, 1378-1413.
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Leschi, The Nisqually Chief
chief leschi
Chief Leschi
Leschi, war chief of the Nisqually Tribe, was born in 1808 in a secluded winter village on the Mashel River where it empties into the Nisqually River at the southernmost tip of Puget Sound, near Olympia, Washington. His people believed that, on the day of his birth, a star rose over the Nisqually Plains and predestined him their leader.
Leschi's father, Sennatco, was portage chief of the Nisqually Tribe, sturdy square-build people with round faces and broad features; his mother the daughter of Chief We-ow-wicht, a chief from the Yakama Nation, a tribe from what is now central Washington State. Chief Kamiakin, war leader of the Yakama Nation and the chief who met Lewis and Clark in their westward journey, was a cousin. The arranged marriage of Leschi's parents was a custom often practiced by tribes to improve lineage. According to the custom of the Nisqually, his mother moved to her husband's village to make her home and raise their children, consisting of Leschi, one sister and an older brother, Quiemuth, ten years his senior.
In appearance Leschi was of medium height at 5'7" with strong, heavy shoulders and the slender features of his Yakama blood: A firm jaw, aquiline nose and deep-set brown eyes under a sloping high forehead. As an adult, Leschi was recognized for his intelligence and superb oratorical skills. Having a strong sense of wisdom, he was often called upon to arbitrate and settle disputes within the tribe. He learned to speak both the Sahaptin and Salish languages, but never learned English except for a few words in Chinook jargon.
The Nisqually people preferred to establish their villages along the Nisqually River, its tributaries and the southern Puget Sound area. They moved freely throughout their territory, sharing berry and hunting grounds with nearby tribes. Food was plentiful and life was peaceful as days were mostly spent gathering food, hunting, fishing and digging for roots. Other activities revolved around ceremonies, feasting and special observances. Life was highly organized, governed by the "unwritten law" of the people. Periodically problems would arise whenever the Snoqualmie Tribes and aggressive bands from British Columbia would come down from the North to raid and capture slaves. hunting, root digging and fishing. Unknown to the tribes of the Northwest Coastal regions, outsiders such as the British and American people sought control and made arrangements with each other concerning the homelands of the local tribes. In 1818 an agreement was signed between the Americans and British, reserving claims and rights in the Oregon country. Fur traders, such as the Hudson's Bay Company, moved in quickly, building Fort Vancouver on the banks of the Columbia River in 1824 and Fort Nisqually at the mouth of the Nisqually River on Puget Sound in 1833. Five years later the Nisqually Plains, important root digging fields for the tribes, were claimed by the Hudson's Bay Company and named the Puget Sound Agricultural Farm.
When the British came to the Northwest in 1833 to establish Fort Nisqually, it was Leschi who observed their movements. Trouble with the Nisqually people might have been expected; but the British were skillful diplomats who treated the Nisqually civilly, and a good relationship with Leschi's people was attained. Leschi noted they had come without their families and took Nisqually women as their wives in marriages recognized by the British. He watched their farming efforts, which later turned to raising sheep and cattle.
In time Leschi and his brother Quiemuth accepted positions as horse tenders with the fur trading company at a farm station in the Yelm Prairie. It was here that Leschi saw the advancement of the Americans, or "Bostons", who flooded to the Pacific Northwest and took claim of traditional tribal lands in 1846 when the International Boundary was set at the 49th Parallel. Unlike the British, these outsiders arrived with families in tow and proceeded to build homes and fences in a concept of "ownership of land", something unfamiliar to the tribal people who believed the Creator had given the land to them to share and take care of. They did not believe one man could "own" a part of Mother Earth. Four years later non-Indians claimed Nisqually lands in the Donation Act of 1850 and the U.S. Army established a fort at Steilacoom. After the United States arbitrarily assumed jurisdiction over the Indian people living below the 49th Parallel, Leschi and Quiemuth continued to monitor the government's actions.
March 2, 1853 Washington Territory was established out of the old Oregon Territory. Issac Stevens was appointed Governor and Superintendent of Indian Affairs. He was a veteran of the Mexican War, an ambitious man whose goal was to make treaties with local tribes in order to make way for the non-Indian. A Treaty Commission was selected and western Washington was divided into five treaty districts. Five chiefs, including Leschi, were to be appointed for each tribal district. On behalf of the United States Government, Stevens offered schools, blacksmith shops, reserved hunting and fishing rights, and land to live on. One catch was the Treaty Commission would have authority to decide where the tribes would live and reserved the right to centralize the reservations to remote areas at some later date.
December 26, 1854 the Medicine Creek Treaty was presented to a gathering of Nisqually, Puyallup and other neighboring tribes. All were asked to sign the treaty. Leschi had requested a portion of the Nisqually River for fishing and a segment of prairie land for the tribal horses. Neither need was addressed in the treaty negotiations which purported that the population of thirteen Nisqually villages should be moved onto a small piece of rocky highland near Johnson Point. Leschi refused to sign, knowing that in signing he would condemn his tribe to a land with no river for fishing, no pastures for their horses, and the future threat of being moved to northern territories. Although he refused to sign, an "X" appeared before his name.
Refusing to accept the assigned reservation placed the Nisqually people in a peculiar situation, however they stood firm with the stand taken by Leschi. A period of general unrest followed: The Americans were uneasy, government officials were uneasy. The Nisqually were, for all to see, dissatisfied and restless. While Governor Stevens continued to make additional treaties with tribes in northern and eastern Washington, Leschi traveled to neighboring tribes and observed the hostility toward American settlers. October of 1855 he went to the capital of Olympia, Washington to meet with acting Governor C. Mason, where he expressed his willingness for peace and for his people to remain on their original river bottom homeland. No agreement was made, Leschi returned home.
Earlier that year, Governor Stevens got legislative approval to establish a volunteer militia although General Wool, commander of the Pacific Division, sharply criticized their intended use. He believed their presence created greater tension and hostility between the tribes and non-Indians. On October 24th, acting governor Mason ordered a detachment of these volunteers, called Eaton's Rangers, to arrest Leschi and his brother and bring them back to Olympia for custodial protection and prevent an uprising. However, Leschi and Quiemuth heard of the proposed action, gathered their families together and fled from their camp. By the time the Rangers arrived on the Nisqually bottom, Leschi's group was far into the mountain foothills to the Northeast. It is believed they intended to cross the mountains and seek refuge with their Yakama relatives. Other Nisqually and Puyallup warriors and their families soon joined the group, and Leschi was chosen to assume leadership, a position that would earn him the title War Chief of the Allied Indian Forces. The Rangers followed after. It was during this chase a roving band of warriors ambushed Eaton's Rangers at Connell's Prairie, killing two men, and sending them back to Olympia.
The war that began in the fall of 1855 was inevitable. Although Leschi stressed to his warriors this war was against the troops and not settlers, other warrior groups had already begun attacking and killing civilian families, burning their homes. Most of the fighting took place within a five mile radius and while the Indian fighters knew the lay of the land and could maneuver well in the wet underbrush, they faced a long, cold winter without sufficient stockpile of food and ammunition. They were also outnumbered by the soldier and volunteer troops who continued to grow in endless count.
In an attempt for a peaceful resolution to the increasing conflict, Leschi went to the home of one of the few Bostons he trusted, Indian Agent John Swan, to seek a renegotiation of the settlement and a revised reservation location. He believed the settlers would be as interested in peace talks as the Nisqually and was willing to make the first gesture for peace. However, the governor would not talk with Leschi until "every savage who murdered the families on the White River is hanged by the neck until dead." Leschi did not kill nor order the attack on the white settlers and said so, but the Governor believed the chief to be a liar and would not make peace.
Four months later, in April of 1856, an entire group of 17-34 Nisqually was annihilated as they fished the Nisqually River. They had been attacked by a volunteer militia operating under Governor Stevens order which stated: "All Indians found in your field of operations (except a mounted company of Indians allied to the government) are to be considered as enemies."
The United States government intervened and advised Governor Stevens to meet with the Medicine Creek Treaty Indians and change the locations of the Nisqually and Puyallup reservations described under Article Six. The new Nisqually Reservation now included Leschi's village grounds at Muck Creek and land on both sides of the Nisqually River. This officially brought the war to an end, but not before a price had been placed on the heads of Leschi and his older brother Quiemuth.
Hearing of this, Quiemuth returned to Nisqually and gave himself up to acting Governor Mason to face trial. He was murdered the first night as he slept on the floor of the governor's office. The back door had been left unlocked, allowing assailants to enter from the alley. The coroner's report stated that "Quiemuth was killed by some person unknown to the jury." Although there was considerable speculation and several possibilities, that "unknown person" was never found or brought to trial.
Again, Leschi approached the government, seeking peace. He vowed he would cut off his right hand to show the Americans he would never fight them again. However, the commander at Fort Steilacoom, Colonel Casey, advised him not to come in that summer as there was much prejudice against him.
November of 1856 Leschi's nephew, Sluggia (his nephew and a man Leschi had raised as a son) betrayed Leschi to the government for a total of 50 blankets. The Nisqually chief was imprisoned at Fort Steilacoom, under the custody of Colonel Casey, as a prisoner of war. Governor Stevens, however, considered him a criminal and charged him with the murder of a soldier killed during the White River ambush. Sluggia was killed by a friend of Leschi's named Wa-he-lut, or Yelm Jim, in retribution for the betrayal of their chief and, although arrested, was pardoned on his execution day.
A criminal trial was set, and even though it was acknowledged by witnesses and history that Leschi was not present at the White River conflict, he was identified by a vengeful militia volunteer as the Indian who shot and killed the soldier, A.B. Moses. Leschi's defense maintained that in time of war neither side could be held accountable and Leschi himself steadfastly denied involvement in the skirmish, having been in eastern Washington at the time. The first jury was unable to come to a verdict. A second trial determined Leschi to be guilty; he was scheduled to hang June 10, 1857.
After an unsuccessful appeal, his execution date was reset for January 22, 1858 but was changed again after Pierce County officials in charge of the hanging were arrested and charged with selling liquor to Indians, an effective delaying tactic brought about by Leschi's supporters. The final execution date was set for February 19, 1858 but U.S. Army officials would not allow Leschi to be hanged on the grounds at Fort Steilacoom, so a scaffold was erected a mile to the east of the fort.
There had not been any great desire of the sheriff to hang Leschi, and they believed Colonel Casey would not give him up to the execution. Public pressure was great against the judge granting a respite, and the governor denied clemency. February 19, 1858 Chief Leschi went to the gallows before a small group consisting mostly of the posse and a few Nisqually, including his wife Annie. He forgave his accusers and stated again that he did not kill the soldier, Moses. At approximately 11:00 a.m. Chief Leschi went to meet his Maker with the dignity of a chief. His body was released to the Nisqually who buried him on tribal property. In 1895 he was moved to a site at Muck Creek where it rested until 1917 when that land become part of the Fort Lewis Military Reservation. He is now buried in the Cushman Indian Cemetery in Tacoma, Washington on the administrative grounds of the Puyallup Indian Reservation.
These words are written on the face of the memorial above his grave: "This is a memorial to Chief Leschi, 1808-1858"
On the back of the stone are these words: "Judicially murdered on February 19, 1858, owing to misunderstanding of Treaty of 1854-1855, serving his people by his death. Sacrificed to a principle. A martyr to liberty, honor and the rights of his native land. Erected by those he died to serve."
Information complied from the writings of historians Della Gould Emmons and Cecelia Svinth Carpenter.
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Handling sharps and needles
Sharps are medical devices like needles, scalpels, and other tools that cut or go into the skin. Learning how to safely handle sharps is important to prevent accidental needle sticks and cuts.
Preventing Injuries
Before you use a sharp object, such as a needle or scalpel, make sure you have all the items you need close by. This includes items like alcohol swabs, gauze, and bandages.
Also know where the sharps disposal container is. Check to make sure there is enough room in the container for your object to fit. It should not be more than 2/3 full.
Some needles have a protective device, such as a needle shield, sheath, or blunting, that you activate after you remove the needle from the patient. This allows you to safely handle the needle without the risk of exposing yourself to blood or body fluids. If you are using this kind of needle, make sure you know how it works before you use it.
Follow these guidelines when you work with sharps:
• Do not uncover or unwrap the sharp object until it is time to use it.
• Keep the object pointed away from you at all times.
• Never recap or bend a sharp object.
• Keep your fingers away from the tip of the object.
• If the object is reusable, put it in a secure, closed container after you use it.
• Never hand a sharp object to someone else or put it on a tray for another person to pick up.
• Tell the people you are working with when you plan to set the object down or pick it up.
Sharps Disposal
Make sure the disposal container is made for disposing of sharp objects. Replace containers when they are 2/3 full.
Other important tips include:
• Never put your fingers into the sharps container.
• If the needle has tubing attached to it, hold the needle and the tubing when you put it in the sharps container.
• Sharps containers should be at eye level and within your reach.
• If a needle is sticking out of the container, do not push it in with your hands. Call to have the container removed. Or, a trained person may use tongs to push the needle back into the container.
• If you find an uncovered sharp object outside of a disposal container, it is safe to pick it up only if you can grasp the non-sharp end. If you cannot, use tongs to pick it up and dispose of it.
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How do you spell Hannukah?
treaty or compact contracted by ancient Rome with one or more allied states (foederati). The treaty contained various conditions establishing permanent friendly relations between the contracting parties. A foedus aequum was a bilateral agreement recognizing both parties as equals obliged to assist each other in defensive wars or when otherwise called upon, in perpetuity. A foedus iniquum defined Rome as superior, the second party being bound to assist Rome in offensive wars, thus limiting the ally's sovereignty. Foedera were negotiated by Roman commanders and confirmed by vote of the centuriate assembly (comitia centuriata). The compacts were inscribed on bronze tablets and either displayed in public or kept in temples or other public buildings.
Learn more about foedus with a free trial on
Encyclopedia Britannica, 2008. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
Cite This Source
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Cutting Edge > Courses > Mineralogy > Mineral Physics > Brillouin
Brillouin Spectroscopy
by Sylvia-Monique Thomas, University of Nevada Las Vegas
Additional Literature
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Léon Nicolas Brillouin
Léon Nicolas Brillouin (1889-1969).
In his early years Léon Nicolas Brillouin (1889-1969) studied the quantum theory of solids. His thesis advisors were Paul Langevin, Marie Curie, and Jean Perrin. He also studied the propagation of monochromatic light waves and their interaction with acoustic waves, i.e., scattering of light with a frequency change, which is known as Brillouin spectroscopy. Brillouin emigrated during World War II to the US, where he worked at Columbia University.
— Image courtesy Emilio Segre Visual Archives. American Institute of Physics. All rights reserved.
What is Brillouin scattering?
Brillouin scattering is named after Léon Nicolas Brillouin (1889-1969). The french physicist first predicted the inelastic scattering of light (photons) by thermally generated acoustic vibrations (phonons) in 1922. The soviet physicist Leonid Mandelstam (1879-1944) is believed to have discovered the scattering as early as 1918, but he published it only in 1926. Other commonly used names are Brillouin light scattering (BLS), Brillouin-Mandelstam scattering (BMS), and Brillouin-Mandelstam light scattering (BMLS).
In classical physics, Brillouin scattering can be described as reflection of the incident light from a three-dimensional diffraction grating produced by periodic density variations (refraction index changes) in a material due to propagating sound waves. Since the wave is traveling with the speed of sound, the scattered light frequency changes, too, it experiences a Doppler shift.
The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift) is named after and was proposed by the austrian physicist Christian Doppler in 1842 in Prague, Czech Republic. It describes the frequency change of a wave for an observer moving relative to the source of the wave.
The distance between two waves is called wavelength and the amount of time between waves passing is called frequency, which are interrelated by the wave traveling speed. High frequency indicates short wavelength and low frequency indicates long wavelength.
During the approach of a wave at the observer the received frequency is higher than the emitted frequency, it is identical when the wave passes by, and it is lower during the decay of the wave.
When the source of the waves is moving toward the observer, each successive wave is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave; each wave takes less time to reach the observer. The time between arrivals of waves at the observer is reduced, causing a frequency increase.
While travelling, the distance between waves is reduced; the waves bundle. On the other hand, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer; the arrival time between waves is increased, the frequency reduced. The distance between successive wave fronts is increased, the waves spread out.
For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The magnitude of the Doppler shift depends on the motion of the source, the motion of the observer, and the motion of the medium.
From a quantum physics perspective, Brillouin scattering is an interaction between an electromagnetic wave and a density wave (photon-phonon scattering). Thermal motions of atoms in a material (e.g., solid, liquid) create acoustic vibrations, which lead to density variations and scattering of the incident light. The scattering is inelastic, which means that the kinetic energy of the incident light is not conserved (as in the case of elastic scattering) but the photon either loses energy to create a phonon (Stokes, kS= kI+ q, ωS = ωI+ ωq), or gains energy by absorbing a phonon (Anti-Stokes, kS= kI- q, ωS = ωIq). Q and ωq are the wave vector and frequency of the phonon, and kS, ωS, kI and ωI are the wave vectors and frequencies of the scattered and incident photon, with 107 Hz < ωq < 1012 Hz.
Stokes/Anti-Stokes schematic
Inelastic scattering schematic.
There are two types of inelastic interaction between incident radiation and the vibrational modes in a crystal, as represented by phonons. In each case, a quantum of energy ho is exchanged. In a Stokes event the energy is transferred to the phonon, and the energy of the scattered radiation is reduced. In an anti-Stokes event, the energy is transferred from the phonon to the radiation, which is thus increased in energy. In the figure, h is Planck's constant; ω circular frequency, k photon wave vector, q phonon wave vector; y scattering angle; n refractive index; νth acoustic velocity. (— Image courtesy H. Marquardt.
The frequency and path of the scattered light differ from those of the incident light. The magnitude of the photon frequency shift (ωB, Brillouin shift) depends on the wave length of the incident light (λ0), the refractive index (n) of the sample, the angle θ between incident and scattered light, and the phase velocity of the acoustic wave; it is equal to the energy of the phonon and can be used to measure the latter by analyzing a characteristic Brillouin spectrum, where only modes lying close to the Brillouin zone center are investigated (Q=0).
Brillouin shift
What is the difference to Raman spectroscopy?
Raman scattering also describes the inelastic scattering interaction of light with vibrations of matter. However, while Brillouin scattering involves the scattering of photons from low-frequency phonons, in Raman spectroscopy photons are scattered by interaction with vibrational and rotational transitions in molecules, and the frequency shift and material information are very different. While Brillouin spectroscopy measures the elastic behavior of a sample using an interferometer, Raman spectroscopy determines the chemical composition and molecular structure of a material using either an interferometer or, e.g., a dispersive (grating) spectrometer.
Brillouin spectroscopy is the most frequently used technique for measurements of single-crystal elastic properties of materials of geophysical interest. Elastic properties describe the temporary reversible volume and shape changes that occur when stresses are applied to a mineral and thus allow the calculation of the seismic wave velocities (seismic properties of the Earth) and the change in density that occurs when minerals are under extreme conditions (pressure and/or temperature). Seismic velocities (VP, VS) are related to the density (ρ), bulk (K) and shear (µ) moduli of a material.
Relation density, bulk/shear moduli to seismic velocities
The first Brillouin measurements of geological importance were carried out by Don Weidner and colleagues in 1975 [ref. 14]. In combination with the diamond anvil cell, phases that are stable at high pressure and high temperature can be investigated. The first experiments at very high pressure were performed by Bill Bassett and Edward Brody in 1977 [ref. 15]. If in addition combined with synchrotron radiation sound velocities and a material's volume (density) can be studied simultaneously.
The relationship of acoustic velocity (ν), phonon wave vector (q) and phonon frequency (ωq) is given by:
ωq=νq .
Acoustic velocities are related to elastic moduli and density of the sample, ν2 = c / ρ.
Advantages of Brillouin spectroscopy
Disadvantages of Brillouin spectroscopy
What does a Brillouin system look like?
Light scattering schematic / Brillouin schematic
Brillouin spectroscopy setup.
A) General schematic for most light-scattering experiments. Laser light hits the sample and the scattered light is analyzed., B) A more complete diagram of a Brillouin-scattering experiment using a sample at high pressure in a DAC. PC = personal computer; PMT = photomultiplier tube; FPC = Fabry-Perot controller; BS = beam splitter.
— Image taken from Bass et al. (2008) Elastic properties of minerals: a key for understanding the composition and temperature of earth's interior. Elements, 4, 165-170.
A Brillouin system consists of a light source (laser), a sample on an orientation device (e.g., a three-circle Eularian cradle), a high-contrast analyzer (Fabry–Perot interferometer) resolving the very small frequency shift of the scattered light, and a computer. The orientation device is used to vary the sample orientation in order to measure different phonon directions, i.e. velocities, and thus improve data quality (reduce uncertainties) and collect necessary data to determine all single-crystal elastic moduli.
Interferometry is based on wave superposition. A Fabry-Pérot interferometer in particular is made of two parallel mirrors, where multiple light reflections between the two surfaces infer light wave interference. When two waves with the same frequency combine, the resulting pattern is determined by the phase difference between the two waves. Depending on the wavelength of the light, the angle the light travels between the reflecting surfaces, the thickness of the mirrors, and the refractive index of the material waves that are in phase will experience constructive interference (transmission peak maximum), while waves that are out of phase will experience destructive interference (transmission peak minimum). In an interferometer a single incident beam of coherent light is split into two beams by a grating or a partial mirror. The two beams will travel a different a path until they are recombined before arriving at a detector. The difference in the distance traveled by each beam creates a phase difference between them, which creates an interference pattern.
The intrinsic precision of Brillouin measurements is on the order of 0.1–0.5%. Typical frequencies of acoustic waves probed are in the range of tens of GHz. The accuracy of the elastic moduli determination can be in the order of 1%. In combination with a diamond anvil cell high-pressure Brillouin studies possible (to pressures > 100 GPa). High-temperature measurements can be performed using resistively heated DACs (to ~1700 K) or with CO2 laser heating (up to 3000K).
In the experiment monochromatic laser light is focused on a sample. The transparent sample can be either a well-sintered polycrystalline material or a single-crystal with highly-polished parallel (within a few hundredth of a degree) faces. A fraction of the incident light interacts with acoustic vibrations and induces Stokes and Anti-Stokes scattering. The frequency and intensity of the scattered light are measured by an interferometer.
Brillouin system 1
Brillouin system
View of the Brillouin system J. Bass's lab. — Image courtesy J.D. Bass.
What does a typical Brillouin spectrum look like?
Brillouin spectrum
Typical Brillouin spectrum
Dispersion curves for the acoustic modes in a general direction of a single crystal, along with the Brillouin spectrum. The central strong peak, R, is the elastically scattered light peak (Rayleigh peak). The peaks s1 and s2 correspond to the slow and the fast shear acoustic modes respectively, and p to the longitudinal acoustic mode. Note that the higher frequency modes give rise to higher Brillouin shifts. — Image taken from Angel, R.J., Jackson, J.M., Reichmann, H.J., Speziale, S. (2009) Elasticity Measurements on Minerals: a Review. European Journal of Mineralogy, 21, 525-550.
A characteristic Brillouin spectrum shows measured intensity against measured frequency. The incident light beam is chosen to be the center of the spectrum, which is the Rayleigh scattering peak (elastically scattered light). A typical spectrum also consists of additional peak pairs at higher and lower frequencies of the Rayleigh peak, that are caused by the velocities of three mutually perpendicular acoustic wave polarizations (one longitudinal (compressional) mode, two transverse (shear) modes). While characteristic Brillouin spectra of fluids reveal only a single peak pair due to longitudinal waves, spectra of isotropic solids show two peak pairs, one longitudinal mode and one shear mode (two shear modes in isotropic media have equal frequencies) and spectra of anisotropic solids contain three peak pairs due to different acoustic wave velocities measurable in different directions.
How to determine elastic properties from a Brillouin experiment?
Elastic moduli of a material are related to the acoustic wave velocities and can be calculated using the following equation:
Elastic moduli - acoustic wave velocity relation
where ρ is the material density, lj,l are the wave direction cosines, ν is the velocity, Uk represents the atom displacements (polarization), and δik is the Kronecker delta (δij = 1 for i = j, δij = 0 for i ≠ 0) .
[2] Bass, J.D. (2007) Theory and Practice – Techniques for Measuring High P/T Elasticity. In: Price, G.D. (Ed.) Treatise on Geophysics, 2, Elsevier BV, Amsterdam, 269-292.
[3] Bass, J.D. & Parise, J.B. (2008) Deep Earth and Recent Developments in Mineral Physics. Elements, 4, 157-163.
[4] Bass, J.D., Sinogeikin, S.V., and Li, B. (2008) Elastic Properties of Minerals: a key for Understanding the Composition and Temperature of Earth's Interior. Elements, 4, 165-170.
[5] Bassett, W.A. (2001) Dynamic Measurements of Elastic Moduli of Samples at High Pressure and Temperature. In: Levy et al. (Eds.) Handbook of Elastic Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases, 1, 469-487.
[6] Every, A.G. (2001) The Elastic Properties of Solids: Static and Dynamic Properties. In: Levy et al. (Eds.) Handbook of Elastic Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases, vol. 1, 3-36.
[7] Nye, J.F. (1985) The Physical Properties of Crystals: Their Representation by Tensors and Matrices, Oxford, 329 pp.
Additional Literature
[8] Anderson O.L. & Isaak D.L. (1995) Elastic Constants of Mantle Minerals at High Temperature. In: Ahrens T.J. (Ed.) Mineral Physics and Crystallography: A Handbook of Physical Constants. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 64 -97.
[9] Auld, B.A. (1990) Acoustic Fields and Waves in Solids, 432 pp.
[10] Polian, A. (2003) Brillouin Scattering at High Pressure: An Overview, J. Raman spectroscopy, 34, 633.
[11] Whitfield, C.H., Brody, E.M., and Bassett, W.A. (1976) Elastic moduli of NaCl by Brillouin scattering at high pressure in a diamond anvil cell. Review of Scientific Instruments, 47, 942-947.
Historical Papers
[12] Brillouin, L. (1922) Diffusion de la Lumiere et des Rayons X par un Corps Transparent Homogene: Influence de l'Agitation Thermique. Annales de Physique, 17, 88-122.
[13] Mandelstam, L.I. (1926) Light Scattering by Inhomogeneous Media. Zhurnal Russii Fizicheskoi Khimii Ova., 58, 381.
[14] Weidner, D., Swyler, K. and Carleton, H. (1975) Elasticity of Microcrystals. Geophysical Research Letters, 2, 189-192.
[15] Bassett, W.A. & Brody, E.M (1977) Brillouin Scattering: A new way to Measure Elastic Moduli at High Pressures. In: Manghnani, M.H. & Akimoto, S. (Eds.) High Pressure Research - Applications in Geophysics, New York, 519-532.
Recent Review Papers
[16] Speciale, S., Marquardt, H. & Duffy, T.S. (2014) Brillouin scattering and its application in Geosciences. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 78, 543-603.
Related Links
These materials are being developed with the support of COMPRES, the Consortium for Materials Properties Research in Earth Sciences, under NSF Cooperative Agreement EAR 10-43050 and is partially supported by UNLV's High Pressure Science and Engineering Center, a DOE NNSA Center of Excellence supported under DOE NNSA Cooperative Agreement No. DE FC52-06NA26274.
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An Introduction to Biomethane
Biogas that has been upgraded by removing hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and moisture is known as biomethane. Biomethane is less corrosive than biogas, apart from being more valuable as a vehicle fuel. The typical composition of raw biogas does not meet the minimum CNG fuel specifications. In particular, the COand sulfur content in raw biogas is too high for it to be used as vehicle fuel without additional processing.
Liquified Biomethane
Biomethane can be liquefied, creating a product known as liquefied biomethane (LBM). Biomethane is stored for future use, usually either as liquefied biomethane or compressed biomethane (CBM) or since its production typically exceeds immediate on-site demand. Two of the main advantages of LBM are that it can be transported relatively easily and it can be dispensed to either LNG vehicles or CNG vehicles. Liquid biomethane is transported in the same manner as LNG, that is, via insulated tanker trucks designed for transportation of cryogenic liquids.
Compressed Biomethane
Biomethane can be stored as CBM to save space. The gas is stored in steel cylinders such as those typically used for storage of other commercial gases. Storage facilities must be adequately fitted with safety devices such as rupture disks and pressure relief valves. The cost of compressing gas to high pressures between 2,000 and 5,000 psi is much greater than the cost of compressing gas for medium-pressure storage. Because of these high costs, the biogas is typically upgraded to biomethane prior to compression.
Applications of Biomethane
The utilization of biomethane as a source of energy is a crucial step toward a sustainable energy supply. Biomethane is more flexible in its application than other renewable sources of energy. Its ability to be injected directly into the existing natural gas grid allows for energy-efficient and cost-effective transport. This allows gas grid operators to enable consumers to make an easy transition to a renewable source of gas. The diverse, flexible spectrum of applications in the areas of electricity generation, heat provision, and mobility creates a broad base of potential customers.
Biomethane to Grid
One important advantage of using gas grid for biomethane distribution is that the grid connects the production site of biomethane, which is usually in rural areas, with more densely populated areas. This enables the gas to reach new customers. Injected biomethane can be used at any ratio with natural gas as vehicle fuel.
The main barriers for biomethane injection are the high costs of upgrading and grid connection. Grid injection is also limited by location of suitable biomethane production and upgrading sites, which have to be close to the natural gas grid.
Several European nations have introduced standards (certification systems) for injecting biogas into the natural gas grid. The standards, prescribing the limits for components like sulphur, oxygen, particles and water dew point, have the aim of avoiding contamination of the gas grid or the end users. In Europe, biogas feed plants are in operation in Sweden, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Switzerland and France.
About Salman Zafar
Salman Zafar is a renowned consultant, advisor, entrepreneur and writer with expertise in waste management, biomass energy, waste-to-energy, environment protection and resource conservation. Salman is the CEO of BioEnergy Consult, apart from being the Founder of Doha-based EcoMENA. Salman has successfully accomplished a wide range of projects in the areas of biogas technology, biomass energy, waste-to-energy and waste management. He has participated in numerous national and international conferences and has authored many articles in reputed journals and magazines. He is proactively engaged in creating mass awareness on renewable energy, waste management and environmental sustainability. Salman can be reached at or
3 Responses to An Introduction to Biomethane
1. ISSY MOTO says:
2. Syukri M Nur says:
Allow me to disseminate information from your website because of attractive and appropriate to the needs of the community and in line Indonesian government programs. I will translate your website into Indonesian for facebook and my website at
3. towards a sustainable future and efficient use of energy..thanks
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Genetic Variation and Natural Selection
This section captures some of the ideas from the previous sections and relates them in a whole new way; ways that even Mendel didn't encounter. But we will build upon Mendel's ideas to unlock the mystery of why some people who have red hair also have freckles and fair skin. We will also lay to rest why a colorblind mother always produces a colorblind son, but not necessarily a colorblind daughter.
Natural selection has a way of affecting the genetics of a population. Darwin understood it, and so will you. Again, simple concepts are put together to make bigger ones so that uneducated people will feel dumb. Thankfully, you will be on the enlightened side of the equation after reading this section.
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Tullianum, was a prison located in the Forum Romanum in ancient Rome. It was located on the northeastern slope of the Capitoline Hill, facing the Curia and the imperial fora of Nerva, Vespasian, and Augustus. Located between it and the Tabularium (record house) was a flight of stairs leading to the Arx of the Capitoline known as the Gemonian stairs.
The origin of the prison’s name are uncertain. The traditional derivation of “Tullianum” is from the name of one of the Roman kings Tullus Hostilius or Servius Tullius. There is a theory that it is named after archaic word “tullius” which means “a jet of water”, in reference to the cistern.
According to tradition, the prison was constructed around 640-616 BC, by Ancus Marcius. It was originally created as a cistern for a spring in the floor of the second lower level. Prisoners were lowered through an opening into the lower dungeon.
Incarceration (publica custodia) in facilities such as the Tullianum was intended to be a temporary measure prior to trial or execution; abuses of this principle occurred but were officially censured. Located near the law courts, the Tullianum was used as a jail or holding cell for short periods before executions and as a site for executions.
Horrors of the Empire Grubisha
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How Did Climate Impact the Origins of Farming?
Japan Lake Suigetsu SedimentsKYOTO, JAPAN—According to a statement released by Ritsumeikan University, analysis of sediments collected from Lake Suigetsu, which is located on Japan’s main island of Honshu, has allowed scientists led by Takeshi Nakagawa to reconstruct the area’s climate between 18,000 and 10,000 years ago. The study suggests that people based their subsistence strategies upon the stability of the climate, which alternated between stable and unstable periods at the end of the last Ice Age. Then some 14,000 years ago, as the warm climate stabilized, pollen fossils in the sediments indicate that people began to domesticate plants and rely upon agriculture as a food source. Stable climate, the researchers explained, is necessary to conduct the planning required for agriculture, such as choosing crops and times to plant them. When the climate was unpredictable, the researchers determined that hunting and gathering would have been a more reasonable subsistence strategy, allowing people to adapt to what was edible in their environment. To read about marine floods in Japan during the thirteenth century, go to “World Roundup: Japan.”
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New research suggests the extinct species could have been nearly 60 feet long.
You are watching: How long was the megalodon shark
Research Need
The megalodon shark once lived worldwide in tropical-temperate regions. Historically, the megalodon is estimated to be the world’s largest predator shark ever to have existed.
Megalodon jaws (replica), courtesy of N.C. Aquarium at Fort Fisher.
With the fossil record incomplete, it can make the estimations of large extinct taxa like the megalodon very hard to predict. In order to estimate sizes of extinct species, paleontologists must rely on the linear relationships of living relatives, such as the great white shark and others.
However, these relationships remain questionable due to the vast difference in size between species.
Can the traits of other sharks from different lineages help scientists determine the size of a megalodon? Can the body dimensions of the great white shark, as well as other large predatory sharks alive today, inform the size of the head, dorsal fin, and tail height, of the extinct predatory megalodon?
What did they study?
To help determine the most accurate body measurements of the megalodon, researchers used five species of shark — great white, shortfin mako, longfin mako, salmon shark, and the porbeagle — and compared dental, physical, and environmental similarities. They also used scaled images of these species to acquire accurate body dimensions at various life stages.
What did they find?
The measurements taken confirm that the maximum size of a megalodon was about 50 to 60 feet. For reference, that’s somewhere between the length of a tractor trailer (48 feet) and a bowling lane (63 feet).
A 52-foot megalodon shark likely would have had a head of about 15 feet long, a dorsal fin of about 5 feet tall, and a tail about 12 feet high.
Anything else?
The largest estimated size of the megalodon is more than twice the size of the largest living shark in the Lamniformes family, which includes the great white.
So what?
This analysis marks the first quantitative method used to determine the estimated size and shape of megalodon body parts. For example, the measurements of the dorsal and caudal fins suggest that these were used for swift predatory locomotion and long-swimming periods.
Cooper, J.A., Pimiento, C., Ferrón, H.G. et al.
Body dimensions of the extinct giant shark Otodus megalodon: a 2D reconstruction. Sci Rep 10, 14596 (2020).
Summary compiled by Lauren D. PharrLead photo: replica megalodon jaws at Fort Fisher Aquarium. Credit: Ryan Donnell, courtesy of
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A journey to Scotland - A project day
The journey to Scotland is designed as a project day, mainly for 5th or 6th graders. The main part of the project day is set up as station work. There are 8 different stations. Four big stations, which all have to be supervised by a teacher and four stations that all together have to be supervised by one teacher. Two classrooms are needed for the day.
The project day starts with a flight simulation to Edinburgh. The students can get in the right mood for the day and are divided into goups. Furthermore, they get their map of Edinburgh, which shows the order of the stations, the group has to work on.
After this the station work starts. The stations are:
• the hotel station
• the supermarket station
• the pub station
• the museum station
• four transport stations (taxi, bus, tram and by foot)
During the station work there is always one group at every station. They get different worksheets handed out, so that they have a personal folder at the end of they day. These worksheets contain the different tasks and vocabulary sheets, where the pupils can note unknown vocabularies. The taks at the station are for example writing and speaking tasks (mainly dialogues), finding the way on a map or grammatic tasks (using prepositions)
You can find the material for all stations here.
The station work ends with the train station, which is the last station for all groups.
The Highland Games
After the station work the students travel to the Highland Games. The Highland Games are designed as a game training the new vocabulary learned at the project day. Therefore, the students need the new vocabulary they have noted down at their vocabulary sheets. The pitch has been drawn on the school playground by groups which finished their stations early. It looks like the Scottish flag. The groups play against each other and have to guess the words learned in the hours before. To explain them the pupils have either to draw, explain, pantomime or translate them. The cross on the flag is a joker field, where the students can choose between the four options. The four fields of the flag stand for one of the options. To select what to do, the students have to throw wellingtons.
The pitch
evaluation at the blackboard
postcard for evaluation
At the end of the day the students have to write a postcard to the teachers supervising the day. This postcard helps the students to reflect the day. They can write about what they liked or didn't like, how difficult it was or whatever they want to tell the teachers about the day. The pupils can either write in English or German, to make sure they can express what they want to say.
To sum up the day, we evaluated the day together at the blackboard, using the bulls eye method and asked the students questions about the day.
Aim of the day
• creating authentic learning and speaking situations: give a meaning to learning English
• getting the students to talk in English
• positiv sense of achievement in English
• still the frear of using English
• combining English and fun
• improfing different competences: speaking, writing, social competences
• revise syllabus
To sum it up: A succesful day
Our project day worked out quite well. The feedback of the students was good and they enjoyed learning English, even those who were afraid of the day before. Some of them even were quite suprised that this is possible.
Most students did not have a problem working at the different station and the assistance we gave them was enough. Nevertheless, some planning of the day needs adjustment. The time we thought that would be needed for the stations (especially hotel, pub...) was not enough. This has to be taken into consideration when organizing the day. Thirty minutes are the absolute minimum for the big stations. As we did not schedule enough time, we had to postpone the Highland Games.
Janine Belz, Christina Hartmann, Paula Heitz und Luisa Nolka, A Journey to Scotland, in: USE: Universität Studieren / Studieren Erforschen, 27.01.2015, URL: http://use.uni-frankfurt.de/pbl/scotland/.
Alle Bilder und Materialien sind urheberrechtlich geschützt.
Nach oben
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English English language Etymology Expression Language Usage Word origin Writing
Standing room at the Globe
Q: Did floor-standers attending Shakespeare’s plays at the Globe refer to themselves as “plebes”? Is that a word Shakespeare wrote down anywhere?
A: We’ve seen no evidence that standees at the Globe were referred to as “plebes,” either by themselves or others. And as far as we know, Shakespeare never used the word “plebes” in his plays or sonnets.
Standees at Elizabethan theaters were known as “groundlings,” a word that we’ll discuss later in this post.
Shakespeare did use the shorter term “plebs” once in Titus Andronicus, a play set in the latter days of the Roman Empire. In Act IV, scene III of the tragedy, written in the late 1580s or early 1590s, Clown uses the term in speaking to Titus:
“I am going with my pigeons to the tribunal plebs.” The reference is to the tribunus plebis (Tribune of the Plebs, or People), a Roman body open to plebeians, or common people, as opposed to patricians.
In addition to “plebs,” the more familiar term “plebeians” appears in Titus Andronicus and three other Shakespeare plays: King Henry V (circa 1599), Coriolanus (c. 1605), and Antony and Cleopatra. (c. 1607). But all those appearances specifically refer to common people in Roman times, not those in Elizabethan England.
However, the word “plebs” (it rhymes with “webs”) took on a wider sense around this time, according to the Oxford English Dictionary: “The ordinary people, the populace; (derogatory) the mob.” And it’s possible that standees at the Globe may have been referred to that way, though we haven’t seen any written evidence to support this.
The OED’s earliest example for this more general sense is from a poem about the death of a Lord Chancellor: “Plebs. / The common people they did throng in flocks, / Dewing their bosomes with their yernfull teares, / Their sighs were such as would haue rent the rocks.” From “A Maidens Dreame. Vpon the Death of the Right Honorable Sir Christopher Hatton Knight” (1591), by Robert Greene.
As for the Globe, standees in the “pit” or “yard” of the theater, the area surrounding the stage, were referred to as “groundlings,” since they stood on the ground instead of sitting in the galleries.
Shakespeare uses the term in the 1604 second quarto of Hamlet. In his advice to the Players, Hamlet says, “O it offends mee to the soule, to heare a robustious perwig-pated fellowe tere a passion to totters, to very rags, to spleet the eares of the groundlings.”
Thomas Platter, a Swiss physician who visited London in 1599, saw plays at several theaters. In his diary, Platter says that “daily at two in the afternoon, London has two, sometimes three plays running in different places, competing with each other, and those which play best obtain most spectators.”
“The playhouses are so constructed that they play on a raised platform, so that everyone has a good view,” Platter goes on. “There are different galleries and places, however, where the seating is better and more comfortable and therefore more expensive. Thus anyone who remains on the level standing pays only one English penny: but if he wants to sit, he is let in at a farther door, and there he gives another penny. If he desires to sit on a cushion in the most comfortable place of all, where he not only sees everything well, but can also be seen then he gives yet another English penny at another door.”
In Thomas Platter’s Travels in England 1599, Clare Williams’s 1937 translation of the diary’s German text, Platter writes that during his London visit he attended a performance of a play about Julius Caesar at an unnamed theater:
“On September 21st after lunch, about two o’clock, I and my party crossed the water, and there in the house with the thatched roof witnessed an excellent performance of the tragedy of the first Emperor Julius Caesar with a cast of some fifteen people; when the play was over, they danced very marvellously and gracefully together as is their wont, two dressed as men and two as women.”
Some scholars say Platter probably saw Shakespeare’s The Tragedy of Julius Caesar at the Globe, while others say he may have seen another play about Caesar at the Rose. Both theaters had thatched roofs and were across the Thames from the City of London.
Getting back to etymology, the first of these words for a commoner to show up in English was the noun “plebeian,” which was originally used in translating the classical Latin plebeius, a member of the plebs or common people in ancient Rome. The first OED citation is from a translation of the Latin in Livy’s History of Rome:
“Na plebeane will tak þe dochter [daughter] of ane patriciane but [without] hir consent.” From Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Books From the Founding of the City), Book IV, Chapter 2, a 1533 translation by John Bellenden, edited by William Alexander Craigie in 1903.
In a couple of decades, according to OED citations, “plebeian” took on a more general sense: “A person not of noble or privileged rank; one of the ordinary people, a commoner. Now usually derogatory: a person of low social status, a common or vulgar person.” We’ve expanded the earliest OED citation:
“it is grit abusione to them to gloir in there nobil blude, for i trou that gif ane cirurgyen vald drau part of there blude in ane bassyn it vald hef na bettir cullour nor the blude of ane plebien or of ane mecanik craftis man” (“it is a great abuse for them to glory in their noble blood, for I believe that if any surgeon will draw part of their blood in a basin, it will have no better color than the blood of any plebeian or any manual worker”). From The Complaynt of Scotland, an anonymous political tract written around 1550 and edited by Alasdair McIntosh Stewart in 1979.
As for “plebe,” it meant one of the ordinary people of ancient Rome when it first appeared in English in the 16th century. So “plebes” and “plebs” had the same classical meaning at first.
The earliest OED citation for “plebe” refers to the patricians’ policy of excluding plebeians from power in Rome: “The patricij many yeares excluding the plebes from bearing rule, vntill at last all magistrates were made common betweene them” (De Republica Anglorum: The Maner of Gouernement or Policie of the Realme of England, 1583, by Thomas Smith).
The dictionary’s earliest example for the modern sense of “plebe” as a new cadet at a military academy showed up in the US in the early 19th century: “My drill master, a young stripling, told me I was not so ‘gross’ as most other pleibs, the name of all new cadets” (from the Military and Naval Magazine of the United States, October 1833).
The first Oxford example using the normal spelling is from the June 1834 issue of the same magazine: “I was reckoned, already, as one of a class of cadets. To be sure, it was the ‘plebe class’; but what of this?”
Finally, Shakespeare would have referred to the Globe as a “theater,” not a “theatre.” Here’s the Duke of York in Richard II: “As in a Theater the eies of men, / After a well-graced Actor leaues the stage, / Are ydly bent on him that enters next” (Act V, Scene 2, First Quarto, 1597).
The spelling “theater” was dropped in Britain between 1720 and 1750, the OED says. Today “theatre” is the only spelling recognized in Britain. In the US, “theater” is the traditional spelling but “theatre” is now equally acceptable, as we say in a 2012 post.
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Waste Disposal Method – Incinerationincineration of hazardous waste
With landfill being the most common and the oldest method for waste disposal management, incineration is the second largest method for waste disposal management in most of the countries around the world. Incineration that involves combustion of organic substances and wastes involves waste disposal that includes households, hazardous and even medical wastes.
Because of combustion, incineration is also called ‘thermal treatment’. Through incineration waste disposal management, the wastes get converted into bottom ash, flue gas, particulates and heat which again can be utilized to generate electric power. Thus in modern days, incinerators prevent energy from being wasted.
Incineration has certain benefits. Waste disposal management through incineration is beneficial when it comes to treating wastes like clinical and hazardous ones. Here, the harmful toxins and pathogens get burnt in high temperature and get completely destroyed. Such method of waste disposal management is particularly popular in countries facing scarcity of lands.
However, it must also be remembered that combustion of wastes can have negative effects on health. Health risk due to environmental pollution gets augmented and eventually is becoming a major concern and discourse all over. Ash, flue gas and other emissions of incineration can have perilous effects on mankind and nature. Through incineration, the waste gets reduced and converted to ash which contains some of the most poisonous substances such as dioxins and heavy metals. It is very difficult to dispose these toxins off.
When the waste is burnt, enormous toxins are released which mingle with the atmosphere. The combination of all these poisonous emissions can be fatal. Thus nature and her resources get adversely affected and become vulnerable to unending risks.
The cost that we pay for incineration is very high, considering the impact on environment and mankind. Health experts are raising alarms and asking for alternate ways to treat wastes which would not affect us so dangerously!
Open chat
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History of Capoeira
Capoeira is often referred to as the Brazilian martial art. However, most masters would say that this is an oversimplification of an art that has been used for martial purposes in some instances. The practice involves an array of artistic abilities as capoeiristas, as practitioners are called, know how to play percussion, sing, dance, perform acrobatics and fight.
The art has been practiced in Brazil for at least 300 years and is often traced back to ritual dances and fighting styles used in rites of passage by African slaves brought to Brazil, who many times used the techniques to escape captivity.
Capoeiristas sometimes are called dancers that fight and fighters that dance, but again, that definition excludes broader aspects of the art. In fact, in the roda, the circle that capoeiristas make to test their skills with each other, there hardly ever are fights, there are what is called in Capoeira “games”.
Capoeira has evolved across the centuries and today practitioners often are divided into two styles: Capoeira Regional and Capoeira Angola.
Capoeira Regional
Created by Mestre Bimba in the 1930s as a way to standardize the teaching methods and bring Capoeira out of illegality (the art was forbidden by law until 1937 in Brazil). Regional is the more common form of Capoeira, it is practiced much more widely in Brazil then any other style of Capoeira and it’s often what Brazilians refer to when they speak of Capoeira.
Capoeira Regional was developed to make Capoeira more effective and bring it closer to its fighting origins, and less associated with the criminal elements of Brazil. The Capoeira Regional style is often considered to consist of faster and more athletic play than Capoeira Angola.
Regional ranks capoeiristas by ability, denoting different skill with the use of a corda (colored rope, also known as cordel or cordão) worn as a belt. Angola does not use such a formal system of ranking, relying instead upon the discretion of a student’s mestre.
Capoeira Angola
Capoeira Angola is the more ritualistic form of Capoeira and a roda – in which capoeiristas gather to play, as they call their combat simulations done to the music of up to ten percussion instruments – can last for several hours. Angola is characterized by playful, ritualized games, which combine elements of dancing, combat, and music, while stressing interaction between the two players and the musicians and observers.
Capoeira Angola is often characterized by deeply held traditions, slower movements and with the players playing their games in closer proximity to each other. Capoeira Angola is often characterized as being slower and lower to the ground than other major forms of Capoeira, although in actual practice, the speed varies in accordance with the music.
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Anticipatory anxiety
Panic attacks are sudden periods of intense fear and discomfort that may include palpitations, sweating, chest pain or chest discomfort, shortness of breath, trembling, dizziness, numbness, confusion, or a feeling of impending doom or of losing control. Typically, symptoms reach a peak within ten minutes of onset, and last for roughly 30 minutes, but the duration can vary from seconds to hours. Although they can be extremely frightening and distressing, panic attacks themselves are not physically dangerous.
The essential features of panic attacks remain unchanged, although the complicated DSM-IV terminology for describing different types of panic attacks (i.e., situationally bound/cued, situationally predisposed, and unexpected/uncued) is replaced with the terms unexpected and expected panic attacks. Panic attacks function as a marker and prognostic factor for severity of diagnosis, course, and comorbidity across an array of disorders, including but not limited to anxiety disorders. Hence, panic attacks can be listed as a specifier that is applicable to all DSM-5 disorders.
Panic attacks can occur due to several disorders including panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use disorder, depression, and medical problems. They can either be triggered or occur unexpectedly. Smoking, caffeine, and psychological stress increase the risk of having a panic attack. Before diagnosis, conditions that produce similar symptoms should be ruled out, such as hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, heart disease, lung disease, drug use, and dysautonomia.
Treatment of panic attacks should be directed at the underlying cause. In those with frequent attacks, counseling or medications may be used. Breathing training and muscle relaxation techniques may also help. Those affected are at a higher risk of suicide.
In Europe, about 3% of the population has a panic attack in a given year while in the United States they affect about 11%. They are more common in females than in males. They often begin during puberty or early adulthood. Children and older people are less commonly affected.
Broader Problems:
Unhealthy anxiety
Problem Type:
G: Very specific problems
Date of last update
04.10.2020 – 22:48 CEST
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Tallulah Falls
The Tallulah Falls Formation
The Tallulah Falls Formation is an extensive rock unit that makes up a dome surrounding the greater area of the park. Because the Tallulah Falls dome is a dome feature, the youngest member of the Tallulah Falls Formation, which is a quartzite schist, is exposed at the top of the dome (where the state park is located). The rocks making up the Tallulah Falls dome include (from oldest to youngest) a graywacke-shist amphibolite, a garnet alumnious schist, a graywacke schist, and a quartzite schist.
(Tallulah Gorge State Park, Waypoint 033) Granular texture of Tallulah Falls quartzite schist. Note the large, elongated grains that are oriented parallel to each other. I think you can see the familial resemblance to sandstone, except schist is way harder.
These rocks were most likely formed between 1180 and 1120 million years ago during a period of diverse magmatism that occured along the entire eastern edge of North America after the assembly of the supercontinent Rodinia. Doming of the Tallulah Falls formation occured around 270 million years ago during the assembly of the supercontinent Pangea (Hynes and Rivers, 2010).
The Tallulah Gorge was subsequently formed by the slow, relatively recent erosion of the Tallulah river, which somehow managed to cut through 300 meters of incredibly hard Tallulah quartzite. The quartzite beds seemed to be south-dipping on the overlook at Waypoint 033 and in a uniform unit; the tilted nature of the beds may be evidence of Taconic or Alleghanian ductile deformation that thrust the rocks forward and overturned them during massive mountain building events when the Appalachians were as tall as the Himalayas
Tallulah Falls: Where Are the Plants?
As stated, the Tallulah Falls Formation is composed of a series of different types of rocks, mainly schists. Weather, water, and biota eventually break rock down into saprolite, decomposing rock, and then soil. However, this is an arduous process which does not occur in a short span of time.
It all starts with primary succession, which is the beginning of ecosystem development on solid rock (Walker and Moral 2003). Although succession is complex and often non-linear, its simplest trajectory is from small biota such as bacteria to larger organisms such as fungi and then onto plants spanning from grasses to trees (Walker and Moral 2003). All landscapes with large amounts of plant matter and well-developed ecosystems originated from primary succession.
Tallulah Falls has gone and is going through primary succession. The park is quite varied, featuring everything from stark slabs of stone to tall hardwoods such as red oak. Some stone-covered areas have already started to become more varied, featuring lichens and small grasses. Over the next century, those areas may become as forested as the neighboring tree-filled patches.
Given the nature of succession, it is possible that all of Tallulah Falls will be covered in soil and plant matter. It will just be on a much, much larger time scale than any single human can observe.
Overview of the Park
Tallulah Gorge State Park is located in Rabun County and was established in 1993. Its original and current acreage is 2, 710 acres. In 1905, the discussion began in regards to its creation by the wife of General Longstreet, Helen Dortch Longstreet. In 1911, Georgia Power bought the land around the Gorge to use it as a source of electricity. The gorge is around 2 miles long and 1,000 feet deep, with five waterfalls from the Tallulah River to Tugaloo Lake. The gorge is home to the Green Salamander and Monkeyface Orchid, both endangered species. The gorge also offers recreational activities for tourists such as rock climbing and white-water rafting.
Contributors: Maya Bradford, Katya Miranda, Jessie Moore
History of the Georgia State Parks and Historic Sites Division. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://gastateparks.org/
Hatcher, R. D. (1976). Introduction to the Geology of the Eastern Blue Ridge of the Carolinas and nearby Georgia. Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebooks.
Hynes, A., & Rivers, T. (2010). Protracted continental collision — evidence from the Grenville Orogen. Canadian Journal Of Earth Sciences47(5), 591-620. doi:10.1139/E10-003
Walker, L. R., & del, M. R. (2003). Primary succession and ecosystem rehabilitation. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com
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The last five years of the 19th century were disastrous for India, which brought an array of misfortune and distress.
The rapid growth of Bombay’s commerce led to a large influx of workers. In the 1891 census the population of Bombay was counted to be 820,000. Most of the immigrant workers (over 70%) lived in chawls. The city services were not geared towards the well-being of this part of the population and various diseases were endemic to the slums.
In September 1896 the first case of Bubonic plague was detected in Mandvi. It spread rapidly to other parts of the city, and the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week through the rest of the year. Many people fled from Bombay at this time, and in the census of 1901, the population had actually fallen to 780,000.
The Plague was studied at the Pasteur Institute in Paris and the studies were done by a Russian Bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine. He had also developed an anti-cholera vaccine which he tried out successfully in India.
He was the first microbiologist who developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. He tested the vaccines on himself and was acclaimed as “a savior of humanity”.
On 9th December 1898 the Bombay City Improvement Trust was created by an act of the (British) parliament. It was entrusted with the job of creating a healthier city. One of the measures taken by the CIT was the building of roads, like Princess Street and Sydenham Road (now Mohammedali Road), which would channel the sea air into the more crowded parts of the town.
The Bubonic Plague spread from Bombay Presidency to other parts of the country such as Punjab, Bengal, United Provinces and in 1905 its traces were seen in even Burma.
By 1901, 4 Lakh people had died; the death toll reaches over 10 Lakh by 1905. It was on its height when in the last week of April 1905, fifty eight thousand people were reported to have killed. However, since then the number of deaths fell.
The plague spread rapidly in the Bombay Presidency and people started fleeing from Mumbai, Pune and other places. In 1897, the death started dancing in Pune and the government decided to take drastic steps against the killer disease.
There were riots in various locations due opposition to government policy of sanitary measures. The government had decided to take drastic action against the Plague and as per the Special Plague Committee’s recommendations 893 officers and men both British and native were placed under the command of Mr. WC Rand and Lieutenant Ayerst.
The soldiers started house searching and the social taboos took it as a kind of oppression. The people got irked and Tilak also opposed this way of the Government’s suppression of the disease. He wrote inflammatory articles in “Kesari” his newspaper. The result was that these two officers were shot dead by some Pune youngsters.
After this, a series of trials began and some people including Tilak were charged of sedition. Tilak was sentenced to 18 months rigorous imprison. In the court he declared: “Swaraj ha maza janmasidha adhikar aahe ani to mi milavinach”. This made Tilak a national Hero and when he returned from jail, Mother India had found herself given birth to a true hero.
The opposition of the Government policy in the Indian Press that led to the series of sedition trials. The result was that a new Press Regulation was adopted in 1898.
But this was just a part of the misfortune for India. The same time was of severe famine attacks affecting several parts of India.
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सर्वनाम is one of the most searched words on the internet, a lot of people ask about the meaning of सर्वनाम. सर्वनाम is the Hindi word for pronouns. Pronoun is a grammatical concept that helps people in having a better understanding of the English language. A pronoun is a term that replaces a noun or noun phrase in a sentence. Pronouns refer to either a previously specified noun or a noun that does not need to be named expressly. These concepts are important to understand in order to speak error-free English. In Hindi, the concept helps the individuals in speaking and understanding the language better.
The concept of सर्वनाम or Pronoun is further divided into six parts and they areas below-
1. पुरुषवाचक सर्वनाम in Hindi also known as Personal Pronoun in English.
2. निश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम in Hindi also known as Demonstrative Pronoun in English.
3. अनिश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम in Hindi also known as Indefinite Pronoun in English.
4. प्रश्नवाचक सर्वनाम in Hindi also known as Interrogative Pronoun in English.
5. निजवाचक सर्वनाम in Hindi also known as Reflexive Pronoun in English.
6. सम्बन्धवाचक सर्वनाम in Hindi also known as Relative Pronoun in English.
Here is the repository of helpful Hindi study material like assignments, Hindi notes pdf, question bank to help you understand the subject in a convenient way. Click here to know more.
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Land Acknowledgements
- Selena Mills, "What are land acknowledgements and why do they matter?"
One way that many instructors begin discussions about reconciliation in their classrooms is through a land or territorial acknowledgment at the beginning of the first class.
Acknowledging territory and the history of settlement that preceded colonization is one small way of showing respect and gratitude to Indigenous peoples, both those that lived here long before settlers arrived, and those who continue their stewardship even now, in spite of centuries of displacement and oppression. It can also be a powerful site of learning for our students, many of whom may be unfamiliar with the history of colonization and oppression in this place.
A land acknowledgment can be offered by anyone--settler or Indigenous, instructor or student.
How to Offer Land Acknowledgments in the Classroom
ECU Style Guide: Territorial Acknowledgment
Sample Land Acknowledgment
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"url": "https://www.ecuad.ca/on-campus/services-facilities/tlc/decolonizing-the-classroom/land-acknowledgements"
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Ulnar artery
The upper limb is crucial to the basic functions we need in our daily lives. As such, its vascular supply is important knowledge to have, both for anatomy examinations and clinical practice.
The word ‘ulna’ means elbow in Latin, which relates to the prominent olecranon process of the ulna. The ulnar artery, along with the radial artery, is responsible for the arterial supply to the forearm and hand. The ulnar artery arises in the cubital fossa and traverses through the medial (ulnar) side of the forearm and ends within the medial portion of the hand as the superficial palmar arch.
Key facts about the ulnar artery
Source Brachial artery
Branches Anterior ulnar recurrent, Posterior ulnar recurrent, Common interosseous, Dorsal carpal branch, Deep palmar branch, Palmar carpal branch
Mnemonics Anatomical Pictures Can Definitely Deeply Please
Supply area Medial aspect of the forearm, medial aspect of the hand
1. Course and origin
1. Arm
2. Elbow
3. Forearm
4. Hand
2. Mnemonic
3. Clinical notes
1. Hand surgery
2. Hypothenar hammer syndrome
3. Arterial blood gas
4. Sources
+ Show all
Course and origin
The subclavian artery is a branch of the brachiocephalic trunk on the right side and the third branch of the aortic arch on the left side. The artery then passes under the clavicle and is renamed the axillary artery once it passes the lateral border of the first rib. The axillary artery is associated with the cords of the brachial plexus (medial, lateral and posterior).
Once the axillary artery passes the inferior border of teres major, it becomes the brachial artery. The brachial artery descends down the arm (first medial to the medial nerve and then lateral at the elbow), passes deep to the bicipital aponeurosis and once it reaches the elbow, divides to give the ulnar and radial artery. The ulnar artery is rarely a branch of the axillary artery.
The ulnar and radial artery descend down their respective sides of the forearm. In the upper part of its course, the ulnar artery is covered by many muscles, including flexor digitorum superficialis, pronator teres, and flexor carpi radialis. It lies on top of brachialis and flexor digitorum profundus. The ulnar head of pronator teres separates the ulnar artery from the median nerve (which passes between the two heads of pronator teres).
The ulnar artery lies between flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor carpi ulnaris along most of its length and gives perforating branches to the muscles on the ulnar side of the forearm. The radial artery lies underneath the brachioradialis and emerges lateral to the median nerve at the wrist.
The brachial artery forms a network of collateral circulation around the elbow joint via the superior and inferior ulnar collaterals that are renamed the anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent arteries when they pass anterior and posterior to the medial epicondyle respectively.
To easily remember the corresponding ulnar collateral and recurrent branches use the following mnemonic.
I Am Pretty Smart
• Inferior ulnar collateral artery goes with Anterior branch of ulnar recurrent artery
• Posterior branch of ulnar recurrent artery goes with Superior ulnar collateral artery
This network enables the elbow to remain perfused when the elbow is flexed or vascular disease limits blood flow through the main arteries (brachial, ulnar and radial). This extensive vascular network does not exist in all patients and may indeed be a feature of adaptation following vascular disease in the limb.
The ulnar artery then gives off the common interosseus artery which then divides to give the anterior and posterior interosseous arteries. These run down the forearm either side of the interosseus membrane that connects both the forearm bones. The posterior interosseous artery supplies the extensor muscles of the forearm, and the anterior interosseus supplies the deep muscles of the flexor compartment of the forearm.
Ulnar artery in the forearm. Notice how the artery traverses deep to the flexor digitorum superficialis muscle, giving anterior and posterior interosseous arteries.
The ulnar artery then continues to descend down the ulnar side of the forearm close to the ulnar nerve. It passes superficially to the transverse carpal ligament, and hence is not one of the contents of the carpal tunnel. It does pass in its own tunnel, known as Guyon’s canal, with the artery passing laterally to the nerve.
The superficial palmar carpal ligament forms the roof of Guyon’s canal and the hypothenar muscles and flexor retinaculum form the floor. The tunnel is bound medially by the pisiform, laterally by the hamate, and the floor by the pisohamate ligament. The length of the canal is usually around 4cm in length with the distal end limited by the aponeurotic arch of the hypothenar muscles.
Superficial palmar arch is the primary blood supply to the fingers and is the direct continuation of the ulnar artery once it enters the hand. It is an arch of arteries, which is completed by the small palmar branch of the radial artery on the radial side. It lies superficial to all the intrinsic hand muscles, and is just deep to the thick palmar aponeurosis. This arch then gives off three common digital arteries that run between the second to fourth metacarpals to reach the bases of the proximal phalanges. Here they divide to form the proper digital arteries, which run on either side of the fingers to supply them.
The radial two common digital arteries arise from the deep palmar arch (a direct continuation of the radial artery). To enter the hand, the radial artery runs posteriorly and passes between the two heads of the first dorsal interosseus to form the deep palmar arch. The arch is completed on the ulnar side by a deep branch from the ulnar artery. Trauma to the fingers can seriously compromise this blood supply, which is particularly vulnerable due to the lack of collateral supply.
Ulnar artery traversing Guyon's canal in the wrist. The ulnar artery is always lateral to the ulnar nerve.
Are you looking for an easy way to learn the branches of the ulnar artery? Then use this mnemonic!
Anatomical Pictures Can Definitely Deeply Please
• Anterior ulnar recurrent
• Posterior ulnar recurrent
• Common interosseous
• Dorsal carpal branch
• Deep palmar branch
• Palmar carpal branch
Ulnar artery: want to learn more about it?
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Guide on How to Type Exponents on Different Applications
Have you ever tried writing mathematics exponents on your PC? Many of us don’t know how to type exponents on different applications. Superscripts are commonly used to represent exponents. This mode is usually accessed by a button or menu item in most word processors, but it may also be accessed through keyboard shortcuts.
You can type exponents in any application easily that supports superscript features. To enable superscript mode in Microsoft Word, press ctrl+shift+= keyboard combination. Similarly, for Google docs, you can insert equations and use various keyboard combinations depending upon the application you are using.
In this article, we will learn how to type exponents on different applications like Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Google docs, etc. In previous articles, we’ve covered how and where to use different text abbreviations while messaging. The method for typing exponents is different in different applications, but once you read the steps, you will find it very easy to add exponents to your documents.
How To Type Exponents on Different Applications
Exponents are often used in mathematical formulations that increase a number to a higher power. They are widely used in compound interest formulae and may be found in many business papers. Furthermore, exponents are also frequently used by software developers, scientists, engineers, etc., in their work. The following are the many ways to enter exponents on a computer:
1. How To Type Exponents on Microsoft Word
Enabling the superscript feature in Microsoft Word is the straightforward method for adding the exponents. This is the simplest and most efficient technique for typing an exponent and the method that yields the best results. You can also write the exponent after a caret sign as an alternate way for producing superscripts.
Following are the steps for typing exponents on Microsoft Word
Step 1: Open your Microsoft Word file.
Step 2: Write the expression that you want to write.
Step 3: Then click on the ‘Home’ located at the upper navbar, and then in the font section, you will see an icon represented by ‘X2‘.
Step 4: Click on that superscript icon just before writing the exponents. You can also use the keyboard shortcut key ‘ctrl+shift+=’ combination to enable and disable the superscript option.
READ: How To Digitally Sign A Word Document
2. Typing Exponents on PowerPoint
The idea for adding superscripts in PowerPoint is slightly different than in Word. If you use PowerPoint a lot for writing mathematical expressions, you should know how to enable the superscript in PowerPoint. Two of the best methods for adding superscripts in PowerPoint are using the home tab and keyboard shortcuts. So, let’s see how we can do that.
Step 1: Open your Microsoft PowerPoint.
Step 2: Now, write whatever you want to and then select the number you want to do superscript, as shown in the following picture.
Step 3: In the font section of the Home tab, you will see a small arrow. Click on that arrow.
Step 4: A font tab will open. From there, tick mark the superscript option and then click on the okay button.
You can also use the keyboard combination for enabling superscript in PowerPoint. For that click on ‘ctrl+shift+(+)’ combination.
3. Inserting An Exponents on Excel
There is a little difference between typing exponents in PowerPoint and Excel. So, let’s see how we can type exponents on excel using the following steps.
Step 1: Open your Excel application.
Step 2: Now go to the cell and then type your mathematical expression.
Step 3: Select the number you want to make superscript and then press the right-click.
Step 4: Then click on the ‘Format cells’ option.
Step 5: Now tick the superscript option and then click on the okay button to enable the superscript.
How To Write Exponents in Google Docs
You might feel difficult to find the exponents option in Google docs. Fortunately, there is one best method to add the exponents on Google docs. Exponents can be inserted in a variety of ways in Google Docs. The best way is to apply the ‘Equation’ function in Google Docs to write exponents directly.
Following are the steps for typing exponents on Google Docs.
Step 1: Click here to open the Google docs page.
Step 2: Then click on the ‘Go to Google Docs’ option and then if you are starting a new docs file, click on the blank option or open your older docs file where you want to add exponents.
Step 3: Now, go to the line where you want to type the exponents.
Step 4: To add the exponents click on the insert option from the toolbar located at the top.
Step 5: Then click on the equation option.
The use of exponents over the caret symbol looks far better and easy to understand. The above methods will help you to type exponents in some of the popular and most useful applications. If there is something that you are stuck with while typing the exponents, then let us know in the comment section.
Leave a Comment
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Alexander the Great and Bucephalus
Bucephalus was the horse of Alexander the Great, and the two spent ten years together. He was born around 355 B.C. and is thought by historians to be an Akhal-Teke, a Turkmen horse lineage. He was produced in the regions of Thessaly, which were well-known for breeding impressive stocks of horses. The horses in this region were usually cross-bred with Persian, Ferghana, and Scythian horses. Akhal-Teke horses are known for their intelligence, endurance, and speed and are believed to be one of the oldest living horse breeds. Bucephalus was said to have a black coat and a blue eye.
According to the Greek historian Plutarch, Bucephalus’ name comes from the Greek words “bous,” which means ox, and “kephalos,” which means head, probably because of the horse’s uncontrollable temper. The Roman author Pliny the Elder, supports Plutarch’s statement but also says that Alexander’s horse had a brand of a bull’s head on its shoulder.
Alexander first saw Bucephalus in 334 B.C. when he was twelve years old. A horse dealer tried to sell Bucephalus to Philip II for 13 talents. Philip did not even like the horse because he noticed its irritable temper. Alexander approached the horse to try and calm it down. He led it to face the sun so that it would no longer see its own shadow, which was the one thing that was scaring it. Alexander even took off his cloak that was flapping in the wind to make sure nothing else would unsettle the horse. The tactic succeeded, and young Alexander was able to control Bucephalus. According to Plutarch, Philip was so stunned at what happened that he told Alexander to search for a kingdom that was worthy of himself because Macedonia was too small for him.
Pliny the Elder also wrote about Alexander and Bucephalus’ mutual understanding, stating that Alexander was instantly enchanted at first seeing the horse that he bought it for thirteen talents. He added that once the horse was fitted with an ornamental harness, it rarely let other people mount itself, except for Alexander.
Bucephalus’s origins have a much more colorful story in the Alexander Romance, a collection of legends about the life of Alexander the Great. In these legends, which originated around the 2nd century A.D., Bucephalus was a colt whose qualities were even greater than those of Pegasus, and that Bucephalus was offered to Philip. The legend continues to narrate that the Delphic Oracle foretold that the future ruler of the world would ride Bucephalus. Bucephalus’s legend continues to expand in later versions of the Alexander Romance, where the birth and death of Alexander and his horse were held to be simultaneous. Perhaps the people behind these legends only attempted to place Alexander on the same pedestal as Julius Caesar, who had Asturcus as his horse and Caligula, his Incitatus.
The Greek historian, Arrian, says that Bucephalus died due to the injuries he suffered at the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 B.C. After this, Alexander immediately established a city in memory of his horse and named it Bucephalia. Bucephalus is believed to be buried in present-day Jalalpur Sharif, Pakistan. Pliny the Elder also wrote that when Bucephalus died, Alexander granted it funeral rites and laid it in a tomb, around which he built a city named after the horse.
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"url": "https://totallyhistory.com/alexander-the-great-and-bucephalus/"
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How Do Oppressed People Build Community?
May 20, 2020 • 5:00 pm
(All times are in PDT)
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, was a city of opportunity for African Americans. Leaving the surrounding cotton fields behind, they built churches, schools, clubs, and businesses; they were tied together by Friday night football games, dance halls, a newspaper, and charitable organizations. At the same time, Hattiesburg, like the rest of the South, was a place of systemic segregation and violent racism. How did Hattiesburg’s African American residents forge deep bonds amidst institutional oppression—and why did many of those bonds fail to survive after segregation was outlawed? What lessons can communities facing seemingly insurmountable inequality and discrimination draw from Hattiesburg today? University of North Carolina historian William Sturkeywinner of the 10th annual Zócalo Public Square Book Prize for Hattiesburg: An American City in Black and White, visits Zócalo to discuss the community Hattiesburg built, how it helped birth and bolster the Civil Rights movement—and why those successes may ultimately have destroyed it. Professor Sturkey will be interviewed by historian David W. Blight, Sterling Professor of American History at Yale University.
The lecture and interview will stream live online; viewers will be able to submit questions via live chat.
Jai Hamid Bashir, winner of the ninth annual Zócalo Poetry Prize, will deliver a public reading of her poem “Little Bones” prior to the lecture.
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"language_score": 0.9360496401786804,
"url": "https://events.kcrw.com/events/how-do-oppressed-people-build-community/"
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What Is A Sedan?
Dustin Hawley | Feb 22, 2021
Have you ever heard of the term "three-box design"? If you don’t consider yourself an automotive aficionado, you likely haven’t. Yet this term precisely describes the architecture of a car with a physically separated front end (engine bay), middle section (passenger compartment), and rear end (trunk). Why is this relevant? Because this is the automotive design concept associated with the word "sedan." However, as a result of ever-changing circumstances, the word "sedan" and its association with vehicles has changed a bit over the years.
what is a sedan
Looking throughout history, the word “sedan” can be found as far back as the 17th century, used in reference to an enclosed chair carried on poles. This unique mode of transportation was exclusive to the privileged ones who had the opportunity to enjoy luxurious treatment in France. This chair, carried on poles by two operators, was called the “sedan-chair.”
In an attempt to make an analogy with our three-box explanation, the carrier at the front would be the “first box.” We could consider the chair enclosed in a cabin (the “second box”), while the third box could be the carrier behind the contraption.
While this is one of the first noted uses of the term “sedan,” the word did pop up a few times in the 19th century, as well. Some literature during this period described certain types of horse-drawn carriages as “sedans.” But the first mention of the word within the informal automotive vernacular took place back in 1899 during the introduction of the Renault Voiturette Type B. It was essentially an enclosed cabin with a chair and four-wheels instead of human carriers at the front and the back. Though metaphorically comparable, it still paled in comparison to what we associate with the characterization of the modern sedan.
Sedan: An Overview - Find the best car deals!
The first “modern” mention of the word sedan occurred in 1912 with the Studebaker Four and Studebaker Six’s introduction. The irony, however, is that these cars weren’t even sedans, per se. In fact, before January 11th, 1913, when Hudson Motor Company released its first sedan, we did not even know what the word “sedan” truly entailed. This was the first time we saw the sedan with a standard three-box design, and thus the association with the term began.
After introducing the Hudson sedan, and over the 20th century, this automotive concept became synonymous with the word “car.” After all, when you think of an automobile, it is likely that many people picture a sedan in their mind. With every passing decade, automakers continued experimenting with design, bringing us sedans of many different varieties, including cars with an engine in the back and not under the front bonnet. There were sedans with longitudinally, or transversely mounted engines, with front, rear, or all-wheel drive. But even with the multitude of changes and technological advancements that occurred with sedans, the most significant evolution of the word in modern terms dates back to the 1930s.
After manufacturers perfected the process of building unibody cars, nearly every small passenger vehicle (including sedans) migrated from the body-on-frame chassis to unibody construction. However, some sedans built on body-on-frame chassis did manage to survive, even through the 2010s. One of the last remaining models, the Lincoln Town Car, was finally discontinued in 2011.
Advantages Of A Sedan - Find the best car deals!
It is not by coincidence or sheer luck that sedans have survived and thrived for over a century. With the introduction of the unibody construction, manufacturers found it practical to build and distribute, while drivers loved it for its practicality and versatility. Sedans presented numerous advantages to consumers, including:
• Sedans are safer compared to other car architectures.
• Sedans are more stable and engaging to drive due to better weight distribution.
• They offer more comprehensive engine options. For example, it was not uncommon for the sedan to offer numerous engine options, like the VW Passat B5.5 with a four-cylinder, five-cylinder, six-cylinder, and eight-cylinder engine option, not to mention diesel options, as well)
• Due to their shape, sedans tend to be more aerodynamic than hatchbacks and SUVs, thus achieving better fuel efficiency.
• Sedans are very versatile in their offerings. Many models are affordable on nearly any budget, and there are also extremely well-equipped luxury models to suit even the most refined tastes and price points.
Different Types Of Sedans - Find the best car deals!
We have identified several different sedan forms to consider when assessing your next car purchase. Whether you seek performance, luxury, practicality, or a little bit of each, knowing your options will provide you with insights that will help you make a choice that best suits you:
Transversely Mounted Engines
Taking the lessons learned from hatchbacks, sedans with transversely mounted engines can be smaller vehicles with more passenger room compared to sedans with longitudinally mounted engines. Nowadays, transversely mounted engines seem to be the most prevalent on the market. Sedans with transversely mounted engines are usually equipped with a front-wheel-drive and an optional all-wheel-drive (AWD) system.
Longitudinally Mounted Engines
This is the kind of sedan form that many car enthusiasts know and enjoy best. Due to its design, this form does compromise the passenger compartment a bit. Still, it provides unique advantages like better weight distribution, less vibration, and more space to integrate larger engines. Sedans with longitudinally mounted engines often have a larger capacity and come in a rear-wheel-drive (RWD) configuration.
Two-Door Sedans
Before World War 2, two-door sedans were a thing. But these days, they are mostly a relic of the past. Two-door sedans offered seating for five, with two doors (obviously) and separated compartments for the engine and the trunk.
Four-Door Coupe Sedans
Truth be told, four-door coupes aren’t really sedans, but more hatchbacks. Despite their sometimes sportier looks (take a glance at the Kia Stinger or the Audi A7, for example), a four-door coupe is of the classic two-box design (with the notable exception of the Volkswagen CC, which has a wholly separated cargo compartment).
Summary - Find the best car deals!
Since they are arguably the most recognizable car form known today, sedans have evolved considerably throughout the twentieth century. With the introduction of the four-door coupes, small sedan-looking hatchbacks, and several other two-box automobiles that share commonalities with sedans, we can say that this vehicle type is far from extinction and more relevant than ever before.
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[SOLVED] Mexican American Cultural and Community
How important were official Americanization and Mexicanization efforts from both governments relative to informal cultural influences in shaping the emerging Mexican American community in Los Angeles?Explain your position. Also, to what degree did negative social limits, such as segregation or repatriation efforts shape Mexican American identity formation? Do you consider the story of Mexican American Los Angeles in the first half of the twentieth century more of a triumph or tragedy? Explain your position.This paper should be four pages in length, not including the cover page. You may have a cover page, but it is not required. You must have a title for your essay. In addition, the essay should contain an introduction with a clear thesis statement. As you may have noticed in the question, I am asking you to use the chapters from this book to make an argument about the complex formation of Mexican American culture and identity. That is, how did ethnic Mexicans view themselves, and how did they participate in the larger society around them? Do not merely restate what I have already stated in the prompt, that these formations were not linear or unidirectional. You must show how and why, and make an argument for what you think were the most powerful forces affecting Mexican American community development. Were they political forces or cultural forces?
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"language_score": 0.9453204870223999,
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Top Menu
Electronic commerce, known as E-Commerce, occurs daily when sellers and buyers use the internet to conduct business transactions. Technology makes it possible for anyone to buy or sell practically anything online.
Learn about:-
1. Introduction to E-Commerce 2. History of E-Commerce 3. Meaning 4. Objectives 5. Features 6. Types 7. Need 8. Business Applications
9. Channels 10. Essentials and Procedures 11. Segments 12. Managerial Issues 13. Impact 14. Advantages 15. Disadvantages 16. Threats to Present Day E-Commerce and Its Solution.
1. Introduction to E-Commerce
2. History of E-Commerce
3. Meaning of E-Commerce
4. Objectives of E-Commerce
5. Features of E-Commerce
6. Types of E-Commerce
7. Need for E-Commerce
8. Business Applications of E-Commerce
9. E-Commerce Channels
10. Essentials and Procedures of E-Commerce
11. Segments of E-Commerce
12. Managerial Issues in E-Commerce
13. Impact of E-Commerce
14. Advantages of E-Commerce
15. Disadvantages of E-Commerce
16. Threats to Present Day E-Commerce and Its Solution
E-Commerce – Introduction
E-commerce means using the Internet and the web for business transactions and/or commercial transactions, which typically involve the exchange of value (e.g., money) across organizational or individual boundaries in return for products and services. Here we focus on digitally enabled commercial transactions among organizations and individuals.
E-business applications turn into e-commerce precisely, when an exchange of value occurs. Digitally enabled transactions include all transactions mediated by digital technology and platform; that is, transactions that occur over the Internet and the web.
Hence, e-tailing is a subset of e-commerce, which encapsulates all “commerce” conducted via the Internet. It refers to that part of e-commerce that entails the sale of product merchandise and does not include sale of services, namely railway tickets, airlines tickets and job portals.
There are three types of destinations that cater to retail sales:
i. Traditional retail- brick-and-mortar
ii. Corporatized retail- brick-and-mortar
iii. Corporatized retail- e-tailing
E-Commerce – History of E-Commerce
Early Development:
The history of E-commerce begins with the invention of the telephone at the end of last century. EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) is widely viewed as the beginning of ecommerce if we consider ecommerce as the networking of business communities and digitalization of business information. Large organizations have been investing in development of EDI since sixties. It has not gained reasonable acceptance until eighties. The meaning of electronic commerce has changed over the last 30 years.
Online shopping, an important component of electronic commerce was invented by Michael Aldrich in the UK in 1979. The world’s first recorded business to business was Thomson Holidays in 1981. The first recorded Business to consumer was Gateshead SIS/Tesco in 1984. During the 1980s, online shopping was also used extensively in the UK by auto manufacturers such as Ford, General Motors and Nissan. The systems used the switched public telephone network in dial-up and leased line modes.
From the 1990s onwards, electronic commerce would additionally include enterprise resource planning systems (ERP), data mining and data warehousing. An early online information marketplace, including online consulting, was the American Information Exchange, another pre Internet online system introduced-in 1991. In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web and transformed an academic telecommunication network into a worldwide everyman everyday communication system called internet/www(dot)Commercial enterprise on the Internet was strictly prohibited until 1991.
Although the Internet became popular worldwide around 1994 when the first internet online shopping started, it took about five years to introduce security protocols and DSL allowing continual connection to the Internet. By the end of 2000, many European and American business companies offered their services through the World Wide Web. Since then people began to associate a word “E-commerce” with the ability of purchasing various goods through the Internet using secure protocols and electronic payment services.
The Internet and the Web:
The Internet was conceived in 1969, when the Advanced Research Projects Agency (a Department of Defense organization) funded research of computer networking. The Internet could end up like EDI without the emergence of the World Wide Web in 1990s. The Web became a popular mainstream medium (perceived as the fourth mainstream medium in addition to print, radio and TV) in a speed which had never been seen before. The Web users and content were almost doubled every a couple of months in 1995 and 1996.
E-Commerce – Meaning
For example, the numbers of consumer brand retail sites like Amazon(dot)com and Flipkart(dot)com which normally provides information about products and also allows monetary transactions to happen over the internet.
Apart from these two categories of e-commerce sites, there are some sites which enable businesses to exchange trading goods and also service between two or more companies. All of these forms of internet based business platforms are known as e-commerce.
Over the last decade the advent of e-commerce has actually transformed the manner in which people used internet. People now are not only just using internet for gathering information, leisure or socializing online but also at the same time they are seeking measures to conduct business.
1. Development of Business-Relationship:
The business development can be done through the e-commerce being the primary and the basic object. As their direct contact in between the company and the consumer, their business relationship will be enhanced. Hence the area of the market can be increased.
2. Better-Customer Service:
As it is done round the clock, the customer will always have online help regarding the products. As all the information is furnished to the customer, it becomes easy to him to choose the best product among all other alternatives. As even the service can also be done through the net immediately, the customer service will be ballooned. By highlighting the customer service, the companies are trying to subjugate a lion-share in the market.
3. Getting more Customers:
In these days it becomes the mandate of the companies to double its customers, and this can be done by rendering the value add service and maintaining the quality. Hence, it is also one of the primary objectives of the companies which supply impetus for the robust growth in sales and overall profit.
E-Commerce has pertain key features which are explained as follows:
Feature # 1. E-Commerce is Technology-Enabled:
Traditional commerce is taking place since times immemorial but E-commerce is result of integration of digital technology with business processes and commercial transactions. The technological foundations of E-commerce are internet, WWW and various protocols.
Feature # 2. Technology Mediated:
In E-commerce buyers and sellers meet in cyber space rather than physical place. Hence E-commerce does not involve face to face contact.
Feature # 3. Universality:
Buying and selling take place through websites in E-Commerce. The websites can be accessed from anywhere around the globe at any time therefore it possess the feature of universality.
Feature # 4. Intercommunication:
E-commerce technology ensures two way communications between buyer and seller. On one hand by using E- commerce firms can communicate with customers through E-commerce enabled websites. On the other end, customers can also fill order forms, feedback forms and can communicate with business operating firms.
Feature # 5. Delivery of Information:
E-commerce serves as the best channel of communication. E-commerce technologies ensure speedy delivery of information at very low cost and considerably increase information density as well.
Feature # 6. Electronic Completion of Business Processes:
By using E- commerce we can perform business transactions like accounting and inventory through computers at global level.
Feature # 7. Virtual Communities:
Virtual Communities are online communities created by means such as chat rooms and specifically designed sites like, where people can interact with each other having common interest using the internet.
Feature # 8. Inter-Disciplinary in Nature:
Implementation of E-Commerce needs a lot of knowledge of managerial, technological, social and legal issues. Besides this, understanding of consumer behaviour, marketing tools and financial aspects is as crucial as designing interactive E- Commerce websites.
Feature # 9. Customization:
With the use of E-commerce technology, the world is moving from mass-production to mass-customization. Product customization ensures that goods are tailor made as per the requirements and preferences of customers.
Like Dell Computers Website www(dot)dell(dot)com enables the consumers to mention configuration of a Computer and then the product is made available and delivered as per the configuration ordered by the customer.
The major different types of E-Commerce are:
I. Business-to-Business (B2B);
II. Business-to-Consumer (B2C);
III. Business-to-Government (B2G);
IV. Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C);
V. Mobile Commerce (M-Commerce).
Type # I. Business to Business (B2B):
1. Business to Business or B2B refers to E-Commerce activities between businesses.
2. In E-Commerce B2B, transactions are usually carried out through Electronic Data Interchange or EDI. EDI is an automated format of exchanging information between businesses over private networks.
3. EDI is composed of standards that enable businesses’ computers to conduct transactions with each other, without human intervention.
4. For Example- Manufacturers and wholesalers are B2B companies.
Type # II. Business to Customer (B2C):
2. For instance, a book retailer would be a B2C company such as
Type # III. Customer to Business (C2B):
1. Customer to Business or C2B refers to E-Commerce activities, which use reverse pricing models where the customer determines the price of the product or services.
2. For example – tele workers and online auctions are C2B processes.
Type # IV. Customer to Customer (C2C):
1. Customer to Customer or C2C refers to E-Commerce activities, which uses an auction style model.
2. Customers are also the business and C2C enables customers to directly deal with each other. An example of this is peer auction giant, E Bay.
Type # V. M-Commerce (Mobile Commerce):
1. M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services through wireless technology i.e., handheld devices such as cellular telephones and personal digital assistants. Japan is seen as a global leader in m-commerce.
2. As content delivery over wireless devices becomes faster, more secure and scalable, some believe that m-commerce will surpass wire line e-commerce as the method of choice for digital commerce transactions. This may well be true for the Asia-Pacific where there are more mobile phone users than there are Internet users.
The study of following factors show the need for E-Commerce in modern business era:
1. Wider Audience- The internet provides businesses, access to millions and millions of people. A 2010 survey by Internet World Stats showed there are 266,244,500 internet users in North America. On the World Wide Web, companies move beyond geographic limits to reach wider audience.
2. Cost Efficiency- At the beginning of the internet age in the 1990s, creating websites was a costly undertaking. As the years passed, building websites became less and less expensive. In fact, small businesses can now build their own sites.
1. Sale, Purchase of Goods:
By using E-Commerce, consumers can buy the various products and services from the different manufacturers. Industries can purchase raw materials, components etc. using E- Commerce. Sellers can sell their products by using E-commerce.
2. Real Estate Market:
Online real estate services are provided by websites that show listing of houses, shops and flats put up for sale and rent. Online real estate sites play supporting role for property dealers.
Now builders can use virtual reality technology on their website to demonstrate three dimensional floor plans to buyers. This helps real estate companies to attract buyers. So transactions normally can be initiated online but materialize offline in a face to face contact of parties. Many websites are providing online real estate services.
3. Online Banking:
Online Banking is also known as electronic banking, Net banking, virtual banking and internet banking online banking is defined as automated delivery of new and traditional banking products and services through electronic and interactive communication channels. Customers can access online banking services by using electronic devices like personal computer, laptop, palmtop, ATM, kiosks etc.
4. Delivery of Goods:
E-Commerce allows the delivery of products. For example, the computer software is directly downloaded by the software manufacturer on computer of the customer.
5. Import and Export:
Electronic payments are playing a great role in import and export business. The internet has simplified the import and export business. By using E-commerce importers can make enquiries about the products, their manufacturers, price, quality, other terms and conditions etc.
Exporters can also make enquiries about suitable customers. Payments can be made by electronic modes including digital means like internet payment or internet money transfer.
6. Supply Chain Management:
A supply chain is a set of relationships between a number of companies who have a symbiotic relationship with each other in that one company supplies commodities or services to other companies which, in turn, supply commodities or services to other companies, and so on.
An important point about an application such as this one is that information should be kept confidential as it flows across the internet.
7. E-Tailing:
E-tailing refers to retailing over the internet. Thus an e-tailer is a B2C business that executes a transaction with the final consumer. E-tailers can be pure play businesses like amazon(dot)com or businesses that have evolved from a legacy business, Tesco(dot)com. E-tailing is a subset of e-commerce.
E-Commerce – Channels: Commercial Channels and The Internet
These are of following two types:
(i) Commercial Channels:
Various companies have set up on-line information and marketing services that can be accessed by those who have signed up for the service and pay a monthly fee. These channels provide information, news, libraries, education, travel, sports and reference, entertainment, shopping services, dialogues opportunities and e-mail etc.
(ii) The Internet:
The Internet is a global web of computer networks that has made instantaneous and decentralised global communication possible. Internet usage has spread with recent development of the user-friendly World Wide Web (www) browser software such as Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer.
Users can surf the Internet and experience fully integrated text, graphics, images and sound. Users can send e-mail, exchange views, shop for products, and access news and business information. The users need to pay an Internet provider-to be hooked up to it through their computers.
Internet Strategies for Business and Key Success Factors in E-Commerce:
Internet users are better educated, better informed. As more and more people find their way onto the internet, the cyberspace population is becoming more mainstream and diverse.
Younger users of Internet in general place a greater value in information, entertainment, socialising etc.
Old users are more likely to use Internet for investment and more serious matters. In general, Internet users respond to messages aimed at selling, and receive information about products and services. In on-line marketing through internet, the consumers, and not the marketer, gives permission and controls the interaction.
Consumers gain the following capabilities in the E-commerce providing information-rich regime:
1. They can get objective information for multiple brands, including costs, prices, features and quality without relying on the manufacturer or retailers.
2 They can initiate requests for advertising and information from manufacturers.
3. They can use software agents to search for and invite offers from multiple sellers. These new buyer capabilities mean that the exchange process in the age of information has become customer initiated and customer controlled.
Marketers and their representatives are held at bay till customers invite them to participate in the exchange process, customers define the rules of engagement, and insulate themselves with the help of agents and intermediaries.
Customers define what information they need, what products or services they are interested in and what prices they are willing to pay.
E-commerce operates digitally. It has some unique ways to put a business transaction in place.
Let’s see how this happens:
1. Product/Service:
For E-commerce to happen there should be a product or service that has value and for which someone is willing to pay a price. If this criterion is met, then you can sell anything on ecommerce websites—gadgets, books, automobiles, grocery, toys, apparel, vegetables and digital goods such as music, e-books, software, air tickets, magazine subscriptions and the like.
2. Processing Mechanism:
The ecommerce website of a company should put an easy process in place so that the customer browsing through the site can place an order. The software that makes this happen is called a shopping cart.
3. Payment Gateway:
Once the customer fills the cart with items that he or she has shopped, the site should take the customer towards the payment gateway, which collects money electronically. If the product is downloadable such as music, e-book etc., the website must also provide for that after accepting payment from customer.
4. Delivery of Product:
Once customers make the payment, the e-commerce site must ensure the delivery of product in good condition on time. Logistics is a specialized function, so most sellers outsource it to third party logistics providers. Like Amazon using the services of FedEx.
5. After Sale Service:
Customers need to be serviced pre-sales as well as post sales. Before the sale, customers might have queries about product features that are not mentioned on the website. They might have questions about customization and accessories. After the sale, customers might have queries related to the usage, repair or enhancement of the products or services that they have already purchased.
6. Reverse Logistics:
There is no guarantee of supplying an error-free product. If products get damaged or stop functioning after a while, or a wrong product is delivered—the ecommerce seller must ensure the flow of products in the reverse direction—known as reverse logistics—where goods flow from customer to the seller.
E-commerce is a means of conducting business, where the buying or selling of goods and services or the transmitting of funds or data, occur via electronic medium. There are no physical market places and the entire process of marketing and selling of goods, takes place on-line or electronically. This means, the buyer and the seller do not often meet face to face. It is a replica of a physical market place in the virtual world.
E-commerce, also called e-trading, operates in all four major market segments – Business to Business, Business to Consumer, Consumer to Consumer and Consumer to Business. Examples of E-commerce include on-line shopping, electronic payments, on- line auctions, internet banking, on-line ticketing etc.
1. E-Tailing:
E-Tailing is the abbreviation of electronic retailing. It is the sale of goods and services through the internet. E-tailing involves business-to-business or business-to-customers transactions. It can be regarded as the internet front of any traditional retailer.
E-tailing shops believe in building strong brands. The web sites they create are easily understood by the visitors. They also provide discounts and offers to engage the customers. The pricing, in E-tailing shops, is generally lower than that of a traditional shop.
In this way the e-tailing shops lure the customers to make purchases on-line. The customers also get benefited from the fact that he/she does not need to physically visit the shop for making the purchase. The customers are free to make their own decisions regarding the purchase, at their own leisure time.
However, e-tailing shops need to have a strong distribution network in order to secure the delivery of the products. Otherwise, the purpose of the e-tailing site will be defeated. Big e-tailing sites like Ebay(dot)com and Amazon(dot)com are making great business in this country.
Advantages of E-Tailing:
1. No requirement of physical infrastructure.
2. Order completion is smoother than that of physical shops.
3. Customers might get addicted to on-line shopping, which in turn boost sales and increase revenue.
4. It is easy to review the product before, actually, purchasing it.
Disadvantages of E-Tailing:
1. Creating and maintaining an e-tailing web site is an expensive process.
2. Customers do not often get to check the actual dimensions of the products and the quality displayed there.
3. Customers may have trust issues before providing their personal details and credit card details.
2. E-Advertising:
E-Advertising is the mechanism of promoting products or services on-line. It is the process of gaining attention of the customers, through the digital media.
The main purpose of e-advertising is to reach out to a wider range of customers. It is more cost effective when compared to the traditional forms of advertising. E-advertising also enables you to target the specific customers.
1. E-advertising will only be published on the internet.
2. Sometimes e-advertising will provide hyperlinks to the company’s web site.
3. Can include image, texts, and even animations within the advertisements.
Types of E-Advertising:
There are various types of e-advertising:
(b) Pop Up Advertising – It pops up a new screen upon clicking on a certain link on the web site, that it advertises the product.
3. E-Marketing:
Electronic marketing (e-marketing) is also known as internet marketing, web marketing and digital marketing on on-line marketing. It is the process of marketing a product or service using the internet, e-mail and wireless media. Unlike e-advertising, e- marketing is very subtle. It is not always a direct message of persuasion but rather it is something which will educate the customers and convince them to buy the product or service.
When compared to the means of traditional marketing, e-marketing offers several advantages.
Advantages of E-Marketing:
1. E-marketing provides much better return on the investment made by the marketer.
2. It reduces the cost of marketing campaign.
3. The marketer can easily monitor and track the results of the campaign.
4. The results are often easily measurable and quickly obtained.
5. E-marketing allows marketers to create viral content, allowing viral marketing.
Disadvantages of E-Marketing:
1. Devising a strong online marketing campaign involves spending money, the cost of which is ultimately borne by the customer. The cost of website design, software, hardware, maintenance of website, online distribution cost and invested time, are also factored in, while deciding the cost of providing a service or a product online.
Types of E-Marketing:
1. Article Marketing – Writing articles about products and services often helps in the process of educating the customers.
2. Affiliate Marketing – It is a kind of referral marketing where reference of any product will be provided on the other websites and when the customer buy’s the product based on the recommendation this website owner with gets commission.
3. Video Marketing – In this kind of e-marketing, a video will be shared describing the usage and benefits of the product or a service. It is often similar to television commercials.
4. Email Marketing – Direct emails are being sent to potential customers describing benefits of the product or service.
5. Blogging – Publishing blogs about similar products is also a very subtle way of marketing some business.
Nowadays companies are transforming themselves into e-commerce enabled organizations. To assure successful implementation of e- commerce, management of the organization has to deal with certain type of issues.
i. Formulate E-Commerce Strategy:
Management has to develop e-commerce strategy based on the analysis of industry and competition. Many companies like IBM created independent division for formation .and implementation of e-commerce in the organization. The e-commerce division, formulates strategy in the light of corporate strengthens and weaknesses.
Then e-commerce division communicates the vision of top management throughout the organization and annual objectives are identified. Essential education and training is given to those who are to implement the e-commerce plans. Efforts are made to change the behaviour and attitude of executives, managers, and trading partners.
The management needs to view electronic commerce potential in the light of the competition and not just as technological advancement. E-commerce needs to be used as a strategic tool to gain and sustain competitive advantage in the industry.
ii. Re-Engineering for E-Commerce:
Organizations are to be restructured and re-engineered in to a network based organization. Therefore, building and integrating infrastructure is a big challenge faced by company managements. Integrating information technology with existing business processes is a big task. In fact network of computers, complex transmission lines and dozens of pieces of software must all work together to make E-commerce happen.
The business process re-engineering team has to ensure that they do not miss anything significant while building and implementing E- commerce system Manufacturers have to decide whether the whole manufacturing and distribution system is to be restructured to become committed to direct Internet based supply chain and marketing or to use e-commerce website as a simple channel of distribution.
Company management has to make decision regarding in sourcing or outsourcing. Big companies go for in-house development of website. It means company’s own staff build e-commerce enabled website. Company management can also outsource this task to some third party, normally an experienced web development firm.
iii. Managing Ethical, Cultural and Legal Issues:
There exist big ethical and cultural differences between countries. Something may be ethical in our country but unethical in another country. So MNCs have to study culture of each country and develop corporate ethical code.
For example, France has certain language and cultural laws that must be obeyed. Therefore, it is necessary that advocates, accountants and executives of the companies must understand legal, trade, cultural and monetary issues of the countries with which their company has to deal.
iv. Making Cost Benefit Analysis:
Company management has to make cost benefit analysis of implementing e-commerce venture. Costs associated with e-commerce includes costs of hardware like PC clients, web servers, transaction servers routers and other networking devices, leased line and software like operating system, firewall, application software, web server software and transaction processing software, cost of recruiting and training staff for e-commerce etc.
Benefits can be measured through economic indicators like return on investment or through indicators like numbers of online customers, customer satisfaction and business partner satisfaction.
Organization of developed countries that have implemented e-commerce solutions have gained by way of realizing lower cost per transaction and taking advantage of economies of scale. In developing countries cost may exceed benefits in initial years of e-commerce initiatives.
v. Promoting E-Commerce Venture:
Company management has to take steps to promote the website.
Broadly, promotional activities can be classified into two categories:
a. Online Promotional Activities:
Online promotion is concerned with submitting your site to search engine. The objective is to get your site registered with the search engine so that the site appears as a link in search results of certain keywords-typed by internet user at the search engine like Google. This requires use of appropriate keywords in META tag.
Moreover, web team needs to search related sites and contact them so that their pages provide link to their web pages. So seeking reciprocal link is an effective way of promoting your e-commerce web site. Moreover, e-mails can be made of customers. Company that have advertising budget can promote the site by placing banner ads at popular websites and portals.
b. Offline Promotional Activities:
As far as offline promotion is concerned, company can advertise the web address through visiting cards, letter pads, bill books etc. Moreover, URL can also be advertised at various trade fairs, exhibitions and business related events like seminars, conferences etc. Therefore, company management has to set up advertising budget and decide the tools that it shall use to promote the e-commerce website.
vi. To Deal with Security & Privacy Issues:
Websites collect information about visitors through filled in order forms, questionnaires and by recording browser information thought programs like cookies. But the personal information so collected must be used for stated business purposes. But many surveys have shown that online consumers have little privacy protection.
Therefore, it is necessary that company management must form privacy practice and must assure consumers and partners that information so collected shall be kept confidential.
In addition management needs to form security policy. Data security and network security are major issues. There have been cases when vital information like credit card numbers are stolen by hackers. Similarly e-mails can be and are often intercepted as they travel through the network.
This type of data and message security needs security measures like encryption, password protection etc. Similarly network security measures like firewall needs to be installed so that intruders are not able to make authorized access to corporate network. The firewall prohibits hackers from entering corporate network via internet. Therefore management needs to set up some kind of intrusion detection system an establish security policy.
vii. Handling Human Resource Management Related Issues:
Electronic commerce is changing the manner in which staff is recruited, motivated, trained and educated. Two way interactions are now possible in video conferencing used for employee training and education. So, management needs to incorporate the impact of e-commerce on its human resource management practices.
viii. Adopting Electronic Fund Transfer System:
Company management has to make agreement with acquiring bank, Credit Card Company and payment gateway to ensure that it is able to receive and make payments electronically through modes like credit cards, smart cards, e-cash etc. The management has to devise ways and means of integrating Internet based payment system with offline system.
E-commerce has made a profound impact on society. People can now shop online in the privacy of their own homes without ever having to leave. This can force larger brick and mortar retailers to open an online division. In some cases, it can also force smaller businesses to shut their doors, or change to being completely online.
It also changes the way people look at making purchases and spending money. E-commerce has changed the face of retail, services, and other things that make our economy work. Undoubtedly, it will continue to influence how companies sell and market their products, as well as how people choose to make purchases for many years to come.
1. Impacts on Direct Marketing:
ii. New Sales Channel – E-commerce creates a new distribution channel for existing products. It facilitates direct reach of customers and the bi-directional nature of communication.
iii. Direct Savings – The cost of delivering information to customers over the internet results in substantial savings to senders when compared with non-electronic delivery. Major savings are also realized in delivering digitized products versus physical delivery.
iv. Reduced Cycle Time – The delivery of digitized products and services can be reduced to seconds. Also, the administrative work related to physical delivery, especially across international borders, can be reduced significantly, cutting the cycle time by more than 100 percent.
v. Customer Service – Customer service can be greatly enhanced by enabling customers to find detailed information online. Also, intelligent agents can answer standard e-mail questions in seconds and human experts’ services can be expedited using help-desk software.
vi. Corporate Image – On the web, newcomers can establish corporate images very quickly. Corporate image means trust, which is necessary for direct sales. Traditional companies such as Intel, Disney, Dell, and Cisco use their web activities to affirm their corporate identity and brand image.
vii. Customization – E-commerce provides for customization of products and services, in contrast to buying in a store or ordering from a television, which is usually limited to standard products. Dell Computers Inc. is a success story of customization.
Today, we can configure not only computers but also cars, jewellery, gifts, and hundreds of other products and services. If properly done, one can achieve mass customization. It provides a competitive advantage as well as increases the overall demand for certain products and services.
viii. Advertisements- With direct marketing and customization comes as one-to-one or direct advertisement, which is much more effective than mass advertisement. This creates a fundamental change in the manner in which advertisement is conducted not only for online trades but also for products and services that are ordered in traditional ways.
ix. Ordering Systems- Taking orders from customers can drastically be improved if it is done online. When taken electronically, orders can be quickly routed to the appropriate order-processing site. This saves time and reduces expenses, so sales people have more time to sell. Also, customers can compute the cost of their orders, saving time for all parties involved.
x. Markets- The physical market disappears as does the need to deliver the goods to the marketplace. In a market space, which is an electronic market, goods are delivered directly to buyers when purchasing is completed making markets much more efficient.
Already, small but powerful software packages are delivered over the internet. This fundamentally affects packaging and greatly reduces the need for historical distribution.
New selling models such as shareware, freeware are emerging to maximize the potential of the internet. New forms of marketing will also emerge, such as web-based advertising, linked advertising, direct e-mail, and an increased emphasis on relationship marketing. Customer’s convenience is greatly enhanced, availability of products and services is much greater, and cheaper products are offered.
2. Impacts on Organisation:
i. Technology and Organizational Learning:
Rapid progress in e-commerce will force companies to adapt quickly to the new technology and offer them an opportunity to experiment with new products, services, and processes. New technologies require new organizational approaches.
For instance, the structure of the organizational unit dealing with E- commerce might have to be different from the conventional sales and marketing departments. To be more flexible and responsive to the market, new processes must be put in place. This type of corporate change must be planned and managed.
ii. Changing Nature of Work:
The nature of work and employment will be transformed in the digital age; it is already happening before our eyes. Driven by increased competition in the global marketplace, firms are reducing the number of employees down to a core of essential staff and outsourcing whatever work they can to countries where wages are significantly less expensive.
The upheaval brought on by these changes is creating new opportunities and new risks and forcing us into new ways of thinking about jobs, careers, and salaries.
The digital age workers will have to become very flexible. Few of them will have truly secure jobs in the traditional sense, and all of them will have to be willing and able to constantly learn, adapt, make decisions, and stand by them.
iii. New Product Capabilities:
E-commerce allows for new products to be created and existing products to be customized in innovative ways. Such changes may redefine organizations’ missions and the manner in which they operate.
E-Commerce also allows suppliers to gather personalized data on customers. Building customer profiles as well as collecting data on certain groups of customers, can be used as a source of information for improving products or designing new ones.
Mass customization enables manufacturers to create specific products for each customer, based on his or her exact needs. For example, Motorola gathers customer needs for a pager or a cellular phone, transmits them electronically to the manufacturing plant where they are manufactured, along with the customer’s specifications and then sends the product to the customer within a day.
3. Impacts on Manufacturing:
The production systems are integrated with finance, marketing, and other functional systems, as well as with business partners and customers. Using web-based ERP systems, orders that are taken from customers can be directed to designers and to the production floor, within seconds.
4. Impacts on Finance:
E-commerce requires special finance and accounting systems. Traditional payment systems are ineffective or inefficient for electronic trade. The use of the new payment systems such as electronic cash is complicated because it involves legal issues and agreements on international standards.
Nevertheless, electronic cash is certain to come soon and it will change the manner in which payments are being made. In many ways, electronic cash, which can be backed by currency or other assets, represents the biggest revolution in currency since gold replaced cowry shells.
Its diversity and pluralism is perfectly suited to the internet. It could change consumers’ financial lives and shake the foundations of financial systems and even governments.
5. Impact on Supply Chain Management:
The result has been the emergence of new business-to business supply chains that are consumer- focused rather than product-focused. They also provide customized products and services. E-commerce impacts supply chain management in a variety of keyways.
These include:
i. Cost Efficiency:
E-commerce allows transportation companies of all sizes to exchange cargo documents electronically over the internet. E-commerce enables shippers, freight forwarders and trucking firms to streamline document handling without the monetary and time investment required by the traditional document delivery systems.
By using e-commerce, companies can reduce costs, improve data accuracy, streamline business processes, accelerate business cycles, and enhance customer service. Ocean carriers and their trading partners can exchange bill of lading instructions, freight invoices, container status messages, motor carrier shipment instructions, and other documents with increased accuracy and efficiency by eliminating the need to re-key or reformat documents.
ii. Changes in Distribution System:
E-commerce will give businesses more flexibility in managing the increasingly complex movement of products and information between businesses, their suppliers and customers. E-commerce will close the link between customers and distribution centres. Customers can manage the increasingly Complex movement of products and information through the supply chain.
iii. Customer Orientation:
E-commerce is a vital link in the support of logistics and transportation services for both internal and external customers. E-commerce will help companies deliver better services to their customers, accelerate the growth of the e-commerce initiatives that are critical to their business, and lower their operating costs. Using the Internet for e-commerce will allow customers to access rate information, place delivery orders, track shipments and pay freight bills.
E-commerce makes it easier for customers to do business with companies: Anything that simplifies the process of arranging transportation services will help build companies’ business and enhance shareholder value.
By making more information available about the commercial side of companies, businesses will make their web site a place where customers will not only get detailed information about the services the company offers, but also where they can actually conduct business with the company.
Ultimately, web sites can provide a universal, self-service system for customers. Shippers can order any service and access the information they need to conduct business with transportation companies exclusively online. E-commerce functions are taking companies a substantial step forward by providing customers with a faster and easier way to do business with them.
iv. Shipment Tracking:
E-commerce will allow users to establish an account and obtain real-time information about cargo shipments. They may also create and submit bills of lading, place a cargo order, analyse charges, submit a freight claim, and carry out many other functions.
In addition, e-commerce allows customers to track shipments down to the individual product and perform other supply chain management and decision support functions. The application uses encryption technology to secure business transactions.
v. Shipping Notice:
E-commerce can help automate the receiving process by electronically transmitting a packing list ahead of the shipment. It also allows companies to record the relevant details of each pallet, parcel, and item being shipped.
vi. Freight Auditing:
This will ensure that each freight bill is efficiently reviewed for accuracy. The result is a greatly reduced risk of overpayment, and the elimination of countless hours of paperwork, or the need for a third-party auditing firm. By intercepting duplicate billings and incorrect charges, a significant percent of shipping costs will be recovered.
In addition, carrier comparison and assignment allows for instant access to a database containing the latest rates, discounts, and allowances for most of major carriers, thus eliminating the need for unwieldy charts and tables.
vii. Shipping Documentation and Labelling:
There will be less need for manual intervention because standard bills of lading, shipping labels, and carrier manifests will be automatically produced; this includes even the specialized export documentation required for overseas shipments. Paperwork is significantly reduced and the shipping department will therefore be more efficient.
viii. Online Shipping Enquiry:
This gives instant shipping information access to anyone in the company, from any location. Parcel shipments can be tracked and proof of delivery quickly confirmed. A customer’s transportation costs and performance can be analysed, thus helping the customer negotiate rates and improve service.
E-commerce provides the following main advantages:
(i) Convenience – Customers can order products or services 24 hours a day wherever they are.
(iii) Fewer Hassels – Customers don’t have to face sales people or open themselves upto persuasion and emotional factors, they also don’t have to wait in line.
(iv) Quick Adjustment to Market Conditions by Marketers – Companies can quickly add products to their offering and change prices and descriptions.
(v) Lower Cost – On-line Marketers avoid the expense of maintaining a store and the costs of rent, insurance and utilities.
(vi) Relatively Building – On-line marketers can dialogue with consumers and learn from them. Marketers can download useful reports or a free demo of their softwares.
(vii) Audience Sizing – On-line Marketers can learn how many people visited their web site and how many of them shopped at particular places on the site. This information can help them improve offers and advertisements.
(x) Large and Medium – These companies have designed their own websites to automate corporate purchasing. The high cost on invoices and purchase order copies including time are saved a great deal due to E-commerce and Internet phase.
(xi) Internet newsgroups set up for commercial purposes help companies place on-line advertisements and thus save cost and time.
1. Security:
Security continues to be a problem for online businesses. Customers have to feel confident about the integrity of the payment process before they commit to the purchase. Banks such as ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank, State Bank of India have added secure payment gateways to process online banking transactions quickly and safely.
2. System and Data Integrity:
Data protection and the integrity of the system that handles the data are serious concerns. Computer viruses are rampant, with new viruses discovered every day. Viruses cause unnecessary delays, file backups, storage problems, and other similar difficulties. The danger of hackers accessing files and corrupting accounts adds more stress to an already complex operation.
3. System Scalability:
A business develops an interactive interface with customers via a website. After a while, statistical analysis determines whether visitors to the site are one-time or recurring customers. If the company expects 2 million customers and 6 million show up, website performance is bound to experience degradation, slowdown, and eventually loss of customers. To stop this problem from happening, a website must be scalable, or upgradable on a regular basis.
4. E-Commerce is Not Free:
So far, success stories in e-commerce have forced large business with deep pockets and good funding to invest in creating on-line websites. According to a report, small retailers that go head-to-head with e-commerce giants are fighting losing battle. As in the brick-and-mortar environment, they simply cannot compete on price or product offering. Brand loyalty is related to this issue, which is supposed to be less important for online firms. Brands are expected to lower search costs, build trust, and communicate quality. A search engine can come up with the best music deals, for example, yet consumers continue to flock to trusted entities such as HMV.
5. Consumer Search is not Efficient or Cost-Effective:
On the surface, the electronic marketplace seems to be a perfect market, where worldwide sellers and buyers share and trade without intermediaries. However, a closer look indicates that new types of intermediaries are essential to e-commerce. They include electronic malls that guarantee legitimacy of transactions. All these intermediaries add to transaction costs.
6. Customer Relations Problems:
Not many businesses realise that even e-business cannot survive over the long term without loyal customers. Building customer loyalty to a specific site is not an easy task. Customers are notoriously fickle-minded, and do not minding visiting a competing website just to avail even one-time benefits or discounts.
7. Products-People Won’t Buy Online:
Imagine a website called furniture, com or, where venture capitalists are investing millions in selling home furnishings online. In the case of a sofa, you would want to sit on it, feel the texture of the fabric etc. Beside the sofa test, online furniture stores face costly returns which makes the product harder to sell online.
8. Corporate Vulnerability:
The availability of product details, catalogues, and other information about a business through its website makes it vulnerable to access by the competition. The idea of extracting business intelligence from the website is called web framing. And such threats are increasing day by day in this digital, networked world.
9. High Risk of Internet Start-Up:
Many stories unfolded in 1999 about successful executives in established firms leaving for Internet start-ups, only to find out that their get-rich dream with a was just that – a dream.
This is particularly dangerous as the data extracted may be that of credit card numbers, security passwords, transaction details etc. Also, Payment gateways are vulnerable to interception by unethical users. Cleverly crafted strategies can sift a part or the entire amount being transferred from the user to the online vendor.
ii. Identity thefts Hackers often gain access to sensitive information like user accounts, user details, addresses, confidential personal information etc. It is a significant threat in view of the privileges one can avail with a false identity. For instance, one can effortlessly login to an online shopping mart under a stolen identity and make purchases worth thousands of dollars.
The following precautionary steps might prove to be helpful:
i. Authentication:
Most notable are the advances in identification and elimination of non-genuine users. E-commerce service designers now use multi-level identification protocols like security questions, encrypted passwords (Encryption), biometrics and others to confirm the identity of their customers. These steps have found wide favour all around due to their effectiveness in weeding out unwelcome access.
ii. Intrusion Check:
The issue of tackling viruses and their like has also seen rapid development with anti-virus vendors releasing strong anti-viruses. These are developed by expert programmers who are a notch above the hackers and crackers themselves. Firewalls are another common way of implementing security measures. These programmes restrict access to and from the system to pre-checked users/access points.
iii. Educating Users:
E-commerce is run primarily by users. Thus, E-commerce service providers have also turned to educating users about safe practices that make the entire operation trouble free. Recent issues like phishing have been tackled to a good extent by informing genuine users of the perils of publishing their confidential information to unauthorized information seekers.
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Categories :
Why did Christo create The Gates?
Why did Christo create The Gates?
This was done for two reasons: to avoid drilling thousands of holes into the soil and potentially harming the root systems of adjacent trees, and because Christo and Jeanne-Claude were inspired by the way the city’s pedestrians navigate its paths.
What is the central idea of Christo and Jeanne-Claude through The Gates and beyond?
In 1979 Christo and Jeanne-Claude had the idea for The Gates, but in 1981 the New York Parks Commissioner stopped them from building it. The passage says that The Gates riveted the attention of people around the world.
Where did Christo get his money?
What was the meaning of The Gates in Central Park?
These saffron gates encouraged visitors to explore the park, take photos, and take new paths through the park. Those paths weren’t just any walking trails: the layout of the installation was designed to ensure that it would only run through areas of the park that had low concentrations of wildlife.
Who created The Gates?
Christo and Jeanne-ClaudeJeanne-Claude
The Gates/Artists
Do gates still exist?
After the exhibition closed on February 27, the gates and bases were removed. The materials were industrially recycled, partially as scrap metal. A 2007 documentary film’s synopsis by the video’s promoters, Kino Lorber, contend this artwork “brought over 4 million visitors from around the world to Central Park.”
How many gates does Central Park have?
THERE are 20 gates to Central Park, but most people don’t even know they exist.
Why did Christo and Jeanne-Claude do temporary work?
“Our works are temporary in order to endow the works of art with a feeling of urgency to be seen, and the love and tenderness brought by the fact that they will not last,” the artists explained in a brochure for The Gates in 2005.
Is Christo dead?
Deceased (1935–2020)
Christo/Living or Deceased
Are Christo and Jeanne-Claude alive?
Deceased (1935–2009)
Jeanne-Claude/Living or Deceased
Are The Gates still in Central Park?
How much does it cost to see Gates?
Bureaucratic collaborators The Gates cost 21 million dollars and both the artists and the supporting institutions (the City of New York and the Central Park Conservancy) were quick to emphasize that Christo and Jeanne-Claude financed the project themselves and that the installation was free to the public.
Where to see Christo and Jeanne-Claude gates?
A point of contrast can be seen at the Storm King Art Center, a renowned sculpture park 52 miles north of New York City that has successfully cultivated a dialogue between sculptures and their landscape for over fifty years.
When did Christo and Jeanne Claude create the Floating Piers?
How did Christo and Jeanne Claude get their way?
It is important to remember that Christo and Jeanne-Claude’s favorable turn with the powers that be was 26 years in the making. The artists submitted proposals, attended meetings, and made presentations throughout this period, persisting even after they received a 251-page official rejection only three years into their campaign.
Who is the artist of the Central Park Gates?
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"language_score": 0.9663982391357422,
"url": "https://mysqlpreacher.com/why-did-christo-create-the-gates/"
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August 8, 2022
August 6, 2022
Augmented Reality in Education
Augmented Reality in Education
Augmented reality, or AR, is a combination of virtual displays and real-world backgrounds. So this isn't VR, in which a headset is worn that cuts out the world to view screens as if in a digital location. This combines the two. AR uses screens and cameras to overlay digital objects on the real world. As such, it is ideal for use in schools as it can create virtual items that might otherwise be prohibitively expensive or dangerous to have in the room.
Augmented reality can add digital elements to the real world to make textbooks 3D or turn a classroom into a virtual escape room. It can also mean a large space such as a gym can become an area populated with structures to explore, as if transporting students to a far away or ancient land.
Augmented reality asks students to become active participants in their own learning, and it can make them more interested and engaged in the subject matter. Educators can use AR in their classrooms to engage their students, reinforce information, and get them excited about learning.
Written by Dara Sunand, a Siliconvalley4u's student
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Insect Inquiries
Allen Nelson John P. Altgeld
1340 W. 71st. Street
Chicago IL 60636
The main objective of this lesson is to develop in the learner a curiosity
about the insect world. Students will collect and observe insects native to the
Materials Needed:
Collection Materials Model Construction potatoes 2' square piece of plywood knives 4 (1' by 12') wood strips spoons 8 tack nails trowels paint (optional) data sheet masking tape petri dishes glass jars with lids hand lenses markers/crayons drawing paper Strategy:
Collection Technique 1. Allow the students to design their own insect. Have them draw their insect on paper and label the parts. The students must describe the function of these parts. 2. Brainstorm on the following questions. What body parts do insects have? Where do insects live? How can we catch insects to observe? 3. Cut a potato in half lengthwise. (For younger students you may want to have this already done.) 4. With a spoon, hollow out the center of each potato half to form a cavity. 5. On each end of these cavities make identations or entrances to your potato traps. You will want to make sure that the indentations are about halfway above the center of each end. 6. Place the potato halves back together (you can wrap the halves together with masking tape) to complete the trap. 7. Locate the spot you would like to use to collect and, with your trowel, dig a depression in the soil. The area should be deep enough so that the potato traps' entrance is level with the ground surface. 8. Place the potato trap in position. Soil from the depression can be left to one side to fill in after you are through with your collecting. 9. Check your potato daily to record the kinds and number of critters in your trap. 10. Transfer your critters to a petri dish or glass jar. 11. Observe your critters with a hand lens. 12. Record your observations. Model Construction ROLLY POLLY DOWNS 1. Draw a circle (2" diameter) in the center of the plywood. 2. Arrange the wood strips in a spoke-like pattern around the circle. 3. Nail the strips in place. 4. Paint your model to resemble a race track. Label the model "ROLLY POLLY DOWNS." 5. Allow the students to race their critters. First one to the circle wins! 6. Remember to release the animals after you have completed these activities. Performance Assessment:
At the completion of these activities, students will be able to answer the
following questions:
1. Which animals in your trap are attracted to the potato for food?
2. Which animals are there because they are attracted to its moisture, a
water source?
3. Which could be there just for shelter?
4. Could any of the animals be there to prey upon the other animals in your
5. If traps were set in forests, fields, marshes, etc. would we find
different animals? Are there animals that seem to live in all areas?
6. Predict what might happen if we had buried the potato deeper in the ground.
Zuckerman, Karen. One Potato, Two Potato, Three Potato Traps. Celebrating Science. Honors Science Teachers of Illinois. 1990.
Mitchell, Andrew. The Young Naturalist, An Introduction to Nature Studies.
London: Usborne Publishing Ltd. 1982.
Hickman, Pamela. Bug Wise. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company. 1991.
Return to Biology Index
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"url": "http://mypages.iit.edu/~smile/bi9510.html"
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Introduction to MEMS
While the widely use of micro-electro-mechanical systems (EMES) in some other industries is nothing new, its adoption for telecom applications is relatively recent.
Conventional MEMS works by reflecting the beam of light from the surface of a tiny mirror. MEMS systems have moving parts, and the speed at which the mirror moves is limited. By applying more current, the mirror can move faster, but there’s a limit to how much current can be sent into the array of mirrors. If this weren’t bad enough, it seems that the speed and angular displacement terms in the calculation of the required current have integer powers of around 4 or 5, and so the bottom line is that we have to put a lot of current into the array for a small improvement in speed. By changing the mirror design so that the angle through which light is bent is smaller, it’s possible to achieve faster switching speeds. This technique is known as “fast MEMS.”
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"language_score": 0.952262282371521,
"url": "https://www.coreray.com/article/news1.html"
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The Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation was shaped by both pragmatic considerations and Lincoln’s lifelong disdain for slavery. As a legal document, it aspires to precision rather than eloquence. Lincoln’s use of county-specific terminology identified areas in rebellion, securing his proclamation as a wartime measure that would not be subject to judicial overthrow.
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"edu_score": 3.9375,
"fasttext_score": 0.16123974323272705,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9535813927650452,
"url": "http://abrahamlincoln.org/lincoln-speaks/emancipation-proclamation-4/"
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difference between z
Difference between Flour and Cornstarch
Difference between Flour and Cornstarch
Both flour and cornstarch are used for thickening, but they have different properties. Cornstarch is more soluble in cold water and forms a smoother sauce than flour. Flour also makes a thicker sauce, but it has a rougher texture. Cornstarch also takes on a slightly sweet flavor when cooked. For this reason, cornstarch is often used in desserts. The main difference between the two thickeners is that flour needs to be cooked for a longer time to achieve the desired thickness, while cornstarch can be added directly to hot liquid without affecting the taste.
What is Flour?
Flour is a powder made by grinding wheat, rye, oats, or another grain. It is the main ingredient in bread, pastry, and pasta. Flour is also used to make sauces, soups, and baby food. Flour is made up of carbohydrates and protein. The carbohydrates in flour are called starch. Flour also contains vitamins and minerals. The type of flour you use depends on the recipe you are making. For example, bread flour has more protein and makes chewy bread. Cake flour has less protein and makes light, fluffy cakes. All-purpose flour can be used for many different things because it has a medium amount of protein.
What is Cornstarch?
Cornstarch is a type of starch that is derived from corn. It is a white powder that is used to thicken sauces and as a binder in many baked goods. Cornstarch is made by milling the starchy endosperm of the corn kernel. The resulting powder is then sifted to remove any remaining bran or germ. Cornstarch is cooked in water to form a paste, which can then be used to thicken or bind ingredients together. It can also be used as a coating for fried foods. Cornstarch is a gluten-free ingredient and is often used as an alternative to flour in gluten-free recipes. When stored in an airtight container, cornstarch can last for up to two years.
Difference between Flour and Cornstarch
Flour and cornstarch are both key ingredients in many recipes.
• They are both powders made from grinding-up plants, but the plants they are made from are different.
• Flour is made from grinding up wheat, while cornstarch is made from the endosperm of the corn kernel.
• This difference in plant source gives flour and cornstarch different properties.
• Flour is higher in protein than cornstarch, which gives it more structure and makes it better for baked goods like bread and cookies.
• Cornstarch is lower in protein and has a higher starch content, which makes it more thickening power and makes it better for sauces and gravies.
Knowing when to use flour and when to use cornstarch will help you create delicious dishes that turn out just the way you want them to.
Cornstarch is a great thickener for sauces, soups, and gravies. It can also be used as a coating for chicken or fish. Flour, on the other hand, is better for batters and doughs because it contains gluten which helps to create structure. Gluten-free flours like rice flour or almond flour are good choices for baking.
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"language_score": 0.9632596373558044,
"url": "https://differencebetweenz.com/difference-between-flour-and-cornstarch/"
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World-first acrobatic Beetle: it can run upside down under water
Acrobatic Beetle! A beetle that can walk upside down under water has been observed for the first time in Australia. It was a scientist who discovered the creature by accident. Possibly the beetle wants to escape predators with this unique way of walking.
It was Ph.D. student John Gould who accidentally discovered the beetle during frog research in the Watagan Mountains. Gould was intently studying a pool of water—looking for tadpoles—when he suddenly saw some kind of swimming insect. Only moments later did he realize that it was a beetle walking beneath the surface of the water.
“The moment I realized the beetle was moving across the underside of the water’s surface, I knew I had found something very bizarre,” Gould told Live Science. “The beetle walked casually along the underside of the water’s surface with ease while upside down.”
The animal was also able to rest against the surface as if it were against a glass pane: “That means that it can remain on the water surface without consuming energy. This is in contrast to large animals that move over the surface of the water, such as lizards, which have to keep running to avoid sinking through the surface.”
How the acrobatic Beetle walk upside down?
Gould’s team suspects that the air bubble that sits on the beetle’s abdomen is what allows the animal to perform such a unique feat. With the air bubble, the animal could push itself to the surface of the water. In addition, the beetle has small, hair-like projections that can create even more air bubbles. This allows it to move over the water “without breaking the surface tension of the water”, and thus to ‘fall’.
Further research is needed to confirm this thinking. It is also not yet clear why the beetle performs such acrobatic stunts. Scientists suspect that the insect mainly wants to avoid dangerous predators at the bottom of the pool.
Live Science
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"language_score": 0.966862678527832,
"url": "https://afrinik.com/world-first-acrobatic-beetle-it-can-run-upside-down-under-water/"
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ac;pic: we remember by association
“The physiological data, as well as computational models, suggest that the hippocampus is suited to promote more flexible associations by recognizing relations among items and differentiating overlapping patterns (separating where one sees the person from the places and times of the events). This could contribute to the encoding of each unique episode, as well as relating the context-free information into semantic knowledge.” [1]
“(…) representations formed in the cerebral cortex are bound together into semantic associations by the parahippocampal region, and then further processed by the hippocampus to add the contextually rich episodic or spatial information.” [2]
Photos are triggers for memories. To organize memories we have to do it the way the brain does it.
Let’s analyze how we organize memories.
How many vacations have you taken in your life? Myself, probably 20. Where did you go in 2010? I went to Las Vegas with my (then) fiancée, my mother, 2 of my aunts and cousins. And where did you go in 2019? Japan with my (now) wife, her parents and my mother.
Let’s list what I associate with these 2 examples:
My mind associates a place with a date, a person or group of people and the context (in this case, “vacations”). “Japan 2019“ has certain things in common with “Las Vegas 2010” - those were vacations, and my wife and mother were there -, but other things are different - different countries, my in-laws were in one of them, but not in the other; same with my aunts and cousins.
When I think “vacations with my wife” both “Las Vegas 2010” and “Japan 2019” come up, as with “vacations with my mom”. “Vacations with my aunts” only return “Las Vegas 2010” while “vacations with my in-laws” only return “Japan 2019”.
If I think “where did we go on vacation in 2010?” that’s “Las Vegas”. When I ask myself questions or think about specific people, places or situations; certain memories come back.
Some of those memories are unique, such as “vacations with my in-laws”; but some have more than one, like “vacations with my wife”.
That is how we organize memories, by association. We associate things, people, places, situations and the results are memories.
“Remember that sushi place on the top of the tall building? That view was amazing! Remember the variety of sushi? Where was that? Was it Tokyo or Osaka?”
The answer is: “Tokyo. Just my wife and I. Having sushi late at night. Our parents turned in early. We took a lot of pictures of the spectacular sushi, the view and the place”.
The way I remember that is: Vacations + 2019 + Japan + Tokyo + Wife + Food.
Even if I can’t remember where in Japan it was, I know we were on vacation, it was in 2019, we were in Japan, it was just the 2 of us, and we were having dinner. I can narrow it down so I’m only left with the question “in what city was that?” Well, as it happens, there could only be 2 possible places: Tokyo and Osaka, since everywhere else we had dinner with our parents. Arriving at the right answer “Tokyo” is a lot easier.
Photos and videos are triggers for memories, we should use our natural flow when storing and organizing them.
This past example was for 2 particular instances. But what about the other 18 vacations? What about the graduations, weddings, birthdays, parties? What about the thousands of random pictures and videos we take daily? In what folder would those fall into? Imagine I had only used albums called “Las Vegas 2010” and “Japan 2019”. If I wanted to remember that dinner, I would have been scrolling through the over 1,500 photos we took on that trip.
What about the trips I don’t remember, the birthday parties that are a blur now because it happened so long ago, what about the photos of that fun night with friends that I can’t remember when it was?
I can’t create albums for moments I can’t remember. I can’t put memories to an arbitrary method. It won’t work. Albums don’t work.
But tags can do the job.
For the pictures of that dinner I could use the tags: Vacations, 2019, Japan, Tokyo, Wife, Food. If I couldn’t remember where that dinner was, I could use the tags: Vacations, 2019, Japan, Wife, Food. The results would only bring back photos that meet that criteria, and from there it gets a lot easier.
What would happen if I wanted to see my vacation photos as the years went by? I could just put the tag “vacations” and see what comes back. Then I can select “2010” and see where that was, or “2011”, and the same. I can move around unconstrained. I can drill down and then up again. I can easily add more pictures and have a logical and scalable organization system. I can find memories quickly.
Tagging pictures sounds like a lot of work. That’s when auto-tagging and interface design come in.
The brain organizes memories by association. Association of places, people, context, moments. It only makes sense to have an organizational method for photos and videos - triggers for memories - similar to the brains’ method.
It only made sense to work with this principle when building ac;pic.
Other posts about ac;pic
Back to the blog.
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Using Checksum to Ensure the Integrity of Data Files
A checksum is an indicator that signals if the original data in a file has been altered during storage or transmission. It’s a kind of “digital fingerprint” that triggers an alert of any change at all in a file’s structure.
Checksums have been used in digital cinema for years. It ensures that what was recorded onto a memory card is precisely copied to another medium. Missing bits can cause a video clip not to play. Most have had it happen to us in the past.
Checksums are unique values that are generated by cryptographic algorithms. These values are generated based on the input and are stored and transmitted with the file. Checksums are typically created using readily available open-source tools.
In general, checksums are used to catch accidental errors in data. Hash values — a numeric value of a fixed length that uniquely identifies data — represent large amounts of information and are normally used with digital signatures. Hash values identify potentially malicious data changes and tend to be larger in size than checksums.
If a file changes in the slightest way, the resulting checksum is completely different. Depending on how checksums are being used, this mismatch will result in a message that warns that the values don’t match. It will prevent the user from installing or uploading the corrupted or altered software, and will prevent undetected and unauthorized file modifications.
Checksums don’t say where in the file the change occurred — only that the file is not the same as the original.
In video, the main uses of checksums are to ensure that a master file has been correctly received from a content owner and then transferred successfully for transmission or preservation storage. It is also information given to file users in the future so they know that a file has been correctly received without errors.
A checksum procedure creates a “chain of custody” between the producer of content and those tasked to store or distribute it. If there are multiple copies of files, checksums can be used to monitor each copy and signal if any one of them has changed. If this happens, a new file can be made and checked again.
A new checksum for each file copy is redone on a regular basis and compared with the correct reference value. If a file is found to be corrupted in some way, a process called “data scrubbing” creates the new file.
Checksums can detect unwanted changes in digital materials, including those done deliberately. If the checksum changes, it requires new ones to be established as a way of checking data integrity of the file going forward.
Even archived video files should be checked against their checksums on a regular basis. How these checks are performed depends on the type of storage, how well it is maintained and how often the content is used.
As a general guideline in file preservation, checking data tapes might be done annually and checking hard drive-based systems might be done every six months. More frequent checks allow problems to be detected and fixed sooner, but at the expense of more processing resources. A balance is needed depending on the situation
Checksum data can be stored in a variety of ways. It can be kept in a database or with the file itself in the storage system. Checksum tools are integrated into many digital preservation systems.
For example, generating checksums may be part of the ingest process, which adds this information as part of ingested files. There are several levals of checksum algorithms, which are stronger and increasingly more secure
The stronger the algorithm the harder it is to deliberately change a file in a way that goes undetected. This can be especially important where there is a need to prevent malicious corruption or alteration of digital materials, such as data to be used in trials or other legal proceedings.
Standard checksum algorithms are used to detect accidental loss or damage to files in typical storage situations. Guides for this are used by the National Digital Stewardship Alliance (NDSA), which recommends four levels of digital preservation depending on the sensitivity of the content.
Write blockers are recommended for higher levels of content protection by the NDSA. This is to prevent write access to digital media prior to being copied to a preservation storage system. For example, if digital content is delivered on a hard disc drive or USB key then a write blocker could prevent accidental deletion of this digital material when the drive or key is read.
Digital material might not be stored on physical media. Perhaps the data is kept on a server or sent through a network transfer. In such situations, write blockers don’t apply. Other techniques are often used to create “read only” digital files.
Write blockers are not always used and are often not the right choice for certain types of media. If a write blocker is applicable, then the extra hassle must be balanced against the need to ensure rigorous data authenticity. In less sensitive applications, the use of write blockers is often considered unnecessary.
In our increasingly digital world, checksums are used in multiple ways and play an important role in data protection and cybersecurity. Even if you don’t understand the technical intricacies of the technology, use it to ensure that your most valuable files are protected.
(A checksum tool targeted for digital cinema use is Copy That from OWC.)
Writer at Broadcast Beat
Frank Beacham is a New York-based writer, director and producer who works in print, radio, television, film and theatre.
Beacham has served as a staff reporter and editor for United Press International, the Miami Herald, Gannett Newspapers and Post-Newsweek. His articles have appeared in the Los Angeles Times, Washington Post, the Village Voice and The Oxford American.
Beacham’s books, Whitewash: A Southern Journey through Music, Mayhem & Murder and The Whole World Was Watching; My Life Under the Media
Microscope are currently in publication. Two of his stories are currently being developed for television.
In 1985, Beacham teamed with Orson Welles over a six month period to develop a one-man television special. Orson Welles Solo was canceled after Mr. Welles died on the day principal photography was to begin.
In 1999, Frank Beacham was executive producer of Tim Robbins’ Touchstone feature film, Cradle Will Rock. His play, Maverick, about video with Orson Welles, was staged off-Broadway in New York City in 2019.
Frank Beacham
Broadcast Beat - Production Industry Resource
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American Reconstruction Period (1865-1877)
Subject: History
Pages: 6
Words: 1764
Reading time:
7 min
Study level: College
Reconstruction era is the period in US history that succeeded the American Civil War of 1861 to 1865. Reconstruction years between 1865 to 1877 were marked by several attempts to rectify the improprieties of slavery and the difficulties emanating from the readmission of the eleven states that had earlier seceded from the Union. Through historical perspective, the Reconstruction interval is portrayed as the time in which vengeful Republicans imposed black supremacy upon the defeated southern secessionist states. In all the political struggles within the American society, the Reconstruction era is viewed as an important milestone in interracial democracy. Within the national ranks, new policies and legislative amendments changed the federal system and provided new guidelines for American citizenship. In southern states, the politically mobilized American-Africans partnered with the poor whites to vote to the Republican government to power. This paper attempts to explain the Reconstruction period within the context of political developments to the end of that interesting historical moment.
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Andrew Johnson and the Presidential Reconstruction
Reconstruction history began with the US president at that time, Abraham Lincoln. Before his assassination, Lincoln referred to Reconstruction in Louisiana by opining that some black ex-soldiers from the American Union army needed the right to vote in the elections which were to be conducted later (Captivating History 19). After Lincoln died in 1865, Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency and instituted the chapter of presidential Reconstruction. He rendered clemency to all southern whites except the Confederate leaders and the wealthy plantation-owners (Guelzo 32). Later on, the Confederate officials and the rich planters obtained individual pardons. Johnson’s absolutions reinstated these people’s political rights and all property except the slaves (Boyer et al. 441). The president as well outlined the processes through which new states would be created. Aside from the condition that they eradicate slavery, reject secession, and abrogate the Confederate debt, the southern states were given independence in managing their internal affairs (Boyer et al 443). Confederate states responded then through the formulation of the Black codes, rules that required African-Americans to sign annual labour agreement and in other means sought to regulate the freedman’s economic options and reinvent plantation order (Boyer et al. 443). Clearly, this was the beginning of the African-American’s resentment of Johnson’s policies.
Johnson’s discriminatory measures not only angered many people but also rekindled radicalization among some Republican elected officials. At the time when Congress convened in December of 1865, Pennsylvania’s Senator Thaddeus Stephens and Massachusetts’s Senator Charles Sumner called for the establishment of new southern governments grounded on fairness and universal male suffrage (Guelzo 3). However, the more several tolerable Republicans desired to cooperate with the President while redesigning his plan. American legislature declined to seat the elected officials and senators from the Southern states and passed the two Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil rights Bills (Boyer et al.). The first bill was purposed to lengthen the term of Freedmen’s Bureau that was created in 1865 to manage the transition from enslavement to freedom (Boyer et al. 444). The second bill was intended to designate all individuals born in the US as national citizens, who were to enjoy impartiality before the law (Boyer et al. 444). Inarguably, President Johnson had now built enmity between him and the Republicans.
Rejection of the Freedman’s Bureau and the Civil Rights Bills severed the poor relationship that existed between President Johnson and Congress. A blend of personal intransigence, the impassioned dogma of states’ rights, and racist convictions are some of the perceived reasons why Johnson might have dissented to the bills (Guelzo 44-49). As a matter of fact, the Civil Rights Act became the first notable legislation in US history to become law atop a president’s veto (Boyer et al. 444). Soon afterwards, Congress ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, which put the principle of birthright citizenship into the constitution and forbade the states from depriving the citizens of the right to equality before the law (Guelzo 12). Therefore, the federal government would assure all Americans of equality before the law and against state contravention.
Congressional Reconstruction
During the 1866 congressional elections, Northern states’ voters profusely rejected Johnson’s policies. The parliament chose to start Reconstruction afresh by the passage of some bills to strengthen it. The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 split the Confederate states into five soldierly districts and outlined how new governments, grounded on manhood’s right to vote with no consideration to race, were to be instituted (Captivating History 58). Consequently, the era of Radical or Congressional Reconstruction began that continued till the end of the ultimate Southern Republican administrations in 1877 (Captivating History 60). With the Radical Reconstruction, it meant that the programs aimed at readmission of the Southern states were controlled by Congress.
Congressional Reconstruction had most of its successes but the notable achievement was the readmission of Southern states into the Union. By 1870, every single former Confederate states’ member had been reabsorbed to the Union, and almost all were managed by the Republican Party (Captivating History 74). Southern Republicanism was constituted of three groups of people. Firstly, there were “carpetbaggers”, or new arrivals from the North who were Union soldiers, tutors, Freedmen’s Bureau agents, and businesspeople (Guelzo 33). The second group was comprised was “scalawags” or native-born white Republicans who were made up of planters, who were nonslaveholding from the Southern upcountry, and some businessmen (Boyer et al. 449). Thirdly, African-Americans formed the vast majority of the Southern Republican electorate (Boyer et al. 450). The aforementioned groups’ loyalty to the Republican Party emerged from the fact that they viewed the party as a mechanism for reclaiming the Confederate power.
One of the prominent accomplishments of Radical Reconstruction was that it aroused need for freedom among the Afro-Americans. Right from Reconstruction’s inception, political forums and local press throughout the South had demanded for the appendage of constitutional liberties to the marginalized blacks (Boyer et al. 450). Black rights activists included those who had been free pre-Civil War era, slave ministers, artisans, and Civil war veterans (Captivating History 58). The leadership of Blacks rights movements pressed for the abolition of the racial caste system and the economic emancipation of the former slaves (Guelzo 96). In essence, sixteen African-Americans served in Congress during the Reconstruction period, including Blanche Bruce and Hiram Revels in the US senate (Guelzo 70). Certainly, the Political revolution in the South meant freedom of blacks from the white supremacists.
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Nevertheless, the political revolution of Reconstruction precipitated increasingly violent opposition from the Southern whites. Terror organizations like Ku Klux Klan sprung up with intentions of thwarting the existent revolution (Guelzo 74-79). Criminal acts such as beatings and assassinations were targeted at the local Republican leaders, African-Americans who asserted their rights in their workplaces, teachers, ministers, and those who sought to assist former slaves (Boyer et al. 451-452). For instance, at Louisiana’s Colfax in 1873, scores of Blacks militiamen were murdered after surrendering to the armed whites who were keen on taking control of the local government (Captivating History 78). With the rise in terrorism, however, the governments of the Southern states solicited help from the federal government headquartered in Washington D.C.
By 1969, the federal government of the US was controlled by Republican Party through its three arms. After the Senate failed to impeach President Johnson in 1868, a Republican Ulysses Grant was elected to be the president (Captivating History 68). Thereafter, Congress passed the fifteenth amendment that barred states from restricting the right to vote on account of race. A series of Enforcement Acts were then passed which allowed national action to repress political violence. Grant’s administration then launched a military offensive against the Klan in 1871 and destroyed the group completely. In 1872, Grant was reelected in a peaceful election ever witnessed in the period. Arguably, the two terms that Grant served can be seen as the historical time that Reconstruction started to slow down.
End of Reconstruction
Gradually, Reconstruction began to wane by the early 1870s because of different reasons. During this particular period, numerous Republicans retreated from both the racial equality and the wide definition of federal power as had been initiated by the Civil War (Captivating History 75). Some critics of the Reconstruction argued that the exclusion of the planters from the South from power was to be blamed for corruption and instability that bedeviled the states (Guelzo 74). As Northern states became more conservative, Reconstruction seemed to be a misguided attempt to uplift the living standards of the less privileged. Such notions gave rise to cases such as 1873’s Slaughterhouse Cases which limited the extent of Reconstruction laws and constitutional amendments. In reality, the pace with which Reconstruction was growing slowed down.
Key to the diminishing support for Reconstruction was the reducing political disapproval of the Republican Party across the Southern states. By 1876, only the three Southern states of Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina were under the control of the Republican Party (Guelzo 85-89). The contestation of presidential results between the Republican’s Rutherford Hayes and the Democrat’s Samuel Tilden was pegged on the election outcomes from the three states. There came negotiations between Hayes representatives and political leaders from the South. The deal was struck for Hayes to recognize the Democrat’s control of the three states and the Democrats would not block his certification in Congress (Captivating History 83-88). After Hayes became the US President, the defense forces returned to military bases. President Hayes’ era ushered in a new dispensation in which the federal government accepted to protect the rights of the former slaves, therefore bringing Reconstruction to an end. As evident, Reconstruction brought a new form of conflict resolution in American politics, which was, negotiation.
In summary, America’s Reconstruction era was marked by political developments that shaped the period not only at its beginning but also at the end of the period. Following the American Civil War, the Reconstruction period created the need to readmit the Confederate States that had earlier seceded from the Union. Though President Abraham Lincoln had a plan for the Reconstruction of the Southern states, his untimely death dealt a setback to the program. On his side, President Andrew Johnson, Lincoln’s successor, tried to implement the plan though he faced fierce opposition from Congress, culminating in impeachment attempts in 1868. The US leader who tried to effect some changes under Reconstruction was Ulysses Grant who ruled for two terms and annihilated the Ku Klux Klan. Remarkably, the Reconstruction period ended with the inauguration of President Rutherford Hayes in 1877. Despite being a period of political revolution in the US, the Reconstruction period became pivotal in the political stability of the nation.
Works Cited
Boyer, Paul, et al. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. 9th ed., Cengage Learning, 2017.
Captivating History. Reconstruction Era and Gilded Age: A Captivating Guide to a Period in US History that Greatly Impacted American Civil Rights and an Era of Rapid Economic Growth. Captivating History, 2021.
Guelzo, Allen. Reconstruction: A Concise History. Oxford University Press, 2018.
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How weather radars have saved lives for over 30 years
Topped by their signature white spheres, radars keep an eye on the sky
They keep their eyes on the sky.
Known by their signature white spheres, weather radars silently stand guard as they gaze into the depths of the atmosphere.
Like soldiers on watch, they peer out to see what looms in the distance, ready to report what lies ahead.
The ripple effect of radars
"The radars are important because they are the forecasters’ primary tool for identifying and warning on impending severe weather," said Jessica Schultz, the deputy director of the NEXRAD Radar Operations Center.
The NEXRAD Radar Operations Center — or simply "NEXRAD" — is part of the National Weather Service (NWS). Based in Norman, Oklahoma, NEXRAD relays vital information to forecasters, who then deliver that information to the general public.
"It's a pretty picture [the public] might see on TV or on their phone, but it's scientific data that allows forecasters to provide the public with warnings to take action if there's something hazardous headed for them," Schultz said.
And that’s not all. According to Schultz, NEXRAD’s radars also make a significant impact on three other realms: the economy, the military and air travel.
The radars are essential to commerce as they help ensure the safe transportation of goods and services across the country. For example, the trucking industry needs to know the weather as their truckers drive from one coast to the other.
For the military, weather forecasts help them protect certain assets. In one scenario, the military needs to know whether high winds or hail might approach and potentially damage helicopters and airplanes sitting on bases.
Lastly, information from the radars helps the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ensure the safe navigation of airplanes across the country.
"That's why those three agencies are invested cooperatively in the radars to ensure that our nation has proper radar coverage, and we can see any hazards approaching the country," Schultz said.
How the radars work
The NEXRAD Radar Operations Center has 159 radars sprinkled across the country and at select locations overseas, such as Puerto Rico, Guam, Korea and Japan.
This network of radars is called the WSR-88D, which stands for Weather Surveillance Radar 1988 Doppler. The radars of WSR-88D were deployed in the early to mid-1990s and have been continuously upgraded and maintained in the years since.
"When the radars were originally located, they were primarily located based on severe weather probability," Schultz said. Because of this, most of the radars are located east of the Rocky Mountains as that portion of the country experiences a greater probability of severe weather.
"But the West and then, of course, the United States territories are well-covered to serve the public and the mission of those three federal agencies as well," Schultz added.
The radars are ground-based, and they can see from the level of the horizon to about 70,000 feet up.
"That provides us a good snapshot of severe weather in that range in the atmosphere," Schultz said.
To see what the atmosphere holds, the radar sends out signals to detect small objects in the clouds, such as raindrops and ice pellets. That information is then sent to a series of computers that can interpret the signals into visual images, helping relay weather information to the public.
This information is constantly being relayed, due to the radars’ placement in relation to each other.
"Within the United States, our radar coverage is overlapping in most cases, and that was done strategically to ensure that if one radar goes down for maintenance, for example, or if there's an unexpected issue, that there are surrounding radars that can provide that coverage until the radar can return to service," Schultz said.
She added that NEXRAD supplements WSR-88D’s system with other radars, such as the FAA’s smaller radars that are located around larger airports.
Combined with these backups, WSR-88D’s 159 radars can ensure the flow of information to forecasters and the public.
The radomes
While the radars work behind the scenes to gather and deliver vital information about weather, they are still recognizable due to their signature look: towers topped with giant, white spheres.
"The top of the radar, which most people think looks like a soccer ball, that's called the radome," Schultz said.
Inside the radome is a large satellite dish that serves as an antenna, along with several heavy mechanical components that allow the satellite dish to spin around 360 degrees.
This maneuverability is one of the reasons for the radome’s spherical shape, according to Schultz.
Its shape also helps protect the radar’s machinery from the elements.
The radome has aerodynamic properties that divert winds of up to 224 miles per hour around the sphere, making it resilient during weather events such as tornadoes and hurricanes.
The spherical shape also allows precipitation to run off the radome. According to Schultz, that enables the radar’s signal to go out properly and be received without being impeded by raindrops, snow or ice.
"The radar operates 24/7 to be looking for hazardous weather," she said. "So, the radome serves an important process in making sure all that heavy equipment inside is protected from all the elements."
Onward and upward
According to Schultz, NEXRAD’s radar system is currently undergoing its latest phase of upgrades. Starting in 2015 and set to be complete in 2024, this phase is part of a service life extension program involving a major refurbishment and upgrade of all the radars.
"Some of the large mechanical components were original to the system, so they were 25 or 30 years old," Schultz said. "So, we have refurbished those, and that will keep the WSR-88D viable and providing high-quality data until at least the 2030s."
For decades, this network of radars has played a critical role in reading the atmosphere. Much like the radars, a large team works together to ensure that the radar operations go off without a hitch.
"The majority of our employees have been here for 20-plus years," Schultz said.
She noted that the radars are a very large and complex system that requires a lot of effort and planning to run. But what makes those efforts worthwhile is seeing how the forecasts that the radars shape help save countless lives and property.
"It's very rewarding to see that pay off," Schultz said. "When there's a major weather event, we know that the work that we do — we all take very much pride in the work that we do — we know that that effort is paying off to keep people safe that well."
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Factors that Affect Solubility
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"Factors that Affect Solubility"
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Before one can talk about the factors that affect the solubility, one needs to to know what exactly "solubility" means. In several entries (Wikipedia,,, solubility is defined as the following: the ability of a substance to dissolve. In the Wikipedia entry, solubility is defined as: the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substrance called solute to dissolve in a liquid solvent to form a homogenous solution. Solution is defined as a homogenous mixture composed of two or more substances. On the website, solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a solvent.
Anything that can disolve in a liquid solvent has a high level of solubility. Depending on the specific substance, you may need a third substance for it to dissolve. One such example would be oil. Oil and water together, alone, do not mix. When you pour a small amount of oil into water and vice-versa, you should see the globs. In oil, there should be globs of water. In water, there should be globs of oil. One major example would be the 2010 oil spill at the BP rig in the Gulf of Mexico. On the news, it was explained that many solvents were used. The solvent would be the third factor to make the oil soluble.
In the entry on the website, rules of solubility are introduced. More specifics are given to water solubility.
Once one understands the definition of solubility, one can look into the factors that affect it.
In respects to solubility in water, the entry on explains two factors. The first one talks about the force of attraction between water and the ions of the solid. If ions are brought into the solution, solubility is rather high. If the ions are kept in a solid state, the solubility would be low.
According to the solubility rules, other factors are introduced.
One factor is if the substance has nitrates (NO3). Solubility rules say that all nitrates are soluble. All chlorides are soluble except for AgCl (silver chloride), Hg2Cl2 (mercury chloride), and PbCl2 (lead chloride).
Most sulfates except for BaSO4 (barrium sulphate), PbSO4 (lead sulphate), and SrSO4 (strontium sulfate), are soluable.
Except for NH4 (ammonium), all carbonates are not soluable. One example on how ammonium is soluble is that it is found in urine. One simply has to watch some of the old Truth About Smoking commercials. In one commercial, it is explained that one of the substances found in cigarettes is ammonium and it was pointed out that it is also found in urine.
Except for Ba(OH)2 (barium hydroxide) and SR(OH)2 (strontium hydroxide) , all hydroxides are not soluable. But, it is said that Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide) is still soluble. But, the solubility of calcium hydroxide is very low compared to the other two.
Group 1 and Group 2 element sulfides are soluable. Those that do not like in those two groups are not soluable.
In the Solubility of Things website, the factors that affect solubility are the following: temperature, polarity, pressure, and molecular size.
Pressure plays a factor in respect to gas solutes. That is explained in "Henry's Law" which was formulated in 1803 by chemist William Henry. That does not apply to most solids and liquids. In the Wikipedia entry on Henry's Law, the soft drink is used as an example. Soft drinks range from your sodas.
Another example of a solid dissolving in liquid would be hot chocolate. Temperature plays a very important role. If the liquid is cold, the cocoa powder probably will not mix as well. If the lquid is hot, the cocoa powder mixes properly. Kool-Aid is another example.
On the flip side, temperature affects the solubility of gases. If the temperature rises, solubility level drops. If the temperature drops, solubility level rises.
Mechanically, you can speed up the solubility by stirring. By stirring, you can make a cup of cocoa or a pitcher of Kool-Aid. Another example would be mixing flour and eggs to create batter or dough.
The factors of solubility can be simply explained. But, one has to consider the substances that are being combined. One does not necessarily need an expensive chemistry set to test out the solubility of things. You can easily find stuff in your own kitchen. You can make soup, milk shakes, ice cream sodas, cakes, and so forth. Those everyday food and drink items are prime examples on factors that affect solubility.
More about this author: Can Tran
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Conservation Corner: Clovers
By Lynn Lewis -
Communications Manager
It’s no secret that Savannah loves a good St. Patrick’s Day celebration, which means that this time of year, everything turns green and is adorned with shamrocks. Many people think that clovers and shamrocks are synonymous, but it turns out that there are nearly 300 species of clovers worldwide! The scientific name for clovers uses the genus Trifolium, meaning that there are three leaflets. However, there are some species of wood sorrel (Oxalis) that also have trifoliate leaves and are argued to be the true shamrock symbol of Ireland and Saint Patrick. Aside from their claims of luck, clovers play an important role in both our ecosystem functions and agricultural processes. You may have seen clover honey on the shelves at your local market, as clovers are an attractive nectar source for honeybees and many other pollinators. The roots of some clover species host Rhizobium, a type of bacteria that “fixes” atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for plant growth. These types of clovers often are planted as forage for livestock and to improve soil quality. The next time you see a patch of clovers, I hope you see more than just luck, as clovers are a great resource for our pollinators, livestock, and soil fertility. But if you do want to take your chances at finding that four-leafed clover, pack your patience, because in a recent study, the University of Florida determined the odds of finding such a clover as one in 5,076!
Visit to read the original article.
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CHUMASHThe Chumash are a Native American people of the central and southern coastal regions of California, in portions of what is now San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties, extending from Morro Bay in the north to Malibu in the south. Their territory included three of the Channel Islands: Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel; the smaller island of Anacapa was likely inhabited seasonally due to the lack of a consistent water source. Modern place names with Chumash origins include Cayucos, Malibu, Nipomo, Lompoc, Ojai, Pismo Beach, Point Mugu, Port Hueneme, Piru, Lake Castaic, Saticoy, Simi Valley and Somis. They were great boat builders
Archaeological research demonstrates that the Chumash have deep roots in the Santa Barbara Channel area and lived along the southern California coast for millennia. The Chumash tribes near the coast benefited most with the “close juxtaposition of a variety or marine and terrestrial habitats, intensive upwelling in coastal waters, and intentional burning of the landscape made the Santa Barbara Channel region one of the most resource abundant places on the planet.
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Disc brake
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Close-up of a disc brake on a Renault car
A disc brake is a type of brake that uses the calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc or a "rotor"[1] to create friction.[2] This action slows the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted into waste heat which must be dispersed.
Hydraulically actuated disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor vehicles, but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft. The components include the disc, master cylinder, and caliper (which contains a cylinder and two brake pads) on both sides of the disc.
On automobiles, disc brakes are often located within the wheel
A drilled motorcycle brake disc
The development of disc-type brakes began in England in the 1890s. In 1902, the Lanchester Motor Company designed brakes that looked and operated in a similar way to a modern disc-brake system even though the disc was thin and a cable activated the brake pad.[3] Other designs were not practical or widely available in cars for another 60 years. Successful application began in airplanes before World War II, and even the German Tiger tank was fitted with discs in 1942. After the war, technological progress began to arrive in 1949, with caliper-type four-wheel disc brakes on the Crosley line, and a Chrysler non-caliper type. In the 1950s, there was a critical demonstration of superiority at the 1953 24 Hours of Le Mans race, which required braking from high speeds several times per lap.[4] The Jaguar racing team won, using disc brake-equipped cars, with much of the credit being given to the brakes' superior performance over rivals equipped with drum brakes.[4] Mass production began with the 1949–1950 inclusion in all Crosley production, with sustained mass production beginning in 1955 Citroën DS.[3]
Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better-stopping performance because the disc is more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the brake fade caused when brake components overheat. Disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective than dry ones).[4]
The disc is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To slow down the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on the brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.
Early experiments[edit]
The development of disc brakes began in England in the 1890s. The first caliper-type automobile disc brake was patented by Frederick William Lanchester in his Birmingham factory in 1902 and used successfully on Lanchester cars. However, the limited choice of metals in this period meant that he had to use copper as the braking medium acting on the disc. The poor state of the roads at this time, no more than dusty, rough tracks, meant that the copper wore quickly making the system impractical.[3][5]
In 1921, the Douglas motorcycle company introduced a form of disc brake on the front wheel of their overhead-valve sports models. Patented by the British Motorcycle & Cycle-Car Research Association, Douglas described the device as a "novel wedge brake" working on a "bevelled hub flange", the brake was operated by a Bowden cable. Front and rear brakes of this type were fitted to the machine on which Tom Sheard rode to victory in the 1923 Senior TT.[6]
Successful application began on railroad streamliner passenger trains and in airplanes and tanks before and during World War II. In the US, the Budd Company introduced disc brakes on the General Pershing Zephyr for the Burlington Railroad in 1938. By the early 1950s, disc brakes were being regularly applied to new passenger rolling stock.[7] In Britain, the Daimler Company used disc brakes on its Daimler Armoured Car of 1939, the disc brakes, made by the Girling company, were necessary because in that four-wheel drive (4x4) vehicle the epicyclic final drive was in the wheel hubs and therefore left no room for conventional hub-mounted drum brakes.[8]
At Germany's Argus Motoren, Hermann Klaue (1912-2001) had patented[9] disc brakes in 1940. Argus supplied wheels fitted with disc brakes e.g. for the Arado Ar 96.[10] The German Tiger I heavy tank, was introduced in 1942 with a 55 cm Argus-Werke disc[11] on each drive shaft.
The American Crosley Hot Shot had four-wheel disc brakes in 1949 and 1950, but these quickly proved troublesome and were removed.[3] Crosley returned to drum brakes, and drum brake conversions for Hot Shots were quite popular.[12] Lack of sufficient research caused reliability problems, such as sticking and corrosion, especially in regions using salt on winter roads.[12] Crosley four-wheel Disc Brakes made Crosleys and Crosley-based specials popular in SCCA H-Production and H-modified racing in the 1950s.[citation needed] Their superior braking made them difficult to beat.[citation needed] The Crosley disc was a Goodyear-Hawley design, a modern caliper "spot" type with a modern disc, derived from a design from aircraft applications.[3]
Chrysler developed a unique braking system, offered from 1949 until 1953.[13] Instead of the disc with caliper squeezing on it, this system used twin expanding discs that rubbed against the inner surface of a cast-iron brake drum, which doubled as the brake housing.[12] The discs spread apart to create friction against the inner drum surface through the action of standard wheel cylinders.[12] Because of the expense, the brakes were only standard on the Chrysler Crown and the Town and Country Newport in 1950.[12] They were optional, however, on other Chryslers, priced around $400, at a time when an entire Crosley Hot Shot retailed for $935.[12] This four-wheel disc brake system was built by Auto Specialties Manufacturing Company (Ausco) of St. Joseph, Michigan, under patents of inventor H.L. Lambert, and was first tested on a 1939 Plymouth.[12] Chrysler discs were "self energizing," in that some of the braking energy itself contributed to the braking effort.[12] This was accomplished by small balls set into oval holes leading to the braking surface.[12] When the disc made initial contact with the friction surface, the balls would be forced up the holes forcing the discs further apart and augmenting the braking energy.[12] This made for lighter braking pressure than with calipers, avoided brake fade, promoted cooler running, and provided one-third more friction surface than standard Chrysler twelve-inch drums.[12] Today's owners consider the Ausco-Lambert very reliable and powerful, but admit its grabbiness and sensitivity.[12]
In 1953, 50 aluminum-bodied Austin-Healey 100S (Sebring) models, built primarily for racing, were the first European cars sold to the public to have disc brakes, fitted to all 4 wheels.[14]
First impact in racing[edit]
Jaguar C TYPE similar to the 1953 "24 Heures du Mans" winner
Citroën DS 19
The Jaguar C-Type racing car won the 1953 24 Hours of Le Mans, the only vehicle in the race to use disc brakes, developed in the UK by Dunlop, and the first car at Le Mans ever to average over 100 mph.[15] "Rivals' large drum brakes could match discs' ultimate stopping, but not their formidable staying power."[4]
Before this, in 1950, a Crosley HotShot with stock four-wheel disc brakes won the Index of Performance in the first race at Sebring (six hours rather than 12) on New Year's Eve in 1950.[citation needed]
Mass production[edit]
The Citroën DS was the first sustained mass production use of modern automotive disc brakes, in 1955.[3][5][16][17][18] The car featured caliper-type front disc brakes among its many innovations.[3] These discs were mounted inboard near the transmission and were powered by the vehicle's central hydraulic system. This model went on to sell 1.5 million units over 20 years with the same brake setup.[3]
Despite early experiments in 1902, from British Lanchester Motor Company, and in 1949 from Americans Chrysler and Crosley, the costly, trouble-prone technology was not ready for mass production.[3][13] Attempts were soon withdrawn.[3][13][12]
The Jensen 541, with four-wheel disc brakes, followed in 1956.[3][19] Triumph exhibited a 1956 TR3 with disc brakes to the public, but the first production cars with Girling front-disc brakes were made in September 1956.[20]
Disc brakes were most popular on sports cars when they were first introduced since these vehicles are more demanding about brake performance. Discs have now become the more common form in most passenger vehicles, although many (particularly lightweight vehicles) use drum brakes on the rear wheels to keep costs and weight down as well as to simplify the provisions for a parking brake. As the front brakes perform most of the braking effort, this can be a reasonable compromise.
Historically, brake discs were manufactured throughout the world with a strong concentration in Europe and America. Between 1989 and 2005, the manufacturing of brake discs migrated predominantly to China.
In the U.S.[edit]
In 1963 Studebaker Avanti was made with disc brakes.[21] (the Bendix system was optional on some of the other Studebaker models[22]). Front disc brakes became standard equipment in 1965 on the Rambler Marlin[23] (the Bendix units were optional on all American Motors' Rambler Classic and Ambassador models[24]), as well as on the Ford Thunderbird,[25] and the Lincoln Continental.[26] A four-wheel disc brake system was also introduced in 1965 on the Chevrolet Corvette Stingray.[27] Most U.S. cars switched from front drum brakes to front disk brakes in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
The first motorcycles to use disc brakes were racing vehicles. MV Agusta was the first to offer a front disc brake motorcycle to the public on a small scale in 1965, on their relatively expensive 600 touring motorcycle, using a mechanical brake linkage.[28] In 1969 Honda introduced the more affordable CB750, which had a single hydraulically actuated front disc brake (and a rear drum brake), and which sold in huge numbers.[28] Disc brakes are now common on motorcycles, mopeds and even mountain bikes.
Brake disc[edit]
Front suspension and brake system on AMC Pacer with the rectangular open slots visible between the disc's friction surfaces
Example of two piece disc in an aftermarket application to a Peugeot 106
The brake disc is the rotating part of a wheel's disc brake assembly, against which the brake pads are applied. The material is typically gray iron,[29] a form of cast iron. The design of the discs varies somewhat. Some are simply solid, but others are hollowed out with fins or vanes joining the disc's two contact surfaces (usually included as part of a casting process). The weight and power of the vehicle determine the need for ventilated discs.[24] The "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavily loaded front discs.
Two-piece discs are a disc where the center mounting part of the disc is manufactured separately from the outer friction ring. The central section used for fitment is often referred to as the bell or hat and is commonly manufactured from an alloy such as a 7075 alloy and hard anodised for a lasting finish. The outer disc ring usually is manufactured from grey iron but in special applications can be from steel or carbon ceramic. Originating from Motorsport but now common in high-performance applications and aftermarket upgrades. Two-piece discs can be supplied as a fixed assembly with regular nuts, bolts, and washers or a more complicated floating system where drive bobbins allow the two parts of the brake disc to expand and contract at different rates, therefore, reducing the chance a disc will warp from overheating. Key advantages of a two-piece disc are a saving in critical un-sprung weight and the dissipation of heat from the disc surface through the alloy bell (hat). Both fixed and floating options have their drawbacks and advantages, floating discs are prone to rattle and collection of debris and are best suited to Motorsport whereas fixed is best for road use.[30]
Motorcycles and scooters[edit]
Lambretta introduced the first high-volume production use of a single, floating, front disc brake, enclosed in a ventilated cast alloy hub and actuated by cable, on the 1962 TV175.[31] This was followed by the GT200 in 1964.[32][33][34][35] The 1969 Honda CB750 introduced hydraulic disc brakes on a large scale following the 1965 MV Agusta 600, which had cable-operated mechanical actuation.[28][36]
Unlike car disc brakes that are buried within the wheel, bike disc brakes are in the airstream and have optimum cooling. Although cast iron discs have a porous surface that provides superior braking performance, such discs rust in the rain and become unsightly. Accordingly, motorcycle discs are usually stainless steel, drilled, slotted, or wavy to disperse rainwater. Modern motorcycle discs tend to have a floating design whereby the disc "floats" on bobbins and can move slightly, allowing better disc centering with a fixed caliper. A floating disc also avoids disc warping and reduces heat transfer to the wheel hub. Calipers have evolved from simple single-piston units to two-, four- and even six-piston items.[37] Compared to cars, motorcycles have a higher center of mass:wheelbase ratio, so they experience more weight transfer when braking. Front brakes absorb most of the braking forces, while the rear brake serves mainly to balance the motorcycle during braking. Modern sport bikes typically have twin large front discs, with a much smaller single rear disc. Bikes that are particularly fast or heavy may have vented discs.
One problem with motorcycle disc brakes is that when a bike gets into a violent tank-slapper (high-speed oscillation of the front wheel) the brake pads in the calipers are forced away from the discs, so when the rider applies the brake lever the caliper pistons push the pads towards the discs without actually making contact. The rider immediately brakes harder, which pushes the pads onto the disc much more aggressively than during normal braking. For example, The Michele Pirro incident at Mugello, Italy 1 June 2018.[38] At least one manufacturer has developed a system to counter the pads being forced away.
Mountain bike front disc brake
Rear disc brake caliper and disc on a mountain bike
Mountain bike disc brakes may range from simple, mechanical (cable) systems, to expensive and powerful, multi-piston hydraulic disc systems, commonly used on downhill racing bikes. Improved technology has seen the creation of vented discs for use on mountain bikes, similar to those on cars, introduced to help avoid heat fade on fast alpine descents. Although less common, discs are also used on road bicycles for all-weather cycling with predictable braking, although drums are sometimes preferred as harder to damage in crowded parking, where discs are sometimes bent. Most bicycle brake discs are made of steel. Stainless steel is preferred due to its anti-rust properties.[39] Discs are thin, often about 2 mm. Some use a two-piece floating disc style, others use a one-piece solid metal disc. Bicycle disc brakes use either a two-piston caliper that clamps the disc from both sides or a single-piston caliper with one moving pad that contacts the disc first, and then pushes the disc against the non-moving pad.[40] Because energy efficiency is so important in bicycles, an uncommon feature of bicycle brakes is that the pads retract to eliminate residual drag when the brake is released.[clarification needed] In contrast, most other brakes drag the pads lightly when released so as to minimize initial operational travel.[clarification needed]
Heavy vehicles[edit]
Disc brakes are increasingly used on very large and heavy road vehicles, where previously large drum brakes were nearly universal. One reason is that the disc's lack of self-assist makes brake force much more predictable, so peak brake force can be raised without more risk of braking-induced steering or jackknifing on articulated vehicles. Another is disc brakes fade less when hot, and in a heavy vehicle air and rolling drag and engine braking are small parts of total braking force, so brakes are used harder than on lighter vehicles, and drum brake fade can occur in a single stop. For these reasons, a heavy truck with disc brakes can stop in about 120% of the distance of a passenger car, but with drums, stopping takes about 150% of the distance.[41] In Europe, stopping distance regulations essentially require disc brakes for heavy vehicles. In the U.S., drums are allowed and are typically preferred for their lower purchase price, despite higher total lifetime cost and more frequent service intervals.[citation needed]
Rail and aircraft[edit]
A railroad bogie and disc brakes
Still-larger discs are used for railroad cars, trams and some airplanes. Passenger rail cars and light rail vehicles often use disc brakes outboard of the wheels, which helps ensure a free flow of cooling air. Some modern passenger rail cars, such as the Amfleet II cars, use inboard disc brakes. This reduces wear from debris, and provides protection from rain and snow, which would make the discs slippery and unreliable. However, there is still plenty of cooling for reliable operation. Some airplanes have the brake mounted with very little cooling, and the brake gets hot when stopping. This is acceptable as there is sufficient time for cooling, where the maximum braking energy is very predictable. Should the braking energy exceed the maximum, for example during an emergency occurring during take-off, aircraft wheels can be fitted with a fusible plug[42] to prevent the tire bursting. This is a milestone test in aircraft development.[43]
Automotive use[edit]
Reinforced carbon brake disc on a Ferrari F430 Challenge race car
Front disk brakes glowing during a race
In racing and high-performance road cars, other disc materials have been employed. Reinforced carbon discs and pads inspired by aircraft braking systems such as those used on Concorde were introduced in Formula One by Brabham in conjunction with Dunlop in 1976.[44] Carbon–carbon braking is now used in most top-level motorsport worldwide, reducing unsprung weight, giving better frictional performance and improved structural properties at high temperatures, compared to cast iron. Carbon brakes have occasionally been applied to road cars, by the French Venturi sports car manufacturer in the mid-1990s for example, but need to reach a very high operating temperature before becoming truly effective and so are not well suited to road use. The extreme heat generated in these systems is visible during night racing, especially on shorter tracks. It is not uncommon to see the brake discs glowing red during use.
Ceramic composites[edit]
Mercedes-AMG carbon ceramic brake
Porsche 911 Carrera S composite ceramic brake
The first development of the modern ceramic brake was made by British engineers for TGV applications in 1988. The objective was to reduce weight, the number of brakes per axle, as well as provide stable friction from high speeds and all temperatures. The result was a carbon-fiber-reinforced ceramic process which is now used in various forms for automotive, railway, and aircraft brake applications.
Due to the high heat tolerance and mechanical strength of ceramic composite discs, they are often used on exotic vehicles where the cost is not prohibitive.[45] They are also found in industrial applications where the ceramic disc's lightweight and low-maintenance properties justify the cost. Composite brakes can withstand temperatures that would damage steel discs.
Porsche's Composite Ceramic Brakes (PCCB) are siliconized carbon fiber, with high-temperature capability, a 50% weight reduction over iron discs (hence reducing the vehicle's unsprung weight), a significant reduction in dust generation, substantially extended maintenance intervals, and enhanced durability in corrosive environments. Found on some of their more expensive models, it is also an optional brake for all street Porsches at added expense. They can be recognized by the bright yellow paintwork on the aluminum six-piston calipers. The discs are internally vented much like cast-iron ones, and cross-drilled.[citation needed]
Adjustment mechanism[edit]
In automotive applications, the piston seal has a square cross-section, also known as a square-cut seal.
Disc damage modes[edit]
Discs are usually damaged in one of four ways: scarring, cracking, warping, or excessive rusting. Service shops will sometimes respond to any disc problem by changing out the discs entirely, This is done mainly where the cost of a new disc may actually be lower than the cost of labor to resurface the old disc. Mechanically this is unnecessary unless the discs have reached the manufacturer's minimum recommended thickness, which would make it unsafe to use them, or vane rusting is severe (ventilated discs only). Most leading vehicle manufacturers recommend brake disc skimming (US: turning) as a solution for lateral run-out, vibration issues, and brake noises. The machining process is performed in a brake lathe, which removes a very thin layer off the disc surface to clean off minor damage and restore uniform thickness. Machining the disc as necessary will maximize the mileage out of the current discs on the vehicle.
Run-out is measured using a dial indicator on a fixed rigid base, with the tip perpendicular to the brake disc's face. It is typically measured about 12 in (12.7 mm) from the outside diameter of the disc. The disc is spun. The difference between the minimum and maximum value on the dial is called lateral run-out. Typical hub/disc assembly run-out specifications for passenger vehicles are around 0.002 in (0.0508 mm). Runout can be caused either by deformation of the disc itself or by runout in the underlying wheel hub face or by contamination between the disc surface and the underlying hub mounting surface. Determining the root cause of the indicator displacement (lateral runout) requires the disassembly of the disc from the hub. Disc face runout due to hub face runout or contamination will typically have a period of 1 minimum and 1 maximum per revolution of the brake disc.
Discs can be machined to eliminate thickness variation and lateral run-out. Machining can be done in situ (on-car) or off-car (bench lathe). Both methods will eliminate the thickness variation. Machining on-car with the proper equipment can also eliminate lateral run-out due to hub-face non-perpendicularity.
Incorrect fitting can distort (warp) discs. The disc's retaining bolts (or the wheel/lug nuts, if the disc is sandwiched in place by the wheel) must be tightened progressively and evenly. The use of air tools to fasten lug nuts can be bad practice, unless a torque wrench is used for final tightening. The vehicle manual will indicate the proper pattern for tightening as well as a torque rating for the bolts. Lug nuts should never be tightened in a circle. Some vehicles are sensitive to the force the bolts apply and tightening should be done with a torque wrench.
Often uneven pad transfer is confused for disc warping.[48] The majority of brake discs diagnosed as "warped" are actually the result of uneven transfer of pad material. Uneven pad transfer can lead to thickness variation of the disc. When the thicker section of the disc passes between the pads, the pads will move apart and the brake pedal will raise slightly; this is pedal pulsation. The thickness variation can be felt by the driver when it is approximately 0.17 mm (0.0067 in) or greater (on automobile discs).
Thickness variation has many causes, but there are three primary mechanisms that contribute to the propagation of disc thickness variations. The first is the improper selection of brake pads. Pads that are effective at low temperatures, such as when braking for the first time in cold weather, often are made of materials that decompose unevenly at higher temperatures. This uneven decomposition results in the uneven deposition of material onto the brake disc. Another cause of uneven material transfer is the improper break-in of a pad/disc combination. For proper break-in, the disc surface should be refreshed (either by machining the contact surface or by replacing the disc) every time the pads are changed. Once this is done, the brakes are heavily applied multiple times in succession. This creates a smooth, even interface between the pad and the disc. When this is not done properly the brake pads will see an uneven distribution of stress and heat, resulting in an uneven, seemingly random, deposition of pad material. The third primary mechanism of uneven pad material transfer is "pad imprinting." This occurs when the brake pads are heated to the point that the material begins to break down and transfer to the disc. In a properly broken-in brake system (with properly selected pads), this transfer is natural and actually is a major contributor to the braking force generated by the brake pads. However, if the vehicle comes to a stop and the driver continues to apply the brakes, as is customary in cars with an automatic transmission, the pads will deposit a layer of material in the shape of the brake pad. This small thickness variation can begin the cycle of uneven pad transfer.
Once the disc has some level of variation in thickness, uneven pad deposition can accelerate, sometimes resulting in changes to the crystal structure of the metal that composes the disc. As the brakes are applied, the pads slide over the varying disc surface. As the pads pass by the thicker section of the disc, they are forced outwards. The foot of the driver applied to the brake pedal naturally resists this change, and thus more force is applied to the pads. The result is that the thicker sections see higher levels of stress. This causes uneven heating of the surface of the disc, which causes two major issues. As the brake disc heats unevenly it also expands unevenly. The thicker sections of the disc expand more than the thinner sections due to seeing more heat, and thus the difference in thickness is magnified. Also, the uneven distribution of heat results in the further uneven transfer of pad material. The result is that the thicker-hotter sections receive even more pad material than the thinner-cooler sections, contributing to a further increase in the variation in the disc's thickness. In extreme situations, this uneven heating can cause the crystal structure of the disc material to change. When the hotter sections of the discs reach extremely high temperatures (1,200–1,300 °F or 649–704 °C ), the metal can undergo a phase transformation and the carbon which is dissolved in the steel can precipitate out to form carbon-heavy carbide regions known as cementite. This iron carbide is very different from the cast iron the rest of the disc is composed of. It is extremely hard, brittle, and does not absorb heat well. After cementite is formed, the integrity of the disc is compromised. Even if the disc surface is machined, the cementite within the disc will not wear or absorb heat at the same rate as the cast iron surrounding it, causing the uneven thickness and uneven heating characteristics of the disc to return.
To prevent scarring, it is prudent to periodically inspect the brake pads for wear. A tire rotation is a logical time for inspection, since rotation must be performed regularly based on vehicle operation time and all wheels must be removed, allowing ready visual access to the brake pads. Some types of alloy wheels and brake arrangements will provide enough open space to view the pads without removing the wheel. When practical, pads that are near the wear-out point should be replaced immediately, as complete wear-out leads to scarring damage and unsafe braking. Many disc brake pads will include some sort of soft steel spring or drag tab as part of the pad assembly, which drags on the disc when the pad is nearly worn out. This produces a moderately loud squealing noise, alerting the driver that service is required. This will not normally scar the disc if the brakes are serviced promptly. A set of pads can be considered for replacement if the thickness of the pad material is the same or less than the thickness of the backing steel. In Pennsylvania, the standard is 1/32".
Cracking is limited mostly to drilled discs, which may develop small cracks around the edges of holes drilled near the edge of the disc due to the disc's uneven rate of expansion in severe-duty environments. Manufacturers that use drilled discs as OEM typically do so for two reasons: appearance, if they determine that the average owner of the vehicle model will prefer the look while not overly stressing the hardware; or as a function of reducing the unsprung weight of the brake assembly, with the engineering assumption that enough brake disc mass remains to absorb racing temperatures and stresses. A brake disc is a heat sink, but the loss of heat sink mass may be balanced by increased surface area to radiate away heat. Small hairline cracks may appear in any cross-drilled metal disc as a normal wear mechanism, but in severe cases, the disc will fail catastrophically. No repair is possible for the cracks, and if the cracking becomes severe, the disc must be replaced. These cracks occur due to the phenomenon of low cycle fatigue as a result of repeated hard braking.[49]
The brake caliper is the assembly that houses the brake pads and pistons. The pistons are usually made of plastic, aluminium or chrome-plated steel.
A floating caliper (also called a "sliding caliper") moves with respect to the disc, along a line parallel to the axis of rotation of the disc; a piston on one side of the disc pushes the inner brake pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls the caliper body with the outer brake pad so the pressure is applied to both sides of the disc. Floating caliper (single piston) designs are subject to sticking failure, caused by dirt or corrosion entering at least one mounting mechanism and stopping its normal movement. This can lead to the caliper's pads rubbing on the disc when the brake is not engaged or engaging it at an angle. Sticking can result from infrequent vehicle use, failure of a seal or rubber protection boot allowing debris entry, dry-out of the grease in the mounting mechanism, and subsequent moisture incursion leading to corrosion, or some combination of these factors. Consequences may include reduced fuel efficiency, extreme heating of the disc, or excessive wear on the affected pad. A sticking front caliper may also cause steering vibration.
Pistons and cylinders[edit]
Brake pads[edit]
Early brake pads (and linings) contained asbestos, producing dust that should not be inhaled. Although newer pads can be made of ceramics, Kevlar, and other plastics, inhalation of brake dust should still be avoided regardless of material.
Common problems[edit]
Sometimes a loud noise or high-pitched squeal occurs when the brakes are applied. Most brake squeal is produced by vibration (resonance instability) of the brake components, especially the pads and discs (known as force-coupled excitation). This type of squeal should not negatively affect brake stopping performance. Techniques include adding chamfer pads to the contact points between the caliper pistons and the pads, the bonding insulators (damping material) to the pad backplate, the brake shims between the brake pad and pistons, etc. All should be coated with an extremely high temperature, high solids lubricant to help reduce squeal. This allows the metal-to-metal parts to move independently of each other and thereby eliminate the buildup of energy that can create a frequency that is heard as brake squeal, groan, or growl. It is inherent that some pads are going to squeal more given the type of the pad and its usage case. Pads typically rated to withstand very high temperatures for extended periods tend to produce high amounts of friction leading to more noise during brake application.[51]
Judder or shimmy[edit]
A brake judder is usually perceived by the driver as minor to severe vibrations transferred through the chassis during braking.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61]
Hot judder is usually produced as a result of longer, more moderate braking from high speed where the vehicle does not come to a complete stop.[62] It commonly occurs when a motorist decelerates from speeds of around 120 km/h (74.6 mph) to about 60 km/h (37.3 mph), which results in severe vibrations being transmitted to the driver. These vibrations are the result of uneven thermal distributions, or hot spots. Hot spots are classified as concentrated thermal regions that alternate between both sides of a disc that distort it in such a way that produces a sinusoidal waviness around its edges. Once the brake pads (friction material/brake lining) come in contact with the sinusoidal surface during braking, severe vibrations are induced, and can produce hazardous conditions for the person driving the vehicle.[63][64][65][66]
Cold judder, on the other hand, is the result of uneven disc wear patterns or disc thickness variation (DTV). These variations in the disc surface are usually the result of extensive vehicle road usage. DTV is usually attributed to the following causes: waviness and roughness of disc surface,[67] misalignment of axis (runout), elastic deflection, wear and friction material transfers.[55][66][68] Either type could potentially be fixed by ensuring a clean mounting surface on either side of the brake disc between the wheel hub and brake disc hub before usage and paying attention to imprinting after extended usage by leaving the brake pedal heavily depressed at the end of heavy usage. Sometimes a bed in procedure can clean and minimize DTV and lay a new even transfer layer between the pad and brake disc. However, it will not eliminate hot spots or excessive runout.
When braking force is applied, the act of abrasive friction between the brake pad and the disc wears both the disc and pad away. The brake dust that is seen deposited on wheels, calipers, and other braking system components consists mostly of the disc material.[69] Brake dust can damage the finish of most wheels if not washed off.[70] Generally, a brake pad that aggressively abrades more disc material away, such as metallic pads, will create more brake dust. Some higher-performing pads for track use or towing use may wear away much quicker than a typical pad, thus causing more dust due to the increased brake disc and brake pad wear.[71]
Brake fade[edit]
Brake fade is a phenomenon that decreases braking efficiency. It causes the braking power to reduce and you feel that the brakes are not being applied with the force they were being applied at the time of starting. This occurs due to the heating of brake pads. The heated brake pads emit some gaseous substances which cover the area between the disc and the brake pads. These gases disturb the contact between the brake pads and the disc and hence decrease the braking efficiency.[72]
• US 2028488 Avery William Leicester Brake 1936-02-21
• US 2140752 La Brie Brake 1938-12-20
• US 2485032 Bryant Brake apparatus 1949-10-08
• US 2535763 Tucker Corp. Fluid Pressure Operated Disk Brake 1950-12-26
See also[edit]
1. ^ Deaton, Jamie Page (11 November 2008). "How Brake Rotors Work". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
2. ^ "Disc brake". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 16 November 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lentinello, Richard (April 2011). "The first car with disc brakes really was . . ". Hemmings Sports & Exotic Car. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
4. ^ a b c d Fearnley, Paul (13 June 2013). "Le Mans 1953: Jaguar's gigantic leap - History, Le Mans". Motor Sport Magazine. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
5. ^ a b Bell, Andy (May 2020). "A brief history of the bicycle disc brake". Retrieved 20 August 2020.
6. ^ "The Editor's Correspondence - Vintage Disc Brakes". Motor Cycling. London: Temple Press: 669. 26 September 1957.
7. ^ D. P. Morgan, "All About the RDC", Trains & Travel magazine, March 1953
8. ^ http://daimler-fighting-vehicles.co.uk/DFV-File%20Part%20Af%20-%20DAC%20Design%20&%20Development.pdf[bare URL PDF]
9. ^ "US2323052A - Disk brake for use in motor cars, airplanes, and the like - Google Patents". Disk brake for use in motor cars, airplanes, and the like US 2323052 A
10. ^ "Lexikon der Wehrmacht - Ar 96". lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
11. ^ "Tiger I Information Center - Transmission and Steering". alanhamby.com. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Langworth, Richard M. (1994). Chrysler and Imperial: The Postwar Years. Motorbooks International. ISBN 0-87938-034-9.
13. ^ a b c Niedermeyer, Paul (24 September 2015). "1950 Chrysler Crown Imperial: Four Wheel Disc Brakes Standard – But Not Like Modern Discs". Retrieved 20 August 2020.
14. ^ Lawrence, Mike (1991). A to Z of Sports Cars 1945–1990. Bay View Books. ISBN 978-1-870979-81-8.
15. ^ "Why Le Mans Matters to Jaguar". Retrieved 20 August 2021.
16. ^ Bramley, Mark (11 August 2006). "Drive: 1960 Citroen DS Future Shock: Nothing as otherworldly radical had ever touched down on Planet Earth". Motor Trend. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
17. ^ Skelton, Sam (21 August 2019). "Automotive Heroes – the Citroën DS". Classic & Sports Car. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
18. ^ "Car safety – a brief history". The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders 71 Great Peter Street London SW1P 2BN. 3 February 2015. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
19. ^ October 17. The Motor. 1956.
20. ^ Lentinello, Richard (April 2011). "The first car with disc brakes really was . . ". Hemmings Sports & Exotic Car. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
21. ^ "The Avanti — Born in Palm Springs". Point Happy Interactive. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
22. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (17 December 2007). "1963–1964 Studebaker Avanti". auto.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 14 December 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
23. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (26 October 2007). "Introduction to the 1965–1967 AMC Marlin". auto.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 14 December 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
24. ^ a b "What's new at American Motors". Popular Science. Vol. 185, no. 4. October 1964. pp. 90–91. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
26. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (27 November 2007). "1964–1965 Lincoln Continental". auto.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 14 December 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
27. ^ Auto Editors of Consumer Guide (14 December 2015). "1965 Corvette". auto.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 14 December 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
29. ^ a b Ihm, Mark. "Introduction to Gray Cast Iron Brake Rotor Metallurgy" (PDF). SAE. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
30. ^ "AP Racing - Race Car - Brake Discs - Ventilated Discs". apracing.com. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
31. ^ Watson, Tim (7 December 2013). "Motorcycle History: Brakes". RideApart.com. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
33. ^ The Motor Cycle, 25 November 1965, pp.748-751. Lambretta servicing hints. "Disc Brake Adjustment". Accessed and added 2015-02-23
34. ^ Motorcycle Mechanics, April 1969, UK Lambretta Concessionaires advert, p.19. "...Lambretta have been fitting disc brakes...". Accessed and added 2015-02-20
35. ^ Motorcycle Mechanics, October 1969, pp.45-47. "Slowdown Lowdown" by John Robinson "...the Lambretta disc brake has only one pad operated by the cable, the other being fixed. The first pad pushes the disc on to the second pad". Accessed and added 2015-02-21
36. ^ Glimmerveen, John. "Disc Brakes". About.com Autos. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
37. ^ Kresnicka, Michael. "Disc Brake Tech". motorcycle.com. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
38. ^ "Latest MotoGP News • 2021 Season". MotorSport Magazine.
40. ^ "Mechanical Road Disc Brake Roundup". Gravelbike. 10 September 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
41. ^ Ganaway, Gary (28 January 2002). "Air Disc Brake Production, Use & Performance" (PDF). NDIA Tactical Wheeled Vehicles Conference, Monterey California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
42. ^ "Fusible plug safety device for venting aircraft tires".
43. ^ "A350 XWB MSN001 successfully conducted 'Maximum Energy Rejected Take-Off' test".
45. ^ "Cars With Carbon Ceramic Brakes Are Going to Be the Used Car Plague". Autotrader. 24 January 2022. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
48. ^ Smith, Carroll. "Warped- Brake Disc and Other Myths". Stoptech.com. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
49. ^ Rashid, Asim; Strömberg (2013). "Sequential simulation of thermal stresses in disc brakes for repeated braking". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J, Journal of Engineering Tribology. 227 (8): 919–929. doi:10.1177/1350650113481701. S2CID 3468646. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 October 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
50. ^ Erjavec, Jack (2003). Automotive Brakes. Cengage Learning. ISBN 9781401835262.
51. ^ a b "HP Plus - Autocross & Track Brake Compound". Hawk Performance. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
52. ^ "FAQ's". Centric Parts. 2010. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
57. ^ Jacobsson, H. (1996), "High speed disc brake judder – the influence of passing through critical speed", In EuroMech – 2nd European Nonlinear Oscillations Conference, Prague, no. 2, pp. 75–78.
60. ^ Jacobsson, H. (1999), SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 1999-01-1779, pp. 1–14.
61. ^ Stringham, W. et al. (1993), "Brake roughness – disc brake torque variation", disc distortion and vehicle response, SAE Technical Paper Series, no. 930803.
62. ^ Thoms, E. (1988), "Disc brakes for heavy vehicles", IMechE, pp. 133–137.
66. ^ a b Rhee, K.S. et al. (1989), "Friction–induced noise and vibration of disc brakes", Wear, v. 133, pp. 39–45.
67. ^ J. Slavič, M.D. Bryant and M. Boltežar (2007), "A new approach to roughness-induced vibrations on a slider.", J. Sound and Vibration, Vol. 306, Issues 3–5, 9 October 2007, pp. 732–750.
69. ^ "Brake dust". EBC Brakes. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
70. ^ "Brake dust". EBC Brakes. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
71. ^ Hawk Performance. "HP Plus - Autocross & Track Brake Compound." Hawk Performance. n.d. Web. 11 Apr. 2017.
72. ^ "Discover the disc brakes". Autocurious.
External links[edit]
External links[edit]
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Honeycomb (geometry)
In geometry, a honeycomb is a space filling or close packing of polyhedral or higher-dimensional cells, so that there are no gaps. It is an example of the more general mathematical tiling or tessellation in any number of dimensions. Its dimension can be clarified as n-honeycomb for a honeycomb of n-dimensional space.
Honeycombs are usually constructed in ordinary Euclidean ("flat") space. They may also be constructed in non-Euclidean spaces, such as hyperbolic honeycombs. Any finite uniform polytope can be projected to its circumsphere to form a uniform honeycomb in spherical space.
There are infinitely many honeycombs, which have only been partially classified. The more regular ones have attracted the most interest, while a rich and varied assortment of others continue to be discovered.
The simplest honeycombs to build are formed from stacked layers or slabs of prisms based on some tessellations of the plane. In particular, for every parallelepiped, copies can fill space, with the cubic honeycomb being special because it is the only regular honeycomb in ordinary (Euclidean) space. Another interesting family is the Hill tetrahedra and their generalizations, which can also tile the space.
Uniform 3-honeycombs
A 3-dimensional uniform honeycomb is a honeycomb in 3-space composed of uniform polyhedral cells, and having all vertices the same (i.e., the group of [isometries of 3-space that preserve the tiling] is transitive on vertices). There are 28 convex examples in Euclidean 3-space,[1] also called the Archimedean honeycombs.
A honeycomb is called regular if the group of isometries preserving the tiling acts transitively on flags, where a flag is a vertex lying on an edge lying on a face lying on a cell. Every regular honeycomb is automatically uniform. However, there is just one regular honeycomb in Euclidean 3-space, the cubic honeycomb. Two are quasiregular (made from two types of regular cells):
Type Regular cubic honeycomb Quasiregular honeycombs
Cells Cubic Octahedra and tetrahedra
Slab layer
The tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb and gyrated tetrahedral-octahedral honeycombs are generated by 3 or 2 positions of slab layer of cells, each alternating tetrahedra and octahedra. An infinite number of unique honeycombs can be created by higher order of patterns of repeating these slab layers.
Space-filling polyhedra
A honeycomb having all cells identical within its symmetries is said to be cell-transitive or isochoric. In the 3-dimensional euclidean space, a cell of such a honeycomb is said to be a space-filling polyhedron.[2] A necessary condition for a polyhedron to be a space-filling polyhedron is that its Dehn invariant must be zero,[3][4] ruling out any of the Platonic solids other than the cube.
Five space-filling polyhedra can tessellate 3-dimensional euclidean space using translations only. They are called parallelohedra:
1. Cubic honeycomb (or variations: cuboid, rhombic hexahedron or parallelepiped)
2. Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb[5]
3. Rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb
4. Elongated dodecahedral honeycomb.[6]
5. Bitruncated cubic honeycomb or truncated octahedra[7]
cubic honeycomb
Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb
Rhombic dodecahedra
Elongated dodecahedra
Truncated octahedra
Hexagonal prism Rhombic dodecahedron Elongated dodecahedron Truncated octahedron
3 edge-lengths 3+1 edge-lengths 4 edge-lengths 4+1 edge-lengths 6 edge-lengths
Other known examples of space-filling polyhedra include:
Other honeycombs with two or more polyhedra
Sometimes, two [11] or more different polyhedra may be combined to fill space. Besides many of the uniform honeycombs, another well known example is the Weaire–Phelan structure, adopted from the structure of clathrate hydrate crystals [12]
Weaire–Phelan structure (With two types of cells)
Non-convex 3-honeycombs
Documented examples are rare. Two classes can be distinguished:
• Non-convex cells which pack without overlapping, analogous to tilings of concave polygons. These include a packing of the small stellated rhombic dodecahedron, as in the Yoshimoto Cube.
• Overlapping of cells whose positive and negative densities 'cancel out' to form a uniformly dense continuum, analogous to overlapping tilings of the plane.
Hyperbolic honeycombs
In 3-dimensional hyperbolic space, the dihedral angle of a polyhedron depends on its size. The regular hyperbolic honeycombs thus include two with four or five dodecahedra meeting at each edge; their dihedral angles thus are π/2 and 2π/5, both of which are less than that of a Euclidean dodecahedron. Apart from this effect, the hyperbolic honeycombs obey the same topological constraints as Euclidean honeycombs and polychora.
The 4 compact and 11 paracompact regular hyperbolic honeycombs and many compact and paracompact uniform hyperbolic honeycombs have been enumerated.
Four regular compact honeycombs in H3
11 paracompact regular honeycombs
Duality of 3-honeycombs
For every honeycomb there is a dual honeycomb, which may be obtained by exchanging:
cells for vertices.
faces for edges.
These are just the rules for dualising four-dimensional 4-polytopes, except that the usual finite method of reciprocation about a concentric hypersphere can run into problems.
The more regular honeycombs dualise neatly:
• The cubic honeycomb is self-dual.
• That of octahedra and tetrahedra is dual to that of rhombic dodecahedra.
• The slab honeycombs derived from uniform plane tilings are dual to each other in the same way that the tilings are.
• The duals of the remaining Archimedean honeycombs are all cell-transitive and have been described by Inchbald.[13]
Self-dual honeycombs
Honeycombs can also be self-dual. All n-dimensional hypercubic honeycombs with Schläfli symbols {4,3n2,4}, are self-dual.
See also
1. Grünbaum (1994). "Uniform tilings of 3-space". Geombinatorics 4(2)
2. Weisstein, Eric W. "Space-filling polyhedron". MathWorld.
3. Debrunner, Hans E. (1980), "Über Zerlegungsgleichheit von Pflasterpolyedern mit Würfeln", Archiv der Mathematik (in German), 35 (6): 583–587, doi:10.1007/BF01235384, MR 0604258.
4. Lagarias, J. C.; Moews, D. (1995), "Polytopes that fill and scissors congruence", Discrete and Computational Geometry, 13 (3–4): 573–583, doi:10.1007/BF02574064, MR 1318797.
5. Uniform space-filling using triangular, square, and hexagonal prisms
6. Uniform space-filling using only rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedra
7. Uniform space-filling using only truncated octahedra
8. John Conway (2003-12-22). "Voronoi Polyhedron. geometry.puzzles". Newsgroup: geometry.puzzles. Usenet: Pine.LNX.4.44.0312221226380.25139-100000@fine318a.math.Princeton.EDU.
9. X. Qian, D. Strahs and T. Schlick, J. Comput. Chem. 22(15) 1843–1850 (2001)
10. O. Delgado-Friedrichs and M. O'Keeffe. Isohedral simple tilings: binodal and by tiles with <16 faces. Acta Crystallogr. (2005) A61, 358-362
11. Gabbrielli, Ruggero. A thirteen-sided polyhedron which fills space with its chiral copy.
12. Pauling, Linus. The Nature of the Chemical Bond. Cornell University Press, 1960
13. Inchbald, Guy (July 1997), "The Archimedean honeycomb duals", The Mathematical Gazette, 81 (491): 213–219, doi:10.2307/3619198, JSTOR 3619198.
Further reading
• Coxeter, H. S. M.: Regular Polytopes.
• Williams, Robert (1979). The Geometrical Foundation of Natural Structure: A Source Book of Design. Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 164–199. ISBN 0-486-23729-X. Chapter 5: Polyhedra packing and space filling
• Critchlow, K.: Order in space.
• Pearce, P.: Structure in nature is a strategy for design.
• Goldberg, Michael Three Infinite Families of Tetrahedral Space-Fillers Journal of Combinatorial Theory A, 16, pp. 348–354, 1974.
• Goldberg, Michael (1972). "The space-filling pentahedra". Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A. 13 (3): 437–443. doi:10.1016/0097-3165(72)90077-5.
• Goldberg, Michael The Space-filling Pentahedra II, Journal of Combinatorial Theory 17 (1974), 375–378.
• Goldberg, Michael (1977). "On the space-filling hexahedra". Geometriae Dedicata. 6. doi:10.1007/BF00181585.
• Goldberg, Michael (1978). "On the space-filling heptahedra". Geometriae Dedicata. 7 (2): 175–184. doi:10.1007/BF00181630.
• Goldberg, Michael Convex Polyhedral Space-Fillers of More than Twelve Faces. Geom. Dedicata 8, 491-500, 1979.
• Goldberg, Michael (1981). "On the space-filling octahedra". Geometriae Dedicata. 10 (1–4): 323–335. doi:10.1007/BF01447431.
• Goldberg, Michael (1982). "On the Space-filling Decahedra". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Goldberg, Michael (1982). "On the space-filling enneahedra". Geometriae Dedicata. 12 (3). doi:10.1007/BF00147314.
Fundamental convex regular and uniform honeycombs in dimensions 2-9
Space Family / /
E2 Uniform tiling {3[3]} δ3 hδ3 qδ3 Hexagonal
E3 Uniform convex honeycomb {3[4]} δ4 hδ4 qδ4
E4 Uniform 4-honeycomb {3[5]} δ5 hδ5 qδ5 24-cell honeycomb
E5 Uniform 5-honeycomb {3[6]} δ6 hδ6 qδ6
E6 Uniform 6-honeycomb {3[7]} δ7 hδ7 qδ7 222
E7 Uniform 7-honeycomb {3[8]} δ8 hδ8 qδ8 133331
E8 Uniform 8-honeycomb {3[9]} δ9 hδ9 qδ9 152251521
E9 Uniform 9-honeycomb {3[10]} δ10 hδ10 qδ10
En-1 Uniform (n-1)-honeycomb {3[n]} δn hδn qδn 1k22k1k21
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Constitutional Law of Bangladesh – Notes on the Interpretation of the Constitution (2015)
Introduction to Interpretation of the Constitution:
There two broad theories of constitutional interpretation: (a) Originalism (intentions of the original drafters) and (b) Pragmatism (Gap-filling).
1. Textual:
Latin maxims:
A verbis legis non est recedendum – From the words of the law there is not any departure.
Noscitur à sociis – Meaning of words may be ascertained by associated words.
2. Historical:
Latin maxim:
Animus hominis est anima scripti – Intention is the soul of an instrument.
3. Functional (Structural):
Latin maxim:
Nemo aliquam partem recte intelligere potest antequam totum perlegit – No one can properly understand a part until he has read the whole.
4. Doctrinal:
Latin maxims:
Argumentum à simili valet in lege – An argument from a like case avails in law.
Consuetudo et communis assuetudo . . . interpretatur legem scriptam, si lex sit generalis – Custom and common usage . . . interpret the written law, if it be general.
Cursus curiæ est lex curiæ – The practice of the court is the law of the court.
Judiciis posterioribus fides est adhibenda – Credit is to be given to the latest decisions.
Judicata pro veritate accipitur – A thing adjudicated is received as true.
5. Prudential:
Latin maxim:
Boni judicis est lites dirimere – The duty of a good judge is to prevent litigation.
6. Equitable (Ethical):
Latin maxim:
Æquitas est perfecta quædam ratio quæ jus scriptum interpretatur et emendat; nulla scriptura comprehensa, sed sola ratione consistens – Equity is a sort of perfect reason which interprets and amends written law; comprehended in no code, but consistent with reason alone.
7. Natural:
Latin maxims:
Jura naturæ sunt immutabilia – The laws of nature are unchangeable.
Impossibilium nulla obligatio est – There is no obligation to do impossible things.
Lex non cogit ad impossibilia – The law does not compel the impossible.
Lex neminem cogit ad vana seu inutilia peragenda – The law requires no one to do vain or useless things.
Legibus sumptis desinentibus, lege naturæ utendum est – Laws of the state failing, we must act by the law of nature.
In order to give a purposive interpretation of the Constitution the Appellate Division took into consideration the character and origin of the Constitution to determine the purpose of judicial review under Article 102 of the Constitution and from such determination arrived at the meaning of the expression ‘person aggrieved’ in the said Article.[1] The Appellate Division held that when the spirit and purpose emerge clearly from the scheme or express provisions of the constitution, it will be contrary to the intention of the framers, for the AD to give a construction which is not in accordance with such spirit or purpose.[2]
The court cannot adopt an interpretation that is contrary to the intent and object of the Constitution over one which conforms to it.[3]
The Appellate Division in Kudrat-E-Elahi has held that no implications can be made while interpreting the written constitution.[4] However, it must be noted that shortly before Kudrat-E-Elahi the Appellate Division in Mujibur Rahmaninvoked the ‘Doctrine of Implied Powers’[5].[6] The decision of the Supreme Court in Anwar Hossain Chowdhury was based on implications.[7]
The Supreme Court has held that the intention of the framers are primarily expressed through the language that is employed and hence, at the first instance attempt should be made to understand the intention from the words used,[8] and thereafter from the whole of the enactment.[9] A clause must not be interpreted in isolation and must be construed as part of a unified whole.Every word must be given effect to and no word; as a general rule, should be rendered meaningless or inoperative.[10]The court must lean in favour of a construction which will render every word operative rather than that which makes some words idle or nugatory.[11] If the language of the Constitution is not only plain, but admits only one meaning, the language declares the intention,[12] even if the result is harsh.[13]
[1] Dr. Mohiuddin Farooque v. Bangladesh, (1997) 49 DLR (AD) 1, para 40-48.
[2] Dr. Mohiuddin Farooque v. Bangladesh, (1997) 49 DLR (AD) 1.
[3] Aftabuddin v. Bangladesh, (1996) 48 DLR 1, 13.
[4] Kudrat-E-Elahi v. Bangladesh, (1992) 44 DLR (AD) 319, 351.
[5] Implied Powers are which can reasonably be assumed to flow from express powers, though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution. In other words, implied powers are powers that are not enumerated but which nonetheless exist because they are needed to carry out an express power.
[6] Mujibur Rahman v. Bangladesh, (1992) 44 DLR (AD) 111.
[7] Anwar Hossain Chowdhury v. Bangladesh, 1989 BLD (Spl) 1.
[8] Mujibur Rahman v. Bangladesh, (1992) 44 DLR (AD) 111; Aftabuddin v. Bangladesh, (1996) 48 DLR 1; Mahbooduddin Ahmed v. Bangladesh, (1998) 50 DLR 417, 423.
[9] Anwar Hossain Chowdhury v. Bangladesh, 1989 BLD (Spl) 1; Reference by President, (1957) 9 DLR 178.
[10] Anwar Hossain Chowdhury v. Bangladesh, 1989 BLD (Spl) 1; Begum Shamsunnahar v. Speaker, (1965) 17 DLR (SC) 21.
[11] Reference by President, (1957) 9 DLR 178.
[12] Anwar Hossain Chowdhury v. Bangladesh, 1989 BLD (Spl) 1.
[13] Halima Khatun v. Bangladesh, (1978) 30 DLR (AD) 207.
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As X-rays can identify the structure of the bones, the technology is widely used in medicine. Nowadays everyone is familiar with the procedure, which helps modern medicine a lot. Wilhelm Röntgen, a German professor of physics, was the first person to discover electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range commonly known as X-rays today. Although, many people had observed the effects of X-ray beams before, Roentgen was the first one to study them systematically and elicit their peculiarities. To highlight the unknown nature of his discovery, he called them X-rays, though they are also known as Röntgen-rays. For his remarkable achievement he was honored with the first he first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.
More Info:
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"url": "https://quizzclub.com/games/welcome/who-discovered-x-rayse4472086df3648a2b4cfa8a6d23c5cd9/answer/75550/"
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Who's responsible for space junk?
It turns out that, after polluting our planet, we are now polluting space. Thousands of pieces of debris from broken down satellites, rocket boosters and weapons tests that we’ve launched over the years have got stuck in orbit, creating clutter, which could not only crash into the active satellites we need for monitoring the Earth but also release harmful chemicals into the atmosphere as they burn up on re-entry, depleting the ozone layer, as well as potentially creating problems for future launches and space exploration.
As Statista's Anna Fleck shows in the chart below, most space junk comes from three countries: Russia, the U.S. and China.
You will find more infographics at Statista
Last November, Russia blew up one of its old satellites using an anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon, sending thousands of pieces of debris into orbit and risked hitting the International Space Station. The Secure World Foundation estimates at least 16 debris-creating ASAT weapons tests have been carried out to date, with the most potentially damaging carried out by China in 2007, as the country downed one of their own satellites, creating an estimated 3,000 pieces of debris. However, it was the U.S. that created the first ASAT test, back in the 1950s, and according to Data Center Dynamics, has since conducted at least three ASAT debris-creating tests; two in the mid-1980s and one in 2008.
According to the OECD, active debris removal faces several “technological, geopolitical and economic challenges.”
Manufacturing and launching debris removal vehicles is expensive and, if it goes wrong, there’s the risk of simply creating further debris.
On top of this, OECD analysts explain:
“the retrieval of debris could involve sharing potentially sensitive data about the debris object’s design that could involve national security, foreign policy, intellectual property, etc. Therefore, countries would realistically be limited to removing their own satellites or those of close military allies.”
Despite this, a number of space missions are planned over the next few years, including the European Space Agency’s ClearSpace-1 and the Japanese Commercial Removal of Debris Demonstration (CRD2) mission. According to the OECD, possible solutions that are being worked on include space or ground based lasers to “nudge” objects out of the way, as well as the possibility to create an “artificial atmosphere” to divert its orbit. The organization’s analysts conclude: “All legal, technological and economic hurdles aside, these approaches depend on a much more accurate capability of space situational awareness and space tracking than exists today.”
Evidently the issue of space debris will need to be solved soon as companies such as Boeing Co. and SpaceX get set to launch some 65,000 spacecraft into low-Earth orbit, upping the likelihood of more collisions and even further debris in the future.
By Tyler Durden / Editors
(Source: zerohedge.com; September 24, 2022; https://tinyurl.com/4as2jk4r)
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Where do Camels REALLY Come From?
These Desert Dwellers Weren’t Always in the Desert
When I ask you where camels come from, what is the first place you think of? Chances are, you probably thought of the desert. But as archeology has found, they come from a place that is nowhere near the desert.
Natalia Rybczynski, a paleobiologist, was digging up fossils in the Arctic Circle when she noticed something weird. There was a fossil that just didn’t belong. She and a few other scientists studied the levels of chemicals in the bones and found that they matched up with an unlikely creature: the camel. They determined that this camel would be 30% larger than their modern-day counterparts. So yes, camels are American.
They had no idea how camels ended up so far north, in the tundra. But after much thought, they figured out that their builds were a perfect fit for the tundra. Their wide hooves were made to walk over mounds of powdery snow (and also sand). Here’s a fun fact: the camel’s hump is just fat; it doesn’t hold any water. All that fat helps keep them warm in the chilly conditions, so it seems more than likely that camels lived in the Arctic Circle.
These camels traveled down through North America and later went extinct. Before they disappeared, the alpaca evolved from those camels.
Camels are versatile creatures that have adaptations to fit in many environments. This tale tells us that even the most unlikely things can be possible with a bit of thought.
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Source: Fightback
Official histories often portray Canada as a peaceful country where the path of compromise is preferred to the path of conflict. But this could not be further from the truth. In fact, revolutionary and counter-revolutionary events are at the heart of the foundation of Canada. And the struggle of the Métis, led by Louis Riel, is just one of these pivotal conflicts.
Officially founded in 1867, the creation of the modern state of Canada was not the result of a revolution, as with our neighbours to the south, but a vicious counter revolution. The process which led to the creation of the country began with the putting down of the Upper and Lower Canada Rebellions in 1837-38, and was completed with the crushing of the Métis resistance in the West.
While bourgeois historians referred to this movement as a simple “rebellion”, this slander could not be further from the truth. On the other hand, many describe this movement as a simple “resistance,” which while closer to the truth does not capture the true nature of what was going on. In our opinion this was a mass democratic revolution mirroring the rebellions of 1837-38, as we will show.
This revolution was only brought to heel through the use of deceit, subterfuge and an outright reign of terror under the government of John A Macdonald. While this occurred many years ago, it is important for workers and youth to understand these important events which occurred at the very birth of the country.
Part One | Part Two | Part Three | Part Four
Part One: The origins of the Métis
Who are the Métis? Métis, which literally means “mixed” is the same word used in Spanish in Latin America—Mestizo—to describe someone of European and Indigenous descent. However, the Métis in Canada are a bit more than this. By the early 19th century the Métis began calling themselves “La nouvelle nation,” they had their own flag, and the last battle in the Northwest Rebellion of 1885 is known as the “Guerre nationale” in Métis literature.
The creation of the Métis as a distinct national group has economic roots. With the development of capitalism in Europe, the nascent bourgeoisie from England and France funded many expeditions into the land now known as Canada in search of natural resources. In this regard, the origins of the Métis are intimately connected with the development of the fur trade.
The French sent what was known as coureurs des bois (woodsmen) or voyageurs (boatmen and canoeists) into the vast country to establish connections with Indigenous peoples. Prior to colonization, Indigenous peoples had vast trade networks, knew the lay of the land and were skilled trappers and hunters. For the colonial powers vying for dominance in the fur trade, forging relations with Indigenous peoples was therefore of prime importance.
While at first there were only a limited number of coureurs des bois, this grew massively in the late 17th century with the increased European demand for felt hats made from beaver fur. In 1680, the intendant of New France, Jacques Duchesneau de la Doussinière et d’Ambault, estimated there were eight hundred coureurs des bois.
These men would quite often marry Indigenous women. In fact, this was, more often than not, the only way to develop a trade relationship. This was known as “mariage à la façon du pays” (marriage according to the custom of the country) and as Jean Teillet explains in her book The North-West is Our Mother: “The whole point of voyaging into the North-West was to trade with Indigenous peoples who supplied furs. To obtain the furs, one needed to establish a relationship with the bands. The best way to do that, sometimes the only way, was to marry one of their daughters. This was a general practice in the North-West.”
Brought into contact with Europeans, Indigenous peoples were also brought into contact with the developing world market. From this point on, the future development of Indigenous peoples was bound up with the development of world capitalism. Historically, the Métis people developed precisely out of the connection between pre-capitalist economic formations and the developing capitalist world. For a period of time, the Métis played a central role in this process.
By the 18th century there were thousands of voyageurs. The vast majority were sons of Indigenous women and European (usually French) men. But this in and of itself did not lead to the creation of a new nation. The reason is not difficult to see. While the voyageurs had started to develop a common culture (they were known for their songs and dress which was a mix of European and Indigenous), these ties were still far too weak at this point as they did not inhabit a common territory or speak a common language. Michif didn’t become a widely spoken common tongue until well into the 19th century. As well, many voyageurs were more or less integrated into and associated with the Indigenous groups which they had married into, and did not make up an independent social group. Even in terms of self-identification, the term Métis was not widely used until well into the 19th century.
Economic foundations of the Métis Nation
At root, big changes in the relations of production forced the Métis to think and act collectively and come together as the Métis. This process occurred in parallel with the economic development of Canadian capitalism, which set the Métis on a collision course with the burgeoning financial and industrial capitalists in the East.
Capitalism in Canada was in a fledgling state in the 18th century. Through the colonial system, the British kept the territory intentionally underdeveloped. There was a merchant bourgeoisie which developed via companies like the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) who extracted resources for export back to Britain. In turn, commodities could only be bought from Britain.
Moose Factory HBC post. Public domain
As the population grew and local industry developed, the productive forces were increasingly hemmed in by the colonial system. In the early 19th century, the petty bourgeoisie in Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario and Quebec) tried to establish free trade and a democratically elected government. This was what was known as the Upper and Lower Canada Rebellions of 1837-38. In the North-West the process was delayed as the population was much smaller and the capitalist economy much less developed. However, as the economy advanced, similar clashes took place.
Around this time, there were thousands of voyageur traders who increasingly moved westward into what was known as “Rupert’s land.” One of the key areas that was settled was known as Red River, around modern day Manitoba. They began intermarrying and creating a new culture and even their own language called Michif, which was a mix of Cree and French. The generation born around 1790 started to develop into a sizable, distinct social group apart from both Indigenous peoples and Europeans. This became evident as they started calling themselves the Bois-Brûlés (burnt wood). Later the name Métis was adopted.
By 1780-90 the beavers around the Great Lakes had been trapped to near-extinction and there was a concerted push into the North-West in search of furs. A group of Montreal merchants created the North West Company (NWC) in 1789 to seize the opportunity. This put them in direct competition with the HBC, which played the dominant role in the fur trade at the time.
While the HBC was content in staying near their forts on the shores of the Hudson Bay, requiring Indigenous traders to come trade with them, the NWC sent hundreds of voyageurs deep into the North-West. Soon, it became easier for Indigenous peoples to simply trade with the NWC voyageurs. This led to a bitter dispute between the HBC and the NWC which resulted in armed clashes on several occasions.
The governor Miles MacDonell attempted to impose HBC rules on the Métis and stop them from trading with the North West Company. The most famous of these was the Pemmican Proclamation of 1814 which placed an embargo on the export of pemmican, a traditional Cree food widely used in the North-West at the time. But the real power in Red River was the Métis, who were armed and made up 85 per cent of the population. MacDonell was just the first in a long line of governors who came to realize that any attempt to dictate to the Métis would be met with fierce resistance. This ultimately led to NWC agents taking MacDonell captive and bringing him to Montreal for trial.
This situation led to MacDonell’s resignation as governor in 1815. However, his replacement was no better. Robert Semple poured fuel on the fire of an already tense situation, leading an all-out assault on the NWC and the Bois-Brûlés. This conflict now saw the Métis start to move and act collectively.
Governor Semple set up a blockade at the forks with the intention of causing damage to the NWC’s supply lines. On June 18th, Brûlés leader, Cuthbert Grant led a force of 62 with 1,800 pounds of pemmican destined for a NWC brigade at Frog Plain. Semple led a party to confront Grant. In the resulting conflict 21 HBC men including Semple lay dead, while only one Brûlé was killed.
While there wasn’t a clear ideology to this movement at the time, by and large this was a petty bourgeois movement fighting for free trade against a colonial power. The outlines of this struggle would lead the Métis to similar ideological conclusions as the leaders of the Rebellions of 1837-38 or the American Revolution. It is true that the interests of the Métis overlapped with those of the NWC, however, the Métis were not so much fighting for one company or the other but against the imposition from Selkirk and the HBC and for the freedom to trade with whoever they wish.
The fallout from this event was massive. Both companies went to court which proved to be a futile way of resolving the dispute. This was because no number of court decisions, made hundreds of kilometers away in the East, could be enforced onto the Métis in the North-West. As a result, the judge was forced to exonerate the Métis which was a de facto recognition of the Métis as a power in the region. It was a victory!
Here we see an interesting confirmation of the Marxist explanation for the origins of the state. The state, when reduced to its fundamental characteristic, is armed bodies of men in defence of certain property relations. The formation of the state in the North-West was foreshadowed by the governing councils created by the HBC. However, as the HBC did not have sufficient armed bodies of men, they could not fully impose the dominance of the colonial system as was done in the East. The Métis were the main armed force in the region and this fact was taught to more than one HBC governor before this contradiction was resolved with the crushing of the Métis resistance and the establishment of the Canadian state.
The Métis had now come into their own and there was no putting the genie back in its bottle. Word of the victory at Frog Plain spread far and wide over the North-West and Grant became a hero almost overnight. Pierre Falcon, who was 23 at the time of the victory at Frog Plain, wrote a song about the event called “La Chanson de la Grenouillère,” which described the chasing away of the invaders. This became a celebrated song of the Métis all over the North-West.
With this, the Métis increasingly started to refer to themselves as La Nouvelle Nation. While it is always difficult to pinpoint exactly when a nation is formed, this was a key turning point in the foundation of the Métis Nation. Increasingly they had a common language (Michif), a founding event (the Victory at Frog Plain), a flag, a leader (Cuthbert Grant), a national poet and songwriter (Pierre Falcon), a common territory and more importantly a common economic base as bison hunters and fur traders.
The political economy of Red River
The economy of Red River was primarily based on the Buffalo trade and as early as the 1820s, the buffalo hunt was becoming a massive venture. The buffalo hunts increased in size and it became common for the communities in the Red River area to see their population depleted by nearly half during hunting season. Buffalo was such a mainstay of the economy at the time that it was common for a hunt to bring back 1-million pounds of buffalo meat from over 10,000 buffalo.
Building Fort Yukon, 1848. Walter J. Phillips. 1949. HBC Corporate Collection.
While the Buffalo hunt was a significant industry, in the beginning, the accumulation of capital was rare. The HBC set the level of demand, the prices, as well as how much they would purchase from each individual. This only allowed only the HBC to be capable of accumulating capital. The colonial system enshrined in the HBC monopoly completely controlled and limited trade. This outdated colonial monopoly was the political superstructure that the developing productive forces of the Métis Buffalo hunt was destined to collide with.
The internal dynamics of the Buffalo hunt were communal and egalitarian. Sharing was central to the Métis tradition due to the conditions of life in the region at the time. Starvation and famine were regular occurrences so sharing was a matter of survival, as the giver at one point may be the receiver at another moment. The Laws of the Hunt, included sharing of the Buffalo killed so that every family would receive enough to support itself. This was regardless of how many animals were killed by any one person. The hunt chief would traditionally make at least one pass through the herd and any animal that he killed would be given to the old and sick who were unable to hunt or be active in the productive process. This was very similar to traditions among various First Nations which most definitely influenced the Métis.
Agriculture was quite limited and crop failures were a regular occurrence. The HBC didn’t absorb much of the agricultural product of the settlement as the demand of the trading posts was relatively small and easy to satisfy. The company later depressed demand by maintaining large company-run farms to supply its forts. While some Métis did have farms, many abandoned agriculture for the Buffalo Hunt as it was a much more lucrative way of providing for one’s family. This was especially the case after 1844 when the American market opened up for trading and there was a massive increase in demand for Buffalo robes.
There were also a growing number of Métis wage labourers who worked for the HBC. In the 1830s there were approximately 260 “tripmen” working on what were known as “York Boats” (a big barge used to transport cargo). By the late 50s and early 60s this number had increased to over 1,000 tripmen. This was an integral role in the HBC’s transportation system since the HBC had built forts inland.
All of these factors combined to create a local economy which was generally geared towards subsistence. Remarking on the economic situation, William Keating who passed through Red River in 1823 noted that there were no cash transactions. It was instead some form of barter economy where wheat and other products would be “traded in the way of exchange with some other commodity.”
However, there was no escaping the spread of capitalism. The pressures of the world market inevitably would come to bear and this would have irreversible effects on the Métis and their coming struggle against the HBC and the Canadian state.
The struggle against the HBC
Red River in the 1830s and 40s was rife with talk of freedom, equality and a government elected by the people. These republican ideas came from France and America but more importantly the 1837-38 Rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada. These ideas found a ready-made audience among the Métis who lived freely on the plains. The ideals and goals of the Patriots in Lower Canada (Quebec) resonated with the Métis so much so that they would commonly fly the Patriot flag and sing Patriot songs.
The idea that they should have a government elected by and responsible to the actual people who lived in the area instead of a government appointed by and responsible to people far off in Britain was simple enough to understand and struck a chord with the Métis who had been chafing under the undemocratic regime of the HBC. In addition, as the Buffalo hunt developed in connection with the developing capitalist world market, Métis traders chafed under the HBC restrictions and were yearning for free trade. Louis Riel’s father, Jean-Louis was an ardent supporter of Papineau, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion in Lower Canada (Quebec) in 1837. He had been in Lower Canada during the movement and this obviously had a big impact on his political views. Unsurprisingly, Jean-Louis Riel became one of the principal leaders of the movement against HBC rule.
Increasingly there were small conflicts here and there as the HBC tried to enforce their trade monopoly and impose other arbitrary measures. In 1834 a Métis tripman, Antoine Larocque, was struck over the head with a poker by an HBC officer for insisting that he get paid his wages in advance, a common practice at the time. The result was that hundreds of Métis surrounded Fort Garry singing war songs and demanding that the officer be handed over to them. The matter was only resolved when the HBC agreed to pay Larocque his wages without him making the trip. The Company was also forced to give Larocque a keg of rum and some tobacco for his troubles.
In 1835 the Métis protested against food shortages and succeeded in forcing the HBC to open their food storage to feed the population. Later they forced the company to pay a higher price for pemmican. In 1836 Louis St. Denis was flogged in public for exporting furs without a company license. The outrage at this was so strong among the Métis that the man who carried out the flogging was forced to flee for fear of his life.
Métis tripmen often conducted work stoppages, refusing to make the second trip to York Factory. In the end, the Company resolved the strike but only by giving in to many of the strikers demands. The mood among the workers was so angry that the Company had to call in Cuthbert Grant, (who had betrayed the movement in accepting an HBC post) to bring his authority to bear and personally escort the boats to keep the peace.
All of these small victories made the Métis very conscious of their collective strength. While different layers of the population didn’t necessarily have the same grievances, they were all generally united in their struggle against colonial rule and the HBC. This feeling persisted well into the 1850s and in 1857 governor Simpson wrote “The whole of the population of the Red River, with very rare exceptions, is unfavorable to us.”
The trial of Pierre Guillaume Sayer
When the American fur market opened up to the region in 1844 with the establishment of a trading post in Pembina just South of the border, this created an entirely new situation. The full brunt of the world market now came to bear. Métis traders now had the opportunity to come into their own. In Marxist terms, the young budding petty bourgeois layers could now accumulate capital and become bourgeois. However, in order to do this, they had to first break the Hudson Bay Company monopoly.
Louis Riel Sr. (right) with a man identified as Guillaume Sayer. Provincial Archives of Manitoba
When the Métis traders started trading with the Americans, the HBC again tried to stop this by imposing stringent regulations. This led to the stationing of British troops in the settlement in 1845 to help impose the regulations and forcibly seize illegal goods. While this seemed to work to dissuade Métis from trading with the Americans, this was no long-term solution.
The Métis, contrary to lies spread about them, did not resort of violence on a whim. They tried every avenue possible to avoid violent confrontation and plead their case before the HBC. They drafted constant petitions which generally contained the same message. For example, one petition in 1846, contained the signatures of 977 Métis and demanded free trade, a government independent of the HBC and an elected legislature. This petition was drafted by a fur trader named James Sinclair and taken all the way to London where it was subsequently ignored.
As soon as the troops were withdrawn in 1848, Métis traders resumed trading with the Americans. This economic situation inevitably led to another pivotal event: the trial of Pierre Guillaume Sayer.
Sayer and three other Métis traders were arrested by the Council of Assiniboia for fur trafficking in 1849. The setup for the trial was a complete farce. The judge Adam Thom was an HBC employee and one of the main authors of the Durham Report—which called for the forced assimilation of the French. He had been against any concessions to the Patriots during the 1837-38 Rebellions and afterwards called for the execution of 750 patriots. He refused to speak French, even though the majority of the population were Francophones. He was therefore hated by the Métis, and rightly so.
The entire jury and the prosecutor were HBC employees or loyalists and therefore the result of the trial was clearly a foregone conclusion. Anything short of the prosecution and punishment of Sayer and the Métis traders would set the precedent that it was acceptable to defy the HBC monopoly. The trial took place on May. 17, 1849 and found Sayer guilty of illicit possession of furs. However, a verdict is useless if it cannot be enforced.
Thom had intentionally scheduled the trial on Ascension Day (a Catholic holiday), with the aim of guaranteeing that most of the Francophone Métis (who were generally Catholic) would be in Mass and therefore not able to interfere with the trial’s proceedings. This backfired however and on the day of the trial, a young Jean-Louis Riel, persuaded the priest to hold an early Mass where he made a rousing speech appealing for the Métis to challenge the company’s monopoly and go to the courthouse. About four hundred armed Métis surrounded the court house.
They presented a petition which demanded:
1) The removal of Thom
2) Equal use of French and English in the courts
3) Rescission of the law restricting imports from the United States
4) Appointment of Métis to the Council of Assiniboia
5) Free trade in furs
Thom responded that they would not be receiving “delegates of the people.” However, with hundreds of angry armed Métis outside, while Sayer was technically found guilty, he was given no punishment and the charges against the other three Métis traders were dropped. Sayer was even given back the furs that he was supposed to have illegally trafficked. While on paper the company monopoly was still in effect, in practice it has been decisively broken. The productive forces had rebelled against the old relations of production which were burst asunder.
When the prosecutor announced that he would not seek punishment, the crowd chanted: “Le commerce est libre!” “Vive la liberte!” “Paashkiiyaakanaan!” (we won!). Jean-Louis Riel emerged from the courthouse with Sayer on his shoulders and the crowd went wild, cheering and firing shots into the air.
The fall out, just as in 1816 with the Victory at Frog Plain was huge. Everyone was forced to accept the reality. Even Thom was forced to speak French in court! The Council of Assiniboia reduced tariffs on American goods to make it equal to the tariff on British goods and agreed to appoint more Métis to the Council.
The name Riel, just like Grant had been previously, became synonymous with Métis resistance and Métis victory. Louis Riel, who was just five at the time, was present at his father’s speech and it left an indelible impression on him.
Part One | Part Two | Part Three | Part Four
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Rowing Basic Rules For Kids
Rowing Basic Rules For Kids
Rowing Rules
Rowing is a sport where boats are raced on water.
It can be done individually or in teams of up to eight people.
A team of rowers is called a crew.
A shell is a long, skinny boat made for rowing.
Rowers sit in the shell with their oars.
An oar is the paddle used to push through the water and move the shell forward.
Rowers line up at the starting line in separate lanes and wait for the call to start.
The goal is to row the fastest to the finish line.
The two types of rowing styles are sweep rowing and sculling.
Sculling is when rowers have two oars, one in each hand, which they use at the same time.
Sweep rowing is when each rower uses both hands for one oar, working as a crew.
Crews have to row in sync and find steady rhythm.
Rowing racetracks are usually on rivers or lakes, with a length of 1 to 3 miles long.
The first team to pass the finish line wins!
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Where Did Baseball Come From
Who Invented Baseball?
Some people believe that a young man called Abner Doubleday, who lived in Cooperstown, New York, during the summer of 1839, was the inventor of the game known as baseball. After that, Doubleday went on to become a Civil War hero, and baseball went on to become America’s most treasured national sport. Not only is the narrative incorrect, but it is also completely out of context. Baseball’s true beginnings may be traced all the way back to the 18th century, at the very least.
Who Was Abner Doubleday?
A wealthy family in upstate New York, Doubleday was still a student at West Point in 1839, and he never claimed to have had anything to do with the sport of baseball. Instead, he fought as a Union major general during the American Civil War and went on to work as a lawyer and writer after the war. After Doubleday’s death in 1897, a special commission headed by sporting goods magnate and former major league player A.J. Spalding was established to determine the origins of baseball, specifically whether it was invented in the United States or derived from games played in the United Kingdom.
For its founding tale, the commission relied on scant evidence—the assertions of a single guy, mining engineer Abner Graves, who claimed he attended the same university as Doubleday—and it was successful in keeping it alive.
What Are Baseball’s Real Origins?
However, as it turns out, the true history of baseball is a little more difficult than the mythology of Doubleday suggests. In the United States, there have been references to games that are similar to baseball since the 18th century. There are two English sports that appear to be its most direct ancestors: rounders (a children’s game that was carried to New England by the first colonists) and cricket. The American Revolutionary War was fought during a period when variants of such games were being played on schoolyards and college campuses across the country.
The New York Knickerbocker Baseball Club was established in September 1845 by a group of New York City businessmen.
He also outlawed the potentially lethal practice of tagging runners by hurling balls in their direction.
Against a team of cricket players in 1846, the Knickerbockers played the world’s first official baseball game, ushering in a new and distinctly American tradition. More information may be found at: Baseball Opening Day Fun Facts.
Who Really Invented Baseball?
3. As the game’s popularity increased, so did the number of immigrants who participated in it.
7. That was something that Chicago Cubs president Albert Spalding and National League president Abraham G.
• What is the truth about the paternity issue?
• It had already been accomplished.
• The letter from Selig was leaked to the press.
See also: How Do You Measure A Baseball Glove
WBSC – World Baseball Softball Confederation
Albert Spalding
• The group was known as the Spalding Baseball Promotional Team.
Abner Doubleday
1. Will Irwin discovered the next year that Doubleday had not been there in Cooperstown in 1839.
2. Irwin’s findings were reported in Collier’s magazine.
3. He gave Graves more credit than he deserved, sharing more information about the events of 1839 in 1912.
4. Graves died in 1926, at the age of 92, after a long illness.
5. Graves had slain his wife in 1924, and he was sentenced to death.
6. Until 1939, the Graves version was in use.
Other References
3. Baseball’s origins might extend much further back in time.
In Summary
The History Of Baseball.The Ball Game And Where It All Began
Some Notable Dates
1. The first annual conference is held in 1868, and over 100 teams are represented.
3. It is in 1882 that a rival league, known as the American Association, is created.
Notable Players
See also: How Far Is A Baseball Mound
Notable Games
A Brief History of Baseball
The following story was originally published in 1995, just after baseball had returned to the field during the sport’s longest-ever work stoppage. As a result, labor relations in baseball have received a great deal of attention.
Origins of the Game
In contrast to professional basketball and American football, baseball has not been gaining widespread popularity throughout the world. In recent years, declining participation at the amateur level, combined with lengthy labor disputes at the professional level, has thrown “America’s Pastime” into an age of uncertainty. Although the sport is now facing some difficulties, baseball will always hold a significant role in American society. The first in a three-part series on the history of baseball, this piece is the first installment.
• However, while the actual roots of baseball are obscure, the vast majority of historians think that it was influenced by the English game of rounders.
• Throughout the first decade of the twentieth century, small communities organized baseball teams, and baseball clubs in bigger cities were formed.
• A large portion of that initial code is still in effect today.
• The first ever recorded baseball game took place a year later, in 1846, in New York City.
• These informal games became more regular and more popular as time went on.
• Twenty-five clubs from the northeastern United States submitted representatives.
• During its initial year of existence, the league was able to finance itself by charging supporters for entrance on an as-needed basis.
The early 1860s, on the other hand, were a period of enormous upheaval in the United States.
However, enthusiasm in baseball was spread throughout the country by Union soldiers, and by the time the war was over, there were more people playing baseball than at any previous time in history.
The costs of participating in the league increased as the league expanded in size.
Winning became extremely vital in order for teams to receive the financial backing they required.
Some were offered employment by sponsors, while others were discreetly paid a wage for simply participating in the sport.
Brothers Harry and George Wright gathered the top players from all around the country and defeated everyone in their path.
The concept of paid players immediately gained popularity.
As the top players moved on to the professional ranks, the amateur teams began to die away. The National Association of Professional Baseball was established in 1871 as the first professional baseball league.
Professional Baseball’s First Hundred Years
The National Association only lasted a few years. The presence of gamblers eroded public faith in the games, and their presence at the games, along with the selling of alcoholic beverages, resulted in the majority of their crowds abandoning them soon. The National Association was dissolved following the 1875 season, and the National League was formed in its stead. Before, players had owned their own clubs, and they had controlled the games, but the National League was to be run by businesspeople.
1. The businesspeople established that professional baseball could be a financially profitable endeavor, and a rival league was formed shortly thereafter.
2. Rather than fighting each other, the two leagues came to an agreement and ratified a National Agreement, which is now in effect.
3. Aside from that, the Reserve Clause permitted each team to bind a specific number of players to the team that had signed the agreement.
4. Needless to say, the players were enraged as a result of this.
5. Many players quit their teams in favor of the Union Association’s independence, but the league only lasted one season before being disbanded.
6. When the Players League was established in 1890, it represented a second attempt.
7. The American Association was forced to disintegrate as well, with four of its finest clubs entering the National League as a result of increased competition and player losses.
They snatched up the majority of the best players from the National League.
A court order appointed a three-member committee to oversee the league’s operations, and they were successful in finding a method for the two leagues to coexist together.
The so-called “dead ball” resulted in a low number of home runs.
The introduction of a cork-filled ball into the game in 1911 had a significant impact on the game.
Another rival league attempted to develop a presence in the United States in 1914.
They filed a lawsuit, claiming that the American and National Leagues had a monopoly on baseball.
Baseball was excluded from anti-trust law, according to a judgement by the Supreme Court in 1922, which brought an end to the controversy.
The Roaring Twenties were a prosperous period for the United States, as well as for the sport of baseball.
After a great career as a pitcher with the Boston Red Sox, George “Babe” Ruth was acquired by the New York Yankees, who converted him into an outfielder.
By hitting home runs at an unprecedented rate, Ruth altered the course of baseball history.
Baseball players, like other American males, served in the armed services during World War II in significant numbers.
Baseball has always been segregated on the basis of race, despite the fact that there was no explicit regulation to this effect.
Integration, on the other hand, was a very sluggish process.
It would be another ten years before all of the clubs were integrated, and it wouldn’t be until the early 1960s that professional baseball could properly be described as integrated.
Despite the fact that a couple of clubs had relocated, the majority of them remained in the northeast.
A victory in court would provide the Continental League the opportunity to avoid going bankrupt on the pitch.
They would agree to expand, with the number of teams increasing from 16 to 24 by the end of the decade.
Baseball benefited economically as attendance continued to rise and lucrative national television and radio contracts brought in large sums of money for the league.
It had been years since salaries had stayed unchanged, and the players were still bound by the reserve clause.
The success of organized labor in the auto sector and the steel industry inspired the participants to strengthen their union by instituting collective bargaining. After nearly a century, the players wished to reclaim some control over the game they had been playing. And they would understand.
Labor Battles in the Modern Era
They hired Marvin Miller, a long-time labor organizer who had campaigned for the United Steelworkers union for many years before joining the company. He was well aware that there was more at risk than simply adding money from the television industry to the pension fund. When Miller boarded the ship and observed the conditions, he realized there was far more at risk than he had realized. For starters, the minimum wage was $6,000, which was just a thousand dollars higher than the previous year’s minimum wage.
• As a result of this instruction, the first collective bargaining agreement, which was signed in 1968, came about.
• The relationship between club owners and players was one of “take it or leave it” for over a hundred years.
• In addition, players gained the ability to have their concerns addressed by an impartial arbitrator, which was previously denied them.
• In addition, they did not appreciate the union intruding in their business and did not appreciate the players standing up to them.
• Louis Cardinals had not offered him a raise of more than $5000.
• Flood was adamant about not going.
• Flood asserted that the Reserve Clause was unconstitutional and that he should be permitted to freely engage with other clubs in the league.
By 1975, two pitchers had chosen to take the reserve clause to court once more.
They took that to mean that it was recurrent, and that they could renew it year after year.
If the reserve provision prevented them from renewing their contract for the 1975 season, there was no way for them to do so for 1976.
For the first few years of their professional careers, players were still tied to a certain team, but after that they were free to join with any team they wanted.
The players were ecstatic since their wages were increasing for everyone.
When a participant quit the game, they received nothing in exchange.
Otherwise, the money they had spent in that player’s development would be forfeited to the government and other organizations.
The two sides were unable to come to terms, and the players walked out in the middle of the 1981 season.
This was a far more severe situation, and there was little room for discussion.
In exchange, players who are not yet eligible for free agency may be able to have their pay determined by an independent arbitrator.
See also: Who Sells Baseball Cards Near Me
It was 1985 when the players attacked once more.
The owners wanted to modify it, but the players were adamant about not doing so.
Later, the free-agent market inexplicably and abruptly dried up.
This went on for a few years until an arbitrator decided that the owners had conspired to defraud the government.
All of this prepared the ground for the most difficult war of all.
Because the labor contract was due to expire, it was important that he not meddle in the next discussions.
Every time the collective bargaining agreement expired, there had been a strike or a lockout, and the players didn’t want to go through that again.
The owners were certain that a pay cap was required in order for clubs to remain competitive.
The players went on strike in August because they felt they were not making any progress.
Fans all throughout the country were appalled and upset by the decision.
Finally, the owners made the decision to pursue their own strategy without consulting anybody else.
The players sought and were granted a restraining order, which barred the clubs from implementing their strategy and forced them to operate under the terms of the previous agreement until a new agreement could be negotiated.
While it is too soon to know whether the agreement will help to alleviate the financial woes that have befallen Major League Baseball, it does provide some optimism that fans will be able to return to thinking about the game on the field.
Baseball has a rich and illustrious past on which to grow, and the sport will approach its third century with reason to be optimistic.
Who Invented Baseball? The Facts Behind the Myths
• The Abner Doubleday Myth
• Who Invented Baseball
• Baseball’s Many Inventors
• The Origin of Baseball
• The Abner Doubleday Myth
The Abner Doubleday Myth
Abner Doubleday is the subject of the myth of a single individual being responsible for the invention of baseball noted above. It has been said that Doubleday developed baseball in Cooperstown, New York, during the summer of 1839, went on to become a Civil War hero, and that the game he devised eventually became America’s national pastime while living in the United States. However, it turns out that Doubleday never truly claimed to have anything to do with baseball; at the time of his claim, he was still enrolled at West Point.
Spalding, a sports goods entrepreneur and former major leaguer, and based on the assertions of mining engineer Abner Graves.
Who Really Invented Baseball?
Baseball’s Many Inventors
1. Alexander Joy Cartwright
2. Abner Graves
The Origin of Baseball
Where Did Baseball Originate?
Currently, baseball is one of the most widely practiced sports in North America, both among players and spectators. From their simplest beginnings, every game or sport has progressed to the intricate and competitive systems that we see today. Baseball is no exception, despite the fact that there appears to be no clear agreement on the game’s specific origins at this time. In this game, which is related to the bat and ball family of sports, such as cricket, two teams of nine players compete against each other at the same time in a bat and ball format.
A player from the team that is batting stands on Homeplate during the course of the game and attempts to hit the ball that is thrown by the opposing team’s pitcher.
At the conclusion of the game, the side with the greatest number of runs after nine innings is declared the victor.
Origin Of Baseball
In spite of the fact that efforts to establish the actual origins of baseball have had little success, French manuscripts such as thèque and la balle empoisonnée as well as other manuscripts from 1344 display pictures of vicars engaged in a bat and ball game similar to baseball. Historically, historians think that baseball is essentially a refined version of the old British rounders game, which remains popular among youngsters in many African nations, and that the fundamentals of both games are in fact extremely similar.
This description is quite similar to the diamond-shaped field and ground bases that exist today.
Because of this, historians think that English immigrants were responsible for bringing the game to North America.
The earliest recorded reference of baseball occurred in Pittsfield, Massachusetts in 1791, and by the 1830s, North America had begun to record different variations of the sport in various locations.
Commission Of Inquiry Into The Origin Of Baseball
In 1903, Henry Chadwick released an article in which he discussed the origins of baseball and argued that the game developed from the game of rounders, which was popular in Great Britain at the time. After reading this, and assuming that the game was invented in the United States, Albert Spalding persuaded Chadwick that they should form a joint commission of inquiry to find out the truth about the game. Their selection of Abraham Mills as chairman of the committee, which labored for three years before reaching the decision that Abner Doubleday developed baseball and so was designated the “Father of Baseball,” was a stroke of genius.
The Abner Doubleday Theory
For a few years, the commission of inquiry’s conclusion that Doubleday had developed baseball during the summer of 1838 in Cooperstown, New York was accepted as fact before many began to doubt the validity of the conclusion. Further investigation, which led to the debunking of the hypothesis, revealed that Doubleday was in fact stationed at West Point during the year 1839. Because Doubleday did not behave or pretend to know anything about baseball or the game’s laws, this argument was doomed by the 1930s when it was proven that he had no understanding of the game.
Alexander Cartwright’s Contribution to Baseball
The New York Knickerbocker Baseball Club, founded in 1845 by Alexander Joy Cartwright, was one of the first baseball clubs in the world. The club and its creator, Alexander Joy Cartwright, were responsible for the development of most of the game’s regulations. Cartwright and his crew saw the need to further develop the sport while also eliminating components of the game that appeared to be dangerous. The three-strike rule and the diamond-shaped infield were were adopted as a result of these principles, and Cartwright is often regarded as the “real father of baseball.”
Where Exactly Did Baseball Originate From?
Baseball is a popular sport in North America, yet sports historians in the United States and England dispute on when the sport first emerged on the continent. People have a strong attachment to the history of an invention, and in this instance, it appears that the only thing standing in the way of discovering baseball’s genuine origin is a strong attachment to the history of baseball. While neither side disputes the fact that baseball evolved from previous bat and ball games, the world may never know for certain where the game started because both sides of the debate have evidence to back up their claims.
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Italians In Britain
In just seven short years (circa 78-85 CE), Gnaeus Iulius Agricola advanced the military occupation of Britain from his initial campaigns against the Ordovices in North Wales, through the territories of the powerful Brigantes of northern England, and the tribes of lowland Scotland and the eastern Highlands, possibly as far north as Inverness on the Moray Firth. Agricola more than doubled the area of the Roman province of Brittania which, up until then, had taken his ten predecessors a period of thirty-five years to conquer and control.
GNAEUS IULIUS AGRICOLA DUX (the DUX was the leader, the general, the commander in a campaign. The word survives in “duke,” “il Duce,” and “Doge,” the leader in Venice)
Under the DUX was the LEGIO (legion) a group of about five thousand men. A DUX could command several legions, with a legate actually in charge of each legion. The words “legion” and “legate” come from LEGERE, to choose, to levy.
The usual legion commander was the LEGATUS LEGIONIS, the legate.
A COHORS (cohort) was about five hundred men. A legion had ten cohorts.
A VEXILLATIO (vexillation) was a group of soldiers under one standard or flag (the study of flags is called vexillology). This plaque was found in Hadrian’s Wall and it says, “Vexillatio Legionis II Augustus et XX Valeria Victrix Fecerunt. (Vexillations from Legion II Augustus and Legion XX Valeria Victrix made this.)
VEXILLATIO LEG XX V V FECIT [The vexillation of Legion 20 Valeria Victrix made (this).] Referring to a part of a wall or building.
The CONTUBERNIUM (tent group) was eight men who shared a tent.
TRIBUNI (military tribunes) were interns, aristrocratic young men who needed a little military time before beginning their civil careers. Agricola began as a tribune. Tribunes were like young second lieutenants gathered around a senior officer.
CENTURIONES (centurions) were the sergeants/captains, the backbone of the Roman army. A centurion commanded about eighty men. Notice how his head ornament is lateral instead of axial, as all other helmet decorations were. This was a distinguishing characteristic, easily seen in battle.
PRAEFECTI (prefects) were third in command of a legion, although a prefect could command an entire legion at times. Later we will meet a praefectus (prefect) who commanded a wing of the cavalry.
I am reading a book that Cornelius Tacitus wrote about his father in law, Gnaeus Julius Agricola. Tacitus was born in 55 CE, probably in southern Gaul, which the Romans called Provincia and the French today call Provence. Tacitus’ father was a wealthy man who belonged to the second tier of the Roman élite, the Equestres (knights).
Tacitus was sent to Rome to study rhetoric, which at that time meant of course public speaking, but “rhetoric” also connoted a general cultural education that included everything that a magistrate needed to know.
“… this book,” writes Tacitus, ”intended to do honor to Agricola, my father-in-law, will, as an expression of filial regard, be commended, or at least excused.” (“Agricola” means “farmer.” Iulius Agricola in English would be Julius Farmer.)
Agricola served his military apprenticeship in Britain to the satisfaction of Suetonius Paulinus, who was governor from 58–61CE, a painstaking and judicious officer, who, to test Agricola’s merits, selected him to join his staff as one of his military tribunes.
Gnaeus Julius Agricola was born on 13 July 40 CE in Fréjus, France (Forum Iulii, Gallia Narbonensis), then Roman Provincia.
“Fréjus” is actually a corruption of “Forum Iulii.”
In the year 60, when King Prasutagus of the Iceni died. Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning on the island of Mona (Anglesey, Wales), a stronghold of British resistance to Rome.
The Icenian king Prasutagus, celebrated for his long prosperity, had named the emperor his heir, together with his two daughters; an act of deference which he thought would place his kingdom and household beyond the risk of injury. The result was contrary – so much so that his kingdom was pillaged by centurions, his household by slaves, as though they had been prizes of war.
This was an intolerable situation and Prasutagus rebelled against Roman rule.
His atque talibus in vicem instincti, Boudicca generis regii femina duce (neque enim sexum in imperiis discernunt) sumpsere universi bellum, ac sparsos per castella milites consectati, expugnatis praesidiis ipsam coloniam invasere ut sedem servitutis, nec ullum in barbaris ingeniis saevitiae genus omisit ira et victoria. (Tacitus, beginning of chapter 16, Agricola)
Urged on by such matters, under the command of the royal Boudica (and sex didn’t matter in choosing leaders), there was universal war, hunting down of Romans in outposts, storming the forts, and even an attack on the whole colony itself, with no omitting of the savagery characteristic of barbarians.
When the Romans executed her husband, Boudica assumed command of the Iceni. She proved a strong and sagacious leader.
Boudica led a revolt which lasted for several months in 60-61 CE. The Boudican forces burned and destoyed three major towns: Londinium (London), Verulamium (St. Albans), and Camulodunum (Colchester).
Femina duce” Women were held in high respect by the Celts, but the Romans came, whipped Boudica, and raped her daughters.
colonia” refers to Camulodunum (Colchester) where the Roman veterans had been harrassing the native population.
“Camulodunum” always sounded a lot like “Camelot” to me.
Colchester/Camulodunum is reputed to be the oldest town in Britain and could be seen as the capital city before the Romans came.
in barbaris ingeniis”: an attributive phrase, meaning (the savagery) “with which barbarians are familiar.”
“ira et victoria” : Fury and the consciousness of victory.
“It is not as a noble, but as one of the people that I am avenging lost freedom,” cried Boudica. Tacitus
The massacre of the Ninth Legion refers to Boudica’s defeat of a large vexillation (soldiers under one flag) of the Legio IX Hispana during the revolt against Roman rule in Britain launched by this queen of the Iceni of Norfolk. Attempting to relieve the besieged colonia of Camulodunum (Colchester, Essex), legionaries of the Legio IX Hispana led by Quintus Petillius Cerealis, were attacked by a horde of British tribes, led by the Iceni. Approximately eighty percent of the Roman soldiers were killed in this battle.
After the final suppression of the revolt of the Iceni, and his apprenticeship with Suetonius Paulinus, Agricola left Britain and was made governor of the province of Aquitania in Gallia (Gaul).
Agricola was consul, and Tacitus but a youth, when Agricola betrothed to the historian his daughter, “a maiden even then of noble promise.” After Agricola’s consulate he gave her to Tacitus in marriage. This estimable and beloved woman is not named in any source, which is typical of the Romans who named their women from clans. Julia was from the clan of the Iulii, Claudia from that of the Claudii, and so on.
Agricola returned to Britain after the Roman civil war of 69 CE among Vitellius, Otho and Vespasian. Agricola was appointed legatus, commander, of the 20th Legion (Legio XX Valeria Victrix). The boar was the symbol of Quirinus, who was seen as the personification of the deified Romulus.
Later Agricola also assumed command of Legio IX in the east of Britain, quartered in Eburacum (York).
Legio XX was stationed for much of its 300 year existence in the west at Chester.
Agricola arrived in Britain, and surprised his soldiers and the Britons as well by fighting the Ordovices when summer, the fighting season, was almost over.
News of Boudica’s Rebellion in 60 forced Suetonius Paulinus to abandon his conquest of Mona (Anglesey). Presumably Agricola had participated in that action, and was now, twenty years later, intent on finishing the job. His decision to attack Mona was swiftly made. There was no naval support because Agricola’s men were excellent swimmers and they also knew the shallows and waded over to Mona. The enemy, who had been looking for a fleet, were completely surprised.
Thus, in his first, short, campaigning season in Britain, Agricola had, in effect, conquered Wales.
“A liking sprang up for our style of dress, and the toga became fashionable. Step by step they (the Britons) were led to things which dispose to vice, the lounge, the bath, the elegant banquet. All this in their ignorance they called civilisation, when it was but a part of their servitude.” (Tacitus, always conscious of the double edged sword that was Roman culture.)
In his second summer (79 CE), Agricola advanced his Legio XX up from Gloucester by the western route, and the Ninth legion from York (Eburacum) in the east.
He conquered the Brigantes in Northern England.
Cartimandua was Queen of the Brigantia, the largest of the Celtic tribes in Britannia. (The name “Bridget” comes from these people.)
Cartimandua’s kingdom was a vast tribal federation located in the neck of Britannia and its seat was at the massive fortification of Stanwick. (Stanwick is the red dot near Wellingborough.)
Cartimandua reigned between 43 – 70 CE. She made peace with the conquering Romans and was allowed to rule as a client-queen.
Because of her friendship with the Romans, Cartimandua refused to join the rebellion of Queen Boudica in 61 CE.
Later, bound by her client-queen relationship with Agricola, she refused aid to Caractacus, king of the Catuvellaunii, and instead surrendered him to the Romans.
Although she was married to Venutius, Cartimandua was a Celtic queen and wielded power in her own right.
A struggle for power broke out between Cartimandua and Venutius and became a civil war among the Brigantes.
Cartimandua asked for and received aid from the Romans to restore peace among her people.
In 79 CE, Agricola marched into Scotland on the eastern side.
The third year of his campaigns (79 CE) opened up new tribes as far perhaps as the Tay estuary.
The enemy did not dare to attack the invaders, harassed though the Romans were by violent storms. There was even time for the erection of forts.
Not a single fort established by Agricola was either stormed by the enemy or abandoned by capitulation or flight. Sorties were continually being made, since these positions were secured from protracted siege by a year’s supply of food and weapons.
Winter brought with it no dangers, and each garrison could hold its own, as the enemy, who had been accustomed often to repair summer losses by winter successes, found himself repelled alike both in summer and winter.
(Aricola allowed his men to shine. The centurion and the prefect both found in him an impartial witness of their every action.) The prefect here was probably the commander of a wing (ala) of cavalry.
In the fourth summer (80 CE) of his time as Dux Brittaniae, Agricola secured the peoples and land that he had conquered.
Agricola stopped at this point because the Clota (Clyde) and Bodotria (Forth) nearly cut the land in two (81 CE). Much later, the Romans built Antonine’s Wall which was merely a joining of the garrisons that Agricola had first put here to join the two rivers in cutting the land.
This is as far as the Romans went into Scotland and even today there is a big difference between the people who live between Hadrian’s and Antonine’s walls and the people who live north of Antonine’s wall. They are two Scotlands. The people in the north remained Catholic and Celtic. In the south of Scotland (south of the Antonine Wall) people spoke English and were Protestant.
“In that part of Britain which looks toward Ireland, Agricola posted some troops, hoping for fresh conquests rather than fearing attack, inasmuch as Ireland, being between Britain and Spain and conveniently situated for the seas round Gaul, might have been the means of connecting with great mutual benefit the most powerful parts of the empire.” The knowledge of geography, even at this date, was shaky. It was thought at first that Britain might be a peninsula.
In chapter 24, Tacitus writes that Ireland’s extent is small when compared with Britain, but exceeds the islands of “our” seas (Sardinia, Sicily). Notice that the Brigantes have territory in Ireland also.
“In soil and climate, in the disposition, temper, and habits of its population, Ireland differs but little from Britain.”
Meanwhile, Agricola was campaigning in the north when the Caledonii took the opportunity to attack the forts to the rear of Agricola’s campaigning column.
Seeking to confront the Caledonii, and without knowing from which glens they would emerge, Agricola split his forces into three separate battlegroups.
The Caledonians, correctly identifying the weakest, most exposed Roman battlegroup gathered their forces together and attacked and almost conquered Legio IX, the Ninth legion. This attack was fought off only with difficulty and reliance on a relief column led by Agricola.
Sometime after 108 CE, Legio IX disappeared from the records. The popular version of events is that the Ninth ~ numbering about 5,000 men ~ was sent to vanquish the Picts in Caledonia and mysteriously never returned. The real reason that the Ninth “disappeared” is probably much more mundane in that they were likely disbanded, but who knows? At any rate, a popular film The Eagle has been made about this question, with the usual Hollywood distortions.
Legio IX was called “Hispana” because Julius Caesar founded it in Spain in 65 BCE.
And now in his work, Tacitus introduces a little diversion because of its inherent interest. On the west coast of Scotland, at Vindogara, probably modern Irvine in Ayrshire, in 82 CE, a cohort of Usipi, that had been recruited in Germania and transferred to Brittania, murdered their centurion and the Roman soldiers who had joined them to teach them discipline.
The Usipi deserted, sailed around the coast of Britain, and escaped to the Continent. This tribe lived in Germania where the Lippe and the Rhine flow together. The Usipi’s voyage in three liburnians around the south of Britain finally demonstrated to Agrigcola that Britain was indeed an island.
The liburnia, so called because the Romans copied the ship design from the pirates of Liburnia, had only two rows of oars, and the Romans came to prefer it because of its great speed and maneuverability.
The Usipi mutineers lost their ships through bad seamanship. The Suebi and the Frisii, taking them for pirates, attacked them and sold them into slavery. So ends this digression in Tacitus’ history.
The battle of Mons Graupius was a Roman military victory in 83 CE. The exact location of the battle remains a matter of debate.
Agricola had sent his fleet ahead to panic the Caledonians, and, with light infantry reinforced with British and German auxiliaries, he reached the site, which he found occupied by the enemy.
Non Romans did much or most of the fighting on the Roman side. The legions were held back, and it was considered a better victory if they didn’t have to enter combat at all. The allied auxiliary infantry (meaning Britons and Germans who sided with Agricola) numbered 8,000 and was in the center of the battle line.
Three thousand cavalry were on the flanks and the legionaries were in front of their camp as a reserve. The Roman army was 17,000 – 30,000 strong, and the Caledonians, stationed on higher ground up the slope of the hill in horseshoe formation, were about 30,000.
After an exchange of missiles, Agricola ordered the auxiliaries to close with the enemy. The Caledonians were cut down and trampled on the lower slopes of the hill. Those at the top attempted an outflanking movement, but were themselves outflanked by Roman cavalry. The Caledonians were then routed and they fled for the shelter of nearby woodland, but were relentlessly pursued by well-organized Roman units.
According to Tacitus, 10,000 Caledonian lives were lost at a cost of only 360 auxiliary troops. This is most likely an exaggeration. Roman accounts of enemy dead were often suspect, especially with such a huge difference in numbers. Twenty thousand Caledonians retreated into the woods, where they fared considerably better against pursuing forces. Roman scouts were unable to locate the remaining Caledonian forces the next morning.
After the battle of Mons Graupius in the north of Scotland, it was proclaimed that Agricola had finally conquered all the tribes of Britain, which is not strictly true, as the Caledonians and their allies remained a threat.
Tacitus’ statement Perdomita Britannia et statim missa (Britain was completely conquered and immediately let go) reflects his bitter disapproval of Emperor Domitian’s failure to unify the whole island under Roman rule after Agricola’s successful campaign.
In the absence of any archaeological evidence and with the very low estimate of Roman casualties, the decisive victory reported by Tacitus may be an invention, either by Tacitus himself, or by Agricola.
Agricola had been governor for an unusually long period and his recall to Rome was overdue, thus he was not recalled on account of his fabricating battle statistics. G. Iulius Agricola was awarded triumphal honors on his return to Rome and was offered another governorship in Syria, so it would seem unlikely that Emperor Domitian was trying to hold him back.
Contrary to Tacitus’ account, archaeological evidence indicates that Domitian did not immediately abandon all efforts to subjugate the remainder of Britain. The construction of a series of forts beyond the Forth,
and in particular the legionary fortress of Inchtuthil were intended to control the territory over which Agricola had advanced.
Over the next few decades, however, the Romans conducted a staged withdrawal towards the eventual frontier demarcated by Hadrian’s Wall.
The actual location of the battle of Mons Graupius has caused a lot of healthy debate.
Most of the proposed sites span Perthshire to north of the River Dee, probably near to where Big Brother and the Holding Company played in Glenfarg (2006), about three quarters of the way from Edinburgh to Perth.
A number of authors speculate that the battle occurred in the Grampian Mounth within sight of the North Sea.
In particular, some believe that the high ground of the battle may have been Kempstone Hill, Megray Hill or other knolls near the Raedykes Roman camp.
These sites in Kincardineshire fit the historical descriptions of Tacitus and have also yielded Roman archaelogical finds.
In addition these points of high ground are near the Elsick Mounth, an ancient trackway used by Romans and Caledonians for military maneuvers.
“Agricola was born on the Ides of June in the third consulship of Gaius Caesar; he died in his fifty-fourth year on the tenth day before the Kalends of September in the consulship of Collega and Priscinus.” (13 June 40 to 23 August 93)
“You were fortunate, indeed, Agricola, in your glorious life, but no less so in your timely death. Those who were present at your final words attest that you met your death with a cheerful courage, as though doing your best to absolve the emperor (Domitian) of guilt.”
Thus Tacitus (with a final dig at Domitian) on his father-in-law’s life and death. The entire book Agricola can be seen as a funeral oration to his wife’s father.
Tacitus was a man who wanted to get it right. He was ernest, sincere, very intelligent, and he sought to write his story sine ira et studio, without anger and without zeal (partisanship).
It is through Tacitus’ eyes that we see the first century of the Empire.
When he failed, as he sometimes did, to live up to his promise to preach “the gospel of things as they were,” it was never from a desire to bear false witness.
His view of life was pessimistic and he always knew that the Roman conquest of the world was perhaps not so beneficial for the conquered.
We Americans, of all people, should recognize the desire in the Romans to conquer the world, because of an innate feeling that their/our way of life should be shared among all the nations, that we somehow have found the key to a higher, more organized, “better” life path, that, if only they, the barbarians, would accept it, it would help all peoples to live better lives.
Tacitus was the first person to examine closely this naïve assumption. Sometimes he bought it, sometimes he didn’t, but it makes him an interesting historian to read, two thousand years down the road. I would like to hear what Tacitus would say about such institutions as, for example, the Peace Corps, Starbucks, the Mormon effort and missionaries in general.
Romans were a proselytizing people and so are we, who feel that if we are not converting people to our view of life, that we are somehow failing, or, worse, that our view of life may not be the correct one.
I was raised in the Catholic Church, which is of course, very Roman. The Church inherited the Roman urge toward domination, conquest, triumph, seeking converts, martyrdom, self sacrifice in pursuit of a worthy goal, study, organization, hierarchy, militarism, and a whole (pardon the expression) host of other good and not so good life orientations.
Even though today I am an agnostic, I look at this Church with great interest, just as Tacitus would have, because she is a living, breathing continuation of the Roman Empire.
Tacitus towers above the historians of Rome as Thucydides towered above those of Greece.
Tacitus used the Latin language more creatively and more freely than any author before him. He never indulged in simple minded nostalgia. He knew he had to live his life well in the time that it was given to him, and that there was no going back.
Ab actu ad posse valet illatio. Study of the past will shed light on the future.
Sam Andrew
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Lead Toxicity in Bald Eagles
Over the past twenty-five years, lead toxicity—or lead poisoning—has become an increasingly apparent concern impacting bald eagles along with other bird species and wildlife.
A recent study revealed that 47% of bald eagles and 46% of golden eagles had signs of chronic lead poisoning, which is the result of repeated lead exposure. As many as 33-35% of eagles had acute lead poisoning from exposure to high lead levels. These statistics came from samples taken across 38 states over the course of eight years (Slabe et. al, 2022).
These numbers nearly double the previous years’ reports from the University of Minnesota’s Raptor Center, which indicated that over a quarter of sick or ill eagles treated had lead toxicity (The Raptor Center).
The increasing lead levels in rehabilitation eagles’ blood suggests that lead toxicity is tangibly impacting the health of bald eagle populations.
What are the symptoms of lead toxicity?
A lead fragment the size of a grain of rice is lethal to a mature bald eagle, meaning that a standard 150 grain lead bullet can poison 10 eagles. The deadly metal accumulates in an eagle’s system over the course of their lives, meaning that there is no safe amount of lead exposure. For this reason, lead is often called “the silent killer.”
Even a small exposure to lead can cause devastating illness in eagles. Common symptoms include brain swelling, respiratory distress, muscle weakness, dehydration, starvation, kidney and liver damage, and seizures. Associated neurological damage can result in loss of vision, coordination, and nerve function; the bird may appear “drunk” or be unable to stand. The feces often turn a vibrant, sickening green.
For most eagles with acute poisoning, the prognosis is not good. For those with non-lethal exposures (aka “subclinical levels), treatment is a long, grueling process that often costs thousands of dollars. Even after weeks of injectable and oral chelation therapy, the neurological side effects of lead may be permanent and result in the bird being deemed non-releasable (Joseph 2013).
How can outdoorspeople help?
Sportsmen and sportswomen have a longstanding history of championing conservation, both through protecting habitats and wildlife management. A recent survey by Ducks Unlimited suggests that hunters are more than three times as likely as nonhunters to participate in organized wildlife conservation efforts (Young).
The research on lead toxicosis in bald eagles indicates that these exposures are unintended consequences from lead ammunition fragments and lead fishing tackle that are left behind in the field (Buehler 2020).
Because these exposures are accidental, such as when a fish breaks the line or when a gut pile is left behind, the best way to decrease the risk of lead exposure is to transition to non-lead ammunition and tackle.
How Lead Enters the Ecosystem
Education around this issue is imperative not just for the health of bald eagles but also humans. Lead fragments from ammunition spread far beyond the wound channel. This means that fragments may exist in gut piles left behind in the field, and it also poses a risk to meat processed for human consumption. A study using 324 randomly selected venison packages from processors found that 34% contained as much as 150 separate lead fragments (Hunt et al., 2009).
As the bald eagle taught us, conservation can be a powerfully unifying force, and we call on our fellow conservationists and outdoorspeople to preserve the biodiversity and natural beauty of this country.
Buehler, D.A. (2020). Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Birds of the World. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithica, NY, USA.
Hunt, W.G., Watson, R.T., Oaks, J.L., Parish, C.N., Burnham, K.K., Tucker, R.L., Belthoff, J.R., & Hart G. (2009) Lead bullet fragments in venison from rifle-killed deer: potential for human dietary exposure. PLoS ONE 4(4),
Joseph, V. (2013) Lead Toxicity in Wild Birds: A Case for Requiring Non-Lead Ammunition. Humane Society Veterinary Medical Association.
Slabe, V.A., Anderson, J.T., Millsap, B.A., Cooper J.L., Harmata A.R., Restani M., Crandall R.H., Bodenstein, B., Bloom P.H.,& Katzner, T.E. (2022). Demographic implications of lead poisoning for eagles across North America. Science, 375 (6582),
The Raptor Center. Our Research: Lead Poisoning.
Young, M. Hunters and anglers are North America’s greatest conservationists. Ducks Unlimited.,wildlife%2Dfriendly%20manner%20as%20well.
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Shark profiles >
Longnose Sawshark
Scientific Name - Pristiophorus cirratus
The Longnose Sawshark is characterised by a long and narrow rostrum (snout) covered in barbels, qualifying the name "Longnose Sawshark". The rostrum is roughly 30% of the total length of the shark. The Sawshark can often be confused with the Sawfish - the main differences being tendrils on the snout of sawsharks which are missing on sawfish and sawsharks gills being placed on the side of the head as apposed to underneath.
Scientific Classification
• Order: Pristiophoriformes
• Family: Pristiophoridae
• Genus: Pristiophorus
• Species: cirratus
• Scientific Name: Pristiophorus cirratus
Life Expectancy
The life expectancy of a Longnose Sawshark is about 10 to 15 years.
Dangerous to Man?
The Longnose Sawshark is not considered a danger to man.
Conservation Status
Least Concern (IUCN)
A typical Longnose Sawshark will grow to about 1m in length.
The Longnose Sawshark is ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs develop and hatch in the females uterus, with 3-22 young in a litter.
The Longnose Sawshark is a bottom dweller and will feed on small fish and crustaceans.
Other Names
Longnose Sawshark, Common Sawshark
The speed of a Longnose Sawshark is unknown.
The weight information for a Longnose Sawshark is unknown.
The population of the Longnose Sawshark is not known exactly although they are not thought to be threatened.
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