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The term first contact describes the first official encounter between representatives of two races or governments. Occasionally, the official first contact takes place years or even decades after members of the species involved have first met. Typically, first contact is only initiated by the Federation if a civilization is sufficiently advanced and has developed interstellar travel (via warp drive, for example). Contact with more primitive civilizations is prohibited by the Prime Directive. It has been stated that the preferred method is to privately approach scientists and intellectual leaders to make the initial contact, on the assumption that they would more easily grasp the concept of alien life. Also, the population is typically observed covertly for some time before making first contact, a decision made after the Klingon first contact.	<urn:uuid:ec5175d1-dd7f-403b-b622-71a1fdbbe24d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.1689266562461853, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9636902809143066, "url": "http://tahnnawhanna-sector.wikia.com/wiki/First_Contact" }
Download a PDF to print or study offline. Study Guide Cite This Study Guide How to Cite This Study Guide quotation mark graphic Course Hero. "20,000 Leagues under the Sea Study Guide." Course Hero. 29 June 2017. Web. 10 Dec. 2018. <>. In text (Course Hero) Course Hero. (2017, June 29). 20,000 Leagues under the Sea Study Guide. In Course Hero. Retrieved December 10, 2018, from In text (Course Hero, 2017) Course Hero. "20,000 Leagues under the Sea Study Guide." June 29, 2017. Accessed December 10, 2018. Course Hero, "20,000 Leagues under the Sea Study Guide," June 29, 2017, accessed December 10, 2018, 20,000 Leagues under the Sea \| Context By the time 20,000 Leagues under the Sea was published, primitive forms of underwater vessels had been in use in the United States and Europe. In his most recent translation of the novel, Verne biographer and translator William Butcher dedicates a full appendix section to all of the submarine-related writing, milestones, and technologies that influenced Verne or are referenced in the book. According to Butcher, no fewer than "twenty-five manned vessels had dived before 1869." In the beginning, brute strength was used to power submersion. In 1620 a Dutchman named Cornelius Drebbel sealed an enclosed, waterproofed rowboat in greased leather. To go underwater, the crew let water in through a series of bladders; to head back to the surface they squeezed the bladders until they were empty. By the mid-1800s, however, the technology had improved considerably—enough that a submarine was deployed, to lethal effect, in the Civil War. In 1864 a Confederate submarine named the Hunley sunk the Union warship Housatonic, killing five people and marking a terrifying new milestone for warfare. Simply put, Verne did not conjure the idea of submarines. Popular Science As Verne scholar William Butcher puts it—rather bluntly—"Verne is not a science-fiction writer: most of his books contain no innovative science." What Verne did do was popularize a new form of the novel, one that relied on scientific concepts and technology for story plots. Before him, novels were typically focused on lived experiences: domestic life, relationships, class, war, and other issues relevant to the lives of the literary class. Verne was not the first to write about these extraordinary experiences; works such as The Swiss Family Robinson and Moby-Dick, for example, involved adventures in faraway places, much like 20,000 Leagues under the Sea, Journey to the Center of the Earth, and Around the World in Eighty Days. These latter three books (all by Verne), however, used science to power their adventures and drama. If Verne helped bring science to the masses, he was helped by a gradual shift away from the academia. For most of the scientific age, at least in France, science was serious business, conducted and discussed exclusively in prestigious universities. By the mid-1850s, however, non-scientist writers wrote about science news and findings in popular media such as newspapers. As a result, interest in science and scientists increased among ordinary people. The dozens of references to scientists in 20,000 Leagues under the Sea attest to this popularity. The Industrial Revolution in France and Globalization Verne's exposure to science and technology came from observing the changing world around him. By the time Verne was in his mid-20s, the Industrial Revolution (1760–1840) was raging in France. It had arrived nearly a hundred years after taking root in Britain, but in the decades after the Second Empire was proclaimed in 1852 under Napoleon III, France experienced an economic boom and dramatically increased its rail coverage. This growing industrial economy both required and contributed to modern innovations in media, travel, and technology. The embodiment of this was the steamship, a transport machine that was hardier, quicker, and much more reliable than sail-powered vessels. It was a perfect representation of man's increasingly sophisticated mastery over nature. This age of the machine captured the imagination of people like Verne. As both an artist and a person who grew up in a busy port city, he was well-positioned to be a bridge between science and storytelling. He lived to see the world grow increasingly accessible—and smaller. Apart from the new opportunities for industrial fishing and commercial travel that steam-powered ships unlocked, the transatlantic telegraph cable began transmitting messages between North America and Europe in 1858, further accelerating contact among countries. On the heels of these technological advances, colonization followed or deepened. One of Verne's reactions to this was to create characters, such as Captain Nemo, who were from colonized or oppressed groups. His interest in these "others" is yet more evidence of his keen imagination and a reflection of the world order. All of these changes, good and bad, were fodder for Verne. It's not surprising then that Verne biographer and French studies professor Timothy Unwin credits Verne's Extraordinary Journeys with "lengthily [recording] the nineteenth century's fascination with the machine and its miraculous power." Critical Reception Then and Now For the most part, Verne's works—and especially 20,000 Leagues under the Sea—were popular upon publication and remain so through the present day, although critics weren't always so generous in their praise. After his death, Verne's popularity returned with a vengeance after a number of his novels were made into movies, some of them multiple times. First produced in 1916, 20,000 Leagues under the Sea was then remade by Disney in 1954. While enormously successful from a commercial standpoint—Verne is often cited as one of the top 10 most translated authors in the world—his "fantastical" stories were largely dismissed by critics. However, scholars since the 1960s have begun to reinvestigate Verne's key role in the early development of the science fiction genre, especially his role in both popularizing scientific progress and contemplating the utopian possibilities of technology. Cite This Study Guide	<urn:uuid:df379113-7da1-4e92-bc75-ec9c7626a684>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.1226348876953125, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9639180898666382, "url": "https://www.coursehero.com/lit/20000-Leagues-under-the-Sea/context/" }
Scuba Diving The diving equipment developed by Charles and John Deane, Augustus Siebe, and other inventors gave man the ability to remain and work underwater for extended periods, but movement was greatly limited by the requirement for surface-supplied air. Inventors searched for methods to increase the diver's movement without increasing the hazards. The best solution was to provide the diver with a portable, self-contained air supply. For many years the self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) was only a theoretical possibility. Early attempts to supply self-contained compressed air to divers were not successful due to the limitations of air pumps and containers to compress and store air at sufficiently high pressure. Scuba development took place gradually, however, evolving into three basic types: Open-circuit scuba (where the exhaust is vented directly to the surrounding water), Closed-circuit scuba (where the oxygen is filtered and recirculated), and ■ Semiclosed-circuit scuba (which combines features of the open- and closed-circuit types). 1-3.1 Open-Circuit Scuba. In the open-circuit apparatus, air is inhaled from a supply cylinder and the exhaust is vented directly to the surrounding water. 1-3.1.1 Rouquayrol's Demand Regulator. The first and highly necessary component of an open-circuit apparatus was a demand regulator. Designed early in 1866 and patented by Benoist Rouquayrol, the regulator adjusted the flow of air from the tank to meet the diver's breathing and pressure requirements. However, because cylinders strong enough to contain air at high pressure could not be built at the time, Rouquayrol adapted his regulator to surface-supplied diving equipment and the technology turned toward closed-circuit designs. The application of Rouquayrol's concept of a demand regulator to a successful open-circuit scuba was to wait more than 60 years. 1-3.1.2 LePrieur's Open-Circuit Scuba Design. The thread of open-circuit development was picked up in 1933. Commander LePrieur, a French naval officer, constructed an open-circuit scuba using a tank of compressed air. However, LePrieur did not include a demand regulator in his design and, the diver's main effort was diverted to the constant manual control of his air supply. The lack of a demand regulator, coupled with extremely short endurance, severely limited the practical use of LePrieur's apparatus. 1-3.1.3 Cousteau and Gagnan's Aqua-Lung. At the same time that actual combat operations were being carried out with closed-circuit apparatus, two Frenchmen achieved a significant breakthrough in open-circuit scuba design. Working in a small Mediterranean village, under the difficult and restrictive conditions of German-occupied France, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan combined an improved demand regulator with high-pressure air tanks to create the first truly efficient and safe open-circuit scuba, known as the Aqua-Lung. Cousteau and his companions brought the Aqua-Lung to a high state of development as they explored and photographed wrecks, developing new diving techniques and testing their equipment. The Aqua-Lung was the culmination of hundreds of years of progress, blending the work of Rouquayol, LePrieur, and Fleuss, a pioneer in closed-circuit scuba development. Cousteau used his gear successfully to 180 fsw without significant difficulty and with the end of the war the Aqua-Lung quickly became a commercial success. Today the Aqua-Lung is the most widely used diving equipment, opening the underwater world to anyone with suitable training and the fundamental physical abilities. 1-3.1.4 Impact of Scuba on Diving. The underwater freedom brought about by the development of scuba led to a rapid growth of interest in diving. Sport diving has become very popular, but science and commerce have also benefited. Biologists, geologists and archaeologists have all gone underwater, seeking new clues to the origins and behavior of the earth, man and civilization as a whole. An entire industry has grown around commercial diving, with the major portion of activity in offshore petroleum production. After World War II, the art and science of diving progressed rapidly, with emphasis placed on improving existing diving techniques, creating new methods, and developing the equipment required to serve these methods. A complete generation of new and sophisticated equipment took form, with substantial improvements being made in both open and closed-circuit apparatus. However, the most significant aspect of this technological expansion has been the closely linked development of saturation diving techniques and deep diving systems. 1-3.2 Closed-Circuit Scuba. The basic closed-circuit system, or oxygen rebreather, uses a cylinder of 100 percent oxygen that supplies a breathing bag. The oxygen used by the diver is recirculated in the apparatus, passing through a chemical filter that removes carbon dioxide. Oxygen is added from the tank to replace that consumed in breathing. For special warfare operations, the closed-circuit system has a major advantage over the open-circuit type: it does not produce a telltale trail of bubbles on the surface. 1-3.2.1 Fleuss' Closed-Circuit Scuba. Henry A. Fleuss developed the first commercially practical closed-circuit scuba between 1876 and 1878 (Figure 1-9). The Fleuss device consisted of a watertight rubber face mask and a breathing bag connected to a copper tank of 100 percent oxygen charged to 450 psi. By using oxygen instead of compressed air as the breathing medium, Fleuss eliminated the need for high-strength tanks. In early models of this apparatus, the diver controlled the makeup feed of fresh oxygen with a hand valve. Fleuss successfully tested his apparatus in 1879. In the first test, he remained in a tank of water for about an hour. In the second test, he walked along a creek bed at a depth of 18 feet. During the second test, Fleuss turned off his oxygen feed to see what would happen. He was soon unconscious, and suffered gas embolism as his tenders pulled him to the surface. A few weeks after his recovery, Fleuss made arrangements to put his recirculating design into commercial production. In 1880, the Fleuss scuba figured prominently in a highly publicized achievement by an English diver, Alexander Lambert. A tunnel under the Severn River flooded and Lambert, wearing a Fleuss apparatus, walked 1,000 feet along the tunnel, in complete darkness, to close several crucial valves. 1-3.2.2 Modern Closed-Circuit Systems. As development of the closed-circuit design continued, the Fleuss equipment was improved by adding a demand regulator and tanks capable of holding oxygen at more than 2,000 psi. By World War I, the Fleuss scuba (with modifications) was the basis for submarine escape equipment used in the Royal Navy. In World War II, closed-circuit units were widely used for combat diving operations (see paragraph 1-3.5.2). Some modern closed-circuit systems employ a mixed gas for breathing and electronically senses and controls oxygen concentration. This type of apparatus retains the bubble-free characteristics of 100-percent oxygen recirculators while significantly improving depth capability. 1-3.3 Hazards of Using Oxygen in Scuba. Fleuss had been unaware of the serious problem of oxygen toxicity caused by breathing 100 percent oxygen under pressure. Oxygen toxicity apparently was not encountered when he used his apparatus in early shallow water experiments. The danger of oxygen poisoning had actually been discovered prior to 1878 by Paul Bert, the physiologist who first proposed controlled decompression as a way to avoid the bends. In laboratory experiments with animals, Bert demonstrated that breathing oxygen under pressure could lead to convulsions and death (central nervous system oxygen toxicity). Figure 1-9. Fleuss Apparatus. In 1899, J. Lorrain Smith found that breathing oxygen over prolonged periods of time, even at pressures not sufficient to cause convulsions, could lead to pulmonary oxygen toxicity, a serious lung irritation. The results of these experiments, however, were not widely publicized. For many years, working divers were unaware of the dangers of oxygen poisoning. The true seriousness of the problem was not apparent until large numbers of combat swimmers were being trained in the early years of World War II. After a number of oxygen toxicity accidents, the British established an operational depth limit of 33 fsw. Additional research on oxygen toxicity continued in the U.S. Navy after the war and resulted in the setting of a normal working limit of 25 fsw for 75 minutes for the Emerson oxygen rebreather. A maximum emergency depth/time limit of 40 fsw for 10 minutes was also allowed. These limits eventually proved operationally restrictive, and prompted the Navy Experimental Diving Unit to reexamine the entire problem of oxygen toxicity in the mid-1980s. As a result of this work, more liberal and flexible limits were adopted for U.S. Navy use. 1-3.4 Semiclosed-Circuit Scuba. The semiclosed-circuit scuba combines features of the open and closed-circuit systems. Using a mixture of gases for breathing, the apparatus recycles the gas through a carbon dioxide removal canister and continually adds a small amount of oxygen-rich mixed gas to the system from a supply cylinder. The supply gas flow is preset to satisfy the body's oxygen demand; an equal amount of the recirculating mixed-gas stream is continually exhausted to the water. Because the quantity of makeup gas is constant regardless of depth, the semiclosed-circuit scuba provides significantly greater endurance than open-circuit systems in deep diving. 1-3.4.1 Lambertsen's Mixed-Gas Rebreather. In the late 1940s, Dr. C.J. Lambertsen proposed that mixtures of nitrogen or helium with an elevated oxygen content be used in scuba to expand the depth range beyond that allowed by 100-percent oxygen rebreathers, while simultaneously minimizing the requirement for decompression. In the early 1950s, Lambertsen introduced the FLATUS I, a semiclosed-circuit scuba that continually added a small volume of mixed gas, rather than pure oxygen, to a rebreathing circuit. The small volume of new gas provided the oxygen necessary for metabolic consumption while exhaled carbon dioxide was absorbed in an absorbent canister. Because inert gas, as well as oxygen, was added to the rig, and because the inert gas was not consumed by the diver, a small amount of gas mixture was continuously exhausted from the rig. 1-3.4.2 MK 6 UBA. In 1964, after significant development work, the Navy adopted a semiclosed-circuit, mixed-gas rebreather, the MK 6 UBA, for combat swimming and EOD operations. Decompression procedures for both nitrogen-oxygen and helium-oxygen mixtures were developed at the Navy Experimental Diving Unit. The apparatus had a maximum depth capability of 200 fsw and a maximum endurance of 3 hours depending on water temperature and diver activity. Because the apparatus was based on a constant mass flow of mixed gas, the endurance was independent of the diver's depth. In the late 1960s, work began on a new type of mixed-gas rebreather technology, which was later used in the MK 15 and MK 16 UBAs. In this UBA, the oxygen partial pressure was controlled at a constant value by an oxygen sensing and addition system. As the diver consumed oxygen, an oxygen sensor detected the fall in oxygen partial pressure and signaled an oxygen valve to open, allowing a small amount of pure oxygen to be admitted to the breathing circuit from a cylinder. Oxygen addition was thus exactly matched to metabolic consumption. Exhaled carbon dioxide was absorbed in an absorption canister. The system had the endurance and completely closed-circuit characteristics of an oxygen rebreather without the concerns and limitations associated with oxygen toxicity. Beginning in 1979, the MK 6 semiclosed-circuit underwater breathing apparatus (UBA) was phased out by the MK 15 closed-circuit, constant oxygen partial pressure UBA. The Navy Experimental Diving Unit developed decompression procedures for the MK 15 with nitrogen and helium in the early 1980s. In 1985, an improved low magnetic signature version of the MK 15, the MK 16, was approved for Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) team use. 0 0 Post a comment	<urn:uuid:9344f1cc-dd2c-4f25-acef-4791bc9c118c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.15116310119628906, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9519152641296387, "url": "https://www.scubadivingchicago.us/carbon-dioxide/scuba-diving.html" }
White-winged Doves White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica) White-winged DoveThe White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica) - also known as Singing or Mesquite Doves - are large, semi-tropical and pigeon-like doves that occur naturally in the Americas. They are sometimes considered conspecific (one and the same species) with the West Peruvian Dove (Zenaida meloda); however, differences in vocalizations and morphology are credible arguments against this theory. In fact, they may best be placed into the bird genus Columba (typical pigeons) than the dove genus Zenaida (American doves). Their lifespan in the wild is about 21.75 years (261 months). Distribution / Range White-winged Doves occur naturally in the United States from the Southwest east to Texas and Louisiana, south to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, into parts of western South America. Introduced populations have established themselves in Florida, USA. They have been increasing their range northward. In fact, they have been reported as far north as Alaska to Ontario, Maine, Newfoundland, and most places in-between. Most of them are seasonally migratory. They breed in the United States and northern Mexico and travel south to Mexico, Central and South America, and some Caribbean islands for the winter. However, those populations occurring in areas where food is available year-round - in the southern parts of their range - tend to be year-round residents. They inhabit scrub, woodlands, desert, citrus orchards, agricultural fields and residential areas throughout their range. Many farmers in Mexico refer to them as “la plaga” (the plague) as large flocks - sometimes thousands of them - may descend upon a single field of grain, and decimate it (particularly after the breeding season). White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica) Juvenile White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica)Subspecies and Ranges: The nominate form "Z. a. asiatica" and ssp. "meansii" are the most common and widespread of the white-winged dove species. • Eastern White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica asiatica - Linnaeus, 1758) • Range: They occur naturally in Texas (the lower Rio Grande Valley) south to Isthmus of Tehuantepec, south on both slopes through Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador to Nicaragua. Populations also occur in the southern Bahamas through Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola to Puerto Rico; Grand Cayman, San Andrés and Providencia. • Habitat: Semi-tropical, thorny woodlands, citrus orchards, agricultural fields and residential areas. • Western or Desert White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica mearnsii - Ridgway, 1915) • Range: They breed in southeastern Nevada and the Sonoran Desert (southeastern California, Baja California, southern Arizona and western New Mexico); and they migrate south to Guerrero and Puebla (in south central Mexico), as well as to the island of Tres Marias (off the coast of west-central Mexico) for the winter. • Habitat: Occur in areas with an abundance of saguaro cacti (Carnegeia gigantea) as they rely on saguaro fruit and nectar almost exclusively for both food and water. They are also found in citrus groves, agricultural fields and residential areas. • Zenaida asiatica australis (J. L. Peters, 1913) • Some authorities consider this race invalid. • Range: Central America, from western Costa Rica to western Panama. White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica) White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica) Description White-winged Doves are large pigeons measuring at 11 - 30 inches (28 - 30 cm) in length, including the tail; and having a wingspan of about 19.7 inches (50 cm). They weigh between 4.9 - 5.99 oz (140 - 170 g). They have small heads and mostly greyish brown upperparts and greyish underparts. The wings are blackish with broad diagonal bars that are most noticeable in flight, but can also be seen at rest. The square tail has whitish tips. There is a black streak on each cheek. The skin around the eyes is featherless and bright blue. The eyes legs, and feet are red or pinkish-red. Male and Female ID: Adult males and females look alike; except males have a slight glossy, purple sheen on their heads and necks, and tend to be slightly larger in size. Immature birds look like adults, except a duller and greyer plumage and lacking the black cheek streaks and blue eye rings of the adult. Their legs and feet are brownish pink; and the eyes are dark brown to black. Similar Species White-winged Doves resemble the related Mourning Doves (Zenaida macroura), but are slightly larger, with larger heads and bills. Also, the Mourning Doves' tails are pointed, instead of squared; and they lack the wing patches or white tail tips of the White-winged Doves. They are larger than most doves and the white wing patches on the upper wing are unique features amongst doves occurring in the Americas. White-winged Dove nest and egg (Zenaida asiatica) Breeding / Nesting In the United States (or northern breeding range), nesting usually commences in late April / May and goes on until August. Sedentary populations in the southern parts of their range may breed at any time of the year. Pairs, and often also their young, commonly remain together for life in family groups. The males seek out areas with easy access to food and water and suitable nesting areas; and they will defend their breeding territories against intruders and competitors. Young males of breeding age will then try to attract mates with cooing and visual displays, wing and tail fanning and bowing. Once a good match has been found, the pair involves in mutual preening and feeding. After copulation, the females select nest sites within their mates' territories. Females will explore tree cavities, forking tree branches and branches with plenty of shade and cover; sometimes taking over abandoned nests of other birds. The construction of the nest usually takes 2 - 5 days. Both parents cooperate in building the flimsy, shallow, concave platform nests, which are mostly made of twigs, as well as weed stems, grasses, mosses, roots and other nesting material. The males examine and bring appropriate twigs or plant material to the females one at a time. The females wait at the nest sites and decide which ones to incorporate into the nests. The nests are typically situated in trees or low bushes. The Western White-winged Doves that occur in the southwest deserts generally nest as isolated pairs, whereas the Eastern White-winged Doves tend to nest in large colonies of up to 500 pairs with nests being sometimes as close as a foot part. The average clutch consists of two cream-colored to white, unmarked eggs which measure 0.7 - 0.9 inches (1.9 - 2.3 cm) in diameter and are 1-2 - 1.3 inches (3 - 3.2 cm) long. The eggs are incubated for 13 -15 days by both parents in regular shifts. The males often brood from mid-morning until mid-afternoon, and the females from mid-afternoon through mid-morning. Since the incubation commences with the first egg, the first-laid egg has an advantage, as it leads to the older chick hatching first, being stronger than its younger sibling and being more successful in demanding food from their parents. The hatchlings are blind and naked, except for long buffy or whitish down feathers. For the first four days, the chicks are fed “crop milk” - a protein- and fat-rich secretion that is chemically similar to mammalian milk. This diet is gradually supplemented with regurgitated seeds, and by the second week, the chicks’ diet is mostly composed of seeds. White-winged Doves are known to attempt luring potential threads away from their nests by pretending to be injured (the typical "broken wing" display). The young fledge (leave the nest) when they are 13 - 18 days old, 14.5 days being the average. The males continue to feed the young while the females may start on a new clutch within 3 days of the young having fledged or shortly after having lost a clutch. On average 2.2 chicks are raised in a season. Young birds can start nesting as soon as 2 – 3 months after leaving the nest. Migratory populations commence their migration south to their wintering territories in mid to late September. White-winged Doves feeding (Zenaida asiatica) Diet / Feeding Depending on their range and seasonal availability, White-winged Doves feed on various fruit, a variety of seeds and grains from cultivated fields, cactus fruit, berries and acorns. Those occurring in desert areas (particularly in the Sonoran Desert) rely heavily on the nectar, pollen and fruits of the saguaro cactus (Carnegeia gigantea) for both nutrition and water. They are also important pollinators of this cactus. In residential areas, they visit bird feeders, where they feed on seeds and cracked corn dropped on the ground. They supplement their diet with snail shells and bone fragments extracted from raptor pellets or mammal feces. The calcium obtained from such sources is needed for eggshell and crop milk production. They will also swallow small stones to help with digestion. Calls / Vocalizations Their cooing calls are drawn out booo-hooo hoo-hoo, reminiscent to " who cooks for you" vocalizations. When spotting a thread, a drawn-out "hoo-a" sound warns others in the group. Alternate (Global) Names Chinese: ???? Czech: hrdli?ka b?lavok?ídlá ... Danish: Hvidvingedue ... Dutch: Witvleugeltreurduif ... Estonian: valgetiib-tuvi ... Finnish: Pilkkasiipikyyhky ... French: Tourterelle à ailes blanches ... German: Weißflügeltaube ... Haitian Creole French: Toutrèl zèl blanch ... Italian: Tortora alibianche ... Japanese: hajirobato ... Norwegian: Hvitvingedue ... Polish: golebiak bialoskrzydly, Go??biak bia?oskrzyd?y ... Russian: ?????????? ??????? ... Slovak: nachovka bielokrídla ... Spanish: Aliblanca, Barbarin, Paloma ala blanca, paloma alablanca, Paloma aliblanca, Paloma Bellotera, Paloma de alas blancas, Torcaza Aliblanca, Tórtola Aliblanca, Zenaida Albiblanca, Zenaida Aliblanca ... Swedish: Vitvingad duva Species Research by Sibylle Johnson	<urn:uuid:a414f38c-29a1-400a-98cf-255cfdc87641>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.022981703281402588, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9288175106048584, "url": "https://www.beautyofbirds.com/whitewingeddoves.html" }
Open main menu The Punjabis (Punjabi: پنجابی, ਪੰਜਾਬੀ) or Punjabi people are an ethnic group associated with the Punjab region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, presently divided between Punjab, India and Punjab, Pakistan. They speak Punjabi, a language from the Indo-Aryan language family.[16] The name Punjab literally means the land of five waters in Persian: panj ("five") āb ("waters").[17] The name of the region was introduced by the Turko-Persian conquerors[18] of the Indian subcontinent. The historical Punjab region (see the partition of Punjab for important historical context) is often referred to as the breadbasket in both India and Pakistan.[19][20] Total population c. 120 million[1][2] Regions with significant populations United Kingdom700,000[5] United States253,740[7] New Zealand19,752[13] OthersSee Punjabi diaspora West PunjabStar and Crescent.svg Islam (97%) East PunjabKhanda.svg Sikhism (58%), Om.svg Hinduism (39%)[15]Minorities: Christian cross.svg Christianity The coalescence of the various tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab into a broader common "Punjabi" identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE. Prior to that the sense and perception of a common "Punjabi" ethno-cultural identity and community did not exist, even though the majority of the various communities of the Punjab had long shared linguistic, cultural and racial commonalities.[21][22][23] Traditionally, Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic, geographical and cultural. Its identity is independent of historical origin or religion, and refers to those who reside in the Punjab region, or associate with its population, and those who consider the Punjabi language their mother tongue.[24] Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections. More or less all Punjabis share the same cultural background.[25][26] Historically, the Punjabi people were a heterogeneous group and were subdivided into a number of clans called biradari (literally meaning "brotherhood") or tribes, with each person bound to a clan. However, Punjabi identity also included those who did not belong to any of the historical tribes. With the passage of time, tribal structures are coming to an end and are being replaced with a more cohesive[27] and holistic society, as community building and group cohesiveness[28][29] form the new pillars of Punjabi society.[30] In relative contemporary terms, Punjabis can be referred to in three most common subgroups; Punjabi Muslims, Punjabi Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus.[31] Geographic distributionEdit Sikh era PunjabEdit In the 19th century, Maharaja Ranjit Singh established a Punjabi kingdom[32] based around the Punjab. The main geographical footprint of the country was the Punjab region to Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, and Tibet in the east. The religious demography of the Kingdom was Muslim (70%), Sikh (17%), Hindu (13%).[33] The population was 3.5 million, according to Amarinder Singh`s The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar. In 1799 Ranjit Singh moved the capital to Lahore from Gujranwala, where it had been established in 1763 by his grandfather, Charat Singh.[34] The Punjab region was a region straddling India and the Afghan Durrani Empire. The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjabi kingdom: Map showing the Punjabi Sikh Empire. After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the British East India Company to launch the Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the British province of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the British Crown. Partition of PunjabEdit The Punjab region, with its rivers. The land of the Punjabi People The 1947 independence of India and Pakistan, and the subsequent partition of Punjab, is considered by historians to be the beginning of the end of the British Empire.[41] The UNHCR estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were displaced during the partition.[42] To date, this is considered the largest mass migration in human history.[43] Until 1947, the province of Punjab was ruled by a coalition comprising the Indian National Congress, the Sikh-led Shiromani Akali Dal and the Unionist Muslim League. However, the growth of Muslim nationalism led to the All India Muslim League becoming the dominant party in the 1946 elections. As Muslim separatism increased, the opposition from Punjabi Hindus and Sikhs increased substantially. Communal violence on the eve of Indian independence led to the dismissal of the coalition government, although the succeeding League ministry was unable to form a majority. Along with the province of Bengal, Punjab was partitioned on religious lines – the Muslim-majority West becoming part of the new Muslim state of Pakistan, and the Hindu and Sikh East remaining in India. Partition was accompanied by massive violence on both sides, claiming the lives of hundreds of thousands of people.[44] West Punjab was virtually cleansed of its Hindu and Sikh populations, who were forced to leave for India, while East Punjab and Delhi were virtually cleansed of their Muslim population. By the 1960s, Indian Punjab underwent reorganisation as demands for a linguistic Punjabi state increased (in line with the policy of linguistic states that had been applied in the rest of India). The Hindi-speaking areas were formed into the states of Himachal Pradesh and Haryana respectively, leaving a Punjabi speaking majority in the state of Punjab. In the 1980s, Sikh separatism combined with popular anger against the Indian Army's counter-insurgency operations (especially Operation Bluestar) led to violence and disorder in Indian Punjab, which only subsided in the 1990s. Political power in Indian Punjab is contested between the secular Congress Party and the Sikh religious party Akali Dal and its allies, the Bharatiya Janata Party. Indian Punjab remains one of the most prosperous of India's states and is considered the "breadbasket of India." Subsequent to partition, West Punjabis made up a majority of the Pakistani population, and the Punjab province constituted 40% of Pakistan's total land mass. Today, Punjabis continue to be the largest ethnic group in Pakistan, accounting for half of the country's population. They reside predominantly in the province of Punjab, neighboring Azad Kashmir and in Islamabad Capital Territory. Punjabis are also found in large communities in the largest city of Pakistan, Karachi, located in the Sindh province. Punjabis in India can be found in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. Large communities of Punjabis are also found in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir and in Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Punjabis in PakistanEdit Punjabis are numbered as 110,012,442, which make 55% of the population of Pakistan, and they are the largest ethnic group in Pakistan by population. The Punjabis found in Pakistan belong to groups known as biradaris. In addition, Punjabi society is divided into two divisions, the zamindar groups or qoums, traditionally associated with farming and the moeens, who are traditionally artisans. Some zamindars are further divided into groups such as the Rajputs, Jats, Shaikhs or Muslim Khatris, Gujjars, Awans, Arains and Syeds. People from neighbouring regions, such as Kashmiris, Pashtuns and Baluch, also form sizeable portion of the Punjabi population. A large number of punjabis descend from the groups historically associated with skilled professions and crafts such as Sunar, Lohar, Kumhar, Tarkhan, Julaha, Mochi, Hajjam, Chhimba Darzi, Teli, Lalari, Qassab, Mallaah, Dhobi, Mirasi etc.[45][page needed] Punjabi people have traditionally and historically been farmers and soldiers,[citation needed] which has transferred into modern times with their dominance of agriculture and military fields in Pakistan. In addition, Punjabis in Pakistan have been quite prominent politically, having had many elected members of parliament. Punjabis in Pakistan have shown a predilection towards the adoption of the Urdu language but nearly all speak Punjabi, and still identify themselves as ethnic Punjabis.[citation needed] Religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominant Sunni population with Shia, Ahmadiyya and Christian minorities. A variety of related sub-groups exist in Pakistan and are often considered by many Pakistani Punjabis to be simply regional Punjabis including the Seraikis (who overlap and are often considered transitional with the Sindhis). The recent definition of Punjabi people, in Pakistani Punjab, is not based on racial classification, common ancestry or endogamy, but based on geographical and cultural basis.[citation needed] Punjabis in IndiaEdit The Punjabi-speaking people make 2.8% of India's population as of 2001.[46] The total number of Indian Punjabis is unknown due to the fact that ethnicity is not recorded in the Census of India. The Sikhs are largely concentrated in the modern-day state of Punjab forming 57.7% of the population with Hindus forming 38.5%.[47] Ethnic Punjabis are believed to account for at least 35% of Delhi's total population and are predominantly Hindi-speaking Punjabi Hindus.[48][49][50] In Chandigarh, 80.78% people of the population are Hindus, 13.11% are Sikhs, 4.87% are Muslims and minorities are Christians, Buddhists and Jains.[51] Like the Punjabi Muslim society, these various castes are associated with particular occupations or crafts. Indian Punjab is also home to small groups of Muslims and Christians. Most of the East Punjab's Muslims (in today's states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Chandigarh) left for West Punjab in 1947. However, a small community still exists today, mainly in Qadian,and Malerkotla, the only Muslim princely state among the seven that formed the erstwhile Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU). The other six (mostly Sikh) states were: Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Faridkot, Kapurthala and Kalsia. The Indian censuses record the native languages, but not the descent of the citizens. Linguistic data cannot accurately predict ethnicity: for example, Punjabis make up a large portion of Delhi's population but many descendants of the Punjabi Hindu refugees who came to Delhi following the partition of India now speak Hindi as their first language. Thus, there is no concrete official data on the ethnic makeup of Delhi and other Indian states.[50]:8–10 The Punjab region within India maintains a strong influence on the perceived culture of India towards the rest of the world. Numerous Bollywood film productions use the Punjabi language in their songs and dialogue as well as traditional dances such as bhangra. Bollywood has been dominated by Punjabi artists including actors such as the Kapoor family, Dev Anand, Sunil Dutt, Pran, Prem Chopra, Manoj Kumar, Dharmendra, Rajesh Khanna, Vinod Khanna, Kabir Bedi, Vinod Mehra, Pankaj Kapur, Sunny Deol, Anil Kapoor, Poonam Dhillon, Juhi Chawla, Akshay Kumar, Hrithik Roshan, Arjun Kapoor, Sonam Kapoor, Ranbir Kapoor, Shahid Kapoor, Varun Dhawan, Priyanka Chopra, Parineeti Chopra and Sidharth Malhotra, singers Mohammed Rafi, Mahendra Kapoor, Narendra Chanchal, Sukhwinder Singh, Daler Mehndi, Mika Singh, Badshah, Yo Yo Honey Singh, and Kanika Kapoor. Punjabi Prime Ministers of India include Gulzarilal Nanda, Inder Kumar Gujral and Manmohan Singh. There are numerous players in the Indian cricket team both past and present including Lala Amarnath, Bishen Singh Bedi, Kapil Dev, Rajinder Singh Ghai, Yograj Singh, Mohinder Amarnath, Navjot Sidhu, Harbhajan Singh, Yuvraj Singh, Virat Kohli and Shikhar Dhawan. Punjabi diasporaEdit The Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers to many parts of the world. In the early 20th century, many Punjabis began settling in the United States, including independence activists who formed the Ghadar Party. The United Kingdom has a significant number of Punjabis from both Pakistan and India. The most populous areas being London, Birmingham and Glasgow. In Canada (specifically Vancouver and Toronto) and the United States, (specifically California's Central Valley). In the 1970s, a large wave of emigration of Punjabis (predominately from Pakistan) began to the Middle East, in places such as the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. There are also large communities in East Africa including the countries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Punjabis have also emigrated to Australia, New Zealand and Southeast Asia including Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore and Hong Kong. Of recent times many Punjabis have also moved to Italy. Punjabi homelandEdit According to Pippa Virdee, the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan has shadowed the sense of loss of what used to be a homeland nation for the Punjabi people in the Indian subcontinent and its diaspora.[52] Since the mid 1980s, there has been a drive for Punjabi cultural revival, consolidation of Punjabi ethnicity and a virtual Punjabi nation.[53] According to Giorgio Shani, this is predominantly a Sikh ethno-nationalism movement led by some Sikh organizations, and a view that is not shared by Punjabi people organizations belonging to other religions.[54] History of PunjabEdit One of the first known kings of ancient Punjab, King Porus who fought with Alexander Indigenous population flourished in this region, leading to a developed civilisation in 5th to 4th millennium BC,[55] the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. Also Buddhism remnants have been found like Mankiala which corroborate the Buddhist background of this region as well.The remains of the ancient city of Taxila,[56] and many ornaments that have been found in this region, suggests that,[57] one of the centres of Indus Valley Civilization was established at many parts of Punjab, most notably Taxila and Harappa,[58] Punjab became a center of early civilisation from around 3300 BC. During the Vedic Era The earliest text of Rigveda were composed in greater Punjab (northwest India and Pakistan) region.[59] According to Historians this region was ruled by many small kingdoms and tribes around 4th and 5th BCE. The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as King Porus[60][61] and he fought a famous Battle of the Hydaspes[62] against Alexander. His kingdom, known as Pauravas, was situated between Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and Acesines (modern day Chenab).[60] These kings fought local battles to gain more ground.Taxiles or Omphis another local king from Punjab, wanted to defeat his eastern adversary Porus in a turf war and he invited Alexander the Great to defeat Porus. This marked the first intrusion of the West in the Indian subcontinent and Indus valley in general. But such was the valor of Porus and his kingdom forces in Punjab, that despite being defeated, he was appreciated by Alexander the Great for his skill and valor and he was granted further territories in the North.[citation needed] The other local kings did not like the fact that Porus was now an ally of Western forces. In less than ten years an Indian king Chandragupta Maurya[63] defeated the forces and conquered the Northern Indian regions up to the Kabul river (in modern-day Afghanistan). Alexander mostly ruled this land with the help of local allies like Porus.[64] Centuries later, areas of the Punjab region were ruled by local kings followed by the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Delhi Sultanate, Mughals and others. Islam arrived in Punjab when the Muslim Umayyad army led by Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh in 711 AD, by defeating Raja Dahir. Some of the Muslims are said to have settled in the region and adopted the local culture. Centuries later, the Ghaznavids introduced aspects of foreign Persian and Turkic culture in Punjab. Map showing the sites and extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Harappa was the centre of one of the core regions of the Indus Valley Civilization, located in central Punjab. The Harappan architecture and Harrapan Civilization was one of the most developed in the old Bronze Age. The earliest written Punjabi dates back to the writing of Sufi Muslim poets of the 11th Century. Its literature spread Punjab's unique voice of peace and spirituality to the entire civilisation of the region. Regions of North India and Punjab were annexed into the Afghan Durrani Empire later on in 1747, being a vulnerable target.[65] However, in 1758, the Marathas captured most of Punjab including Lahore during its northwest expansion campaign. After conquering Peshawar and Attock, the Marathas defeated the Durrani Empire in the Battle of Lahore fought in 1759.The region was lost to the Durranis, however, after the Third Battle of Panipat. The grandson of Ahmed Shah Durrani (Zaman Shah Durrani), lost it to Ranjit Singh, a Punjabi Sikh. He was born in 1780 to Maha Singh and Raj Kaur in Gujranwala, Punjab. Ranjit took a leading role in organising a Sikh militia and got control of the Punjab region from Zaman Shah Durrani. Ranjit started a Punjabi military expedition to expand his territory.[66] Under his command the Sikh army began invading neighbouring territories outside of Punjab. The Jamrud Fort at the entry of Khyber Pass was built by Ranjit Singh.[67] The Sikh Empire slowly began to weaken after the death of Hari Singh Nalwa at the Battle of Jamrud in 1837. Two years later, in 1839, Ranjit Singh died and his son took over control of the empire. By 1850 the British took over control of the Punjab region after defeating the Sikhs in the Anglo-Sikh wars,[68][69] establishing their rule over the region for around the next 100 years as a part of the British Raj. Many Sikhs and Punjabis later pledged their allegiance to the British, serving as sepoys (native soldiers) within the Raj. In ancient and the medieval era, before the arrival of Islam into the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism and Buddhism were the predominant religion in the Punjab region. After Islamic conquest, conversions began leading to a mixed population of Muslims and Hindus, and Buddhism vanished.[70][71][72] After Guru Nanak founded Sikhism in the 15th century, the population increasingly became a mix of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs, as with the contemporary Punjabis.[15] The region of Punjab is the birthplace of one monotheistic religion that is known as Sikhism.[73][74] Also many well known followers of Sufism[75] were born in Punjab.[76] Religion in the Punjab Province (1941 Census of India)[77] Religion Percent Due to religious tensions, emigration between Punjabi people started far before the partition and dependable records.[78][79] Shortly prior to the Partition of British India, Punjab had a slight majority Muslim population at about 53.2% in 1941, which was an increase from the previous years.[80] With the division of Punjab and the subsequent independence of Pakistan and later India, mass migrations of Muslims from Indian Punjab to Pakistan, and those of Sikhs and Hindus from Pakistan to Indian Punjab occurred. Today, the majority of Pakistani Punjabis follow Islam with a small Christian minority, while the majority of Indian Punjabis are either Sikhs or Hindus with a Muslim minority. Punjab is also the birthplace of Sikhism and the movement Ahmadiyya.[81] Following the independence of Pakistan and the subsequent partition of British India, a process of population exchange took place in 1947 as Muslims began to leave India and headed to the newly created Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs left Pakistan[82] for the newly created state of India.[83] As a result of these population exchanges, both parts are now relatively homogeneous, where religion is concerned. Population trends for major religious groups in the Punjab Province of British India (1881–1941)[77] % 1881 % 1891 % 1901 % 1911 % 1921 % 1931 % 1941 Punjabi MuslimsEdit In 2017 places the total population of Punjabi Muslims to be 110,012,442 (~75% of all Punjabis), with 97% of Punjabis who live in Pakistan following Islam, in contrast to Punjabi Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus who predominantly live in India.[15] A variety of Muslim dynasties and kingdoms ruled the Punjab region, including Ghaznavids under Mahmud of Ghazni,[84][85][86] the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire and finally the Durrani Empire. The province became an important centre and Lahore was made into a second capital of the Ghaznavid Empire. The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire ruled the region. Missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of Punjab region also played the dominant role in bringing about conversion. Sufis also comprised the educated elites of the Punjab for many centuries. Early classical Punjabi epics, such as Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, etc. were written by the Sufis like Waris Shah.[87][self-published source] Muslims established Punjabi literature, utilised Shahmukhi as the predominant script of the Punjab, as well as made major contributions to the music, art, cuisine and culture of the region. The Mughals controlled the region from 1524 until 1739 and would also lavish some parts of the province with building projects such as the Shalimar Gardens and the Badshahi Mosque, both situated in Lahore. The Muslim establishment in the Punjab occurred over a period of several centuries lasting until towards the end of the British Raj and the division of the Punjab province between Pakistan and India in August 1947. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the minority Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India while the Muslim refugees from India settled in the Pakistan.[88][89] Today Muslims constitute only 1.53% of Eastern Punjab in India as now the majority of Muslims live in Western Punjab in Pakistan. The vast majority of Pakistan's population are native speakers of the Punjabi language and it is the most spoken language in Pakistan. The majority of Pakistani Punjabis speak the standard Punjabi dialect of Majhi, which is considered the Punjabi dialect of the educated class, as well as Lahnda (including Hindko and Saraiki). Muslim Punjabis in Pakistan use the Persian script to write the Punjabi language.[90] Punjabi HindusEdit Today Punjabi Hindus are mostly found in Indian Punjab where they make around 38% of the population and in neighboring states like Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi, which together forms a part of the historical greater Punjab region. Many of the Hindu Punjabis from the Indian capital Delhi are immigrants and their descendants, from various parts of Western Pakistani Punjab. Some Punjabi Hindus can also be found in the surrounding areas as well as the recent cosmopolitan migrants in other big cities like Mumbai. There has also been continuous migration of Punjabi Hindus to western countries like USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, European Union, UAE and UK. Punjabis Hindus speak different dialects including Lahnda, as well as Majhi (Standard Punjabi) and others like Doabi and Malwi. Some still have managed to retain the Punjabi dialects spoken in Western Punjab, but many have also adopted Hindi. Punjabi Hindus in India use the Gurmukhi or Nāgarī script to write the Punjabi language.[90] Punjabi SikhsEdit Sikhi from Sikh, meaning a "disciple", or a "learner", is a monotheistic religion and nation originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent during the 15th century.[91][92] The fundamental beliefs of Sikhi, articulated in the sacred scripture Guru Granth Sahib, include faith and meditation on the name of the one creator, unity and equality of all humankind, engaging in selfless service, striving for social justice for the benefit and prosperity of all, and honest conduct and livelihood while living a householder's life.[93][94][95] Being one of the youngest amongst the major world religions, with 25-28 million adherents worldwide, Sikhi is the fifth- largest religion in the world. The Sikhs form a majority of close to 58% in the modern day Punjab, India. Gurmukhi is the writing script used by Sikhs and for scriptures of Sikhism. It is used in official documents in parts of India and elsewhere.[90] The tenth living Guru of Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh (1666 – 1708) established the Khalsa Brotherhood, and set for them a code of conduct.[96][97] Punjabi ChristiansEdit Sadhu Sundar Singh, an influential Punjabi Christian missionary from Ludhiana (1889–1929) Missionaries accompanied the colonising forces from Portugal, France, and Great Britain. Christianity was mainly brought by the British rulers of India in the later 18th and 19th century[citation needed]. The total number of Punjabi Christians in Pakistan is approximately 2,800,000 and 300,000 in Indian Punjab. Of these, approximately half are Roman Catholic and half Protestant. Many of the modern Punjabi Christians are descended from converts during British rule; initially, conversions to Christianity came from the "upper levels of Punjab society, from the privileged and prestigious", including "high caste" Hindu families, as well as Muslim families.[98][99][100] However, other modern Punjabi Christians have converted from Churas. The Churas were largely converted to Christianity in North India during the British raj. The vast majority were converted from the Mazhabi Sikh communities of Punjab, and to a lesser extent Hindu Churas; under the influence of enthusiastic British army officers and Christian missionaries. Consequently, since the independence they are now divided between Pakistani Punjab and Indian Punjab. Large numbers of Mazhabi Sikhs were also converted in the Moradabad district and the Bijnor district[101] of Uttar Pradesh. Rohilkhand saw a mass conversion of its entire population of 4500 Mazhabi Sikhs into the Methodist Church.[102] Sikh organisations became alarmed at the rate of conversions among high caste Sikh families,[103] and as a result, they responded by immediately dispatching Sikh missionaries to counteract the conversions[citation needed]. Punjabi culture is the culture of the Punjab region. It is one of the oldest and richest cultures in world history, dating from ancient antiquity to the modern era. The Punjabi culture is the culture of the Punjabi people, who are now distributed throughout the world. The scope, history, sophistication and complexity of the culture are vast. Some of the main areas include Punjabi poetry, philosophy, spirituality, artistry, dance, music, cuisine, military weaponry, architecture, languages, traditions, values and history. Historically, the Punjab/Punjabis, in addition to their rural-agrarian lands and culture, have also enjoyed a unique urban cultural development in two great cities, Lahore[104] and Amritsar.[105] Role of womenEdit Sophia Duleep Singh, a prominent British Punjabi Suffragette and granddaughter of Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab (1876–1948) In the traditional Punjabi culture women look after the household and children. Also women in general manage the finances of the household. Moreover, Punjabi women fought in the past along with the men when the time arose. Majority of Punjabi women were considered as warriors upon a time, they excelled in the art of both leadership and war. They are still considered and treated as leaders among many Punjabi villages. In Sikhism, it is stated that women are to be equal to men in all aspects of life. Mai Bhago is a good example in this regard. Punjabi Sikh women also have a strong artistic tradition. Amrita Pritam was a notable poet in the 20th century. Amrita Shergill was a renowned painter. Priyanka Chopra and Rupi Kaur are modern-day example of this as well.[106][107] She was followed by many other women of repute. Punjabi is the most spoken language in Pakistan and eleventh most spoken language in India. According to the Ethnologue 2005 estimate,[108] there are 130 million native speakers of the Punjabi language, which makes it the ninth most widely spoken language in the world. According to a 2008 estimate,[109][original research?] there are approximately 76,335,300 native speakers of Punjabi in Pakistan,[citation needed] and according to the Census of India, there are over 29,102,477 Punjabi speakers in India.[110] Punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where Punjabis have emigrated in large numbers, such as the United Kingdom (where it is the second most commonly used language[111]) and Canada, in which Punjabi has now become the fourth most spoken language after English, French and Chinese, due to the rapid growth of immigrants from Pakistan and India.[112] There are also sizeable communities in the United States, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Persian Gulf countries, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand. Punjabis are an ethno-linguistic group with Indo-Aryan roots,[113] and are culturally related to the other Indo-Aryan peoples of the Indian subcontinent. There are an estimated 102 million Punjabi speakers around the world.[114] If regarded as an ethnic group, they are among the world's largest. In South Asia, they are the second largest ethnic group after the Bengali People. The main language of the Punjabi people is Punjabi and its associated dialects, which differ depending on the region of Punjab the speaker is from; there are notable differences in the Lahnda languages, spoken in the Pakistani Punjab. In the Pakistani Punjab, the vast majority still speak Punjabi, even though the language has no governmental support. In the Indian Punjab, most people speak Punjabi. English is sometimes used, and older people who lived in the undivided Punjab may be able to speak and write in Urdu. The Punjabi languages have always absorbed numerous loanwords from surrounding areas and provinces (and from English). Sarson da saag, popular vegetable dish of the Punjabi people. Punjabi cuisine has an immense range of dishes and has become world-leader in the field; so much so that many entrepreneurs that have invested in the sector have built large personal fortunes due to the popularity of Punjabi cuisine throughout the world. Punjabi cuisine uses unique spices.[115] The Punjabi cuisine has become popular in the world, not only due to its intrinsic quality but, due to the fact that the Punjabi diaspora is very much visible in the western world especially, the UK, Canada and the U.S. The popular dishes are Tandoori chicken, Dal makhni, chicken tikka lababdar, Saron da saag and stuffed or un stuffed naans (a type of unleavened bread). Bhangra describes dance-oriented popular music with Punjabi rhythms, developed since the 1980s. The name refers to one of the traditional and folkloric Punjabi dances. Bhangra music is appreciated all over the globe. Sufi music and Qawali are other important genres in Punjab.[116][117] Owing to the long history of the Punjabi culture and of the Punjabi people, there are a large number of dances normally performed at times of celebration, the time of festivals known as Melas and the most prominent dances are at Punjabi weddings, where the elation is usually particularly intense. Punjabi dances are performed either by men or by women. The dances range from solo to group dances and also sometimes dances are done along with musical instruments like Dhol, Flute, Supp, Dhumri, Chimta etc. Other common dances that both men and women perform are Karthi, Jindua, and Dandass.[118] "Bhangra" dance is the most famous aspect of Punjabi dance tradition. Its popularity has attained a level where a music is produced with the intent of aiding people to carry out this form of dancing. Wedding traditionsEdit Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are conducted in Punjabi, and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. Many local songs are a part of the wedding and are known as boliyan.[119] While the actual religious marriage ceremony among Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus, and Jains may be conducted in Arabic, Punjabi, Sanskrit, by the Kazi, Pandit or Granthi, there are also many commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, make-up and dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times. Punjabi receptions of all sorts are known to be very energetic, filled with loud Bhangra music, people dancing, and a wide variety of Punjabi food. Folk talesEdit The folk tales of Punjab include many stories[120] which are passing through generations and includes folk stories like Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban,[121] Sohni Mahiwal etc. to name a few. Vaisakhi, Jashan-e-Baharan, Basant, Kanak katai da mela ( Wheat cutting celebrations ) and many more. The jagrātā, also called jāgā or jāgran, means an all night vigil. This type of vigil is found throughout India and is usually held to worship a deity with song and ritual. The goal is to gain the favour of the Goddess, to obtain some material benefit, or repay her for one already received. The Goddess is invoked by the devotees to pay them a visit at the location of the jagrātā, whether it be in their own homes or communities, in the form of a flame.[122] Traditional dressEdit Portrait of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, dressed in the traditional male attire of Punjab (1718–1783) A Dastaar is an item of headgear associated with Sikhi and is an important part of the Punjabi and Sikh culture. The symbolic article of the nation represents honour, self-respect, courage, spirituality, and piety. Wearing a Sikh dastaar, or turban, is mandatory for all Amritdhari (initiated) Sikh men and women. In ancient times, two Punjabis would exchange their turbans to show friendship towards each other. Prior to Sikhi, only kings, royalty, and those of high stature wore turbans.[123] Punjabi suit A Punjabi suit that features three items - a qameez (top), salwar (bottom) and dupatta (scarf)[124] is the traditional female attire of the Punjabi people.[125] A qameez is a usually loose-fitted outer garment from upper thigh to mid-calf length. Along with the qameez, Punjabi women wear a salwaar that consists of long trousers drawn at the waist and tapered to the ankle.[126] The other complementary feature of the Punjabi suit is the dupatta; often used to cover the chest and head.[126] Among the Punjabi people, the dupatta has long been a symbol of modesty.[127] Kurta Pajama A Kurta pajama that comprises two items - a kurta (top) and pajama (bottom) is the traditional male attire of the Punjabi people. Various types of sports are played in Punjab. They are basically divided into outdoor and indoor sports. Special emphasis is put to develop both the mental and physical capacity while playing sports. That is why recently sports like Speed reading, Mental abacus, historical and IQ tests are arranged as well. Indoor sports are specially famous during the long summer season in Punjab. Also indoor sports are played by children in homes and in schools. Gilli-danda is vary famous indigenous sports among children along with Parcheesi. Pittu Garam is also famous among children. Stapu is famous among young girls of Punjab. Also many new games are included with the passage of time. The most notable are Carrom, Ludo (board game), Scrabble, Chess, Draughts, Go, Monopoly. The Tabletop games games include billiards and snooker. Backgammon locally known as Dimaagi Baazi( Mental game) is famous in some regions as well. The outdoor sports include Kusti (a wrestling sport), Kabaddi, Rasa Kashi (Tug Of War), Patang (Kite Flying) and Naiza Baazi or Tent pegging (a cavalry sport).Gatka, is also taken as a form of sports. Punjab being part of the Indian subcontinent, the sport of cricket is very popular. New forms of sports are also being introduced and adopted in particular by the large overseas Punjabis, such as Ice hockey, Soccer, Boxing, Mixed martial arts, Rugby union as part of the globalisation of sports. Notable peopleEdit See alsoEdit 1. ^ a b Punjabis at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018) 2. ^ 2011 Indian census 3. ^ "Pakistan" The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency. 5. ^ McDonnell, John (5 December 2006). "Punjabi Community". House of Commons. Retrieved 3 August 2016. We now estimate the Punjabi community at about 700,000, with Punjabi established as the second language certainly in London and possibly within the United Kingdom. 8. ^ Top ten languages spoken at home in Australia Archived 9 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine. 9. ^ "Malaysia". 10. ^ "Libya". 11. ^ Strazny, Philipp (1 February 2013). "Encyclopedia of Linguistics". Routledge – via Google Books. 12. ^ "Bangladesh". 13. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 17 March 2014. 14. ^ 15. ^ a b c Wade Davis; K. David Harrison; Catherine Herbert Howell (2007). Book of Peoples of the World: A Guide to Cultures. National Geographic. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-1-4262-0238-4. 16. ^ 522 Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World Check \|url= value (help). Elsevier. 2010. pp. 522–523. ISBN 978-0-08-087775-4. 19. ^ "Punjab, bread basket of India, hungers for change". Reuters. 30 January 2012. 20. ^ "Columbia Water Center Released New Whitepaper: "Restoring Groundwater in Punjab, India's Breadbasket" – Columbia Water Center". 7 March 2012. Retrieved 12 July 2013. 21. ^ Malhotra, edited by Anshu; Mir, Farina (2012). Punjab reconsidered : history, culture, and practice. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198078012. 22. ^ Ayers, Alyssa (2008). "Language, the Nation, and Symbolic Capital: The Case of Punjab" (PDF). Journal of Asian Studies. 67 (3): 917–46. doi:10.1017/s0021911808001204. 23. ^ Thandi, edited and introduced by Pritam Singh and Shinder S. (1996). Globalisation and the region : explorations in Punjabi identity. Coventry, United Kingdom: Association for Punjab Studies (UK). ISBN 1874699054. 24. ^ Thandi, edited by Pritam Singh, Shinder Singh (1999). Punjabi identity in a global context. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-564-8641. 25. ^ Singh, Prtiam (2012). "'Globalisation and Punjabi Identity: Resistance, Relocation and Reinvention (Yet Again!)'" (PDF). Journal of Punjab Studies. 19 (2): 153–72. 26. ^ "Languages : Indo-European Family". Retrieved 12 July 2013. 27. ^ Albert V., Carron; Lawrence R. Brawley (December 2012). "Cohesion: Conceptual and Measurement Issues". : Small Group Research. 43 (6). External link in \|journal= (help) 28. ^ : The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Webpage for Group Cohesiveness 29. ^ Mukherjee, Protap; Lopamudra Ray Saraswati (20 January 2011). "Levels and Patterns of Social Cohesion and Its Relationship with Development in India: A Woman's Perspective Approach" (PDF). Ph.D. Scholars, Centre for the Study of Regional Development School of Social Sciences Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi – 110 067, India. 31. ^ Gupta, S.K. (1985). The Scheduled Castes in Modern Indian Politics: Their Emergence as a Political Context. New Delhi, India: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 121–122. 32. ^ "Ranjit Singh: A Secular Sikh Sovereign by K.S. Duggal. (Date:1989. ISBN 8170172446)". 3 September 2015. Retrieved 2009-08-09. 33. ^ "Ranjit Singh: A Secular Sikh Sovereign by K.S. Duggal. (Date:1989. ISBN 81-7017-244-6)". 1 February 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2009. 34. ^ World and Its Peoples: Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Marshall Cavendish. 2007. p. 411. ISBN 9780761475712. 35. ^ The Masters Revealed, (Johnson, p. 128) 36. ^ Britain and Tibet 1765–1947, (Marshall, p.116) 37. ^ Ben Cahoon. "Pakistan Princely States". Retrieved 9 August 2009. 41. ^ Lloyd, Trevor Owen (1996). The British Empire 1558–1995. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-873134-5. Retrieved 22 July 2009. 42. ^ "Rupture in South Asia" (PDF). UNHCR. Retrieved 23 December 2015. 43. ^ Dr Crispin Bates (23 December 2015). "The Hidden Story of Partition and its Legacies". BBC. Retrieved 16 August 2014. 44. ^ Ahmed, Ishtiaq (2012). The Punjab bloodied, partitioned and cleansed : unravelling the 1947 tragedy through secret British reports and first-person accounts. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199064709. 45. ^ Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey Richard V. Weekes, editor-in-chief Greenwood Press 1978 46. ^ Key Facts on India: Essential Information on India 47. ^ "Census 2011: %age of Sikhs drops in Punjab; migration to blame?". The Times of India. 48. ^ indiatvnews (6 February 2015). "Delhi Assembly Elections 2015: Important Facts And Major Stakeholders Mobile Site". India TV News. Retrieved 7 September 2015. 49. ^ Jupinderjit Singh. "Why Punjabis are central to Delhi election". Retrieved 7 September 2015. 50. ^ a b Sanjay Yadav (2008). The Invasion of Delhi. Worldwide Books. ISBN 978-81-88054-00-8. 51. ^ 52. ^ Eltringham, Nigel; Maclean, Pam (2014). Remembering Genocide. New York: Routledge. p. 'No man's land'. ISBN 9781317754213. Retrieved 12 November 2016. 53. ^ Marshall, Stewart; Taylor, Wal; Yu, Xinghuo (2005). Encyclopedia of Developing Regional Communities With Information And Communication Technology. Idea Group. p. 409. ISBN 9781591407911. Retrieved 12 November 2016. 54. ^ Giorgio Shani (2007). Sikh Nationalism and Identity in a Global Age. Routledge. pp. 1–8, 86–88. ISBN 978-1-134-10189-4. 55. ^ "Taxila, Pakistan: Traditional and Historical Architecture". 56. ^ Jona Lendering (28 May 2008). "Taxila". 57. ^ "Indus Valley Civilization". 1 February 2010. 58. ^ "The Ancient Indus Valley and the British Raj in India and Pakistan". 60. ^ a b Jona Lendering. "Porus". 61. ^ "Alexander The Great in India at Jhelum with Porus, the Indian rajah". 62. ^ __start__ (4 April 2012). "Battle of Hydaspes ( Jhelum Punjab)_Alexander vs Porus ( Local King in Punjab, Former North India)". YouTube. 63. ^ "Biographies: Chandragupta Maurya :: 0 A.D." Wildfire Games. 64. ^ Kivisild et al. (2003) 65. ^ "The History of Afghanistan". Retrieved 7 March 2015. 66. ^ Category: The Sikh Empire [1799 – 1839] (14 April 2012). "ARMY OF MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH – The Sikh Empire [1799 – 1839]". 67. ^ "Jamrud Fort 1870". 68. ^ "". 69. ^ "Untitled Document". 71. ^ Muhammad ibn Ahmad Biruni; Edward C. Sachau (Translator) (1888). Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030. Cambridge University Press. pp. 253–254. ISBN 978-1-108-04720-3. 73. ^ : Sikh Religious Philosophy 74. ^ : BBC Report about the Sikh Religion 75. ^ : BBC report about Sufism 76. ^ Gaur, edited by Surinder Singh, Ishwar Dayal (2009). Sufism in Punjab : mystics, literature, and shrines. Delhi: Aakar Books. ISBN 8189833936. 77. ^ a b Gopal Krishan. "Demography of the Punjab (1849–1947)" (PDF). Retrieved 15 October 2015. 78. ^ Jones. (2006). Socio-religious reform movements in British India (The New Cambridge History of India). Cambridge University Press 79. ^ Jones, R. (2007). The great uprising in India, 1857–58: Untold stories, Indian and British (worlds of the east India company). Boydell Press. 80. ^ "Journal of Punjab Studies – Center for Sikh and Punjab Studies – UC Santa Barbara" (PDF). 81. ^ "Ahmadiyya – Ahmadiyya Community – Al Islam Online – Official Website". 82. ^ .South Asia: British India Partitioned Archived 2 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine. 83. ^ Avari, B. (2007). India: The ancient past. ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 85. ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20 87. ^ Waqar Pirzada (2014-06-17), Chasing Love Up against the Sun, Xlibris, p. 12, ISBN 9781499034288 88. ^ Peers, Gooptu. (2012). India and the British empire (oxford history of the British empire companion). Oxford University Press. 89. ^ Bryant, G. (2013). The emergence of British power in India, 1600–1784 (worlds of the east India company). BOYE6. 90. ^ a b c Peter T. Daniels; William Bright (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. p. 395. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. 91. ^ W.Owen Cole; Piara Singh Sambhi (1993). Sikhism and Christianity: A Comparative Study (Themes in Comparative Religion). Wallingford, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 117. ISBN 0333541073. 92. ^ Christopher Partridge (1 November 2013). Introduction to World Religions. Fortress Press. pp. 429–. ISBN 978-0-8006-9970-3. 93. ^ Sewa Singh Kalsi. Sikhism. Chelsea House, Philadelphia. pp. 41–50. 96. ^ Cole, W. Owen; Sambhi, Piara Singh (1978). The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. p. 37. ISBN 0-7100-8842-6. 97. ^ John M Koller (2016). The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India. Routledge. pp. 312–313. ISBN 978-1-315-50740-8. 98. ^ Jones, Kenneth W. (1976). Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab. University of California Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780520029200. Christian conversion followed patterns of previous religious inroads, striking at the two sections of the social structure. Initial conversions came from the upper levels of Punjab society, from the privileged and prestigious. Few in number and won individually, high caste converts accounted for far more public attention and reaction to Christian conversion than the numerically superior successes among the depressed. Repeatedly, conversion or the threat of conversion among students at mission schools, or members of the literate castes, produced a public uproar. 99. ^ Day, Abby (28 December 2015). Contemporary Issues in the Worldwide Anglican Communion: Powers and Pieties. Ashgate Publishing. p. 220. ISBN 9781472444158. The Anglican mission work in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent was primarily carried out by CMS and USPG in the Punjab Province (Gabriel 2007, 10), which covered most parts of the present state of Pakistan, particularly Lahore, Peshawar and Karachi (Gibbs 1984, 178-203). A native subcontinental church began to take shape with people from humbler backgrounds, while converts from high social caste preferred to attend the worship with the English (Gibbs 1984, 284). 100. ^ Moghal, Dominic (1997). Human person in Punjabi society: a tension between religion and culture. Christian Study Centre. Those Christians who were converted from the "high caste" families both Hindus and Muslims look down upon those Christians who were converted from the low caste, specially from the untouchables. 101. ^ Alter, J.P and J. Alter (1986) In the Doab and Rohilkhand: north Indian Christianity, 1815–1915. I.S.P.C.K publishing p183 103. ^ Chadha, Vivek (23 March 2005). Low Intensity Conflicts in India: An Analysis. SAGE Publications. p. 174. ISBN 9780761933250. 'In 1881 there were 3,976 Christians in the Punjab. By 1891 their number had increased to 19,547, by 1901 to 37,980, by 1911 to 163,994 and by 1921 to 315,931 persons' (see Figure 8.1). However, the Sikhs were more alarmed when some of the high caste families starting converting. 104. ^ For various notable Punjabis belonging to this venerable city, please also see List of families of Lahore 105. ^ Ian Talbot, 'Divided Cities: Lahore and Amritsar in the aftermath of Partition', Karachi:OUP, 2006, pp.1–4 ISBN 0-19-547226-8 106. ^ "Piro Preman". 107. ^ Malhotra, Anshu. "Telling her tale? Unravelling a life in conflict in Peero’s Ik Sau Saṭh Kāfiaṅ. (one hundred and sixty kafis)." Indian Economic & Social History Review 46.4 (2009): 541–578. 108. ^ Ethnologue. 15th edition (2005). 109. ^ According to Archived 17 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine. 44.15% of the Pakistani people are native Punjabi speakers. This gives an approximate number of 76,335,300 Punjabi speakers in Pakistan. 110. ^ Census of India, 2001 111. ^ "Punjabi Community". The United Kingdom Parliament. 112. ^ "Punjabi is 4th most spoken language in Canada" The Times of India 113. ^ Jakob R. E. Leimgruber (2013). Singapore English: Structure, Variation, and Usage. Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-107-02730-5. 115. ^ : Website for the dishes of Punjab 116. ^ Pande, Alka (1999). Folk music & musical instruments of Punjab : from mustard fields to disco lights. Ahmedabad [India]: Mapin Pub. ISBN 18-902-0615-6. 117. ^ Thinda, Karanaila Siṅgha (1996). Pañjāba dā loka wirasā (New rev. ed.). Paṭiālā: Pabalikeshana Biūro, Pañjābī Yūniwarasiṭī. ISBN 8173802238. 118. ^ Folk dances of Punjab 119. ^ Boliyan book. Infinity Squared Books. 2010. ISBN 978-0-9567818-0-2. 120. ^ Tales of the Punjab. 121. ^ Peelu: The First Narrator of the Legend of Mirza-SahibaN. 122. ^ Erndl, Kathleen M. (1 June 1991). "Fire and wakefulness: the Devī jagrātā in contemporary Panjabi Hinduism". Journal of the American Academy of Religion: 339–360. 123. ^ "Sikh Theology Why Sikhs Wear A Turban". The Sikh Coalition. Retrieved 13 November 2016. 124. ^ Rait, Satwant Kaur (Apr 14, 2005). Sikh Women In England: Religious, Social and Cultural Beliefs. Trent and Sterling: Trentham Book. p. 68. ISBN 1-85856-353-4. 125. ^ Dominique, Grele; Raimbault, Lydie (Mar 1, 2007). Discover Singapore on Foot (2 ed.). Singapore: Select Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 9789814022330. 126. ^ a b Akombo, David (26 January 2016). The Unity of Music and Dance in World Cultures. North Carolina: McFarland & Company. p. 155. ISBN 9781476622699. References and further readingEdit External linksEdit	<urn:uuid:949b9c96-757f-49ef-b723-d21d353d0199>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.02231818437576294, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9003821611404419, "url": "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabis" }
Greek Art Kayla Komnath This art piece was painted by artists in Southern Italy, which had been conquered by Greece. On one side it depicts the many attempts Zeus made to seduce this one woman, Leda. There are three scenes of this seduction. This piece is a perfect example of a new art form that was created called Southern Italian. This piece was originally attached to a larger bronze bowl. Griffins were thought to turn away evil, so many had a form of a griffin in their homes. The idea of the griffin originally came from the east in Armenia and Syria. The Greeks then created their own version of the griffin. This was made during the Geometric period. It foreshadows the Eastern influence that makes its way into Greek art in the 600's B.C. It is called a skyphos, or a broad shallow cup. It is considered to be very Eastern Mediterranean coast-like. This bowl was used as a cinerary urn. It shows Herakles defeating the monster, Cacus, after he had stolen some cattle. There are also images of funeral games which was very appropriate for an urn. On the lid, it shows the Amazons, a legendary tribe of female warriors. A griffin is part eagle, part lion, and part snake. An Arimasp is a tribe of one eyed people who tried to steal the griffin's gold. Many Greek artists did not follow that idea and gave them two eyes. This piece is believed to have once been a part of a larger composition. Credits: All media	<urn:uuid:6feed6ba-d6da-43a4-859a-7307b547443b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.02009826898574829, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9861379265785217, "url": "https://artsandculture.google.com/usergallery/iQJynX1v0gf-JA" }
Civil War Prisons By: Leslie,Martha and Karla Facts about The prisons There were more than half a million Americans imprisoned during the Civil War. The prison camps were death traps. Over 56,000 inmates died due to malnutrition and extremely poor sanitation, not to mention the cruel punishments and harsh work. There were even shortages of food clothing and water. Over 150 war prisons were established during this war, often with makeshift, abandoned buildings, all of which were filled far beyond their capacity. The diet typically consisted of pickled beef, salt pork, corn meal, rice, and bean soup. The lack of fruits and vegetables led to scurvy and other serious diseases as well. Some inmates would even hunt down rats for food, and a little for sport and entertainment too. The conditions of food and sanitation led to diseases like smallpox, typhoid, dysentery, cholera, and malaria. Prisoners of war would often create clubs or ethnic groups for pass-time activities. Sometimes when there was snow, they would have snowball fights. The prisoners would play chess, cards, and backgammon; even publish newspapers and libraries. The name Andersonville became synonymous with the horrors of civil war prison camps. Facts about Andersonville Andersonville prison was one of the most famous war prisons of the Civil War. It covered 26.5 acres and housed 33,000 prisoners at its peak. The building was constructed with whatever materials they could find at the time and no sewage or sanitation facilities what so ever. Andersonville Prison, also known originally as Camp Sumter, was a Confederate military prison that existed for 14 months during the American Civil War. It opened in February, 1864 near Andersonville, Georgia, and originally covered roughly 16.5 acres of land. By June of the same year the prison had grown to 26.5 acres. The population inside Andersonville Prison's walls in April, 1864 was 7,160. By the end of August the same year the population had risen to 31,693. 19 feet inside the wall of Andersonville Prison there was a fence built, often referred to as 'the dead line', which meant that any prisoner who touched the dead line was shot by guards. Of the 45,000 Union soldiers held at Andersonville Prison during the Civil War, 13,000 died. Did some prisoners escape? If so, how did they? Well, the most common source of enjoyment for the prisoners came from the sport and joy of escaping. Just the thought of it was enough to temp them to escape. People would often fake illness in hopes of being carried outside of the gates and left for dead, at which point they would simply walk away. Some inmates even darkened their skin with charcoal and left with the black slaves. This was attempted so many times, with such a high success rate, that African American labor was banned in prisons. Even now, one of the most common forms of escape from prisons is tunneling, and it was the most common then as well. But if the prisoners got caught, they would get recaptured, and there would be harsh punishments such as brutal work and sometimes they would be hung from their thumbs as torture. How did the prisons during civil war play an important role in America? Civil war prisons played an important role because they held bad people who also wanted to fight them Also when the Civil War ended, it created more laws and more justice for people. The Guards The guards had to take good watch and make sure no prisoners escaped. Of course! What about the Blacks U.S. Colored Troops records and have found 2,182 black prisoners (2078 soldiers and 104 black sailors). An amazing 79 percent of those black POW's survived their incarceration. African Americans from the north and the south came forward to enlist in the Union cause. Before the war ended approximately 180,000 African Americans enrolled in the United States military. When the first Black prisoners arrived at Andersonville how would they be treated was an open question. Colonel Persons testified after the arrival of the first "negroes" he communicated with General Winder and Winder's reply as best he could remember was "until further orders treat them as prisoners of war." Question Time! What would happen to the slaves if they got caught Created By Leslie Hernandez Created with images by expertinfantry - "Libby Prison, 1865" • David Paul Ohmer - "Cincinnati - Spring Grove Cemetery & Arboretum "Branches over Civil War Soldier"" • David Paul Ohmer - "Cincinnati – Spring Grove Cemetery & Arboretum "Civil War Canon"" • DUrban - "gettysburg pennsylvania battlefield" • jdnx - "Civil War Graves" • FotoGuy 49057 - "Civil War Camp" • David Paul Ohmer - "Cincinnati - Spring Grove Cemetery & Arboretum "Civil War Canon"" • Ludovico Sinz [Cane Rosso (busy!)] - "" • Stefan Baudy - "Question!" Made with Adobe Slate Make your words and images move. Get Slate Report Abuse	<urn:uuid:a3807642-7b44-4ad8-9bd3-4caeb4cad7ce>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.10792547464370728, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.97335284948349, "url": "https://spark.adobe.com/page/oAbGGa5LlqJAv/" }
It was discovered that the rissagas of Ciutadella came from Algeria. In 1988 Diario Menorca reported that the Meteorological Centre in Palma had discovered that the rissagas or tidal waves affecting the port of Ciutadella originated in Algeria. Four years previously there had been a tide that could have sunk up to 70 boats and so an investigation was initiated. The newspaper Diario Menorca reported that studies conducted on the cyclones of the Western Mediterranean showed that the tides that affect the port of Ciutadella have their epicenter on the Algerian coast. Deep depressions in the atmosphere of this North African country forced hot air over the Mare Nostrum which might otherwise have caused storms. According to this hypothesis, the air from Algeria produced long waves that were amplified in many ports especially in the port of Ciutadella due to its structural configuration. A team from the Physics Department of the University of Balearic Islands concluded that the port of Ciutadella had a depth, length and width that caused the long waves going towards the port to extend up to two metres in height. The only solution to avoid these tidal waves was to structurally modify the port. If the Algerian depressions became storms the consequences would be worse. Meteorologists attributed the Algerian depression that occurred in 1980 as the cause of the five metre waves that affected the port of Mahon, destroying 12 boats. No comments	<urn:uuid:e84abfc7-0785-43dc-94c9-8f95a97985d0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.07633548974990845, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9561298489570618, "url": "https://www.bonninsanso.com/discoverymenorca/30-years-ago/" }
History of Medicine National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health Greek Medicine One of the earliest Greek gods to specialize in healing was Asclepius (known to the Romans as Aesculapius). Healers and those in need of healing invoked Asclepius' name in prayer and healing ceremonies in temples and at home. A healing clan known as the Asclepiads claimed to be the descendants of Asclepius and to have inherited a knowledge and mystical power of healing from him. Asclepius did not begin as a god, however. It is now thought that he was an actual historical figure, renowned for his healing abilities. When he and his sons, Machaon and Podalirios, are mentioned in The Iliad in approximately the 8th century B.C.E., they are not gods. As his "clan" of followers grew, he was elevated to divine status, and temples were built to him throughout the Mediterranean world well into late antiquity. Engraving of statue of a bearded Asclepius standing in a toga with his staff to his right with a single snake wrapped around it, to his left is his attendant Telesphorus. Engraving by Jenkins (London?, circa 1860). NLM/IHM Image B01092. Asclepius, from the marble statue in the Louvre. Engraving by Jenkins (London, 1860?). Images of Asclepius are generally recognizable by his beard and staff with a single snake. In this image, he is accompanied by his small, mysterious attendant, Telesphoros. Temple of Asclepius Cross-section of restored temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus, showing a statue of the gad seated on a throne with snakes on and behind the throne. From: Lechat, Henri. Epidaure, restauration et description des principaux monuments du sanctuaire d'Asclepios (Paris: Libraires-imprimeries réunis, 1895). NLM Call number: WZ 51 L458e 1895. Temples to Asclepius were erected throughout the ancient Mediterranean. Those seeking healing would make pilgrimages to the sites and might perform prayers and sacrifices, make monetary gifts, or spend the night in the temple. Asclepius, Hermes, and the Caduceus Detail of caduceus, or two snakes entwined around a winged staff, from the title page of: Marco Amelio Severino. Vipera Pythia. (Patavii: Typis Pauli Frambotti, 1651). NLM Call number: WZ 250 S498v 1651. Many modern physicians have adopted the caduceus as the "ancient" symbol of their profession, with its two intertwined snakes grasping a staff. In the ancient world, however, the caduceus was a symbol of Hermes, the Roman Mercury, who was primarily a messenger god linked with commerce. Asclepius' symbol was a single snake entwined around his staff- the 'Asclepian staff'. The snake and its medical associations Seventeenth-century illustrated title page featuring snakes, including the single-snake staff of Asclepius and the double snake of the caduceus with other ancient medical and mythological images involving snakes. Marco Aurelio Severino. Vipera Pythia. (Patavii: Typis Pauli Frambotti, 1651). NLM call number WZ 250 S498v 1651. The snake symbolized rejuvenation and healing to many ancient Mediterranean cultures. On this 17th-century title page, the single-snake staff of Asclepius and the double snake of the caduceus appear with other ancient medical images involving snakes. Taken from: Marco Aurelio Severino. Viper Pythia. (Patavii: Typis Pauli Frambotti, 1651). << Previous \|\| Next >>	<urn:uuid:2112bf60-a43c-42da-91b4-6910fe06d7f4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.0426366925239563, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9390510320663452, "url": "https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/greek/greek_asclepius.html" }
Mysterious Medicine Wheel Who built it? What was it used for? Years after its discovery, people are still asking these questions about Bighorn Medicine Wheel. Medicine Wheel is located atop the nearly 10,000-foot-high Medicine Mountain in North Central Wyoming. Using carbon dating, archaeologists have determined that the Wheel was built between 1200 and 1700 AD. The Wheel is an almost perfect circle of rough stones laid side by side and measures more than 70 feet in diameter. In the center is a donut-shaped cairn (pile of stones) ten feet wide. This hub is connected to the rim by 28 spoke-like lines of stones. There are six smaller cairns, five outside the rim and one just inside. The Crow Indians, who have lived in the area for generations, claim they don’t know who built Medicine Wheel or why. Native Americans say the Wheel was there “before the light came” or “before the people had iron.” Scientists have learned that the Wheel was built in such a way that during the summer solstice, the sun at sunset and sunrise lines up with two of the cairns. Apparently the builders had a knowledge of astronomy. The high altitude and distance from human distractions make this an ideal place for skywatching. Medicine Wheel’s inaccessibility makes it likely that it was used by religious leaders rather than large groups of Native Americans. Beads and bits of wampum were found under some of the stones. Although local Native Americans are unsure of its original function, they recognize Medicine Wheel as an ancient holy place and continue to use it for rites and ceremonies of their own. At such times, they attach personal items, such as bits of cloth and small leather pouches, to the barbed wire fence which now surrounds the structure. A narrow gravel road connects Medicine Wheel with Route 14A. The three-mile road winds its way through Alpine meadows filled with lupine, gentians, Indian paintbrush and other wildflowers. This spectacular view of the Bighorn Basin which can be seen from the summit makes the winding drive well worthwhile.	<urn:uuid:e8363876-adbd-490f-8440-76bc71d44651>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.0399327278137207, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9706755876541138, "url": "http://www.tdwom-health.us/mysterious-medicine-wheel.html" }
Greetings! The high five and the fist bump are 20th century, but the first handshake dates to 5th century B.C. Greece, as way to prove you were weapon free E.L. Hamilton Featured image Hello! Handshake, high five, fist bump. These ways of greeting a friend or new acquaintance seem so natural and unremarkable now, but how did these gestures originate in the first place? The handshake dates back the farthest. Archaeological relics suggest that handshakes were practiced in ancient Greece in the 5th century B.C. It was a symbol of peace, showing that you were not carrying a weapon. In Berlin’s Pergamon Museum, the most-visited in Germany, a 5th-century funereal relic shows two soldiers shaking hands. At the Acropolis, in Athens, Greece, a 5th-century stone slab depicts Hera and Athena shaking hands. The Greek poet Homer describes handshaking several times as displays of trust in his epics The Odyssey and The Iliad. During the Roman era, the handshake evolved to more of an arm grab. Knights in Medieval Europe may have added the shaking of hands up and down as a clever way to dislodge any hidden weapons. Funerary stele of Thrasea and Euandria. Marble, ca. 375-350 BC. Antikensammlung Berlin, 738. Photo:Marcus Cyron – CC BY-SA 3.0 Some historians suggest that modern-day handshaking became popularized by 17th century Quakers, who believed the gesture to be more egalitarian than a hat tip or a bow, according to History.com. In some 17th century marriage portraits, the husband and wife are seen shaking hands as a symbol of their legally binding commitment. By the Victorian era, etiquette guides instructed that the handshake should be firm. While most English-first and Scandinavian countries prefer a firm handshake, in some countries too firm a grip is considered rude and aggressive. Some Asian countries prefer a more gentle touch. In contrast with the ancient ritual of handshaking, the origins of the high five date back only to last century. And slapping five actually started not up high but down low. The low five has been a fixture of the African American culture since the Jazz Age, as a response to “slap me some skin.” In the 1927 movie The Jazz Singer, Al Jolson slaps low fives to celebrate a Broadway audition. There’s even a National High Five Day, #NH5D, launched by the University of Virigina to promote youth health and just generally spread good cheer. National High Five Day occurs on the third Thursday of April (coming on the 19th this year). The founders of that day concocted a back story of the high-five’s origin that briefly gained traction on the internet: That a basketball player named Lamont Sleets Jr. had seen his father, Lamont Senior, slapping palms with five veteran brothers from the Vietnam War. And that Junior had incorporated the high five into games as a homage to his father. It was pure fiction, as an ESPN magazine reporter found out when he tracked down Lamont Jr. in 2011. Oh. Hoplite greeting an older man with slave carrying the aspis .Photo:Dr.K. – CC BY-SA 3.0 In fact, it was Glenn Burke, an outfielder for the Los Angeles Dodgers, who did an impromptu high-five in front of fans in a game against the Houston Astros in October 1977. Burke held up his hand to greet teammate Dusty Baker, who was rounding the bases off his 30th home run. The Dogders were the first team to have four players with 30 home runs. “His hand was up in the air, and he was arching way back,” Baker told ESPN. “So I reached up and hit his hand. It seemed like the thing to do.” Burke then stepped to the plate and hit his first home in the major league, and Baker high-fived him. The high five became a thing with the L.A. Dodgers and soon sports at large. The fist bump is the most modern invention. Like the high five, it has its origins in sports. Some trace it to the boxing ring, where opponents touch gloves before a match. Others point to basketball. In the 1970s, star Fred Campbell of the Baltimore Bullets popularized the gesture by giving it his own exuberant flair. In 2008, Barack Obama brought the fist bump to political headlines when he bumped his wife, Michelle, after his nomination, prompting detractors to denounce it as a “terrorist fist jab.” (Barack Obama was notably passionate about basketball.) The Washington Post called it “the fist bump heard ’round the world.” Related story from us: Barefoot and starved, Spartan boys underwent grueling combat training to join the most formidable army of all time The Canadians were quick to embrace the fist bump, or “pound,” as a healthy alternative to germ-spreading handshake, especially during flu season. “It’s a nice replacement of the handshake because you can’t just refuse to shake someone’s hand. It’s rude and seems almost un-Canadian,” Tom Feasby, the dean of medicine at the University of Calgary, told the CBC News in 2009. Whatever you choose—handshake, high five, fist bump—works just as well for departures, too. Goodbye!	<urn:uuid:27e1484c-12a9-4bf9-ab38-c11f7d7eab3c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.019624292850494385, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9643019437789917, "url": "https://www.thevintagenews.com/2018/04/12/handshake/" }
In Uncategorized on April 12, 2016 at 11:49 am US History B p. 1 • Review and identify major ideas, events and people involved with the Vietnam War. • Summarize Vietnam’s history, how the United States became involved in the Vietnam conflict and its the expansion of U.S. military involvement under President Johnson • Summarize the methods of jungle warfare and its effect on soldiers fighting in Vietnam. • Draw conclusions as to the ethical questions surrounding such a policy in times of war. • Describe Nixon’s policy of Vietnamization and the public’s reaction the Vietnam war during Nixon’s presidency Bell Ringer: Review sign up to Kahoot 1. Kahoot Review Vietnam 2. Unit 1 Summative Objective 3. Unit 2 Summative Essay IB HOA p. 5/6 • Identify the impact of media and yellow journalism on the Spanish-American War. • Analyze the relationship between the Spanish-American War and Yellow Journalism as well as its affect on American Society. Bell Ringer: Complete What’s Up Doc? Yellow Journalism 1. Discuss Yellow Journalism 2. Yellow Journalism Summative (Due Thursday at end of day) 3. Finish Objective Tests Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google+ photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:953f0b78-9f03-4828-83a3-05e90404af43>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.08996880054473877, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8389422297477722, "url": "https://mrwsclass.org/2016/04/12/agenda-999/" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Cross-sectional diagram of an anticline Anticline exposed in road cut (small syncline visible at far right). Note the man standing in front of the formation, for scale. New Jersey, U.S.A. In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like shape and has its oldest beds at its core. A typical anticline is convex up in which the hinge or crest is the location where the curvature is greatest, and the limbs are the sides of the fold that dip away from the hinge. Anticlines can be recognized and differentiated from antiforms by a sequence of rock layers that become progressively older toward the center of the fold. Therefore, if age relationships between various rock strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used. The progressing age of the rock strata towards the core and uplifted center, are the trademark indications for evidence of anticlines on a geologic map. These formations occur because anticlinal ridges typically develop above thrust faults during crustal deformations. The uplifted core of the fold causes compression of strata that preferentially erodes to a deeper stratigraphic level relative to the topographically lower flanks. Motion along the fault including both shortening and extension of tectonic plates, usually also deforms strata near the fault. This can result in an asymmetrical or overturned fold.[1] Terminology of different folds [edit] Diagram showing constituent parts of an anticline An antiform can be used to describe any fold that is convex up. It is the relative ages of the rock strata that distinguish anticlines from antiforms. The hinge of an anticline refers to the location where the curvature is greatest, also called the crest.[1] The hinge is also the highest point on a stratum along the top of the fold. The culmination also refers to the highest point along any geologic structure. The limbs are the sides of the fold that display less curvature. The inflection point is the area on the limbs where the curvature changes direction.[2] The axial surface is an imaginary plane connecting the hinge of each layer of rock stratum through the cross section of an anticline. If the axial surface is vertical and the angles on each side of the fold are equivalent, then the anticline is symmetrical. If the axial plane is tilted or offset, then the anticline is asymmetrical. An anticline that is cylindrical has a well-defined axial surface, whereas non-cylindrical anticlines are too complex to have a single axial plane. An overturned anticline is an asymmetrical anticline with a limb that has been tilted beyond perpendicular, so that the beds in that limb have basically flipped over and may dip in the same direction on both sides of the axial plane.[3] If the angle between the limbs is large (70–120 degrees), then the fold is an "open" fold, but if the angle between the limbs is small (30 degrees or less), then the fold is a "tight" fold.[4] If an anticline plunges (i.e., the anticline crest is inclined to the Earth's surface), it will form Vs on a geologic map view that point in the direction of plunge. A plunging anticline has a hinge that is not parallel to the earth's surface. All anticlines and synclines have some degree of plunge. Periclinal folds are a type of anticlines that have a well-defined, but curved hinge line and are doubly plunging and thus elongate domes.[5] Model of anticline. Oldest beds are in the center and youngest on the outside. The axial plane intersects the center angle of bend. The hinge line follows the line of greatest bend, where the axial plane intersects the outside of the fold. Folds in which the limbs dip toward the hinge and display a more U-like shape are called synclines. They usually flank the sides of anticlines and display opposite characteristics. A syncline's oldest rock strata are in its outer limbs; the rocks become progressively younger toward its hinge. A monocline is a bend in the strata resulting in a local steepening in only one direction of dip.[2] Monoclines have the shape of a carpet draped over a stairstep.[4] An anticline that has been more deeply eroded in the center is called a breached or scalped anticline. Breached anticlines can become incised by stream erosion, forming an anticlinal valley. A structure that plunges in all directions to form a circular or elongate structure is a dome. Domes may be created via diapirism from underlying magmatic intrusions or upwardly mobile, mechanically ductile material such as rock salt (salt dome) and shale (shale diapir) that cause deformations and uplift in the surface rock. The Richat Structure of the Sahara is considered a dome that has been laid bare by erosion. An anticline which plunges at both ends is termed a doubly plunging anticline, and may be formed from multiple deformations, or superposition of two sets of folds. It may also be related to the geometry of the underlying detachment fault and the varying amount of displacement along the surface of that detachment fault. An anticlinorium is a large anticline in which a series of minor anticlinal folds are superimposed. Examples include the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Purcell Anticlinorium in British Columbia[1] and the Blue Ridge anticlinorium of northern Virginia and Maryland in the Appalachians,[6] or the Nittany Valley in central Pennsylvania. Formation processes[edit] Anticline near Ehden, Lebanon Anticlines are usually developed above thrust faults, so any small compression and motion within the inner crust can have large effects on the upper rock stratum. Stresses developed during mountain building or during other tectonic processes can similarly warp or bend bedding and foliation (or other planar features). The more the underlying fault is tectonically uplifted, the more the strata will be deformed and must adapt to new shapes. The shape formed will also be very dependent on the properties and cohesion of the different types of rock within each layer. During the formation of flexural-slip folds, the different rock layers form parallel-slip folds to accommodate for buckling. A good way to visualize how the multiple layers are manipulated, is to bend a deck of cards and to imagine each card as a layer of rock stratum.[7] The amount of slip on each side of the anticline increases from the hinge to the inflection point.[2] Passive-flow folds form when the rock is so soft that it behaves like weak plastic and slowly flows. In this process different parts of the rock body move at different rates causing shear stress to gradually shift from layer to layer. There is no mechanical contrast between layers in this type of fold. Passive-flow folds are extremely dependent on the rock composition of the stratum and can typically occur in areas with high temperatures.[4] Economic significance[edit] Anticlines, structural domes, fault zones and stratigraphic traps are very favorable locations for oil and natural gas drilling. About 80 percent of the world’s petroleum has been found in anticlinal traps.[8] The low density of petroleum causes oil to buoyantly migrate out of its source rock and upward toward the surface until it is trapped and stored in reservoir rock such as sandstone or porous limestone. The oil becomes trapped along with water and natural gas by a caprock that is made up of impermeable barrier such as an impermeable stratum or fault zone.[9] Examples of low-permeability seals that contain the hydrocarbons, oil and gas, in the ground include shale, limestone, sandstone, and even salt domes. The actual type of stratum does not matter as long as it has low permeability. Water, minerals and specific rock strata such as limestone found inside anticlines are also extracted and commercialized. Lastly, ancient fossils are often found in anticlines and are used for paleontological research or harvested into products to be sold. Notable examples[edit] Ghawar Anticline, Saudi Arabia, the structural trap for the largest conventional oil field in the world. • Hill End Anticline, New South Wales, which is associated with deposits of gold. • Castlemaine Anticlinal Fold, Victoria, which is celebrated with a plaque that says, "This fine exhibit was disclosed when Lyttleton Street East was constructed in 1874. Saddle reefs occur in similar folds of the sandstones and slates on lower geological horizons." Harpea's Cave in southern France The Weald–Artois Anticline is a major anticline which outcrops in southeast England and northern France. It was formed from the late Oligocene to middle Miocene, during the Alpine orogeny. North America[edit] Anticlines can have a major effect on the local geomorphology and economy of the regions in which they occur. One example of this is the El Dorado anticline in Kansas. The anticline was first tapped into for its petroleum in 1918. Soon after the site became a very prosperous area for entrepreneurs following World War I and the rapid popularization of motor vehicles. By 1995 the El Dorado oil fields had produced 300 million barrels of oil.[10] The central Kansas uplift is an antiform composed of several small anticlines that have collectively produced more than 2.5 million barrels of oil.[11] Another notable anticline is the Tierra Amarilla anticline in San Ysidro, New Mexico.[12] This is a popular hiking and biking site because of the great biodiversity, geologic beauty and paleontological resources. This plunging anticline is made up of Petrified Forest mudstones and sandstone and its caprock is made of Pleistocene and Holocene travertine. The anticline contains springs that deposit carbon dioxide travertine that help to contribute to the rich diversity of microorganisms.[13] This area also contains remains of fossils and ancient plants from the Jurassic period that are sometimes exposed through geological erosion. The Ventura Anticline is a geologic structure that is part of the Ventura oil fields, the seventh largest oil field in California that was discovered in the 1860s. The anticline runs east to west for 16 miles, dipping steeply 30–60 degrees at both ends. Ventura County has a high rate of compression and seismic activity due to the converging San Andreas Fault. As a result, the Ventura anticline rises at a rate of 5 mm/year with the adjacent Ventura Basin converging at a rate of about 7–10 mm/year.[14] The anticline is composed of a series of sandstone rock beds and an impermeable rock cap under which vast reserves of oil and gas are trapped. Eight different oil bearing zones along the anticline vary greatly from 3,500 to 12,000 feet. The oil and gas formed these pools as they migrated upward during the Pliocene Era and became contained beneath the caprock. This oil field is still active and has a cumulative production of one billion barrels of oil making it one of the most vital historical and economic features of Ventura County.[15] See also[edit] 1. ^ a b c Dictionary of Geological Terms (3rd ed.). Garden City, New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday. April 11, 1984. ISBN 978-0-385-18101-3. 2. ^ a b c Hefferan, Kevin P. "Folds". Geology 320: Structural Geology. University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point. Retrieved December 8, 2015. 3. ^ Mantei, Erwin J. "Geologic Structures—Crustal Deformations". Physical Geology (GLG110). Missouri State University. Retrieved December 17, 2015. 4. ^ a b c Marshak, Stephen (2012). Earth: Portrait of a Planet (4th ed.). Norton. ISBN 978-0393935189. Retrieved January 22, 2016. 5. ^ Roberts, Albert F. (1947). Geological Structures and Maps: A Practical Course in the Interpretation of Geological Maps for Civil and Mining Engineers. London: I. Pitman. p. 33. 6. ^ Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (February 8, 2005). The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution (4th ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 978-0-495-01020-3.[page needed] 7. ^ Earle, Steven (2015). "Folding". Physical Geology. Retrieved December 15, 2015. 8. ^ Riva, Joseph P. "Accumulation in reservoir beds". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 10, 2015. 9. ^ Society of Petroleum Engineers Student Chapter (November 9, 2014). "Petroleum 101 – How is Petroleum Formed?". University of Waterloo. Retrieved December 10, 2015. 10. ^ Skelton, L.H. (1997). "The Discovery and Development of the El Dorado (Kansas) Oil Field". Northeastern Geology and Environmental Sciences. 19 (1–2): 48–53. Retrieved December 15, 2015. 11. ^ Baars, D.L.; Watney, W. Lynn; Steeples, Don W.; Brostuen, Erling A. (April 2001). "Petroleum: a primer for Kansas – Structure". Kansas Geological Survey, Education. p. 5. Retrieved December 9, 2015. 12. ^ Hart, Dirk Van (February 2003). "Gallery of Geology – Tierra Amarilla Anticline" (PDF). New Mexico Geology. 25 (1): 15. Retrieved December 15, 2015. 13. ^ Cron, Brandi; Crossey, Laura J.; Karlstrom, Karl E.; Northup, Diana E.; Takacs-Vesbach, Cristina (2009). "Microbial Diversity, Geochemistry and Diel Fluctuations in Travertine Mounds at Tierra Amarilla Anticline, New Mexico". Abstracts with Programs. Geological Society of America. 41 (7): 322. Retrieved December 8, 2015. 14. ^ O'Tousa, Jim (August 7, 2014). "Overview of the Geology of Ventura County including Seismicity, Oil and Gas Plays and Groundwater Resources" (PDF). Oil and Gas Program Informational Workshop. Ventura County Planning Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 2, 2016. 15. ^ Jackson, Glenda (July 2013). "Oil and Ventura" (PDF). Ventura City Hall. • Weijermars, Ruud (1997). Structural Geology and Map Interpretation. Lectures in geoscience. Amsterdam: Alboran Science Publishing. ISBN 90-5674-001-6 – via Delft University of Technology.Entire book is freely available in PDF format.	<urn:uuid:ed2c47f4-320f-4f7c-91a1-3de4d139808e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.04602384567260742, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.902374267578125, "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticline" }
The Racist Origins of The Cakewalk Cakewalk Poster/Strobridge Lithographing Co./Wikimedia/Public Domain If something is “a piece of cake,” it is typically considered easy, but 150 years ago our ancestors had quite an uneasy experience with the phrase. It turns out that the “cake” was a highly coveted prize earned by the enslaved Blacks who put on the best show during what was known as the cakewalk. On southern plantations, the cakewalk was a ceremonial dance performed in front of slave masters and their guests, who served as judges. The dancers would mimic the haughtiness and stiff-legged movements of their owners as onlookers watched and cheered them on. The judging was intense as each dancing duo knew an elaborately decorated cake was at stake along with bragging rights until the next performance. While the cakewalk was a way for enslaved Blacks to mock their masters, it is rather unclear who actually got the last laugh. Cakewalks became an integral part of minstrel shows with whites dressing in blackface imitating Blacks who were initially imitating them. Crazy, right? The music that accompanied cakewalks was extremely popular and spread from the southern states all the way to New York and Paris. History is all around us especially in the language that we use on a daily basis. Perhaps, calling something “a piece of cake” should go on the list with “picnic” and “peanut gallery” as words and phrases to think twice about using given their historical context. Avoiding these types of language is about more than political correctness, it is our duty to battle racial and cultural insensitivity by rejecting offensive expressions that devalue our people and carry white supremacist undertones. We have a quick favor to ask: • We fight for CRIMINAL JUSTICE REFORM to protect our community. Donate Now Share This Article:	<urn:uuid:3226ab6a-7ce4-476f-b540-08c75facce02>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.03125, "fasttext_score": 0.0432661771774292, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9746742248535156, "url": "https://www.pushblack.us/news/racist-origins-cakewalk" }
Cutting Glass Science Experiment Introduce experiments to geology classes to add a hands-on element to the study of the earth. The study of geology is the study of processes that take hundreds and thousands of years. It can be challenging for students to relate to this vast time frame. To get students engaged in the study of geology, use hands-on experiments that allow students to investigate with the properties of different rocks. One of the most commonly used ways to classify rocks is the Mohs Hardness Scale, which compares the relative hardness of rocks. From limestone to diamonds, rocks have remarkably different properties. Students can experiment with the hardness of rocks by observing which ones can scratch or cut glass. 1. Dull window glass or magnifying glasses are thick enough for this experiment. Get pieces of glass for each student. These pieces should be at least 3 inches by 3 inches and should have no sharp edges. Each student or group of students needs a piece of glass. The glass should be thick and difficult to break because the students will be exerting some pressure on it. Avoid the glass in picture frames, as it is likely to break under pressure. 2. Diamonds are considered to be a lasting treasure because they are very hard. Go to a store that specializes in rock samples for collectors. Buy a selection of rocks that have different levels on the hardness scale. One is the softest on the scale, and 10 is the hardest. Talc is extremely soft and scores a 1 on the hardness scale. If you cannot find any talc at the store, graphite scores 1.5 and is found in a student’s pencil lead. Fluorite scores in the middle of the range, a 4 on the hardness scale. Quartz is easy to source and scores a 7. Glass scores a 5.5. READ What Kind Of Animals Live In A Louisiana Forest 3. A diamond saw blade can cut glass because diamonds are very tough. Give the students a piece of glass and have them brainstorm ways to break, cut or score the glass. They may think of smashing it on the ground or breaking it with a hammer. Tell them that you would like them to create a scratch on the glass and have them brainstorm how they might do this. Commercial glass-cutting facilities use tools such as diamond saws to cut glass to size. They are using the hardness property of the diamond to cut the glass. 4. Have students observe what happens when each rock contacts the glass. Have the students experiment with the different types of rocks. They may knock them on the glass or use them to scratch the glass. Have the students write down their observations about what happens when each rock contacts the piece of glass. From these experiments, have them determine which rocks are harder than glass and which ones are softer. At the end of the experiment, show the students Mohs hardness scale and have them rate the rocks on the hardness scale.	<urn:uuid:fe70a36d-dd3c-4721-8271-b5ef6ea20851>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.03125, "fasttext_score": 0.22088223695755005, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9393938183784485, "url": "http://geologys.hol.es/cutting-glass-science-experiment/" }
How are NASA golf balls different? Other NASA Technology on the Golf Course There no word yet on whether or not NASA can help with your swing. Shooting rockets into space and shooting tiny golf balls onto the green have much more in common than you'd think. Ever since the 1960s, whenever NASA has debuted a new material or technology, the $76-billion-a-year golf industry has always been happy to find a way to equate the sport with high-tech space research. Before NASA sends anything into orbit, the organization makes sure to send it through a dizzying array of tests -- some of which involve high speed cameras able to snap dozens of pictures per second. When the Ohio-based Ben Hogan Company wanted to study how its golf balls spun after being hit, the company struck a deal with NASA to have a golfer tee off in front of NASA's cameras. By analyzing and reanalyzing the slow-motion images, Ben Hogan Company designers were able to engineer carefully the spin characteristics of their next golf ball. For years, NASA has been working with the Connecticut-based Memry Corporation to develop a flexible metal that would allow a spacecraft to fix itself after being struck by a micrometeorite. Using a process known as "shape memory effect," astronauts would simply heat the metal until it snapped back to its original shape. While it's not as dramatic, the Memry Corporation also adopted a similar type of flexible metal to create a golf club that bends ever-so-slightly when it strikes a ball, giving the golfer a split-second more control. Who knows? NASA's self-repairing metal could also one day be used to help repair the bent clubs of temperamental golfers. Space technology may even take credit for less foot odor on the green. Some high-end golf shoes now include Outlast, a fabric equipped with hundreds of microparticles that are able to absorb or release heat. With temperatures in low Earth orbit at about -382 degrees Fahrenheit (-270 degrees Celsius), Outlast was originally designed to keep spacewalking astronauts comfortable while building the International Space Station. On Earth, the material's temperature-regulating abilities can cut sweating in golf shoes by almost 50 percent. With about 4 ounces (0.12 liters) less sweat floating around in your socks after a golf game, the effects on foot hygiene should be sweeping. Related Articles More Great Links • Associated Press. "Cosmonaut to Hit Golf Ball into Orbit." Aug. 23, 2006. (March 16, 2011),2933,209965,00.html • Daily Mail. "The high-tech golf ball that lets an amateur drive it as far as Tiger Woods." Nov. 24, 2008. (March 18, 2011) • Goddard, Jacqui. "One giant six-iron shot for mankind: Cosmonaut's golf ball expected to fly for three days." Times of London. Nov. 24, 2006. • Manning Innovation Awards. "Preston Manning $100,000 Principal Award sponsored by TransAlta Corporation: Leung Thermal Accelerometer." (March 16, 2011) • NASA. "A Better Game of Golf - NASA Style." (March 16, 2011) • NASA. "Golf Aerodynamics." (March 16, 2011) • Outlast. "The Outlast difference." (March 20, 2011) More to Explore	<urn:uuid:5c7c7f81-6ab9-4712-9d49-b0283503e9f6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.025040924549102783, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9273253679275513, "url": "https://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/nasa-inventions/nasa-golf-balls-different1.htm" }
Intussusception and Volvulus in Children Intussusception and volvulus are two different conditions that cause a blockage of the guts (bowel obstruction). This blockage causes similar symptoms but the cause and treatment are different in the two conditions. Both can occur at any age but this leaflet is only about these conditions in children. Intussusception is a condition where one part of the gut (intestine/bowel) becomes sucked into the next part of the gut. It is sometimes described as the intestine being 'telescoped' - imagine a telescope, where one part slides into the part next to it. The effect of this is that there is no longer an open tube, and the intestine becomes blocked. The blood flow to that part of the intestine is also blocked off. This needs urgent treatment. Intussusception is more common in children than in adults. In children, it is the most common cause of a bowel blockage (obstruction) in children under the age of 3 years. It most often occurs in babies under the age of 1 year and affects more boys than girls. Usually there is no obvious reason for intussusception to occur, and the cause is unknown. It is thought that in some cases it may happen following an infection with a virus. One such virus is the rotavirus. (There is a tiny chance that the rotavirus vaccination may make intussusception more likely, but it seems to be in the region of 1-5 extra cases of intussusception in every 100,000 children vaccinated. Balancing that out, the vaccination prevents many cases of rotavirus infection and saves many lives. If rotavirus can cause intussusception, the vaccine may even prevent more cases than it causes, but this has not been shown in studies. Research is ongoing in this area.) Occasionally there is another abnormality already existing in the guts which makes intussusception more likely. Possible causes include pockets (diverticulae) or lumps (polyps or tumours) in the intestines, and conditions such as cystic fibrosis or Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP). The main symptom is tummy pain. This tends to come in spasms which last a few minutes and occur every 10-20 minutes. In a young baby you may only know they have tummy pain because they are crying, and may draw their knees up towards their chest. The baby or child may seem fine between spasms at first, but as time goes on they may seem tired, irritable or floppy. The pain may then become more constant, and there may be vomiting. The vomit may be a green colour. There may be blood and/or a sticky fluid called mucus in their poo (stools). This is sometimes described as looking a bit like redcurrant jelly. The vomiting may cause signs of a lack of fluid in the body (dehydration). Signs of dehydration include being tired and floppy, having fewer wet nappies than usual and the soft spot on the top of the head (fontanelle) being more sunken. The child may develop a high temperature (fever). The doctor will examine your baby or child and feel their tummy. If intussusception is suspected, you will be sent into hospital for further tests. Various tests might be done, but the most common would be blood tests, an ultrasound scan and/or a tummy X-ray. It is important that intussusception be treated urgently before any permanent damage is done to the intestines and before the child becomes too unwell. The child will probably need to have fluids given by a drip (intravenous or IV fluids) and a tube through their nose into their stomach (a nasogastric or NG tube) to suck out the contents of the gut while it is blocked. The usual first treatment is a procedure called an air enema. Air is pumped through a tube placed into the child's bottom, and this pushes the bowel open again. Ultrasound or X-ray views at the same time show the progress so that the doctors can see if it is working. If this procedure does not work then an operation may be needed, involving a general anaesthetic and a small 'keyhole' cut into the tummy (a laparoscopy). This may also be needed if the condition has become very severe - for example, if the bowel has burst (perforated). If this is the case, then a larger cut to open up the tummy may be needed (a laparotomy) and a part of the bowel may need to be removed. Studies are ongoing to establish the best way to treat intussusception. These include trying treatment with a steroid medicine called dexamethasone which may help lessen the chance of the condition recurring. If intussusception is diagnosed early, the outlook (prognosis) is very good. The vast majority of children make a full recovery with no complications. The outlook is less good if the child is not treated until the condition has become severe and longer-lasting bowel damage has occurred. After treatment intussusception can come back (recur) - this happens in around 5 children for every 100 who are treated. Occasionally, particularly if it is not picked up early, complications can occur. Possible complications include: • The bowel bursts (perforation), spilling bowel contents into the tummy and causing severe inflammation (peritonitis). • A part of the bowel dies due to having its blood supply cut off. This part of the bowel would need to be removed in an operation. • Bleeding into the bowel. • Infection leading on to sepsis. Fortunately most cases of intussusception are picked up early enough for treatment to prevent any of these problems. Volvulus also causes a bowel blockage (obstruction), but it is different to intussusception in that the bowel twists around itself rather than being caught up inside itself. A loop of bowel gets wound around another part of bowel along with the tissue that surrounds it (mesentery). The twisting causes a blockage so that the contents of the bowel can no longer pass through. It can also cut off the blood supply to that part of the bowel, causing that section to die if not treated quickly. There are several different types of volvulus with different causes. It depends which part of the intestine has been twisted. In children the most common type of volvulus occurs in the middle part of the guts, and is usually due to the child having been born with a slightly abnormally placed gut in the first place (malrotation). In adults, the most common type of volvulus is nearer the end of the gut, in the sigmoid colon - a sigmoid volvulus. This type is very uncommon in children. Volvulus can occur in almost any part of the guts and is usually due to an underlying problem or abnormality in that part of the gut. Malrotation occurs quite commonly (about 1 in 500 births) but in most cases does not lead to volvulus. The way a part of the gut has developed leaves it in a position which is more susceptible to being twisted and wrapped around itself. This type of volvulus tends to occur in very young babies, most often within the first month of life. Symptoms vary slightly depending on where the gut is twisted, but in general are those of a blockage (obstruction). Possible symptoms include: • Tummy pain (causing a baby to cry and draw his or her knees up). • Vomiting a green liquid. • Not passing any poo (stool) or passing very little. • Becoming unwell rapidly, being floppy. • A more gradual and less severe illness with recurring tummy pains, constipation, blood in the poo and poor feeding. If volvulus is suspected, your child would be sent to hospital. X-rays of the tummy are usually helpful in making the diagnosis. Often a substance which shows up on X-ray, called contrast medium, may be used. A series of X-rays may be used, following the progress of the contrast through the guts to see where it gets stuck. Ultrasound scans may also be useful. Blood tests are also usually needed to check for the effect of the blockage on the other body systems. An operation called a Ladd's procedure is the usual treatment. This has to be done as a matter of urgency before long-lasting damage to the gut can occur. During the operation, the gut is untwisted and positioned so that it is unlikely to twist again. Any tight bands formed around the guts are cut. Often the appendix is removed too, as a person with malrotation may have their appendix in an unusual position which might mean a case of appendicitis could be missed in the future. The operation involves a general anaesthetic and open or keyhole surgery in the tummy area. After the operation, the child will have fluids, nutrition and painkillers through a vein (intravenously) for a few days while the gut heals. Outlook (prognosis) depends on how quickly the condition is diagnosed and treated. If treated late, complications can occur such as: • A part of the bowel can die due to having its blood supply cut off, and this part of the bowel may have to be removed. In some cases, it will not be possible to re-connect the ends of the bowel. If this is the case, the open upper end of the intestine is sewn so it opens on to the tummy. The poo would then empty into a pouch on the tummy wall. This is called a stoma. It may then be possible to re-connect the ends of the bowel in another operation at a later date. • Parts of the bowel which have died or which are under pressure from the blockage can burst (perforate). Bowel contents spilling into the tummy can cause an inflammation called peritonitis. • Infection leading to sepsis. • Inner scarring from the operation (adhesions) can cause further blockages to the intestines in the future. Further reading and references • ; Management for intussusception in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jun 16:CD006476. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006476.pub3. • ; Midgut Volvulus. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing 2018. 2017 Oct 17. • ; Intestinal malrotation and volvulus in infants and children. BMJ. 2013 Nov 26347:f6949. ive been bloated for a week now and have felt tired and also get constipated sometimes, i feel like ive ate a huge meal all the time i stay bloated Health Tools Feeling unwell? Assess your symptoms online with our free symptom checker. Start symptom checker	<urn:uuid:997cacdd-b24d-419c-9140-77e01d5589a2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.02053534984588623, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9368794560432434, "url": "http://high-kick.ru/health/rectal-bleeding-blood-in-faeces/volvulus-intususception" }
Refraction Redux Discussion in 'Alternative Theories' started by el es, Sep 4, 2013. 1. el es Registered Senior Member Third Model Unity Hypotenuse Model Given an angle of incidence, the path of the ray in free space can be used as the hypotenuse and set to 1. A right angle triangle can then be constructed in free space. This triangle in free space can then be transformed into a triangle in a refractive medium keeping the hypotenuse of 1 invariant. Knowing the refractive index of the material, then the value of x is X/R.I. The value of t is determined by x^2 + t^2 = 1 This model or template is not about length contraction or time dilation. For a given unit of time, a photon in free space will have a greater displacement in space than in a refractive medium. For a given distance, it will take a photon in a refractive medium a longer time than in free space. As a worldline. Pythagorean treatment Share This Page	<urn:uuid:263c73ed-41fe-4b0c-b6e9-27e66fbb5acc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.14120733737945557, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8383739590644836, "url": "http://www.sciforums.com/threads/refraction-redux.136041/" }
Structure and Function This Structure and Function lesson plan also includes: Would you wear flip-flops while mountain climbing? Why not? Middle or high schoolers examine the difference between structure and function by examining different types of shoes. Once they are comfortable with those differences, they apply their knowledge to the structure and function of hearts and flowers. Using either a model of a heart or a video of a beating heart, and a flower dissection, your budding scientists should have a good grasp of the concepts by the end of the lesson. 11 Views 10 Downloads Resource Details 5th - 10th Life Science 3 more... Resource Type Lesson Plans 1 hr Instructional Strategies 1 more...	<urn:uuid:2b5888ff-7d5d-4ef1-80aa-5656ee5268eb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.9375, "fasttext_score": 0.182431161403656, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8999422788619995, "url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/structure-and-function-5th-10th" }
Megadiverse countries The term megadiverse country refers to any one of a group of nations that harbor the majority of Earth's species and high numbers of endemic species. Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries in 1998.[1][2] Many of them are located in, or partially in, tropical or subtropical regions. Mega diversity means exhibiting great diversity. The main criteria for megadiverse countries is endemism at the level of species, genera and families. A megadiverse country must have at least 5,000 species of endemic plants and must border marine ecosystems. In 2002, Mexico formed a separate organisation focusing on Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries, consisting of countries rich in biological diversity and associated traditional knowledge. This organisation does not include all the megadiverse countries as identified by Conservation International.[3] In alphabetical order, the 17 megadiverse countries are : Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, United States and Venezuela.[1] Megadiverse Countries The 17 countries identified as megadiverse by Conservation International Cancún initiative and declaration of like-minded megadiverse countries Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries The 20 current like-minded megadiverse countries At the same time, they agreed to meet periodically, at the ministerial and expert levels, and decided that upon the conclusion of each annual Ministerial Meeting, the next rotating host country would take on the role of Secretary of the group, to ensure its continuity, the further development of cooperation among these countries, and to reach the various agreements and objectives.[4] Later, in 2010, Guatemala and Iran were also included in the list.[5] The current member countries of the Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries organisation are as follows, in alphabetical order:[6] See also 1. ^ a b Megadiversity: The 17 Biodiversity Superstars Archived 2008-12-08 at the Wayback Machine. 2. ^ "Megadiverse Countries definition- Biodiversity A-Z". 3. ^ "Biodiversity, Australia State of the Environment Report 2001 (Theme Report): The meaning, significance and implications of biodiversity (Megadiverse countries)". 2014-12-11. Retrieved 2018-07-02. 4. ^ "UNIDO – United Nations Industrial Development Organization". 5. ^ CONABIO. "Plataforma de monitoreo de las actividades de implementación de la Estratgeia Nacional sobre Especies Invasoras (Previene) – Biodiversidad Mexicana – Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad". 6. ^ "LIKE MINDED MEGADIVERSE COUNTRIES" (PDF). Retrieved Jul 26, 2018. External links Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.	<urn:uuid:ca41c961-70e6-4f7d-acd4-e8388d69b5b1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.03843265771865845, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8458899259567261, "url": "https://howlingpixel.com/i-en/Megadiverse_countries" }
An analysis of toni morrisons novel beloved Beloved is a 1987 novel by the american writer toni morrison set after the american civil war (1861–65), it is inspired by the story of an african-american slave , margaret garner , who escaped slavery in kentucky late january 1856 by fleeing to ohio , a free state. At its core, beloved is a novel about a mother and her children, centered around the relationship between sethe and the unnamed daughter she kills, as well as the strange re-birth of that daughter in the form of beloved. The reader of “beloved by toni morrison realizes just how profound is the impact that beloved has upon sethe and her family when beloved, or the notion of her, is introduced early in the novel and, as stated early in one of the important quotes from “beloved” by toni morrison, “‘we have a ghost in here, the reader is told “not. Beloved by toni morrison: characters / character analysis cliff notes™, cliffs notes™, cliffnotes™, cliffsnotes™ are trademarked properties of the john wiley publishing company thebestnotescom does not provide or claim to provide free cliff notes™ or free sparknotes. The motherhood that morrison describes in the novel is set in a context of slavery but in his essay “slavery and motherhood in toni morrison‟s beloved”, terry paul caesar makes an interesting observation when he says that slavery and motherhood can actually be intertwined. Analysis of toni morrison's beloved toni morrison’s pulitzer prize winning book beloved, is a historical novel that serves as a memorial for those who died during the perils of slavery the novel serves as a voice that speaks for the silenced reality of slavery for both men and women. Predominant among morrison's themes is the presence of evil the ghost of beloved — an ironic name that might have had dearly carved ahead of it on the tombstone if sethe had allowed herself ten more minutes with the gravestone carver — makes itself felt in turned-over slop jars, smacks on the behind, and gusts of sour air. Beloved by toni morrison home / literature / beloved / beloved analysis literary devices in beloved symbolism, imagery, allegory sure, most of the novel is set within one tiny house at the end of a country road, but i narrator point of view narrative voice is a tricky beast in beloved for starters, morrison doesn't stick to just. So might run a plot summary of toni morrison’s fifth novel, beloved yet beloved is no ordinary ghost story brilliant, complex, haunted and haunting, it is a remarkable event in american fiction. In toni morrison’s beloved, this is exemplified when morrison uses analepses to catch the reader's attention and help the reader engage with the past flashbacks as attention grabbers structurally, morrison’s novel is anything but linear a large part of crucial content is told through flashbacks and memories. In the final instalment of her series on the novel, jane smiley on why toni morrison's beloved - a sensational story of slavery and racism in america - has endured. An analysis of toni morrisons novel beloved Morrison’s novel beloved, which is discussed in this term paper, is full of emotions and feelings it balances fear, hatred, tension, passion and also love, which appears in various forms such as motherly love, physical love or the abstract love of freedom. Other essays and articles in the literature archives related to this topic include :character analysis of beloved in the novel by toni morrison • jazz by toni morrison : the symbolic significance of the tit le • slavery in america’s south : implications and effects the character of beloved embodies three generations of slavery and is a symbol of the ghost of the more general historical. Beloved toni morrison the following entry presents criticism on morrison's novel beloved (1987) for further information on her life and works, see clc , volumes 4, 10, 22, 55, and 81. • Beloved main ideas here's where you'll find analysis about the book as a whole, from the major themes and ideas to analysis of style, tone, point of view, and more. • The 1987 novel, ''beloved'', won the pulitzer prize and led to toni morrison winning the nobel prize for literature morrison based her novel of the horrors of slavery on a grisly true story. Beloved is toni morrison's fifth novel published in 1987 as morrison was enjoying increasing popularity and success, beloved became a best seller and received the 1988 pulitzer prize for fiction its reception by critics was overwhelming, and the book is widely considered morrison's greatest novel. Toni morrison's novel beloved contains many secondary characters, of which one of the most significant is the character of sixo though the novel is based in post-reconstruction america, much of the content is in the form of memories of ex-slaves. Welcome to the litcharts study guide on toni morrison's beloved created by the original team behind sparknotes, litcharts are the world's best literature guides beloved is related to events surrounding the civil war, especially the fugitive slave act, which allowed southern slave owners to travel. an analysis of toni morrisons novel beloved Beloved essay in the novel beloved, toni morrison delves into not only her characters' painful pasts, but also the painful past of the injustice of slavery few authors can invoke the heart-wrenching imagery and feelings that toni morrison can in her novels, and her novel beloved is a prime example of this. An analysis of toni morrisons novel beloved Rated 3/5 based on 37 review	<urn:uuid:2cf814ae-3e5e-4f45-aed1-3dd57503ec37>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.04707181453704834, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9608032703399658, "url": "http://meassignmentatux.blogdasilvana.info/an-analysis-of-toni-morrisons-novel-beloved.html" }
Dalai Lama (b. 1935) Show Summary Details Quick Reference 1935– ) Tibetan Buddhist leader; spiritual and temporal ruler of Tibet (1951–59). He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, in recognition of his appeals for the nonviolent liberation of his homeland from Chinese rule. Born into a peasant family in Amdo province, Tenzin Gyatso was five when oracles proclaimed him the reincarnation of the thirteenth Dalai Lama, who had died in 1933. He was enthroned at Lhasa in 1940 and ruled in his own right from 1950. A year later the Chinese invaded Tibet; when the sixteen-year-old Dalai Lama's pleas were ignored by the UN, the UK, and India he had no choice but to sign an agreement in which Tibet became an ‘autonomous region’ of China and his own powers became largely notional. In 1959 China's attempts to destroy the national and religious identity of Tibet provoked an uprising, quickly suppressed by the occupying forces. The Dalai Lama and most of his ministers fled to India, followed by thousands of refugees. Since his exile he has acted as a spokesman for the plight of his country and has written widely on Buddhism and his search for world peace. Subjects: Contemporary History (Post 1945) — Buddhism. Reference entries	<urn:uuid:4109e8ae-5b63-4996-b338-b2fdcb0838bc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4, "fasttext_score": 0.05826777219772339, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.980155885219574, "url": "http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095658121" }
Are there two pilots in the cockpit? Pay attention! Wikimedia, CC BY Ever since the early days of commercial aviation, flight safety has steadily improved. Considering the number of flights, accidents are now extremely rare, and 70% of them are attributable to human factors. This has led to research in psychology, cognitive science and, more recently, in neuroergonomics. Researchers have been investigating factors such as drowsiness, stress, attention, workload, communication, and cognitive biases. One that has been surprisingly overlooked is that of social relations within the cockpit. Commercial-airline crews are made up of one or two first officers and a designated leader, the captain. While all the pilots have the necessary skills to fly the aircraft, the captain is legally responsible for the flight. They are more experienced, better paid and often significantly older than first officers. Before takeoff, the captain decides who will pilot the aircraft and who will monitor the instruments, checklists and communication. The power imbalance between the two creates a hierarchical system. Depending on the situation and the pilots’ personalities, this imbalance can sometimes compromise communication and adversely influence decision making. Power and cognitive bias Being in a position of power increases the risk of cognitive bias. The halo effect – i.e., the tendency to judge people on the basis of their characteristics (such as ethnicity, age, cast, religion, etc.) or past events unrelated to the situation at hand – can severely affect captains. This happened in 2011 during the approach of First Air flight 6560, when the relatively inexperienced first officer noticed that the aircraft was veering sightly off-course. The captain – who, unlike the first officer, had flown many times over the Arctic region – believed the instruments were simply adversely impacted by the proximity of the north magnetic pole. Blinded by his first officer’s relative lack of experience, the captain ignored the latter’s repeated warnings and suggestions to go around. The mistake proved fatal to the captain, the first officer and 10 passengers. Captains can also be affected by the false-consensus bias – the tendency to believe that those around us approve of our ideas and actions to a far greater extent than is actually the case. Also, the higher a person’s position in the hierarchy, the less negative feedback he or she will openly receive from subordinates. Therefore, the greater the power imbalance between the captain and the first officer, the higher the risk of false-consensus bias in the cockpit. First officers or passive observers? Captains aren’t the only ones to be affected by this power imbalance. In the 1970s, a study carried out in a flight simulator showed that when the captains pretended to lose consciousness during a landing, nearly one in four first officers failed to take over the controls. Given the changes that have taken place in cockpit organisation since that time, it is unlikely that a new study would produce such worrying results. However, it demonstrates that under certain conditions first officers can feel less engaged, responsible or legitimate than the captain, and fail to react appropriately. An overly authoritarian captain can severely exacerbate this tendency and even paralyse the first officers to the point that they become mere bystanders. This occurred during the crash of Korean Air cargo flight 8509. The captain, a domineering former military pilot, made a catastrophic error. The first officer noticed but did nothing for fear of reprisal. The aircraft hit the ground less than 60 seconds after take off, killing everyone on board. Finally, the halo bias can also affect first officers, who sometimes see the captain as all-knowing and infallible. They are less inclined to challenge the captains and more likely to bow to their decisions (conformity bias), which can have a negative effect on safety. US Airways flight 1549 in the Hudson River, New York, on January 15, 2009. After the aircraft’s engines failed and no airport was sufficiently close for an emergency landing, Captain Chesley Sullenberger, assisted by co-pilot Jeffrey Skiles, chose to set down in the Hudson. He kept the landing gear up, to allow the plane to land relatively smoothly. All 150 passengers and 5 crew members were brought to safety. Greg L./Wikipedia, CC BY What next? So why not simply abolish hierarchy among pilots? There are sound reasons not to. First of all, the hierarchical structure has demonstrated, time and again, its effectiveness in cases of emergency. Take, for example, the January 2009 landing of US Airways flight 1549 on the Hudson River, or the management of 55 failures brought on by the explosion of an engine on Qantas flight 32 in November 2010. Moreover, a lack of hierarchy can prove just as disastrous, as it was for the two first officers at the controls of the Rio-Paris flight. Eliminating pilot hierarchy is therefore not an appropriate solution. Instead, it would be more effective to focus on pilot training. The first priority is to better educate pilots about the issues associated with hierarchy. Secondly, more research is necessary to better understand and deal with these complex phenomena. In the medium to long term, this should allow us to come up with innovative solutions to these problems. Above all, it is vital to develop procedures that would allow: • Optimal communication between pilots. It can be adversely affected by the hierarchical power imbalance. • First-officer assertiveness. Problems arise when they are passive or when their work has been undermined or neglected. This is particularly relevant as the boom in air traffic has led passengers to fly with airlines from countries where the culture of hierarchy is strong and therefore the risks higher. Furthermore, societies are evolving and the aviation industry is opening up to previously excluded groups such as women and people from lower casts, which may in some cases heighten problems linked to hierarchy. A detailed study of the impact of social factors on the way crews operate would be a boon to aviation safety. Created in 2007, the Axa Research Fund supports more than 500 projects around the world, conducted by researchers from 51 countries. To learn more about Eve Fabre’s research, visit our dedicated site. Translated from the French by Alice Heathwood for Fast for Word. This article was originally published in French	<urn:uuid:09c3f0b0-8a3b-4d78-9c18-525cfabba4ae>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.029461026191711426, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9619085788726807, "url": "http://theconversation.com/are-there-two-pilots-in-the-cockpit-94630" }
corn-cockle defined in 1913 year corn-cockle - Corn-cockle (Lychnis githago); corn-cockle - "Allans! Allans! - Sow'd cockle, reap'd no corn." Love's Labour's Lost. The Corn-Cockle takes its place in the ranks of the corn. Its stiff, bare stems, covered with close, rough hairs, merge with the corn-stalks, and it is only the little magenta islands of the flowers amid the corn-heads that catch the eye. In the attempt to break through the harsh stem and gather the flowers the whole plant is apt to come up bodily, and then one can examine it at one's leisure - an ugly plant, barring its charming flowers, but with a certain strength and robust vitality about it that command one's respect. Spring by spring it renews itself from seed - little rough seeds stored with a packet of reserve material round which the embryo curls like a horseshoe. The germinating plant quickly absorbs this reserve through its seed-leaves, and then withdraws them from the now otherwise empty husk. They are still very tender and the nights yet chilly, so though these twin leaves spread apart by day they draw together for mutual warmth at night. By early July days it is amazing how much the plant has done; its root is as thick as one's finger, and as hard as wood. A single stem rises from it. Two or three inches up are a pair of leaves - mean, narrow slips, several inches long and half an inch wide - with prominent midrib along their backs. (Broad-bladed leaves would be quite out of place and useless, too, amid the corn-stalks.) They have no stalks, and in the pocket that each forms with the main stem a branch arises. Each branch again gives off a pair of similar, though smaller, leaves, and again in their pockets a branch is formed; thus we have a plant continually forking, with a few ugly pairs of leaves which get more and more negligible. On straight, very long stalks the flowers arise - the plant's one beauty. A peculiar spikiness, due to the fashioning of the sepals, is the outstanding feature of each. For the sepals, commencing as a cup, say half an inch high, covered with long, silky hairs all pointing upwards, and supported by ten strong ribs, are continued above the cup as five long, green spikes which stretch far beyond even the petal disk, and hence a country name for the plant is "Ray." Slit a flower down and examine it. On the inner side of the sepal cup are ten remarkable white ridges corresponding to the spaces between the ribs on the outer side. This well-braced cup is essential to hold the petals together, for these have no power of supporting themselves, since the lower part, or limb, of each is of the thinnest and most fragile description, though above it spreads into a substantial enough looking object. Now look down on another flower and view it as it would appear to a hovering insect, and we see a five-rayed star with a large, five-lobed, purple disk shading in the centre to white; on the disk are mysterious lines pointing down to a deep, green tunnel, from whose depths rises in the very centre a purple spot, the clustered tops of five columns. The slit flower shows that round the walls of the petal-tunnel stand ten stamens, while at the base is the ball-like ovary, from whose top rise the five clustered style-columns round which is gathered honey. The structure bespeaks a member of the Caryophylaceæ family - the campions and the pinks - and hence the plant is often known as the "Corn-Campion," or the "Corn-Pink," and, indeed, its nearest relatives are the white campion and the ragged robin. The length of its long tube, and the distance of the honey from the mouth of the flower, indicate that it is essentially a butterfly and moth flower: no other insects have probosces long enough to reach down so deep a pit. When the flower opens, five of the stamens - those opposite the sepals - have their anthers discharging their pollen, though in the centre of the flower the five styles, taller than the stamens, are still in a tight bundle. For a day, at least, the flower remains thus, and visiting butterflies and bees carry off this pollen. Then the anthers drop from these five stamens, but the styles open out in the centre and with, literally, "open arms" receive visitors for what they can get. Meanwhile, the other five stamens are maturing, and their filaments growing, so that a little later, when their anthers open, they are on a par with the stigmas, and their contents are poured out over them. Thus cross-fertilisation is first planned, and self-fertilisation is the second string to the bow. During the few days of the plant's life the petals close protectingly at night, but one morning they do not re-open, but wither and fall. The ovary swells until it is the size and form of a small acorn, and always it is surrounded by the hairy sepal cup, and guarded by the five great, green points. The swelling causes the ten ribs of the calyx cup to depart from their parallelism, and to form a pattern like a Gothic window. If the handsome fruit be dissected when it is young it proves to consist of a green case closely fitting over a cone, which cone of immature seeds looks as though it had been cut jig-saw-wise into segments, and the segments left in situ. In these early days the cone lies in a bath of sweet mucilage, and each white seed tastes like an immature grain of corn. Later the mucilage is absorbed, the segments turn black, the cone falls to pieces, and in the dried case the ripe seeds rattle, and by the swaying of the wind are jerked out through five valves that open at its summit. Each seed has a roughened surface, and has been compared to a miniature, rolled-up hedgehog. This plant is commonly said to be "a weed of cultivation," that is, a weed not really indigenous, but introduced at some period or other, in this case probably with corn. On the other hand, Professor Earle argues that since the Saxon form of its name is Coccel, and that word is not found in kindred dialects, it may be of Celtic origin and link the plant with the beginnings of our country's story. But this is no real argument, for the word "cockle" was at one time used in a general sense for "weed." In a "Herbal to the Bible," issued in 1585, we are expressly told "under the name Cockle and Darnel is comprehended all vicious, noisome and unprofitable graine, encombring and hindering good come." Spenser says: "And thus of all my harvest-hope I have Nought reaped but a weedie crop of care, Which, when I thought have thresht a swelling sheave Cockle for corn and chaff for barley bare." And when Job said, "Let thistles grow instead of wheat, and cockle instead of barley," the sense was eneral, as is shown by the alternative reading given in the margin, "or, noisome weed"; and so, too, when Latimer exclaimed with fervour from the pulpit, "Oh that our prelates would bee as diligent to sowe the corne of goode doctrine as Sathan is to sowe Cockle and Darnel." But in the sixteenth century its application began to be narrowed down, and in the 1623 edition of Gerard this description accompanies a picture of the plant in question: "Cockle is a common and hurtfull weed in our Corne, and very well knowne by the name of Cockle... What hurt it doth among corne, the spoile of bread, as well in colour, taste and unwholesomenesse, is better known than desired." For its specific name Githago - "this floure is now called among the learned githago," wrote Dodonseus in 1583 - and its old English name Gith, it is difficult to find a meaning. "Pawple" and "Papple," of course, refer to the purple colour, while "Cockweed" is a slurring for "Cocldeweed." pictures for corn-cockle corn-cockle corn-cockle. >>>> corn-cockle flower corn-cockle flower. >>>> near corn-cockle in Knolik letter "C" start from "CO" definition of word "corn-cockle" was readed 1163 times Legal info	<urn:uuid:194f04ff-2fc5-4e54-b5fc-f4233c1a7d57>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.060597777366638184, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9608663320541382, "url": "http://knolik.com/article0004340.html" }
structure of tudor government HideShow resource information What was the structure of tudor government in 1509? King: king ruled the country and made all decisions relatings to its security, when to go to warm who should advise him and when parliament should meet The Council: this was a group of advisers chosen by the king. They were usually from the nobility and the church plus lawyers and royal household officers. They gave the King advice and they were a central administratice body and they acted as a court dealing with grievances from individauls that required the direct judgement of the King. The Council could consist of as many as 40 or 50 people but attendance at meetings was often much lower. Parliament: under henry VII oarkuanebt was called to meet by the monarch for specific reasons usually because the No comments have yet been made Similar History resources:	<urn:uuid:3bd1c682-3699-4133-8573-1b85c63d3acc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.1787548065185547, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9823773503303528, "url": "https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/structure_of_tudor_government" }
Pan's Highway-Saturn's Rings In this Pan's highway worksheet, students read about the Cassini spacecraft that discovered how Pan clears out the ring debris in the outer A-ring system of Saturn. Students use an image taken by the satellite to find the scale of the image, they determine Pan's diameter, they find the width of the Encke Gap and they find the smallest feature in the photograph. 9th - 11th Math 6 Views 6 Downloads Resource Details 3 more... Resource Types 2 more... What Members Say Suharni M. Suharni M., Teacher	<urn:uuid:8876a038-1b43-4cbc-90d9-873444782ed8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.18098753690719604, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8676759600639343, "url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/pans-highway-saturns-rings" }
Chapter 14 Social Studies: Question Preview (ID: 14522) Below is a preview of the questions contained within the game titled CHAPTER 14 SOCIAL STUDIES: Chapter Review .To play games using this data set, follow the directions below. Good luck and have fun. Enjoy! [print these questions] Why was feudalism created and what was its purpose a) To stop countries from fighting with one another b) a political, social and economic system to protect the people c) to help farmers rotate their crops and get more production d) a system of governemnt to control the serfs What were the Crusades? a) military expeditons b) students who went to catholic schools c) a group of farmes d) pilgrimage to the holy land What were two outcomes of the Crusades? a) both sides won and stopped fighting b) East and west became connected and increaded trade c) the holy land was lost forever d) nobody won and it continues today What was the reason for the crusades a) to keep the serfs in their place b) to take back the Holy land from the turks c) to bring people into the monasteries d) to spread the wealth of the monarchs What were guilds and what were the benefits? a) groups united together under a common interest and help guarantee fair prices b) a tool used to make pottery and made the process quicker c) a sword used by serfs that helped defeat the kings d) a type of dress worn by nuns List the four main land regions of Europe a) Northwest mountains, North European Plain, Central Uplands, Alpine Mountain system b) Southeast Mountains, North European Plateau, Central Lowlands, Alpine Mountain system c) Plain, plateau, moutains, valleys d) Rocky Mountains, Swiss Alps, Mount Kilamanjro, Smoky Moutains What is the longest river in Europe? a) Danube b) Volga c) Rhine d) Mississippi Which river is known as the backbone for the busiest inland system of waterways in western Europe? a) Ohio b) Danube c) Rhine d) Volga What is the main water route in south central Europe? a) Danube b) Volga c) Rhine d) Ohio The Middle Ages lasted from when to when a) 200 to 1200 b) 100 to 1000 c) 500 to 1500 d) 800 to 1100 Play Games with the Questions above at To play games using the questions from the data set above, visit and enter game ID number: 14522 in the upper right hand corner at or simply click on the link above this text. Log In \| Sign Up / Register	<urn:uuid:a576a60c-43e0-4bef-b7ab-5fff01841346>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.20602935552597046, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9220885634422302, "url": "http://reviewgamezone.com/preview.php?id=14522" }
• Associative Property • image Associative Property Associative Property So, what in the world is the associative property? Yes, that's quite a complicated word. But.... Would you like to be able to compute numbers in your head faster and easier? That's just what the this property will help us to do! The associative property, which was named in 1835 by the Irish mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamilton, says that when adding or multiplying, we can change the grouping of numbers and it will not change their answer. The associative property only pertains to addition and multiplication - just like the commutative property. Let's take a look at the associative property for addition. associative property If you are being asked to identify properties, the commutative and associative properties can easily be confused. The best way to differentiate between the two properties is that the associative property typically has parenthesis associated with it since it refers to the grouping of numbers. Now let's take a look at the same property with multiplication. associative property of multiplication And... just like with the commutative property, there is one thing we must remember..... associative property tip When you are regrouping numbers with the associative property, remember that when you can make "10" or "100" it makes the math much easier. Take a look.... Using the Associative Property to do Mental Math associative property example Now I bet you will be a mental math whiz! Between the commutative property and the associative property you will be able to mentally compute a lot of your math work! The last property that you will learn about is the distributive property! However, before moving onto the distributive property, you should take a look at our introductory Algebra lesson on Variables used in Algebra. Like This Page?	<urn:uuid:d92d28b6-6602-46a1-b20a-8ad9da1594e7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.05914551019668579, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9204519391059875, "url": "http://www.algebra-class.com/associative-property.html" }
What is a red-headed ash borer? Quick Answer The red-headed ash borer is a type of beetle that is commonly found throughout North America. It is scientifically known as Neoclytus acuminatus. The ash borer is generally black and red with four lines of yellow running perpendicularly along its back. Continue Reading What is a red-headed ash borer? Credit: USGS Bee Inventory and Monitoring Lab CC-BY-2.0 Full Answer The ash borer is commonly mistaken for a wasp because of its black and yellow coloring and its ability to fly. It derives its name from the damage it does to hardwood trees during its larval stage. When young, the small milk-colored larvae burrow into the heart of a dead or dying tree and use the wood as nourishment, destroying wood that is often intended for use. This insect is considered something of a pest for this reason. The larvae continue eating the inside of the tree until undergoing metamorphosis, at which point the adult ash borers eat their way out. Learn more about Bugs Related Questions	<urn:uuid:aa44e5af-b6be-4b4c-94dc-597d177a5e32>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.049271225929260254, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9678261876106262, "url": "https://www.reference.com/pets-animals/red-headed-ash-borer-7363fe26bcdb0aec" }
Lipoic Acid Restores the Circadian Rhythms sleep sleeping lipoic acid Biochemists from Oregon State University have discovered that lipoic acid, a powerful antioxidant, is integral to the restoration and synchronization of the circadian rhythms found in most life forms. This restoration of the circadian rhythm is particularly important in older organisms in which a disrupted biological clock can have many different negative impacts on health. Lipoic acid (aka alpha-Lipoic acid) is a type of antioxidant that can be found in abundance in organ meats, spinach, potatoes, and broccoli. Lipoic acid has been studied in a variety of different capacities, including its impacts on memory loss, HIV/AIDS, liver disease, and chronic fatigue syndrome. It also has clinical applications such as chelating (binding up) heavy metals, capturing carcinogenic free-radicals, and improving the conditions of patients with diabetes-associated nerve damage. In addition to these uses, researchers also found that lipoic acid plays an integral role in the regulation of an organism’s circadian rhythms. “Circadian rhythm” is a term used to describe the changes in physical and mental state that occur regularly over the course of a 24 hour period. They are affected mostly by periods of light and dark, and are considered to be an extension of an organism’s more over-arching biological clock. To date, researchers have produced strong evidence that organisms that experience major disruptions to their circadian rhythm are at a greater risk for developing a wide array of health problems such as heart disease, hormonal imbalance, cancer, and inflammation. One group in particular that is at a high risk for disrupted circadian rhythms is the elderly. Part of this increased risk is associated with how over time an individual acquires mutations in their DNA. Damaged DNA means that many of the enzymes and other proteins needed to help regulate the body’s natural rhythms cannot be fabricated or are produced with alterations. These altered proteins may have the potential to disrupt an individual’s circadian rhythm and put further stress on the body. It is estimated that a third of all the genes in the genome take cues from the circadian rhythm in some way or another. Therefore a disrupted rhythm can be both caused by and lead to malfunctions in gene expression. Researchers from Oregon State University were particularly interested in finding ways in which age-related disruptions to the circadian rhythm can be corrected. In previous research, the investigators had discovered that diets high in lipoic acid had an overall depressing effect on the expression of circadian rhythm-regulated genes. In a new series of experiments, they fed one group of rats a diet rich in lipoic acid and compared them to a control group. After two weeks the researchers looked for markers of changed circadian rhythms, such as changes in the cycling of hormones like corticosteroine and other clock-controlled proteins. The researchers discovered that the lipoic-acid rich diets had an overall effect of correcting the otherwise asynchronous orchestra of carefully timed hormones and proteins. Specifically they found that that lipoic acid has the effect of resetting the circadian rhythms in older rats to a more youthful condition. As people around the globe continue to live longer and longer, research such as this is important to understand the aging process. In particular research has come to focus on not just increasing human life-span, but also the human “healthspan.” “Healthspan” refers to the longevity with which a person is capable of living in good health and participating in normal activities. Research into lipoic acid and other regulators of the circadian rhythm might one day increase not only the quantity of years lived by a person, but also their quality. By Sarah Takushi Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications National Institute of General Medical Sciences Oregon State University R & D News Web MD 2 Responses to "Lipoic Acid Restores the Circadian Rhythms" 1. Sarah August 11, 2014 at 9:59 pm Different research teams have defined “elderly” differently depending on the subjects available to them. Some of have identified altered circadian rhythms in subjects over age 70 (1), others at around 85 years old (2), and others in their 60s (3 and 4). More than likely the effects of aging on altering circadian rhythms accumulate over time. 2. John August 11, 2014 at 4:48 pm Can you define “elderly” per your article… 50 years old/ 60 years old / 70 years old Your Thoughts?	<urn:uuid:7cd76255-676f-44eb-ad01-6f03a05c7ac2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.03103196620941162, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9517700672149658, "url": "http://guardianlv.com/2014/07/lipoic-acid-restores-the-circadian-rhythms/" }
HideShow resource information • Created by: Amira • Created on: 13-01-14 20:57 Discuss the role of exogenous zeitgebers in one or more biological rhythms. (8+16)m. Exogenous zeitgebers, literally means external light givers. This is a psychology term used to describe external factors that have impact on biological rhythms. The most famous research on exogenous zeitgebers is Michel Siffre’s case study. He spent long periods of time in caves trying to figure out his biological rhythm. When he was awake, he would have a bright light with him (which was artificially) that he kept on when he was awake, and he would turn this light off when he was asleep. His rhythm settled down to approximately 25 hours, but sometimes it would change dramatically to 48 hours. This suggests that without exogenous zeitgebers, (such as light), we frequently lose the ability to maintain a sleep-wake cycle. This study is criticised because Siffre used artificial light. Czeisler found that using just dim light alone, could shift a free running cycle down to 22 hours and up to 28 hours. This threatens the validity of Siffre’s study as it was tampered using dim lighting, hence the circadian rhythm of Siffre may have been adjusted and changed accordingly. Alongside this criticism for validity, Siffre’s study was a case study which meant his cycle may or may not have been typical of all people, and living in caves may have had effects on his behavior (he was depressed, which may have led to increase in sleeping- which would change his sleep-wake cycle). This makes his study ungeneralisable. Siffre’s study is supported by Asch and Wever No comments have yet been made Similar Psychology resources: See all Psychology resources »See all Sleep resources »	<urn:uuid:4f263e79-71ab-446e-b48e-423410d1127d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.02933478355407715, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.961469829082489, "url": "https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-notes/exogenous_zeitgebers_roles_essay" }
Details of this Paper How is a person infected with a Guinea worm How is a person infected with a Guinea worm? Which parts of the world are impacted by this parasite? How can knowledge of the guinea worm's life cycle provide a strategy to break the infection cycle?;Attachment Preview;Study Questions3_Biol 102_Spring 2014.docx Download Attachment;Study Guide 3 Biology 102 Spring 2014;1.;How is a person infected with a Guinea worm? Which parts of the world are;impacted by this parasite? How can knowledge of the guinea worms life cycle;provide a strategy to break the infection cycle?;2.;What causes River Blindness? How can a once-per-year drug treatment help;prevent this disease?;3.;What is Lymphatic Filariasis? What treatments are available for individuals with;well-developed Elephantiasis? Are any treatments effective with children? How;is the life cycle broken by drug treatments? How does the strategy to kill juvenile;worms in lymphatic filariasis compare to the strategy used to protect pets from;heartworm?;4.;How might tropical diseases like Chagas and malaria move into the United;States? Could lymphatic filariasis move into the United States? Why or why;not?;5. What insect vectors are necessary to transmit African and American;trypanosomiasis?;Human Evolution;1. Were Cro-Magnon man and Neandertal- (Neanderthal-) man separate;species, or were they populations that regularly interbred? How can this;question be answered?;2. What features are associated with primates that help distinguish this group;from other mammals?;3. What features make us human and distinct from other hominoids?;4. Have more than one style of bipedalism evolved in hominids? If so, how were;they similar are different from modern bipedalism?;5. What is paleoanthropology, and how does this branch of science contribute to;our understanding of hominid evolution?;6. Is the tree that represents human evolution a straight line or multi-branched?;What happened to most of the hominids represented in the fossil record?;7. Why are brain size and bipedalism considered important features that;contributed to hominid evolution? What kinds of anatomical changes support;upright walking?;8. When and where did Homo sapiens arise? What evidence supports this?;9. Can you identify unique characteristics of Homo erectus, H. heidelbergensis;H. neandertalensis and Denisovans?;10. What anatomical features made Ardipithecus so surprising to;paleontologists? What does the anatomy of Ardipithecus suggest about the;evolution of bipedalism? Did early hominids walk upright and gain the ability to;move into open savannahs, or did they develop bipedalism while also moving;easily through forests?;11. Flores Man, or The Hobbit lived until at least 15,000 years ago. Was Flores;Man human? Or something else entirely?;12. What is the biological basis for differences in human skin color?;13. Why is pigmentation an important evolutionary adaptation? Under what;circumstances is less pigment better and when might more pigment be better?;Population Ecology;1. What are the differences (if any) between a population and a species? What;is meant by the term population ecology?;2. How can population density and the dispersion pattern of a given;population describe the way an organism behaves?;3. What are life tables and survivorship curves? How are they useful? What are;the three types of survivorship curves?;4. What kinds of factors limit population growth?;5. Can you describe the cause of so-called boom-and-bust cycles?;6. How can an organisms life history be shaped by selective forces? (Rate of;growth and maturation, age at which reproduction begins, numbers of offspring;etc.,);7. Can population ecology have practical applications? Like what?;8. How does the rate of human population growth and our consumption patterns;impact the environment?;9. How does the age structure of the U.S. population explain the current surplus;in the Social Security fund? Without changes to the system, why will the;program begin to fall into a deficit in the next few decades? Paper#16999 \| Written in 18-Jul-2015 Price : $37	<urn:uuid:57af7f87-8b80-4a8d-8e45-3ead07be9fa6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 1.0000094175338745, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.87049400806427, "url": "http://studentsmerit.com/paper-detail/?paper_id=16999" }
Books Children's Children's Books Children's Books: Astronomy What Shape is the Moon? Series: Science Storybooks By: Bo-Hyeon Seo (Author), Jeong-Hyeon Sohn (Illustrator) Big and Small Publishing Paperback \| Nov 2014 \| #220853 \| ISBN-13: 9781921790720 Availability: Usually dispatched within 6 days Details NHBS Price: £6.99 $9/€8 approx About this book The moon is a round sphere, like a ball. It rises every evening but its shape seems to change little by little, every night. Why is this so? Learn about the lunar cycle and learn the real shape of the moon with this cutely illustrated storybook. Age Level: 5 to 10 years Write a review Bestsellers in this subject Watcher Guides: Night Sky Watcher NHBS Price: £7.99 $10/€9 approx Why Does Earth Spin? NHBS Price: £4.99 $6/€6 approx NHBS Price: £5.99 $7/€7 approx Astronomy and Space Sticker Book NHBS Price: £6.99 $9/€8 approx Encyclopedia of Space NHBS Price: £16.99 $21/€19 approx	<urn:uuid:7e90f5ea-802c-433c-8bdd-f60ca0287ab2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.3126765489578247, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8363978266716003, "url": "http://www.nhbs.com/title/203344?title=what-shape-is-the-moon" }
Author: Dan Reade Introduce standard rules for capitalization and common errors. Explain when to capitalize proper nouns. Explain what words to capitalize in titles or headings. This packet should help a learner seeking to understand the mechanics of English composition and who is confused about how to correctly incorporate capitalization. It will explain when to capitalize words in a sentence. See More Introduction to Psychology Analyze this: Our Intro to Psych Course is only $329. The Basics of Capitalization Capitalization seems easy but, just like so many other parts of English, there are many rules that can trip up writers. The PDF below goes through some of the basic points of capitalization and also examines common mistakes. Full Screen Source: Creative Commons: Pennsylvania State University's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences Capitalizing Proper Nouns The following video defines proper nouns and shows rules for their capitalization. Source: Dan Reade Capitalizing Titles and Headings The following video shows the basic rules for capitalizing titles and headings. Source: Dan Reade	<urn:uuid:68af4830-d391-4701-95f2-ecd1814edf50>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.921875, "fasttext_score": 0.030327320098876953, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8567372560501099, "url": "https://www.sophia.org/tutorials/capitalization--3" }
Moths detect bat calls and avoid predation using sudden drops and weaving flight patterns. "Many species of moth can hear bats coming by listening in to their ultrasonic echolocation calls. They can therefore escape before being caught. Once the bat is within approximately 20 feet (6m), moths take abrupt evasive action, either by folding up their wings and dropping down out of the bat's flight path, or by embarking on a random, weaving flight that the bat cannot follow." (Shuker 2001:23) Watch Video The Hidden Powers of Animals: Uncovering the Secrets of NatureJanuary 1, 1970 Dr. Karl P. N. Shuker Butterflies And MothsLepidopteraOrder	<urn:uuid:0b63dd38-67ba-4051-9e6f-77bad225d96e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.96875, "fasttext_score": 0.13984042406082153, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9224734306335449, "url": "https://asknature.org/strategy/abrupt-flight-patterns-help-evade-predators/" }
spinet, musical instrument of the harpsichord family. Although the terms virginal and spinet, interchangeable until the end of the 17th cent., were sometimes used indiscriminately to designate any harpsichord, they usually referred to small instruments having one keyboard, one string to each note, and the keys more or less perpendicular to the strings, similar to the clavichord. The first spinet, made in the 15th cent., may have been a clavichord to which a quill mechanism was added. In England in the 18th cent. the virginal was an instrument with a rectangular case, while the spinet had a triangular or wing-shaped case. Until the middle of the 18th cent. neither had legs attached. The Elizabethan virginalists, among them William Byrd, Thomas Morley, and Orlando Gibbons, were the composers of an important body of music, of which the outstanding collection is the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book (early 17th cent., publ. 1894–99).	<urn:uuid:8f0a8c98-f8e2-4a34-a5a9-e04323a14948>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.0237046480178833, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9494661092758179, "url": "http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/entertainment/spinet.html" }
"It was a party-line, and two neighbours were talking" A party line referred to a telephone system, in which two or more customers were connected directly to the same local loop. Since all parties used the same line, it was possible for subscribers to listen in on other subscribers' calls. In rural areas in the early twentieth century, additional subscribers and telephones were frequently connected to the single loop available, with numbers reaching several dozen, leading to extreme congestion.	<urn:uuid:c427e3bf-1a8d-46a3-bf78-2f09cb25e5d4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.4851190447807312, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9756991267204285, "url": "http://www.bookdrum.com/books/cry-the-beloved-country/12868/bookmark/201592.html" }
The Leading eBooks Store Online 3,693,353 members ⚫ 1,195,028 ebooks New to Learn more Mammals Over The Ages Extending Talented Students in the Regular Classroom Mammals Over The Ages by Sandy Tasker Add to cart US$ 7.95 This fully revised blackline master series (Pacemaker Pack) was initially devised as a means of providing extension for students within the regular classroom, whilst catering for the needs of the teacher and providing materials that were designed along educationally sound lines. Mammals Over The Ages enables students to explore connections between prehistoric mammals and their modern-day counterparts. With a science-based focus on understanding physical structure and function, students are also encouraged to extend their knowledge by putting forward researched and original ideas on issues such as food chains, adaptations and extinction. Although the content and layout for the Pacemaker Pack series has been completely updated, the principles behind the series remain the same, using CONTENT LEVELS as a basis for categorizing activities. The key to this approach, which we term the appropriate curriculum model, is that students are presented with activities appropriate to their levels of understanding of the content together with their mastery of the requisite higher-order thinking processes. The levels are an adaptation of Bloom?s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, still a widely accepted and valued model of education. Below are the Content Levels and Indicators used in this book: Ready-Ed Publications; June 2001 36 pages; ISBN 9781863975773 Read online, or download in secure PDF format Title: Mammals Over The Ages Author: Sandy Tasker In The Family Tree We know that the WOOLLY MAMMOTH was the huge, hairy ancestor of our elephant and that the WOOLLY RHINOCEROS was the forerunner of the rhino. But where did some of our other modern mammals come from? Hyracotherium or Eohippus (meaning "dawn horse") was the earliest-known horse. It was the size of a tiny dog, being only 60 cm long and 20 cm high at the shoulder. This primitive horse had four hoofed toes on the front feet and three hoofed toes on each hind foot. It had a long skull with 44 long-crowned teeth. It was a grazing herbivore that ate soft leaves and plant shoots. Eohippus lived during the early Eocene Epoch, about 50 million years ago. It lived in the Northern Hemisphere (in Asia, Europe and North America). The first fossils of this tiny horse were found in England by the famous palaeontologist Richard Owen in 1841. Find a picture of this ancient horse and draw it in the first square. Then make a flow chart to show how this horse may have evolved to become the horse as we know it today. Use sources such as: Extra: Imagine that humans of today are merely the ancestors of highly developed beings that are going to exist 100 000 years from now. What special features and skills will humans have in the future? On the back of this page, draw a chart to show how we evolve into these super-beings.	<urn:uuid:20add47a-6a2b-4731-bb47-521ff3c986f2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.019057750701904297, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9403056502342224, "url": "http://www.ebooks.com/225314/mammals-over-the-ages/tasker-sandy/" }
Researchers are interested in the effect of a certain nutrient on the growth rate of plant seedlings. Using a hydroponics grow procedure that utilized water containing the nutrient, they planted six tomato plants and recorded the heights of each plant 14 days after germination. Those heights, measured in millimeters, were as follows: 55.5, 60.3, 60.6, 62.1, 65.5, 69.2. a. Find a point estimate of the population mean height of this variety of seedling 14 days after germination. b. A method that we’ll study in Section 8.3 provides a margin of error of 4.9 mm for a 95% confidence interval for the population mean height. Construct that interval. c. Use this example to explain why a point estimate alone is usually insufficient for statistical inference. • CreatedSeptember 11, 2015 • Files Included Post your question	<urn:uuid:50951117-5ce2-4ec3-acf8-32887a0ca58e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.021784067153930664, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8879110217094421, "url": "http://www.solutioninn.com/researchers-are-interested-in-the-effect-of-a-certain-nutrient" }
Species Spotlight: Eastern Ribbonsnake E Ribbonsnake_Todd PiersonSp-Spot: Eastern Ribbonsnake Scientific Name: Thamnophis sauritus Taxonomic Group: Serpentes Size: 46 to 86 cm The eastern ribbonsnake is a beautiful, slender snake that is often confused with the eastern garter snake. They have three yellow stripes along their back on a dark brown or black background. Their chins and throats are white or pale yellow, and their belly is pale green, yellow, or white. The best way to differentiate a ribbonsnake from a garter snake is that ribbon snakes have a yellow “teardrop” scale on the side of their face in front of their eye, whereas garter snakes do not have this teardrop. See the picture for a good view of this teardrop on ribbonsnakes. Ribbonsnakes prefer wetland habitats, specifically areas with tall grass surrounding ponds. They are often considered a specialist predator on frogs, which is why they rely on wetlands. Ribbonsnakes are non-venomous, and are generally quite calm, although they might secrete musk when picked up. They strike at their prey and swallow them whole, so no venom is necessary. Ribbonsnakes hibernate throughout the winter season in northern North America. They hibernate in rock crevices and burrows that go below the frost line, and stay there while the temperature is below 4°C, typically from late October to early April. Mating typically occurs when they emerge from hibernation, although it occasionally occurs in the fall prior to hibernation. Young are born in late summer, and females can have litters of up to 30 young, but average closer to 10 young. Although ribbonsnakes are listed as federal species of special concern, they are not considered at risk according to Ontario’s species at risk legislation. They are protected in national parks and federal land in Ontario, but not on provincial land. Where Else Can You See This Species? The local subspecies of the eastern ribbonsnake, known as the northern ribbonsnake, is only found from the eastern Great Lakes in Ontario to Nova Scotia. However, the eastern ribbonsnakes can be found as far south as Florida. Did You Know? • Ribbonsnakes are very good swimmers, and will often flee into water to escape terrestrial predators We would like to thank our guest blogger William Halliday for this post. William is a PhD student at the University of Ottawa and a volunteer for Nature Canada. William researches the habitat selection behaviours of snakes in the Ottawa area as part of his PhD research. this initiative is funded by	<urn:uuid:11226b33-8a42-48e7-adec-320efd4a6347>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.765625, "fasttext_score": 0.021649658679962158, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.945797860622406, "url": "http://naturecanada.ca/news/blog/sp-spot-eastern-ribbonsnake/" }
go to homepage Alternative Title: Sirenia Sirenian (order Sirenia), any of four large aquatic mammalian species now living primarily in tropical waters where food plants grow. The three species of manatee (genus Trichechus) occupy warm latitudes of the coastal Atlantic and associated rivers, and the dugong (Dugong dugon) inhabits the coastlines of the Indian and Pacific oceans. The extinct Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), formerly of the Bering Sea, also belonged to the dugong family, but all were killed off by humans less than 30 years after they were first scientifically described in 1741. Steller’s sea cow was the largest sirenian and one of the few sirenians to occupy cold water. The term sea cow is now sometimes used to refer collectively to sirenians. • Features of dugongs (Dugong dugon) and manatees (genus … Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Natural history The order Sirenia was named after the Sirens of Greek mythology, and sirenians are believed to be the basis for the mermaid myth. Modern sirenians have two front limbs in the form of flippers but no hind limbs; even the pelvis is vestigial, and there are no skeletal remnants of leg or foot bones at all. Sirenian bodies are basically round in cross-section and taper toward the tail, which is flattened horizontally and provides propulsion. Dugong tails are deeply notched, similar to those of whales, whereas in manatees the tail is rounded outward like a paddle. Sirenians in general are slow-moving but capable of short bursts of speed. There are no marked differences between the sexes; females have two inconspicuous mammary glands with one teat near the base of each flipper. Both dugongs and manatees have thick tough skin (that of Steller’s sea cow was even tougher). All sirenians are nearly hairless except at the muzzle, where there are thick sensory hairs called vibrissae. The upper lip is enlarged and muscular and serves to grasp and manipulate food plants. The eyes are small, and the external ears consist only of tiny pits. Nostrils on the upper surface of the snout function as valves to exclude water. Sirenian bones are exceptionally dense, most of them lacking marrow. This adaptation is thought to help maintain neutral buoyancy. Manatees and dugongs differ in a number of traits besides the shape of the tail. Manatees lack incisor teeth, but incisors do occur in dugongs, erupting as tusks in the males. Manatees grow a never-ending series of molars that continuously move forward in the jaw to replace those that wear and fall out at the front. Dugongs, on the other hand, have a finite number of six molars and premolars in each jaw, and they are not replaced; in older individuals only two remain. Manatees have six neck vertebrae instead of the seven typical of mammals. Dugongs are exclusively marine, but manatees inhabit both marine and freshwater systems. Sirenian populations are easily depleted by activities of people, often falling victim to hunting, drowning in nets, collisions with boats, and habitat degradation. They are protected by law and international agreements in almost all countries, but in many areas populations remain very low or are extirpated as a result of past and present human activities. Classification and paleontology Sirenians arose from terrestrial hoofed mammals (tethytheres) during the Paleocene Epoch (65 million to 54.8 million years ago) in what is now the Old World. Tethytheres also gave rise to elephants (order Proboscidea), and early sirenians spread to shallow waters throughout the tropics. The family Dugongidae, which eventually included Steller’s sea cow, was an early offshoot, giving rise to the Trichechidae about 40 million years ago. Order Sirenia (sea cows) Four living species in two families Family Trichechidae (manatees) Genus Trichechus Three species Family Dugongidae Two genera, one now extinct Genus Dugong (dugong) One species Genus Hydrodamalis (Steller’s sea cow) One species hunted to extinction Learn More in these related articles: Mother polar bear nursing her cubs (Ursus maritimus). ...than to other ungulates. Order Hyracoidea (hyraxes) 6 species in 1 family. Order Sirenia (manatees and dugongs) 4 species in 2 families. Order Proboscidea... Mastodons and woolly mammoths were hunted by some Paleo-Indians. These animals were similar in size to modern African elephants but, unlike the modern variety, they were adapted to ice age temperatures. The living mammals most closely related to proboscideans are the manatees and the dugongs—marine mammals of the order Sirenia. Proboscideans and sirenians are together classified as tethytherians, in reference to the ancient sea of Tethys, where both groups are hypothesized to have originated. On land the closest proboscidean relative is the hyrax (order Hyracoidea), a small rodentlike... Coryphodon, restoration painting by Charles R. Knight, 1898 The Eocene Epoch marks the first appearance in the fossil record of the two completely marine mammal groups, the cetaceans (whales, porpoises, and dolphins) and the sirenians (akin to the modern manatees and dugongs). Similarly, the Eocene provides the first elephant-like animals and the early bats. In addition, gastropods (a class of mollusks containing snails, slugs, and limpets) underwent... • MLA • APA • Harvard • Chicago You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Tips For Editing Leave Edit Mode You are about to leave edit mode. Thank You for Your Contribution! Uh Oh Keep Exploring Britannica 6 Domestic Animals and Their Wild Ancestors Standardbred gelding with dark bay coat. Baby rabbit (bunny) 7 More Domestic Animals and Their Wild Ancestors 9 of the World’s Deadliest Mammals From the Horse’s Mouth: Fact or Fiction? Adult orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) with baby. Mammals Quiz Lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor). Fallow deer (Dama dama) A giant panda feeds on bamboo, which makes up nearly all of its diet. Mammalian Matters: Fact or Fiction? Take this animals quiz at encyclopedia britannica to test your knowledge about mammals. Email this page	<urn:uuid:4095c0dc-1239-4e23-ab63-d31870b19af4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.03347986936569214, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9160192608833313, "url": "https://www.britannica.com/animal/sirenian" }
Central Pangean Mountains From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Map of Pangaea, including the Central Pangean Mountains. The Central Pangean Mountains were an extensive northeast-southwest trending mountain range in the central portion of the supercontinent Pangaea during the Triassic period. They were formed as a result of collision between the minor supercontinents Laurussia and Gondwana during the formation of Pangaea.[1] Remnants of this massive mountain range include the Appalachian Mountains of North America, the Little Atlas of Morocco, Africa and much of the Scottish Highlands including Ben Nevis. A number of mountain building periods were involved in the formation of the Central Pangean Mountains, including the Acadian, Caledonian, Alleghenian and Mauritanide orogenies. Triassic Period Lower/Early Triassic Middle Triassic Upper/Late Triassic Induan \|Olenekian Anisian \| Ladinian Carnian \| Norian	<urn:uuid:8b3da6c7-2ca4-43b1-bfb0-fcef2bb83afc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.02241116762161255, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9223677515983582, "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Pangean_Mountains" }
Zork Genetics In this genetics worksheet, students use an imaginary species and a list of genetic traits and the alleles that code for each trait to determine the genotype and phenotype probabilities of offspring. Students complete nine monohybrid crosses to determine the probabilities of the offspring. 9th - 12th Science 62 Views 131 Downloads Resource Details 1 more... Resource Types 1 more... What Members Say Brigida T. Brigida T., Student teacher Smyrna, GA	<urn:uuid:b680ddd4-782f-496e-8834-776e5bb1f8ee>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.4929018020629883, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8087289929389954, "url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/zork-genetics" }
NM History--Vocabulary: Question Preview (ID: 14969) Below is a preview of the questions contained within the game titled NM HISTORY--VOCABULARY: Study The Vocabulary Terms For Our Final Exam .To play games using this data set, follow the directions below. Good luck and have fun. Enjoy! [print these questions] What does the term 'altitude' mean? a) The aritificial watering of crops. b) The amount of rainfall in a year. c) The average maximum temperature. d) The height of land above sea level. What does the word 'nomadic' mean? a) A lifestyle in which someone stays in one place, with a permanent home. b) A lifestyle in which someone is constantly on the move, with no permanent home. c) A religion that recognizes many gods. d) A building material made of clay, water, and sand. What is a 'kachina'? a) A spirit being of the traditional Pueblo religion. b) A room (usually round) that is used for religious ceremonies. c) A traditional Navajo dwelling. d) A Spanish outpost, centered around a church, where Native Americans worked and worshipped. What does 'polytheistic' mean? a) Practicing no religion. b) Woshipping many gods. c) Making sacrifices to a god. d) Worshipping one god. Describe a Spanish mission. a) It was a small adobe house where one Spanish family would live. b) It was a fort built by the Spanish for only military purposes. c) It was an outpost, centered around a church, where Native Americans worked and learned to worship. d) It was only a church, with no other buildings or fields around it. What is a 'wickiup'? a) A traditional Navajo dwelling. b) A traditional Pueblo dwelling. c) A traditional Apache dwelling. d) None of the above. What is a 'retablo'? a) A religious statue (3D) from the Spanish Colonial period. b) A religious painting (2D) from the Spanish Colonial period. c) Another word for a Catholic church. d) Another word for an adobe house. What does 'Manifest Destiny' mean? a) A belief during the 1800s that the U.S. had a right and a duty to spread across the continent. b) The desire of Spanish explorers to go to the New World for God, Gold, and Glory c) The belief of Native Americans that they were destined to break free from U.S. rule. d) The belief of many Americans that they should settle no further west than the Mississippi River. Which of the following means 'the artificial (manmade) watering of crops'? a) Precipitation b) Irrigation c) Elevation d) Climate What do historians call the area of the U.S. that suffered from severe drought and erosion in the 1930s? a) The Great Desert b) The Dusty Plains c) The Scorched States d) The Dust Bowl Play Games with the Questions above at ReviewGameZone.com To play games using the questions from the data set above, visit ReviewGameZone.com and enter game ID number: 14969 in the upper right hand corner at ReviewGameZone.com or simply click on the link above this text. Log In \| Sign Up / Register	<urn:uuid:348f3fd5-e021-4cac-8afe-8daf029f2c15>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.5730640292167664, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9266394376754761, "url": "http://reviewgamezone.com/preview.php?id=14969" }
How is air quality measured? 1. 0 Votes Air quality is measured by the Federal government with something called the ‘AIQ’ or Air Quality Index. Air quality measures the parts per millions or PPMs of many pollutants like CO2 and Methane gas as well as other conditions like smog to rate areas on a scale of 0 to 300 based on fifty. 0-50 scores are considered the cleanest while 250-300 are considered the most dangerous. US skies mostly score between 0 and 100, rarely breaking a score of 150. Please signup or login to answer this question.	<urn:uuid:4d5473ac-d656-4cc7-9acd-4769a3b60344>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.890625, "fasttext_score": 0.9998399019241333, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9539116024971008, "url": "http://greenanswers.com/question/how-quality-measured/" }
Rising Ocean Acidity May Deplete Vital Phytoplankton Changing ocean chemistry caused by increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide may reduce the availability of dissolved iron to marine phytoplankton, as the kind shown here. Rising acid levels in the world's oceans appear to be robbing the tiny animals that form the bedrock of the marine food web of a vital nutrient. This shift in the ocean's chemistry could reduce populations of phytoplankton, which could touch off a cascade of changes to ocean life. Roughly one-third of the oceans contain phytoplankton that are limited in their growth by the amount of iron available to them. A study published today in Science, suggested that zone could grow. "The concept of changes to ocean productivity and ecosystems due to acidification is a very important one to consider," said Ken Buesseler of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Mass., who was not a part of the study. "If half of the photosynthesis on the planet is in the ocean and if you reduce that because of acidification, that is a big deal." Ocean acidification is a trickle-down effect of climate change. Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere drive more CO2 to dissolve into the ocean, making it more acidic. In photosynthesis, plants -- including phytoplankton -- convert CO2 from the atmosphere into their tissues, and produce the oxygen that we breathe. Other animals up the food chain feed off of this carbon that was pulled out of the atmosphere by the miniscule plants. A lack of iron appears to slow this process down, which could affect the food supply for other ocean life, and reduce the amount of heat-trapping carbon dioxide the ocean can soak up. It's still unclear exactly how the new findings will play out in the complex mixture of organisms in the ocean, with many competing changes caused by acidification and warming. For instance, most of the iron in the ocean comes from dust, and climate change may increase the amount of dust that settles over the ocean, supplying extra iron and counteracting the new findings, Buesseler noted. Or, other organisms that are not limited by iron may fill the voids left by iron-starved phytoplankton. "We're just at the beginning of research on ocean acidification," Morel said. "This is the first study published of its kind that looks at the uptake of a critical nutrient." Morel's team, including study lead author Dalin Shi, a graduate student a Princeton, looked at the iron intake of several types of phytoplankton under different levels of acidity, using both lab-made seawater and seawater samples from New Jersey and Bermuda. Much of the ocean's iron is chemically bound to organic molecules, so phytoplankton can't get at it. Another portion of the iron is available to the organisms. Shi's experiments showed that as conditions become more acidic, the proportion of iron in the available form decreases, slowing the rate at which the phytoplankton can absorb it. In future work, Morel said, the team plans to look at broader populations of phytoplankton and at water from more locations to understand better how iron starvation will play out ocean-wide. Invalid Email	<urn:uuid:ceab376c-4091-4ebb-8371-df2ade5128be>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.16616284847259521, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9446132779121399, "url": "http://news.discovery.com/earth/oceans/phytoplankton-iron-ocean-acidity.htm" }
ternary frame Ternary frames The term ‘frame’ is used in a different sense here than in geometric logic; see frame. The usage here is analogous to Kripke frames in modal logic. A ternary frame is a way of presenting a model for a substructural logic (such as linear logic and relevant logic?) in terms of a set of “worlds” or “states of information” and a ternary relation. A ternary frame is a set AA together with a ternary relation RR on AA; we write RxyzR x y z when RR holds of three elements x,y,zAx,y,z\in A. We may additionally ask that AA have a partial ordering; in this case we demand the compatibility condition that if RxyzR x y z and xxx'\le x, yyy'\le y, and zzz\le z', then also RxyzR x' y' z'. Modeling substructural logic We can model logic using a ternary frame with a “forcing” or “satisfaction” relation between points of AA and formulas. We begin by assigning to each atomic formula? a set of points of AA which satisfy it. If AA has a partial order, as above, then we ask each of these sets to be up-closed. The logical connectives can then be defined inductively by clauses such as the following: • xP&Qx \Vdash P \& Q (the negative conjunction) if and only if xPx\Vdash P and xQx\Vdash Q. • xPQx \Vdash P \oplus Q (the positive disjunction) if and only if xPx \Vdash P or xQx\Vdash Q. • x0x \Vdash \mathbf{0} (the positive falsity) never. • xx \Vdash \top (the negative truth) always. • xPQx \Vdash P \multimap Q (the one-sided linear implication) if and only if for all x,y,zx,y,z, if RxyzR x y z and yPy\Vdash P, then zQz\Vdash Q. • xPQx \Vdash P \otimes Q (the positive conjunction) if and only if there exist y,zy,z such that RyzxR y z x and yPy\Vdash P and zQz\Vdash Q. The logic obtained thereby will generally be substructural: it need not satisfy the structural rules like weakening, contraction, or even exchange. On this page, we have used the notation for substructural connectives from linear logic. Additional structure We can impose properties or structure on the ternary frame to affect the logic. For instance, if RxyzR x y z implies RyxzR y x z, then the logic we obtain will satisfy the exchange rule. We also need additional structure in order to model positive truth, negative falsity, negative disjunction, and negation. Truth sets A truth set in an ordered ternary frame is a subset TAT\subseteq A such that xyx\le y if and only if there exists a tTt\in T with RtxyR t x y. Alternatively, given an unordered ternary frame AA and a subset TT, we could define xyx\le y in this way, and then require as a property of TT that the resulting relation is a partial order. If TT is a truth set, then it makes sense to define • x1x \Vdash \mathbf{1} (the positive truth) if and only if xTx\in T. Compatibility relations One way to model negation (and thereby obtain negative falsity \bot and negative disjunction \parr by duality from positive truth 1\mathbf{1} and positive conjunction \otimes) is with a compatibility relation, which is just a binary relation CC. If AA has a partial order, we demand additionally that if xCyx C y and xxx'\le x and yyy\le y', then xCyx' C y'. Given such a CC, we define • x¬Px \Vdash \neg P if and only if for all yy, if xCyx C y then not yPy\Vdash P. Falsity sets Negation can alternatively be modeled using a false set. Suppose given a subset FAF\subseteq A, to be the interpretation of the negative falsity \bot: • xx\Vdash \bot if and only if xFx\in F. We can then, if we wish, interpret negation and negative disjunction by defining ¬P(P)\neg P \coloneqq (P\multimap \bot) and PQ¬(¬P¬Q)P\parr Q \coloneqq \neg (\neg P \otimes \neg Q). The latter is most sensible if negation is involutive, which it need not be in general — that is, if x¬¬Px \Vdash \neg \neg P we need not have xPx\Vdash P. One solution to this (if we want negation to be involutive) is to close up \Vdash under double-negation. This entails replacing the clauses defining the interpretation of the positive connectives \otimes, \oplus, 1\mathbf{1}, and 0\mathbf{0} with their double-negation closure. This is commonly done in the phase space semantics for linear logic (see below). From ternary frames to quantales Since the models above associate to formulas subsets of AA, it seems natural to describe them in a purely algebraic way using structure on the powerset of AA. In the case when AA is a poset, instead of the powerset of AA we must use the set of up-closed subsets of AA. Since this subsumes the unordered case (use the discrete ordering), we henceforth assume AA to be a poset, with RR having the assumed compatibility relation. In fact, this axiom (which we repeat here for the reader’s convenience): says precisely that RR is a 2\mathbf{2}-enriched profunctor A op×A opA opA^{op} \times A^{op} ⇸ A^{op}. (Here we are identifying posets with 2\mathbf{2}-enriched categories, where 2\mathbf{2} is the interval category.) Therefore, by Day convolution, RR induces a binary tensor product on the 2\mathbf{2}-enriched presheaf category 2 A\mathbf{2}^A, which is precisely the poset of up-closed sets in AA. This tensor product is precisely the above interpretation of \otimes. By the usual Day convolution arguments, this tensor product functor has both left and right adjoints, which are precisely the interpretation of \multimap and its dual. Of course, the interpretations of &\& and \oplus are just the categorical product and coproduct in 2 A\mathbf{2}^A. Similarly, that of 0\mathbf{0} and \top are the initial and terminal objects. A truth set TT corresponds to a profunctor 1A op1 ⇸ A^{op} which is a unit for the pro-multiplication RR. Therefore, in this case the tensor product on 2 A\mathbf{2}^A has a unit object, which is precisely TT, the interpretation of the positive truth 1\mathbf{1}. If we were to additionally add the assumption that RR is associative, in the sense that • there exists a zz with RxyzR x y z and RzuvR z u v if and only if there exists a ww with RxwvR x w v and RyuwR y u w then A opA^{op} would become a promonoidal poset, and hence 2 A\mathbf{2}^A would be a complete and cocomplete closed monoidal poset, i.e. a quantale. … compatibility relations, satisfying some axioms, should make 2 A\mathbf{2}^A *-autonomous Phase spaces If AA is a magma with multiplication \cdot, then we can make it a ternary frame by defining RxyzR x y z to mean xy=zx \cdot y = z. More generally, if AA is a poset equipped with a binary multiplication \cdot, we can make it an ordered ternary frame by defining RxyzR x y z to mean xyzx \cdot y \le z. If \cdot has a unit object tt, then T={t}T = \{t\} (in the unordered case) or T={x\|tx}T = \{x \| t \le x \} (in the ordered case) is a truth set. Categorically, this corresponds to the usual way of regarding a monoidal category as a promonoidal category. In the special case when AA is a commutative monoid equipped with a “false set” FF as above (usually written \bot) in this context, this semantics for linear logic is called phase space semantics. It is usually expressed in terms of the quantale 2 A\mathbf{2}^A obtained by Day convolution, but after passing to fixed points of the double-negation monad (in order to obtain an involutive negation). In this context, fixed points of ¬¬\neg\neg are referred to as facts. It is also possible to interpret the exponential modalities !! and ?? of linear logic using phase space semantics. For instance, we can define • x!Px \Vdash !P if and only if xx belongs to the ¬¬\neg\neg-closure of the set of all idempotents yy such that yP&1y\Vdash P \& \mathbf{1}. and obtain ?P?P by duality. Phase space semantics is complete for linear logic, in the sense that a formula is provable if and only if in any phase space semantics we have 1P1\vDash P, where 11 is the unit element of the monoid AA. Created on May 15, 2012 10:28:56 by Mike Shulman (	<urn:uuid:9c3498bb-613a-4b1c-be3a-a040b0a4a48f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.828125, "fasttext_score": 0.043856024742126465, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8448634743690491, "url": "http://www.ncatlab.org/nlab/show/ternary+frame" }
actor-manager system actor-manager system, method of theatrical production dominant in England and the U.S. in the 19th century, consisting of a permanent company formed by a leading actor who chose his or her own plays, took a leading role in them, and handled business and financial arrangements. The advantages of this system became apparent in the 18th century when successful actor-managers such as Colley Cibber and David Garrick achieved performance standards superior to those achieved by theatre owners who hired occasional casts for individual plays. In the 19th century great actor-managers such as William Charles Macready, Sir Henry Irving, Madame Vestris, Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, and Laura Keene maintained high standards. The repertoire usually involved a combination of Shakespeare, popular melodramas, and new dramas or comedies. The era of the actor-manager was geared to star performances, and often the actor’s most famous performance was in an inferior literary work, such as Irving’s role in the horror play The Bells. Several factors contributed to the decline of the actor-manager system: more corporate ownership of theatres, a trend toward ensemble-style acting, obsolescence of the stock system of play rotation in favour of long runs, and the cost of investing in new plays, which led to new combinations of artistic personnel for each new venture.	<urn:uuid:19da5d74-1281-4eea-adc4-8880087c6154>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.5757150053977966, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9535817503929138, "url": "http://www.britannica.com/print/topic/4651" }
October 3, 2011 Fighting Poverty in a Bad Economy, Americans Move in with Relatives Appendix A: Notes on Terminology and Methodology Generations. The number of generations in a household is determined by the variable defining the relationship of each person in the household to the head. Each household has a “base” generation determined by the reference person or head of the household. Others in the base generation include the reference person’s spouse, siblings and siblings in law. Generations beyond this base are defined by individual relationships: 1. Base generation: reference person, spouse, sibling, sibling in law 2. Children (“-1” generation): child of head, child in law 3. Parents (“+1” generation): parent of head, parent in law 4. Grandchildren (“-2” generation): grandchild of head 5. Others: great-grandchild of head, grandparent of head The datasets used for the analysis are from Decennial Censuses of 1900-2000 and the American Community Surveys of 2006-200925 as provided by the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS).The IPUMS are compiled by the University of Minnesota Population Center. Documentation is available at http://usa.ipums.org/usa/doc.shtml. The IPUMS datasets permit determining generational composition for other types of relationships (e.g., aunt, uncle, niece, nephew) and for persons not related to the household head because the dataset identifies parental linkages where possible. So two generations are also present in a household if a person is determined to have a parent based on the IPUMS variables “MOMLOC” and “POPLOC.” If the parent also has a parent, a third generation is present. Multi-generational Households. For our analyses, save for one exception, multi-generational households are defined as households with at least two generations of adults. The principal type of multi-generational household actually has two generations only—parent(s) and the adult child(ren): a. Householder (and spouse), parent (or parent in law) b. Householder (and spouse), adult child (or child in law) In our analyses, we define adult children as those ages 25 and older rather than ages 18 and older. With this definition, the vast majority of college students living at home are not treated as an adult generation. The next largest type of multi-generational household is the three generation household. There are a number of variants on this type, but the major ones differ as to whether the householder is in the middle generation (i.e., a “sandwich” household) or the older generation (i.e., a “grandparent” household): a. Householder (and spouse), parent (or parent in law), child (or child in law) b. Householder (and spouse), child (or child in law), grandchild Note that in these households, the children do not have to be adults. The only type of multi-generational household we define that does not necessarily include two adult generations is what might be called the “skipped” generation household. In these households, a grandchild is present but the grandchild’s parental generation is not present in the household (i.e., it is “skipped”). These multi-generational family households can be of two types: a. Householder (and spouse), grandchild b. Householder (and spouse), grandparent Most households are not multi-generational households; they are single-generation households (the householder and possibly a spouse) or two-generation, adult-minor child households. In the early years of the 20th century, there were twice as many of these two generation households as one generation households. This pattern began to change in 1930 as one generation households increased in prevalence. By 1970, there were roughly equal numbers of the two households. In 2008, there were 70% more one generation than two generation households. The definition of a multi-generational household used in this report is more expansive than the definition used by the Census Bureau. The Census Bureau defines multi-generational households as follows: A multi-generational household is one that contains three or more parent-child generations; for example, the householder, child of householder (biological, stepchild or adopted child), and grandchildren of householder. A householder with a parent or parent-in-law of the householder and a child of the householder may also be a multi-generational household (see page B-6 in: http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/doc/sf1.pdf). According to the Census Bureau, 3.8% of U.S. households in 2010 were multi-generational (http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/acs_2010_highlights.pdf). The definition used in this report finds that 10.5% of all households in 2009 were multi-generational. 1. The 2005 ACS was not analyzed because the survey did not include the entire resident population of the U.S., but only the household population. While this restriction does not limit the estimation of multi-generation households, it does not permit comparisons with the entire population.	<urn:uuid:95fce381-a5af-4992-a183-7cf35d84cc00>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.026215672492980957, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9476538896560669, "url": "http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/10/03/appendix-a-notes-on-terminology-and-methodology/" }
9.2. Attractors and Their Types When the dynamics of a population model is traced over a large number of generations, then the model exhibits an asymptotic behavior which is almost independent from initial conditions (e.g., initial population density). Asymptotic trajectory is called "attractor" because model trajectories converge to this asymptotic trajectory. There may be several attractors in a model. In this case each attractor has a domain of attraction. Model trajectory converges to that attractor in which domain initial conditions were located. In this example, there are two attractors: a limit cycle (at the left) and a stable equilibrium (at the right). Domains of attraction are colored blue, they never overlap. For different starting places (initial conditions), trajectories converge to different attractors. Types of attractors: 1. Stable equilibrium (=steady state) 2. Limit cycle 3. Chaos This is a chaotic attractor (Lorenz attractor) Alexei Sharov 1/12/96	<urn:uuid:fe78afad-70b1-45d3-b9be-9f1c561f9fbd>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.9249275326728821, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.912090539932251, "url": "http://home.comcast.net/~sharov/PopEcol/lec9/attract.html" }
Spinocerebellar Tract Spinocerebellar ataxia. Sounds scary doesn't it? If you, or a friend or loved one, has been diagnosed with the condition you might be wondering what it's all about. Let's try to explain without too much medical jargon. The Spinocerebellar tract is a collection of fibres that originate in the spinal column and carry signals to the brain about the position of your limbs and joints. It's part of the body's command and control system. Ataxia affects the spinocerebellar tract and screws up the quality of these signals. As a result sufferers from the condition tend to become clumsy and uncoordinated. Problems with the spinocerebellar tract are genetic, which means they're passed on from the parents. Only one parent needs to have the abnormal gene for a child to have a risk of developing the condition. There are more than 60 different forms of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) which makes it hard to identify as there's no single test to spot all forms. The first gene responsible for spinocerebellar ataxia was identified in 1993. With each subsequent gene scientists have been able to pinpoint the symptoms which characterise it. Problems with the spinocerebellar tract are progressive - which means it gets worse over time - and irreversible, so treatments are usually aimed at easing the symptoms. Not all types of ataxia cause equally severe problems. Therapy and medication can help with symptoms like stiffness and tremors. Sufferers may struggle to perform daily tasks, but with therapy can be helped to carry out self care. This treatment can also help to delay further deterioration. Although there's no cure for SCA, and much we don't yet understand about it, various treatments and therapies can help sufferers to have a reasonable quality of life. Research into the condition is ongoing both in terms of improving treatment and in the hope of finding a cure.	<urn:uuid:33bdba5a-6d8e-4a4b-93d4-d4ea7ee645ab>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.18843668699264526, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9630529284477234, "url": "http://spinocerebellarataxia.org/spinocerebellar-tract/" }
From OpenCircuits Revision as of 00:08, 1 July 2007 by (Talk) Jump to: navigation, search The vast majority of electronic systems operate at some fixed frequency. Usually the component that fixes that frequency is a crystal made of silicon, sealed in a metal can. (Some very-low-cost devices might use a "resonator" or a resistor and a capacitor to fix the frequency). The entire circuit that generates the frequency is called an "oscillator". (An oscillator that uses a resistor and a capacitor to fix the frequency is called a "RC oscillator". An oscillator that uses a crystal to fix the frequency is called a "crystal oscillator".) One can buy an "oscillator" in a metal can. Typically an oscillator can has 4 pins. Inside the can is all the components of the oscillator. One applies DC power on 2 of the pins, and the oscillating signal (the "CLK OUT") appears on another pin. (The remaining pin is unused). Other times one buys just the crystal in a (2-pin) metal can and attaches the other components to build an oscillator. In either case, the frequency is printed on the top of the metal can. for further reading Personal tools	<urn:uuid:fffb729b-b86e-4543-bf1a-85977aa9ebec>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.8985757231712341, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.92762291431427, "url": "http://www.opencircuits.com/index.php?title=Oscillator&oldid=4978" }
At the foot of the Kunlun Mountain range The Kunlun Mountains are one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending more than 3,000 km. The Kunlun Mountains (simplified Chinese: 昆仑山; traditional Chinese: 崑崙山; pinyin: Kūnlúnshān, pronounced [kʰu̯ə́nlu̯ə̌n ʂán]; Mongolian: Хөндлөн Уулс) are one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending more than 3,000 km. In the broadest sense, it forms the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau south of the Tarim Basin and the Gansu Corridor and continues east south of the Wei River to end at the North China Plain. The exact definition of this range seems to vary. An old source uses Kunlun to mean the mountain belt that runs across the center of China, that is, Kunlun in the narrow sense, Altyn Tagh, Qilian Mountains and Qin Mountains. A recent source has the Kunlun forming most of the south side of the Tarim Basin and then continuing east south of the Altyn Tagh. Sima Qian (Shiji, scroll 123) says that Emperor Wu of Han sent men to find the source of the Yellow River and gave the name Kunlun to the mountains at its source. The name seems to have originated as a semi-mythical location in the Shan Hai Jing. From the Pamirs of Tajikistan, it runs east along the border between Xinjiang and Tibet autonomous regions to the Sino-Tibetan ranges in Qinghai province. It stretches along the southern edge of what is now called the Tarim Basin, the infamous Takla Makan or “sand-buried houses” desert, and the Gobi Desert. A number of important rivers flow from it including the Karakash River (‘Black Jade River’) and the Yurungkash River (‘White Jade River’), which flow through the KhotanOasis into the Taklamakan Desert. Altyn-Tagh or Altun Range is one of the chief northern ranges of the Kunlun. Nan Shan or its eastern extension Qilian is another main northern range of the Kunlun. In the south main extension is the Min Shan. Bayan Har Mountains, a southern branch of the Kunlun Mountains, forms the watershed between the catchment basins of China’s two longest rivers, the Yangtze River and the Huang He. The highest mountain of the Kunlun Shan is the Kunlun Goddess (7,167 m) in the Keriya area. The Arka Tagh (Arch Mountain) is in the center of the Kunlun Shan; its highest point is Ulugh Muztagh. Some authorities claim that the Kunlun extends north westwards as far as Kongur Tagh (7,649 m) and the famous Muztagh Ata (7,546 m). But these mountains are physically much more closely linked to the Pamir group (ancient Mount Imeon). The mountain range formed at the northern edges of the Cimmerian Plate during its collision, in the LateTriassic, with Siberia, which resulted in the closing of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean. The range has very few roads and in its 3,000 km length is crossed by only two. In the west, Highway 219 traverses the range en route from Yecheng, Xinjiang to Lhatse, Tibet. Further east, Highway 109 crosses between Lhasa and Golmud. %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:a4699e68-fcc2-45d3-9113-b55f8db96bef>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.0289689302444458, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9158614277839661, "url": "https://yonaphoto.com/2012/11/05/at-the-foot-of-the-kunlun-mountain-range/" }
Plurality (voting) Last updated A plurality vote (in the United States) or relative majority (in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth) [1] describes the circumstance when a candidate or proposition polls more votes than any other but does not receive more than half of all votes cast. [2] For example, if 100 votes were cast, including 45 for Candidate A, 30 for Candidate B and 25 for Candidate C, then Candidate A received a plurality of votes but not a majority. In some votes, the winning candidate or proposition may have only a plurality, depending on the rules of the organization holding the vote. [3] Versus majority In international institutional law, a "simple majority" (also a "majority") vote is more than half of the votes cast (disregarding abstentions) among alternatives; a "qualified majority" (also a "supermajority") is a number of votes above a specified percentage (e.g. two-thirds); a "relative majority" (also a "plurality") is the number of votes obtained that is greater than any other option; and an "absolute majority" is a number of votes "greater than the number of votes that possibly can be obtained at the same time for any other solution", [note 1] when voting for multiple alternatives at a time. [4] [note 2] Henry Watson Fowler suggests that the American terms "plurality" and "majority" offer single-word alternatives for the corresponding two-word terms in British English, "relative majority" and "absolute majority", and that in British English "majority" is sometimes understood to mean "receiving the most votes" and can therefore be confused with "plurality". [1] [note 3] William Poundstone observes that systems which allow choosing by a plurality of votes are more vulnerable to the spoiler effect—where two or more similar choices each draw fewer votes than a dissimilar choice that would have lost to any individual similar choice on its own—than systems which require a majority. [5] See also 1. For example, 50 voters elect six office holders from a field of 11 candidates, thereby casting 300 votes. The largest absolute majority in this scenario would be 50 voters casting all their ballots for the same six candidates, which at 300 votes would be substantially higher than the simple majority of 151 votes—a result that no individual candidate can achieve, since the most votes any one can receive is 50. With the smallest absolute majority in this scenario, the six winners would receive 28 votes each, totaling 168, and the runners-up would receive either 27 or 26 votes each. 2. An "absolute majority" can also mean a "majority of the entire membership", a voting basis that requires that more than half of all the members of a body (including those absent and those present but not voting) to vote in favour of a proposition in order for it to be passed. Related Research Articles Approval voting Two-round system voting system used to elect a single winner where a second round of voting is used if no candidate wins an absolute majority in the first round The two-round system is a voting method used to elect a single winner, where the voter casts a single vote for their chosen candidate. Despite its name, the two-round system may resolve an election in a single round if one candidate receives enough of the vote, usually a simple majority. If no candidate receives enough of the vote in the first round, then a second round of voting is held with either just the top two candidates or all candidates who received a certain proportion of the votes. In voting methods, tactical voting occurs in elections with more than two candidates, when a voter supports another candidate more strongly than their sincere preference in order to prevent an undesirable outcome. Coombs' method is a ranked voting system created by Clyde Coombs used for single-winner elections. Similarly to instant-runoff voting, it uses candidate elimination and redistribution of votes cast for that candidate until one candidate has a majority of votes. A majority, also called a simple majority to distinguish it from similar terms, is the greater part, or more than half, of the total. It is a subset of a set consisting of more than half of the set's elements. For example, if a group consists of 20 individuals, a majority would be 11 or more individuals, while having 10 or fewer individuals would not constitute a majority. "Majority" can be used to specify the voting requirement, as in a "majority vote", which means more than half of the votes cast. The monotonicity criterion is a voting system criterion used to evaluate both single and multiple winner ranked voting systems. A ranked voting system is monotonic if it is neither possible to prevent the election of a candidate by ranking them higher on some of the ballots, nor possible to elect an otherwise unelected candidate by ranking them lower on some of the ballots . That is to say, in single winner elections no winner is harmed by up-ranking and no loser is helped by down-ranking. Douglas R. Woodall called the criterion mono-raise. The independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA), also known as binary independence or the independence axiom, is an axiom of decision theory and various social sciences. The term is used with different meanings in different contexts; although they all attempt to provide an account of rational individual behavior or aggregation of individual preferences, the exact formulations differ from context to context. Simple majority may refer to: Majority rule is a decision rule that selects alternatives which have a majority, that is, more than half the votes. It is the binary decision rule used most often in influential decision-making bodies, including all the legislatures of democratic nations. The majority criterion is a single-winner voting system criterion, used to compare such systems. The criterion states that "if one candidate is ranked first by a majority of voters, then that candidate must win". Supplementary vote The supplementary vote (SV) is an electoral system used to elect a single winner, in which the voter ranks the candidates in order of preference. In an election, if no candidate receives an absolute majority of first preference votes, then all but the two leading candidates are eliminated and there is a second count. In the second count, the votes of those who supported eliminated candidates are distributed among the two remaining candidates, so that one candidate achieves an absolute majority. The exhaustive ballot is a voting system used to elect a single winner. Under the exhaustive ballot the elector casts a single vote for their chosen candidate. However, if no candidate is supported by an overall majority of votes then the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated and a further round of voting occurs. This process is repeated for as many rounds as necessary until one candidate has a majority. Multiple non-transferable vote (MNTV), also known as plurality-at-large voting or block vote, is a non-proportional voting system for electing several representatives from a single multi-member electoral district using a series of check boxes and tallying votes similar to a plurality election. Multiple winners are elected simultaneously to serve the district. Block voting is not a system for obtaining proportional representation; instead the usual result is that where the candidates divide into definitive parties the most popular party in the district sees its full slate of candidates elected, resulting in a landslide. The Borda count is a family of single-winner election methods in which voters rank options or candidates in order of preference. The Borda count determines the outcome of a debate or the winner of an election by giving each candidate, for each ballot, a number of points corresponding to the number of candidates ranked lower. Once all votes have been counted the option or candidate with the most points is the winner. The Borda count is intended to elect broadly acceptable options or candidates, rather than those preferred by a majority, and so is often described as a consensus-based voting system rather than a majoritarian one. Instant-runoff voting (IRV) is a type of ranked preferential voting method used in single-seat elections with more than two candidates. Instead of indicating support for only one candidate, voters in IRV elections can rank the candidates in order of preference. Ballots are initially counted for each voter's top choice. If a candidate has more than half of the vote based on first-choices, that candidate wins. If not, then the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. The voters who selected the defeated candidate as a first choice then have their votes added to the totals of their next choice. This process continues until a candidate has more than half of the votes. When the field is reduced to two, it has become an "instant runoff" that allows a comparison of the top two candidates head-to-head. Compared to plurality voting, IRV can reduce the effect of vote-splitting when multiple candidates earn support from like-minded voters. Direct representation or proxy representation is a form of representative democracy where voters can vote for any candidate in the land, and each representative's vote is weighted in proportion to the number of citizens who have chosen that candidate to represent them. This is in contrast to other conventional forms of representative democracy, such as the winner-take-all system, where the winner of a plurality of votes in a given district, party or other grouping of voters, goes on to represent all voters in that group, or the proportional representation system where the number of representatives allotted to each party or political faction is roughly in proportion to the number of voters supporting each faction. Electoral systems are the rules for conducting elections. Comparisons between different systems can focus on different aspects: on suffrage or rules for voter eligibility; on candidate eligibility and the rules governing political parties; on the way elections are scheduled, sequenced, and combined; or on the rules for determining the winner within a given election. 2020 French municipal elections The 2020 French municipal elections will be held on 15 and 22 March 2020 to renew the municipal councils of the approximately 35,000 French communes. 1. 1 2 Fowler, Henry Watson (1965). A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 725. ISBN 0199535345. 2. "plurality". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2015-12-29. a number of votes that is more than the number of votes for any other candidate or party but that is not more than half of the total number of votes 3. Robert, Henry M. III; Honemann, Daniel H.; Balch, Thomas J. (2011). Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised (11 ed.). Da Capo Press. pp. 404–405. ISBN 9780306820212. 4. Schermers, Henry G.; Blokker, Niels M. (2011). International Institutional Law: Unity Within Diversity (5 ed.). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9004187987. 5. Poundstone, William (2009). Gaming the Vote: Why Elections Aren't Fair (and What We Can Do About It). New York: Macmillan. p. 352. ISBN 9781429957649.	<urn:uuid:4f82535a-757f-4794-b20e-cf7f524b7839>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.5461375117301941, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9443662166595459, "url": "https://wikimili.com/en/Plurality_(voting)" }
Caribou \| WWF-Canada © Peter Ewins / WWF-Canada An iconic Canadian species With its distinctive tall and flat antlers, the caribou is one of Canada’s most recognizable species, inhabiting the Arctic as well as boreal and mountain regions. Male caribou are called bulls and weigh around 150kg, while females are called cows and weigh around 90kg. These stately members of the deer family were once one of Canada’s most widespread wildlife species, found in over 80% of the country. Today though, their numbers are dropping dramatically—for many herds by more than 90%. Caribou... Or reindeer? Caribou and reindeer are actually one and the same. “Reindeer” is the name given to caribou in Scandinavia and Russia, but caribou and reindeer are the same species (Rangifer tarandus), wherever they are found in the world. Two young Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi), Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada. © Paul Nicklen/National Geographic Stock / WWF-Canada Why are caribou important? For people Across their range, caribou are an essential resource to Indigenous peoples. Northern communities have an intimate relationship with caribou herds, and have relied on them as a source of traditional food and clothing for millennia. With such a strong interest in the persistence of caribou, and as the only people living among the most northern caribou herds, northern communities are essential partners in caribou conservation projects. For ecosystems • When caribou forage on vegetation in the summer, they change decomposition and nutrients of the tundra soil. Their droppings add nitrogen to the soil and water. • Caribou are an important prey species for many carnivores in the Arctic, including wolves and brown bears. What are the threats to caribou? Caribou populations fluctuate dramatically under natural conditions. When faced with external threats, their numbers can drop to dangerous levels and may fail to recover from natural population lows. There are multiple cumulative environmental and human-caused stressors that are contributing to Peary and barren-ground caribou decline. • Climate change is altering the habitat of Arctic caribou, increasing the presence of biting flies in the summer, and creating irregular icing events in the winter that prevent caribou from accessing their food. • Increased mining exploration and development across their ranges put caribou herds under pressure, with the most significant risk of habitat loss and disturbance occurring when industrial development occurs on their calving grounds. • Harvest management during times of low abundance is challenging due to the difficulty in assessing the status of populations and a lack of reported harvest information. • Absence of effective land-use planning. Most Arctic caribou are migratory, and their habitat crosses territorial and provincial borders. As the climate changes, and migration patterns shift, it will be increasingly important for governments to implement plans that support wildlife and ecosystems. / ©: / WWF-Canada Caribou herd © / WWF-Canada What is WWF doing? • Promoting the protection of barren-ground caribou calving areas through our inputs into land use plans, by intervening in regulatory processes on specific development projects that threaten caribou, and through partnerships with companies prepared to voluntarily surrender mineral leases in key caribou habitats. • Helping fund research on barren-ground caribou to monitor the population status of herds and understand the effects of industrial development on caribou and their habitat. • Studying the Last Ice Area, one of WWF’s flagship Arctic initiatives, to help protect Peary caribou habitat, particularly sea ice crossings used for migration between islands.	<urn:uuid:c4142335-0c45-44a8-a689-4bf0385b1705>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.09375, "fasttext_score": 0.04714477062225342, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9116367697715759, "url": "https://www.wwf.ca/conservation/arctic/wildlife/caribou/" }
What a bone arrowhead from South Africa reveals about ancient human cognition The bone arrowhead (insert) found at Klasies River main site has much to teach us. Justin Bradfield and Sarah Wurz The origin of bow hunting has been a hotly debated topic in archaeology for the past two decades. This is because knowing when it emerged has the potential to offer insights into the development of human cognition and the early development of complex technology. Bone arrowheads were used throughout most of the world for the last few thousand years. But the examples found in South Africa predate anything from other regions by at least 20 000 years. Currently, the earliest evidence of bow hunting technology outside Africa comes from southern Europe, and dates to around 45 000 years ago. The earliest non-African evidence of bone points used as arrow tips is at 35 000 years ago from Timor Island. Because bows and arrows were made predominantly from organic materials, very little evidence of these weapons survives archaeologically. Nevertheless, at several sites in South Africa small stone segments have been found from 60 000-year-old horizons that are thought to have once formed part of arrowheads, either as tips or barbs. Bow and arrow technology gives hunters a unique advantage over their prey. It allows them to hunt from a distance, and from a concealed position. This, in turn, increases individual hunters’ success, as well as providing an aspect of safety when stalking dangerous prey such as buffalo, bushpig, or carnivores. The bow and arrow consists of multiple parts, each with a particular function and operating together to make hunting possible. This kind of “symbiotic” technology requires a high degree of cognitive flexibility: the mental ability to switch between thinking about different concepts, and to think about multiple concepts simultaneously. Until now, evidence for bow hunting technology using bone and dating back more than 60 000 years has only been reported from South Africa’s KwaZulu-Natal region. Now an in-depth examination of a bone arrowhead found in South Africa’s Eastern Cape province extends the known distribution of this technology farther south – and slightly earlier than previously thought. The artefact Our study, published in Quaternary Science Reviews, focused on a long, thin, delicately made, pointed bone artefact. It was found at the Klasies River Main site, along the Eastern Cape coast of South Africa. This is an extremely important archaeological site. It has the most prolific assemblage of H. sapiens remains in sub-Saharan Africa, spanning the last 120 000 years. Its archaeology sparked the first discussions raising the probability that complex human behaviour and cognition were represented in sub-Saharan Africa long before appearing in Eurasia. The artefact we studied, which comes from deposits dated to more than 60 000 years ago, closely resembles thousands of bone arrowheads used by the indigenous San hunter-gatherers from the 18th to the 20th centuries. It was excavated in the 1960s, but its importance was not recognised until recently, owing to confusion surrounding its age. Our study followed a combined approach, incorporating microscopic analysis of the bone surface, high-resolution computed tomography (CT), and non-destructive chemical analysis. The study found trace amounts of a black, organic residue distributed over the surface of the bone point in a manner suggestive of 20th century poisoned arrows. The chemistry of the black substance indicates it consists of many ingredients. Again, this is suggestive of known San poison and glue recipes. We still do not know exactly what organic compounds went into the recipe for the black substance, but future chemistry work will address this question. Microscopic analysis of the bone artefact indicates that it was hafted (or attached) to another arrow section – probably into a reed shaft. This was done after the black residue was applied. The micro-CT scan allowed us to look inside the bone, to see structural damage at a microscopic scale. These results showed that the bone artefact had experienced the same mechanical stresses as high-velocity projectiles, like arrows. The study demonstrates that the pointed bone artefact from Klasies River was certainly hafted, maybe dipped in poison, and used in a manner similar to identical bone points from more recent contexts. The artefact also fits in with what we know of ancient people’s cognition and abilities in southern Africa. From at least 100 000 years ago people in southern Africa were combining multiple ingredients to form coloured pastes, possibly for decoration or skin protection. By 70 000 years ago they were making glues and other compound adhesives using a range of ingredients, combined in a series of complex steps. These glues may have then been used, among other things, to haft small stone pieces in varying arrangements, probably as insets for arrows or other weapons. The presence of these technical elements in the southern African Middle Stone Age (roughly equivalent to the Eurasian Middle Palaeolithic) signals an advanced cognitive ability. That includes notions of abstract thought, analogical reasoning, multitasking and cognitive fluidity or the ability to ‘think outside the box’. Want to write? Register now	<urn:uuid:9849bc96-d396-41c5-8213-b4ac95912f6c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.032151222229003906, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9553281664848328, "url": "https://theconversation.com/what-a-bone-arrowhead-from-south-africa-reveals-about-ancient-human-cognition-137651" }
Start Reading Short History of the Victorian Era 239 pages3 hours Beginning in the 1830s and ending with the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, the Victorian Era saw the British Empire—the largest the world had seen—dominate the world. British ingenuity in the fields of technological development and the heavy industry of its Industrial Revolution led to Britain being dubbed "the workshop of the world" while its Royal Navy policed the world's oceans helping to create what has become known as a "Pax Britannica." This book details the sweeping social and economic changes that took place during this period but also examines the events of the time and the lives of the eminent Victorians who contributed so much to British success—men and women such as Florence Nightingale, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Charles Dickens, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson and Charles Darwin. This is the story of the greatest period in British history, a period that still resonates in today's Britain. Read on the Scribd mobile app Download the free Scribd mobile app to read anytime, anywhere.	<urn:uuid:27ea78ba-f561-4668-aed0-69dc0a1cd108>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.1404811143875122, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9455539584159851, "url": "https://www.scribd.com/book/402075408/Short-History-of-the-Victorian-Era" }
Books as Instruments Regiomontanus, Calendarium (1476), volvelle In this remarkable book, Regiomontanus predicted the positions of the Sun and Moon for 40 years. He designed a sundial to work independently of one︎'s latitude, and a volvelle, or circular dial, to locate the position and phase of the Moon according to date and time. Books became observing instruments in their own right.	<urn:uuid:bb5a95ce-6723-4796-986b-be6fd08f64c4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.02707773447036743, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9196571111679077, "url": "http://lynx-open-ed.org/bookInstrument" }
the ccd equation back to teaching back to the course start of previous section next page last page of this section help on navigating these pages To write an equation for SNR we need to know the various noise sources that contribute to an astronomical measurement with a CCD. These are: Assuming that all of the above noise sources are independent, the total noise, N, is given by the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual errors: N = (Sobj + Ssky + Sdark + R2)0.5. Hence the SNR is given by the equation: SNR = S / N = Sobj / (Sobj + Ssky + Sdark + R2)0.5. It is important to realise that the above equation applies even after subtracting the mean sky background and dark current levels from each pixel, since the shot noise from these sources will still be present. To use the above equation correctly, one must be careful with the units used for each of the terms. Typically, when predicting the SNR of an observation, we have: A few things are worthy of note in the above list. First, Sobj is the total number of photons from the object, which will probably be spread out over a number of pixels, whereas Ssky is the number of sky photons per pixel. Second, Sobj and Ssky are in photon units not electrons. Third, Sobj, Ssky and Sdark will increase with exposure time, but R will not. So, to clarify the SNR equation given above, we need to account for the exposure time of the CCD image, t, the number of pixels that the object is spread over, npix, and the conversion efficiency of photons to electrons, which is given by the quantum efficiency, QE, of the CCD expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The latter conversion from photons to electrons is essential, as otherwise one would predict a higher signal-to-noise than measured, i.e. the signal in the SNR equation must be the detected signal, not the signal emitted by the source. The resulting equation is sometimes referred to as the CCD equation: SNR = (Sobj . t . QE) / [ (Sobj . t . QE) + (Ssky . t . QE . npix) + (Sdark . t . npix) + (R2 . npix) ]0.5, which can be simplified to: SNR = [Sobj . (t . QE)0.5] / [ Sobj + npix (Ssky + (Sdark / QE ) + (R2 / QE . t)) ]0.5. Sometimes, Sobj and Ssky are given in counts. In this case, we must also convert them into electron units. This is because Poisson statistics are only applicable when counting independent, random events, which means that the noise is only equal to the square root of the signal if the signal is in units of the detected quantity, i.e. electrons. The conversion from counts to electrons can be performed by replacing QE in the above equation by the CCD gain, g, in units of e-/ADU: SNR = (Sobj . t . g) / [ (Sobj . t . g) + (Ssky . t . g . npix) + (Sdark . t . npix) + (R2 . npix) ]0.5, which can be simplified to: SNR = [Sobj . (t . g)0.5] / [ Sobj + npix (Ssky + (Sdark / g ) + (R2 / g . t)) ]0.5. Similarly, Sobj and Ssky are sometimes given in flux units, and these must be converted into electrons before the CCD equation can be used. In this case, one must first divide the flux by the energy of a single photon to give the number of photons, and then multiply by the QE to give the number of electrons. We can use the CCD equation to define three limiting cases: the object-limited case, the background-limited case and the readout-noise limited case. To maximise SNR, one should always try to expose for long enough to obtain object- or background-limited data, as otherwise one pays a significant penalty for reading out the CCD. However, it isn't always possible to avoid the readout-noise limited regime, particularly when exposure times must be kept short in order to sample short time-scale variability. Some calculations illustrating how to use the CCD equation are given in the example problems. ©Vik Dhillon, 14th December 2010	<urn:uuid:fd82681f-3ad5-486e-8714-4f6a52302f7b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.8690833449363708, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9197288751602173, "url": "http://www.vikdhillon.staff.shef.ac.uk/teaching/phy217/detectors/phy217_det_ccdeqn.html" }
The Full Wiki Humber: Map Wikipedia article: Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article: The Humber ( ) is a large tidal estuary on the east coast of Northern England. It is formed at Trent Fallsmarker, Faxfleetmarker, by the confluence of the tidal River Ousemarker and the tidal River Trent. From here to the North Seamarker, it forms part of the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire on the north bank and North Lincolnshiremarker and North East Lincolnshiremarker on the south bank. Although the Humber is an estuary from the point at which it is formed, many maps show it as the River Humber. Below Trent Falls, the Humber passes the junction with the Market Weighton Canal on the north shore, the confluence of the River Ancholmemarker on the south shore; between North Ferribymarker and South Ferribymarker and under the Humber Bridge; between Barton-upon-Humbermarker on the south bank and Kingston upon Hullmarker on the North bank (where the River Hullmarker joins), then meets the North Seamarker between Cleethorpesmarker on the Lincolnshire side and the long and thin (but rapidly changing) headland of Spurn Headmarker to the North. Ports on the Humber include Kingston upon Hullmarker (better known as simply Hull), Grimsbymarker, Imminghammarker, New Hollandmarker and Killingholmemarker. The Humber is now only an estuary; but when the world sea level was lower during the Ice Ages, the Humber had a long freshwater course across the dry bed of the North Seamarker. In the Anglo-Saxon period, the Humber was a major boundary, separating Northumbriamarker from the southern kingdoms. Indeed, the name Northumbria came from Anglo-Saxon Norðhymbre (plural) = "the people north of the Humber". The Humber currently forms the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire, to the north and Northmarker and North East Lincolnshiremarker, to the south. From 1974 to 1996 the areas now known as East Riding, North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire constituted Humberside. For hundreds of years before that, the Humber lay between Lindsey and The East Riding of Yorkshire. "East Riding" is derived from "East Thriding", and likewise with the other Ridings. "Thriding" is an old word of Norse origin meaning a third part. Since the late 11th century, Lindsey had been one of the Parts of Lincolnshire. The estuary's only crossing is the Humber Bridge, which was once the longest suspension bridge in the world. Now it is the fifth longest. Graham Boanas, a Hull man, is believed to be the first man to succeed in wading across the Humber since ancient Roman times. The feat, in August 2005, was attempted to raise cash and awareness for the medical research charity, DebRA. He started his trek on the north bank at Boothferrymarker; four hours later, he emerged on the South bank at Whittonmarker. He is 6 feet 9 inches (205.74 cm) tall and took advantage of a very low tide. He replicated this achievement on the television programme Top Gear (Series 10 Episode 6) when he raced James May (who is driving a Alfa Romeo 159) across the Humber without using the Humber Bridge. Two fortifications were built in the mouth of the river in 1914, the Humber Forts. Fort Paullmarker is further downstream. The Humber was once known as the Abus, for example in Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene. This river's name is recorded in Anglo-Saxon times as Humbre (Anglo-Saxon dative) and Humbri (Latin genitive). Since its name recurs in the name of the "Humber Brook" near "Humber Court" in Herefordshiremarker or Worcestershire, the word humbr- may have been a word that meant "river", or something similar, in an aboriginal language that had been spoken in Englandmarker before the Celts migrated there (compare Tardebiggemarker). The Humber features regularly in Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century fictional chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae. According to Geoffrey, the Humber, invariably referred to by the Latin word for river, was named after "Humber the Hun" who drowned there while trying to invade in the earliest days of Britain's settlement. See also Embed code: Got something to say? Make a comment. Your name Your email address	<urn:uuid:dd283edc-6c13-4bc1-8e01-cf4bdb3f52bc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.1234292984008789, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9443538784980774, "url": "http://maps.thefullwiki.org/Humber" }
A causative form, in linguistics, is an expression of an agent causing or forcing a patient to perform an action (or to be in a certain condition). All languages have ways to express causation, but they differ in the means. In some languages there are morphological devices (such as inflection) that change verbs into their causative forms, or adjectives into verbs of "becoming". Other languages employ periphrasis, with idiomatic expressions or auxiliary verbs. All languages also have lexical causative forms (such as English "rise" → "raise"). Morphological causativity In Sanskrit, there is a causative form of the verb ("n.ijanta"), which is used when the subject of a clause forces or makes the object perform an action. The causative suffix "-ay" is attached to the verbal root (this may cause vowel sandhi to take place). "bhū" "to be, exist" → "bhāv-ay"; e. g. "bhāvayati" "he causes to be" "khad" "to eat" → "khād-ay"; e. g. "khādayāmi" "I cause to eat" = "I feed" In Persian, causative form of the verb is made by adding "ân(i)dan" to the present stem: "xordan" (to eat) → "xor" (present stem) → "xorândan" (to cause/make to eat) "xandidan" (to laugh) → "xand" (present stem) → "xandândan" (to cause/make to laugh) In most Semitic languages there is a causative form of the verb. It is postulated that in Proto-Semitic the causative verbal stem was formed by the "š-" prefix, and this has become "ʔa-", "hi-" or "ī-" in different languages. Syriac: "kəθav" "he wrote" → "ʔaxtev" "he composed" Arabic: "ʕalima" "he knew" → "ʔaʕlama" "he informed" Hebrew: "dɑrax" "he trod" → "hidrix" "he guided" In Japanese there is a similar causative/obligative inflection: "taberu" "to eat" → "tabesaseru" "to make to eat, to feed" "yomu" "to read" → "yomaseru" "to make to read" Causative forms are also found in some European languages such as Finnish. "syödä" "to eat" → "syöttää" "to feed" * "täysi" "full" → "täyttää" "to fill" * "haihtua" "to evaporate" → "haihduttaa" "to vaporize" In the Māori language of New Zealand, the "whaka-" prefix can be added to a verb, for example: * "ako" "to learn" becomes "whakaako" "to teach" (to cause to learn) In Philippine languages such as Tagalog and Ilokano, the "pa-" prefix is added to verbal forms and to adjectives to form causatives. * "dakkel" "big (adj)" → "padakkelen" "to enlarge" (Ilokano) * "kain" "eat" → "pakainin" "to make eat, to feed" (Tagalog) In Guarani, an Amerindian language, the "mbo-" prefix is added to oral verbs, and "mo-" to nasal verbs: * "puka" "to laugh" → "mbopuka" "to make (someone) laugh" * "guata" "to walk" → "mboguata" "to guide" * "pu'ã" "to go up" → "mopu'ã" "to elevate" Notice that the causative suffix is often used irregularly and/or because of historical reasons, e.g. Finnish: * "olla" "to be" → "olettaa" "to assume", not "to make exist" * "kirja-" ancient "patterns (of embroidery or text)", but modern "book" → "kirjoittaa" "to write" ("transform into patterns of text"), not "to transform into books" Urdu uses the infix "-(l)â-" and "-(l)vâ-" to render verbs causative. "Karnâ" "to do" → "karâna" "to have done" → "karvâna" → "to have s.o. make s.o. do." "Parhnâ" "to read" → "Parhâna" "to make s.o. read" → "Perhvâna" "to cause s.o. to make s.o. read." "Hilna" "to move" → "Hilâna" "to have s.th. moved" → "Hilvâna" "to have s.o. make s.th. move." "Pina" "to drink" → "Pilâna" "to have s.o. drink" → "Pilvâna" "to have s.o. make s.o. drink" ex: "Usné mâsi sé bachon-ko pâni "pilvaya" - "She had the maid make the kids drink water." Periphrastic causativity There are no regular causative inflections in English, nor in any of the major European languages, which resort to idiomatic uses of certain verbs like English "make" or "have", French "faire" or "laisser", or German "lassen". For example: "She made me eat the vegetables." "I had John build the house." Note that this type of structure is more complicated than the inflectional causative form exemplified in Sanskrit, since it has two verbs and three arguments: the first is the subject of the first verb; the second is the object of the first verb but also the subject of the second; and the third is the object of the second verb. These arguments can be exchanged using passive voice (in either verb), but the result can be cumbersome or even ungrammatical. Other complex constructions include the use of subjunctive forms. Spanish uses these often, since it does not allow some simpler constructions that English permits. "Él hizo que la siguieran." "He had her followed.", lit. "He had (things done so) that they would follow her." "Hicimos que el perro comiera pescado." "We made the dog eat fish.", lit. "We did (things so) the dog would eat fish." In the Romance languages, a number of verbs alternate between intransitive (semantically middle voice) and causative transitive, using a pseudo-reflexive clitic pronoun: "Ella se despierta a las 7." "She wakes up at 7." "Ella despierta a los niños." "She wakes up the children." Lexical causativity In many cases, a language simply uses a different lexical item to indicate a causative form. For example, the causative of English "rise" is "raise", and the causative of "eat" is "feed". English allows a notable freedom in verb valency, resulting in verbs like "break", "burn" or "awake", which may be causative or not ("he burns it" = "he causes it to burn"). Causativeness is therefore zero-marked in many English verbs. In Japanese, there are a large number of verbs that alternate in various semi-regular patterns between intransitive forms and causative transitive forms, for example: "agaru" "to go up, to rise" → "ageru" "to raise" "magaru" "to turn" → "mageru" "to bend" "kowareru" "to be broken" → "kowasu" "to (cause to) break" "kaeru" "to go back" → "kaesu" "to send back" Changes of state In languages with stative verbs (equivalent to English adjectives), the acquisition of a quality, or changes of state, can be expressed with causatives in the same way as with regular verbs. For example, if there is a stative verb "to be large", the causative will simply mean "to enlarge", "to make grow". The reflexive form of this causative can then be used to mean "to enlarge oneself", or even as a middle voice, "to grow". Causative syntax A causative form or phrase can be thought of as a valency-increasing voice operation, which adds one argument. If the original verb is intransitive, then the causative construction as a whole is transitive: "to fall" → "to make (sbdy./sthg.) fall", "to topple (sbdy./sthg.)", or indeed, "to fell", a fossilised form from when causatives were an inflexional part of English grammar. If the original verb is transitive, the causative is ditransitive: "to eat (sthg.)" → "to make (sbdy.) eat (sthg.)", "to feed (sthg.) to (sbdy.)". For the purpose of syntax, a derivation that turns an adjective or noun into a "verb of becoming" works the same as a causative construction for intransitive verbs. For example, in English the derivational suffixes "-(i)fy" can be thought of as a causative: "simple" → "simplify" = "to make simple", "to cause (sthg.) to become simple" "object" → "objectify" = "to make into an object", "to cause (sthg.) to become an object" (figuratively, that is) Causative voice The causative voice is a grammatical voice promoting the oblique argument of a transitive verb to an actor argument. When the causative voice is applied to a verb, its valency increases by one. If, after the application of the grammatical voice, there are two actor arguments, one of them is obligatorily demoted to an oblique argument. Japanese and Mongolian are examples of languages with the causative voice. The following are examples from Japanese: Shibatani, M. (ed.) (2001) The grammar of causation and interpersonal manipulation. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Song, J.J. (1996). Causatives and caustion: A universal-typological perspective. London and New York: Addison Wesley Longman. External links * [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsACausative.htm What is a causative?] Wikimedia Foundation. 2010. Look at other dictionaries: • causative — caus·a·tive / kȯ zə tiv/ adj 1: effective or operating as a cause the causative negligent act 2: causal (2) the causative link between stress and coronary artery disease National Law Journal … Law dictionary • Causative — Caus ative, a. [L. causativus pertaining to a lawsuit (causa), but in the English sense from E. cause.] 1. Effective, as a cause or agent; causing. [1913 Webster] Causative in nature of a number of effects. Bacon. [1913 Webster] 2. Expressing a… … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English • causative — [kôz′ə tiv΄] adj. [ME & OFr causatif < L causativus] 1. producing an effect; causing 2. Gram. designating a word or form that expresses causation [“fell” is a causative verb meaning “to cause to fall”] n. a causative word or form causatively … English World dictionary • Causative — Caus ative (k[add] z[.a]*t[i^]v), n. A word which expresses or suggests a cause. [1913 Webster] … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English • causative — early 15c., from Fr. causatif, from L. causativus, from causa (see CAUSE (Cf. cause)) … Etymology dictionary • causative — ► ADJECTIVE 1) acting as a cause. 2) Grammar expressing causation … English terms dictionary • causative — causatively, adv. causativeness, causativity, n. /kaw zeuh tiv/, adj. 1. acting as a cause; producing (often fol. by of): a causative agency; an event causative of war. 2. Gram. noting causation. The causative form of to fall is to fell. Gothic… … Universalium • causative — [[t]kɔ͟ːzətɪv[/t]] ADJ: ADJ n Causative factors are ones which are responsible for causing something. [FORMAL] Both nicotine and carbon monoxide inhaled with cigarette smoking have been incriminated as causative factors. ...the prime causative… … English dictionary • causative — adjective Date: 15th century 1. effective or operating as a cause or agent < causative bacteria of cholera > 2. expressing causation; specifically being a linguistic form that indicates that the subject causes an act to be performed or a… … New Collegiate Dictionary • causative — ● causatif, causative adjectif (bas latin causativus) causatif nom masculin (bas latin causativus) Se dit d une forme verbale qui indique que le sujet fait faire l action exprimée par le verbe. (Par exemple l auxiliaire faire suivi d un infinitif … Encyclopédie Universelle Share the article and excerpts Direct link Do a right-click on the link above and select “Copy Link”	<urn:uuid:9bd9dcaf-710d-4ab1-8ad4-4dcb4fd25b5c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.9375, "fasttext_score": 0.22127830982208252, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8619074821472168, "url": "https://enacademic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/332555/Causative" }
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Go to Bible Dictionaries Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament Resource Toolbox Additional Links The three Greek words (ἀγρός, χώρα, χωρίον) rendered ‘field’ in the Gospels are distinguishable in meaning, and sometimes require more specific renderings. ἀγρος in general means ‘field’ in the sense of cultivated land, or open country thought of as subject to cultivation: e.g. ‘sowed good seed in his field’ (Matthew 13:24), ‘lilies of the field,’ ‘grass of the field’ (Matthew 6:28; Matthew 6:30), etc. χώρα denotes generally a region, or district of country, as ‘the region of Trachonitis’ (Luke 3:1), ‘the country of the Gadarenes’ (Mark 5:1); χωρίον is more distinctly locative, as ‘a place called Gethsemane’ (Matthew 26:36), ‘the parcel of ground that Jacob gave to Joseph’ (John 4:5), etc. But, on the other hand, we find ἀγρός used also of the country in distinction from the city (Mark 5:14; Mark 6:56, Luke 8:34; Luke 9:12; Luke 23:26), χώρα used of fields of ripened grain, as in John 4:35 ‘Look on the fields, for they are white’ (cf. James 5:4 ‘who have reaped down your fields’); and where St. Matthew uses ἀγρός of ‘the field of blood’ (Matthew 27:8), St. Luke uses χωρίον (Acts 1:19). A knowledge of certain peculiarities of the fields of Palestine is helpful to the full understanding of several of the parables of our Lord and some other passages in the Gospels. There are now, as there were of old, numerous fields in Palestine where ‘the lilies’ and many other flowers grow in gorgeous profusion without human care or culture, and where ‘the grass of the field,’ including fibrous weeds as well as shortlived flowers, when dried by the tropical sun, are still gathered as fuel, and used to heat ovens for baking bread (cf. Matthew 6:28; Matthew 6:30). The argument of the Master, drawn from ‘the grass of the field which to-day is and to-morrow is cast into the oven,’ still holds good, and still finds abundant illustration. It is true occasionally now, also, that after the owner of the land has ‘sowed good seed in his field,’ an enemy will in sheer spite creep in secretly and ‘sow tares,’ the noxions darnel (Lolium temulentum); but see Tares. In Palestine, as in all unsettled countries, it was common, and in parts of the land it is still common, to resort to the field (the cultivated land or the open country) as a fit place in which to hide treasure (cf. Matthew 13:44) In ancient times the land was peculiarly subject to revolutions, exposed to raids from wandering tribes, and, in some districts, liable to plunder from robbers at home. So, in the absence of safety vaults and the like, owners of treasure who feared robbery or thievery (Matthew 25:25), or who were setting off on a journey to a distant country, would bury their money, jewellery, etc., in the field. Then, if the owner were killed in battle, or died in a far country, no one might know where his treasures were hid; and, according to usage, such valuables when found, if no owner appeared to claim them, belonged to the owner of the land—a fact which gives point to the parable of the Hid Treasure (Matthew 13:44, cf. Job 3:21, Proverbs 2:4). Many persons are found digging for hid treasure in Egypt and Palestine to-day, and not a few spend their last farthing in the effort (cf. Thomson, LB [Note: The Land and the Book.] ii. p. 640). In the parable of the Sower (Matthew 13:4, Mark 4:4, Luke 8:5), where the Authorized Version has ‘some (seeds) fell by the wayside,’ the picture is really of grains of wheat or barley which fell on the trodden pathway leading across the field, and so were left exposed where the birds could see and devour them (cf. Luke 8:5 ‘trodden under foot’). It is still common in Palestine to see flocks of birds following the peasant as he sows his seed, eagerly picking up every grain that is not covered by the quick-following harrow. And where it is said ‘some fell upon stony places’ (Authorized Version), the real allusion is to the underlying rock of limestone. The traveller finds numberless places where a broad, flat, limestone rock lies just beneath the surface of the field, with only a thin layer of earth upon it (cf. Luke 8:6; Luke 8:13 ‘the rock’). ‘Stony ground’ (Authorized Version, following early English versions) suggests a soil abounding in loose stones, such as is often found there producing good wheat; but the picture is rather of a soil into which the seeds could not sink deep, and, the film of earth being readily heated because of the underlying rock, they would come up sooner than elsewhere, and at first would look uncommonly flourishing; but, not being able to send roots deep into the moist earth (cf. Luke 8:6), when the hot, dry weather came the stalks would wither, and thus show that the fair promise of a crop there had been deceptive (cf. Psalms 129:6 ‘grass upon the house-tops’). In the fields of Palestine, too, there are still found spots that are rich, but are peculiarly infested with briars and thorn-bushes, where one may see the wheat in scattered and spindling stalks struggling for life (cf. Matthew 13:7). In Mark 2:23 and Luke 6:1 (Authorized Version) we have ‘corn-fields’ where the Gr. word (σπόριμα) is the same as in Matthew 12:1, where it is rendered simply ‘corn,’—‘through the corn’ (after Tindale). It is literally ‘through the sown (places),’ i.e. the grain-fields, as Noyes and Bib. Un. Vers. render it, fields of wheat or barley, not of maize or Indian corn, of course. The picture is of Jesus and His disciples going along, either through the standing grain, or by a footpath which bounded the fields, the grain in either case being within easy reach. It was customary then, as it is now, in Palestine, for the lands of different owners to be separated, not by fences or walls, but usually only by crude individual stones set up at intervals on the surface of the ground as landmarks (cf. Deuteronomy 19:14); and the roads, mere footpaths as a rule, were not distinct from the fields, as they are with us, but ran through them, so that the grain grew right up to the edge of the path. We are not meant to think of Jesus and His disciples as going ruthlessly through the fields and trampling down the grain, but as following one of these paths over or between the fields. But neither plucking the ears of wheat to eat, nor even walking across a pathless field, was, according to Jewish ideas (cf. Deuteronomy 23:25), a violation of the rights of property any more than it is to-day among the Arabs. It was not of this, but of Sabbath-breaking, that the Pharisees complained. Geo. B. Eager. Copyright Statement These files are public domain. Text Courtesy of Used by Permission. Bibliography Information Hastings, James. Entry for 'Field'. Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament. 1906-1918. Lectionary Calendar Tuesday, April 7th, 2020 Tuesday in Easter Week There are 5 days til Easter! Search for… Enter query in the box: Choose a letter to browse: N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z Prev Entry Next Entry Field of Blood Powered by Lightspeed Technology	<urn:uuid:5d870e38-09a9-4483-a7ec-2b41678f27bc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.02755647897720337, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9474862813949585, "url": "https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/hdn/f/field.html" }
Consens mechanisms — what to know? Severin Kranz Mar 11 · 6 min read For all participants to behave correctly in a decentralised system, economic incentives must be designed to avoid the misconduct of individual actors. Blockchain technology enables individuals and organisations around the world to work together in a network using a jointly managed list of transactions. To ensure that network participants are acting honestly, transactions are validated and verified collaboratively (Voshmgir & Kalinov, 2018). In this process, various consensus mechanisms use incentives to ensure that each participant behaves in the best interests of the network. This creates a secure, fault-tolerant and neutral system in which cheating others is not worthwhile. How consensus mechanisms work and what economic incentives are applied is discussed below. Deutsche Version verfügbar unter A consensus mechanism is a protocol that ensures in a blockchain that all network nodes are synchronized with each other. The protocol defines the rules according to which the network nodes agree on the transactions that are legitimate to be added to the blockchain. The most widespread consensus mechanisms are the Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake(PoS) consensus. Proof-of-Work (PoW) was the first consensus algorithm of a blockchain. Satoshi Nakamoto (2008) adopted the PoW algorithm from Back (2002) for the use in the Bitcoin blockchain. The PoW algorithm is not only the reason for the high security of transactions in the Bitcoin network, but also for the mining activities and the associated power consumption. PoW is a very reliable but rather inefficient method of validating transactions for a large number of network nodes. Due to these inefficiencies, researchers are currently working on different possibilities to reach tamper-proof consensus in a decentralized system. One example is the Ethereum project. By switching from PoW to PoS, the scalability and efficiency of the smart contract platform is to be increased (Whiterspoon, 2018). How does the PoW work? In PoW, so-called miners solve complex mathematical tasks that require a lot of computing power. The first one to solve the task creates a block of transactions and receives a reward in return. The more computing power a miner applies, the greater the probability that this miner can create a block. (Blockgenic, 2018) All miners work simultaneously on the same task and compete with each other to find a correct solution. If one of the miners finds a solution, it is shared with the entire network and a new block of transactions is created. The other miners check the result and the one who solved the block is rewarded. The Miner has proven that he has spent computing power to solve the task and thus to create the block — this is where the term “proof of work” originates. Miners now try to solve the next block of transactions, which is based on the previous one. The blocks are concatenated in chronological order, which is why we speak of a chain of blocks — the blockchain. By linking the blocks it is ensured that manipulating transactions is economically not worthwhile. Miners always trust the longest blockchain, as this is where the most computing work has been done. Data manipulation is therefore extremely costly and can only be accomplished with more than 50 percent of the computing power of the whole network. Strongly decentralized PoW blockchains with a large number of miners can thus hardly be manipulated. In contrast to PoW, in a PoS system the participants with the highest net worth in the network have an interest in maintaining the network. Validators of transactions are randomly selected to create blocks of transactions, taking into account the amount of assets involved. If the transactions are validated correctly, they are subsequently remunerated for their efforts. (Blockgenic, 2018) The validation in PoS is not carried out via the use of computing power. Instead, validators bet their assets (stake) in the form of tokens on the accuracy of transactions. In case of discrepancies, the validators use their tokens to vote on which version they want to support. Participants who vote for the wrong blocks lose their stake. PoS therefore creates an incentive for network participants to behave correctly in a new way (Whiterspoon, 2018). How does the PoS work? Deposit: In PoS, block creators are called validators. Validators must make a deposit (stack) to participate in the block creation. Selection: While in PoW the validators are in competition with each other, the selection of validators in PoS is based on a pseudo-random function taking into account the stake made by each validator. Scalability: In contrast to PoW, PoS reduces energy consumption as only one validator validates transactions at a time and almost no computing power is required. Incentives: Incentives to behave correctly are generated through the use of assets and the corresponding reward or punishment. Security: If validators validate incorrect transactions, they lose their investment. Since this stake is higher than the reward for correct validation, there is a great incentive for the validators to behave in the best interests of the network. Other consensus mechanisms In addition to PoW and PoS, in practice there are numerous other consensus mechanisms such as: • Proof-of-work (Bitcoin, Ethereum, Ethereum Classic, Litecoin, …) • Proof-of-stake (Ethereum 2.0, Dash, Enigma, …) • Delegated Proof-of-Stake (EOS, Lisk, Nano, …) • Proof of capacity (Siacoin, Storj) • Byzantine fault tolerance (Hyperledger) • Proof of authority (VeChain, Corda) According to a study by Hays (2018), among the top 100 cryptocurrencies, PoW and PoS or a hybrid solution of both mechanisms are the most widespread. The most common alternatives are briefly explained below. Delegated Proof-of-Stake (DPoS) In DPoS, token holders do not vote themselves on the validity of the blocks, but elect representatives to perform the validation on their behalf. Usually there are between 21–100 elected representatives in a DPoS system. The delegates are regularly mixed and are instructed to submit their blocks. (Whiterspoon, 2018) Proof of Authority (PoA) Proof-of-authority is a consensus method in which transactions are validated by approved users — similar to a system administrator. These users are the instance from which other nodes obtain their truth. PoA has a high transaction throughput and is optimized for private networks. PoA is usually not used in a public blockchain because it is a rather centralised solution. (Whiterspoon, 2018) Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) is the property of a system that is able to function even if some of the nodes fail or act maliciously. In other words, the majority of nodes within a distributed network must agree to avoid a total failure. For this to happen, at least two-thirds of the network nodes must behave honestly. If the majority of the network decides to act maliciously, the system is vulnerable. (Binance, 2019) Proof of Capacity (PoC) With PoC, similar to PoW, solutions are sought for the concatenation of transaction blocks. Instead of using computing power to compute cryptographic problems, possible solutions are stored in advance on digital data storage devices (e.g. hard disks or servers). After a memory has been plotted — i.e. filled with solutions — it can participate in the process of block creation. The block validation is done by searching for ready-made solutions that are located on the data storage devices. Validators with a higher memory capacity are more likely to find a block because they can search through more solutions. (Binance, 2019) Back, A. (2002). Hashcash — A Denial of Service Counter-Measure. Retrieved from http://www.Hashcash.Org/Papers/Hashcash.Pdf. Binance. (2019, Dezember 30). Byzantinische Fehlertoleranz. Retrieved January 2, 2020 from Blockgenic. (2018, November 10). Different Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms. Retrieved from Hays, D. (2020, Februar 13). Consensus Mechanisms. Retrieved from Nakamoto, S. (2008). Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System. Abgerufen von Witherspoon, Z. (2018, Juli 19). A Hitchhiker’s Guide to Consensus Algorithms [Blogpost]. Retrieved January 2, 2020, from The author of this article has no connection or relationship with any company, project or event, unless expressly stated otherwise. None of the information provided can be considered financial advice. Investments in cryptocurrencies are risky. is a website for independent information about blockchain technology. Neither Ledgerlabs Kranz nor the authors are responsible, directly or indirectly, for any damage or loss incurred in connection with the use of or reliance on any content you read on the website. With Ledgerlabs we elaborate the basis for a well-founded… Severin Kranz Written by Blockchain Enthusiast & Fintech Consultant With Ledgerlabs we elaborate the basis for a well-founded knowledge acquisition, offer independent technology evaluation and provide a structured approach to blockchain initiatives. More From Medium More on Blockchain from Ledgerlabs-li More on Blockchain from Ledgerlabs-li How Crypto-Miners can help fighting the Coronavirus More on Cryptography from Ledgerlabs-li More on Cryptography from Ledgerlabs-li Cryptography 101 More on Blockchain from Ledgerlabs-li More on Blockchain from Ledgerlabs-li Peer-to-Peer Networks	<urn:uuid:c653b610-6c04-4025-b41a-ef6cc213e82f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.02126908302307129, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.911562979221344, "url": "https://medium.com/ledgerlabs-li/consens-mechanisms-what-to-know-92b16690be66" }
In this article we will discuss what is tuple, how its different from list, different ways to create a tuple and iterate over it. What is a tuple ? Tuple is a kind of heterogeneous sequential container that can store elements of different types. Tuples are immutable i.e once created then we can not change it’s contents. A sample tuple is as follows, Unlike list, elements in tuple are wrapped using braces i.e. ‘(‘ & ‘)’ Difference between list and tuple • List is mutable i.e once created then we can modify its contents. Whereas, a Tuple is immutable i.e. once created we can change its contents, therefore tuple doesn’t provide functions like append(), remove() etc. • As tuple is immutable, so we can use it as key in a dictionary too. Different ways to create a tuple Create a tuple of different type of elements We can create a tuple of different type of elements by just separating them with ‘,’ and wrapping them using braces i.e. Create a tuple from unpacked elements We can also create a tuple from unpacked elements i.e without any braces just elements separated by comma i.e. Create an empty tuple We can also create an empty tuple object like this, Create a tuple from a list We can also convert a list or any other sequential container to tuple by just type casting. Suppose we have a list of int, Let’s create a tuple from this list, Iterate over a tuple We can iterate over a tuple using for loop and in operator just like any other container in python i.e. Complete example is as follows, Python Recommendations: C++ & C++11 Recommendations:	<urn:uuid:73999f0b-99ec-4b3c-8cdc-b3a64f39f30a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.9987547397613525, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.883240818977356, "url": "https://thispointer.com/python-tuple-different-ways-to-create-a-tuple-and-iterate-over-it/" }
Wikipedia logo This page uses content from Wikipedia. The original article was at Rollsign. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with Metro Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike License 3.0 (Unported) (CC-BY-SA). A rollsign, roll sign, bus blind, or destination blind is a mechanical display used to indicate the destination. They are commonly seen in older city buses, streetcars and subway cars. As a part of the contract, they are standard on London bus routes. Modern equipment substitutes a digital display in place of a rollsign, but the long life of these vehicles ensures that many systems continue to use these devices. Operation Edit Names of the route or destination are printed on a long sheet of reinforced paper or Tyvek. The long sheet is rolled onto the top roller and attached to the bottom roller. Similar to a cassette tape being played. There is a gap between the rollers, large enough to display a complete name, and a strip light fitted behind the blind as to illuminate it at night. When the names need to change, the driver/operator/conductor simply turns a handle which engages one roller to gather up the blind and disengages the other, until the desired blind display is found. Electronically controlled ways now exist to changing the blinds. These are standard on so-called bendy buses or Citaro Gs. This is controlled by a computer through an interface in the driver's cabin. On the reverse of the blind there are barcodes printed so the computer winds the blind and a reader reads the barcodes until the requested display is found. The on-board computer is normally programmed with what order the displays are and can be programmed using the non-volatile memory should the blind be changed. These blind systems are normally accurate, however over time the blind becomes dirty and the computer may not be able to read the blind so leading to incorrect displays. For buses such as bendy buses this disadvantage is outweighed by the need (compared to manual) to change each destination separately, if changing route this could be up to seven different blinds. Materials usedEdit Heavy grade linen was the favourite material but in the 1940s, London Transport started producing blinds that were made by sticking paper slips onto a linen backing. This method had the advantage that large numbers of destinations that were in use on a number of blinds e.g. "KINGS CROSS" or "TRAFALGAR SQUARE" could be screen printed and held pending demand. As time passed the blind department in Chiswick gave way to cost cutting and now all LTs blinds are produced by McKenna Brothers from Cheshire. They use a computerised system of printing the blinds directly onto tyvek, a type of fibrous paper material that has extremely resilient qualities. They were produced for operators all over the UK and use the distinctive London Transport-designed Johnson typeface which is similar to Gill Sans but with minor variations. This typeface has been in use for almost 70 years. The old style linen blinds are quite collectable and high prices can be found at eBay auctions and transport sales. External linksEdit	<urn:uuid:71258345-9841-4601-b8a1-087b3a898493>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.050707101821899414, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9357050061225891, "url": "https://metro.fandom.com/wiki/Rollsign" }
Mr. Mason’s Classroom and How to Make Slime? Using the mentor text “How to Make Slime”, class 103 followed the author’s steps to make slime! They also thought like scientists and mathematicians to make predictions about how the slime would come out, how to measure properly, and then use partner talk to discuss solids and liquids.	<urn:uuid:3b0a6a8c-2bd0-4272-94f7-52929881a412>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.71875, "fasttext_score": 0.021341383457183838, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9310252070426941, "url": "https://bellaireschool.com/2018/10/19/mr-masons-classroom-and-how-to-make-slime/" }
Skip to Content Bessie Smith: Examining Portraiture 4 Favorites 3 Copies (view) Music +2 This teacher's guide provides portraits and analysis questions to enrich students' examination of Bessie Smith, the "Empress of the Blues" and one of the most influential blues singers in history. Includes the video "Defining Portraiture: How are portraits both fact and fiction?" and the National Portrait Gallery's "Reading" Portraiture Guide for Educators, both of which provide suggestions and questions for analyzing portraiture. Also includes a video clip of Bessie Smith performing "St. Louis Blues" in 1929 and a post from the National Museum of African American History and Culture discussing her and other LGBTQ African Americans of the Harlem Renaissance. • What do these portraits have in common? How are they different? • How are these portraits both fact and fiction? • How do these portraits reflect how she wanted to be seen, or how others wanted her to be seen? Consider for what purpose these portraits were created. • Having listened her music, does the portrait capture your image of Bessie Smith? Why, or why not? • If you were creating your own portrait of Bessie Smith, what characteristics would you emphasize, and why? Keywords: singer, musician, 20s, 30s, American, Tennessee, #BecauseOfHerStory, #SmithsonianMusic	<urn:uuid:d8d80060-4dca-4f88-801b-462215668348>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.8976815938949585, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9218018054962158, "url": "https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/bessie-smith-examining-portraiture/0a9rmJkTqbd3Nw3p" }
World Library Flag as Inappropriate Email this Article Strike and dip Article Id: WHEBN0003511290 Reproduction Date: Title: Strike and dip Author: World Heritage Encyclopedia Language: English Subject: Marcellus Formation, Homoclinal ridge, Thrust fault, 1991 Sierra Madre earthquake, 1971 San Fernando earthquake Collection: Structural Geology Publisher: World Heritage Encyclopedia Strike and dip A standard Brunton compass, used commonly by geologists for strike and dip measurements Stratum compass to measure dip and dip direction in one step The dip gives the steepest angle of descent of a tilted bed or feature relative to a horizontal plane, and is given by the number (0°-90°) as well as a letter (N,S,E,W) with rough direction in which the bed is dipping. One technique is to always take the strike so the dip is 90° to the right of the strike, in which case the redundant letter following the dip angle is omitted (right hand rule, or RHR). The map symbol is a short line attached and at right angles to the strike symbol pointing in the direction which the planar surface is dipping down. The angle of dip is generally included on a geologic map without the degree sign. Beds that are dipping vertically are shown with the dip symbol on both sides of the strike, and beds that are flat are shown like the vertical beds, but with a circle around them. Both vertical and flat beds do not have a number written with them. Strike and dip of the beds. 1-Strike, 2-Dip direction, 3-Apparent dip 4-Angle of dip Strike and dip Strike line and dip of a plane describing attitude relative to a horizontal plane and a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike line Another way of representing strike and dip is by dip and dip direction. The dip direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as projected to the horizontal (like the trend of a linear feature in trend and plunge measurements), which is 90° off the strike angle. For example, a bed dipping 30° to the South, would have an East-West strike (and would be written 090°/30° S using strike and dip), but would be written as 30/180 using the dip and dip direction method. Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass and clinometer or a combination of the two, such as a Brunton compass named after D.W. Brunton, a Colorado miner. Compass-clinometers which measure dip and dip direction in a single operation (as pictured) are often called "stratum" or "Klar" compasses after a German professor. Smartphone apps are also now available, that make use of the internal accelerometer to provide orientation measurements. Combined with the GPS functionality of such devices, this allows readings to be recorded and later downloaded onto a map.[1] Any planar feature can be described by strike and dip. This includes sedimentary bedding, faults and fractures, cuestas, igneous dikes and sills, metamorphic foliation and any other planar feature in the Earth. Linear features are measured with very similar methods, where "plunge" is the dip angle and "trend" is analogous to the dip direction value. Apparent dip is the name of any dip measured in a vertical plane that is not perpendicular to the strike line. True dip can be calculated from apparent dip using trigonometry if you know the strike. Geologic cross sections use apparent dip when they are drawn at some angle not perpendicular to strike. 1. ^ Weng Y.-H., Sun F.-S. & Grigsby J.D. (2012). "GeoTools: An android phone application in geology". Computers & Geosciences 44: 24–30. • Compton, Robert R. (1985). Geology in the Field. New York: J. Wiley and Sons. • Lahee, Frederic Henry (1961) [1916]. Field Geology (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. • Tarbuck, Edward J.; Lutgens, Frederick K. (2008). Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology0-13-092025-8 (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. • "Digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization". FGDC Geological Data Subcommittee. External links • "Dip".	<urn:uuid:eaa86e4a-6faa-42cb-bf98-0d626e0b20af>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.859375, "fasttext_score": 0.026113808155059814, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8963249325752258, "url": "http://netlibrary.net/articles/eng/Strike_and_dip" }
Epo I Tai Tai Here are some other activity ideas: Sitting circle on the floor body percussion: pat pat clap clap snap snap snap snap (repeat) pat pat clap clap pat pat head head pat pat clap clap snap snap snap snap Cross = tap sticks together Up = pulse sticks holding them straight up for 4 beats. 1. I think you might reconsider using this song with your students once you read a little about its history and translation: 2. Thanks for the link! I have seen the history before but I'll be honest, I don't share that with them. I usually just tell them that many people say this song is from Hawaii (which is what the girl scout source says) but it's actually a song of the Maori people. I love the history behind folk songs but as educators we have to decide if a song's history is appropriate or not for children. Take for instance "Lucy Locket." Teachers everywhere use this song with their students but you would never tell them it's about two prostitutes. Another example is "Ring Around the Rosie." That one is about the Black Plague but it's not a history that we share with children. (at least 1-6 year olds). However, that being said, it is important that we are educated about a song's history and that's why the link you shared is really important. It allows us to decide if we personally want to make the decision to use add that piece to our repetoire. My mom LOVES teaching "Weldon" but my friend Tanya doesn't like to teach it because of it's history. A really fun read on folk songs is "The Singing Game" by Iona and Peter Opie, you should read it if you get a chance. Thanks again for sharing the link, I appreciate it! 3. I love this song. I can't believe that this one was a stereotypical nursery/folk song, stemming from mature origins. I thought, "It's Maorian, so maybe they'll be more modest." Nope. Not at all. Powered by Blogger.	<urn:uuid:5bf35afb-e61e-418a-8802-2d50bf31625d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.10781192779541016, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9483937621116638, "url": "http://www.musicalaabbott.com/2012/07/epo-i-tai-tai.html" }
What is the purpose of annealing? 1. Improve or eliminate various structural defects and residual stress caused by steel during casting, forging, rolling and welding, and prevent deformation and cracking of the workpiece. 2. Soften the workpiece for cutting. 3. Refine the grains and improve the structure to improve the mechanical properties of the workpiece. 4. Prepare the structure for final heat treatment (quenching, tempering). Previous：Forging’s quenching and normalizing? Next：What is the purpose of tempering?	<urn:uuid:3e434c80-83c2-4a4e-a025-10c0929f9860>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.9999699592590332, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8761019110679626, "url": "https://m.fushunmetal.com/f724600/What-is-the-purpose-of-annealing.htm" }
Scientists Used Leaches to Predict the Weather One late-1800s scientist used leeches in glass jars to predict the day's weather. What would you do without your smartphone or the internet? You couldn't get 15 pounds of pizza delivered to your house at 2 AM, you couldn't request 20 bucks from your friend that stole your t-shirt, and you couldn't see what the weather was going to be like tomorrow. Back in the 1800s, people were struggling with all these issues – or maybe just the weather thing (Okay, definitely just the weather thing). Nonetheless, predicting the weather was a useful aspect of life back in the day, and scientists were continuously working to devise better ways to do so. Old ways to predict the weather One option to predict the weather that scientists thought of at the time was animals. Frogs seemed to croak when storms were coming in, birds would fly back to their nest, and wild animals obviously had some innate way of sensing coming weather patterns. Enter George Merryweather, a 19th-century English doctor who moonlit as an inventor. Being a doctor in the mid-1800s meant that he frequently worked with leeches for bloodletting. This also meant that he noticed their behavior changing when the weather changed. When the weather was normal, say a sunny day, the leeches would just sit at the bottom of their jars. However, hours before a storm would hit, the leeches would move out of the water and start getting agitated. They would even curl themselves into balls and stay like that while the storm was there. After the pressure front moved on, the leeches would return to relaxation. It was this almost computer-like reflex of the leeches that gave Merryweather an idea. He built a device called an "Atmospheric Electromagnetic Telegraph, conducted by Animal Instinct.” But that was just the devices surname, off-hand he called it the tempest prognosticator. Those not adept at the meaning of those words – tempest, meaning windy storm, and prognosticator being someone who predicts the future. Scientists Used Leaches to Predict the Weather Source: Wikimedia/Badobadop Engineering the tempest prognosticator This tempest prognosticator device was made up of 12 pint glass bottles, each with a live leech inside. The bottles were filled with an inch and a half of water, and the top of the bottle had a piece of whalebone in the neck. The whalebone was also connected to a small hammer that could strike a metal bell. When storms would approach, the leeches would move out of the water and into the neck of the bottle. This action would be enough to dislodge the whalebone, and the bell would strike. When the bell would ring several times in a row, Merryweather would consider the storm prognosticated. Merryweather being a somewhat quirky scientific mind, after all, made a weather-predicting bell with leeches and referred to his blood-sucking helpers as the "jury of philosophical counselors." He actually designed the machine as a circle with clear glass jars so the leeches wouldn't feel "the affliction of solitary confinement." A noble effort. The English doctor spent a year perfecting the device and sent a letter to the Philosophical Society telling them about his weather-predicting leeches. He even lobbied the English government to get them to use his design on the coasts for sailing. Unfortunately for Merryweather, the government went with the leech-less invention of a "storm glass," a liquid-filled jar that produced crystals when storms were near. The Tempest Prognosticator never really caught on, even though it killed two birds with one stone – housing your blood-letting leeches for medical purposes when they weren't needed and predicting the weather. There's now a replica of the machine at the Whitby Town Museum in the United Kingdom. Stay on top of the latest engineering news Just enter your email and we’ll take care of the rest:	<urn:uuid:191c9fbe-be91-47f1-824c-a040b431dca3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.7683822512626648, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9598416090011597, "url": "https://interestingengineering.com/scientists-used-leaches-to-predict-the-weather" }
The Slave Trade in Galway After the Cromwellian campaign in Ireland (after 1653) over 95% of the land of Ireland was forcibly taken from irish and Norman hands and given to English and Settler owners. Those that resisted or rebelled were either killed or shipped off as slaves to barbados, Jamaica, Bermuda and Montserrat. Most died working on the sugar plantations.	<urn:uuid:44053fdd-23e6-4e71-a2e6-8eefb67f1633>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.0346987247467041, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9777836203575134, "url": "https://www.galwaywalks.com/galway-walking-tours-gallery?lightbox=image169" }
Research Alert 1. The order in which individuals receive information about wildlife may influence their attitude toward wildlife differently which can have implications for how conservationists communicate messages about issues affecting wildlife. 2. In a study on bats, a risk-laden species also facing massive mortalities in North America due to white-nose syndrome (WNS), for people with high biospheric values (where the costs and benefits to ecosystems or the biosphere are at the center of individual decision making) reading a suffering message about WNS first led to a more positive attitude than reading a threat message about rabies first, whereas for people with low biospheric values reading a threat message first led to a more positive attitude than reading a suffering message first. 3. Knowing the target audience and their values can help conservation practitioners think strategically about designing messages on species traditionally portrayed as villains in the media (e.g., bats, sharks, wolves, lions); they should consider placing information that elicits compassion at the end of the message for those who may care less about the species and its conservation, and ensure that compassion-inducing information is the first piece of information for those who care more about the species and conservation. Study and Journal: "Scared yet compassionate? Exploring the order effects of threat versus suffering messages on attitude toward scary victims." from Science Communication WCS Co-Author(s): Heidi Kretser , Conservation Social Scientist	<urn:uuid:73aafd1b-4453-45f4-bc34-e8745899ce0c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.1510820984840393, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.893703818321228, "url": "https://www.newswise.com/articles/the-challenge-of-conserving-scary-species?sc=c6313" }
The Attack of the Turtle In the early morning hours of September 7, 1776, General Washington ordered a secret attack on Lord Admiral Howe’s British ship, the HMS Eagle, anchored near New York Harbor. The attack was to be made by a secret weapon called the Turtle. To a creative 21st century mind, visions of a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle (my favorite Leonardo) hopping aboard Howe’s ship with his swords whirling come to mind. This, however, was not the Turtle of Washington’s day. Washington’s Turtle was the first submersible weapon ever used in war. The Turtle was designed by a young Yale graduate by the name of David Bushnell. Bushnell was only 21-years-old when he began experimenting with detonating gun powder under water. Bushnell took this idea and envisioned a submersible vessel with the ability to deliver a timed explosive charge next to a ship’s hull, causing massive damage, and sinking the ship. While we take this torpedo technology for granted today, Bushnell’s idea was revolutionary and nearly one-hundred years ahead of his time. The Turtle’s design was an engineering marvel. At 7 feet long, 6 feet high, and 3 feet wide, the Turtle was just large enough for a man to fit inside. It was made from two large halves of an oak tree. The huge oak slabs were hollowed out, and then joined together with tongue and groove construction. With a generous application of oakum sealant (hemp, jute, and tar), the Turtle was nearly watertight. Bushnell also designed a propeller, which he called an oar, that was manually turned by the operator using a spinning wheel type foot pedal. A tiller was mounted for steering and a ballast tank was added to allow the Turtle to travel underwater. To surface, the operator would need to manually pump out the water in the ballast tank. Glass mounted at the top of the vessel allowed the operator to maneuver. While the Turtle’s design was a marvel, it had a significant limitation. It relied solely on human power to move. This problem was compounded by the fact that there would be a limited supply of oxygen contained inside the Turtle once under water. Pedaling the Turtle out into the tides and currents of New York Harbor would be a difficult and dangerous task. This danger is exactly what the Turtle’s operator, Ezra Lee, volunteered for as he began his journey on September 7, 1776. Ezra Lee – the Turtle’s Pilot Ezra was to pilot the Turtle under the HMS Eagle’s hull and then attach an underwater timed explosive to the ship. Ezra would need to use an auger drill fastened to the top of the Turtle to drill a hole to attach the explosive to the Eagle. Ezra took nearly two hours to reach the Eagle, and once there was exhausted and likely suffering from oxygen deprivation. He could not get the auger to drill into the Eagle’s hull. British ships had a metal plate connected to the rudder hinge, which may have prevented Ezra’s drill from working. Ezra’s failure may have also been due to his fatigue and inability to think clearly form a lack of oxygen. With dawn fast approaching and fear that he would be discovered, Ezra abandoned his mission. He let his explosive charge loose, which floated into the East River where it exploded without causing any damage to British ships. Ezra made it safely back to Patriot whaling ships. The Turtle never was able to deliver an explosive charge under a British ship. A second attempt was made without success and the Turtle project was abandoned. It would be nearly another century before Bushnell’s design was revisited and used as weapon. Although it’s mission failed, the design was pure genius. Lucky for Lord Admiral Howe, Washington used the submersible Turtle, and not the Teenage Mutant kind. For more information about the Turtle check out Arthur Lefkowitz’s book The American Turtle Submarine: The Best-Kept Secret of the American Revolution. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s %d bloggers like this:	<urn:uuid:422c4e86-7e43-4d40-aeb4-ebdf991d95d7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.05014759302139282, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9641205668449402, "url": "https://chrisstevensonauthor.com/2016/09/08/the-attack-of-the-turtle/" }
What Are Tone Shifts in Literature? Updated April 17, 2017 Noel Hendrickson/Photodisc/Getty Images Any piece of literature, whether a poem, short story or novel, has an overall mood. The mood determines if it is a comedy, tragedy, romance or drama. Within a story there are shifts in the mood, or tone, as the story progresses. These tone shifts are what makes the story exciting, taking the reader through a wide range of emotions. Tone is one tool that an author uses to define characters and set the scene. There are too many tones to list them all, but some commonly used in literature are: happy, sad, sarcastic, mad, scary, ominous, love, hate, scary, uneasy, comfortable, serious and humorous. There are many ways an author can use the tools of their trade to create a tone shift. Descriptions of settings will change the tone. A young child plays in a shallow stream as his mother watches from nearby. The tone is nostalgic, comforting and happy. The stream starts to rise quickly, turning into a flash flood. The child clings to a rock in the middle of a raging torrent. The tone has shifted to one of horror. Characters' actions can change the tone of a piece. If a romantically involved couple are having dinner, the tone is romantic. If another man enters the restaurant, the mood can quickly shift from romantic to suspenseful -- especially if readers know the second man is having an affair with the female character. Characters' actions can change the tone of a piece. If the woman suddenly leaves her date and passionately kisses the man while her date looks on, the mood becomes vengeful. Dialogue can also change the tone of a work. Perhaps the date calmly states, "I see you've met my brother." The mood has now changed to shock and surprise. A character's attitude can change how his words and actions affect the tone of the story. What if the date says, "I see you've met my brother," in an irritated manner. Instead of the tone being one of shock and surprise, it would be one of contempt. Irony can affect tone. If a character says, "I love you, too," it would normally set a romantic tone. If those same words were said by a character who has just been betrayed by their romantic partner, the words could be a contradiction to what they really mean. This use of subtext to create irony affects the tone, which in this case would be angry or regretful. A Single Word Any part of speech can be used to change the tone within a piece of literature. When looking for tone shifts, look for key words. Consider how the nouns "man" and "freak" create entirely different feelings in the reader. The verbs "rain" and "downpour" also convey different tones. Does a character go about his work "carefully" or "doggedly?" All it takes is a single word choice to produce a tone shift. About the Author	<urn:uuid:44b03ed2-3a72-4eaf-b618-fa49d0af1435>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.04513978958129883, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9548656344413757, "url": "https://penandthepad.com/tone-shifts-literature-8442356.html" }
Found a mistake? Please let us know. Because or Because of Multiple Choice Questions Worksheet A printable ESL grammar multiple choice questions worksheet for kids to study and practise because and because of. It is useful for reviewing the difference between because and because of in English language. Because-Because of Main Page	<urn:uuid:ccd4c35e-cde7-4e41-aae6-d54189e859e6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.054103314876556396, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.807701587677002, "url": "https://www.englishwsheets.com/because-of-3.html" }
In 1850, the depth of New York Harbor was between 10 and 20 feet. Today, the harbor is more than 50 feet deep. The change in the depth of one of the world’s largest natural harbors is the result of year-round harbor dredging that not only prevents the buildup of mud and sand at the bottom of the harbor, but actively and continually deepens the harbor. According to Kate Ascher in The Worksmaintenance of New York harbor began in the mid-nineteenth century. The ships of New York’s original Dutch settlers and British consquerers might have navigated through the harbor without problems, but ships were getting bigger. Clipper ships became steamships, which required deeper channels for safer navigation. The entrance to New York Harbor at Ambrose Channel was first taken down to a depth of 30 feet in 1884. This successful dredging initiated a program of regular deepening at the channel, and at other heavy-trafficked shipping channels throughout the harbor. Ships have only grown larger since then, and harbor dredging has only intensified to accommodate them. New York Harbor’s dredging process involves up to eighty pieces of dredging machinery, making for the largest concentration of dredging equipment ever assembled in America. New York also houses the largest barge-mounted dredge in the world, which can drill down to 65 feet, has a bucket the approximate size of a garbage truck, and is appropriately named “T-Rex.” Soft or loose material on the harbor floor is removed by a clamshell bucket attached to a barge-mounted crane, which places the sediment on an scow that is carried to a final disposal site. The removal of rock is entirely different–and much more exciting and destructive. Drill boats are used to make holes in rock, 6 feet deeper than the intended rock removal depth and approximately 10 feet apart. The holes are then filled with a liquid explosive called Porvex. The rocks loosened from the resulting blast are collected by an excavator dredge. Survey boats are brought in to certify the new depth of the harbor or waterway. Where does this sediment go? For years, it was dumped into the Atlantic. Later, to minimize damage to navigation and sediments washing up on beaches, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers designated the beaches off of Sandy Hook, New Jersey as a “Mud Dump.” Today, before haphazardly dumping on the New Jersey coastline, dredged materials are tested for contaminants to determine what its use will be elsewhere. Clean sediment is utilized for shoreline stabilization and fishing reef creation, or used to cap contaminated underwater dump sites. The Army Corps of Engineers’ Harbor Deepening Program, which started in the mid-1990s and will end in 2014, is estimated to dredge a volume of sediment equalling thirty Empire State Buildings. Its goal is to give East Coast ports the same capacity for holding large ships as deeper West Coast ports have had. When the project concludes, the amount of sand dredged in the Ambrose Channel will drop from over 3 million cubic yards to just 423,000 cubic yards per year. But there is always more to dredge–the city’s next project may be the channels of Staten Island. Read more from our Cities 101 series about how stuff works in the city. Additional reporting by Wesley Yiin	<urn:uuid:e8a67d0f-092b-48d0-a33a-888bdde1cd75>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.15625, "fasttext_score": 0.04122871160507202, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9538922905921936, "url": "https://untappedcities.com/2013/08/12/cities-101-how-does-harbor-dredging-work-nyc/" }
Political and Social Movements Tiananmen Square What happened at China’s Tiananmen Square? In 1989 Beijing’s Tiananmen Square, the largest public square in the world, became the site of a student protest and massacre. Three years before the demonstration, freedom of speech and other democratic beliefs began being espoused on university campuses. In increasing numbers China’s youth were demanding political reform. They found a sympathizer in the general secretary (the highest ranking officer) of the Communist Party, Hu Yaobang (1915–1989), who, despite criticism from conservatives in government, adhered to his liberal views, particularly concerning freedom of expression. In January 1987 Hu was removed from his post; he died in April 1989, at which time students organized marches in his honor and demonstrated in favor of democratic reforms. On June 4, 1989, Chinese troops fired on the protesters in Tiananmen Square, killing more than 200 and later arresting anyone thought to be involved in China’s pro-democracy movement. The actions raised fury around the world. International observers continued to monitor the tenuous situation in China, where evidence surfaced that the government was continuing its pattern of human rights violations.	<urn:uuid:7ff61e66-77c4-42d3-9782-96307f2e5ad2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.36067450046539307, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9666807651519775, "url": "https://www.papertrell.com/apps/preview/The-Handy-History-Answer-Book/Handy%20Answer%20book/What-happened-at-China-s-Tiananmen-Square/001137010/content/SC/52cb010482fad14abfa5c2e0_default.html" }
Rodents: Powerful Teething What are and main features Rodents are mammalian animals of the order Rodentia. There are about two thousand rodent species in the world. There is great diversity among rodents, but there is one feature in common with all of them: strong and powerful teething. With their incisive teeth they can gnaw various types of food, as well as wood and even some types of stones. Most rodents are small (between 100 and 200 grams). They are found on all continents (except Antarctica). Most rodents are terrestrial and plantigrade (animals that walk on the soles of the feet). Another common feature among most rodents is rapid reproduction, as females are able to have many children in a single year. In addition, they have the ability to adapt to various habitat types. Regarding social habits, rodents and chiropractors (bats) are sociable (live in groups), but insectivores have a more solitary life. Examples of rodent animal species: - Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrocoerus) - European Beaver (Fiber beaver) - Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) - Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) - Flying squirrel (Pteromys volans) - Desert Gerbil (Jaculus jaculus) - Common hamster (Cricetus cricetus) - Arctic hare (Lepus arcticus) - Gray Dormouse (Glis glis) - Groundhog (Groundhog groundhog) - Dwarf Bat (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) - Black bat (Barbastella barbastellus) - Tuco-tuco (Ctenomys sp.) - Vizcacha (Lagostomus maximus) - Mouse (Mus musculus) - Common shrew (Sorex araneus) - Rat (Rattus norvegicus) - Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) - Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) - Kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) - Mole (Talpa europaea) Scientific classification of rodents: Kingdom: Animalia Philo: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Placentalia Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Rodentia Biological Curiosities: - The largest rodent in the world is the capybara. It can reach 70 pounds and 1.30 meters in length. - The fastest rodent species are gerbils and kangaroo rats. Both can reach between 45 and 48 km / h. Capybara, the largest rodent in the world.	<urn:uuid:05c07009-8781-4472-bf93-f56a524ee564>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.0559614896774292, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8344836235046387, "url": "https://ph.dualjuridik.org/519-rodents.html" }
Skip to main content Explore URMC URMC / Encyclopedia / Content Age-Related Hearing Loss (Presbycusis) What is presbycusis? Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) is the slow loss of hearing in both ears. It’s a common problem linked to aging. About 30 out of 100 adults older than age 65 have hearing loss. This hearing loss happens slowly. So some people are not aware of the change at first. Most often, it affects the ability to hear high-pitched noises such as a phone ringing or a microwave beeping. The ability to hear low-pitched noises is often not affected. What causes age-related hearing loss? There may be many causes for age-related hearing loss. It most often occurs because of changes in the following areas: • Within the inner ear (most common) • Within the middle ear • Along the nerve pathways to the brain Other things that affect age-related hearing loss: • Long-term exposure to loud noise (such as music or work-related noise • Loss of hair cells (sensory receptors in the inner ear) that help you to hear • Inherited factors • Aging • Some health conditions, such as heart disease or diabetes • Side effects of some medicines, such as aspirin, chemotherapy medicines, and certain antibiotics • Being white • Lower income level • Infections • Smoking What are the symptoms of age-related hearing loss? Each person’s symptoms may vary. Some of the most common symptoms include: • Other people’s speech sounds mumbled or slurred • Having trouble hearing high-pitched sounds • Having trouble understanding conversations, often when there is background noise • Men's voices are easier to hear than women's • Some sounds seem very loud and annoying • A ringing sound (tinnitus) in one or both ears The symptoms of age-related hearing loss may seem like other health problems. When sudden hearing loss occurs, it's important to contact your healthcare provider right away. Your provider will do a medical exam and a hearing exam as soon as possible to help find the cause and type of your sudden hearing loss. Based on your diagnosis, your healthcare provider will discuss possible treatments. How is age-related hearing loss diagnosed? Your healthcare provider will use a lighted scope (otoscope) to check in the outer ear canal and to look at the eardrum. He or she will look for damage to the eardrum, blockage of the ear canal from foreign objects or impacted earwax, and inflammation or infection. You may be referred to a hearing specialist (audiologist) to have an audiogram. For this test, sounds are played through headphones, to one ear at a time. You are asked if you can hear each sound. If you can’t hear certain tones this may mean there has been some hearing loss. How is age-related hearing loss treated? Treatment options for age-related hearing loss may include: • Hearing aids • Assistive devices, such as telephone amplifiers or technology that changes spoken words to text • Training to use visual cues to figure out what is being said (speech reading) • Methods to prevent too much wax in the outer ear What are possible complications of age-related hearing loss? If your hearing loss is significant enough, you may need some type of hearing aid or other aids to communicate with others. What can I do to prevent age-related hearing loss? The most important way to prevent age-related hearing loss is to protect your hearing. • Stay away from loud noises and reduce noise exposure • Don't smoke • Get timely care for health problems such as ear infections • Wear ear plugs or special fluid-filled ear muffs (to prevent more damage to hearing) Living with age-related hearing loss If you have hearing loss, your healthcare professional can refer you to specialists in hearing loss, such as an: • Otolaryngologist. This is a doctor who specializes in diseases and conditions of the ears, nose, and throat. • Audiologist. This is a healthcare professional who specializes in testing and managing hearing problems. Key points about age-related hearing loss • Age-related hearing loss is the slow loss of hearing in both ears. • It's a common problem that happens with aging. About 30 out of 100 adults older than age 65 have hearing loss. • The hearing loss happens slowly. So some people are not aware of the change at first. • Staying away from constant or continuous exposure to loud noises can help protect your hearing and prevent gradual hearing loss. • It's not a reversible condition so prevention is important. Next steps • Before your visit, write down questions you want answered. • Ask if your condition can be treated in other ways. Medical Reviewers: • Ashutosh Kacker MD • Daphne Pierce-Smith RN MSN CCRC • Marianne Fraser MSN RN	<urn:uuid:021915e0-775c-4567-b7b1-6d99bb92b1a5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.018306612968444824, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9405761957168579, "url": "https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=85&ContentID=P00463" }
How do you find the volume of an irregular object like a rock or sphere in chemistry? 1 Answer Nov 16, 2015 Use the method of displacement of water. Fill a measuring cylinder to a known volume of water, say #V_0#. Place the solid object of unknown volume #V_s# in the water and ensure it is totally submerged. Read off the new volume #V_1#. The volume of the displaced water is then equal to the volume of the object in the water, ie #V_s=V_1-V_0#. This method was initially discovered by Archimedes who was challenged to find a method to prove whether the king's crown was made of pure gold or not. He decided to try and find the density of the crown and compare it to data sheets for the density value of gold. However, since #rho=m/V#, he battled to find the volume of the irregular shaped crown and came to the discovery of the method described above when he climbed into his bath one day filled to the brim and water overflowed from the sides. He was apparently so overjoyed that he ran down the street naked celebrating.	<urn:uuid:b033bfb4-04bf-45d3-b53e-18e77eb07fd4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.26137691736221313, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.952506959438324, "url": "https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-find-the-volume-of-an-irregular-object-like-a-rock-or-sphere-in-chemi" }
Friday, February 27, 2015 timer:What It Does,Monostable Mode,Astable Mode,How It Works,Time Calculation in Monostable Mode,Time Calculation in Astable Mode,Dual Monostable Timers,How to Use It,Burst Mode,Dead Timer and CMOS Confused with Bipolar. A device that creates a single timed pulse, or a series of timed pulses with timed intervals between them, is properly known as a multivibrator, although the generic term timer has become much more common and is used here. Three types of multivibrator exist: astable, monostable, and bistable. The behavior of astable multivibrators and monostable multivibrators is described in detail in this entry. A timer chip can also be made to function as a bistable multivibrator. This is described briefly below, but it is not a designed function of a timer. The primary discussion of bistable multivibrators will be found in the entry of this encyclopedia dealing with flip- flops. What It Does A monostable timer emits a single timed pulse of fixed length in response to a triggering input that is usually of shorter duration. Many monostable timers are also capable of running in astable mode, in which the timer spontaneously emits an ongoing stream of timed pulses with timed gaps between them. A dual-mode timer can run in either mode, determined either by external components attached to it, or (less commonly) by changing the status of a mode selection pin. Monostable Mode In monostable mode, the timer emits a pulse in response to a change from high to low voltage (or, less commonly, from low to high voltage) at a trigger pin. Most timers respond to a voltage level at the trigger pin, but some are insensitive to any persistent pin state and only respond to a voltage transition. This is known as edge triggering. The pulse generated by the timer may consist of a change from low to high (or, less commonly, from high to low) at an output pin. The length of the pulse will be determined by external com- ponents, and is independent of the duration of the triggering event, although in some cases, an output pulse may be prolonged by retriggering the timer prematurely. This is discussed below. At the end of the output pulse, the timer reverts to its quiescent state, and remains inactive until it is triggered again. A monostable timer can control the duration of an event, such as the time for which a light re- mains on after it has been triggered by a motion sensor. Alternatively, the timer can impose a de- lay, such as the interval during which a paper towel dispenser refuses to respond after a towel has been dispensed. A timer can also be useful to generate a clean pulse in response to an un- stable or noisy input, as from a manually operat- ed pushbutton. Astable Mode In astable mode, a timer will generally trigger it- self as soon as power is connected, without any need for an external stimulus. However, the out- put can be suppressed by applying an appropri- ate voltage to a reset pin. External components will determine the duration of each pulse and the gap between it and the next pulse. The pulse stream can be slow enough to control the flashing of a turn signal in a 1980s automobile, or fast enough to control the bit rate in a data stream from a computer. Modern timer circuits are often incorporated in chips that have other purposes. The flashing of a turn signal in a modern car, for instance, is now likely to be timed by a microcontroller that man- ages many other functions. Still, chips that are purely designed as timers remain widely used and are very commonly available in numerous through-hole and surface-mount formats. How It Works The duration of a single pulse in monostable mode, or the frequency of pulses in astable mode, is most commonly determined by an ex- ternal RC network consisting of a resistor in series with a capacitor. The charging time of the capac- itor is determined by its own size and by the value of the resistor. The discharge time will be deter- mined in the same way. A comparator inside the timer is often used to detect when the potential on the capacitor reaches a reference voltage that is established by a voltage divider inside the chip. The 555 Timer An eight-pin integrated circuit manufactured by Signetics under part number 555 was the world’s first fully functioned timer chip, introduced in 1972. It combined two comparators with a flip- flop (see Chapter 11) to enable great versatility while maintaining excellent stability over a wide range of supply voltages and operating temperatures. Subsequent timers have been heavily in- fluenced by this design. A typical 555 timer chip is shown in Figure 9-1. Figure 9-1. A typical 555 timer chip. Functionally identical versions in which the “555” identifier is preceded or followed by different letter combinations are available from many different manufacturers. The 555 was designed by one individual, Hans Camenzind, working as an independent consultant for Signetics. According to a transcript of an interview with Camenzind maintained online at the Transistor Museum, “There was nothing like it at the time. You had to use quite a few discrete components—a comparator, a Zener diode or even two. It was not a simple circuit.” The 555 timer quickly became the most widely used chip in the world, and was still selling an annual estimated 1 billion units three decades after its introduction. It has been used in space- craft, in intermittent windshield wiper controllers, in the early Apple II (to flash the cursor), and in children’s toys. Like many chips of its era, its design was unprotected by patents, allowing it to be copied by numerous manufacturers. The initial version was built around bipolar transistors, and consequently is referred to as the bipolar version or (more often) the TTL version, this being a reference to transistor-transistor log- ic protocol. Within a few years, CMOS versions based around MOSFETs were developed. They reduced the ability of the chip to sink or source current at its output pin, but consumed far less power, making them better suited to battery- operated products. The CMOS versions were and still are pin-compatible with the original bipolar version, both in through-hole and surface- mount formats. Their timing parameters are usually the same. 555 Monostable Operation The internal functionality of a 555 timer wired to run in monostable mode is illustrated in Figure 9-2 with the chip seen from above. The pins are identified in datasheets by the names shown. To assist in visualizing the behavior of the chip, this figure represents the internal flip-flop as a switch which can be moved by either of two internal comparators, or by an input from the Reset pin. Figure 9-2. The internal functions of a 555 chip, with its flip-flop represented as a switch that can be moved by ei- ther of two comparators, or by a low voltage on the Reset pin. An external resistor and capacitor, shown as R1 and C1, cause the timer to run in monostable (one-shot) mode, generating a single high pulse when the state of the Input pin is pulled from high to low. Inside the chip, three resistances of 5K each are connected between V+ (positive supply voltage) and negative ground. It has been suggested that the part number of the 555 chip was derived from these three 5K resistors, but Hans Camenzind has pointed out that Signetics was already using three-digit part numbers beginning with the number 5, and probably chose the 555 part num- ber because the sales department had high ex- pectations for the chip and wanted its number to be easily memorable. (A similar rationale ex- plains the part number of the 2N2222 transistor.) The resistances inside the timer function as a voltage divider, providing a reference of 1/3 of V+ to the noninverting pin of Comparator A and 2/3 of V+ to the inverting pin of Comparator B. (See Chapter 6 for an explanation of the functioning of comparators.) When power is initially supplied to the timer, if the Input pin is at a high state, Comparator A has a low output, and the flip-flop remains in its “up” position, allowing the Output pin to remain in a low state. The flip-flop also grounds the lower end of R1, which prevents any charge from ac- cumulating on capacitor C1. If the state of the Input pin is pulled down externally to a voltage less than 1/3 of V+, Comparator A now creates a high output that changes the flip-flop to its “down” position, sending a high signal out through the Output pin. At the same time, C1 is no longer grounded, and begins to charge at a rate determined by its own size and by the value of R1. When the charge on the capacitor exceeds 2/3 of V+, it activates Comparator B, which forces the flip-flop into its “up” position. The Output pin goes low, C1 discharges it- self into the Discharge pin, and the timer’s cycle is at an end. The low voltage on the Input pin of the timer must end before the end of the output cycle. If the voltage on the Input pin remains low, it will re-trigger the timer, prolonging the output pulse. A pullup resistor may be used on the Input pin to avoid false triggering, especially if an external electromechanical switch or pushbutton is used to pull down the Input pin voltage. The Reset pin should normally be held high, either by being connected directly to positive sup- ply voltage (if the reset function will not be needed) or by using a pullup resistor. If the Reset pin is pulled low, this will always interrupt an output pulse regardless of the timer’s current status. If a voltage higher or lower than 2/3 of V+ is applied to the Control pin, this will change the reference voltage on Comparator B, which deter- mines when the charging cycle of C1 ends and the discharge cycle begins. A lower reference voltage will shorten each output pulse by allowing a lower charge limit for C1. If the control volt- age drops to 1/3 of V+ (or less), the capacitor will not charge at all, and the pulse length will diminish to zero. If the control voltage rises to be- come equal to V+, the capacitor will never quite reach that level, and the pulse length will be- come infinite. A workable range for the control voltage is therefore 40% to 90% of V+. Because the Control pin is an input to the chip, it should be grounded through a 0.01µF ceramic capacitor if it will not be used. This is especially important in CMOS versions of the timer. A defect of the bipolar 555 is that it creates a voltage spike when its Output pin changes state. If it will be sharing a circuit with sensitive components, a 0.01µF bypass capacitor should be added as closely as possible between the V+ pin and negative ground. The voltage-spike problem was largely resolved by the CMOS 555. 555 Astable Operation In Figure 9-3, the 555 timer chip is shown with external components and connections to run it in astable mode. The pin names remain the same but have been omitted from this diagram be- cause of limited space. The labeling of the two external resistors and capacitor as R1, R2, and C1 is universal in datasheets and manufacturers’ documentation. When the timer is powered up initially, capacitor C1 has not yet accumulated any charge. Conse- quently, the state of the Threshold pin is low. But the Threshold pin is connected externally with the Input pin, for astable operation. Consequent- ly, the Input pin is low, which forces the flip-flop into its “down” state, creating a high output. This happens almost instantaneously. Figure 9-3. The internal functions of a 555 chip, with two external resistors and a capacitor wired to run the timer in astable (free-running) mode. While the flip-flop is “down,” the Discharge pin is not grounded, and current flowing through R1 and R2 begins to charge the capacitor. When the charge exceeds 2/3 of positive supply voltage, Comparator B forces the flip-flop into its “up” position. This ends the high pulse on the Output pin, and starts to drain the charge from the capacitor through R2, into the Discharge pin. How- ever, the voltage on the capacitor is still being shared by the Input pin, and when it diminishes to 1/3 of V+, the Input pin reactivates Compara- tor A, starting the cycle over again. The functions of the Reset and Control pins are the same as in monostable mode. Because volt- age applied to the Control pin changes the length of each pulse and the gaps between pul- ses, it has the effect of adjusting the frequency of the output in astable mode. When power is first connected to the timer, C1 must initially charge from an assumed state of zero potential to 2/3 V+. Because subsequent cycles will begin when the capacitor is at 1/3 V+, the first high output pulse from the timer will be slightly longer than subsequent output pulses. This is unimportant in most applications, especially because the rate at which a capacitor ac- cumulates charge is greater when beginning from 0V than when it has reached 1/3 V+. Still, the longer initial pulse can be noticeable when the timer is running slowly. Because the capacitor charges through R1 and R2 in series, but discharges only through R2, the length of each positive output pulse in astable mode is always greater than the gap between pulses. Two strategies have been used to over- come this limitation. See “Separate Control of High and Low Output Times” on page 80. 556 Timer The 556 consists of two 555 bipolar-type timers in one package. An example of the chip is shown in Figure 9-4. The pinouts are shown in Figure 9-5. Although 556 timers have become relatively uncommon compared with the 555, they are still being manufactured in through- hole and surface-mount versions by companies such as Texas Instruments and STMicroelectron- ics, under part numbers such as NA556, NE556, SA556, and SE556 (with various letters or letter pairs appended). Each timer in the chip has its own set of inputs and outputs, but the timers share the same V+ and ground voltages. 558 Timer This 16-pin chip is now uncommon, and many versions have become obsolete. It has been iden- tified by a part number such as NE558 although different prefix letters may be used. The NTE926, shown in Figure 9-6, is actually a 558 timer. The chip contains four 555 timers sharing a common power supply, common ground, and common control-pin input. For each internal timer, the Threshold and Discharge functions are connected internally, so that the timers can only be used in one-shot mode. However, one timer can trigger another at the end of its cycle, and the second timer can then retrigger the first, to create an astable effect. Each timer is edge-triggered by a voltage transition (from high to low), instead of being sensitive to a voltage level, as is the case with a 555 timer. Consequently the timers in the 558 chip are in- sensitive to a constant (DC) voltage. Figure 9-4. An example of the 556 timer chip. Figure 9-5. The 556 timer contains two separate 555 timers sharing the same power supply and ground. The pin functions for timer A and timer B are shown here. The output from each timer is an open collector, and therefore requires an external pullup resistor. Each output is capable of sinking up to 100mA. Figure 9-6. The NTE926 is a 558 timer chip. CMOS 555 Timer While the part numbers of many CMOS versions are significantly different from part numbers of the bipolar versions, in some instances the CMOS numbers are only distinguished by a couple of initial letters. The ST Microelectronics TS555 ser- ies and Texas Instruments TLC555 series, for ex- ample, use MOSFETs internally. The ST Micro- electronics SE555 series and Texas Instruments SA555 series use bipolar transistors internally. One way to distinguish between the two types, when searching a website maintained by a parts supplier, is to begin by looking generically for a “555 timer” and then add a search filter to show chips either with a minimum power supply of 3VDC (which will be CMOS) or with a minimum power suply of 4.5VDC (which will be bipolar). CMOS versions of the 555 timer do not create the power spike that is characteristic of the bipolar versions during output transitions. The CMOS chips can also be powered by a lower voltage (3VDC, or 2VDC in some cases), and will draw significantly less current in their quiescent state. They also require very little current for threshold, trigger, and reset functions. The wiring of external resistors and capacitors to the CMOS version of the chip, and the internal voltage levels as a fraction of V+, are identical to the original 555 timer. Pin functions are likewise identical. The only disadvantages of CMOS versions are their greater vulnerability to static dis- charge, and their lower output currents. The TLC555, for instance, will source only 15mA (al- though it can sink 10 times that amount). Other manufacturers have different specifications, and datasheets should be checked carefully. 5555 Timer The 5555 contains a digital counter that enables it to time very long periods. Its full part number is 74HC5555 or 74HCT5555, although these numbers may be preceded or followed by letter combinations identifying the manufacturer. It is not pin-compatible with a 555 timer. Two input pins are provided, one to trigger the timer on a rising edge, the other on a falling edge, of the input pulse. The inputs are Schmitt- triggered. The timer is rated for 1Hz to 1MHz (using an external resistor and external capacitor). The counter section can divide the pulse frequency by values ranging from 2 to 256. For longer timed periods, different settings on the digital control pins will divide the frequency by values ranging from 217 through 224 (131,072 through 16,777,216). This enables the timer to achieve a theoretical pulse length lasting for more than 190 days. The timer will accept a clock input from an external oscillator to achieve better accuracy than is available with a resistor-capacitor timing circuit. 7555 Timer This 8-pin chip is a CMOS version of the 555 timer, manufactured by companies such as Maxim In- tegrated Products and Advanced Linear Devices. Its characteristics are similar to those of CMOS 555 timers listed above, and the pinouts are the same. 7556 Timer This 14-pin chip contains two 7555 timers, shar- ing common power supply and ground connections. Pinouts are the same as for the original 556 timer, as shown in Figure 9-5. 4047B Timer This 14-pin CMOS chip was introduced in an ef- fort to address some of the quirks of the 555 timer while also providing additional features. It runs in either monostable or astable mode, selectable by holding one input pin high or another input pin low. In astable mode, its duty cycle is fixed at approximately 50%, a single resistor being used for both charging and discharging the timing ca- pacitor. An additional “oscillator” output runs twice as fast as the regular output. In monostable mode, the 4047B can be triggered by a positive or negative transition (depending on which of two input pins is used). It ignores steady input states and will also ignore addition- al trigger pulses that occur during the output pulse. However, a retrigger pin is provided to ex- tend the output pulse if desired. Complementary output pins are provided, one being active-high while the other is active-low. To time very long periods, the 4047B was de- signed to facilitate connection with an external counter. The power supply for the 4047B can be as low as 3VDC. Its maximum source or sink output current is only 1mA when powered at 5VDC, but up to 6.8mA when powered at 15VDC. The chip is still available from manufacturers such as Texas Instruments (which markets it as the CD4047B) in through-hole and surface- mount formats. However, despite its versatility, the 4047B is less popular than dual monostable timers, described in the next section. Dual Monostable Timers Various timers that run only in monostable mode are available in dual format (i.e., two timers in one chip). This format became popular partly be- cause two monostable timers can trigger each other to create an astable output, in which the pulse width, and the gap between pulses, can be set by a separate resistor-capacitor pair on each timer. This allows greater flexibility than is avail- able when using a 555 timer. Most dual monostable timer chips are edge- triggered by a change in input voltage, and will ignore a steady DC voltage. Consequently, the output from one timer can be connected directly to the input of another, and no coupling capacitors are necessary. As in the 4047B, the user has a choice of two input pins for each timer, one triggered by a transition from low to high, the other triggered by a transition from high to low. Similarly, each timer has two outputs, one shifting from low to high at the start of the output cycle, the other shifting from high to low. The values of a single resistor and capacitor determine the pulse duration of each timer. Dual monostable timers often have the numeric sequence 4528 or 4538 in their part numbers. Examples include the HEF4528B from NXP, the M74HC4538 from STMicroelectronics, and the MC14538B from On Semiconductor. The 74123 numeric sequence identifies chips that have a very similar specification, with chip-family identifiers such as HC or LS inserted, as in the 74HC123 and 74LS123, and additional letters added as prefix or suffix. The pinouts of almost all these chips are identical, as shown in Figure 9-7. How- ever, Texas Instruments uses its own numbering system, and datasheets should always be consulted for verification before any connections are made. Many chips of this type are described as “retriggerable,” meaning that if an additional trigger pulse is applied to the input before an output pulse has ended, the current output pulse will be extended in duration. Check datasheets carefully to determine whether a chip is “retriggerable” or will ignore new inputs during the output pulse. The 74HC221 dual monostable vibrator (pic- tured in Figure 9-8) functions very similarly to the components cited above, but has slightly different pinouts. Figure 9-7. Pin functions for most 4528, 4538, and 74123 series of dual monostable timer chips. An RC network is shown connected for each timer. Note that Texas Instruments uses different pinouts on its versions. Figure 9-8. A dual-timer chip containing two monostable multivibrators that can function in astable mode if they are connected externally to trigger each other. 555 Timer Values The original bipolar version of the 555 timer was designed to operate using a wide range of posi- tive supply voltages, from 4.5VDC to 16VDC. CMOS versions vary in their recommended V+ values, and datasheets must be consulted for verification. The output of a bipolar 555 is rated to source or sink up to 200mA. In practice, the maximum cur- rent will be lower when the timer is powered at the low end of its range, around 5VDC. Attempting to source more than 50mA will pull down the voltage internally, affecting operation of the timer. CMOS versions all impose restrictions on output current, allowing higher values for sinking than sourcing. Again, datasheets must be consulted for the values, which vary widely from one component to another. The voltage measured on the output pin, when it is used for sourcing current, will always be low- er than the power supply voltage, and a 1.7V drop is commonly specified for bipolar versions. In practice, the voltage drop that is actually measured may be less, and will vary according to the load on the output. The voltage drop does not increase significantly with a higher supply voltage, and because it is a relatively constant value, it becomes less significant when a higher value for V+ is used. CMOS versions of the 555 timer achieve a claim- ed output source voltage that is only 0.2V less than the power supply. When choosing values for R1 and R2, a minimum for each resistor is 5K, although 10K is preferred. Lower values will increase power consumption, and may also allow overload of the internal electronics when the chip sinks current from C1. A typical maximum value for each resistor is 10M. A high-value capacitor may cause the timer to function less accurately and predictably, be- cause large capacitors generally allow more leak- age. This means that the capacitor will be losing charge at the same time that it is being charged through R1 + R2. If these resistors have high values, and the capacitor has a value of 100µF or more, the rate of charge may be so low that it is comparable with the rate of leakage. For this reason, a 555 timer is not a good choice for timing intervals much greater than a minute. If a large- value capacitor is used, tantalum is preferable to electrolytic. The minimum practical value for a timing capacitor is around 100pF. Below this, performance may not be reliable. Although some CMOS versions may enable fast switching, the shortest practical output pulse for a 555 timer is around 10 microseconds. On the input pin, a triggering pulse of at least 1 micro- second should be used. Time Calculation in Monostable Mode If R1 is measured in kilohms and C1 is measured in microfarads, the pulse duration, T, in seconds, of a 555 timer running in monostable mode can be found from this simple formula: T = 0.0011 * R1 * C1 This relationship is the same in all versions of the 555. Figure 9-9 provides a quick and convenient way to find the pulse value using some common values for R1 and C1. Resistors can be obtained with tolerances below plus-or-minus 1%, but ca- pacitors are often rated with an accuracy of only plus-or-minus 20%. This will limit the accuracy of the pulse values shown in the chart. Time Calculation in Astable Mode If R1 and R2 are measured in kilohms and C1 is measured in microfarads, the frequency of pul- ses, F (measured in Hz) of a 555 timer running in astable mode can be found from this simple formula: F = 1440 / ( ( R1 + (2 * R2) ) * C1) This relationship is found in all versions of the 555. Figure 9-10 shows the frequency for com- mon values of R2 and C1, assuming that the value of R1 is 10K. In Figure 9-11, a value of 100K is as- sumed for R1. Figure 9-9. To determine the pulse duration of a 555 timer running in monostable mode: find the value of R1 on the horizontal scale, follow its vertical grid line upward to the intersection with a green line which corresponds with the value of capacitor C1, and read across to the vertical scale providing the duration in seconds. Both axes are logarithmic. Dual Monostable Timers Dual chips such as the HEF4528B from NXP, the M74HC4538 from STMicroelectronics, the MC14538B from On Semiconductor, and the 74HC123 from Texas Instruments have widely varying requirements for power supply. Some accept a limited range from 3VDC to 6VDC, while others tolerate a range of 3VDC to 20VDC. When powered with 5VDC their required input and output states are compatible with those of 5V logic chips. Output pins of these chips source and sink no more than 25mA (much less in some instances). Because there are so many variants, they cannot be summarized here, and datasheets must be consulted for details. Figure 9-10. To obtain the frequency of a 555 timer run- ning in astable mode, when R1 has a value of 10K: find the value of R2 on the horizontal scale, follow its vertical grid line upward to the intersection with a green curve which corresponds with the value of capacitor C1, and read across to the vertical scale providing the frequency in Hertz. Both axes are logarithmic. As these timers are all monostable, and each timer uses just one resistor and one capacitor, the only formula required is to give the pulse time as a function of these two variables. If R is the resistor value in ohms, and F is the capacitor value in farads, and K is a constant supplied by the manufacturer, the pulse time T, in seconds, is found from the formula: T = R * F * K Figure 9-11. To obtain the frequency of a 555 timer running in astable mode, when R1 has a value of 100K: find the value of R2 on the horizontal scale, follow its vertical grid line upward to the intersection with a green curve which corresponds with the value of capacitor C1, and read across to the vertical scale providing the frequency in Hertz. Both axes are logarithmic. K ranges between 0.3 and 0.7 depending on the manufacturer and also on the voltage being used. Its value should be found in the manufacturer’s datasheet. If R is measured in megohms and F is measured in microfarads, the formula is still valid, as the multipliers cancel each other out. Generally speaking, these dual monostable CMOS timers are not intended for pulse duration exceeding 1 minute. The timing capacitor should be no larger than 10µF, as it discharges directly and rapidly through the chip. How to Use It Where a timer is required to drive a load such as a relay coil or small motor directly, the original TTL version of the 555 timer will be the only choice. Even in this instance, a protection diode must be used across the inductive device. For smaller loads and applications in chip-to- chip circuits, CMOS versions of the 555, including the 7555, use less power, cause less electrical interference, and are pin-compatible while using the same formulae to calculate frequency in as- table mode or pulse duration in monostable mode. They are of course more vulnerable to static discharge, and care must be taken to make a connection to every pin (the capacitor that grounds the Control pin, if Control is not going to be used, is mandatory). In dual monostable timers, unused rising-edge trigger inputs should be tied to V+ while unused falling-edge trigger inputs should be tied to ground. A Reset pin that will not be used should be tied to V+, unless that entire timer section of the chip will be unused, in which case the pin should be grounded. To measure durations longer than a few minutes, a timer which incorporates a programmable counter to divide the clock frequency is the sensible choice. See the description of the 5555 timer that was included earlier in this entry. The original bipolar version of the 555 remains a robust choice in hobby applications such as robotics, and its design allows some versatile variations which may even be used in logic circuits. A variety of configurations are shown in the schematics below. 555 Monostable Mode The basic schematic for a 555 timer running in monostable mode is shown in Figure 9-12. In this particular example, a pushbutton that is liable to suffer from switch bounce is connected to the In- put pin of the timer, which responds to the very first connection made by the pushbutton and ignores the subsequent “bounces,” thus producing a “clean” output. To avoid retriggering, which results in a prolonged output pulse, the timer’s output should exceed the time for which the button is likely to be pressed. The output should also exceed the duration of any possible switch bounce, which can otherwise create multiple output pulses. In the schematic, an LED is attached to the timer output for demonstration purposes. Figure 9-12. The basic monostable configuration of a 555 timer. This particular circuit debounces an input from a pushbutton switch and converts it to a clean pulse of fixed duration, powering an LED for demonstration purposes. This circuit is shown on a breadboard in Figure 9-13. The red and blue wires, at the top of the photograph, supply 9VDC to the board. R1 is 1M, while C1 is 1µF, creating a pulse of just over 1 second. A tactile switch, just above the timer, provides the input. Figure 9-13. The basic monostable configuration for a 555 timer, mounted on a breadboard. 555 Astable Mode A basic schematic for a 555 timer running in as- table mode is shown in Figure 9-14. Once again, an LED is attached to the output for demonstration purposes. If the pulse rate exceeds the persistence of vision, a small loudspeaker can be used instead, in series with a 47Ω resistor and a 100µF capacitor. Figure 9-14. A 555 timer with external connections and components causing it to run in astable (free-running) mode. Separate Control of High and Low Output Times In Figure 9-15, a bypass diode has been added around R2. The capacitor now charges primarily through R1, as the diode has a much lower effective resistance than R2. It discharges only through R2, as the diode blocks current in that direction. Consequently, the length of the high output pulse can be adjusted with the value of R1 only, while the length of the low output pulse can be adjusted with the value of R2 only. The duration of the high output can be lower than, or equal to, the duration of the low output, which is not possible with the basic configuration of components in Figure 9-14. Figure 9-15. In this circuit, a diode bypasses R2, so that the “on” time and the “off” time of the 555 timer can be set independently of each other, with R1 and R2, respectively. 555 Fifty Percent Astable Duty Cycle: 1 In Figure 9-16, the circuit enables a fixed astable output duration of approximately 50% high and 50% low. Initially, C1 has no charge, pulling the Input of the timer low, and causing it to begin a cycle with a high pulse from the Output pin, as usual. In this demonstration circuit, the output illuminates an LED. At the same time, resistor R1 is attached to the output and charges C1. When the voltage on C1 reaches 2/3 of V+, this is com- municated to the timer Input pin, which ends the “high” cycle and initiates low status on the Out- put pin. This starts to sink the charge from C1, through R1. When the voltage drops to 1/3 V+, this initiates a new cycle. Because only one resis- tor is used to charge and discharge the capacitor, we may imagine that the charge and discharge times should be identical. However, a higher load on the output will probably pull down the output voltage to some extent, lengthening the charge time. Conversely, a load on the Output pin that has low resistance will probably sink at least some of the charge from the capacitor, shorten- ing the discharge cycle. Figure 9-16. This configuration provides an approximate 50-50 on-off duty cycle at the output pin, although the precise duration will depend on the load. 555 Fifty Percent Astable Duty Cycle: 2 In Figure 9-17, a small modification of the basic astable circuit shown in Figure 9-14 provides an- other way to enable a 50% duty cycle. Compare the two schematics, and you will see that just the connection between R1 and R2 has been altered so that C1 now charges only through R1, and dis- charges only through R2. However, in this con- figuration the capacitor is discharging into a volt- age divider created by the two resistors. Empirical adjustment of the resistor values may be necessary before the duty cycle is precisely 50%. Figure 9-17. An alternative configuration to provide an ap- proximate 50-50 on-off duty cycle in a 555 timer. Use of the 555 Control Pin In Figure 9-18, a potentiometer and two series resistors allow a varying voltage to be applied to the Control Pin. This will lengthen or reduce both the charge and the discharge times of the timing capacitor. If values for the capacitor and its associated resistors are chosen to create a frequency of approximately 700Hz, a 10K potentiometer should demonstrate more than an octave of audible tones through the loudspeaker. Other components can be substituted for a potentiometer, creating possibilities for producing pulse-width modulation. Alternatively, if a large capacitor is added between the Control pin and ground while a second 555 timer, running slowly in as- table mode, applies its output to the Control pin, the charging and discharging of the capacitor will apply a smoothly rising and falling voltage. If the first 555 timer is running at an audio frequency, the output will have a “wailing siren” effect. Figure 9-18. A circuit that allows adjustment of the as- table 555 frequency by increasing or lowering the voltage on the Control pin. Figure 9-19 shows the components specified in Figure 9-18 mounted on a breadboard. Figure 9-19. The components in the previous schematic are shown here mounted on a breadboard. They will generate an audio output ranging between approximately 425Hz and 1,075Hz. A lower value for the timing capacitor will shift the audio range higher in frequency. 555 Flip-Flop Emulation The flip-flop inside a 555 timer can be accessed to control the timer’s outputs. In Figure 9-20, pushbutton switch S1 applies a negative pulse to the Input pin, creating a high output from the timer, which illuminates LED D1. Normally the pulse length would be limited by the charge time of a capacitor attached to the Threshold pin, but in this circuit there is no capacitor, and the Threshold pin is hard-wired to negative ground. So, it never rises to 2/3 of positive power, and the output from the timer remains high indefinitely. Figure 9-20. A 555 timer can have its timing features dis- abled so that it functions as a flip-flop. However, if S2 is pressed, it grounds the Reset pin of the timer, which ends the high output and pulls the Output pin down to a low state. D1 goes out and D2 lights up, as the timer is now sinking current through it. When S2 is released, the timer output remains low and D2 remains illuminated, because the Input pin is held high by a pullup resistor. Therefore, the timer now functions in bi- stable mode, as a flip-flop. While this may be seen as an inappropriate use of the chip, because its full functionality is being disabled, its ability to deliver substantial current and to tolerate a wide range of supply voltages may make it more convenient to use than a digital flip-flop. See Chap- ter 11 for more information about flip-flops. A 555 timer emulating a flip-flop is shown on a breadboard in Figure 9-21. Figure 9-21. The schematic in which a 555 timer acts as a flip-flop is shown here adapted for a breadboard. 555 Hysteresis The comparators inside a 555 timer enable the chip to produce hysteresis. In Figure 9-22, the In- put pin and the Threshold pin are shorted together, and C1, the timing capacitor, is omitted. A 10K potentiometer, wired as a voltage divider, delivers a voltage to the Input pin ranging smoothly from V+ to negative ground. As the in- put dips below 1/3 V+, the Output pin goes high, lighting LED D1. Now if the input voltage gradually rises, the output remains high, even as the input rises above 1/3 V+. The output state is “sticky” because the timer does not end an out- put pulse until the Threshold pin tells it to, by reaching 2/3 V+. When this finally occurs, the Output pin goes low, D1 goes out, and D2 comes on, sinking current into the Output pin. Suppose, now, the input voltage starts to go down again. Once again the output state is “sticky” because it remains low until the Input pin drops below the 1/3 level. When that happens, the output finally flips back to a high state, D2 goes out, and D1 comes on. In the “dead zone” between 1/3 and 2/3 of supply voltage, the timer remains in its current mode, waiting for the input to stray outside of those limits. This behavior is known as hysteresis, and is of special importance when processing a varying signal, such as the voltage from a temperature sensor, to control an on/off device such as a thermostat. In fact the 10K potentiometer in this demo could be replaced with a thermistor or a phototransistor, wired in series with a resistor to create a voltage divider which will have an input range compatible with the 555 timer. The hysteresis can then be adjusted by varying the supply voltage that powers the timer, as this will change the values of 1/3 V+ and 2/3 V+. Alternatively, varying the voltage on the Control pin will affect the hysteresis. A comparator can provide much more versatile control of hysteresis by using positive feedback (see Chapter 6 for additional details). But the 555 timer provides a quick-and-simple substitute, and its greater ability to source or sink current enables it to be connected with a wider range of other components. Figure 9-22. A 555 timer wired so that it creates hystere- sis, when supplied by a variable input voltage. 555 and Coupling Capacitors As previously noted, when a basic bipolar 555 timer (and some of its variants) is wired in mono- stable mode, it will retrigger itself indefinitely if its input remains low. One way to avoid this is by using a coupling capacitor. This will pass a transition from high to low, but will then block a steady subsequent voltage. In Figure 9-23, a phototransistor in series with a resistor provides a variable voltage to the noninverting input of a comparator. The reference voltage of the comparator is adjusted with a potentiometer, and resistor R3 provides positive feedback, ensuring that the output from the comparator will be quick and clean. The output from the 555 timer goes through a transistor to the relay, shown at the bottom. It is important to see the function of the coupling capacitor, C3, with the pullup resistor, R2, which holds the Input pin of the 555 timer high by de- fault. When the output from the comparator drops from high to low, C3 passes this transition to the Input pin of the timer, momentarily over- coming the positive potential, and triggering the timer. After the timer responds, however, C3 blocks any continuation of low voltage from the comparator. Pullup resistor R2 resumes its function of holding the input high, and prevents the timer from being retriggered. 555 Loudspeaker Connection A small 8-ohm loudspeaker can be driven from the output of a bipolar 555 timer running in as- table mode, but should be isolated from it with a 10µF to 100µF capacitor. A series resistor of 47Ω (minimum) should be used. See Figure 9-24. Burst Mode It is sometimes useful to create a short beep of fixed length in response to a button-press. The beep should terminate even if the button is held down. This “burst mode” can be achieved with the circuit in Figure 9-25, where the button con- nects power to a bipolar-type 555 timer running in astable mode, and an RC network applies a decreasing potential to a 47µF capacitor, which is wired to the Reset pin of the timer. The resistor in series with the capacitor will vary the length of the beep. When voltage to the pin drops below approximately 0.3V, output from the timer stops and cannot restart until the button is released. A resistor of greater than 1.5K may not allow the input value at the reset pin to fall below the volt- age, which is necessary to enable a reset. If a low- er power supply voltage than 9VDC is used, the resistor value should be higher—for example, a 5VDC power supply works well with a 1.5K to 2K resistor. Figure 9-23. A coupling capacitor (C3) is used in this circuit to isolate the 555 timer from a sustained low input from the comparator. The capacitor only passes a transition from high to low. The rest of the time, the pullup resistor (R3) holds the input high. Figure 9-24. A small 8-ohm loudspeaker can be attached through a capacitor and a resistor to the output of a bipolar 555 timer. Figure 9-25. An RC circuit, wired to apply a decreasing voltage on the Reset pin of a bipolar 555 timer, will shut off the timer shortly after it is powered up. This can be used to create a fixed-length beep in response to a button press of any duration. Figure 9-26 shows the components installed on a breadboard. “You Lose” Game Sound A timer is a simple, cheap way to create a variety of simple game sounds. The schematic in Figure 9-27 makes a groaning sound as the 100µF capacitor wired to the Control pin of a bipolar- type 555 gradually charges through the 1K resistor. Note that if a larger resistor is paired with a smaller capacitor, the effect will differ. The 150K resistor is included to discharge the capacitor reasonably quickly in time for the next cycle. Figure 9-26. The “burst mode” circuit installed on a breadboard with a miniature loudspeaker. What Can Go Wrong Dead Timer Like any chip, the 555 can be damaged by over- voltage, excessive source current or sinking cur- rent, static electricity, incorrectly applied polarity of power supply, and other forms of abuse. The TTL version of the timer is fairly robust, but the CMOS type much less so. Check for obvious errors such as lack of supply voltage, incorrect or ambiguous input voltages, and unusual current draw (too high, or none at all, at the V+ pin). Use the meter probes on the actual pins of the chip, in case there is a break in the wiring that feeds them. Because timer chips are cheap, a reserve supply of them should be maintained. Figure 9-27. An RC circuit, wired to apply an increasingly positive voltage to the Control pin of a bipolar timer running in astable mode, will gradually pull down the frequency at the Output pin, creating a sound that may be useful in simple game applications. CMOS Confused with Bipolar The part numbers of some bipolar chips are very similar to those of some CMOS versions, and the chips look physically identical. But the CMOS version is easily overloaded, as it may source only 10mA to 20mA maximum while the TTL version is capable of 200mA. Make sure that your chips are carefully labeled when they are stored. The Pulse that Never Ends If a 555 timer responds correctly to a high-to-low transition on the input pin, but the output pulse continues indefinitely, check the voltage on pin 6 to see if the timing capacitor is charging above 2/3 of V+. While a 555 can run from 5VDC, a high- current device on the Output pin can pull down the voltage inside the chip to the point where the capacitor never charges sufficiently to end the cycle. Also check that the input transition from high to low lasts for a shorter time than the pulse. A per- sistent low input can retrigger the timer. Erratic Chip Behavior Possible causes include: • Floating pins. The Input pin, in particular, should always be connected with a defined voltage (via a 10K pullup resistor, if necessary), and must not be allowed to float at an indeterminate potential. • Voltage spikes. A timer can be triggered by transients from other components, especial- ly inductive loads. If the input to a monostable timer dips for even a fraction of a second, the timer will initiate a new cycle. A protection diode should be used in conjunction with an inductive load. • Voltage spikes can also introduce variations in the pulse train from an astable timer. • TTL versions of the 555 timer will tolerate a wide range of supply voltage, but if a voltage regulator is not used, fluctuations in voltage can have unpredictable consequences. Interference with Other Components Because the bipolar version of a 555 timer creates a voltage spike when its output changes state, it can interfere with the normal function of other components, especially CMOS chips. A 0.1µF by- pass capacitor can be applied between the timer’s V+ pin and ground. Erratic Behavior of Output Devices If a 555 timer powers an output device such as a relay, and the relay is not opening or closing in a reliable manner, first check that it is receiving sufficient voltage. If the 555 timer is powered with 5VDC, its output will be only around 4VDC. This problem can be avoided by using the output from the timer to control the voltage on the base of a transistor which switches a separate source of power to the relay coil. Fatal Damage Caused by Inductive Loads While it is possible to drive an inductive load such as a small motor or relay directly from a TTL 555 timer, two precautions should be taken. First, the motor or the coil of the relay should have a clamping diode added around it, as is standard practice. Second, because the output of the timer is capable of sinking current as well as sourcing current, it can be protected from sinking back- EMF by inserting a diode in series with the load. This is illustrated in Figure 9-28. Figure 9-28. In addition to a standard protection diode clamped around an inductive load such as a relay coil, the 555 timer can be protected from back-EMF by adding a diode in series. The series diode must of course be rated to carry sufficient current through the coil. When choosing a relay, allowance must be made for the voltage drop that will be imposed by the series diode.	<urn:uuid:6dc7eb5c-8a70-4402-b4b7-9067e46ebba7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.03666645288467407, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.912984311580658, "url": "http://scienceuniverse101.blogspot.com/2015/02/timerwhat-it-doesmonostable-modeastable.html" }
pronunciation: SHRU-ti ("U" as "u" in "put"). A microtone, that is to say, an interval less than a semitone. Music treatises ascribe 22 Shruti between Sa and the next Sa. This is because 22 is the smallest whole number that can account for the three types of intervals that were in use in ancient times: the "small" interval, corresponding to the semitone, the "large" interval, corresponding to the whole tone or two times the semitone and the "medium" interval, which lay in between the two, so that it was one and a half times the semitone. Traditionally, Indian musicologists count intervals descending from the high Sa (a point not grasped by certain later musicologists like Pandit Bhatkhande, for which reason their exposition of Shruti is incorrect), thus: the distance (descending) from Sa to Ni, from Pa to Ma and from Ma to Ga was each a large interval; the distance from Dha to Pa and from Re to Sa was each a medium interval and the distance from Ni to Dha and from Ga to Re was each a small interval. Therefore, if the small interval was assigned the unit of 1 Shruti, the medium interval would be one and a half Shruti, leading to inconvenient fractional calculations. So, ancient musicologists assigned 2 Shruti to the small interval, and so the medium interval became 3 Shruti and the large interval became 4 Shruti. Thus the total number of Shruti from one Sa to the next became 22. In this context, it is worth noting that the Ni of ancient times corresponds to Komal Ni of the present day and the Ga of ancient times corresponds to the Komal Ga of the present day. The ancient note/pitch system was modified by Amir Khusrau (13th century AC) so as to make Sa and Pa fixed (i.e., without any variant form) and all other notes having two forms each. For more discussion on the question of note names and Shruti in Indian art music, see here. It is important to bear in mind that Indian music does not follow equal temparament and that the lengths of Shruti at different places relative to the tonic are different. The concept of Shruti has great practical application in music in most developed musical cultures of the world. In western keyboard music, unfortunately, its application is restricted to the actual fixed tuning of the keyboard instrument. Discounting this for the time being, stringed and wind instrument players in western music, trained to play along the lines of natural temperament, unconsciously apply a good deal of Shruti considerations while playing. This is particularly apparent when a (say) violinist has to play a violin sonata with a pianist where the composer, by oversight or otherwise, did not take into account that the violinist plays according to natural temperament and the poor pianist is bound to the artificial dictates of equal temperament. A good example is the note C# in the theme of Corelli's La Folia variations for violon and piano, where the note is sounded together by both instruments early in the theme. The piece being in the key of D minor, the violinist naturally feels this note as the leading note and pitches slightly higher with his finger than he would have done to a C# note had it been written in the key of, say, A major, where the note would be a mediant and do not as close to the subdominant as a leading note would be in relation to the next higher tonic. So, in La Folia, when the violinist follows his natural instincts, his C# is actually higher than that of the pianist, who is innocent of all such subtle considerations and plonks away at the only C# he has in that particular register, resulting in a horrible clash between the pitches of the two instruments. The lay listener, not realising the acoustical problem involved in this case, and unable to believe that a piano can be out of tune (which in fact it is, under the circumstances!), considers the violinist to have had a lapse of intonation! That is to say, in order to maintain his professional prestige, the poor violinist has to actually play out of tune to sound in tune to the listener: an unhappy compromise but a fact of life when playing with a keyboard instrument! Happily, In Indian art music, such problems do not arise, because the idea of equal temperament is utterly repugnant to Indian music. However, there are other Shruti-induced problems. Shruti do not dictate inviolate and fixed points of pitch, rather, they indicate a sufficiently close neighbourhood of pitches within which the artiste is permitted to pitch his or her note. The very subtle degrees of variation in precise, scientifically measurable pitch for the same note of a Raga differ from artiste to artiste and also for the same artiste from time to time. This is why if (as has been rather unwisely and ignorantly done) the pitches used by an artiste in a Raga rendering have been calibrated with an oscilloscope or some similar device, these calibrations will be different almost each time he or she renders the same Raga. This will confuse the unmusical analyser hell-bent on Science alone (to the exclusion of emotional and spiritual expression, which ultimately determine the Shruti the artiste does actually use at the moment he/she is using them), but will be perfectly acceptable by the most knowledgeable and sensitive of listeners. For this reason, although a keyboard instrument like a harmonium is unsuitable for Indian art music, many vocalists prefer to be accompanied by one (where the Shruti are fixed and so predictable) rather than the traditional Sarengi, where the Sarengi player's sense of Shruti may be different from that of the vocalist and so may actually cause a measure of disturbance rather than enhancement. It is only a highly musically evolved Sarengi player who can sublimate his individual Shruti sense and adopt those of the vocalist being accompanied – such a concert will then bring out the finest in the vocalist. Needless to say, such Sarengi accompanists do not lie thick upon the ground and are, in consequence, in great demand!	<urn:uuid:51b1ef9d-6e25-4f82-a73a-0b4d31e75093>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.06972205638885498, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9598223567008972, "url": "http://www.ragaculture.com/shruti.html" }
[dem-uh n-strey-shuh n] 1. the act or circumstance of proving or being proved conclusively, as by reasoning or a show of evidence: a belief incapable of demonstration. 2. something serving as proof or supporting evidence: They sent a check as a demonstration of their concern. 3. a description or explanation, as of a process, illustrated by examples, specimens, or the like: a demonstration of methods of refining ore. 4. the act of exhibiting the operation or use of a device, machine, process, product, or the like, as to a prospective buyer. 5. an exhibition, as of feeling; display; manifestation: His demonstration of affection was embarrassing. 6. a public exhibition of the attitude of a group of persons toward a controversial issue, or other matter, made by picketing, parading, etc. 7. a show of military force or of offensive operations made to deceive an enemy. 8. Mathematics. a logical presentation of the way in which given assumptions imply a certain result; proof. Origin of demonstration 1325–75; Middle English demonstracioun < Latin dēmonstrātiōn- (stem of dēmonstrātiō, equivalent to dēmonstrāt(us) (see demonstrate) + -iōn- -ion Related formsdem·on·stra·tion·al, adjectivedem·on·stra·tion·ist, nouncoun·ter·dem·on·stra·tion, nounpre·dem·on·stra·tion, nounre·dem·on·stra·tion, nounsub·dem·on·stra·tion, nounsu·per·dem·on·stra·tion, nounun·dem·on·stra·tion·al, adjective Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2018 British Dictionary definitions for redemonstration 1. the act of demonstrating 2. proof or evidence leading to proof 3. an explanation, display, illustration, or experiment showing how something works 4. a manifestation of grievances, support, or protest by public rallies, parades, etc 5. a manifestation of emotion 6. a show of military force or preparedness 7. maths a logical presentation of the assumptions and equations used in solving a problem or proving a theorem Derived Formsdemonstrational, adjectivedemonstrationist, noun Word Origin and History for redemonstration late 14c., "proof that something is true," from Old French demonstration or directly from Latin demonstrationem (nominative demonstratio), noun of action from past participle stem of demonstrare "to point out, indicate, demonstrate," figuratively, "to prove, establish," from de- "entirely" (see de-) + monstrare "to point out, show," from monstrum "divine omen, wonder" (see monster). Meaning "public show of feeling," usually with a mass meeting and a procession, is from 1839. Related: Demonstrational. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper	<urn:uuid:071c9d54-eccb-415c-a508-00bdcccb4b3d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.890625, "fasttext_score": 0.3330245018005371, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8527003526687622, "url": "https://www.dictionary.com/browse/redemonstration" }
Definition of round 1. the usual activities in your day; "the doctor made his rounds" 2. the activity of playing 18 holes of golf; "a round of golf takes about 4 hours" 3. (often plural) a series of professional calls (usually in a set order); "the doctor goes on his rounds first thing every morning"; "the postman''s rounds"; "we enjoyed our round of the local bars" 4. any circular or rotating mechanism; "the machine punched out metal circles" 5. a charge of ammunition for a single shot 6. a crosspiece between the legs of a chair 7. an outburst of applause; "there was a round of applause" 9. a cut of beef between the rump and the lower leg 10. a serving to each of a group (usually alcoholic); "he ordered a second round" 13. (sports) a period of play during which one team is on the offensive 14. an interval during which a recurring sequence of events occurs; "the neverending cycle of the seasons" 15. become round, plump, or shapely; "The young woman is fleshing out" 16. make round; "round the edges" 17. express as a round number; "round off the amount" 18. bring to a highly developed, finished, or refined state; "polish your social manners" 20. pronounce with rounded lips 21. wind around; move along a circular course; "round the bend" 23. (of numbers) to the nearest ten, hundred, or thousand; "in round numbers" 24. (of sounds) full and rich; "orotund tones"; "the rotund and reverberating phrase"; "pear-shaped vowels" 25. having a circular shape Similar Words: daily round, round of golf, circle, unit of ammunition, one shot, rung, stave, troll, round of drinks, beat, turn, bout, cycle, rhythm, flesh out, fill out, round out, round off, round down, polish, polish up, brush up, attack, assail, lash out, snipe, assault, labialize, labialise, surround, environ, encircle, ring, orotund, rotund, pear-shaped, circular, around See Also: rounded Hyponyms: disk, disc, top, top of the inning, bottom, bottom of the inning, purse, abuse, clapperclaw, blackguard, shout, claw, vitriol, rip, whang, barrage, blister, scald, whip, rubbish, twine, wreath, wreathe, girth, girt, begird, gird, cloister Part Meronyms: straight chair, side chair, rocking chair, rocker, highchair, feeding chair, folding chair Derivational Morphology: circle, circulate, stave, troll, cycle, rounder, polish, refinement, culture, cultivation, finish, attacker, aggressor, assailant, assaulter, fire, attack, flak, flack, blast, ring, halo, annulus, anulus, doughnut, anchor ring, environment, environs, surroundings, surround Language Translations: Chinese: Finnish: pyöreä French: rond German: rund Japanese: 丸い Latin: rotundus Lithuanian: apvalus Russian: круглый Slovene: okrogel Spanish: redondo Search Dictionary Search the meaning/definition of over one hundred thousand words! Random Word busbar means an electrical conductor that makes a common connection between several circuits; "the busbar in this computer can transmit data either way between any two ... more Find words starting with:	<urn:uuid:2963179f-da13-4a95-bb9d-c3bd89d6f850>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.20477533340454102, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8759972453117371, "url": "http://dictionary.kids.net.au/word/round" }
Skip to Content Symbolist Movement A group of late 19th-century French writers, including Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé, who favored dreams, visions, and the associative powers of the imagination in their poetry. They rejected their predecessors’ tendency toward naturalism and realism, believing that the purpose of art was not to represent reality but to access greater truths by the “systematic derangement of the senses,” as Rimbaud described it. The translated works of Edgar Allan Poe influenced the French Symbolists. Looking to learn about poetry?	<urn:uuid:d8b02c2c-f993-4309-82e3-0fad37cdc80d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.2655743956565857, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9075075387954712, "url": "https://www.poetryfoundation.org/learn/glossary-terms/symbolist-movement" }
Rottnest Island 'tent land' closure an important day for Aboriginal people Updated May 31, 2018 06:48:22 Today is an important day for Aboriginal people throughout Western Australia. The former Rottnest Island prison building, known as the Quod, ceases operations as a tourist resort. Aboriginal people since the 1980s have campaigned for this to happen. From between 1838 and 1931 it is conservatively estimated that more than 3,600 Aboriginal men from around the state were imprisoned at Rottnest Island, known as Wadjemup to the Noongar people. More than 371 men sent to the Island died as a result of disease, torture, execution and murder and their remains lie in an unmarked grave, once acknowledged by the former premier Richard Court as the largest deaths in custody burial site in Western Australia. It would be correct to say, moreover, that this is the largest mass burial site in Australia. The Act to Constitute Rottnest Island as a Legal Prison 1841 was designed to ensure that the "Aboriginal race… may be instructed in useful knowledge and gradually trained in the habits of civilised life". But the Aboriginal prisoners at Rottnest lived in shocking conditions, working in chain gangs quarrying limestones, erecting buildings, collecting salt, and farming gardens and wheat fields. Aboriginal people enslaved in their thousands It has been estimated that at least 21 men died in each of the prison cells that have, for over 100 years, been used as resort accommodation. Audio: Reconciliation and Rottnest (Focus) Slavery, as legally defined, has never existed in West Australia. However, the system of "assignment" under the various Native Protection Acts, ensured the enslavement of thousands of Aboriginal men, women and children. European pastoral stations, agricultural developments, pearl shell enterprises, and domestic households relied on and exploited the Aboriginal labour relied on under the assignment system. As historian Neville Green demonstrates, those who resisted were incarcerated at Rottnest Island "the final answer for holding those too wild and rebellious to submit to local service". Theses practices were exposed and condemned as slavery by the Reverend JB Gribble and the British Anti-Slavery Society. Rottnest prison evokes African slave forts The Native Prison and the Roundhouse at Fremantle, which housed the Aboriginal men before they were deported to Rottnest, are unusual buildings in their design. The Roundhouse is a Dodecahedron, with 12 sides, and although the Quod design is more complex than the Roundhouse, the Chronological History of Rottnest Island suggests that it is "directly related in its plan form and general conception". While the Roundhouse and Rottnest Prison have been portrayed as humanitarian in design, there are stories and fragments of evidence that throw another light on these buildings. According to Noongar oral tradition, Aboriginal men who had broken no laws were sent to Rottnest to work in extremely harsh conditions. They were confined in deplorable conditions and subject to cruel and inhuman treatment. The Rottnest Island Prison, and Roundhouse, are evocative of the slave forts of West Africa and connect our history and the treatment of Aboriginal people, to British slavery. While non-Aboriginal families spent idyllic summer holidays at Rottnest, Aboriginal families never went to the Island. In the 1980's Aboriginal people formed the Rottnest Island Deaths Group and began their protests at the lack of respect and recognition of the Island's true history. This will never be a holiday isle for Aboriginal people Following the excavations at the Quod that resulted in human remains being uncovered, I was a young person who took part in protests, which including a meeting of more than 300 Aboriginal elders from around the state. It was shocking that the mass gravesite was being used as a "tent land", where non-Aboriginals were unaware that they were camping on top of the remains of so many Indigenous people. Last Sunday, when the Rottnest Island Authority and the Rottnest Aboriginal Reference Group announced that the former prison would cease operations, a delegation of Aboriginal people were there to mark it as a historic occasion. They paid respects to the deceased Indigenous men who were so cruelly treated. Rottnest will likely never become a holiday island for Aboriginal people: As elder Ben Taylor said, "my heart is heavy to come to this place". But the significance of remembering our past and what was done to Aboriginal people in the name of "civilisation" is something we must all do. Aboriginal people in the 1980s said the prison must be returned to Aboriginal communities and be set up as a Museum of Remembrance. According to Mr Green this building could become the "most significant museum in Australia". Wadjemup should be UNESCO listed Wadjemup should be considered for UNESCO World Heritage protection consistent with the recognition accorded to Robben Island prison in South Africa, because it meets the requirement of Outstanding Universal Value. Wadjemup is an Aboriginal site of the highest significance. The burial site protected by the Aboriginal Heritage Act WA 1975, should be properly marked and respected with the true purpose and history of the prison being documented. While the island land is Wadjuk, the men rounded up and taken to work on the island, and who died there, were from many lands and nations that now make up Western Australia. Some of those men escaped, and the story of Mindum from Jerramungup who managed to escape the island — remembered as family by my great grandmother — is testimony to the resilience and spirit of Aboriginal people. In remembering the past we can tell the truth about what is happening today, including the contemporary incarceration of Aboriginal people, a shocking reflection of colonisation and failure to acknowledge Aboriginal peoples' humanity and dignity as independent, free and sovereign people. Dr. Hannah McGlade is a senior Indigenous research fellow at Curtin University. Topics: reconciliation, indigenous-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander, aboriginal, history, human-rights, human-interest, rottnest-island-6161, perth-6000 First posted May 31, 2018 04:51:39	<urn:uuid:c9aee2f4-d6c3-4045-b83c-f515e841cd0d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.022958576679229736, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9702883958816528, "url": "https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-31/quod-rottnest-island-aboriginal-land-mass-burial-gravesite/9811930" }
Autonomous movements of cytoplasmic fragments [See ref 8 ] The co-ordinated shape changes of migrating cells When whole animal cells move, different parts of their bodies carry out different movements. For example, the so-called leading front may ruffle while the trailing end, the so-called tail retracts. When a cell makes a turn, it simply produces a new pseudopodium into the new direction. The figure below shows the typical example of a mouse fibroblast that undergoes dramatic and concerted shape changes as it turns a tail into a front and vice versa. In this way it makes a turn without actually rotating its body as a whole. How can cells move different parts of their bodies differently? The answer came when we found ways to isolate viable fragments from the periphery of cells which we called 'microplasts'. They were able to move independently. By controlling the actions of each such domain the cells can control the movements of different parts of their body. But, of course, it means that the cells must have a central control system to do that. [See ref 8] Ruffling microplast Still, microplasts express extraordinarily complex behavior in their own rights. Compared to 'cell intelligence' it may be considered as the expression of a next lower level of intelligence. In order to view selected examples, download video sequences that show microplasts that Significance for cell intelligence What in a cell tells each of its microplasts when to move and when to keep still? a. The cell must contain a motor control system that controls the movments of its entire body. It determines when and where its numerous motile domains are allowed to carry out any of their built-in movements. Otherwise, these domains (i.e. cortex domains from which the microplasts were formed) would exercise their autonomy and render the cell incapable of any directional, purposeful movement. b. The inability of microplasts to restore or create directionality of their movement suggests, that directionality of movement is the product of a higher level of control. Since the directionality of movement responds to obstacles and other unforeseeable events in the path of a moving cell this high level control appears 'intelligent' (i.e. signal integrative and decision-making).	<urn:uuid:16b4c2bb-4864-462e-ad2f-5ba0a27c924a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.6196504235267639, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9423702955245972, "url": "http://www.basic.northwestern.edu/g-buehler/micplast.htm" }
A Byte of Python Tuples are just like lists except that they are immutable like strings i.e. you cannot modify tuples. Tuples are defined by specifying items separated by commas within a pair of parentheses. Tuples are usually used in cases where a statement or a user-defined function can safely assume that the collection of values i.e. the tuple of values used will not change. Using Tuples Example 9.2. Using Tuples # Filename: using_tuple.py zoo = ('wolf', 'elephant', 'penguin') print 'Number of animals in the zoo is', len(zoo) new_zoo = ('monkey', 'dolphin', zoo) print 'Number of animals in the new zoo is', len(new_zoo) print 'All animals in new zoo are', new_zoo print 'Animals brought from old zoo are', new_zoo[2] print 'Last animal brought from old zoo is', new_zoo[2][2] $ python using_tuple.py Number of animals in the zoo is 3 Number of animals in the new zoo is 3 All animals in new zoo are ('monkey', 'dolphin', ('wolf', 'elephant', 'penguin')) Animals brought from old zoo are ('wolf', 'elephant', 'penguin') Last animal brought from old zoo is penguin How It Works The variable zoo refers to a tuple of items. We see that the len function can be used to get the length of the tuple. This also indicates that a tuple is a sequence as well. We are now shifting these animals to a new zoo since the old zoo is being closed. Therefore, the new_zoo tuple contains some animals which are already there along with the animals brought over from the old zoo. Back to reality, note that a tuple within a tuple does not lose its identity. We can access the items in the tuple by specifying the item's position within a pair of square brackets just like we did for lists. This is called the indexing operator. We access the third item in new_zoo by specifying new_zoo[2] and we access the third item in the third item in the new_zoo tuple by specifying new_zoo[2][2]. This is pretty simple once you've understood the idiom. Tuple with 0 or 1 items. An empty tuple is constructed by an empty pair of parentheses such as myempty = (). However, a tuple with a single item is not so simple. You have to specify it using a comma following the first (and only) item so that Python can differentiate between a tuple and a pair of parentheses surrounding the object in an expression i.e. you have to specify singleton = (2 , ) if you mean you want a tuple containing the item 2. Note for Perl programmers A list within a list does not lose its identity i.e. lists are not flattened as in Perl. The same applies to a tuple within a tuple, or a tuple within a list, or a list within a tuple, etc. As far as Python is concerned, they are just objects stored using another object, that's all. Tuples and the print statement One of the most common usage of tuples is with the print statement. Here is an example: Example 9.3. Output using tuples # Filename: print_tuple.py age = 22 name = 'Swaroop' print '%s is %d years old' % (name, age) print 'Why is %s playing with that python?' % name $ python print_tuple.py Swaroop is 22 years old Why is Swaroop playing with that python? How It Works The print statement can take a string using certain specifications followed by the % symbol followed by a tuple of items matching the specification. The specifications are used to format the output in a certain way. The specification can be like %s for strings and %d for integers. The tuple must have items corresponding to these specifications in the same order. Observe the first usage where we use %s first and this corresponds to the variable name which is the first item in the tuple and the second specification is %d corresponding to age which is the second item in the tuple. What Python does here is that it converts each item in the tuple into a string and substitutes that string value into the place of the specification. Therefore the %s is replaced by the value of the variable name and so on. This usage of the print statement makes writing output extremely easy and avoids lot of string manipulation to achieve the same. It also avoids using commas everywhere as we have done till now. Most of the time, you can just use the %s specification and let Python take care of the rest for you. This works even for numbers. However, you may want to give the correct specifications since this adds one level of checking that your program is correct. In the second print statement, we are using a single specification followed by the % symbol followed by a single item - there are no pair of parentheses. This works only in the case where there is a single specification in the string.	<urn:uuid:1cf65a9c-23cf-460e-8b7c-4f601411d435>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.21875, "fasttext_score": 0.5680650472640991, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8761274218559265, "url": "http://www.ibiblio.org/g2swap/byteofpython/read/tuple.html" }
Apollo Hospitals Apollo Lifeline National : 1860-500-10669133873311 Book Appointment Mobile Navigation Slipped Disc - Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment Understanding the spine The spine is made up of many bones called vertebrae. These are roughly circular and between each vertebra is a 'disc'. The discs are made of strong 'rubber-like' tissue, which allows the spine to be fairly flexible. A disc has a stronger fibrous outer part, and a softer jelly-like middle part called the nucleus pulposus. The spine protects the spinal cord, which contains the nerves that come from the brain. Nerves from the spinal cord come out from between the vertebrae to take and receive messages to various parts of the body. Strong ligaments attach to the vertebrae. These give extra support and strength to the spine. Various muscles also surround, and are attached to various parts of the spine. What is a prolapsed disc? When you have a prolapsed disc (commonly called a 'slipped disc'). A disc does not actually 'slip'. What happens is that part of the inner softer part of the disc (the nucleus pulposes) bulges out through a weakness in the outer part of the disc. A prolapsed disc is sometimes called herniated disc. The bulging disc may press on nearby structures such as a nerve coming from the spinal cord. Some inflammation also develops around the prolapsed part of the disc. Any disc in the spine can prolapse. However, most prolapsed discs occur in the lumbar part of the spine (lower back). The size of the prolapse can vary. As a rule, the larger the prolapse, the more severe the symptoms are likely to be. Who gets a prolapsed disc? It is not clear why some people develop a prolapsed disc and not others, even when they do the same job or lift the same sort of objects. It seems that some people may have a weakness in the outer part of the affected disc. Various things may trigger the inner softer part of the disc to prolapse out through the weakened outer part of the disc. For example, sneezing, awkward bending, or heavy lifting in an awkward position may cause some extra pressure on the disc. In people with a weakness in a disc this may be sufficient to cause a prolapse. Factors that may increase the risk of developing a prolapsed disc include: a job involving lots of liftin, a job involving lots of sitting (especially driving), weight bearing sports (weight lifting etc), smoking, obesity and increasing age (a disc is more likely to develop a weakness with increasing age). Find a doctor Patients Speak Patients Speak Let our patients tell you about us Ask us Ask us Anything, Anytime! I‘m here to Enter Specialities, Doctors, Health Check	<urn:uuid:fde6c0f7-e2a5-499b-bb24-e7983d2503a5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.890625, "fasttext_score": 0.4228784441947937, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9280078411102295, "url": "https://www.apollohospitals.com/departments/orthopedic/bone-joint-health/ortho-slipped-disc" }
Explore BrainMass Define Estates and Trusts: why create one? Estates and Trusts: Define the terms and give examples to demonstrate situations where the creation of a trust might accomplish trustor objectives. Briefly explain taxation concepts of the income generated in a trust. Compare a trust to an estate. © BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com June 24, 2018, 7:08 am ad1c9bdddf Solution Preview First, three definitions of terms Grantor (trustor): the person who sets up and transfers property to a trust Trustee: the person (or entity) who will administer the trust Beneficiary: the person(s) who will receive the property in the trust A trust is an arrangement in which property is transferred by the grantor to a trustee, to be held and managed by the trustee for the benefit of the people called beneficiaries. The types and terms of trusts are varied and often complex, but the legal formation allows for great flexibility in the creation of a trust. ... Solution Summary The solution provides a decent explanation of what a trust is, how it is created including definition of terms. Included is a list of eight reasons why a trust might be created plus a list of six types of trusts. The list is not all-inclusive but presented to show the wide diversity of types of trusts.	<urn:uuid:985c28d6-2f6e-426e-8d84-c9577de78c74>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.12914639711380005, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9386589527130127, "url": "https://brainmass.com/business/business-management/define-estates-and-trusts-why-create-one-137359" }
Pirate Code Ships cannot function without order and structure. Every captain has her own preferred rules and enforces those edicts in different ways. While the rules may vary from ship to ship, pirates as a group have developed general codes of conduct. When pirates capture an enemy ship, they sometimes offer the crew a choice: join the pirates’ crew, or face slavery or death. A crew willing to turn pirate must sign or swear to a code of conduct. Some articles of a code of conduct mention the most common punishment to be delivered if a sailor breaks a specific rule. Others leave such matters to the captain’s discretion. Punishments include whippings, being put ashore at port, marooning, keelhauling, and death— naturally, vicious and criminal captains tend to gravitate toward more sadistic punishments. • A pirate put ashore at port is dismissed in a loud and obvious manner, so word soon spreads of her disgrace, inhibiting her ability to sign on with a new crew. • Marooning involves putting a pirate ashore on a deserted island with nothing but a canteen of water and a knife. These islands are often tiny, with little vegetation and practically no animal life. Marooned pirates face a slow death by starvation, or a quick death through suicide. • Keelhauling is the practice of running a long rope underneath a boat and tying the offending pirate to one end. The pirate is then dragged overboard and under the ship, which is often encrusted with a coat of sharp-edged barnacles. If the pirate is dragged quickly, the rapid passage along the barnacles results in deep cuts and occasionally limb loss or complete decapitation. In contrast, by pulling slower, the crew can allow the offending pirate to sink farther and avoid most risk of lacerations, but this greatly increases the risk of drowning. • Pirates killed at sea are most frequently stabbed and unceremoniously thrown overboard, where they are devoured by the sharks that tend to follow boats. Another, more theatrical execution style involves binding and sometimes weighting down the condemned sailor, then forcing her to step off into the sea and drown—the infamous “walking the plank.” Most ships adhere to elements of the sample codes presented below, with captains picking and choosing as befits their individual inclinations. Pirate’s Code • All crew members must obey the captain and his officers. Privateer’s Code • A privateer shall never refuse satisfaction to an honorable opponent. • A privateer shall not beat or mutilate slaves or prisoners. Shipboard Conduct	<urn:uuid:3b9dd133-c339-4069-a60b-9475dd2b262d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.07087081670761108, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9479176998138428, "url": "http://pfseconddarkness.wikidot.com/pirate-code" }
Invasive Candidiasis A genus of yeasts, candida can infect the human bloodstream and organs to cause what is known as Invasive Candidiasis. The most common form of the fungal infection is called Candidemia. In America, Candidemia is the fourth most prevalent bloodstream infection found in hospitalized individuals. The Center for Disease Control reports that Candidemia impacts approximately eight out of a hundred thousand individuals each year. Premature and underdeveloped babies, individuals who have received serious surgeries, and people with a weak immune system are especially vulnerable to Candidemia. Invasive Candidiasis is diagnosed by a blood culture or tissue culture studied via microscopy. It is difficult to attribute specific symptoms to Invasive Candidiasis. A possible indicator of Invasive Candidiasis is when a patient does not respond to antibiotic therapy and continues to experience chills and fever. When the fungal infection spreads to vital organs such as the liver, spleen or the kidneys, or to parts of our bodies such as bones, joints, eyes, or muscles, more specific symptoms of Invasive Candidiasis may manifest according to where the infection has spread. Without proper treatment, Invasive Candidiasis may result in organ failure and consequent death. Treatment of Invasive Candidiasis typically entails the prescription of Amphotericin B. Amphotericin B is administered intravenously. It can also be prescribed with azole drugs for oral consumption. Transmission of Invasive Candidiasis occurs when Candida organisms found in a person's digestive tract enter the bloodstream. Although highly unlikely, transmission is also possible from contaminated medical equipment contaminated with the fungus. From the blood stream, the Candida spread throughout the body. © Medic8® \| All Rights Reserved	<urn:uuid:2cf30e46-3cb2-4bf7-9ad4-3ad09830b71a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.04902690649032593, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9233559966087341, "url": "http://www.medic8.com/infectious-diseases/invasive-candidiasis.htm" }
Active and reactive mass Action and reaction forces are unequal because they are caused by waves undergoing the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect in wavelength is 1 + beta backward and 1 beta forward. The ratio is the same for action and reaction forces and for the Doppler effect. The gamma factor = 1 / (1 beta 2) (1 / 2) can also be deduced from the Doppler effect: gamma = (a + r) / m The mass gain according to: gamma * m m is also given by: a + r m in accordance with the Doppler effect. This strongly suggests that matter is made of waves. Active and reactive mass. Hendrick A. Lorentz predicted that any fast moving material body should undergo a mass increase. Because matter is made of waves, which should undergo the Doppler effect, its mass or energy increase should be easily evaluated. The mass must be divided into two parts: active and reactive mass. In order to explain action and reaction, the mass waves traveling forward will be considered active, while backward ones will be reactive. Let's take an example: suppose that a material body is moving at 86.6% of the speed of light. The Lorentz beta normalized speed is .866: beta = v / c The Lorentz transformation g value is .5: g = (1 beta 2) 1 / 2 The gamma factor (the reciprocal 1 / g) is 2 : gamma = 1 / (1 beta 2) 1 / 2 So, according to Lorentz : beta = .866 ; g = .5 ; gamma = 2. In order to make things simple, the mass at rest is 1 kg, hence : m = 1. And because the gamma factor is 2, Lorentz predicts that the total mass M will be increased to 2 kg at 86.6% of the speed of light: M = gamma * m. Now, let's divide this total mass M into active and reactive parts. While at rest, they both equal .5 kg. However, because this wave system is moving at .866 c, it should also reduce its frequency according to Lorentz: F' = g F. This means that the wave energy should also be reduced according to g. In addition, those parts undergo the Doppler effect in opposite directions. The forward wavelength contraction is 1 b and the backward dilation, 1 + b. Finally, the active and reactive mass values will be transformed in accordance with equations below: a = g m / 2 (1 beta) r = g m / 2 (1 + beta) Active mass: a = 1.866 kg Reactive mass: r = .134 kg Total mass: M = 1.866 + .134 = 2 kg M = a + r M = gamma * m The total mass M is indeed increased to 2 kg exactly as predicted by Lorentz, according to the gamma factor. Actually, the diagram below shows that the mass has been increased in accordance with the Doppler effect. The point is that the wavelength forward contraction is much more severe than the backward dilation. The contraction is unlimited. But the dilation never exceeds 2 times the original wavelength. Active and reactive mass, explaining action and reaction. Here, the system speed is .5 c, half the speed of light. Note the equivalence: beta = (a r) / (a + r) On the other hand, the wavelength ratio R is given by: R = (1 + beta) / (1 beta) R = a / r So the ratio is the same: a is the active mass, whose contracted waves exert an active force forward. r is the reactive mass, whose dilated waves exert a reactive force backward. The same ratio indicates that mass evolves the same way as the Doppler effect does. The values 1 + beta and 1 beta are typical of the Doppler effect. They obviously indicate that such a mass increase is directly linked to the Doppler effect. I would like to emphasize here that Mr. Milo Wolff had already noticed this. He did not propose the correct formulas, though. One hundred years ago, Lorentz predicted such a mass increase, as well as clocks ticking slower. Today, those effects have been carefully verified. Because they are linked to the Doppler effect, this strongly indicates that matter is made of waves. In addition, because waves are carrying energy, the mass indicates that matter contains energy, which implies active and reactive forces. Such forces are the result of the radiation pressure. They clearly involve waves. Let's repeat that while two observers are moving at the same speed and in the same direction, they cannot detect the Doppler effect between them. This explains why two electrons moving together will act and react as if they were at rest. Their behavior is relative. Newton established that action and reaction should be equal, but this is true only from their own point of view. Action and reaction forces always seem equal from those observers' own point of view. Henri Poincaré discovered in 1904 that the laws of all physical phenomena are the same whatever the system speed. He predicted that this should lead to some "new mechanics"; he was right. From an absolute point of view, though, all forces are subject to the Doppler effect. This should seem obvious in the animated diagrams below. It shows what is wrongly called "standing waves". These waves actually are moving to the right at .5 c, and you must imagine that you are following them at the same speed. Please observe that both the frequency and the amplitude are different forward and backward. "Pseudo-standing waves" in the vicinity of the electron's central core. Active mass waves are moving to the right and reactive ones to the left. The A amplitude (and wavelength) R ratio is given by: R = (1 + beta) / (1 beta) Here, v = .5 c, hence: beta = .5 ; R = 3; A1 = 75 % ; A2 = 25 %. The diagram shown above represents the electron's active and reactive waves along the displacement axis only. Observe that the compressed waves are three times shorter, but that they also seem to move to the right three times slower. So their effective frequency (more exactly their rate) remains the same in both directions. This explains why the Doppler effect cannot be detected inside any moving frame of reference. For the same reason, any electron following or preceding another one with act or react with it in the same way. The animated diagram below shows plane "pseudo-standing waves": Plane "pseudo-standing waves": v = .5 c ; beta = .5 ; A1 = 65 % ; A2 = 35 %. Here, you must imagine that you are moving to the right at the same speed. The nodes and antinodes are bouncing on each other as a result of opposite forces; this explains the radiation pressure mechanism. The above diagram shows that the nodes' and antinodes' speed is not constant inside a pseudo-standing wave set while both the wavelength and the amplitude are not the same. In addition to being pushed forward, they are somehow "shaken" as a consequence of the non linearity of the active and reactive forces. Radiation pressure. This phenomenon indicates that the electron central antinode should be very sensitive to the radiation pressure caused by any additional wave. While more waves are added from one direction, the electron normal inertia is destroyed. The particle can be accelerated or slowed down. It can also be deviated. I made a very sophisticated computer program in order to show how ingoing hemispheric waves would behave in the vicinity of their center of curvature. This program does not use any equation, just Huygens' Principle. Because this principle has never been invalidated, this program is the most accurate and reliable ever. If you do not believe me, please note that this phenomenon can be verified using hemispheric ingoing sound waves. Hemispheric waves incoming from the left and outgoing to the right, simulating the immobile electron's active mass. The complete electron stays at rest because of the identical and opposite wave set, which contains the reactive mass. But as soon as the active waves become stronger, the central antinode is constantly pushed forward. There is no Doppler effect inside a system at rest. Then the active mass and the reactive mass are equal. As soon as the forces become unequal, the central antinode is pushed forward, and the waves undergo the Doppler effect. Then the wavelengths are no longer the same and the electron will go on moving constantly. This was Newton's first law as the Inertia Principle. However, Galileo had already described this. Both of them had stated that any moving object should go on moving on a straight line unless it is slowed down, accelerated or deviated by some force. This behavior may seem obvious, but it had to be explained. One must also explain why and how such a force can destroy the normal equilibrium. This is especially important because one must also reconcile the existence of the aether. Returning back to the 19th century, this had been a rather painful problem. Most physicists were aware that: " Aether does not affect motion ". Let's face it: apparently, inertia is incompatible with the existence of the aether. But as soon as one realizes that matter is made of waves, this objection is no longer relevant. The action and reaction law. Separating matter waves into active and reactive forces will allow us to predict in a very convincing way the action and reaction phenomenon. Because the Doppler effect is perfectly reversible, just the speed difference (not the absolute speed) must be taken into account. Two billiard balls hitting each other will behave in accordance with the Doppler effect. It is that simple. Firstly, one must realize that there is no true contact. While one ball is hitting another one, a force occurs because, for very small distances, electrons inside atoms or molecules come much closer than protons. Mostly there is an electrostatic negative force hence a repulsion effect. This force is the result of waves exerting a radiation pressure. According to the wave mechanics, all forces including contact pressure act by means of waves. Moreover, this pressure changes according to the cosine of the impact angle, exactly the way the Doppler effect does, as given by: lambda' = lambda * (1 beta cos phi) F ' = F / (1 beta cos phi) The phi angle is postulated to be 0 straight ahead and reaches 180° on the axis backward. This hypothesis indicates that oblique collisions indeed work according to Pythagoras' theorem and to Newton's laws. For instance, the force ratio for any material body traveling at .866 c would be 1.866 vs. .5 only for a similar one which is at rest. There is just one situation where the old action and reaction law is still valid. This occurs when one of them is at rest and when the collision angle is 0: " For any action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. " According to Lorentz and Poincaré, this law proves to be wrong. The problem mostly arises because of the mass increase. In addition, any observer may consider himself at rest in accordance with the law of Relativity. From an absolute point of view, he is not though. This observer may look at two billiard balls which are both moving, and so there are three different speeds involved. Because of its reciprocity, one simply cannot use Einstein's Relativity in order to calculate three moving frames of reference simultaneously. A contradiction immediately appears. For the same reason, Henri Poincaré's symmetrical equations are useless. The best example would be two electrons traveling at .9999c in opposite directions inside a synchrotron. From the collider point of view, their relative speed obviously can reach almost two times the speed of light, and this is impossible according to Relativity. I strongly believe that, realizing this, Poincaré would not have doubted the aether. Working together with Lorentz, their version of Relativity would have prevailed. There indeed is a Lorentzian Relativity, but Lorentz neglected to word it. Nobody did until many recent studies made it suddenly reappear. I strongly aver that it is the correct one. The action and reaction problem demands Lorentz's version of Relativity, not Poincaré's nor Einstein's. Then one can examine the transformation values for two moving bodies and finally determine how they will act and react. Action and reaction are linked to the Doppler effect. Thanks to Lorentz, a new action and reaction law could be worded this way: "Any action produces a simultaneous reaction proportional to the wave energy undergoing the Doppler effect, and in the direction opposite to the waves' origin." Some waves can exert a negative action, hence an attractive force. Gravity, for example, the shade effect, opposite electrostatic charges, etc. Then the reaction is also negative. For mechanical reasons, a true attraction effect is impossible and all true forces are positive. An attractive force is actually a positive force due to incoming waves from the opposite direction. Because of the Doppler effect, action and reaction are not really simultaneous; the waves' relative speed is no longer the same in opposite directions. But from the observer's point of view, it seems to be the same. Lorentzian Relativity shows that the clocks do not indicate the same time along the displacement axis, producing a virtual simultaneity. The action and reaction process also justifies the conservation of mass and energy. The above example shows that when a billiard ball hits another one, the mass increase responsible for kinetic energy is simply transferred to it and the two balls' total mass remains unchanged. Causes and effects. Action and reaction should be distinguished from causes and effects. This is highly discussable, but a true cause and effect process cannot be simultaneous in order to obtain a domino effect. The wave mechanics proposes a new Causality Principle involving the aether waves: "Any effect has a cause, any effect becomes a new cause, and any cause is transmitted by the aether waves at the speed of light." Explaining this process from a mechanical point of view, let's consider kinetic energy. Kinetic energy. Because a mass increase occurs, the kinetic energy is not given by: E = m v 2 / 2 according to Newton. While a material body is moving at .866 c, the mass is doubled and this kinetic energy is worth exactly its mass at rest. Moreover, this mass as energy does not need to be stopped during a collision, and so one must establish a new equation according to Poincaré's expectations: "We will perhaps need to invent some new mechanics that we can hardly foresee where inertia increases with the speed in such a way that the speed of light would be an insuperable limit." Clearly, the gain in mass, which equals: a + r m or: g m m, is responsible for kinetic energy. And because the body's total mass is doubled at .866 c, one must realize that half of its mass contains solely kinetic energy. Two identical energy or mass values are hiding inside the same body, and they have the same properties. Moreover, both of them are linked to the famous c squared, and also to the Doppler effect. This strongly indicates that those two masses are identical and that they have a wave nature. Poincaré could not know that. But today, no doubt, one can proclaim that the waves responsible for matter are the same ones which are responsible for kinetic energy. Inertia is the response to a force, and they oppose themselves. We are dealing with waves, and waves contain energy because they produce a radiation pressure, hence a force. Mass is the measure of inertia, and this allows us to allot to the aether waves an equivalent mass. Poincaré indeed gave the equivalent of Einstein's formula in connection with the inertia of waves. Because matter is made of waves, his formula becomes highly important and strangely relevant: m = E / c 2 hence, quite obviously: E = m c 2 Mr. Jules Leveugle writes that in 1900, Henri Poincaré did establish that the electromagnetic radiation has such an equivalent inertia. He adds that F. Hassenhörl and G. Lebon (who was wrong because of the division by two) also proposed similar schemes. Once again, Poincaré did precede Albert Einstein. I personally affirm that electromagnetic waves do not exist. The nature of radio and light waves is the same as all other aether waves, which are responsible for action and reaction. Knowing this, and even if Poincaré was not fully aware of his discovery, his equation was published in 1900, well before Einstein's 1905 paper. So it must prevail. I did not read Poincaré's text, but I presume that his reasoning was as good as Einstein's. Einstein did nothing but again take the corollary, which is the inertial reaction that a material body would oppose to a light pulse. He had most probably read Poincaré's paper, and so his "discovery" is no longer amazing. Explaining Newton's division by two. Firstly, let's review the MKS (meter, kilogram, second) units system: 1 - The mass m in kilograms. 2- The energy E in joules. 3- The c and v speed in meters per second, and so: c = 1000 times 300 000 km. Newton's formula for kinetic energy works for small speeds, but otherwise it becomes wrong: E = m v 2 / 2 This division by two can easily be explained. When a billiard ball hits another one which is at rest, half of the kinetic energy must be used in order to stop the moving ball. The other half can push the other ball until it reaches the same speed. However, for projectiles moving at a speed very near to the speed of light, its total mass is much greater then its mass at rest. The energy needed in order to stop such a small part of the projectile is negligible, and so most of the kinetic energy becomes fully effective. In such a case it is doubled: E = m v 2 And because such a fast speed is almost the speed of light, one obtains almost: E = m c 2 So this reasoning can demonstrate in a new and spectacular way that this famous equation is relevant. The total mass M is increased according to g m, or the reciprocal m / g (the Lorentz contraction g value is worth 1 / g). Then the division by 2 must be tempered in order to become almost null (division by 1) while the speed is very near to the speed of light. Then the g value is almost zero. This leads to the following equations: E = M v 2 / (1 + g) E = m v 2 / (g + g 2) These formulas yield the same results as the standard one shown below, on the right. Mass and energy. One can use any of the three formulas below in order to obtain the correct value for kinetic energy. The one on the right is well acknowledged today. Let's repeat that the m mass is in kilograms, the speed in meters per second and the energy in joules. Then the kinetic energy stored inside the mass of any moving material body is given by: E = m v 2 / (g + g 2) E = (a + r m) c 2 E = (gamma * m m) c 2 Its total energy is given by: E = (a + r) c 2 E = gamma * m * c 2 When the material body approaches the speed of light, its kinetic energy is almost equal to its total energy. Clearly, this energy which itself opposes inertia, and which is linked to the Doppler effect, has the same properties as the mass at rest. This mass is the measure of inertia in any case. So matter is nothing but canned energy, and energy as well as inertia definitely can be evaluated in grams. This means that units such as the joule are redundant, hence useless: 1 Kg = c 2 joules. Poincaré showed that any radiation contains energy, hence an equivalent mass which can be evaluated in grams. He was also well aware that any radiation could exert a radiation pressure. However, matter only is subject to this pressure in accordance with its inertia.. All forces including gravity are caused by waves. Because the radiation pressure is effective on matter standing waves only, gravity cannot bend the light path. We know very well that the light does deviate near the sun, but one surely can explain this phenomenon in a different way. I presume that the solar wind or interstellar particles could be involved. The rubber balls analogy. Surprisingly, as seen in the formulas showed above, all happens as if, inside matter, the energy was constantly moving at the speed of light. This gives raise to this stunning analogy: Any material body acts or reacts as if it were a finite box containing millions of rubber balls which where constantly moving in all directions. The rubber balls analogy. In order to avoid losses, one can imagine an orbiting metal box containing 100% vacuum and hundreds of such moving rubber balls which are postulated to be absolutely lossless. If the box is accelerating, those balls become faster in the direction of motion. Conversely, they become slower backward. They undergo a sort of Doppler effect, but the wave contraction or dilation is reverted. The balls become more distant from each other in the direction of motion. This effect is cancelled by the balls speed, which is faster. When they are bouncing on the box surface, they communicate their kinetic energy to the box. Let's consider that the box itself has no mass and no inertia. This phenomenon may explain why such a moving box will go on moving. It will indeed explain inertia. As seen above, the active mass waves are pushing on the electron's core this way, explaining both its speed and inertia. Finally, lets suppose that a second box hits the first one. During this process there is no box surface between them. Then the balls will move freely from one box to another; they will push on the boxes opposite surface. This is the equivalent of the radiation pressure. Moreover a certain number of balls will definitely be transferred to the first box. This is the equivalent of the increase in mass. Basically and mechanically, the active and reactive mass work like this. But such a wonder can only be achieved by waves. Once again, this strongly indicates that matter is made of waves. The speed of light is an insuperable limit. The active mass, hence the total mass trends toward infinite while a material body approaches the speed of light. This means that Poincaré was amazingly right in 1904 when he stated that the speed of light is an insuperable limit. Many people misapprehend that some phenomena involve speeds faster then the speed of light, but they are wrong. On the one hand, matter can approach the speed of light, but it simply cannot reach it. On the other hand, all forces are transmitted by aether waves, whose speed is constant and equal to that of light. Firstly, action and reaction implies simultaneous effects, and this may induce an error. Secondly, one can also act on some invisible and unknown intermediate field such as an electromagnetic one. This field is made of plane standing waves between two electrons. It may be considered as virtual matter which is fully subject to the radiation pressure even when those electrons are very distant from each other. Clearly, while acting on this field, one will obtain a simultaneous effect on both electrons, but this effect will seem to have happened instantly Because photons do not exist, one cannot affirm that those photons may have changed suddenly and simultaneously well after the light has been emitted. One must realize that light is transmitted without any change only inside a vacuum. As soon as it encounters matter, which may be transparent as well, some new light is constantly created which interferes with the previous one. Its polarization or its phase may certainly be modified during the propagation process. So any instantaneous action at a distance is impossible. Some experiments may indicate that it is possible, but they surely have been misinterpreted. Gabriel LaFreniere On the Internet since September 2002. Last update December 3, 2009.	<urn:uuid:72294e26-b2a8-41b7-b308-c69b3dd5e008>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.40625, "fasttext_score": 0.6851354241371155, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9516624808311462, "url": "http://www.mysearch.org.uk/websiteX/html/16%20Active%20and%20reactive%20mass.htm" }
April 4, 2012 Population Growth Modeling My graph shows the population of the sparrows for 50 generations being affected by poaching. Poaching is an illegal act of taking plants or animals for commercial use against conservatory regulations. In my graph, there is a 5 percent decrease in the sparrow population each year due to poaching. This may be a hypothetical situation, but poaching of animals can lead and have lead to extinction of species. The rate of increase in this population is higher than the poaching rate which allows for the population to thrive despite poaching events each year. In this activity, we started with simplistic models and progressed in complexity in each step. By doing this we better understood the techniques and concepts used in the activity. As we went one step further each time, we added pieces to our last equation making it easier to do on our own and understand completely. In a scientific viewpoint this is an ideal way of doing things in business because there will be minimal error and confusion. The two main equations used in this activity were for carrying capacity and population rate growth. K represented the carrying capacity and N was used to represent the population, t was used to show generation, r represented rate of increase each year. By changing the values for things such as rate of increase, a changing trend can be seen in the population. Depending on the different factors playing on the population, it fluctuated as seen throughout this activity. Increasing r values increased overall population and decreasing K values decreased population. The main equations are shown below. Carrying Capacity Population Rate Growth Model No comments:	<urn:uuid:aff4b07f-13c5-488b-b4b0-3fdda76f0fb8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.3104831576347351, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9590129852294922, "url": "http://dpapbioblog1112.blogspot.com/2012/04/population-growth-modeling.html" }
Signup Free A flute is a woodwind instrument but, unlike other woodwinds, it doesn't get its sound from a reed. It gets its sound from the angle at which a flautist, or flute player, blows air into the mouthpiece of the instrument. The world's very first flute was made of mammoth tusk and was created about 30,000 to 37,000 years ago.	<urn:uuid:c5dba40b-7525-4c44-bae0-15f40c9032e1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.04532724618911743, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9863427877426147, "url": "http://www.handipoints.com/fun-facts/musical-instruments/flute.html" }
Tuesday, October 28, 2014 Wulf the Saxon ~ Audio Henty Review Scene 51 from the Bayeux Tapestry ~ Battle of Hastings ~ Norman Knights and Archers 1066 - Battle of Hastings. If you study history at all, you know this was a pivotal moment in English history that changed the dynamic of England forever. As a homeschool teacher, I know this, but how do I convey the importance of this battle and this time period to my children? How do I make it come alive? Historical fiction is my favorite way to do this. The MP3 audio recording and PDF study guide for Wulf the Saxon: A Story of the Norman Conquest, by G.A. Henty, is an excellent way to bring to life, not only this battle, but the whole world of Saxon England. Jim Hodges Productions does an excellent job with this Henty story for children ages 10 and up. Wulf the Saxon, is the main fictional character in a sea of non-fictional ones. He is a thane (the title of landed gentry in Anglo-Saxon England) and has pledged his service to Earl Harold. The story revolves around the choices Harold makes through various battles, and the choices Wulf must make in response. Will he retain his honor? Will they make it through all the battles? You'll have to listen to find out! Who was G. A. Henty? Born in 1832, George Alfred Henty was an indefatigable historical fiction author and war correspondent. During his time as a war correspondent, his letters home contained battle descriptions that so moved his father he submitted them for publication. His 122 historical fiction stories were born from his deep understanding of the hardships of war life he witnessed, an appreciation for the actual history behind a story or time period, and his love of storytelling to his own children. His stories display both honorable and dishonorable characters and the lines are clearly drawn. He obviously valued virtue, integrity, and upheld the idea of a character's duty. His are stories worth reading amid today's sea of questionable ethics and immoral choices on the shelves in the bookstore. Wulf the Saxon Study Guide This PDF guide is not your normal study guide. This is an astonishing wealth of information packed into 66 pages! With both questions (and answers for the teacher - thank you!), Jim Hodges has covered anything you'd probably want to discuss with your children. An extensive list of vocabulary words from each chapter are included that your student is asked to define. In Chapter 1 alone, there are 47 words. Some of these are: edifice, insolent, begrimed, indomitable, sojourn, and housecarls. I like that Hodges mixes in words we'd use today and words that are time-period specific, but are still important to understanding the story. There are discussion questions that often have a geography or character trait focus as well as hands-on activities or research opportunities. Some have external links to internet resources as well. Two examples of discussion questions your child might answer are: 1. Where is Rouen located and what makes it historic? 2. Osgod is more concerned with food than with withstanding the storm or being dashed on the rocks. What negative character trait does he display and what is the opposite character trait? I like that you can use the discussion questions in a variety of ways. Use them for oral or written discussion, as writing prompts, or as comprehension exercises. $12.00 is a small price to pay for such a valuable resource. Why MP3 audio from Jim Hodges Productions? MP3 is such a flexible content delivery method! It plays on computers, portable MP3 players (like one's iPod), MP3 CD players, and in many vehicles. It is possible to rip the stories to one's computer from the disk and then to transfer it to a portable MP3 player. Wulf the Saxon is fully 12 hours and 35 minutes long. That would be a huge case of CDs! Instead, we can access the full story on one sturdy $25 CD. Jim Hodges Productions also offers a digital download for only $18. Do they have other titles? Do they ever! Jim Hodges Productions offers a large assortment of other Henty titles, but also a vast array of many great audio stories My children listened to Wulf the Saxon while falling asleep. I can't say I recommend that you do that IF falling asleep is a priority for you. I'd hear the story going on until late into the night and hear them quietly chattering about it. I highly recommend you check these wonderful Henty stories out though--even if your children get a little less sleep! The Schoolhouse Review Crew were able to select the Henty title of choice to review so if you want to know more about a different one, click the link below! Follow Jim Hodges Productions on Facebook to hear about new releases! Click to read Crew Reviews Crew Disclaimer Michelle said... Loved your review, Kate! It is really well done and you brought up great points that I didn't even think about sharing. Nothing like reading a leader's review to show us how it's done! :) Under the Sky ... said... Thanks, Michelle! You are very sweet. :) Charlotte said... Finally got around to reading this! Loved your review. You gave lots of great info and I can tell you loved it! Under the Sky ... said... Thanks, Charlotte! :+) Kate	<urn:uuid:9bf14256-5a93-459b-9000-97e9bdf26fcb>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.019885122776031494, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9605220556259155, "url": "http://www.undertheskyblog.com/2014/10/wulf-saxon-audio-henty-review.html" }
Cleopatra, the forces of nature, and the future of communication Peter Cox explores the effect of climate change on political stability Art by Lucie Rondeau Du Noyer Cleopatra is one of the most well-known figures of the ancient world, standing beside Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great and Hannibal. It’s an impressive accomplishment considering the male dominated age in which she lived. She was the last of the Ptolemaic rulers, a dynasty descended from Alexander the Great’s general Ptolemy I, which lasted for nearly three centuries. Her downfall has been told and retold, most notably by Shakespeare. It is a tale of power, intrigue and sex. A tragedy of epic proportions, this tale has, until now, been exclusively a human one. This is often the case with history – we see it through the lens of the academic. A historian tells us about the people, whereas a paleoclimatologist tells us about the climate, or a paleontologist tells us about animal life. These areas are each interesting but only provide single threads of a wider tapestry that, if woven together, can create a more representative picture. Interdisciplinary studies are one way of bringing these seemingly disparate strands together. Recently an interdisciplinary study from historians and climate scientists has been published in Nature Communications shedding new light on natural factors that may have impacted upon the political and economic stability of Egypt, and perhaps ultimately also contributed to the downfall of Cleopatra and the Ptolemaic dynasty. In these studies, researchers investigated the effects of volcanic eruptions on the flooding of the Nile. They did this using the Nilometer and ice core records between 622 CE to 1902 CE. The Nilometer is a collection of three ancient buildings on the Nile that measured the height of each year’s summer flood, allowing farmers to predict how well their crops would grow, and for the state to know how much tax to levy on farmers. Records go from the year 622 CE until the early twentieth century, when the damming of the Nile moderated the annual flood. The ice cores contain measurable amounts of sulphate from the atmosphere, originating from eruptions. This sulphate is what provides a timeline of past volcanic events. Comparing these two sources of information allowed the researchers to show that the explosive injection of volcanic sulphates into the atmosphere caused a reduction in the monsoon rainfall, that drove the annual summer flooding of the Nile. Once this was confirmed, the next step was to examine whether the eruptions during the Ptolemaic era and the likely low flooding of the Nile in the following years could be connected to historical evidence of unrest such as the issuing of priestly decrees, revolt or interstate warfare. The researchers found that there was a statistically significant connection between these events and the eruptions, which led them to conclude that the low flooding of the Nile affected the political stability of the region. However, this study only looked at the short-term effects of volcanic eruptions on the Nile. The Nile also has its own cycles over longer periods of decades to centuries. If flooding increased or reduced over these time periods, the effects of the volcanic eruptions may have been diminished or exacerbated. Dr Francis Ludlow, a climate historian based in Trinity College Dublin who worked on this study says that as of now “not enough is known about the Nile’s patterns on a multi-decadal to centennial scale”, illustrating just how much more there is still to learn. We’ve known about the significance of the Nile to Egypt for a long time. With hardly any local rainfall, the water of the Nile was the lifeline of Egypt. Fed by the monsoon rains over the Ethiopian highlands and drained by the Blue Nile, the Nile’s annual summer flooding is what allowed Egypt to be the agricultural giant it was in ancient times. Farmers would plant their crops after the annual flood and many of the population were drafted into helping with the process. Known as the breadbasket of Rome, the floods allowed the growth of grain that not only supported the population but also solidified Egypt’s power. Unsurprisingly, the floods held religious significance as well. It was said that the floods were the tears of Isis and the quality of each year’s flood was linked to the quality of the Pharaoh’s governance. It is thus understandable how a change in the floods could lead to increased unrest and difficulties for Ptolemaic rulers. What this study brings us, for the first time, is statistical evidence of that effect. An issue with any study of the past is that they are very often focused on a single aspect of their subject. Historical events are rarely caused by a single factor, but instead are almost always the result of a confluence of factors. This can be seen today in Syria. It would be foolish to say drought caused the region’s ongoing issues but it would be equally foolish to say that the severe drought that occurred in the years immediately leading up to the Syrian conflict played no part in it. In Egypt’s case there were many aggravating factors leading to the series of revolts against Ptolemaic rule. Egyptians had reasons to be unhappy with their Ptolemaic rulers, and ethnic tensions were high, given the Greek origins of the Ptolemies. They had also pushed for a greater focus on the growth of free threshing wheat, a cash crop of the ancient world, that was less resistant to drought than the wheat and barley traditionally grown by the Egyptians. However, should the rulers have known better? It is studies such as this which show us some of the collective constraints that these rulers faced. Allowing us to understand their dilemmas in all their complexity could help to reveal examples of our present in their past. It is also possible that interdisciplinary studies could allow for greater accessibility. A real problem for scientists is communicating information effectively. Most communicators agree that people learn through narratives. Bringing together different disciplines achieves just that – it allows people to look at the real effects of environmental change within an accessible human story. It shows us change in a context we can relate to. People, farming, food and water can be understood, whereas charts, figures and the abstract language of scientific papers remove us from many narratives. Another benefit is suggested by Dr Francis Ludlow’s assertion that interdisciplinary studies are better for ‘hitting more areas of interest’ for the general populace. Drawing historians into science and vice versa. There is the possibility that interdisciplinary studies could also improve people’s critical thinking processes. There are a few preliminary studies that show the effects of an interdisciplinary approach on students, with results ranging from an increased interest in their studies to an improved ability in critical thinking skills. If this is true, and I stress that we are a long way from knowing whether it is, more studies like this could be a way of not only improving science communication, but also people’s underlying ability to understand it. House 6, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Phone: 01-8962335 Seana Davis Sam Cox Rory O'Sullivan Jessie Dolliver Joel Coussins Jenny Corcoran Harriet Bruce Isabelle Griffin Maha Sultan Megan Luddy Lucie Rondeau Du Noyer Amanda Cliffe Constance Millar Nicole O'Sullivan Chloe Aitken Joe McCallion Tobi Irein Niall Maher	<urn:uuid:4828fbfb-be54-4f5c-9704-c06b91be32a8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.051828861236572266, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9629897475242615, "url": "http://trinitynews.ie/cleopatra-the-forces-of-nature-and-the-future-of-communication/" }
Outlook \| Published: Synthetic coatings: Super surfaces Nature volume 519, pages S7S9 (26 March 2015) \| Download Citation Characteristics adapted from lizards, ivy and other natural materials could help to engineer everyday objects with remarkable properties. For millennia, people looked at birds and wished for the gift of flight — and finally the Wright Brothers made it so. Similarly, some scientists have gazed at geckos walking up walls and wondered whether humans could do the same. Now they can. In June 2014, a 100-kilogram man wearing a heavy pack climbed up a vertical sheet of glass using only a pair of hand-held paddles made from an advanced material inspired by geckos. Ivy produces one of nature's strongest adhesives; by studying the plant's attributes, researchers are developing advanced surgical glue. Image: Mitch Diamond/Getty The synthetic gecko skin on the paddles has plenty of company in the world of materials science. Researchers are increasingly looking towards plants and animals for ideas on how to design coatings and textures that imbue surfaces with special properties. The adhesive that ivy uses to cling to walls, for example, has inspired a material that might help damaged tissues to regenerate. Molecules taken from mussel adhesives could provide a way to target cancer cells. And the veins on nasturtium leaves have led to the development of a synthetic surface that could prevent rain from freezing on aeroplane wings or keep grimy fingerprints off smartphone screens. The trick is to take ideas sparked by nature — some of them long in development, others brand new — and make them practical and durable. The lizard's secret Biologists had long believed that the secret to geckos' residue-free, sticky feet was a series of microscopic fibres called setae. Setae, which cover the pads of the lizards' feet, were thought to increase the contact area between each foot pad and the surface it is trying to climb, thereby allowing the attraction between atoms (known as van der Waals forces) to overcome other forces, such as gravity. But researchers who tried to duplicate the effect using artificial setae were not successful. That is because the setae are not the whole story. “These fibrils are interesting, but they're not enabling,” says Al Crosby, a polymer scientist and engineer at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, who helped to develop the Geckskin that the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency used in its June 2014 demonstration. A piece of Geckskin measuring 10 x 10 centimetres can hold about 318 kg. Whereas other researchers had focused on surface features of the gecko's foot, Crosby and his colleagues turned their attention to underlying questions of how the foot behaved when it came into contact with a wall. The anatomy of geckos such as the tokay (above) helps them to hold on to walls. Image: Thawats/Thinkstock The researchers made mathematical models of the forces at play — principally the van der Waals forces created by the contact between the gecko's foot and whatever it touched, and the gravitational tug on the lizard's body. The models led the team to examine how the gecko's anatomy interacted with those forces. In particular, the gecko has an unusual tendon in its foot. In most animals, including humans, tendons connect muscle to bone. The gecko tendon, however, is attached at one end directly to the skin of its foot pad, and at the other end to a muscle. When the gecko puts its toes down, sinuses in the foot pad swell with blood, pressing the skin against the surface. At the same time, the tendon pulls on the skin, causing an unusual level of stiffness in the direction in which force is being applied. The combination of the softness of the skin and the stiffness provided by the tendon allows the gecko to drape and conform its skin to the surface and hold it in place. This distributes the force of gravity over a larger area. As a result, the van der Waals attraction between the gecko's feet and the surface it is climbing is greater than the opposing force of gravity. When the gecko wants to take a step, it curls its foot. That action releases tension on the tendon and diminishes the stiffness, letting the animal peel its foot away from the surface. “We just sort of took inspiration from the gecko and went further.” Geckskin mimics geckos' feet by using a soft, rubber-like material such as polyurethane for the pad, combined with a stiff fabric such as Kevlar or carbon fibre to provide the stiffness of the tendon. And the material forgoes the setae. “It's not a requirement that we do things exactly the way nature did,” says Duncan Irschick, a biologist and Crosby's colleague in developing Geckskin. “We just sort of took inspiration from the gecko and went further.” Climbers and creepers Unlike the gecko, ivy's adhesive seems more conventionally glue-like. Ivy produces a sticky, yellowish liquid that lets it cling to walls and which dries into a material that can withstand forces equivalent to two million times its own weight. “It's one of the strongest adhesives in nature,” says Mingjun Zhang, a biomedical engineer at Ohio State University in Columbus, who hopes that he can apply what he is learning about the plant's properties to new surgical adhesives. Zhang found that the yellow fluid was a mix of water, polysaccharides and organic particles about 70 nanometres in diameter. These tiny particles reduce the viscosity of the liquid, which helps it to spread across the surface that the ivy wants to cling to, and thus maximizes contact. The nanoparticles also form a molecular bond with the polymer in the adhesive. This renders the final product strong and elastic, not hard and brittle the way some glues become when they dry. Zhang thinks that the material uses sacrificial bonds, in which molecules break apart and rejoin; such bonds give bones and mother-of-pearl their strength because they allow a hard material to dissipate the energy of an impact without shattering. The ivy nanoparticles also prevent cracks from spreading, making the material particularly tough. Zhang has subsequently found1 other nanoparticles in the fluid secreted by mussels, an adhesive that famously allows the crustaceans to remain on wet rocks despite the force of waves pushing and pulling them — something that is beyond the capacity of most artificial glues (see page S12). Other researchers have found similar structures in adhesives produced by starfish and barnacles. Some scientists say that for nanoparticles to fulfil their technological promise they will need to be better understood. “It would be interesting to know more information about specific amino acids and protein structures as well as the underlying adhesion mechanism,” says Chao Zhong, a professor of bio-inspired engineering at ShanghaiTech University in China. Phillip Messersmith, a materials scientist and bioengineer at the University of California, Berkeley, stresses that the research is still at an early stage and the results are inconclusive. “I do not think I have seen convincing evidence that the nanoparticles within the ivy adhesive are responsible for adhesion,” he says. But if they are, the combination of toughness, adhesion and biologically based components would make ivy nanoparticles attractive for a variety of uses, says Zhang, who is trying to develop ways to repair damaged tissues using ivy adhesive. In theory, a bandage made with ivy adhesive could provide an environment that would encourage new cells to grow, allowing an organ such as the heart to heal itself. It might also be seeded with stem cells to help the process along. In tests in a Petri dish, Zhang has shown that the adhesive helps cells to grow and attach to a surface. “It's not a simple mechanical bond,” he says. “It's a biomaterial to help create a biological environment for wound healing.” Zhang is starting animal studies on this application, although he says that it may be quite some time before it is ready for use in humans. A different kind of coating based on ivy nanoparticles might be ready sooner. Zhang proposes using them in sunscreen, replacing the titanium oxide or zinc oxide now used. Zhang has found that the sizes of the ivy nanoparticles do not vary as much as the sizes of their metal counterparts, which means that they scatter light more uniformly. So a liquid laced with ivy nanoparticles would appear clearer than conventional sunscreens, and block a wider range of ultraviolet wavelengths2. Zhang is also trying to take what he has learned about ivy's mechanisms and apply it to other materials. He is synthesizing nanoparticles with different chemical compositions and trying them in different polymer matrices. That should lead to a variety of adhesives for different situations, he says; perhaps one would be very strong, whereas another would be more elastic. “I'm trying to go beyond what nature does.” Many other researchers are also taking inspiration from nature and pushing it in new directions. Messersmith studies mussel adhesive, which is ideal for securing objects underwater. But he hopes to use engineered versions of mussel adhesive in different environments, possibly even in a space probe. “If you were to simply mimic a natural material, you would get something that would work and perform well only under the conditions in which that natural material has evolved,” says Messersmith. “Nature never evolved materials to have to survive interplanetary travel.” Messersmith has focused on a key component of mussel adhesives: the amino acid L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA). It turns out that DOPA makes a useful coating that helps attachments — such as antibodies — to stick to the surface. “In paint terminology, it's essentially a primer,” he says. Messersmith's proprietary DOPA coating method involves dissolving DOPA in water, making sure the solution has the same acidity as the ocean, and then immersing the object to be coated. Advanced Hydro of Austin, Texas, licenses Messersmith's coating technique to make filters for wastewater treatment and desalination plants. Advanced Hydro coats its filters with DOPA, then attaches molecules of polyethylene glycol to make the filters resistant to fouling, improving their efficiency and reducing maintenance costs. At the Materials Research Society's meeting in December 2014 in Boston, Massachusetts, Messersmith described the latest application of the technique. He put a coating of polydopamine, a molecular cousin of DOPA, on gold nanorods, which allowed him to add an antibody that targets cancer cells. The antibodies carry the nanorods to the cancer. The rods would then be heated with near-infrared light, killing the tumour. He reported using the method to kill cancer cells in a culture. Messersmith is looking beyond DOPA to sticky chemicals known as polyphenols, found in cacao, green tea and red wine3. Such compounds have similar chemical properties to DOPA and can be more cheaply extracted, he says. “These molecules, because they're found in tissue, have biological properties one could exploit in the form of a coating,” he explains. Specifically, he adds, their antioxidant and antibacterial properties would make such coatings useful for medical instruments or food-preparation surfaces. Drop zone Although getting things to stick to surfaces is useful, there is also value in making surfaces more slippery — for instance to keep them clean or dry or to reduce drag. Mechanical engineer Kripa Varanasi develops nano-engineered surfaces to be hydrophobic so that water runs off. Varanasi found inspiration in a nasturtium plant in his office at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. “I was one day struck by the fact that the veins were on the top of the leaf, not the bottom,” he says. Until then, plant scientists thought that nature's most water-repellent — also called superhydrophobic — surface belonged to the lotus leaf. Lotus leaves are coated with wax, which chemically repels the water. The wax is arranged in microscopic bumps; the roughness means that there is less contact between the water and the leaf, so a droplet stays rounder and rolls off more easily. Such a surface is also self-cleaning, because the water carries away contaminants; this makes the lotus effect popular among researchers developing surfaces that need to resist moisture or bacterial build-up. But Varanasi wondered whether the nasturtium had veins on the top of its leaves to do the same job as the lotus leaf's waxy bumps. Varanasi had a reason for studying his office plant. He wanted to see whether he could increase the speed at which water bounces off a surface — specifically, he wanted it to bounce off so quickly that it would not have time to freeze on a plane's wing or to start the process of rusting a metal part. Reduced contact time could also decrease drag for wind turbines in the rain, making them more efficient. Normally when a drop hits a superhydrophobic surface, it briefly flattens out, then recoils into a ball shape and bounces off. On a surface using the lotus effect, Varanasi measured the recoil time at 12.4 microseconds. Then he took pieces of aluminium and milled thin ridges into them, 100 micrometres (μm) high and 200 μm wide, to mimic the nasturtium's veins. Drops that hit the ridges broke into smaller bits, and recoiled in 7.8 microseconds. Those few microseconds can mean the difference between freezing and not4. Varanasi guesses that plants may have evolved superhydrophobic properties because droplets that bounce away quickly have less opportunity to deposit bacteria or viruses. He says that butterflies, which need to resist the effects of rain, have even more complicated vein structures on their wings, and he is exploring those to see what effects he can mimic. Two laser specialists at the University of Rochester in New York have used a laser to mill ridges into pieces of brass, platinum and titanium, and got a similar bouncing effect. Chunlei Guo, one of the physicists who published a paper on the work early in 2015, says that they were able to render the surfaces superhydrophobic without any chemical coating, which means that the coating will not rub off in the future. The pads of a gecko foot (above) are covered with thousands of hairs called setae. Image: Power and SYRED/SPL In fact, making these surfaces and coatings strong enough to stand up to the wear and tear of use is a challenge for scientists trying to take their ideas out of the laboratory and into manufacturing. “We have to find a way to make this material robust,” says Ajay Malshe, a professor of materials and manufacturing processes at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville. “In biology there's always a constant self-healing process going on, whereas we don't have that” in materials engineered for oil pipelines or plane wings. The pads of a gecko foot are covered with thousands of hairs (above) called setae. Image: Power and SYRED/SPL Water-repellent surfaces are one challenge for researchers, but surfaces that repel oil (superoleophobic), which would be valuable in arenas from energy to consumer electronics, are even harder to realize, says Bharat Bhushan, a mechanical engineer whose laboratory at Ohio State University analyses the microscopic structures on the surfaces of living things. Because oil has a lower surface tension than water, it is more prone to spreading across a surface, so applying a repellent lotus-like effect requires different chemistries and surface structures. Bhushan makes a surface superoleophobic by covering it with a series of tiny pillars, 14 μm in diameter and 30 μm tall, and coating the surface with a fluorine compound (such compounds are well known for their anti-stick properties; Teflon is a prime example). The set-up traps air pockets beneath any oil near the surface, so the oil cannot stick. Bhushan says that Sony, which makes touch screens for mobile phones, has enquired about using the technique to prevent smudging on its screens. Treating the inside of an oil pipeline in this way could let oil flow more smoothly, reducing the need for higher pressures that push the oil along but can promote leaks. Bhushan is also tackling the problem of biofouling5, where bacteria and other organisms form hard-to-remove colonies on a surface. The US Navy estimates that it spends US$56 million a year dealing with biofouling, from cleaning hulls to the extra fuel used to counteract drag. Bhushan covers a surface with pillars of different heights and spacings. Because of the spacing, an individual bacterium is either isolated on top of the pillars or falls into the gaps between, and is unable to link up with its fellows to form a film. “If you have a structured surface, bacteria cannot spread very easily,” Bhushan says. Evolution has produced an endless variety of materials and techniques that might be exploited, so there is no danger of running out of ideas. When faced with an engineering puzzle, Varanasi says he always starts by asking a simple question: “In that situation, what would an insect or what would some other kind of living thing do?” 1. 1. & J. Biomed Nanotechnol. 5, 294–299 (2009). 2. 2. et al. J. Nanobiotechnol. (2013). 3. 3. , , , & Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 52, 10766–10770 (2013). 4. 4. , , & Nature 503, 385–388 (2013). 5. 5. , , & Colloid Interface Sci. 419, 114–133 (2014). Download references Author information 1. Neil Savage is a freelance science and technology writer in Lowell, Massachusetts. • Neil Savage 1. 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Plants of the Wetlands hydrillaPlants of the wetlands are generally known to be highly dependent upon specific conditions, such as salinity, proximity to water, and vegetation type. While some plants are able to adapt to condition alterations, other species do not overcome change as well. However, a major threat to all wetland vegetation is hydrilla. Hydrilla is a non-native, invasive aquatic plant that has staked its claim by out-competing native plants and obstructing waterways. Hydrilla is a submerged, perennial plant that prefers freshwater, but can tolerate up to 7% salinity. This aggressive plant is known for clogging waterways, impeding natural flow, affecting human use such as fishing and seafood harvest, and clogging intakes and municipal drinking water supplies. Hydrilla can take over an area quickly as a result of its ability to multiply rapidly using four different strategies. Regrowth of stem fragments containing at least one node into a new plant, tubers on rhizomes producing new tubers, leaf turions that settle into sediment and form a new plant, and seed dispersal are all methods of reproduction for hydrilla. Hydrilla can out-compete native plants by its ability to tolerate low and high nutrient conditions in addition to growing in low light environments. Hydrilla is also successful in out-competing other plants by growing at a rate of one inch per day until reaching the water’s surface, followed by branching out to form a mat of vegetation which blocks light to other plants. In order to control the growth of hydrilla, salvinia weevils have been released into severely affected areas. The salvinia weevil lives exclusively on hydrilla as a food source, thus reducing growth rates to allow control of the plant. The Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act is currently researching the best, most beneficial method of controlling and eradicating invasive plant species. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Google+ photo Twitter picture Facebook photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:c65994f7-7abb-4ca2-9257-17336cc71817>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.890625, "fasttext_score": 0.04224836826324463, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9212698340415955, "url": "https://cwppra.wordpress.com/2016/10/26/plants-of-the-wetlands-3/" }

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