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Missing women of China Last updated Missing women of China is a widely known phenomenon referring to the unusual shortfall of female population resulting from cultural influences and government policy. [1] The term "missing women" was coined by economist Amartya Sen, winner of the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, to describe a distorted population sex ratio in which the number of males far outweighs the number of females. [2] Female disadvantages in child survival throughout China reflects a long pattern of gender-based discrimination. Preferences for sons are common in China owing to males' ability to carry on family names, their wealth inheritance, and the idea that they are typically ones who care for parents once they are older. Limiting the ability for parents to have numerous children forces them to think of logical and long term reasons to decide between a male or female child. [3] Chinese parents are known to have favored large families and have preferred sons over daughters in effort to create more directed family resources. [4] The result of the discrimination and male preference is a shortfall of women and an extremely unbalanced sex ratio in the population of China. [5] Amartya Sen Indian economist Amartya Kumar Sen, is an Indian economist and philosopher, who since 1972 has taught and worked in India, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Sen has made contributions to welfare economics, social choice theory, economic and social justice, economic theories of famines, and indices of the measure of well-being of citizens of developing countries. In December 2016, researchers at the University of Kansas reported that the missing women may be largely a result of administrative under-reporting and that delayed registration of females could account for as many as 30 to 60 million of the missing women since 1982. [6] University of Kansas public research university in Kansas, United States Amartya Sen noticed that in China, a country with a traditional discrimination against women, rapid economic development went together with worsening female mortality. [7] A significant decline in China's female population happened after 1979, the year following implementation of economic and social reforms under Deng Xiaoping. [7] Chinese economic reform Reforms allowing more free markets in China since Deng Xiaoping The Chinese economic reform refers to the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and "socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of China (PRC) which reformists within the Communist Party of China - led by Deng Xiaoping - started in December 1978. Deng Xiaoping Chinese politician, Paramount leader of China Deng Xiaoping was a Chinese politician who was the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 until his retirement in 1989. After Chairman Mao Zedong's death in 1976, Deng led China through far-reaching market-economy reforms. Sen concluded that there were three reasons why the environment for Chinese women had deteriorated, particularly since 1979: [7] One-child policy population control policy which was used by the Peoples Republic of China China's one-child policy was part of a birth planning program designed to control the size of its population. Distinct from the family planning policies of most other countries, it set a limit on the number of children parents could have, the world's most extreme example of population planning. It was introduced in 1979, modified in the mid 1980s to allow rural parents a second child if the first was a daughter, and then lasted three more decades before being eliminated at the end of 2015. The policy also allowed exceptions for some other groups, including ethnic minorities. The term one-child policy is thus a misnomer, because for nearly 30 of the 36 years that it existed (1979–2015) about half of all parents in China were allowed to have a second child. Production brigade A production brigade was formerly the basic accounting and farm production unit in the people's commune system of the People's Republic of China. Peoples commune The people's commune was the highest of three administrative levels in rural areas of the People's Republic of China during the period from 1958 to 1983 when they were replaced by townships. Communes, the largest collective units, were divided in turn into production brigades and production teams. The communes had governmental, political, and economic functions during the Cultural Revolution. The people's commune was commonly known for the collective activities within them, including labor and meal preparation, which allowed for workers to share local welfare. Though, this also caused the communities of people included in the people's communes to be struck harder by food shortages, and face longer hours than under individual labor. The causes of the high sex ratio in China result from a combination of strong son preference, the one-child policy, easy access to sex-selective abortion, and discrimination against and abuses of females. [8] Sex-selective abortion practice of terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the infant Sex-selective abortion is the practice of terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the infant. The selective abortion of female fetuses is most common where male children are valued over female children, especially in parts of East Asia and South Asia, as well as in the Caucasus, and Western Balkans. Chinese Historical and Traditional Culture: Son Preference Son preference is traditional in Chinese Confucian patriarchal culture. [9] Sons are preferred for a number of reasons: people think sons continue the family line or carry on the family name, have a higher wage-earning capacity, provide ancestral worship, and are generally recipients of inheritance, while girls are often considered as an economic burden. [10] [8] [11] After marriage they typically become members of their husband's family and cease to have responsibility for aging or ill parents. [10] [8] [11] With socioeconomic improvements, modernization and the rise in women's status, son preference has declined in many urban areas in China [12] but has persisted in some strictly traditional families and rural areas, reasserting itself under the one-child policy. The greatest shortfalls of females appear in parts of rural China where there are instances of 140 male births for every 100 female. [12] One-child policy China implemented its one-child policy from 1979 onwards, whereby a couple can only have one child and couples that violate the policy face penalties. [13] This policy aims to restrict births, and to encourage most families to have only one child, especially in urban areas. However, the policy was not enforced among the country's ethnic minorities, and a number of exceptions were made among the majority Han population. [10] The one-child policy was designed to control population throughout China, emphasizing limitations for families and creating deprivation among couples. The implications resulted in increased underreporting of female births, female infanticide, sex-selective abortion, and the underreported adoption of baby girls. [14] Families not only risk their health but are at risk for punishment by law as well as health institutions who participating in sex-selective abortion. Increased abandonment of babies, especially females has greatly added to the phenomenon of "missing women" throughout the country. Xuefeng Chen, director of the Chinese Children's Center in Beijing, stated "it is undeniable that single children will create a different society, we must first enhance single children's opportunities and abilities at social communication, interaction and development." Single children in China are deprived of the experiences undergone by their mothers and fathers. The well-being of children who are in only-child households are considered to be at risk and participate in typical stereotypes of single-children, such as being spoiled, selfish and unsociable. [15] The one child-policy has been called the "most momentous and far reaching in its implication for China's population and economic development." Chinese women's reproduction is viewed as a feature of social modernization and sacrifice for political implications. Reproductive rights have been co-opted by the government as a guide towards social modernization. [16] Given strict family-size limitations and a preference for sons, girls have become unwanted in China because they are considered as depriving the parents of the possibility of having a son, [11] while a deeply rooted son preference makes many families want a son. [10] With the progress of prenatal sex-determination technologies and induced abortion, the one-child policy gradually turned into a one-son policy. [11] [17] Some view such a policy as disrespectful of pregnant women and discriminatory against them, as the policy forces some women to undergo an abortion. [18] Under the tradition of son preference and the one-child policy, missing females in China are formed through sex-selective abortion, discrimination in care for females, and non-registration of girls at birth. Sex-selective abortion The combined factors of son preference, the one-child policy and the availability of prenatal sex-identification technology have allowed prenatal discrimination to spread since the mid-1980s in both urban and rural areas in China where abortion is legal. [12] This technological progress leads to a large excess of male births. [19] About 3745% of China's missing females may have been missing at birth. [20] According to China Statistics Press 2013, the sex ratio at birth in China was 111 in 1990, 117 in 2001, 121 in 2005 and slightly declined to 119 in 2010. [21] China's huge population translates these ratios into large numbers of excess males, which has contributed a large proportion of the global statistics on missing women. [22] Nevertheless, some commentators argue that sex-selective abortion may have some benefits. [23] [24] Firstly, access to prenatal sex determination has probably increased the proportion of wanted births in the form of sons, reduced relative discrimination against girls and reduced female mortality after birth. India, South Korea and China have all reported lower female mortality in the last decade. [23] [24] Secondly, in terms of the next generation, imbalanced sex ratio may help to control population growth. [23] Thirdly, the scarcity of women in society leads to girls being highly valued and their social status increased as a result. [23] [24] Such improvements in women's status also lead to a reduction in son preference with fewer sex-selective abortions and ultimately the attainment of a rebalancing of the sex ratio. [24] Female infanticide at birth Although it has been shown that newborn girls have a biological advantage over newborn boys in surviving the first year of life, [25] premature mortality incurred by infanticide and the abandonment of newborn girls along with neglect of their healthcare and nutrition has been seen in China. These practices result in a female infant mortality ratio that is far higher than that of males. [26] Female infanticide is the intentional killing of baby girls due to a preference for male babies and from the low value associated with the birth of females." [27] Sen points out that the phenomenon existed historically and still remains in a number of Third World countries. [28] [29] The Great Chinese Famine during 19591961 prompted many families to choose female infanticide to save food to secure their families. [10] [30] In September 1997, the World Health Organization's Regional Committee for the Western Pacific claimed that "more than 50 million women were estimated to be 'missing' in China because of the institutionalized killing and neglect of girls due to Beijing's population control program that limits parents to one child." [27] As an attempt to keep its population under 1.2 billion, China has carried out a policy limiting couples to one child. Female infanticide was common in traditional China as families favored sons to care for them the rest of their lives. The government has implemented policies in attempt to help with the situation such as creating a single-child policy but has had almost reverse effects. Daughters are viewed as "marrying out" and leaving their families, whereas men are financially loyal to their families. Girls are in return viewed as a burden to raise, among many neighboring countries to China. The Quan Han Shu mentions that no festivities were held when a daughter was born into a prosperous family, and the poor people did not even rear their children. [31] In a recent Chinese natural survey in 2003, thirty-seven percent of young women, predominately urban, said they had no gender preference and forty-five percent reported their ideal family would consist of one boy and one girl. [32] The elimination of female infants has contributed to the phenomenon known as, "missing women". Female infanticide, sex abortions, drowning, and withholding of health care and nutrition are possible consequences of the restrictive one-child policy. [33] Poor health care and malnutrition Neglect Health care and nutrition of girls and women contributes to missing women. Discrimination against daughters post-birth leads to poor health care and malnutrition, and eventually premature death. [34] In terms of female adults, early-life conditions directly influence their health and mortality. [35] According to Chinese traditions, the period of zuo yue zi, the first 30 or 40 postnatal days, is an essential convalescence for mothers to ensure their future health. [36] If they are not given support or taken care of within this period of time (e.g., some rural women do heavy farm work within zuo yue zi), potential risks include health complications and possible early death. Contraceptive Use In an attempt to call for birth control to control the countries population in 2015, the Chinese government expanded to the use of contraceptive use. "20 years ago if you went to the rural villages, you could see the slogans on the wall that read, 'if you have one child, IUD please, if you have two children, sterilization please,'" describes Kaining Zhang, a research physician at the Yunnan Health and Development Research Association. "There is still a very strong influence [from that] policy." [37] The attitudes towards reproductive heath have dramatically changed throughout the country. Sexual health was oftentimes something kept private and not openly discussed. A survey conducted by Renmin University in 2015 states that more than half of the respondents think premarital sex is acceptable. The traditional views on sexual health, contraception are rapidly changing affecting primarily the young an unmarried generation. [38] China has one of the highest rates of contraceptive use in the world, even in comparison to other Asian countries. Among 84.6% women who are currently married or in union are using a form of contraception. The United States has a lower rate of 78.6%. Japan, a neighboring country has reports as low as 54.3% prevalence. The one-child policy enacted in 1979 is the primary contributor of increased contraceptive use. [39] In attempt to really decrease the population, China's family planning policies actually emphasize birth control and many forms are available both in urban and rural areas for free. [40] The strict implications of the one-child policy did allow for many women to receive birth control methods however it typically only benefits those who are married. The young population who is not covered are not married and therefore fall into the gap of unintended pregnancy. [41] The National Population and Family Planning Commission did however over see China's views by making improvements with the increased access to birth control, and also sex education. Providing women with the access and social support of contraceptive use not only allows for population control, but allows families to analyze their option before considering abortion options. The International Family Planning Perspectives states, "the effect of sex preference on childbearing is becoming stronger as fertility declines, because couples must achieve their desired number of sons within a smaller overall number of children." Although contraceptives aren't always related to sex preference, "an improvement in the status of women and female children should be helpful in reducing son preference and improvement in maternal and child health and family planning services should be helpful in reducing the number of abortions in the country." [42] Access to prenatal sex determination will lead to an increase number of wanted births, leading to less discrimination against girls and a lower overall female mortality rate. Fewer sex-selective abortions and reduced son will reduce son preference and create less participation in sex-selective abortions which would ultimately level the imbalanced sex ratio. Non-registration of female babies at birth In order to leave themselves opportunities to have sons and avoid paying penalties on over-quota children, some parents in rural areas of China usually do not register their female babies. [43] This will lead to a shortfall of girls registered as residents. Some of the missing women in China result from this under-reporting or non-registration of baby girls. [43] Consequences of the phenomenon Wifeless men Since prenatal sex determination became available in the mid-1980s, China has witnessed large cohorts of surplus males who were born at that time and are now of marriageable age. The estimated excess males are 2.3, 2.7, and 2.1 million in the years 2011, 2012 and 2013 respectively. [27] Over the next 20 years, a predicted excess of 10–20% of young men will emerge in large parts of China. [27] These marriageable-age husbands-to-be, known as guang gun (光棍), translated as "bare branches" or "bare sticks", live in societies where marriage is considered as part of an individual's social status. [10] [27] Prenatal sex determination along with China's traditional preference for sons over daughters has left millions of men to compete over a limited number of brides, a phenomenon known as the marriage squeeze. [44] On occasion, families would adopt female infants as a way to secure a future bride for their sons. These girls would be raised by their adoptive families to learn how to care and serve their future families. [45] An additional problem is that since women tend to marry men in higher socioeconomic groups than their own, the shortage of women in the marriage market will leave the least desirable, the poorest, and uneducated men with no marriage prospects. [12] Some commentators worry that those left wifeless men may be marginalized [12] as being single is barely socially acceptable in a Chinese cultural context. [46] These wifeless men's lives could be seriously influenced by how the public view them. [46] They may have senses of loneliness, self-failure and uselessness and be prone to psychological problems. [12] There is also a possibility of these young men emigrating out of mainland China to other countries with more women (like Ukraine, Russia, and most of the West), if the problem continues to persist. [12] An alternative viewpoint suggests that the shortfall of women might have some positive effects on society. [47] Facing declining possibilities of finding wives, men among the surplus cohort are more eager to improve their competitiveness in the marriage market. [47] Some are more willing to take unpleasant or dangerous hard work, thereby providing more labor. [47] They hope that the wealthier they become, the more competitive they will be in finding a wife. [47] Propensity to violence The future social effect of the guang gun remains a topic of concern. The majority of Chinese think that the guang gun are likely to affect criminal behavior. [48] An early commentator predicted that, "such sexual crimes as forced marriages, girls stolen for wives, bigamy, visiting prostitutes, rape, adultery... homosexuality... and weird sexual habits appear to be unavoidable." [10] Annual province-level data for the years 19882004 has showed that a 1% increase in the sex ratio is followed by a 3% increase in violent and property crime rates, meaning that unmarried men might account for part of the rise in crime. [49] Conversely, marriage reduces male criminality. [49] A study in China found that people share the same concerns: 65% of 7435 people of reproductive age think crime will increase, 53% are worried about the less safe streets, 60% consider these excess men as a threat to societal stability, and 56% believe the imbalanced sex-ratio will result in an increase in prostitution and trafficking. [12] Opposing voices argue that no evidence appears to support these worries. After comparing high and low sex ratio areas, crime in areas with more men was tend to be no higher than areas with low sex ratios. [12] Also, in comparison with other countries, the crime rates are relatively low in China. [24] Sex trafficking of women Experts believe that the continuing skewed sex ratio in China leads to an increased demand of women for brides by guang gun and a decreased supply of eligible women. [43] The shortfall of women in China has contributed to through women in China being bought and sold, which is a crime in China. [43] Most abducted women are between the ages of 13 and 24. [43] Among these abducted women, most are traded as brides in rural areas of China. [43] Abandonment of infant girls Under the one-child policy, some Chinese parents in rural areas abandon their very young daughters in order to increase the possibility of raising a son. [43] More than 95% of babies in state-owned orphanages are healthy baby girls, while a high percentage of these abandoned girls die within couple of months because of the poor conditions and health neglect in orphanages. [43] Those parents who abandon their girl children leave their children either not far from their homes or close to public places to make sure that the babies can be found. [43] According to an official in Liaoning province, "Every year, no fewer than 20 abandoned baby girls are found in dustbins and corners." [43] Prevalence of sex workers One potential problem with a large number of wifeless men is that many millions of Chinese sex workers appear to represent a broad range of backgrounds. [50] Although prostitution is illegal in China, there may appear expansion of female sex workers to meet increased demand of wifeless men. [50] In China, the female sex work industry has flourished in the 20th century. [50] The number of female sex workers in China increased from 25,000 in 1985 to 420,000 in 1996. [50] It was estimated by the Chinese Public Security Bureau that there were 46 million sex workers in China by 2000. [50] The U.S. State Department estimated in 2001 that there were 10 million sex workers in China. [50] Potential risk of HIV In recent years, surplus men have come into the HIV risk sphere. [50] Research suggests that the combined effects of sexual practices, sex work, and surplus males probably have effects on HIV transmission. [50] As a result, young, poor, unmarried surplus men could become a significant new HIV risk group. [50] Before these men find wives, they may be at greater risk of infection with HIV from female sex workers in urban areas. [50] According to the police surgeon and municipal health officer for Shanghai, the spread of sexually transmitted infection has a close relationship with young unmarried men. [50] For most unmarried migrant workers in China, there is a substantial gap between HIV knowledge and infrequent condom use. [51] Based on a sample of 506 migrants, about half of them had multiple sex partners and 89% of these migrants did not use condoms. [50] Fertility rate In 1965, fourteen years before the one-child policy was implemented, China's fertility rate was 6.39 births per women. After the one-child policy in 1979, the fertility rate dropped to 2.75 births per women and quickly continued to fall in the years to come. [52] Initially, China's goal was to get the fertility rate down to the replacement level of 2.1 births per women, but the fertility rate continued to fall and it is now at 1.6 births per women. [53] Demographers warn that fertility rates this low can hinder the development of a country and China has started to change their policies in order to increase their fertility rate and avoid any future adversaries. In 2015, the Chinese government decided to change the one-child policy and implemented a two-child policy. [54] Some researchers argue that son preference along with the one-child policy are one of the many contributing factors to an imbalanced sex ratio that has left millions of unmarried men unable to marry and start a family. [55] Scholars and journalists from outside of China argue that simply dropping the one-child policy will help raise the number of girls born into China and thus raise the future fertility rate. Even though the two-child policy is now in act, couples are still choosing to remain a single-child household due to expensive childcare and women's increasing hesitance to leave their careers to raise a family. [56] Aging population effects Large numbers of missing women also contribute to the problem of population ageing in China. [57] Since females and males together are responsible for the social reproduction, [57] a shortfall of women will lead to a reduction in the number of current and future newborns, ultimately accelerating the aging problem in China. [57] According to forecasts, based on the current sex ratio the elderly population in China will increase by about 3% annually for the next 30 years. [58] People over 65 in China will account for 15% of the population between 2025 and 2030, while those over 60 will account for a quarter of the population in 2050. [58] This rapidly increasing elderly population will also aggravate the social burden of the pension insurance system. [58] Change in laws and policies To control the imbalanced sex ratio, which is caused by the combined effects of son preference, sex-selective abortion and one-child policy, the Chinese government has taken some effective measures. [59] Laws forbidding infanticide, abandonment, and neglect of female children already exist. [23] There are also penalties for trafficking and kidnapping. [23] The Chinese government has also published laws forbidding foetal sex determination and sex-selective abortion. [12] China has recruited unmarried young males from poor backgrounds into the People's Liberation Army and into the paramilitary People's Armed Police. [10] These armed personnel who were poor and unmarried males from China's rural areas have helped government maintain social stability in 1989. [10] Improving women's status can also help reduce the sex ratio at birth. [59] The Chinese government pays more attention to women's legal rights, especially their economic development. [59] More emphasis has been placed on forming laws and regulations for women's economic status, education opportunities, inheritance of family property, willingness of marriage, and old-age supports. [59] From 2005, 600 Chinese yuan per month is given as a pension to parents in rural areas who have daughters. [8] In 2000, in order to establish a better survival environment for girls in Chaohu city, Anhui province, the "Chaohu Experimental Zone Improving Girl-Child Survival Environment" was established and implemented in 2003. [59] The main activities were "establishing specialized organizations, conducting trainings, punishing those found to be committing non-medical sex-selective abortions and infanticide, advocating for regulations and laws addressing gender equality, holding focus-group discussions for mothers-in-law, helping women to participate in socioeconomic activities by providing economic support, encouraging active male participation in the improvement of women's status, enhancing the social-security system, and popularizing uxorilocal marriages (in which husbands marry into wives' birth families), in addition to other activities." [59] The outcomes after three years was encouraging: the sex ratio at birth declined from more than 125 in 1999 to 114 in 2002. [59] Based on this program, in 2003, the Population and Family Planning Commission initiated a campaign called "Care for Girls" to encourage couples to consider the advantages of having girl children. [59] The results were also significant: a survey in 2007 showed that son preference had decreased in participating areas and the sex ratio at birth in the rural of Shanxi province fell from 135 in 2003 to 118 in 2007. [8] Two-child policy At the beginning of 2017, the Chinese government modified its family planning laws to finally allow married couples to have a second child. In 2016 the National Health and Family Planning Commission of China reported that live births in national hospitals numbered 18.46 million and that the fertility rate reached 1.7 percent, the highest rate since 2000. The effect of the new policy to relax birth-planning regulations has debunked 400 million averted births. Since the policy has been enacted, 261.4 million unregistered people who have lived at their residence for at least 6 months were found. [60] The policy change has taken pressure off parents to participate in sex-selective abortion or even avoiding registering female babies at birth, as they now have room for two children. The implementation of the two-child policy has given families room to grow but also control population in the country, in a managed and more humane way. [61] Although the two-child policy was implemented, the 35-year old social policy is unlikely to take part in a baby boom, in attempt to spark economic growth. The country is believed to be a true single-society even when given the option to take part in extending their family count. [62] The two-child policy is not expected to serve as a baby boom, rather a moderate increase in fertility among Chinese women. There are still effects resulting from the one-child policy which the two-child policy is intended to attempt to reverse, including population aging, reduction in sex ratio birth, more oppressive elements of child policy, contributions to economic growth and allow freedom to couples to have their desired number of children. [63] Policy responses Although there is extensive damage to the gender ratio throughout the country, it is still possible to implement change to benefit future generations of the country. [64] According to the Canadian Medical Association, it is crucial to both outlaw sex selection and fix the primary issue of son preference. Many laws already forbid fetal sex determination throughout countries in Asia, including China, but still continues to be a problem. Establishing responsibility to those performing illegal acts such as abortion is one step closer to ensuring a healthy, family oriented society. Holding doctors, clinics and establishments accountable by law is believed to make astounding differences in the sex preference. [65] Son preference as a whole, is largely challenging in the country. It is primarily important to spread public awareness though campaigns, media, and posters including advantages of females. The results of many campaigns such as the "Care for Girls" campaign on China, by the National Population and Family Planning Commission, encourages female births and requests participation from many neighboring countries. In one of the participating counties in Shanxi providence, the sex ratio birth was reduced from 135 in the year 2003 to 117 just three years later. [66] The country must implement a less traditional form of gender approach and encourage women for higher status positions in society. The Chinese government is essential in improving their gender and social rights. In 1992, the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women ensured women equal rights among politics, culture, education, work property rights and even marriage. Evidence shows that a country who supports higher status of women leads to a less traditional view of gender and lowers the level of son preference. All these socioeconomic improvements have led to a steer away from traditional views of women to a more modern approach, working to end the gender gap in entirety. Change in attitudes Although China's sex ratio at birth is still one of the highest in the world, growing evidence has shown that son preference in China is declining. [8] In recent interviews, many young Chinese adults expressed the view that they do not care about the gender of their future child, even though son preference was common in their parents' generation. [8] A recent study showed that among the 66% claiming to be gender indifferent, 13% (10% urban 16% rural) prefer a boy, and 21% (22% urban and 18% rural) want a girl. [12] Hesketh points out that with the consideration of advantages of raising girls, including that they are easier to care for, easier to find a spouse for, and take good care of aging parents, gender indifference and girl preference increase in comparison with previous son preference. [12] See also Related Research Articles Infanticide is the intentional killing of infants. Sex selection is the attempt to control the sex of the offspring to achieve a desired sex. It can be accomplished in several ways, both pre- and post-implantation of an embryo, as well as at childbirth. It has been marketed under the title family balancing. Girl young female human Gendercide is the systematic killing of members of a specific gender. The term is related to the general concepts of assault and murder against victims due to their gender, with violence against women and men being problems dealt with by human rights efforts. Women in China The lives of women in China have significantly changed throughout reforms in the late Qing Dynasty, the Republican period, the Chinese Civil War, and rise of the People's Republic of China, which had announced publicly on the commitment toward gender equality. Efforts the new Communist government made toward gender equality were met with resistance in the historically male-dominated Chinese society, and obstacles continue to stand in the way of women seeking to gain greater equality in China. Human sex ratio Gender inequality in India In India, the Child Sex Ratio is defined as the number of females per thousand males in the age group 0–6 years in a human population. Thus it is equal to 1000 x the reciprocal of the sex ratio in the same age group, i.e. under age seven. An imbalance in this age group will extend to older age groups in future years. Currently, the ratio of males to females is generally significantly greater than 1, i.e. there are more boys than girls. A two-child policy is a government-imposed limit of two children allowed per family or the payment of government subsidies only to the first two children. It has previously been used in Vietnam. In British Hong Kong in the 1970s, citizens were also highly encouraged to have two children as a limit, and it was used as part of the region's family planning strategies. Since 2016, it has been implemented in China, replacing the country's previous one-child policy. Missing women The term "missing women" indicates a shortfall in the number of women relative to the expected number of women in a region or country. It is most often measured through male-to-female sex ratios, and is theorized to be caused by sex-selective abortions, female infanticide, and inadequate healthcare and nutrition for female children. It is argued that technologies that enable prenatal sex selection, which have been commercially available since the 1970s, are a large impetus for missing female children. Abortion in China is legal and is a government service available on request for women. In theory this does not apply to sex-selective abortion, although this remains the basis for some women's requests. In addition to virtually universal access to contraception, abortion was a common way for China to contain its population in accordance with its one-child policy, in existence from 1979 to 2015. Female foeticide in India is the abortion of a female foetus outside of legal methods. The frequency of female foeticide in India is increasing day by day. The natural sex ratio is assumed to be between 103 and 107, and any number above it is considered as suggestive of female foeticide. According to the decennial Indian census, the sex ratio in the 0 to 6 age group in India has risen from 102.4 males per 100 females in 1961, to 104.2 in 1980, to 107.5 in 2001, to 108.9 in 2011. The People's Republic of China and its predecessors have a history of female infanticide spanning 2000 years. Worldwide, the practice of infanticide has been practiced since antiquity for the purpose of population control. It is an unsanctioned method of family planning that has been condoned for centuries in the area until recent times. The phenomenon is also referred to as female gendercide; however, the word gendercide can be used for both sexes. Female infanticide in Pakistan Female infanticide in Pakistan is a common practice. Female infanticide is the deliberate killing of newborn female children. Aid groups have reported that hardly any steps have been taken in Pakistan for preventing infanticide, especially among poor people. Son preference in China is a gender preference issue. Preference of sons can be explained by an attitude; it believe that boys have more value than girls; it can be defined as a gender bias as well. This phenomenon in China can be shown in gender sex ratio. Moreover, Chinese son preference can be connected to a variety of reasons. The majority of men are naturally superior to women in terms of physical strength. In the early stage of human evolution, stronger physical means more sources of food and more survival opportunities in tribal warfare. Majority of investments shows that the financial support that parents receive after their child’s marriage is significantly affected by their child’s gender.This can be one of the reasons that Chinese parents are more willing to have a son. Furthermore, Chinese agrarian society influences sex preference deeply as well. It is obvious that agriculture needs physical strength in a primitive agricultural society. Thus, the long run agriculture society in China can explain this phenomenon. Although the Chinese patriarchal thinking can be traced back thousands of years, with the development of the Chinese economy, this concept potential gradually disintegrates. 1. Xuefeng, Chen. "The Social Impact of China's One-child Policy" (PDF). Harvard Asia Pacific Review. Retrieved 14 March 2018. 2. Anderson, Siwan; Ray, Debraj (2010). "Missing women: age and disease". The Review of Economic Studies. 77 (4): 1262–1300. doi:10.1111/j.1467-937X.2010.00609.x. JSTOR 40836647. 3. Zhao, Zhongwei; Chen, Wei (Jul–Dec 2011). "China's far below-replacement fertility and its long-term impact: Comments on the preliminary results of the 2010 census". Demographic Research. 25: 819–835. doi:10.4054/DemRes.2011.25.26.CS1 maint: Date format (link) 4. Ebenstein, Avraham. " The 'Missing Girls' of China and the Unintended Consequences of the One Child Policy." The Journal of Human Resources, vol. 45, no. 1, 2013, pp. 88–115., scholars.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/avrahamebenstein/files/ebenstein_onechildpolicy_2010.pdf. 5. Quanbao, Jiang, et al. "Estimates of Missing Women in Twentieth Century China1." Estimates of Missing Women in Twentieth Century China1, Dec. 2013. National Institutes of Health, doi:10.1017/S0268416012000240. 6. Shi, Yaojiang; Kennedy, John James (December 2016). "Delayed Registration and Identifying the "Missing Girls" in China". The China Quarterly. 228: 1018–1038. doi:10.1017/S0305741016001132. ISSN 0305-7410. 7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sen, Amartya (December 20, 1990). "More than 100 million women are missing". The New York Review of Books. 37 (20). 8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Chi, Zhou; Dong, Zhou Xu; Xiao Lei, Wang; Wei Jun, Zheng; Lu, Li; Hesketh, Therese (February 2013). "Changing gender preference in China today: implications for the sex ratio". Indian Journal of Gender Studies . 20 (1): 51–68. doi:10.1177/0971521512465936. 9. Murphy, R., Ran, T., & Xi, L. (2011). "Son preference in rural China: patrilineal families and socioeconomic change". Population and Development Review. 37 (4): 665–690. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2011.00452.x.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Poston, L. D., & Glover, S. K. (2005). "Too many males: marriage market implications of gender imbalances in China". Genus. 61 (2): 119–140. JSTOR 29788854.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 11. 1 2 3 4 Attane, Isabelle (2006). "The demographic impact of a female deficit in China, 2000–2050". Population and Development Review. 32 (4): 755–770. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2006.00149.x. 12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Hesketh, Therese (2011). "Selecting sex: The effect of preferring sons". 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"China Amends One-Child Policy." Reproductive Health Matters 11 (21): 194. 33. Fong, Vanessa L. 2002. "China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters." American Anthropologist 104 (4): 1098-1109. 34. Attané, Isabelle (2009). "The determinants of discrimination against daughters in China: evidence from a provincial-level analysis". Population Studies: A Journal of Demography. 63 (1): 87–102. doi:10.1080/00324720802535023. PMID 19184723. 35. Cheng, H., & Elo, T.I. (2009). "Mortality of the oldest old Chinese: the role of early-life nutritional status, socio-economic conditions, and sibling sex-composition". Population Studies: A Journal of Demography. 63 (1): 7–20. doi:10.1080/00324720802626921. PMC 2832602 . PMID 19184718.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 36. Liu, N., Mao, L., Sun, X., Liu, L., Yao, P., & Chen, B. (2009). "The effect of health and nutrition education intervention on women's postpartuml beliefs and practices: a randomized controlled trial". BMC Public Health. 9: 45. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-9-45. PMC 2640472 . PMID 19183504.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 37. Will, Rachel. "Contraceptive Use in China". US-China Today. University of Southern California. Retrieved 14 March 2018. 38. Zraick, Karen (2015-10-30). "China Will Feel One-Child Policy's Effects for Decades, Experts Say". The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved 14 March 2018. 39. Hvistendahl, Mara (2017-10-18). "Analysis of China's one-Child policy sparks uproar". Science. AAAS. Retrieved 14 March 2018. 40. Gupta, M.D (11 October 2018). "Explaining Asia's "Missing Women": A New Look at the Data". Population and Development Review. 31 (3): 529–535. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2005.00082.x. 41. Junhong, Chu (2011). "Prenatal Sex Determination and Sex-Selective Abortion in Rural Central China". Econ Papers. 27 (2): 259–281. Retrieved 28 March 2018. 42. Bairagi, Radheshyam. " Effects of Sex Preference on Contraceptive Use, Abortion and Fertility in Matlab, Bangladesh." International Family Planning Perspectives , vol. 27, no. 3, Sept. 2011, pp. 137–143., www.guttmacher.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/pubs/journals/2713701.pdf. 43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Susan Tiefenbrun; Christie J. Edwards. "Gendercide and the cultural context of sex trafficking in China". 44. "The one-child policy put China in a disastrous 'marriage squeeze'". Business Insider. Retrieved 2018-04-12. 45. Loh, C., & Remick, E. (2015). China's Skewed Sex Ratio and the One-Child Policy. The China Quarterly,222, 295-319. doi:10.1017/S0305741015000375 46. 1 2 Li, Shuzhuo., Zhang, Qunlin., Yang, Xueyan., & Isabelle, Attané. (2010). "Male singlehood, poverty and sexuality in rural China: an exploratory survey". Population, English Edition. 65 (4): 679–693. doi:10.1353/pop.2011.0001 (inactive 2019-03-15).CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 47. 1 2 3 4 Wei, Shangjin., & Zhang, xiaobo. (February 2011). "Sex ratios, entrepreneurship, and economic growth in the People's Republic of China". NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH Working Paper. 16800.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 48. Boer, A.D., & Hudson, V.M. (2002). "A surplus of men, a deficit of peace". Int Secur. 26 (4): 5–38. doi:10.1162/016228802753696753.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 49. 1 2 Edlund, L., Li, H., Yi, J., & Zhang, J. "Sex ratios and crime: evidence from China's one- child policy". IZA Discussion Papers. 3214.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) 50. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Joseph D. Tucker; Gail E. Henderson; Tian F. Wang; Ying Y. Huang; William Parish; Sui M. Pan; Xiang S. Chen; Myron S. Cohen. (2005). "Surplus men, sex work, and the spread of HIV in China". AIDS. 19 (6): 539–547. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000163929.84154.87. 51. Henriot C. (1992). "Medicine, VD, and prostitution in pre-revolutionary China". 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Available: www.women.org.cn/english/english/laws/02.htm (accessed 2018 Apr. 16). 66. Li SZ, Yan SH. A special study on "care for girls" campaign [article in Chinese]. Population and Family Planning 2008;10:23–4	<urn:uuid:150d0f4d-7fbb-4e02-bf96-3f6a0352440d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.021035969257354736, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9293624758720398, "url": "https://wikimili.com/en/Missing_women_of_China" }
Black-necked Storks, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus Black-necked Stork in flight Black-necked StorksThe Black-necked Stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. Distribution / Range It is a widespread species, which is a resident breeder in southern Asia and Australasia, from India east to New Guinea and the northern half of Australia. In Australia, it is also known as a Jabiru but should not be confused with the similar bird of this name from the Americas, which belongs to a different genus. The only stork in Australia, this species is considered as endangered there. The Black-necked Storks are extremely sensitive to environmental changes like water pollution, habitat destruction and human disruption around breeding sites. It is evaluated as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The Black-necked Stork is a huge bird, typically 130-150 cm tall with a 230cm wingspan. It is spectacularly plumaged. The head, neck, wing bar and tail are jet black, with the rest of the plumage white. The massive bill is black and the legs are bright red. Sexes are identical except that the female has a yellow iris, while the male's is brown. Juveniles are mainly light brown with a white belly and dark legs. Like most storks, the Black-necked Stork flies with the neck outstretched, not retracted like a heron. Breeding / Nesting The Black-necked Stork breeds in marshes and other wetlands in tropical lowland. It builds a stick nest in trees, laying three to five eggs. It often forms small colonies. Diet / Feeding The diet consists mainly of fish, frogs and large insects. Young birds, lizards and rodents also taken.	<urn:uuid:30ca3430-ed6c-4fb5-87df-d6d453588aaa>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.10622036457061768, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9196692109107971, "url": "https://www.beautyofbirds.com/blackneckedstorks.html" }
Articles on Central Asia: Heritage of ancient empires Scythian Tribes Dating the earliest Scythians has been a problem since they did not develop their distinctive art style until the 6th century B.C. From the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century BC, the Scythians occupied the steppe from the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the west. Among all those Scythians tribes, the most distinguishing tribe is called the Royal Scythians. With the Royal Scythians playing the dominant role, nomad Scythians, the Callipidae, the Alizones, agricultural Scythians and ploughing Scythians hold a submissive position. While the Royal and Nomad scythians led the nomadic lives, the Callipidae and Alizones lived in semi-nomadic style. Of course ploughing Scythians definitely were sedentary agriculturalists. According to Herodotus, the Callipidae or the Graeco-Scythians lived not far from Olbia, at the mouth of the Bug. To the north, there lived the Alizones; and further north the ploughing Scythians covered the area between the Dnieper and Bug. The Nomad Scythians occupied the steppes of the Azov Sea area and the left and right banks of the Dnieper. Most scholars believe that both banks of the lower Bug as far as the River Konka were the lands of the Nomad Scythians while the Royal Scythians roamed lands further east and south as far as the Don. Lastly the nomadic Scythians occupied at the Altai region of Siberia are called Kindred Scythians or Eastern Scythians. It was during the 4th century BC. that the Scythian kingdom reached the hightest economic, political, social and cultural development. Many nomads bacme sedentary in the north Black Sea and Kamenskoe Gorodishche was the economic, political and trading capital of Scythia in the 4th till the first half of the 3rd century BC. The great king Atheas united all the Scythian tribes and expanded his territory to Tracian border on the right bank of the Danube. In 339 B.C., Atheas was killed at age of 90 in the battle with Philip of Macedon. However the Scythian kingdom remained strong and wealthy. The outside threat did not disturb their stability until the Celts and the Thracians swept in from the west and the Sarmatians from the east starting at the second half of the 3rd century BC.; the Scythian kingdom was absorbed by other nomadic powers and pretty much disappeared in the history. The Scythians were famous for their bloody tribal custom. Warriors not only cut off the heads of slain enemies but also made leather-bound drinking cups from their enemies' skulls. They lined these grisly trophies with gold and proudly displayed them to impress their guests. The Scythians were traditionally polygamous and male-dominated society. Even though the ancient Greeks' impression that Scythia was a matriarchy ,it is not supported by the archaeological evidence. A wealthy Scythian could take several wives, and upon his death a son or a brother would assume them as his own. Scythian women had little power beyond the confines of their households, unlike their neighboring tribe the Sarmatians, whose women not only rode but fought with the men equally. Scythian women traveled in wagons with their children instead. Some scholars suggest that the women may have lived a more active and influential life at one time. Like the Scythians the Huns were also pastoral nomads. They were neighbours of the Scythians in Central Asia. Before the Yuchi were driven out, the Scythian homelands east of the Tien-Shan and Altai had merged into the pastures of the Huns. Even before the ultimate clash between them they had had contacts with each other for purposes of trade and in occasional skirmishes. The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia between the 1st century AD and the 7th century AD. As per European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part of Scythia at the time; the Huns' arrival is associated with the migration westward of a Scythian people, the Alans. In 91 AD, the Huns were said to be living near the Caspian Sea and by about 150 had migrated southeast into the Caucasus. By 370, the Huns had established a vast, if short-lived, dominion in Europe. The history of the Karakhanids is one of the least studied periods in the history of Central Asia and East Turkistan. The Karakhanids can first be traced in historical sources in the ninth century, as a powerful tribe in Transoxania. By the late tenth and early eleventh century, they had formed a politically united Karakhanid state, as evidenced by the coinage from this period, on which a series of Karakhanid rulers are described as sovereigns of Transoxania. The Karajhanid Khanate was divided into numerous appanage with unstable boundaries. The rulers even had the rights of minting coins with their names, sometimes with the changing titles. Political life was full warfare and struggle. The Karakhanid state was different from the previous states. In contrast to the political structure of the nomadic the military and administrative control were separated from each other. Public administration structure was based on the hierarchical principle. The Khans gave to their relatives the right to receive taxes from the population of the district, region or city. Such administrative grant was named "Iqta‘" and its holder called mukta, or iqtadar. The Iqta‘system played an important role in the economic and political life of Central Asia. Karakhanid's legacy is the most enduring cultural heritage among coexisting cultures in Central Asia from the 9th to the 13th century. Only the period of Mongol invasions interrupted the natural process of development. Discover Central Asia Tours LLC	<urn:uuid:e13d6ee0-84f8-42f1-a4b6-6a8680510d0a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.21378350257873535, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9722726941108704, "url": "http://dcat.kg/empires.html" }
Man’s Best Friend A species commonly found around humans is one group that illustrates this idea. Although often unnoticed, we are able to understand dogs to a much greater extent compared to other animals; domesticity probably has an impact on this. Tail Position A human is able to interpret a dog’s emotional state based on its tail, even if they do not own one. Dr. Stanley Coren (2011) describes tail wags “like any other language” as he focuses on the “tail’s pattern of movement and its position”. The tail’s position is the first factor to pay attention to, “specifically the height at which it is held, [it] can be considered a sort of emotional meter” (Coren 2011). Here are three different examples of possible tail positions dogs exhibit: 1. A higher tail position indicates emotions of alertness or attentiveness. 2. The middle tail position indicates relaxation. 3. The lower tail position indicates feelings of worries or fear. Speed of Tail Wag The position of a simple muscle alone can play such a large role in human-animal interaction. Along with tail position, the speed of the tail wag can also help reveal a dog’s emotional state. A common idea is quicker wags indicate a dog’s level of excitement, while slow wags are a sign of sadness or insecurity. Positive or Negative Emotions Furthermore, one can hypothesize that positive and negative emotions corresponds to the side of the body the tail wags (Coren 2011). “When a dog feels generally positive about something or someone, their tails wag more to the right side of their rear ends” (Coren 2011). For example, if an owner or another familiar person approaches the dog, it’s wag is expected to be more biased to the right side. If a complete stranger approaches the dog, on the other hand, it’s wag is expected to be more biased to the left side. To demonstrate this biased tail wag here is a video of a dog welcoming home it’s owner. Human Posture Similar to a dog’s tail position, human posture can help show a person’s emotions. Generally, the most common feature one notices about posture is shoulder position: pushed back shoulders indicates pride and self-confidence, while slouched shoulders communicates sadness and low self-esteem. Another common expression involves hands and feet: fidgety hands reflect anxiety or boredom, while stiff hands indicate anger (Whitbourne 2012). Foot movements act in a similar way as hands, as feet tapping usually shows someone is nervous or in a rush. While some responses are harder to control than others, the range in abilities our body has to express emotions is a unique characteristic to humans. Leave a Reply	<urn:uuid:fc2c946b-dc70-466e-b319-8e6fc21cf9c9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.6195603013038635, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8908221125602722, "url": "http://thehumananimal-bilkovski.com/universal-code/mans-best-friend-2/" }
What images do you think of when thinking about the Holocaust? Anne Frank? Images of hollow-eyed men in striped uniforms? Trains full of people slowly leaving stations? Or maybe you even think of a girl with a white headscarf standing between the doors of a cattle car, staring at the camera. This last image was filmed in transit camp Westerbork in the Netherlands and it is part of what we now know as the Westerbork film. It was commissioned in 1944 by German camp commander Albert Gemmeker and shot by Jewish Westerbork prisoner Rudolf Breslauer. The film shows, among others, images of life in the Westerbork camp and the transportation of Jews, Roma and Sinti from this camp to Auschwitz and Theresienstadt. The film was never finalised, because Breslauer was deported to Theresienstadt and later to Auschwitz before it was completed. The Westerbork film images are unique and vitally important as a primary historic source as they are the only moving images of a concentration camp in operation filmed during the Second World War. In 2017 the value of this film was recognised globally by UNESCO when the film and its script were included into the UNESCO Memory of the World programme as global documentary heritage, taking its rightful place next to, for example, the already world famous diary of Anne Frank. The images of the film have been re-used in many different ways over the past decades, from shots such as the girl with the white scarf and the arriving and departing transports, to the starkly contrasting images of a cabaret show and soccer match. There is only a very limited amount of footage of the Holocaust, especially moving images. This scarce material is therefore of grave importance for how our memory of the Holocaust is shaped , as it is these images - and only these images - which have constantly been remediated. This thesis examines the following research question: How and to what extent have the images of the Westerbork film contributed to the collective memory of the Holocaust in Western Europe? It uses a case-study approach analysing four documentaries from different eras and countries which use images from the Westerbork film. The documentaries are Nuit et Brouillard (1955, French), Gezicht van het Verleden (1994, Dutch), Anne Frank Remembered (1995, British) and Respite (2007, German). Additional Metadata Keywords Holocaust, Memory, Collective memory, Remediation, transit camp Westerbork, Westerbork film, Nuit et Brouillard, Gezicht van het Verleden, Anne Frank Remembered, Respite Thesis Advisor C. Ribbens Persistent URL hdl.handle.net/2105/46764 Series Maatschappijgeschiedenis / History of Society R. Aitken. (2018, July 25). Seven Seconds Remediation of the 1944 Westerbork film and West European memory of the Holocaust. Maatschappijgeschiedenis / History of Society. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2105/46764	<urn:uuid:503fb254-7430-4a81-880b-64107aae8ab3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.02153003215789795, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.907329797744751, "url": "https://thesis.eur.nl/pub/46764" }
Words of Wisdom: The Arawaks • Date Submitted: 01/28/2010 09:02 AM • Flesch-Kincaid Score: 56.7 • Words: 1652 • Essay Grade: no grades • Report this Essay Amerindians of the \"Saladoid\" culture, originally came from the Venezuelan mainland. They were referred to as \"Arawaks\", because of the language they spoke. Using Trinidad as a stepping stone they spread up the Caribbean and beyond. Ethnologist have noted common characteristics with the cultures of south eastern USA. For many years this led some to believe that they originated there, archaeological finds have confirmed that their origin is most certainly Amazonic. The Arawaks people inhabited the lands that extend from Florida through the Caribbean to Bolivia, Paraguay and northern Argentina The Arawaks were a very gentle culture, they preferred negotiation and commercial exchange to war. Their society was characterized by happiness, friendliness and a highly organized hierarchical, paternal society, and a lack of guile. Each group was a small kingdom and the leader was called a cacique. They practiced polygamy and most men had 2 or 3 wives, but the caciques had as many as 30. It was a great honor for a woman to be married to a cacique. Not only did she enjoy a materially superior lifestyle, but her children were held in high esteem. There was clear distinction between caciques and certain social strata that considered themselves superior, (this developed more so in the Arawaks of the Caribbean) and their existed some degree of slavery. The Arawaks employed prisoners and other individuals in services that were not expected of natural members of their communities. It was not a hereditary slavery as in the old world culture, it was simply the initial stage of submission of strangers to the tribe, who had to work so as to be eventually assimilated. The Arawaks practiced the custom of couvade/covada, that is they considered that the father is affected in some way by the birth of his children. For this reason the father had a special diet parallel to that of the mother after child birth. Laying in his hammock, abstaining from work and... 1. No comments	<urn:uuid:dad4ba3b-2660-46bd-8959-bc9adf6f6c8f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.06156080961227417, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9788796305656433, "url": "https://www.essaydepot.com/essayme/3946/index.php" }
Using place-name evidence to find out about the Vikings at KS2: 3 things you MUST know Place-name evidence is really important to historians studying the Vikings. Not only is there so much of it, it is also very descriptive and helps us with everyday Norse language when the written sources are so scarce. We already know where to look for Viking place-name: the area called the Danelaw. We also know that many Viking settlements end in suffixes such as by or Thorpe or holm. But are there any key messages that we need our children to know. Yes, and here are the main ones 1. The place-names are often made up of a person’s name first and then the ending which describes the sort of settlement. 2. These places probably contain the names of the earliest or most important Viking settlers 3. Early settlers went for the better land. Places ending in ‘holm’ meant it was poor, wet, marshy land and tended to be settled later. The ending ‘by’, the most common Viking place name ending, means settlement whereas Thorpe means secondary settlement nearby and often on less good land. The website is a brilliant site for finding out about place names near you. Simple Share Buttons	<urn:uuid:007f63ec-0fd4-4af8-88dc-bd79a5b8d627>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.050829946994781494, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9662470817565918, "url": "https://www.keystagehistory.co.uk/opinion/keystage-history-blog/using-place-name-evidence-to-find-out-about-the-vikings-at-ks2-3-things-you-must-know/" }
You may also like problem icon Rachel's Problem problem icon Pros and Cons If p is a positive integer and q is a negative integer, which of these expressions is the greatest? Age 14 to 16 Challenge Level: All the words in the Snowman language consist of exactly seven letters formed from the letters {s, no, wm, an} arranged in some order where the paired letters cannot be separated. For example ``snonono'' and ``sssanwm'' are words in the language but ``sssmwan'' and ``sssawmn'' are not. How many words are there in the Snowman language?	<urn:uuid:d203fa0c-5a57-43ba-933d-fcc337489ada>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.9605043530464172, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9141655564308167, "url": "https://nrich.maths.org/614" }
Back to FAQs >> What is amber? What is Amber? Amber is the fossilized resin from ancient trees. In the Dominican Republic, the tree is Hyemnaea (a leguminous trees). Most modern legumes are smaller plants that have nodules in the roots which contain bacteria that puts nitrogen back into the soil. Modern day legume trees are common in South America. Resin from either of these types of trees, when placed in the proper conditions, turns into amber. There is an intermediate stage where the resin might look like amber, but is not changed enough (polymerized) to be considered real amber. This 'young' resin is called copal. Copal is always much younger than amber and has some characteristics which distinguish it from real amber. For instance, copal is generally less dense than amber. Classification of Baltic amber (succinite) gemstones by the International Amber Association Typical amber specimen with a number of indistinct inclusions • Natural Baltic amber – gemstone which has undergone mechanical treatment only (for instance: grinding, cutting, turning or polishing) without any change to its natural properties • Reconstructed (pressed) Baltic amber – gemstone made of Baltic amber pieces pressed in high temperature and under high pressure without additional components. • Bonded Baltic amber – gemstone consisting of two or more parts of natural, modified or reconstructed Baltic amber bonded together with the use of the smallest possible amount of a colorless binding agent necessary to join the pieces. Botanical origin Fossil resins from Europe fall into two categories, the famous Baltic ambers and another that resembles the Agathis group. Fossil resins from the Americas and Africa are closely related to the modern genus Hymenaea,[18] while Baltic ambers are thought to be fossil resins from Sciadopityaceae family plants that used to live in north Europe.[19] Amber (fossil resin) Chemical formula: C10H16O (succinite), bears succinic acid (3-8%), common fossil remnants of flora and fauna (mostly insects). Colour: From almost colourless through yellow, red, brown, bluish to black (rare). Most common are yellow and orange ("amber") colours of various saturation, what depends on th admixture of the organic pigments.  Hardness: 2 - 3 according to the Mohs's scale, sometimes as low as 1,5. Brittleness varies significantly. The values of the absolute hardness varies for succinite from 17.66 to 38.40 kg per sq mm, for the "bone" amber 20 kg per sq mm, for "bastard" amber 25 kg per sq mm, for Carpathian amber 26 kg per sq mm. Melting temperature of succinite is 340 to 360°C. Density: 1.07 +/- 0.2; plastic. Cleavage: absent. Transparency: from transparent to opaque. Shine: glassy, resinous, fatty. Refractive indice: n = 1.540 No Very Captcha Image	<urn:uuid:31dff9f4-c10d-4f1a-8d62-59fe7498c32d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.05876070261001587, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8983739018440247, "url": "http://www.bamber.com.au/FAQRetrieve.aspx?ID=14530&Q=" }
How birds got their wings But the question remains, at what point did forelimbs evolve into wings—making it possible to fly? Image credit: Michael Skrepnick/McGill Image credit: Michael Skrepnick/McGill McGill University professor Hans Larsson and a former graduate student Alexander Dececchi set out to answer that question by examining fossil data, greatly expanded in recent years, from the period marking the origin of birds. “Our findings suggest that birds underwent an abrupt change in their developmental mechanisms, such that their forelimbs and hind limbs became subject to different length controls,” says Larsson, chair in macroevolution at McGill’s Redpath Museum. Deviations from the rules of how an animal’s limbs scale with changes in body size—another example is the relatively long legs and short arms of humans—usually indicate some major shift in function or behavior. “This decoupling may be fundamental to the success of birds, the most diverse class of land vertebrates on Earth today.” “The origin of birds and powered flight is a classic major evolutionary transition,” says Dececchi, now a postdoctoral researcher at the University of South Dakota. “This work, coupled with our previous findings that the ancestors of birds were not tree dwellers, does much to illuminate the ecology of bird antecedents,” says Dececchi. “Knowing where birds came from, and how they got to where they are now, is crucial for understanding how the modern world came to look the way it is.” The Fonds de recherche du Québec – Nature et technologies, the Canada Research Chairs program, and the National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada funded the research.	<urn:uuid:b1d7d02b-25d4-42a1-8e3c-ca2ececf2e4c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.21875, "fasttext_score": 0.07950901985168457, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9518399834632874, "url": "https://earthsky.org/science-wire/how-birds-got-their-wings" }
Dental Health Lessons at Lincoln Abraham Lincoln School pre-kindergarten students learned the importance of dental health through an interactive program led by local dentist Eric Hanson. Dr. Hanson taught students about dental characteristics and the stages of tooth development. Utilizing props, he demonstrated the ways to keep one’s mouth healthy, including brushing twice daily for at least two minutes, using proper flossing techniques and making regular visits to the dentist for check-ups. In addition, students learned that healthy eating habits help maintain strong teeth. Dr. Hanson encouraged students to eat vegetables and stay away from sweets and soda. Students also became aware of how important teeth are to speech patterns and practiced articulating statements such as, "There's magic in a healthy smile,” saying the phrase normally at first and then attempting to say it without touching their tongue to their teeth. Following the presentation, students received a new toothbrush to bring home and practice what they had learned.	<urn:uuid:3b1e3b2f-d562-4f13-81d2-d85645b007e7>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.8125, "fasttext_score": 0.031110823154449463, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9530971646308899, "url": "http://www.deerparkschools.org/News/Story.aspx?id=9382" }
The Full Wiki Akhenaten: Map Wikipedia article: Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article: Akhenaten ( ; often also spelled Echnaton, Akhnaton, or rarely Ikhnaton; meaning Effective spirit of Aten) was known before the fifth year of his reign as Amenhotep IV (sometimes given its Greek form, Amenophis IV, and meaning Amun is Satisfied). A Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, he ruled for 17 years and died in 1336 BC or 1334 BC. He is especially noted for abandoning traditional Egyptian polytheism and introducing worship centered on the Aten, which is sometimes described as monotheistic; but henotheism would be a more accurate description, since he ranked the Aten above other gods but did not deny their existence. Indeed, an early inscription likens them to stars as compared with the sun, and later official language avoids calling the Aten a god, as if to create for the solar deity a status above mere gods. Akhenaten tried to bring about a departure from traditional religion, but in the end it would not be accepted. After his death, traditional religious practice was gradually restored, and when some dozen years later rulers without clear rights of succession from the Eighteenth Dynasty founded a new dynasty, they discredited Akhenaten and his immediate successors, referring to Akhenaten himself as 'the enemy' in archival records. He was all but lost from history until the discovery, in the 19th century, of Amarnamarker, the site of Akhetaten, the city he built for the Aten. Early excavations at Amarna by Flinders Petrie sparked interest in the enigmatic pharaoh, which increased with the discovery in the Valley of the Kingsmarker, at Luxormarker, of the tomb of King Tutankhamun, who may have been his son. Akhenaten remains an interesting figure, as does his Queen, Nefertiti. Their modern interest comes partly from his connection with Tutankhamun, partly from the unique style and high quality of the pictorial arts he patronized, and partly from ongoing interest in—and, all too often, less than verifiable claims about—the religion he attempted to establish. Early life The future Akhenaten was a younger son of Amenhotep III and his Chief Queen Tiye, his elder brother Crown Prince Thutmose having died when both were children. Thus, Akhenaten's early education might have prepared him for the priesthood like his maternal uncle Anen; at any rate, in an inscription dating to his early reign he emphasized his familiarity with ancient temple documents. Amenhotep IV succeeded his father after Amenhotep III's death at the end of his 38-year reign, or possibly after a coregency lasting one to two years. Suggested dates for Akhenaten's reign (subject to the debates surrounding Egyptian chronology) are from 1353 BC-1336 BC or 1351 BC–1334 BC. Akhenaten's chief wife was Nefertiti, made famous to the modern world by her exquisitely sculpted and painted bust, now displayed in the Altes Museummarker of Berlinmarker, and among the most recognised works of art surviving from the ancient world. After four years of reign, Akhenaten began building a new city to serve as the seat of the Aten and a governmental capital of Egypt. Its buildings were decorated in a startling new style which was intended to express the tenets of the new worship. Aten was the sungod. Religious Policies Pharaoh and family depictions Styles of art that flourished during this short period are markedly different from other Egyptian art. In some cases, representations are more naturalistic, especially in depictions of animals and plants, of commoners, and in a sense of action and movement—for both nonroyal and royal people. However, depictions of members of the court, especially members of the royal family, are extremely stylized, with elongated heads protruding stomachs, heavy hips, thin arms and legs, and exaggerated facial features. Questions also remain whether the beauty of Nefertiti is portraiture or idealism. Significantly, and for the only time in the history of Egyptian royal art, Akhenaten's family are shown taking part in decidedly naturalistic activities, showing affection for each other, and being caught in mid-action (in traditional art, a pharaoh's divine nature was expressed by repose, even immobility). The depictions of action may correspond to the emphasis on the active creative and nurturing emphasized of the Aten in the "Great Hymn to the Aten" and elsewhere. Nefertiti also appears, both beside the king and alone (or with her daughters), in actions usually reserved for a Pharaoh, suggesting that she enjoyed unusual status for a queen. Early artistic representations of her tend to be indistinguishable from her husband's except by her regalia, but soon after the move to the new capital, Nefertiti begins to be depicted with features specific to her. Why Akhenaten had himself represented in the bizarre, strikingly androgynous way he did, remains a vigorously debated question. Religious reasons have been suggested, such as to emulate the creative nature of the Aten, who is called in Amarna tomb texts, "mother and father" of all that is. Or, it has been suggested, Akhenaten's (and his family's) portraiture exaggerates his distinctive physical traits. Until Akhenaten's mummy is positively identified, such theories remain speculative. Some scholars do identify Mummy 61074, found in KV55, an unfinished tomb in the Valley of the Kings, as Akhenaten's. If so—or if the KV 55 mummy is that of his close relative, Smenkhkare—its measurements tend to support the theory that Akhenaten's depictions exaggerate his actual appearance. Though the "mummy" consists only in disarticulated bones, the skull is long and has a prominent chin and the limbs are light and long. However, in 2007, Zahi Hawass and a team of researchers made CT Scan images of the KV 55 mummy. They have concluded that the elongated skull, cheek bones, cleft palate, and impacted wisdom tooth suggest that the mummy is the father of Tutankhamun, also commonly known as Akhenaten. Family and relations See also: Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree Amenhotep IV was married to Nefertiti at the very beginning of his reign, and the couple had six known daughters. Two possible sons of Akhenaten by other women have also been identified, Smenkhkare who succeeded him on the throne, and Tutankhamun. Their mothers are unknown. A secondary wife of Akhenaten named Kiya is known; some have theorized that she gained her importance as the mother of one or both of these male heirs. This is a list of Akhenaten's children (known and theoretical) with suggested years of birth: His known consorts were: It has also been suggested that, like his father Amunhotep III, Akhenaten may have taken some of his daughters as consorts: • Meritaten, recorded as Great Royal Wife late in his reign, though it is more likely that she got this title due to her marriage to Smenkhkare, Akhenaten's co-regent; • Meketaten, Akhenaten's second daughter. The reason for this suggestion is Meketaten's death due to childbirth in, or after, the fourteenth year of Akhenaten's reign, though nowhere does she have the title or cartouche of a queen. • Ankhesenpaaten, his third daughter, also on tenuous evidence. In his final year or after his death, Ankhesenpaaten married Akhenaten's successor Tutankhamun. Inscriptions refer to a daughter of Meritaten, Meritaten-ta-sherit and may record a daughter for Ankhesenpaaten, Ankhesenpaaten-ta-sherit, though the latter depends on a questionable reading of a single fragmentary inscription. The texts in question all once belonged to Kiya and were re-inscribed for the princesses later. The daughter (or, perhaps, hoped-for future daughter) might have replaced Kiya's daughter in those scenes. Two other lovers have been suggested, but are not widely accepted: • Smenkhkare, Akhenaten's successor and/or co-ruler for the last years of his reign. Rather than a lover, however, Smenkhkare is likely to have been a half-brother or a son to Akhenaten. Some have even suggested that Smenkhkare was actually an alias of Nefertiti or Kiya, and therefore one of Akhenaten's wives (see below). • Tiye, his mother. Twelve years after the death of Amenhotep III, she is still mentioned in inscriptions as Queen and beloved of the King, but kings' mothers often were. The few supporters of this theory (notably Immanuel Velikovsky) consider Akhenaten to be the historical model of legendary King Oedipus of Thebesmarker, Greecemarker and Tiye the model for his mother/wife Jocasta. Akhenaten's international relations Important evidence about Akhenaten's reign and foreign policy has been provided by the discovery of the Amarna Letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence discovered in modern times at el-Amarna, the modern designation of the Akhetaten site. This correspondence comprises a priceless collection of incoming messages on clay tablets, sent to Akhetaten from various subject rulers through Egyptian military outposts, and from the foreign rulers (recognized as "Great Kings") of the Armeno-Aryan kingdom of Mitanni, Babylon, Assyria and Hatti. The governors and kings of Egypt's subject domains also wrote frequently to plead for gold from Pharaoh, and also complained of being snubbed and cheated by him. "I...asked your father, Mimmureya, for statues of solid cast gold, one of myself and a second statue, a statue of Tadu-Heba (Tadukhepa), my daughter, and your father said, "Don't talk of giving statues just of solid cast gold. I will give you ones made also of lapis lazuli. I will give you, too, along with the statues, much additional gold and (other) goods beyond measure." Every one of my messengers that were staying in Egypt saw the gold for the statues with their own eyes. Your father himself recast the statues [i]n the presence of my messengers, and he made them entirely of pure gold....He showed much additional gold, which was beyond measure and which he was sending to me. He said to my messengers, "See with your own eyes, here the statues, there much gold and goods beyond measure, which I am sending to my brother." And my messengers did see with their own eyes! But my brother (ie: Akhenaten) has not sent the solid (gold) statues that your father was going to send. You have sent plated ones of wood. Nor have you sent me the goods that your father was going to send me, but you have reduced (them) greatly. Yet there is nothing I know of in which I have failed my brother. Any day that I hear the greetings of my brother, that day I make a festive occasion...May my brother send me much gold. [At] the kim[ru fe]ast...[...with] many goods [may my] brother honor me. In my brother's country gold is as plentiful as dust. May my brother cause me no distress. May he send me much gold in order that my brother [with the gold and m]any [good]s, may honor me". (EA 27) While Akhenaten was certainly not a close friend of Tushratta, he was evidently concerned at the expanding power of the Hittite Empire under its powerful ruler Suppiluliuma I. A successful Hittite attack on Mitanni and its ruler Tushratta would have disrupted the entire international balance of power in the Ancient Middle East at a time when Egypt had made peace with Mitanni; this would cause some of Egypt's vassals to switch their allegiances to the Hittites, as time would prove. A group of Egypt's allies who attempted to rebel against the Hittites were captured, and wrote letters begging Akhenaten for troops, but he did not respond to most of their pleas. Evidence suggests that the troubles on the northern frontier led to difficulties in Canaan, particularly in a struggle for power between Labaya of Shechemmarker and Abdi-Heba of Jerusalemmarker, which required the Pharaoh to intervene in the area by dispatching Medjay troops northwards. Akhenaten pointedly refused to save his vassal Rib-Hadda of Byblosmarker whose kingdom was being besieged by the expanding state of Amurru under Abdi-Ashirta and later Aziru, son of Abdi-Ashirta, despite Rib-Hadda's numerous pleas for help from the pharaoh. Rib-Hadda wrote a total of 60 letters to Akhenaten pleading for aid from the pharaoh. Akhenaten wearied of Rib-Hadda's constant correspondences and once told Rib-Hadda: "You are the one that writes to me more than all the (other) mayors" or Egyptian vassals in EA 124. What Rib-Hadda did not comprehend was that the Egyptian king would not organize and dispatch an entire army north just to preserve the political status quo of several minor city states on the fringes of Egypt's Asiatic Empire. Rib-Hadda would pay the ultimate price; his exile from Byblos due to a coup led by his brother Ilirabih is mentioned in one letter. When Rib-Hadda appealed in vain for aid to Akhenaten and then turned to Aziru, his sworn enemy to place him back on the throne of his city, Aziru promptly had him dispatched to the king of Sidon where Rib-Hadda was almost certainly executed. William L. Moran notes that the Amarna corpus of 380+ letters counters the conventional view that Akhenaten neglected Egypt's foreign territories in favour of his internal reforms. There are several letters from Egyptian vassals notifying Pharaoh that the king's instructions have been followed: To the king, my lord, my god, my Sun, the Sun from the sky: Message of Yapahu, the ruler of Gazrumarker, your servant, the dirt at your feet. I indeed prostrate myself at the feet of the king, my lord, my god, my Sun...7 times and 7 times, on the stomach and on the back. I am indeed guarding the place of the king, my lord, the Sun of the sky, where I am, and all the things the king, my lord, has written me, I am indeed carrying out--everything! Who am I, a dog, and what is my house...and what is anything I have, that the orders of the king, my lord, the Sun from the sky, should not obey constantly? (EA 378) When the loyal but unfortunate Rib-Hadda was killed at the instigation of Aziru, Akhenaten sent an angry letter to Aziru containing a barely veiled accusation of outright treachery on the latter's part. Akhenaten wrote: Say to Aziru, ruler of Amurru: Thus the king, your lord (ie: Akhenaten), saying: The ruler of Gubla (ie: Byblos), whose brother had cast him away at the gate, said to you, "Take me and get me into the city. There is much silver, and I will give it to you. Indeed there is an abundance of everything, but not with me [here]." Thus did the ruler (Rib-Hadda) speak to you. Did you not write to the king, my lord saying, "I am your servant like all the previous mayors (ie: vassals) in his city"? Yet you acted delinquently by taking the mayor whose brother had cast him away at the gate, from his city. He (Rib-Hadda) was residing in Sidonmarker and, following your own judgment, you gave him to (some) mayors. Were you ignorant of the treacherousness of the men? If you really are the king's servant, why did you not denounce him before the king, your lord, saying, "This mayor has written to me saying, 'Take me to yourself and get me into my city'"? And if you did act loyally, still all the things you wrote were not true. In fact, the king has reflected on them as follows, "Everything you have said is not friendly." Now the king has heard as follows, "You are at peace with the ruler of Qidsa. (Kadesh) The two of you take food and strong drink together." And it is true. Why do you act so? Why are you at peace with a ruler whom the king is fighting? And even if you did act loyally, you considered your own judgment, and his judgment did not count. You have paid no attention to the things that you did earlier. What happened to you among them that you are not on the side of the king, your lord? Consider the people that are training you for their own advantage. They want to throw you into the fire....If for any reason whatsoever you prefer to do evil, and if you plot evil, treacherous things, then you, together with your entire family, shall die by the axe of the king. So perform your service for the king, your lord, and you will live. You yourself know that the king does not fail when he rages against all of Canaan. And when you wrote saying, 'May the king, my Lord, give me leave this year, and then I will go next year to the king, my Lord. (ie: to Egypt) If this is impossible, I will send my son in my place'--the king, your Lord, let you off this year in accordance with what you said. Come yourself, or send your son [now], and you will see the king at whose sight all lands live."(EA 162) This letter shows that Akhenaten paid close attention to the affairs of his vassals in Canaan and Syria. Akhenaten commanded Aziru to come to Egypt and proceeded to detain him there for at least one year. In the end, Akhenaten was forced to release Aziru back to his homeland when the Hittites advanced southwards into Amki thereby threatening Egypt's series of Asiatic vassal states including Amurru. Sometime after his return to Amurru, Aziru defected to the Hittite side with his kingdom. While it is known from an Amarna letter by Rib-Hadda that the Hittites "seized all the countries that were vassals of the king of Mitanni"(EA 75) Akhenaten managed to preserve Egypt's control over the core of her Near Eastern Empire which consisted of present day Palestine as well as the Phoenician coast while avoiding conflict with the increasingly powerful Hittite Empire of Suppiluliuma I. Only the Egyptian border province of Amurru in Syria around the Orontes river was permanently lost to the Hittites when its ruler Aziru defected to the Hittites. Finally, contrary to the conventional view of a ruler who neglected Egypt's international relations, Akhenaten is known to have initiated at least one campaign into Nubia in his regnal Year 12, where his campaign is mentioned in Amada stela CG 41806 and on a separate companion stela at Buhen. Death, burial and succession The last dated appearance of Akhenaten and the Amarna family is in the tomb of Meryre II, and dates from second month, year 12 of his reign. After this the historical record is unclear, and only with the succession of Tutankhamun is somewhat clarified. Akhenaten planned to relocate Egyptian burials on the East side of the Nile (sunrise) rather than on the West side (sunset), in the Royal Wadi in Akhetaten. His body was probably removed after the court returned to Thebes, and reburied somewhere in the Valley of the Kings—perhaps in tomb KV55marker which contained numerous Amarna era objects including a royal funerary mask which had been deliberately destroyed. His sarcophagus was destroyed but has since been reconstructed and now sits outside in the Cairo Museummarker. There is much controversy around whether Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, Amenhotep III, or whether there was a coregency (lasting as long as 12 years according to some Egyptologists). Current literature by Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter Dorman and other scholars comes out strongly against the establishment of a long coregency between the 2 rulers and in favour of either no coregency or a brief one lasting 1 to 2 years, at the most. Other literature by Donald Redford, William Murnane, Alan Gardiner and more recently by Lawrence Berman in 1998 contests the view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father. Similarly, although it is accepted that Akhenaten himself died in Year 17 of his reign, the question of whether Smenkhkare became co-regent perhaps 2 or 3 years earlier or enjoyed a brief independent reign is unclear. If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and became sole Pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than a year. The next successor was Neferneferuaten, a female Pharaoh who reigned in Egypt for 2 years and 1 month. She was, in turn, probably succeeded by Tutankhaten (later, Tutankhamun), with the country being administered by the chief vizier, and future Pharaoh, Ay. Tutankhamun is believed to be a younger brother of Smenkhkare and a son of Akhenaten, and possibly Kiya although one scholar has suggested that Tutankhamun may have been a son of Smenkhkare instead. It has also been suggested that after the death of Akhenaten, Nefertiti reigned with the name of Neferneferuaten but other scholars believe that this female ruler was rather Meritaten. The so-called Coregency Stela, found in a tomb in Amarnamarker possibly shows his queen Nefertiti as his coregent, ruling alongside him , but this is not certain as the names have been removed and recarved to show Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten. With Akhenaten's death, the Aten cult he had founded gradually fell out of favor. Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun in Year 2 of his reign (1332 BC) and abandoned the city of Akhetaten, which eventually fell into ruin. His successors Ay and Horemheb disassembled temples Akhenaten had built, including the temple at Thebes, using them as a source of easily available building materials and decorations for their own temples. Plague and pandemic This Amarna Period is also associated with a serious outbreak of a pandemic, possibly the plague, or polio, or perhaps the world's first recorded outbreak of influenza, which came from Egypt and spread throughout the Middle East, killing Suppiluliuma I, the Hittite King. Influenza is a disease associated with the close proximity of water fowl, pigs and humans, and its origin as a pandemic disease may be due to the development of agricultural systems that allow the mixing of these animals and their wastes. Some of the first archaeological evidence for this agricultural system is during the Amarna period of Ancient Egypt, and the pandemic that followed this period throughout the Ancient Near East may have been the earliest recorded outbreak of influenza. However, the precise nature of this Egyptian plague remains unknown and Asia has also been suggested as a possible site of origin of pandemic influenza in humans. The prevalence of disease may help explain the rapidity with which the site of Akhetaten was subsequently abandoned. It may also explain why later generations considered the gods to have turned against the Amarna monarchs. The black death has also been suggested by Zahi Hawass because at Amarna the traces of the plague have been found. Arielle Kozloff discusses the evidence, arguing that the epidemic was caused by Bubonic plague over polio. However, her argument that "polio is only fractionally as virulent as some other diseases" ignores the evidence that diseases become less virulent the longer they are present in the human population, as demonstrated with syphilis and tuberculosis. The Implementation of Atenism In the early years of his reign, Amenhotep IV lived at Thebes with Nefertiti and his 6 daughters. Initially, he permitted worship of Egypt's traditional deities to continue but near the Temple of Karnakmarker (Amun-Ra's great cult center), he erected several massive buildings including temples to the Aten. These buildings at Thebes were later dismantled by his successors and used as infill for new constructions in the Temple of Karnak; when they were later dismantled by archaeologists, some 36,000 decorated blocks from the original Aton building here were revealed which preserve many elements of the original relief scenes and inscriptions. The relationship between Amenhotep IV and the priests of Amun-Re gradually deteriorated. In Year 5 of his reign, Amenhotep IV took decisive steps to establish the Aten as the exclusive, monotheistic god of Egypt: the pharaoh "disbanded the priesthoods of all the other gods...and diverted the income from these [other] cults to support the Aten. To emphasize his complete allegiance to the Aten, the king officially changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten or 'Servant of the Aten.' Akhenaten's fifth year also marked the beginning of construction on his new capital, Akhetatenmarker or 'Horizon of Aten', at the site known today as Amarnamarker. Very soon afterwards, he centralized Egyptian religious practices in Akhetaten, though construction of the city seems to have continued for several more years. In honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient Egypt. In these new temples, Aten was worshipped in the open sunlight, rather than in dark temple enclosures, as had been the previous custom. Akhenaten is also believed to have composed the Great Hymn to the Aten. Initially, Akhenaten presented Aten as a variant of the familiar supreme deity Amun-Re (itself the result of an earlier rise to prominence of the cult of Amun, resulting in Amun becoming merged with the sun god Ra), in an attempt to put his ideas in a familiar Egyptian religious context. However, by Year 9 of his reign, Akhenaten declared that Aten was not merely the supreme god, but the only god, and that he, Akhenaten, was the only intermediary between Aten and his people. He ordered the defacing of Amun's temples throughout Egypt and, in a number of instances, inscriptions of the plural 'gods' were also removed. Aten's name is also written differently after Year 9, to emphasize the radicalism of the new regime, which included a ban on images, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten, who by then was evidently considered not merely a sun god, but rather a universal deity. Representations of the Aten were always accompanied with a sort of "hieroglyphic footnote", stating that the representation of the sun as All-encompassing Creator was to be taken as just that: a representation of something that, by its very nature as some time transcending creation, cannot be fully or adequately represented by any one part of that creation. Speculative theories Akhenaten's status as a religious revolutionary has led to much speculation, ranging from bona fide scholarly hypotheses to the non-academic fringe theories. Akhenaten and Judeo-Christian monotheism Other scholars and mainstream Egyptologists point out that there are direct connections between early Judaism and other Semitic religious traditions. They also state that two of the three principal Judaic terms for God, Yahweh, Elohim (meaning roughly "the lofty one", morphologically plural), and Adonai (meaning "our lord", also morphologically plural) have no connection to Aten. Freud commented on the connection between Adonai, the Egyptian Aten and the Syrian divine name of Adonis as a primeval unity of language between the factions; in this he was following the argument of Egyptologist Arthur Weigall, but the argument was groundless as 'Aten' and 'Adonai' are not, in fact, linguistically related. Akhenaten appears in history almost two-centuries prior to the first archaeological and written evidence for Judaism and Israelite culture is found in the Levant. Abundant visual imagery of the Aten disk was central to Atenism, which celebrated the natural world, while such imagery is not a feature of early Israelite culture. Although pottery found throughout Judeamarker dated to the end of the 8th century BC has seals resembling a winged sun disk burned on their handles, presumedly thought to be the royal seal of the Judean Kingdom. Ahmed Osman has claimed that Akhenaten's maternal grandfather Yuya was the same person as the Biblical Joseph. Yuya held the title "Overseer of the Cattle of Min at Akhmin" during his life. He likely belonged to the local nobility of Akhmim. Egyptologists hold this view because Yuya had strong connections to the city of Akhminmarker in Upper Egypt. This makes it unlikely that he was a foreigner since most Asiatic settlers tended to cloister around the Nile Delta region of Lower Egypt Some Egyptologists, however, give him a Mitannian (Armenian) origin. It is widely accepted that there are strong similarities between Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104, though this form is found widespread in ancient Near Eastern hymnology both before and after the period and whether this implies a direct influence or a common literary convention remains in dispute. Others have likened some aspects of Akhenaten's relationship with the Aten to the relationship, in Christian tradition, of Jesus Christ with God - particularly in interpretations that emphasise a more monotheistic interpretation of Atenism than henotheistic. Donald B. Redford has noted that some have viewed Akhenaten as a harbinger of Jesus. "After all, Akhenaten did call himself the son of the sole god: “Thine only son that came forth from thy body.”" James Henry Breasted likened him to Jesus Arthur Weigall saw him as a failed precursor of Christ and Thomas Mann saw him "as right on the way and yet not the right one for the way". Redford argued that while Akhenaten called himself the son of the Sun-Disc and acted as the chief mediator between god and creation, it must be noted that kings for thousands of years before Akhenaten’s time had claimed the same relationship and priestly role. However Akhenaton's case may be different through the emphasis placed on the heavenly father and son relationship. Akhenaten described himself as “thy son who came forth from thy limbs,” “thy child,” “the eternal son that came forth from the Sun-Disc,” and “thine only son that came forth from thy body”. The close relationship between father and son is such that only the king truly knows the heart of “his father,” and in return his father listen's to his son’s prayers. He is his father’s image on earth and as Akhenaten is king on earth his father is king in heaven. As high priest, prophet, king and divine he claimed the central position in the new religious system. Since only he knew his father’s mind and will, Akhenaten alone could interpret that will for all mankind with true teaching coming only from him. Redford concluded: The monotheism of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament had its own separate development—one that began more than half a millenium after the pharoah’s death. Possible illness The rather strange and eccentric portrayals of Akhenaten, with a sagging stomach, thick thighs, larger breasts, and long, thin face — so different from the athletic norm in the portrayal of Pharaohs — has led certain Egyptologists to suppose that Akhenaten suffered some kind of genetic abnormality. Various illnesses have been put forward. On the basis of his longer jaw and his feminine appearance, Cyril Aldred suggested he may be suffering from Froelich's Syndrome. However, this is unlikely because this disorder results in sterility and Akhenaten is believed to have fathered numerous children — at least six daughters by Nefertiti, and possibly his successor Tutankhamen by a minor wife. Another suggestion by Burridge is that Akhenaten may have suffered from Marfan's Syndrome. Marfan's syndrome, unlike Froelich's, does not result in any lack of intelligence or sterility. It is associated with a sunken chest, long curved spider-like fingers (arachnodactyly), occasional congenital heart difficuties, a high curved or slightly cleft palate, and a highly curved cornea or dislocated lens of the eye, with the requirement for bright light to see well. Marfan's sufferers tend towards being taller than average, with a long, thin face, and elongated skull, overgrown ribs, a funnel or pigeon chest, and larger pelvis, with enlarged thighs and spindly calves. Marfan's syndrome is a dominant characteristic, and sufferers have a 50% chance of passing it on to their children. All of these symptoms appear in depictions of Akhenaten and of his children. Recent CT scans of Tutankhamun report a cleft palate and a fairly long head, as well as an abnormal curvature of the spine and fusion of the upper vertebrae, a condition associated with scoliosis, all conditions associated with Marfan's syndrome. However, Dominic Montserrat in Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and Ancient Egypt argues that "there is now a broad consensus among Egyptologists that the exaggerated forms of Akhenaten's physical portrayal… are not to be read literally" Montserrat and others argue that the body-shape relates to some form of religious symbolism. Because the god Aten was referred to as "the mother and father of all humankind" it has been suggested that Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the god. This required "a symbolic gathering of all the attributes of the creator god into the physical body of the king himself", which will "display on earth the Aten's multiple life-giving functions". Akhenaten did refer to himself as "The Unique One of Re," and he may have used his control of artistic expression to distance himself from the common people, though such a radical departure from the idealised traditional representation of the image of the Pharaoh would be truly extraordinary. It should be observed that representations of other persons than Akhenaten in the 'Amarna style' are equally unflattering — for example, a carving of his father Amenhotep III as a languid, overweight figure; Nefertiti is shown in some statues as well past her prime, with a severe face and a stomach swollen by repeated pregnancies. Another claim was made by Immanuel Velikovsky, who hypothesized an incestuous relationship with his mother, Tiye. Velikovsky also posited that Akhenaten had elephantiasis, producing enlarged legs. Based on this, he identified Akhenaten as the history behind the Oedipus myth, Oedipus being Greek for "swollen feet," and moved the setting from the Greek Thebesmarker to the Egyptian Thebes. As part of his argument, Velikovsky uses the fact that Akhenaten viciously carried out a campaign to erase the name of his father, which he argues could have developed into Oedipus killing his father. This point seems to be disproved, however, in that Akhenaten in fact mummified and buried his father in the honorable traditional Egyptian fashion prior to beginning his monotheistic revolution. In the same 1960 work, Oedipus and Akhnaton, Velikovsky not only saw Akhenaten as the origin of Oedipus, but also identified him with a Pharaoh mentioned only in Herodotus, "Anysis of the city of the same name" — Akhenaten of Akhetatenmarker. Like Oedipus, Anysis was blinded, deposed and exiled. Some scholars have argued that Akhenaten went blind at the end of his life and was supported by his wife Nefertiti. First "individual" Akhenaten has been called by historian James Henry Breasted "the first individual in history", as well as the first monotheist, first scientist, and first romantic. As early as 1899 Flinders Petrie declared that, H.R. Hall even claimed that the pharaoh was the "first example of the scientific mind". On the contrary, Nicholas Reeves in his book Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet portrays a totally different image of Pharaoh, seeing his religious reformations as mere attempts for centralizing power and solidify his role as "divine monarch". There has also been interest in the identity of the Pharaoh Smenkhkare who was the immediate successor to Akhenaten. In particular descriptions on a small box seemed to refer to Smenkhkare beloved of Akhenaten. This gave rise to the idea that Akhenaten might have been bisexual. This theory seems to originate from objects found in the tomb of Tutankhamen in the 1920s. The Egyptologist Percy Newberry then linked this to one of the stele exhibited in the Berlin Museummarker which pictured two rulers, naked and seated together – the older caressing the younger and the shoulder offering support. He identified these with the rulers Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. Coinciding with the disappearance of Nefertiti’s name from all records towards the end of Akhenaten’s reign In the 1970s John Harris identified the figure pictured alongside Akhenaten as Nefertiti, arguing that she may have actually been elevated to co-regent and perhaps even succeeded temporarily as an independent ruler; changing her name to Smenkhkare. Egyptologists like Nicholas Reeves contend that Smenkhkare was the same person as Neferneferuaten who ruled together with Akhenaten as co-regents for the final one or two years of Akhenaten's reign. On several monuments, the two are shown seated side-by-side. Some others believe Smenkhkare was likely to have been a half-brother or a son to Akhenaten. In the arts Drawing of Akhnaton Cairo Cast See also Notes and references 1. Trigger et al. (2001), pp.186-7 2. Donald B. Redford, Akhenaten: the Heretic King. Princeton UP, 1984, p. 172. 3. S. McAvoy, "Mummy 61074: a Strange Case of Mistaken Identity", Antiguo Oriente 5 (2007): 183-194. 4. Nefertiti and the Lost Dynasty 6. "The Mitanni Kingdom was a powerful force around 15-1300 BC and are regarded by many historians as the ancestors of the modern day Armenians."; Mitanni were partly Indo-European and partly Hurrian people, although Hurrian is not Indo-European. TourEgypt; "Mitanni". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 9 June 2008; Armeno-Aryan subgroup linguistic term see site for more info from the IE studies 7. Indo-European family tree, showing Indo-European languages and sub branches; Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439; Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language, 159-60; Thomas V. Gamkrelidze & Vyacheslav V. Ivanov, Indoevropejskij jazyk i indoevropejtsy (Tbilisi, 1984) 8. Thomas V. Gamkrelidze & Vyacheslav V. Ivanov, “The Ancient Near East and the Indo-European Question, 9. Moran (1992), pp.87-89 10. Moran (1992), p.203 11. Bryce (1998), p.186 12. Moran (1992), p.xxvi 13. Moran (2003) pp.368-69 14. Moran (1992), pp.248-250 15. Moran (1992), pp.248-249 16. Bryce (1998), p.188 17. Bryce (1998), p.p.189 18. Moran (1992), p.145 19. Schulman (1982), pp.299-316 20. Allen (2006), p.1 21. Reeves (2000) p.77 22. Berman (1998) p.23 23. Allen (2006), p.5 24. Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss and David Warburton (editors), Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies), Brill: 2006, pp.207 & 493 25. Pocket Guides: Egypt History, p.37, Dorling Kindersley, London 1996.(the Neferneferuaten part is taken from Wikipedia Nefertiti entry) 26. Ancient Egypt online Akhenaten Accessed 21 June 2009 27. Ancient Egypt Online Akhenaten Accessed 21 February 2007 28. Choi, et al. (2001) pp.361-8 29. Webster (2001), pp.1817–28 30. Shortridge (1992), pp.11–25 31. Arielle Kozloff (2006), pp.36-46 32. David (1998), p.125 33. Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays. 36. N. Shupak, The Monotheism of Moses and the Monotheism of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995. 37. Montserrat, (2000) 39. S. Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XXIII (1937-1939), "Moses and monotheism". London: Hogarth Press, 1964. 40. Curtis, Samuel (2005), "Primitive Semitic Religion Today" (Kessinger Publications) 41. Assmann, Jan. (1997). Moses the Egyptian. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; pp. 23-24, fn. 2. 42. The first commandment prohibits the making of images of God. Judaism is an aniconic religion. 43. The Bible Unearthed p. 255-257 44. Yuya's titles included "Overseer of the Cattle of Amun and Min (Lord of Akhmin)", "Bearer of the Ring of the King of Lower Egypt", "Mouth of the King of Upper Egypt", and "The Holy Father of the Lord of the Two Lands", among others. For more see: Osman, A. (1987). Stranger in the Valley of the Kings: solving the mystery of an ancient Egyptian mummy. San Francisco: Harper & Row. pp.29-30 45. Montet, Pierre (1964), "Eternal Egypt" (New American Press) 46. Redford, Donald B. (1993), "Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times", Princeton University Press 47. Petri (19th century Egyptologist) Petri Museum in London, England named after him 48. The Monotheism of the Heretic Pharaoh: Precursor of Mosiac monotheism or Egyptian anomaly?", Donald B. Redford, Biblical Archaeology Review, May-June edition 1987 49. "Creation and the persistence of evil", Jon Douglas Levenson, p. 60, Princeton University Press, 1994, ISBN 0691029504 50. "Akhenaten and the religion of light", Erik Hornung, David Lorton, p. 14, Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-8014-8725-5 51. "Aspects of Monotheism", Donald B. Redford, Biblical Archeology Review, 1996 52. Aldred, C. (1988). "Akhenaten, King of Egypt". (Thames and Hudson, Ltd.,) 53. Burridge, A., (1995) "Did Akhenaten Suffer From Marfan's Syndrome?" (Akhenaten Temple Project Newsletter No. 3, Sept. 1995) 54. Lorenz, Maegara "The Mystery of Akhenaton: Genetics or Aesthetics" 55. "Did Akhenaton Suffer from Marfan's Syndrome" 56. accessed June 23, 2009 57. Reeves, Nicholas (2005) "Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet" (Thames and Hudson) 58. Immanuel Velikovsky, Oedipus and Akhnaton, Myth and History, Doubleday, 1960. 59. Sir Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt (edit. 1899), Vol. II, p. 214. 60. H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 599. 61. Grimal, Nicolas, A History of Ancient Egypt, French 1988, English 1992 62. Nicholas Reeves and Richard H. Wilkinson, The Complete Valley of the Kings. Thames & Hudson, 1996. • Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson, 2006 • Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, (1997) • Rosalie David, Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt, Facts on File Inc., 1998 • William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 • Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, Clarendon Press, 1998. • A.R. Schulman, "The Nubian War of Akhenaten" in L'Egyptologie en 1979: Axes prioritaires de recherchs II (Paris: 1982) • Lawrence M. Berman, 'Overview of Amenhotep III and His Reign,' in Amenhotep III: Perspectives on his Reign, ed: David O'Connor & Eric Cline • Nicholas Reeves, Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet, Thames & Hudson, 2000 Further reading • Devi, Savitri, A Son of God (Philosophical Publishing House [London], 1946); subsequent editions published as Son of the Sun: The Life and Philosophy of Akhnaton, King of Egypt (Supreme Grand Lodge of A.M.O.R.C., 1956); part III of The Lightning and the Sun is focused on Akhnaten. • Gestoso Singer, Graciela (2008) El Intercambio de Bienes entre Egipto y Asia Anterior. Desde el reinado de Tuthmosis III hasta el de Akhenaton Free Access Ancient Near East Monographs, Volume 2.Buenos Aires, Society of Biblical Literature - CEHAO. ISBN 978-987-20606-4-0 • Holland, Tom, The Sleeper in the Sands (novel), (Abacus, 1998, ISBN 0-349-11223-1), a fictionalised adventure story based closely on the mysteries of Akhenaten's reign • Hornung, Erik, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, translated by David Lorton, Cornell University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8014-3658-3) • Najovits, Simson,Egypt, Trunk of the Tree, Volume I, The Contexts, Volume II, The Consequences, Algora Publishing, New York, 2003 and 2004. On Akhenaten: Vol. II, Chapter 11, pp. 117–173 and Chapter 12, pp. 205–213. • Phillips, Graham, Act of God: Moses, Tutankhamun and the Myth of Atlantis, (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1998, ISBN 0-283-06314-9); republished as Atlantis and the Ten Plagues of Egypt: The Secret History Hidden in the Valley of the Kings (Bear & Co., 2003, paperback, ISBN 1-59143-009-7) • Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King (Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-691-03567-9) External links Embed code: Got something to say? 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Blood in Gourd Didn't Belong to Louis XVI, New DNA Study Finds A gourd emblazoned with heroes of the French Revolution said to contain the blood of Louis XVI. Credit: Davide Pettener New genetic evidence casts further doubt on the authenticity of a grisly French relic: a gourd long believed to be stained with the blood of Louis XVI. Scientists sequenced the genome from dried blood inside the 200-year-old gourd and found that it didn't match with the DNA signatures of the king's ancestry, nor did it seem to carry the code for Louis XVI's celebrated traits, like his imposing height and blue eyes. Deposed during the French Revolution, Louis XVI was executed by guillotine in January 1793, months before his wife, Marie Antoinette, fell victim to the Reign of Terror, too. According to legend, witnesses soaked up the king's blood with handkerchiefs after his beheading. An inscription on the elaborately decorated gourd claims the vessel held one of those bloody cloths. [See Photos of Louis XVI's Embalmed Head & Gourd] Last year, a group of scientists compared the DNA signatures from blood found in the gourd with the DNA of three modern male relatives of Louis XVI from different branches of the Bourbon line. The Y chromosomes from the three men matched one another, but not the blood. This revelation, published in the European Journal of Human Genetics, sparked a new investigation. "When the Y chromosome of three living Bourbons was decoded, and we saw that it did not match with the DNA recovered from the pumpkin in 2010, we decided to sequence the complete genome and to make a functional interpretation in order to see if the blood could actually belong to Louis XVI," Carles Lalueza-Fox, of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), said in a statement. Based on their newly sequenced genome, Lalueza-Fox and colleagues think whomever the blood in the gourd belonged to didn't look like Louis XVI in terms of physical appearance or genealogical heritage. Louis XVI was known for his towering stature; he may have stood over 6 feet (185 centimeters) tall. Though scientists do not entirely understand the genetic basis for height, Lalueza-Fox and colleagues wrote that the genome pieced together from the gourd blood was not consistent with that of a very tall person, but rather better matched someone with only slightly above-average height for the day. The king also had blue eyes, while the person who left their blood on the gourd more likely had brown eyes, the researchers say. What's more, the genome had some markers of northern Italian heritage. This finding "cannot be easily reconciled with the known Louis XVI family history, given that just one in 16 great-great-grandparents — Victor Amadeus II, Duque of Savoy (1666–1732) — has some possible northern Italian ancestry," the researchers wrote. The findings were published online today (April 24) in the journal Scientific Reports.	<urn:uuid:08c6e688-f3a1-4b36-b037-054c54ac399e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.02460867166519165, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9508195519447327, "url": "https://www.livescience.com/45103-blood-louis-xvi-gourd-genome.html" }
Friday, 25 August 2017 How to make a sandwich? How to make a sandwich We are learning to follow the structure of a procedural text. What is a sandwich? A sandwich is a healthy lunch for you and your family to eat. You can use it for your lunch and you can share your sandwich with your friends. You can put BBQ meat in it ,but let’s start eating healthy. What you need 1. 2 slices of Bread 2. Cheese 3. Tomato 4. Butter 5. Lettuse 1. First you will need 2 fresh sliced breads then butter them. 1. Next you put the lettuce, tomatoes and cheese all together on top of the bread. 1. At last you can enjoy your sandwich. 1 comment: 1. Hi Francesca, You have followed the structure of a procedural text without any teacher support - ka pai! Next time you could add more detail to your instructions so that your reader can easily follow them.	<urn:uuid:9b1a17ca-0535-4246-a309-3512a4dff7f0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.5798580646514893, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9151665568351746, "url": "http://gbsfrancescap.blogspot.com/2017/08/how-to-make-sandwich.html" }
Didymograptus 'bifidus' from the Ordovician of South Wales. About 2 cm long. Fossil graptolites are thin, often shiny, markings on rock surfaces that look like pencil marks, and their name comes from the Greek for 'writing in the rocks'. Graptolites are the remains of intricate colonies, some of which accommodated up to 5000 individual animals; these individuals lived in a skeleton of collagen, similar to the material from which our finger nails are made. We focus on the two main groups of graptolites: the cone-like, largely bottom-living dendroids, and the planktonic graptoloids. They lived between the Cambrian and Carboniferous periods, about 520 to 350 million years ago. Graptolites — the animal Didymograptus, a tuning folk graptoloid, showing the main parts of the rhabdosome. Graptolites were colonial animals that lived in an interconnected system of tubes. From an initial 'embryonic' cone-like tube (the sicula), subsequent tubes (thecae) are arranged in branches (stipes) to make up the whole colony (rhabdosome). Climacograptus has 'box-like' thecae and a long spine (virgella) extending down from the sicula. A close-up of the thecae of Climacograptus partly cut away to show the internal structure of the interconnecting tubes and one of the zooids. The thread-like, central nema (or virgula), which may protrude some distance beyond the stipes, may have been used for attachment when juvenile, for strengthening or to attach a floatation device or vane. The cone-shaped sicula and first thecae of the biserial Ordovician graptoloid, Amplexograptus maxwelli (3 mm long). A close up of one of the Amplexograptus maxwelli thecae showing ring-like fusellae crossed by faint traces of cortical bandages. Thecae were constructed in two layers made of collagen: an inner layer of many rings (or fusellae), joined together to form a tube, and an outer strengthening layer (of cortical tissue) made of a criss-cross of bandages. One end of each theca (its aperture) was open to the sea, and it was in the thecae that the small animals (or zooids), lived. Nobody knows what they looked like, but it is likely that they caught microscopic food particles from the surrounding seawater by the use of feather-like arms. A modern relative Cephalodiscus gracilis, a living pterobranch thought to be related to graptolites. Two zooids have extended their feathery filtering nets to feed. A reconstruction of a Geniculograptus in life, shows zooids secreting collagen and waving their feathery arms in the sea water as they feed (the part illustrated would be 6 mm long in life). Although graptolites are now extinct, living marine animals called pterobranchs appear to be closely related. Pterobranchs do not grow their tube-like skeleton in the same way as we grow our bones or an oyster makes its shell. Rather, the pterobranch zooids actively construct them, much as a spider weaves its web or termites build their nest. Graptolites probably did the same: the criss-crossing bandages in the outer layer of a theca, which look rather like the bandages wrapping an Egyptian mummy, were apparently 'trowelled' on by a secretory organ akin to that of pterobranchs. Harvesting the seas The earliest graptolites lived on the sea bed, attached to boulders (a) or forming upright cones rooted into soft mud (b). This is still the lifestyle of the living relatives of graptolites. At the beginning of the Ordovician period graptolites became free floating. They were amongst the first animals to colonise the open sea and were able to exploit enormous untapped reserves of food (single celled organisms) in the upper layers of the oceans. Different species evolved rapidly in order to exploit these food reserves and in response to the new challenge of a floating life. A view of the Silurian seas, showing a range of graptolite forms Feeding: graptolites were most common and diverse where major upwelling currents brought nutrients from deep water into the shallows, in areas such as the tropics and at the edge of the continental shelf. Some colonies evolved into enormous harvesting arrays, capable of living to a significant age, perhaps up to 20 years (c). Others evolved into slim, short colonies (d, e) or into gently curved forms which rotated through the water as they fed (f, g). Floating: a floating life is a challenge, and graptolites responded to this by evolving a range of hydrodynamic strategies. Long nemas evolved to retard sinking (e, h) and hooks, spines and net forms appeared which would have had a high drag so that they moved slowly (i, j, k). The zooids may have helped the colony to move and possibly secreted gas or low-density fat to help the colony to rise through the water. Geological timekeepers Graptolites are excellent geological time-keepers, for they can be used to date the rocks in which they are found. They evolved quickly and assumed a wealth of easily recognisable shapes. Many of these evolutionary steps, which can be traced around much of the world, define periods of time. Some of these time-slices are only a few hundred thousand years long, which to a geologist, amounts to pinpoint accuracy given that all this took place hundreds of millions of years ago. Dictyonema (from the Silurian) had many branches and thousands of zooids in its cone-shaped colony Anisograptids such as Ordovician Clonograptus are transitional between dendroids and graptoloids. Dendroids first evolved in the Cambrian and lived rooted to the sea bed. Dendroids had two types of thecae, possibly for males and females. Tetragraptus had four horizontal or pendant stipes Didymograptus had two pendant stipes Isograptus had reclined stipes (and a long nema extending above the sicula) Graptoloids were all planktonic, had only one kind of theca and may have been hermaphrodites. Dichograptids flourished in the early Ordovician. Their stipes were few and arranged in various ways: e.g. stretched out sideways (horizontal), hanging down (pendant) or turned upwards (reclined). Diplograptids evolved from dichograptids in the Ordovician. Orthograptus and Dicranograptus are from the Ordovician of southern Scotland. The stipes of Orthograptus were fused 'back-to-back' (i.e. scandent) The Y-shaped Dicranograptus (the biserial part is 5mm long) One-stiped monograptids appeared at the beginning of the Silurian and evolved rapidly into many coiled, curved and straight species, with elongate, hooked or lobed thecae. Spirograptus turriculatus, Rastrites and Monograptus lobiferus are from the Silurian (Llandovery). Spirograptus turriculatus was coiled or spring-like Rastrites had a curved stipe with long thecae up to 3mm long Monograptus lobiferus was straight with hook-like thecae Graptolites through time Monograptus lobiferus was straight with hook-like thecae Graptolites in Britain Palaeozoic rocks of the UK and some good places to look for graptolites (see black spots). On death graptolites fell to the sea floor, became entombed into the sea floor muds and, if conditions were right, preserved as fossils for us to find today. They are found only in Palaeozoic rocks such as those in Scotland, Wales and north-western England. The oldest dendroids occur in Middle Cambrian rocks, but they can be found in rocks as young as the Carboniferous. Planktonic graptolites are particularly common in Ordovician and Silurian shales and mudstones. Graptolites tales Sex in the seas Graptolites are thought to have been hermaphroditic Graptolites are thought to have been hermaphroditic — with both male and female sexual organs. To avoid self-fertilisation, or inbreeding, zooids could have had the potential to be temporarily male, female or neuter. Zooids maturing at the near end of a colony might initially have been males whilst those occupying the larger, distal thecae may have manifested the female phase. But nobody knows for sure! Teacher's spare time Schoolteacher Charles Lapworth (1842–1920) Schoolteacher Charles Lapworth (1842–1920) wandered over the Scottish Southern Uplands in his spare time. He found that the graptolites showed a distinctive pattern of evolution. Even more remarkable was that this pattern was repeated many times in the rock strata across the Uplands. He thus deduced that the rock sequence had been repeated too by mighty mountian-building events and established the use of graptolites as geological time-keepers. Keep your roof on! Most roofing slates in Britain, from Wales, the Lake District or Scotland, were once sea floor muds in which graptolites were entombed. Most roofing slates in Britain, from Wales, the Lake District or Scotland, were once sea floor muds in which graptolites were entombed. But don't break up your roof to have a look. Any graptolites are likely to be pretty squashed anyway. Better to look for graptolites in the (less squashed) mudrocks of Hartfell Spa in Scotland or Abereiddy Bay in South Wales, for example. What ate the graptolites? These graptolites have been crumpled up before they came to be buried in the muds of a Silurian sea floor. These graptolites have been crumpled up before they came to be buried in the muds of a Silurian sea floor. Something had attacked and eaten them — but what? The mysterious predator didn't have sharp teeth, as the graptolite hasn't been torn or shredded. We still don't know what it was — maybe it was a soft-bodied organism that simply was never preserved. 3D model SM A 10007 – Holotype SM A 10007 – Holotype Find out more about this fossil	<urn:uuid:647be9de-6ba9-4858-95ce-54240c72efcc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.07669943571090698, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.954541802406311, "url": "http://tetrapods.co.uk/discoveringGeology/time/fossilfocus/graptolite.html" }
About Seesaw Sign Up Students use creative tools in the Seesaw app or website to complete classroom activities like "Playground Forces" Karen Michell Student Instructions Playground Forces School Playground Walk 1. With a partner, find & a piece of playground equipment that needs the forces of push or pull to move it. 2. Use , or to write a short sentence describing the force being used. 3. to add to you and your partner's journal. 3rd Grade, 2nd Grade, Science 311 teachers like this	<urn:uuid:3c08fcb4-a4b4-47a9-ac10-af9451d5309f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.07648599147796631, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8432395458221436, "url": "https://app.seesaw.me/activities/3guc35/playground-forces" }
This film is part of Free Happy Result Non-Fiction 1930 4 mins Silent How long would you like to spend a mile underground with a pick and shovel? Does a guarantee of being asked to work no more than 90 hours per fortnight seem fair? These were the issues that miners, mine owners and the government were trying to resolve in the midst of a global economic crisis and with the memory of the General Strike of 1926 still firmly in mind. The Topical Budget newsreel reported on the result. By 1919 the miners' working day had been reduced to 7 hours, but the General Strike had ironically pushed it back up to 8. A drop in miners' work time had been a promise of the newly elected Labour Government in 1929, but the economic crash of the same year had thrown a spanner in the works. The Coal Mines Act of 1930 included a compromise of a staggered drop to 7 1/2 hours, but with a proviso that longer days might be required as long as it was not more than 90 (!) hours per fortnight. It was this "spreadover" that had not been agreed despite months of discussions as the Act came into effect on the 1st December. Somewhat unexpectedly the sides found themselves on the brink of a strike ballot. As this film shows, the crisis was resolved with a "happy result" - for some more than others.	<urn:uuid:7618fc03-13a9-4811-b5e6-66cfbc97ba36>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.021832168102264404, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9839088916778564, "url": "https://player.bfi.org.uk/free/film/watch-happy-result-1930-online" }
Conversation Activity for Crime Vocabulary Listen to the audio and answer the multiple choice questions below. You will hear an exchange between a police officer and a criminal who just got brought to the police station for breaking the law. Tab between answers. The definitions of the words used in the audio are found at: Crime Expressions Other practice worksheets are found at the bottom of the page. To see the script for what you will hear click on: Script 1. What was one of the crimes that the criminal was "brought in" for? a) assault b) murder c) jay walking d) breaking and entering 2. What did the criminal steal from the store? a) a candy bar b) gas c) a car d) money 3. What crime does the officer think should have been added to the list?a) jay walking b) trespassing c) speeding d) tampering with evidence 4. What has the neighborhood the criminal was in been suffering from lately? a) a rash of burglaries b) trespassing violations c) car jackings d) gang violence 5. The person who called the police on the criminal is part of the a) gang b) the criminal's family c) police force d) neighborhood watch 6. What was the charge the criminal received for pushing the police officer at the scene? a) disorderly conduct b) jay walking c) assault and battery d) shoplifting 7. What was the crime the criminal committed last month? a) car jacking b) shoplifting c) tresspassing d) breaking and entering 8. Does the criminal admit to being guilty? a) yes b) he doesn't say c) no d) he's not sure • Conversation Activity for Crime Vocabulary • Script for Crime Conversation Activity • Listening Activity for Crime Vocabulary • English Crime Vocabulary Reading Exercise • Exercise for Crime Terms II • Crime Vocabulary Matching	<urn:uuid:f08e7ddd-4182-4171-bf76-1d24e5cf27a6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.5083106160163879, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9371165037155151, "url": "http://drewseslfluencylessons.com/2-advanced/crime/esl-conversation-activity-for-crime-vocabulary/" }
Dorsal Diaphragm A cross section of the abdomen of insects reveals a pericardial sinus near the dorsal cuticle. The dorsal diaphragm can be a thin sheet of muscular tissue, or it can be fenestrated (Fig. 1). In most cases, there are muscles present in the diaphragm, which are called alary muscles because when vitally stained they give the appearance of "wings" projecting laterally from each abdominal segment of the dorsal vessel. The presence of paired alary muscles and paired ostia in each segment of the dorsal vessel in the abdomen reinforces the concept of "chambers" of the dorsal vessel in each abdominal segment. Although mistakenly sometimes thought to play a key role in heartbeat, the alary muscles are more properly called muscles of the dorsal diaphragm. Whereas the myocardium is specialized to contract rapidly and constantly, the ultrastructure of the alary muscles is compatible with muscles that contract infrequently and slowly, having long sarcomeres and few mitochondria to provide only moderate amounts of energy. In some insects, such as the tsetse fly and some moths, the alary muscles of the vestigial dorsal diaphragm extend from lateral cuticular attachment to join the dorsal vessel in the abdomen, turn, and travel along the dorsal vessel for some distance. Where this occurs, it is more difficult to determine the role of such alary muscles in the heartbeat. Bee Keeping Bee Keeping Get My Free Ebook Post a comment	<urn:uuid:966c74c0-34de-4462-9136-3d33dcd24570>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.0858006477355957, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9221495985984802, "url": "https://www.centrallakesclinic.biz/insects/dorsal-diaphragm.html" }
Skip to content Lang’s Short-tailed Blue: courtship behaviour Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous). Galicia, Spain There is a huge diversity of different courtship behaviour in butterflies, but one feature appears to be universal: female butterflies ‘almost never fly towards males to mate’ (Scott, 1973). In other words, male butterflies nearly always initiate courtship. For example, in the common blue butterfly (Polyommatus icarus) this involves a display of fluttering wings – but the sequence is often terminated prematurely in the face of female indifference or refusal and very often does not proceed as far as copulation. The male butterfly cannot force himself upon a female; there is always an element of choice by both sexes. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) . Galicia, Spain. For butterflies, the process of finding, recognising and attracting a mate usually rests on a combination of sight and scent (Vane-Wright and Boppré, 1993). In general, male butterflies are notoriously poor at recognising potential mates at a distance, but once a male is close to a female however, it is thought that he can distinguish between small differences in wing colour marks and patterns. The males of some species have very specific preferences in terms of female wing colouration (e.g. Imafuku and Kitamura, 2015). Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) showing eye-spots and false tails. Note the iridescent scales around the individual eye-spots. Courtship behaviour in blues (or lycaenids) often follows an established pattern; for example, the following sequence is based on that of the Xami Hairstreak, Callophrys xami (Lycaenidae), a beautiful little green-tinted lycaenid found in Mexico and Texas. (Taken and adapted slightly from Cordero, 1993): 1. A female flies close (< 1 m) by a flying or, more likely, perching male. 2. The courtship flight. The male flies closely behind the female, parallel to the ground, for 30 secs or so. 3. The pair alight on vegetation close to each other. 4. The male walks in front of the female, facing her head to head on whilst fluttering vigorously and it is thought, emitting pheromones. 5. The male takes up a parallel position beside the female, still fluttering his wings. 6. The male moves the tip of his abdomen to make genital contact with the female, stops fluttering. The pair commence copulation, adopting the ‘tail to tail’ in copula position. 7. The female start to walk and the pair eventually separate and fly away. The release of pheromones is a crucial element in courtship and the effect is to increase the receptivity of the female and make her more likely to accept the male. Key aspects of the courtship are carried out by the male with the aim of bringing his pheromone-emitting structures into contact with the female, so that she can receive the chemical messages they convey. For courtship to progress, the female must respond positively to the bouquet of chemical signals (the pheromones) released by the male when he comes close to her. This is the fluttering phase. His courtship serves to increase her receptivity. It is thought that the pheromones produced by the male provide signals containing a wealth of information by which females can determine his health and status – and hence his desirability. In this way she can make her choice from the pool of available suitors. The following photos shows a segment of courtship behaviour in Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous). Whether the pair encountered each other whilst flying, or whether a patrolling male came across the female sitting in the vegetation (more likely) I don’t know. I was first attracted by the fluttering of the male; I just managed to grab these few photographs before they flew off. The photos were taken in Galicia, Spain, on 18th Aug 2017. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #1 The sequence starts with the female attached to a sharply pointed gorse leaf (above and below). Her wings are open and folded downwards somewhat. The male is situated slightly below her and his wings are open and horizontal. The left hind-wing of the female is either damaged or not properly unfolded. Could she have just emerged from her pupal case? Mating often takes place shortly after a female has eclosed. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #2 The butterflies are moving about slightly with respect to their relative position. I also moved to get a better shot from above. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #3. Female above the male. In the next shot (below) the male appears to be positioning himself underneath the female. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #4. Female above the male. In the next two shots, the female appears to be moving away from the male, inching up towards the point of the gorse leaf. The male’s wings are closed in the second photo (below), showing that he is fluttering. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #5. Female above the male. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence 6. Female above the male (closed wings). In the following sequence the female has closed her wings. It is important to bear in mind that they both may have opened and closed their wings multiple times between photographs. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #7. Female above the male (closed wings). Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #8. Female (with wings closed) above the male (open wings). In the final shot (below) the male has moved above the female. This probably marks the end of the courtship, which ended soon afterwards. Perhaps I had disturbed the butterflies too much. Or perhaps this was just one of those ‘getting to know you’ type of interactions which ended without mating. It would be inappropriate to say that it was unsuccessful. The butterflies flew off. This was just one of the many courtship events which did not terminate in copulation. Perhaps they were just not right for each other? Or did the presence of a lumbering humanoid put them off?! N.B. I shot this sequence without the use of a flash. The images would probably have been improved with fill-in flash, but the apparatus is more cumbersome for this type of photography. Lang’s short-tailed blue (Leptotes pirithous) courtship sequence #9. Male above the female. These photographs were taken on a rather cool and overcast day. On warmer days butterflies are more active and it is sometimes more difficult to capture interesting behaviour when they are flying about and moving very quickly. This blog is a rather crude attempt at capturing courtship behaviour, or a segment of behaviour, with a still camera. Much more could be achieved with video, particularly the slow-motion videos we sometimes see on the best nature programmes on TV. Cordero, C. (1993). The courtship behavior of Callophrys xami (Lycaenidae). J Res Lepid32, 99-106. Imafuku, M., & Kitamura, T. (2015). Ability of males of two theclini species (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) to discriminate between sexes and different types of females based on the colour of their wings. European Journal of Entomology112(2), 328. Scott, James A. (1973). Mating of butterflies. J. Res. Lepid 11, no. 2 (1973): 99-127. Vane-Wright, R. I., & Boppre, M. (1993). Visual and chemical signalling in butterflies: functional and phylogenetic perspectives. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 197-205. rcannon992 View All Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. 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Class 9 learnt about how the Romans have influenced our transport links with their long, straight roads. Class 9 learnt how the Romans constructed these roads and then made a labelled diagram to show their understanding. They used different materials to represent the different layers in the road. Well done Class 9!	<urn:uuid:1fdbd513-bd9e-414c-a137-b91a55c05b63>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.13608109951019287, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9595356583595276, "url": "http://morpethgoosehill.org/remarkable-roman-roads/" }
Crowns of Silla Jump to navigation Jump to search A gold crown from Hwangnamdaechong National Treasure No. 191. The crowns of Silla were made in the Korean kingdom of Silla approximately in the 5th–7th centuries. The Silla crowns are very fragile and weigh more than one kilogram. The Silla kings probably did not wear the golden crowns regularly. They were probably used only for formal and ceremonial occasions. A golden inner cap of a Silla crown from the sixth century. The crown jewels of Silla. The Silla crowns were uncovered in the tumuli of Gyeongju, South Korea, the capital of Silla and Unified Silla. Silla tumuli, unlike their Baekje and Goguryeo counterparts were made inaccessible because the tombs did not include passageways and corridors. Instead, deep pits were dug and lined with wood and this is where the treasures and coffin were placed. These burial pits were covered in dirt and sealed with clay and then the surface was covered with massive river boulders which were then covered with massive mounds of dirt. The heavy boulders also served to push the tombs deeper into the ground[citation needed], thus making them even more inaccessible. The Silla burial mechanism made it so that grave robbers and foreign invaders could never steal their precious contents. Some of the crowns are made of pure gold and were probably reserved for kings. Other crowns have been discovered made from gilt-bronze or gold-plated bronze, probably for princes or lesser kings. Silla crowns have been excavated from the 5th century Gold Crown Tomb, and the 6th century Gold Bell Tomb and Heavenly Horse Tomb.[1] The adoption of Buddhism by the Silla kings in 528 A.D. led to the eventual decline of the practice of burying gold artifacts in tombs and by the end of the sixth century the practice had stopped.[1] Symbolism of the crown[edit] This crown was excavated from Grave Six in Tillia Tepe, Afghanistan and is estimated to be from the first or second century. The style of the crown strongly suggests a Scytho-Iranian connection with Korea. The styling of the outer part of the crowns suggests a Korean connection with the Scytho-Iranians (Saka) and the people of the Eurasian steppe. The crowns are a uniquely Korean product and show no Chinese influence. The Silla crown is also notably distinct from the crown of Baekje, the crown of Gaya, and the crown of Goguryeo kingdoms. The tree motif of the crown is commonly believed to represent the idea of the world tree which was an important tenet of Siberian and Iranian shamanism.[1][2] However, some believe that the trident-like protrusions symbolize mountains or even birds. Additionally, the antler-like prongs also indicate a strong connection to Korean Shamanism or the importance of the reindeer. A crown in Afghanistan (see image) bears a strong resemblance to the other Korean crowns which is also evidence of a Scytho-Iranian connection. Additionally, the sophisticated metalworking of the crowns show that Silla gold smiths held an advanced knowledge of working with gold. Some have even theorized that these advanced goldworking techniques, such as granulation and filigree, came from the Greek or the Etruscan people, especially because Silla tumuli also contain beads and glassware which came from as far away as the Mediterranean Sea.[3] But researches and historical documents suggest a Persian connection or even origin.[4] A crown of Silla made in 5-6th century exhibited at Musée Guimet in Paris. The delicate nature of the gold crowns comes from the fact they were made from cutting thin sheet gold. The crown is impractical to wear and some believe that the crown may have been made specifically as a burial good.[1] The use of gogok, or comma-shaped curved jewels also point to an Iranian influence and the importance of the bear cult.[clarification needed] There may also be a connection with ancient Japan because the gogok were used extensively by the ruling elite of that society as well. These comma-shaped jewels of jade and glass may have symbolized the fruits and the bounty of trees. The use of many tiny gold mirrors dangling from the crown has led some to hypothesize that the crown, worn in sunlight, would be a dazzling spectacle reinforcing the tradition role of the Silla king as the symbolic representation of the sun on earth. Lists of Crowns of Silla[edit] South Korea has officially designated some Silla crowns as national treasures (Hangul ; RRgukbo), others as treasures (Hangul ; RRbomul). Group Image Information National Treasures National Treasure No. 87 The Gold Crown from Geumgwanchong (Hangul금관총 금관; Hanja; RRGeumgwanchong geumgwan; MRKŭmgwanch'ong kŭmgwan) is the largest golden crown discovered. The Gold Crown Tomb (Geumgwanchong) was named after this treasure. It was designated as a national treasure on December 12, 1962. The crown is now in the Gyeongju National Museum and is a masterpiece of Korean art. 천마총 금관.jpg National Treasure No. 188 The Gold Crown from Cheonmachong (Hangul천마총 금관; Hanja; RRCheonmachong geumgwan; MRCh'ŏnmach'ong kŭmgwan) is currently housed in Gyeongju National Museum. The crown was designated as the 188th National Treasure of Korea on December 7, 1978. The crown was found in Cheonmachong (Tomb No. 155, also known as The Heavenly Horse Tomb) in 1973 and is believed to be the crown of King Soji or King Jijeung. The crown is 32.5 centimeters in height. National Treasure No. 191 The Gold crown from Hwangnamdaechong(Hangul황남대총 북분 금관; Hanja; RRHwangnamdaechong bukbun geumgwan) is currently housed in the National Museum of Korea and is one of the most popular exhibits there, along with the two Bangasayusang. It is a National Treasure of Korea and was named as one on December 12, 1978. The height of the crown is 27.5 centimeters and the gold chains and pendants that dangle from the crown, known as Suhasik are 13 to 30.3 centimeters in length. The crown is known for its abundant use of jade. The Suhasik are grouped into two groups of three and are arranged with the longest chains on the outer edge to the smallest chains closest to the front of the crown. The Suhasik also hold blue jade and golden leaves on the end of the chains. There is still a controversy of whether the Suhasik are actually a part of the crown, namely because the Suhasik were found separate from the crown when excavated. The crown has three tree-like prongs with three branches each and also has two antler-like prongs on the left and right side of the main band. The tree-like prongs of the crown have been interpreted by some scholars as the Chinese character for “mountain”. Decorations of a deer antler are attached to the ends of the crown. 77 pieces of jade were adorned on the crown. Sixteen pieces of comma-shaped blue jade were attached to the Chinese characters, nine pieces of jade on the deer antler, and eleven pieces on the head girdle. This crown is particularly noted for its abundant use of jade. Silla gold crown.jpg Treasure No. 338 This crown, known as Gold crown from Geumnyeongchong Tumulus (Hangul금령총 금관; Hanja; RRGeumnyeongchong geumgwan; MRKŭmnyŏngch'ong kŭmgwan), is currently housed at the National Museum of Korea. At 27 centimeters in heights and 15 centimeters in diameter, it is the smallest Silla crown discovered thus far, and the simplest. Like a typical Silla crown, it has five main prongs. The tree-like prongs, shaped like the Chinese character chul, which means “going out”, are placed on the front and sides of the headband. The tree-like prongs have four branches each. There are two antler-like prongs which flank the two side tree-like prongs. Additionally, there are birds on top of each branch. On the upper and lower part of the surface are two-lined spot patterns made with a stamping technique. Hanging ornaments hang at the right and left side of the crown frame. This crown has the distinction of being the only gold crown made solely of gold without any jade accoutrements. 서봉총 금관 금제드리개.jpg Treasure No. 339 The Gold crown from Seobongchong Tumulus (Hangul서봉총 금관; Hanja; RRSeobongchong geumgwan; MRSŏbongch'ong kŭmgwan) is a gold crown of Silla origin that is now housed at the Gyeongju National Museum. The crown is 30.7 centimeters in height, 18.4 centimeters in diameter, and 24.7 high when the ornaments hanging from the headband. There are five branches standing on the broad crown frame which is stamped with a wave pattern and stamped in a form of a dotted line. The headband is decorated with leaf-shapes and bent jade. The right and left most branches, along with the middle branches of the five branches, are composed of the Chinese character in three prongs. The tips of the branches are decorated with a budding flower ornament. Silver Crown from the South Mound of Hwangnamdaechong Tomb.jpg Treasure No. 631 See also[edit] 1. ^ a b c d Lee, Author: Soyoung. "Golden Treasures: The Royal Tombs of Silla – Essay – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History – The Metropolitan Museum of Art". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. 2. ^ Kidder, J. Edward (1964). Early Japanese Art: The Great Tombs and Treasures. D Van Nostrand Company Inc. p. 105. 3. ^ "Korea, 1–500 A.D. - Timeline of Art History – The Metropolitan Museum of Art". 5. ^ "Display Detail Information". www.pennfamily.org. External links[edit]	<urn:uuid:f89ac4f8-6bad-4ffc-b96a-7403eeb21d05>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.03180569410324097, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9526510238647461, "url": "https://wikivividly.com/wiki/Crowns_of_Silla" }
Bessemer's volcano and the birth of steel: making this versatile metal plentiful gave rise to Christmas and an understanding of modern physics Citation metadata Author: Ainissa Ramirez Date: January-February 2016 From: American Scientist(Vol. 104, Issue 1) Publisher: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society Document Type: Article Length: 2,702 words Main content Article Preview : Henry Bessemer dreamed about steel. He longed to find a way to make an unlimited supply of it, and not knowing how wasn't going to stop him. Bessemer was a prolific 19th-century British inventor with more than 100 patents to his credit and a hunger to solve problems. Before his quest to make steel plentiful, his most famous invention was a gold-colored paint that contained no actual gold. In the 1840s, metallic paint was the must-have item in England for ornate picture frames. When he bought some of it for his sister's art project, Bessemer was flabbergasted to learn that its cost was equal to a day's wage. He created an inexpensive alternative by machining bronze into powder and adding it to paint; bronze glitters just as well at a fraction of the cost. This invention made him rich, but didn't dampen his drive to innovate. Instead, Bessemer's thoughts turned away from gold's luster for decorations and toward steel's toughness for weapons. In 1853, England and its allies--France, Turkey, and Sardinia--were enmeshed in the conflict known now as the Crimean War, a battle to let Catholic pilgrims have access to the Holy Land in the Middle East. These allies supported the Catholics, the Russians, on the other side, wanted to keep the Holy Land for Orthodox Christians. To prevail in battle, England needed steel, and lots of it, for powerful cannons. But at the time, the process of converting raw iron into strong steel was painfully slow and expensive; it took a month to make just 50 pounds. In addition, only a few craftsmen knew the necessary techniques. The intense demand for a faster, cheaper way to make steel inspired many inventors, such as Bessemer, to develop a better process. They knew that the inventor who solved the problem would become very rich. Inventive Childhood Bessemer's path to becoming an inventor was plotted out from an early age by his father, Anthony Bessemer, a Londoner working in Paris. A respected inventor himself, Anthony was elected into the lauded French Academy of Sciences for his novel typesetting devices and improvements to the optical microscope. As a member of this esteemed society, his path crossed those of scientific elites such as Antoine Lavoisier, who named the element oxygen and is often called "the father of modern chemistry" for systematizing chemical names. However, Anthony's charmed career came to an abrupt end with the French Revolution in 1792. Anthony barely escaped the guillotine, unlike Lavoisier, and hastily returned to England penniless. He settled in Charlton, England, a quiet town, rebuilt his typesetting workshop, and focused his .energies on his son, Henry, born in 1813. Henry Bessemer had very little formal education, but was allowed free rein in his father's workshop. There he received tools instead of toys, and his desire to build was nurtured. The son matured into a tall and barrel-chested man, with a bold nose, meaty jowls, and thick sideburns that imperfectly camouflaged the lack of hair on the top of his... Source Citation Source Citation Ramirez, Ainissa. "Bessemer's volcano and the birth of steel: making this versatile metal plentiful gave rise to Christmas and an understanding of modern physics." American Scientist, vol. 104, no. 1, 2016, p. 12+. Accessed 5 Mar. 2021. Gale Document Number: GALE\|A440550369	<urn:uuid:7d92f0e2-310f-42cd-937b-3089b934d493>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.2073664665222168, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9696744084358215, "url": "https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA440550369&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=00030996&p=AONE&sw=w" }
Question: Why Do We Need Land Reform? Why is land reform important? Land reforms alter the power structure, both economic and political, since land has always been a source of wealth, income, status and power. It empowers the actual tillers of the soil, and organises and enables them to seek development benefits from the state.. Why is land reform necessary in rural areas? A well- designed land-reform programme is critical for revitalising the agricultural sector, leading to employment and output growth that would improve food security, and poverty and inequality levels in rural areas (Lahiff and Cousins, 2005). Is land reform successful? While land has been highly politicised, the importance and effects of land reform have been largely overlooked. successful, making large-scale land redistribution possible within a short period. It made a direct impact on agricultural productivity, which later sustained poverty-reduction. What are the types of land reforms? Whether it is called land reform or agrarian reform, the operational concept covers five main types of reform, classified according to whether they deal with land title and terms of holding, land distribution, the scale of operation, the pattern of cultivation, or supplementary measures such as credit, marketing, or … In which state have the land reform measures helped to reduce poverty? West BengalLand reform constitutes the measures to improve the economic condition of agricultural tenants in West Bengal. It aims at the redistribution of land-ownership in favour of the cultivating class. What is the difference between agrarian and land reform? Land reform is a term that was used earlier to bring about changes in the ownership of land, in rural areas. … Agrarian reform includes land reform and also addresses education and training of farmers for better produce and marketing, rural credit, easier access to markets, and so on. How does land reform affect the economy? The advocates of economic land reform stress the productive superiority of family farms; and they expect the land reform to make a significant contribution not only to agricultural production, but also to rural employment, self-employment, and poverty reduction. Why was the Land Reform Act of 1955 important? The law provided the security of tenure of tenants. … 1400 (Land Reform Act of 1955) — Created the Land Tenure Administration (LTA) which was responsible for the acquisition and distribution of large tenanted rice and corn lands over 200 hectares for individuals and 600 hectares for corporations. What are the effects of land expropriation without compensation? Expropriation without compensation can cause irreparable damage to the land market by effectively reducing the value of land and sunk investments and assets. The increased risks of future expropriation without compensation means that there is likely no new capital that can come to invest further on the land. What is the purpose of government owned lands? The lands administered by the four major agencies are managed for many purposes, primarily related to preservation, recreation, and development of natural resources. Which states were land reforms successful? Successful legislation for redistribution of land with ceilings on private land property happened only in a few states. The most notable and successful land reforms happened in states of Kerala and West Bengal (Operation Barga).	<urn:uuid:f8db3c33-a1cf-4d6f-989a-212422ce3d5c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.958321213722229, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9437218308448792, "url": "https://alimaysports.com/qa/question-why-do-we-need-land-reform.html" }
Migrating birds are struggling with the expansion of mass development in built, urban environments. Besides the loss of critical habitat to nest and rest, they face death and injury due to collisions with buildings. This happens at night, caused by disorienting light pollution from skyscrapers, especially during spring and fall migration. Bird-building collisions also occur during the day as birds have no natural sense to perceive highly reflective and transparent glass so adored by architects as a solid object. Birds will strike clear glass while attempting to reach habitat and sky seen through corridors. Canadian research¹ estimates 25 million birds fatally collide with windows at low, mid and high-rise buildings annually. ¹Quantifying Human-related Mortality of Birds in Canada, September 2013 What can you do to help keep birds safe? Workplace windows are everywhere: on walkways, entranceways, skyways, skyscrapers, atriums, and even transit stations and bus shelters. Below are applications of visual markers and other bird-friendly glass innovations known by FLAP Canada to be effective. Window Markers Make all windows visible to birds. Provide birds with visual cues or markers alerting them to the presence of glass. Below are the FLAP Canada standards for visual markers: Separate visual markers by spaces no more than 10 cm (4 inches) apart vertically or 5 cm (2 inches) horizontally. To help make your marker pattern less visible to people, while perhaps helping to keep smaller birds safe, such as hummingbirds and kinglets, windows should not have reflective openings larger than 5 x 5 cm (2 x 2 inches). Apply visual markers to exterior surface (first surface) of glass to disrupt the illusion of a safe, natural environment reflected in the glass. Make markers stand out in contrast to transparent or reflective exterior surfaces under varying daylight conditions. The dimension of a marker is be no less than .64 cm (1/4 inch). Markers are to cover entire exterior glass surfaces up to 20 metres above grade or to the top of the mature tree canopy, whichever is greater. To learn more, visit flap.org/commercial. About Marker Spacing FLAP Canada’s research into designing bird deterrent marker patterns determined that markers spaced evenly apart both vertically and horizontally tend to be less noticeable to the human eye. In an effort to ensure that marker spacing meets what research confirms as the maximum horizontal spacing of 5cm (2″), FLAP reduced the 10cm (4″) vertical gap to match 5cm. In doing so, FLAP Canada believes the markers to be more effective as a deterrent for smaller species like the golden-crowned kinglet, ruby-throated hummingbird and the brown creeper…some of the most frequently encountered species known to collide with windows during the day. [masterslider alias=”business1″] Note: BirdSafe and FLAP Canada do not endorse or recommend any commercial glass product or manufacturer, therefore, mention of commercial products on this website cannot be construed as an endorsement or recommendation. BirdSafe recommends consultation with glass manufacturer representatives for answers to your specific questions on price, quality, etc. or to request a quote for any window treatment. Disclaimer: Results may vary depending on conditions such as landscaping, topography, building design, lighting, local bird populations and the condition of the product itself. No window solution can guarantee elimination of bird-window collisions. Reference Terms of Use. 6 Best Practices for Bird-Safe Buildings 1. Request a BirdSafe® building risk assessment from trained FLAP Canada consultants to determine threat levels and priority solutions. 2. Apply visual markers such as frit, film or acid-etched patterns or other bird-friendly glass innovations. 3. Reduce intensity and direction of night lighting, or turn off lights at night. 4. Treat interiors with time-automated blinds, and keep plants away from windows. 5. Involve tenants, staff or security in monitoring and reporting efforts during migration. 6. Be bird-safe ready. Sign up for spring and fall migration alerts from FLAP Canada to help prepare your facilities or staff. Commercial Resources Bird-Friendly Practices - Toronto Bird-Friendly Practices Bird Friendly Guidelines - Markham Bird Friendly Guidelines Bird-Friendly Landscape Design Guidelines - Vancouver Bird-Friendly Landscape Design Guidelines – Vancouver	<urn:uuid:3c0ac2f4-c096-400a-a502-3be5763d9c4e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.026361048221588135, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8857239484786987, "url": "https://birdsafe.ca/workplaces-safe-for-birds/?s=" }
Shear force Shear force, Definition of Shear force: 1. A strain produced when the layers of an object are subjected to opposing forces. How to use Shear force in a sentence? 1. Kelly tried vehemently to rip apart the package by shear force , but the intricate web of sticky glue, tape and ribbon was too much of a challenge for weak body. 2. Sometimes you have no other option that to use shear force to get what you want but that should always be a last resort. 3. The broke through the castle walls with shear force and will power and then they made their way to the kings main chamber. Meaning of Shear force & Shear force Definition	<urn:uuid:6daacef6-db94-4e8e-8c76-d00b48fb9475>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.49602270126342773, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9461508393287659, "url": "https://howtodiscuss.com/t/shear-force/12434" }
Gilbert town Metro Map Increased population density changed the character of tenancy. Gilbert town Metro Map With most land developed by the 1750s, landlords usually rented land for short periods and charged substantial rents, amounting to a third or even half of a single worker’s crop. Tenants in these areas could barely afford the high rents, as they rarely accumulated much savings. Short-term tenancy grew in regions like the Hudson River Valley, where tenancy was already common, and in places tied to growing for urban markets such as southeastern Pennsylvania. Frontier landlords commonly granted leases at nominal rents for several generations. In return, tenants were required to improve the land by building structures and planting orchards. Although tenants lived autonomously, they depended on landlords for land, building materials, tools, and often for marketing their crops. Most tenants paid a portion of their crop as rent, since they owned little other property. The richest tenant might own a horse, a little livestock, and live in a small house, but few had outbuildings like kitchens to improve their standard of living. Most tenant farmers did not stay in the same neighborhood for more than a few years, usually they moved away in search of land or other opportunities. Markets complicated the dependence of tenants upon landlords. Each party tried to gain wealth from the land, but landlords could raise rents at will and dispose of the land whenever they wanted. Since tenants were dependent on landlords, good weather, and markets, many received charity from local officials. Common types of relief, often provided by or at the direction of county court justices, were exemptions from taxation, cash payments, and donations of food or manufactured goods. Church vestries also provided indigent childcare and paid medical expenses for poor. The children of tenants received little help from their poor parents, whether the parents were alive or dead. Middle-aged tenants usually had estates valued at less than 45 pounds, leaving their beneficiaries with only a small sum after debts were paid. Even when tenants could add an inheritance to accumulated property, they rarely had enough money or collateral to buy a slave or a tract of land. The most frugal tenant could only amass the money necessary to buy a 50-acre plot after benefiting from five years of good crops, high market prices, and saving more than half of each year’s profits. This was a very difficult task, however, since tenants paid taxes and needed to purchase manufactured goods and subsistence items with their profits. Some former tenants escaped their hardship by moving to either a raw frontier or a rapidly developing area. Gilbert town Metro Map Photo Gallery Leave a Reply sixty six − sixty three =	<urn:uuid:c67f91f4-4636-4072-a9bc-8a479ca89b97>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.21875, "fasttext_score": 0.11117476224899292, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9805558919906616, "url": "http://travelsfinders.com/gilbert-town-metro-map.html" }
What Are Mycorrhizae? Great White Mycorrhizae More than 90 percent of plant species form a symbiotic arrangement with beneficial soil fungi - called mycorrhizal fungi or "Mykos". Plant's roots are colonized by the fungus, which attaches to the roots and have threads or 'hyphae' that extend far into the surrounding soil environment (picture on right). Mycorrhizal fungi are the dominant microbes in undisturbed soils accounting for 60 percent to 80 percent of the microbial biomass. They are fundamental for superior plant performance, supplying the water and nutrients needed for superior growth, flowering and fruiting. In exchange, the Mykos receive essential sugars and other compounds supplied by the plant. What do Mycorrhizae do for Plants? Mykos increase the surface absorbing area of roots 10 to 1,000 times, thereby greatly improving the ability of the plants to absorb nutrients and water. Estimates of amounts of mycorrhizal filaments present in soil associated with plants are astonishing. Several miles of fungal filaments can be present in less than a thimbleful of soil. Mykos increase nutrient uptake not only by increasing the surface absorbing area of roots, but by also releasing powerful chemicals into the surrounding environment that capture nitrogen, phosphorous, magnesium, iron and other plant nutrients. This extraction process is particularly important in plant nutrition, flowering and fruiting. It also explains why mycorrhizal inoculations have been so successful in hydroponic operations. Mykos also assist plants with the suppression of diseases and pathogens by attacking the pathogen or disease organisms entering the root zone. A practical benefit coming from them is improved rooting speed. Mycorrhizae comparison Marigold flowering with mycorrhizae inoculation (right) and without (left) Where's the proof? The plant-mycorrhizal fungi relationship is the best understood in the field of soil biology. There are more than 60,000 studies in literature on the subject, but there's even more important proof. The mycorrhizal relationship with plants is one of nature's longest and most successful experiments. The earliest fossil record of the roots of land plants contain Mykos almost identical to what is found today. Most scientists believe the plant-mycorrhiza relationship allowed aquatic plants to make the transition to the relatively harsh terrestrial environment some 460 million years ago. In nature, mycorrhizae make plant growth possible, linking the roots of plants to the surrounding soil. In nature, neither can survive or grow without the other. Now hydroponic and aquaponic growers can benefit from this essential relationship. How are Mykos Supplied? Mykos come in dry powder form. Aqua Gardening stocks Great White which is the most complete mycorrhizal product on the market. The cutting edge formula contains 15 different species of mycorrhizal fungi, 19 different species of beneficial bacteria, 2 species of trichoderma, plant vitamins and glycine all in one product. In practice, this powerful formula ignites plant and root growth giving plants the tools they need to maximise yields. Why "Great White"? Because adding Great White will make roots become perfectly white! Great White is an extremely versatile product which can be mixed in with any substrate or simply sprinkled, diluted or drip fed. Give your plants a head start!	<urn:uuid:d36217a0-29dd-4724-84b6-17a8baeab870>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.609375, "fasttext_score": 0.3821307420730591, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9080906510353088, "url": "https://www.aquagardening.com.au/learn/what-are-mycorrhizae/" }
C. elegans (Photo: Dan Dickinson) Many animal species, from butterflies to turtles, can sense the Earth’s magnetic field—it’s one way they keep on course as they move around the world. But scientists have been puzzled as to how, exactly, animals sense those forces. Now, by examining the brains of worms, scientists at the University of Texas say they have made the first discovery of an actual sensory neuron that detects the Earth’s magnetic field.” That sensor, according to UT, “looks like a nano-scale TV antenna.” It’s teeny tiny, at the end of a neuron. But it’s that sensor, they think, that tells C. elegans worms what’s up and what’s down. To show that the worms used the magnetic field to navigate, the scientists put the worms in tubes of gel. If native Texas worms were full, they moved up, and if they were hungry, they moved down. Then, the team looked at worms from Australia and England. These worms also move towards what they thought was down when they were hungry. Only, for them, down meant “the magnetic vector that would optimize vertical translation in their native soil.” In practice, the Australian worms actually moved up—or what looked, in Texas, to be up. The worms were traveling along the magnetic vector that, for the rest of their short worm life, had always directed them down deeper into the soil. The team published these results in the journal eLIFEalong with more details on how they identified the actual sensor in the brain that was keeping the Texas worms well oriented and telling the poor Australian worms that what was up was down and what was down was up. (Image: Bob Goldstein) Bonus finds: Some of the universe’s earliest stars, the Patagonian version of the Welsh national anthem60,000 bees, a Casio watch that’s still working 20 years after it was losta pink rattlesnake, and a long lost reel of Laurel & Hardy hitting each other with pies	<urn:uuid:5511093f-4c79-4912-a271-b1d8ec3bd736>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.20944976806640625, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9454522132873535, "url": "https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/found-the-teeny-antenna-that-lets-worms-sense-the-earth-s-magnetic-field" }
Principia mathematica (Latin ed.) Title page Newton’s most famous work Principia (1687) explains the laws governing the motion of physical objects (heavenly and otherwise). Principia rests on the new branch of mathematics that Newton invented simultaneously with Leibniz (1646-1716), calculus, a tool that allowed mathematicians to move beyond the work done by the ancient Greeks for the first time in almost two thousand years. Newton provided explanations for fundamental natural phenomena: gravitation, the motion of the planets, and the mechanics of physics on earth. Sir Isaac Newton’s Principia, reprinted for Sir William Thomson LL.D. and Hugh Blackburn M.A. (Glasgow: James Macklehose, publisher to the Univeristy, 1871). The text is in the public domain. Found in: Format Description Size Facsimile PDF This is a facsimile or image-based PDF made from scans of the original book. 25.7 MB	<urn:uuid:0a7da4d0-232f-436e-a314-d01d23bd932d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.2145337462425232, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8108778595924377, "url": "https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/newton-principia-mathematica-latin-ed" }
An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that forms as a result of faulting or erosion and separates two relatively level areas having different elevations. Usually ''scarp'' and ''scarp face'' are used interchangeably with ''escarpment''. Some sources differentiate the two terms, however, where ''escarpment'' refers to the margin between two landforms (while ''scarp'' remains synonymous with a cliff or steep slope). In this usage an escarpment is a ridge which has a gentle slope on one side and a steep scarp on the other side. More loosely, the term ''scarp'' also describes a zone between a coastal lowland and a continental plateau which shows a marked, abrupt change in elevation caused by coastal erosion at the base of the plateau. Formation and description Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes: either by differential erosion of sedimentary rocks, or by movement of the Earth's crust at a geologic fault. The first is the more common type: the escarpment is a transition from one series of sedimentary rocks to another series of a different age and composition. Escarpments are also frequently formed by faults. When a fault displaces the ground surface so that one side is higher than the other, a fault scarp is created. This can occur in dip-slip faults, or when a strike-slip fault brings a piece of high ground adjacent to an area of lower ground. Earth is not the only planet where escarpments occur. They are believed to occur on other planets when the crust contracts, as a result of cooling. On other Solar System bodies such as Mercury, Mars, and the Moon, the Latin term rupes is used for an escarpment. 135px\|right\|thumb\|Shaded and colored image from the elevation_model_of_New_Zealand's_elevation_model_of_New_Zealand's_[[Alpine_Fault">topology">elevation_model_of_New_Zealand's_[[Alpine_Fault_running_about_500 km_(300 mi)_long._The_escarpment_is_flanked_by_a_chain_of_hills_squeezed_between_the_[[Fault_(geology).html" style="text-decoration: none;"class="mw-redirect" title="Alpine_Fault.html" style="text-decoration: none;"class="mw-redirect" title="topology">elevation model of New Zealand's [[Alpine Fault">topology">elevation model of New Zealand's [[Alpine Fault running about 500 km (300 mi) long. The escarpment is flanked by a chain of hills squeezed between the [[Fault (geology)">fault and the [[mountain]]s of [[New Zealand's Southern Alps]]. Northeast is towards the top.]] When sedimentary beds are tilted and exposed to the surface, erosion and weathering may occur. Escarpments erode gradually and over geological time. The mélange tendencies of escarpments results in varying contacts between a multitude of rock types. These different rock types weather at different speeds, according to Goldich dissolution series so different stages of deformation can often be seen in the layers where the escarpments have been exposed to the elements. Significant escarpments * Elgeyo escarpment (Great Rift Valley) * Great Escarpment, Southern Africa *Including the Drakensberg and God's Window in Mpumalanga's Eastern Escarpment Bandiagara Escarpment (Mali) * Zambezi Escarpment (Zambia) * East coast, Madagascar * Usas Escarpment * Vindhya Range (India) Alam-Kuh (Iran) Western Ghats (India) * Tuwaiq (Saudi Arabia) * Wulian Feng (China) Australia and New Zealand * Australia Great Escarpment, Australia Darling Scarp Dorrigo Plateau Illawarra Escarpment Lake George Escarpment Nullarbor Escarpment * New Zealand The western slope of the Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana (along the Alpine Fault) The Kaimai escarpment, above the Hauraki Plains ** The Paekakariki escarpment between Paekakariki and Pukerua Bay (with State Highway One and the North Island Main Trunk). * England Cotswold escarpment Chiltern escarpment North Downs South Downs A common placename denominating an escarpment in England is "edge" as in * Alderley Edge * Edge Hill famous as the place of the first battle of the English Civil War * Kinver Edge * The Lincoln Edge * Stanage Edge *** Wenlock Edge * Scotland ** Quiraing, Trotternish, Isle of Skye * Wales Eglwyseg Escarpment, Llangollen, North Wales (and most impressive example in the UK). Black Mountain (range) Black Mountains, Wales Pen y Fan France * La Côte d'Or is famous for its wines and has given its name to a département, Côte-d'Or. ** Le Pays de Bray, a clay vale enclosed by chalk escarpments. * Sweden, Estonia and Russia Baltic Klint Gotland–Saaremaa Klint *South Småland-Sub-Cambrian escarpment Malta Victoria Lines North America * Florida Escarpment, Gulf of Mexico * Sigsbee Escarpment, Gulf of Mexico * Canada and the United States Manitoba Escarpment (Manitoba, Saskatchewan) Pembina Escarpment (Manitoba, North Dakota) Niagara Escarpment ((east to west) New York, Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois) Eardley Escarpment (Mattawa Fault, Gatineau Park, Quebec) Onondaga (geological formation) (Ontario and New York) Devil's Rock (Lake Temiskaming, Ontario) ** Scarborough Bluffs (Toronto, Ontario) * United States Blue Ridge Escarpment (North CarolinaVirginia) Balcones Fault (Texas) Bergen Hill (New Jersey) Black River Escarpment (Wisconsin) Book Cliffs (ColoradoUtah) Caprock Escarpment (Texas) Catskill Escarpment (New York) The Chinese Wall (Montana) Cody Scarp (Florida) Devil's Slide (California) Helderberg Escarpment (New York) Hell's Half Acre (Wyoming) Knobstone Escarpment (Indiana) Lewiston Hill (Idaho-Washington) Magnesian Escarpment (Wisconsin) Mescalero Ridge (New Mexico) Missouri Escarpment (North Dakota) Mogollon Rim (Arizona) Muldraugh Hill (Kentucky) Pine Ridge (NebraskaSouth Dakota) Portage Escarpment (Ohio) Potrero Hills in (California) Pottsville Escarpment (KentuckyTennessee) The Rimrocks (Montana) *Sierra Nevada eastern slope (California) The Caribbean ** Bahamas Escarpment (Bahamas) South America * Brazil Great Escarpment, Brazil * Serra do Mar (São Paulo) ** Serra da Mantiqueira (São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro) * Chile ** West Andean Escarpment See also * * * List of geological features on Mercury * {{Reflist Category:Slope landforms	<urn:uuid:6c89c110-df8f-4cd9-8985-7b2d9bcd2de2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 5, "edu_score": 4.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.17492884397506714, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8353558778762817, "url": "http://theinfolist.com/php/SummaryGet.php?FindGo=Escarpment" }
1. Glossary 2. official language minority communities official language minority communities (OLMCs) Canada’s official languages are English and French. Official language minority communities (OLMCs) are groups of people whose maternal or chosen official language is not the majority language in their province or territory – in other words, Anglophones in Quebec and Francophones outside of Quebec. For the purposes of its granting programs, the Canada Council defines OLMC individuals, groups and arts organizations as those who self-identify as belonging to one of these groups.	<urn:uuid:e1436526-8afc-418e-8768-ce68b0c91120>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.02286684513092041, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9187349081039429, "url": "https://canadacouncil.ca/glossary/official-language-minority-communities" }
Marc Isambard Brunel was an engineer and inventor in the late 1700s and early 1800s. He designed many machines, including one that made it possible to build an underwater tunnel. Marc Isambard Brunel was born on April 25, 1769, in Hacqueville, France. He studied to become a priest when he was young. However, he showed talent in other areas, such as drawing and model making. He was then sent to train in the French navy. He was with the navy for six years, until 1793. At that time, France was in the middle of the French Revolution. Brunel decided to move to the United States. In the United States, Brunel became the chief engineer of New York City. He designed many buildings. He built a new foundry, or facility for producing cannons. He also improved the defenses for the channel between Long Island and Staten Island. In his spare time, Brunel invented things. He designed a system of machines that could make large numbers of ships’ blocks, or pulleys. Before Brunel’s invention, each block was made by hand. In 1799 Brunel sailed to England, where he sold his system to the government. Brunel installed his block-making machines at the Portsmouth dockyard. The system was one of the first examples of mechanized production, or manufacturing done by machinery. In England and in France, Brunel continued to work as a civil engineer. He designed a suspension bridge for the French island of Bourbon (now Réunion). Brunel also continued to invent machines. He designed machines that could saw and bend timber, make boots, knit socks, and copy drawings. In 1818 Brunel invented a tunneling shield, which made it possible to tunnel underwater. Brunel’s tunneling shield was used to make the world’s first underwater tunnel, under the Thames River in London. Construction on the tunnel began in 1825. It opened to traffic in 1843. Brunel was made a knight in 1841. He died on December 12, 1849, in London. By the time of his death, his son, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, had become an important engineer as well. Translate this page	<urn:uuid:4c820946-492e-4451-b0b3-734d44341817>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.5328577756881714, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9810712337493896, "url": "https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Marc-Isambard-Brunel/602889" }
Saiga antelopes see massive fall in numbers, 60% wiped out already Saiga antelopes Dead Saiga antelopes lie on a field in the Zholoba area of the Kostanay region, Kazakhstan, in this handout photo provided on May 20, 2015 Reuters Kazakhstan witnessed a rather strange event in May 2015 when more than 200,000 saiga antelopes died in just three weeks. That means, almost 60 percent of the population was lost. Further research revealed that they were infected with a bacterium that leads to blood poisoning and internal bleeding, or hemorrhagic septicemia. A recent study published in Science Advances claims that this bacteria is born in unusually wet and hot weather conditions. Upon analyzing the historical data, of the 1980s, it has been found that when the outbreak took place back in the 80s and 90s, the weather was warmer and more humid than usual. Therefore, warmer climatic conditions can prove to be fatal for the Saiga tatarica or saiga antelopes. These critically endangered creatures might just go extinct, say scientists. About Saiga antelopes These antelope species are found in the grasslands of Central Asia, stretching from Hungary all the way to Mongolia. These creatures belong to the era of the mammoths. Sadly enough, habitat loss is proving to be fatal for them and is drawing the species towards extinction. "Extinctions took out other animals, but the saiga persisted through modern time," said Richard Kock, a wildlife veterinarian and professor at the Royal Veterinary College in the UK and one of the authors of the study. These animals have thick furs and unusual noses that helps to warm up the cold air before it reaches the lungs. They are well adapted to harsh environments and can withstand harsh winters. The mass die-off in 2015 washed out almost 90 percent of the local population. For ungulates or large mammals, such die-offs are common. The Mongolian gazelle, wildebeest, and white-tailed deer -- all faced the same fate at some point in time. However, 2015's die-off was unprecedented, says Kock. The die-off of 2015 was horrible, echoed another conservation scientist Eleanor Jane Milner-Gulland. The antelopes were attacked by the bacteria Pasteurella multocida which lives in tonsils. The bacterium at some point made the animals sick and they died. Symptoms were same for both the die-offs in 1980 and 2015. In 1981, around 70,000 saigas died and in 1988, nearly 270,000 died. Almost 73 percent of the local population was wiped out. In both the cases, the weather was more humid than normal, almost over 80 percent. Average minimum daily temperatures were higher than normal in 2015. Climate change might be responsible for the outbreak of the bacteria, suggest experts. Global temperatures have increased by 0.85 degrees Celsius and this can be harmful to the animals as the trend shows, the bacteria is born in hot temperatures. In the last 40 years, the animals have already shifted north to give birth. IUCN Red List Saiga antelopes have been categorized as critically endangered according to IUCN. Uncontrolled illegal hunting for horns and meat has led to the fall in numbers of the species. Hunting of young males primarily has affected reproduction. Habitat loss and loss of migrational routes are other threats to the species. The recent increase in steppe fires is a cause of concern as well. Severe winters may also cause mass mortality.	<urn:uuid:f894e2bf-7cdc-4736-be20-5dabdfdb5958>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.019003212451934814, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9555903673171997, "url": "https://www.ibtimes.sg/saiga-antelopes-see-massive-fall-numbers-60-wiped-out-already-23255" }
Lesson: Cause and Effects of the Punic Wars 0 Favorites Lesson Objective The student will compare and contrast a Republic, Monarchy, and Empire. The student will connect the causes of the Punic Wars with the effects they had on Roman civilization. Lesson Plan C.4.7.2. Forms and Roles of Government: Discuss different forms of executive leadership in civilizations (e.g., judge class, patrician class, priest class, warrior class, emperor, nobility). C.5.7.3. Roots of Democracy: Examine rights, privileges, and responsibilities citizens and non-citizens had in civilizations based upon gender, socio-economic class, ethnicity, religion, or caste. H.6.7.6. Continuity and Change: Explore the development of the Roman Empire and the people associated with it (e.g., Augustus, Julius Caesar, Hannibal) H.6.7.15. Continuity and Change: Describe influences of the Persian, Peloponnesian, and Punic Wars on ancient civilization. Divide the students into three groups and assign each group one of the following types of government: Monarchy, Republic, and Empire. Let them know that these are the three types of government used in Rome during its rise and fall. Let them use their technology, books from the library, or whatever resource is available to research the government type they were assigned. Have them look for 3-5 facts about it and write it on a white board. Use a projector to put a three-way Venn diagram on the board, or just draw one. Have the groups share their information with the class, compiling the information in the Venn diagram. Point out that a republic has very little in common with an empire. Show them the 6 previously competed bricks. There should be one for each war, which just has the name and dates. There should also be one that succinctly explains the cause of each war. Have the students copy the dates and causes onto a note sheet. They should be familiar with this information already. Explain that they are going to be making bricks to go under yours. Their bricks will show the effects of the wars. Review the state of Rome after the 3rd Punic War, creating a list on the board. After the list is complete, with at least one effect for each student, assign one to each student. Lesson Resources Punic War Info Sheet.docx Graffiti Brick.pdf Something went wrong. See details for more info Nothing to upload	<urn:uuid:b60fd294-df67-46b9-bb7d-4c34c7e73df2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.0625, "fasttext_score": 0.21989953517913818, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9288551211357117, "url": "https://betterlesson.com/community/lesson/328878/cause-and-effects-of-the-punic-wars" }
Chinese Women In The Mid-Zhou Dynasty 822 Words4 Pages In many ancient Chinese artworks, women are often depicted as weak, home-oriented and obedient individuals. As in several other ancient civilizations such as Egyptian and Mesopotamian, women in China remained submissive to man. Starting from the mid- Zhou dynasty in 1000 B.C.E. until the Sui dynasty in 600 C.E., Chinese civilization evolved under the heavy influence of the patriarchal view of pre- and neo-Confucianism. Due to physical disparity, occupation difference, and the gaining popularity of Confucian beliefs, Women in this time period were subjected to the hostility of men and suffered from the declining influence of their social status. During the post-Shang and early-Zhou era, women enjoyed considerable amounts of freedom. This is apparent especially in the elite and aristocracy classes where women were allowed to acquire ownership of land and were widely cherished due to their ability in carrying children. In case of political freedom, though women were not…show more content… In many early Chinese portraits, women were often depicted as weak and fragile individuals. The physical weakness opened them to the hostility of men and slowly became a subject of family violence. In Zhou dynasty, when a husband struck his wife, no charge was pressed upon the man; whereas when a woman struck another man, she was to be punished and humiliated. In addition, because of their physical attractiveness and sexuality, women were thought as a form of evil that could potentially lure man into ruins. Many books draws on a historical context in which Daji, the concubine of the last king of Shang, lured the king into being obsessed with her and therefore, dilapidated country’s affairs. This was one of the important factors which had led Shang into ruins. As a result, due to their physical weakness and sexuality, women’s status led a steady decline since 1000 Open Document	<urn:uuid:0f79807a-822c-40b9-92c2-b0418fb45ce3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.3220422863960266, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9838426113128662, "url": "https://www.antiessays.com/free-essays/Chinese-Women-In-The-Mid-Zhou-Dynasty-FKYK6PKRB35T.html" }
Posted by: history591seventeen \| March 27, 2010 Generous Enemies According to author Judith Van Buskirk’s Generous Enemies, clear battle lines between the American Rebels and British Army did not exist. Friends, family, and personal needs pulled individuals into each other’s claimed areas regularly. Van Buskirk explains that there were laws on the books “that forbade communication with the enemy” (3). Therefore, the appearance of clear enemy lines were drawn up, just not observed. Van Buskirk paints a picture of a different type of war for many British officers; the Revolution sounded more like a vacation than a war. Sir Henry Clinton is referred to as “the Knight” because it is stated that he made “many excursion to the country for fox hunting and riding” (30) during his time in New York as Commander-in-Chief of the British forces. General James Robertson of the British forces while in New York was said to have been “running after little misses . . . too busy for military matters” (30-31). The American Revolutionary War was a civil war, which split many families. At the same time, political differences were not enough to completely separate some families. These families continued to keep in touch through physical visits as well as through letters. The Alexander family was certainly one of these families. Even though family members (husbands) were on both the Whig and Tory sides, sisters obtained passes and still visited each other during the war, crossing emery lines. Buskirk states that there was a “distinguish between the private and public demands of the war” (46-47). Therefore, explaining why these communications were allowed. At the same time, Van Buskirk explains throughout her book that these women who acquired passes to cross enemy lines were carrying military information back and forth, as well as family news. Officers of both sided acknowledged this and tried to limit the amount of passes they would write; yet if a woman came from a certain upbringing (upper class) the woman was almost sure of receiving permission to move over these imaginary lines. Additionally, “market women and slaves also conveyed information. . .” (57) from the people they met daily. New York resident, John Varick, Jr.’s father was imprisoned and Jr. obtained a pass to daily visit his father, most likely bringing him food and any other supplies the father may have needed (50). Loyalist Vincent Pearse Ashfield was imprisoned, only to be later released due to actions from an unknown family member on the rebel side (50). Surely these men had family connections that helped them survive war times. In order to have a little more control over this movement, both sides began using flag boats to transport individuals. It was thought that they would be able to keep better track of these people in this manner (59). Letters were even forwarded through enemy lines. British General Howe was known to not open letters of high-society women. In fact, a letter from Martha Washington addressed to her husband, George Washington was forwarded unopened, as it was assumed that the information between a husband and wife was purely personal and of a private matter, unrelated to war (65). Another interesting practice Van Buskirk explains is the parole system that both sides used in New York. Captured officers were allowed to stay in nice accommodations (homes), not prison cells and allowed to walk the streets of the area in which they were confined. An officer was clearly a gentleman and could be trusted to stay where he was told to stay. “. . . the British accorded such liberties to colonel, majors, captains and lieutenants as well” (73). In fact, British officer, John Mc Namara Hayes thanked American General Gates for his treatment while a prisoner, “I shall ever acknowledge with gratitude your attention to me while a prisoner” (82). Some business dealings that took place before the war continued during the war. People did not view this as trading with the enemy, just good business sense. Not everyone supported the war and saw no need to stop selling to those who did, no matter which side they were (108). At the same time, family members were known to cross the lines to bring much needed medicine as well as extra grain to other family members. The British also utilized the African American to their benefit, for the British believed in librating the slaves (7), whether they were owned by a Patriot or a Loyalist master. This created a hardship for the Americans in taking away their black labor source (130). Of course, the British support created more movement by the slave population as well, as the slaves began joining the British forces in order to secure their freedom. According to Van Buskirk, “. . .the New York theater of war allowed a degree of leverage never before experienced by African Americans” (147). Certainly, when one thinks of a revolutionary war, one does not expect to view two different armies tolerating each other’s personal obligations; yet Judith Van Buskirk clearly explains how these two differing political ideologies supported each other. The occupation of the British in New York did not create total warfare and therefore, when the war was over and it was time to repair the damages that war brings, Van Buskirk states, “New Yorker were aided by this simple fact: in 1783, they did not have to begin building bridges to one another; those bridges had never been destroyed during the war” (195). Buskirk used “family letters, diaries, memoirs, soldier pensions, Loyalist claims, committee records, laws, newspapers, and church and meeting records” (5) to support her study. Clearly, she utilized primaries to allow her subjects to tell their story. Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. 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Open main menu Wikipedia β (Redirected from Bell-founding) The process in East Asia dates to about 2000 BCE[1] and in Europe dates to the 4th or 5th century. In Britain Archaeological excavations of churchyards have revealed furnaces, which suggests that bells were often cast on site in pits dug in the building grounds or within the church. Before the nineteenth century, bellfounders tended to be itinerant, travelling from church to church to cast bells on site. More centralized foundries were established on foundation of railways. There are however examples of foundries producing bells prior to this, such as the Whitechapel Bell Foundry and John Taylor & Co of Loughborough. High-quality bells are normally made by casting bell metal (a high-tin bronze alloy) in a mould appropriate for the intended pitch of the bell. Further fine tuning of such bells is performed on a lathe where metal is cut from the inside of the bell in order to produce a true tone with correct harmonics. Bellfounding has been important throughout the history of ancient civilizations. Eastern bells, known for their tremendous size, were some of the earliest bells, cast many centuries before the European Iron Age. The earliest bells were made of pottery, developing later into the casting of metal bells.[2] Archaeological evidence of bellfounding appears in Neolithic China. The earliest metal bells, with one found in the Taosi site, and four in the Erlitou site, are dated to about 2000 BCE.[1] Portable bells came to Britain with the spread of Celtic Christianity, and most of those still remaining share an association with Scotland, Wales and Ireland.[3] Bells are traditionally cast in foundries for use in churches, clocks, and public buildings. A practitioner of the craft is called a bellfounder or bellmaker. Bellfounding in Britain, as with other scientific crafts, had its origins with monasticism and throughout the early mediaeval period and in centuries following, it was carried out predominantly by monks.[4][3] Large bells in England are mentioned by Bede as early as 670 CE and by the seventh or eighth century the use of bells had become incorporated into church services. Nearly 200 years later, in the tenth century is the first record of a complete peal of bells.[3] The chronologies of the abbot Ingulf suggest that Thurcytel, the first Abbot of Crowland, presented the Abbey with a bell named Guthlac, after which his successor, Egelric the Elder cast an additional six bells—two large, two of medium size and two small—to complete a peal of seven.[3] The same period saw other ecclesiastics involved in the founding of bells. St. Dunstan, “The Chief of Monks”, was an expert worker in metals and known bell caster. Two bells were cast under his direction at Abingdon which also held two others cast by St. Ethelwold.[5] Methods of moulding by lost-wax casting were described by the thirteenth-century Benedictine monk Walter de Odyngton of Evesham Abbey.[3] Bellfounding as a regular trade followed later. Independent craftsmen set up small, permanent foundries in towns. Although these attracted trade from the surrounding countryside, mediaeval founders did not confine themselves to bellmaking as their only source of livelihood. Instead, they often combined it with related trades, such as metal ware, utensil manufacturing and gunmaking.[6] Some founders were itinerant, traveling from church to church to cast bells on site; but the majority had settled works in large towns. Among other places London, Gloucester, Salisbury, Bury St Edmunds, Norwich, and Colchester were seats of eminent foundries.[4] These early bells had tonal discrepancies; a result of their weight and alloy composition as well as uniform thickness and profile—where the height was disproportionate to the diameter. The next century brought advances in all aspects of bellfounding where a better understanding of principles of bell design contributed to the introduction of a superior shape. The angles at the crown and soundbow were gradually flattened out and the waist became shorter, flaring toward the mouth. Although tuning methods were still uncertain and empirical, sets of bells in diatonic sequence were installed at important parish churches and monasteries.[6] Archaeological excavations of churchyards in Britain have revealed furnaces, which suggests that bells were often cast on site in pits dug in the building grounds.[7] Great Tom of Lincoln Cathedral was cast in the Minster yard in 1610, and the great bell of Canterbury in the Cathedral yard in 1762.[7] When the casting was complete, a tower was built over the casting pit, and the bell raised directly up into the tower.[8] In some instances, such as in Kirkby Malzeard and Haddenham the bells were actually cast in the church.[7] Bellfounding is a process that in Europe dates to the 4th or 5th century.[9] In early times, when a town produced a bell it was a momentous occasion in which the whole community would participate. The Tsar Bell showing crack caused by low melting point during casting Bell metalEdit Bells for the intention of producing functional sound are usually made by casting bell metal, an alloy of bronze. Much experimentation with composition has existed throughout history; the bells of Henry II had nearly twice as much copper as tin, while much earlier Assyrian bronze bells had ten times the amount of copper to tin.[10] The recognized best composition for bell metal though is a ratio of approximately 80 per cent copper and 20 per cent tin.[11] Bell metal of these ratios has been used for more than 3,000 years and is known for its resonance and "attractive sound".[12] Tin and copper are relatively soft metals that will deform on striking. By alloying, a harder and more rigid metal is created but also one with more elasticity than the use of one alone.[12] This allows for a better resonance and causes the bell to "vibrate like a spring when struck", a necessary quality as the clapper may strike at speeds of up to 600 miles per hour. The forces holding the tin and copper together cause vibrations rather than cracks when the bell is struck which creates a resonant tone.[12] This metal combination also results in a tough, long-wearing material that is resistant to oxidation and subject only to an initial surface weathering. Verdigris forms a protective patina on the surface of the bell which coats it against further oxidation.[8] The hardest and strongest bronze contains large amounts of tin and little lead though an alloy with more than 25 per cent tin will have a low melting point and become brittle and susceptible to cracking.[8][13] This low melting point proved to be the nemesis of Russia's third attempt at casting the Tsar Bell from 1733 to 1735.[8] The bell was never rung, and a huge slab cracked off (11.5 tons) during a fire in the Kremlin in 1737 before it could ever be raised from its casting pit. Burning timber fell into the casting pit, and the decision was whether to let it burn and risk melting the bell or pour water on it and risk causing it cracking from cooling it too quickly. The latter risk was chosen and, as feared, because of the low melting point of the bronze and uneven cooling, the bell was damaged.[14] The present bell is sometimes referred to as Kolokol III (Bell III), because it is the third recasting; remnants from the old bell were melted down and the metal reused to cast the new bell. This practice was fairly commonplace, as the metal materials were very costly.[13][15] Bell metal was considered so valuable that the first bronze coins for England were made in France out of melted-down old bells.[16] Other metalsEdit Other materials occasionally used for bell casting are brass or iron. Steel was tried during the busy church-building period of mid-nineteenth England, for its economy over bronze, but was found not to be durable and manufacture ceased in the 1870s.[17] They have also been made of glass, but although bells of this type produced a successful tone, this substance being very brittle was unable to withstand the continued use of the clapper.[16] By popular tradition the bell metal contained gold and silver, as component parts of the alloy, as it is recorded that rich and devout people threw coins into the furnace when bells were cast in the churchyard. The practice was believed to improve the tone of the bell. This however is probably erroneous as there are no authentic analyses of bell metal, ancient or modern, which show that gold or silver has ever been used as a component part of the alloy. If used to any great extent, the addition would injure the tone not improve it.[16][18] Small quantities of other metals found in old bell metal are likely to be impurities in the metals used to form the alloy.[16] Decorative bells can be made of such materials as horn, wood, and clay.[13] Manufacturing processEdit Casting bells by pouring molten metal into the moulds The craft of casting bells has remained essentially the same since the 12th century; bells are cast mouth down, in a two-part mould consisting of the core, and the shell, or cope, clamped to a base-plate.[19][13] There are variations in the process, principally in the quality-control standards.[12] Measurement and templatingEdit Firstly the bell design is calculated to precise specifications where the bellmaker determines the shape the bell will need to take in order to resonate with the proper number of vibrations and create the right pitch. The bell pattern is then cut out in two wooden templates called "strickle boards". One matches the dimensions of the outer bell (called the case or cope); the other matches that of the inner bell (called the core). The boards are used to create the inner and outer moulds of the final bell.[13] Bell moulds in the bell museum (Glockenmuseum) in Gescher, Germany Constructing the mouldEdit An exact model of the outer bell, sometimes called a false bell, is built on a base-plate using porous materials such as coke, stone, or brick. It is then covered first with sand or loam (sometimes mixed with straw and horse manure). This is given a profile corresponding to the outside shape of the finished bell and dried with gentle heat. The false bell is then covered with molten wax and figures and inscriptions, also made of wax, applied on top by hand. The false bell is painted over with three coats of fireproof clay and then enclosed by a steel mantle overcasing. The empty space between the false bell and the mantle is filled in with cement and left to harden before the mantle is lifted off. The false bell is chipped away from the inner core to leave the wax and cement. Any leftover scraps of the false bell are removed with a blow torch. The mould is then set over a coke fire to melt the remaining wax and evaporate any water that has accumulated.[13] A model of the inner bell is then constructed of stone and coated with fireproof cement. It is then smoothed to remove any irregularities.[13] Instead of using a steel mantle and cement, the inner and outer moulds can also be made completely out of loam. In that case, the moulds are usually constructed inside out - first the inner mould on top of a coke, stone, or brick core, then the false bell including wax decorations as above, and finally the outer mould with added iron ring and fiber (e.g. hemp) reinforcements. Separating agents are used to prevent the false bell from sticking too closely to both of the moulds. Finally, after lifting up the outer mould, the false bell can be destroyed and the outer mould lowered back down onto the inner mould, ready for casting.[20] Bell casting mould demonstrating the process at the Technical Museum Vienna, Austria, showing the mould being closed by lowering the lined case over the core. The two sections must correspond precisely or the bell cannot be uniform in shape and thickness. Casting the bellEdit After the outer steel mantle has been cleaned, it is again lowered over the outer bell model. The mantle and the outer bell mould are then lowered over the inner mould and the outer and inner sections are clamped together, leaving a space between them. The clamped mould is supported by being buried in a casting pit which bears the weight of metal and allows even cooling.[21] Ingots of either ready-made bronze or its component metals are melted in a melting furnace and heated until liquid at a temperature of approximately 1,100 °C (2,010 °F). The liquid metal is then skimmed to remove impurities. When everything is ready, the molten bronze is transferred to the moulds using either ladles or a system of brick channels specially constructed in the casting pit, through which the hot metal can then flow from the melting furnace into the space between the two moulds.[20] Holes in the top of the mantle ensure that gases are able to escape. If gas remained in the metal, the bell would be porous and susceptible to cracking.[13] Porousness can also develop if the mould is damp, is not at the proper temperature, or the metal, when poured, is not hot enough. The bell is allowed to cool for several days. Large bells can take over a week to cool. Small bells, those under 500 pounds (230 kg), can be removed from the moulding pit the following day.[22] After the bell and equipment have cooled, the mould, containing the newly cast bell, is raised from the pit by the projecting trunnions of the bell case. The core plate is unclamped and the core broken out. The bell is then carefully extracted from the case. At this stage, any remaining loam adhered to the bell is brushed away and flash (excess metal), which may have formed below the bell's rim—owing to mould contraction in the presence of hot metal—is trimmed off. This completes the casting process.[23] Bells are manufactured with exact formulas, so that using the diameter it is possible to calculate precisely every dimension of the bell, and in turn its note or tone. Much experimentation and testing have been devoted to determining the exact shape that will resonate the best tone. In general, the smaller the bell the higher the pitch, with the frequency of a bell's note varying with the square of its thickness and inversely with its diameter.[16] The thickness of a church bell at its thickest part (the "sound bow") is usually one thirteenth its diameter.[8] If the bell is mounted as cast, it is called a "maiden bell". Russian bells are treated in this way and cast for a certain tone.[8] "Tuned bells", which were common practice in Britain and Europe, are worked after casting to produce a precise note.[24] In the early days of bellfounding, bells were tuned using an imprecise method whereby the inside of the bell or edge of the lip was chipped away.[24] With the improvement of machinery, this was done using a lathe. The bell is cast with slightly thicker sides before being inverted and gripped by vices to keep it perfectly firm. The bell is then ground as it rotates on a circular lathe to acquire the precise tone. The bell tuner must be highly skilled as it takes years of experience to know how much metal to remove. By this means, bells can be very accurately tuned. In casting, the tone of the bell is best left sharp because it is much easier to flatten the tone. A bell may readily be flattened one-eighth of a tone or even more, but it cannot be sharpened so much; indeed, any sharpening is to be deprecated and if at all possible should be avoided. The bell tone is tested frequently during the tuning process usually with tuning forks or an electronic stroboscopic tuning device commonly called a strobe tuner, which registers the vibrations as the bell is struck. If the tone is too low, the lathe operator grinds more metal off the lower edge. If the tone is too high, the bell is thinned with a file.[13] The bell's strongest harmonics are tuned to be at octave intervals below the nominal note, but other notes also need to be brought into their proper relationship.[25] Cutaway drawing of a bell, showing the clapper and interior Fitting the clapperEdit The clapper or tongue is manufactured in a similar process as the bell. Special care is given to cast the clapper at the proper weight, as a clapper that is too light will not bring out the true tones of the bell and a heavy clapper might cause the bell to crack.[13] Holes are drilled into the top of the bell, and the clapper is attached to the inside of the bell either by a metal link or a leather strap. Finally the bell is installed in the tower.[8] See alsoEdit • Benjamin Hanks (1755–1824), goldsmith, instrument maker, and first maker of bronze cannons and church bells in America.[26] • Video of how a bell is made [1] • Video explaining bell Tuning [2] 1. ^ a b Falkenhausen (1994), 132, Appendix I pp. 329, 342. 2. ^ Lothar Von Falkenhausen (1993). Suspended Music: Chime Bells in the Culture of Bronze Age China. University of California Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-520-07378-4. Retrieved 8 February 2013. China seems to have produced the earliest bells anywhere in the world... the earliest metal bells may have been derived from pottery prototypes, which seem to go back to the late stage of the Yang-Shao culture (early third millennium BC) 3. ^ a b c d e Jennings 1988, p. 3. 4. ^ a b "The book of days: a miscellany of popular antiquities in connection with the calendar, including anecdote, biography, & history, curiosities of literature and oddities of human life and character, Volume 1". W. & R. Chambers. 1863: 301. Retrieved 2011-03-27. 5. ^ Laxton, William (1841). "The Civil engineer and architect's journal, Volume 4". Published for the proprietor, Frederick William Laxton, by John Knott: 376. Retrieved 2011-03-27. 6. ^ a b Jennings 1988, p. 4. 7. ^ a b c Haddy, S.; Starmer, W. W. (1918). "Bell Casting". The Musical Times. Musical Times Publications Ltd. 59 (901): 113. JSTOR 909589. doi:10.2307/909589. 8. ^ a b c d e f g John Burnett. "Blagovest Bells- How Bells Are Made". Blagovest Bells. Retrieved 2011-03-27. 9. ^ Milham 1945. 10. ^ Coleman 1928, p. 59. 11. ^ "bell metal". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-03-27. 12. ^ a b c d Johnston 1986. 13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "How bell is made". How Products Are Made: Volume 2. Advameg Inc. 2010. Retrieved 2011-03-27. 14. ^ John Burnett. "Blagovest Bells- The World’s Three Largest Bells". Blagovest Bells. Retrieved 2011-03-27. 15. ^ Bill Hibbert (2001). "The Sound of Bells: Mears and Stainbank catalogue of about 1920". Retrieved 2011-03-27. 16. ^ a b c d e Starmer 1901, p. 29. 17. ^ Jennings 1988, p. 8. 18. ^ Starmer, W. W. (1916). "The Great Bell of Moscow". The Musical Times. Musical Times Publications Ltd. 57 (884): 441. JSTOR 910209. doi:10.2307/910209. 19. ^ Jennings 1988, p. 10. 20. ^ a b Maiwald, Armin (1991). "Glocke". Die Sendung mit der Maus (in German). ARD. WDR. 21. ^ Jennings 1988, p. 11. 22. ^ Coleman 1928, p. 68. 23. ^ Jennings 1988, p. 15. 24. ^ a b Starmer 1901, p. 30. 25. ^ Jennings 1988, p. 21. Literature citedEdit • Coleman, Satis Narrona (1928). Bells, their history, legends, making, and uses. Rand, McNally & Company. ISBN 978-1-4047-9112-1. Retrieved 2012-09-08. • Johnston, Ron (1986). Bell-ringing: The English Art of Change-Ringing. Great Britain: Viking. pp. 40–41. ISBN 0-670-80176-3. • Jennings, Trevor S. (1988). Bellfounding. Princes Risborough, England: Shire. ISBN 0-85263-911-2. • Milham, Willis Isbister (1945). Time & timekeepers: including the history, construction, care, and accuracy of clocks and watches. The Macmillan Company. pp. 313–318. ISBN 0-7808-0008-7. • Starmer, W. W. (1901). "Bells and Bell Tones". Proceedings of the Musical Association, 28th Sess. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Royal Musical Association. 28: 25–44. JSTOR 765451. doi:10.1093/jrma/28.1.25.	<urn:uuid:d5caff76-e4bf-4860-b237-88bea1a8f186>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.036262691020965576, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9400266408920288, "url": "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell-founding" }
Webster tells you all you need to know, but the difference between a 9th and an add9 chord should probably be clarified. Simply, where ninth chords such as F9 require the inclusion of the dominant seventh, chords such as F add9 should not have the seventh. Hence, the notes in F add9 are F A C G, and the notes in Fm add9 are F Ab C G. Ninth (?), a. [From Nine; cf. AS. nigo&edh;a.] Following the eight and preceding the tenth; coming after eight others. Constituting or being one of nine equal parts into which anything is divided. © Webster 1913. Ninth, n. The quotient of one divided by nine; one of nine equal parts of a thing; the next after the eighth. 2. Mus. (a) An interval containing an octave and a second. A chord of the dominant seventh with the ninth added. © Webster 1913.	<urn:uuid:26e35e86-50b7-4adc-a6a1-d7c17fc3f5e8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.03917562961578369, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9159281253814697, "url": "https://everything2.com/title/Ninth" }
Slide Show Revealing the Underground Railroad Credit Jeanine Michna-Bales From Slavery to Freedom: Revealing the Underground Railroad What would it mean to shed light on a part of history that remains largely invisible because it was conducted in secret and under cover of night? This was the challenge faced by Colson Whitehead, for example, in his award-winning novel, “The Underground Railroad.” A clandestine and loosely organized network of activists, safe houses and secret routes, the actual Underground Railroad shepherded as many as 100,000 slaves to freedom in the six decades before the Civil War. Its route would eventually traverse free states from Maine to Iowa, extending as far north as Canada. Through the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom program, a number of associated sites along the route have been identified and preserved. We also know the names of some of the brave black and white “conductors” who guided fugitive slaves, and “station masters” who ran safe houses in barns, churches, homes, caves or dug-out riverbanks. But the visual experiences of this journey have remained relatively obscure. In Mr. Whitehead’s novel, which tells the story of a teenage slave named Cora, an abiding metaphor allowed him to summon a magical, dreamlike vision of this passage: He imagined the Underground Railroad as an actual train operated by engineers and conductors, transporting fugitives beneath the southern soil to liberation in the North. For the photographer Jeanine Michna-Bales, however, the challenge was more concrete: how to portray the paths and havens that, two centuries ago, had functioned as an itinerary for emancipation. “Tracking the Deer.” Skirting the Osburn Stand, Mississippi, 2014.Credit Jeanine Michna-Bales Ms. Michna-Bales’s quest has led to an evocative book, “Through Darkness to Light: Photographs along the Underground Railroad” (Princeton Architectural Press). While much has been written about the subject, there has been little visual documentation, an absence that makes the book even more consequential, both from the standpoint of history and of our contemporary understanding of slavery in pre-Civil War America. The book also includes a foreword by Andrew J. Young, a civil rights leader, a history of the Railroad by the historian Fergus M. Bordewich, and a recounting of the journeys of three former slaves, including Frederick Douglass, by the scholar Eric R. Jackson. In her book, Ms. Michna-Bales envisions a single passage north, from Louisiana to Ontario. Her photographs are dark, atmospheric and haunting, depicting the 1,400-mile trek through forests, swamps, safe houses and other refuges along the way. They evoke both a sense of the adventure and peril of this journey, one that would have dire consequences if unsuccessful. “Growing up in the Midwest, the Underground Railroad was understandably an important part of our school curriculum given that some of the routes ran literally through our backyards,” wrote Ms. Michna-Bales. “I became fascinated with the topic and often imagined what it must have been like to walk thousands of miles for the chance to be free.” Years later, Ms. Michna-Bales, who is white and among a small number of white artists committed to exploring the issues of race in America, began to imagine “what the journey north to freedom on the Underground Railroad would have looked like through the eyes of one individual.” While conducting research at the Indiana Historical Society library she stumbled on a “gold mine” — a clip file that contained newspaper articles, photocopies of research papers, and other documents relating to the Railroad. In the early Fall of 2012, while visiting her husband’s family in Tennessee, Ms. Michna-Bales made her first photographs in the series. “I had some prints made after returning home, and one image stood out,” she recalled in the book. “It was a forest at night that evoked such a sense of mystery and foreboding that I knew this was exactly how I wanted to shoot the entire series.” “Follow the Tracks to the First Creek.” Just outside Richland, which had been a free black community. Stone Arch Railroad Bridge, Vernon, Indiana, 2013.Credit Jeanine Michna-Bales Her photo essay progresses dramatically: a ramshackle cabin on the Magnolia Plantation in Louisiana glows against the backdrop of the night sky; a slave cemetery in Jefferson County, Miss.; an upward and hopeful glance at a star-filled sky in Colbert County, Ala.; twisted thicket emerging from the forest floor in Tennessee; the first view of a free state, the gently rolling hills along the Ohio River crossing into Indiana; the “Old Slave House,” which belonged to the Rev. Guy Beckley in Lower Town, Mich.; and finally, freedom, represented as verdant trees photographed against a bright but cloudy sky in Sarnia, Ontario. These dark and brooding photographs also evoke the radical underground’s groundbreaking activism: though devoid of people, they suggest the acts of bravery done in the shadow of an ever-powerful and dangerous white supremacy. “The Underground Railroad has been described as the first civil rights movement in the United States because it blurred racial, gender, religious and socio-economic lines and united people in the common cause of ending the injustice of slavery,” wrote Mr. Young. There is one striking difference, however, between the two movements: If the modern struggle for civil rights was arguably the most visually documented American political movement of its time, the Underground Railroad was undoubtedly one of the least. To a certain extent, Ms. Michna-Bales’s compelling images help resolve this discrepancy and, in so doing, allow us to better imagine and grasp the Railroad’s physical and human dimension. “I began to understand along the way that there were so many different people who made up the Underground Railroad, from freedom-seekers themselves to other slaves, free blacks, abolitionists, Quakers, Presbyterians, the wealthy, the poor, female, male,” wrote Ms. Michna-Bales. “My hope is that this project will help illuminate the darkened corners of our shared history and show us that when we work together great things can be accomplished. As Frederick Douglass may have wished, may we all come together through the darkness into the light.” Pictures of the Week View all Pictures of the Week	<urn:uuid:c791937a-06e8-4060-8cbb-a073963f8a31>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 4.1875, "fasttext_score": 0.03013908863067627, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9554011225700378, "url": "https://lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2017/03/29/from-slavery-to-freedom-revealing-the-underground-railroad/" }
Syndicate content The “plastic bridge”: a low-cost, high-impact solution to address climate risk Oliver Whalley's picture Also available in: Français Photo: Anthony Doudt/Flickr Bridges are critical links in the transport network. In their position across waterways, they are exposed to the full effects of flooding and landslides, and are often the first pieces of infrastructure to be damaged in the event of a disaster. They also typically take weeks or months to repair. Besides causing expensive damage to the infrastructure itself, disruptions in connectivity also have a much broader impact on economic productivity and people’s ability to access essential services. As many places are expected to witness more intense and frequent rainfall as a result of climate change, the risk to bridges will only worsen: more rainfall will lead to bigger river flows and more damage to bridges, especially those designed to handle smaller storms. At each end of a bridges is a structure which supports the weight of the deck. These are known as abutments, and they are often the first part of the bridge to fail. Blockage of the main channel by debris can cause water to look for the path of least resistance around the sides of the bridges, thus placing the abutments at risk. Traditional bridge construction requires the installation of piles for the foundations of abutments—a lengthy and expensive process that involves specialist materials, skills and equipment. But there is another promising solution: Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil (GRS) abutments. These allow for rapid and resilient construction of bridge abutments using locally available materials, without specialized equipment. With GRS, bridges can be constructed in as little as five days (Von Handorf, 2013) and at a cost 30-50% lower than traditional approaches (Tonkin and Taylor, 2016) . GRS abutments are based on ‘geogrids,’ a high density mesh made out of polyethylene (plastic). Layers of soil and geogrid are combined to create a solid foundation for the bridge deck. Construction can be completed with basic earthmoving and compaction equipment, and a range of local fill materials can be used with guidance from geotechnical specialists.	<urn:uuid:857bf6ea-195e-40f6-a243-c275a6c1f6e6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.06350511312484741, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9529419541358948, "url": "http://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/category/tags/bridges" }
09 February 2017 Lesson 8 - Number time Today we looked at numbers in Latin and in Ancient Greek, and discovered that they're still all around us in the modern world. Firstly, Latin, where we played a game of Word Roots Challenge, trying to find as many English words that come from... This then led to several of the students asking, puzzedly, "If 'octo' means eight, then why isn't October the eighth month?" Two reasons for the confusion: (1) Romans started their year in March, and (2) these guys inserted their not-immodest egos into our calendars and got rid of the names for months 5 (Quintilis) and 6 (Sextilis). Julius Caesar (July) Augustus aka Octavian (August) For more details behind the months' names, click here. We then turned our attention to Ancient Greek numbers. This time, working in reverse, we used English words as clues to help us work out Greek numerals: This then led to another discussion about words ending '-athlon' (e.g. triathlon, pentathlon, decathlon): 'athlon' means 'competition' or 'contest' in Ancient Greek, so the number before it denotes how many competitions, or events, there are.	<urn:uuid:b94d5ffa-3529-48b4-9fe4-da9242071695>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.04307204484939575, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9505147933959961, "url": "http://gcaclassicsclub.blogspot.co.uk/2017/02/lesson-8-number-time.html" }
AskDefine \| Define aquifer Dictionary Definition aquifer n : underground bed or layer yielding ground water for wells and springs etc User Contributed Dictionary Latin aqui- + Latin -fer aquifer (plural: aquifers) 1. An underground layer of water-bearing porous stone, earth, or gravel The water from the well came from an aquifer. an underground layer of water-bearing porous stone, earth, or gravel See also Extensive Definition An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, silt, or clay) from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Related terms include: an aquitard, which is an impermeable layer along an aquifer, and an aquiclude (or aquifuge), which is a solid, impermeable area beneath an aquifer. The surface of saturated material in an aquifer is known as the water table. Shallow aquifers Aquifers can occur at various depths.Those closer to the surface are not only more likely to be exploited for water supply and irrigation, but are also more likely to be topped up by the local rainfall. Many desert areas have limestone hills or mountains within them or close to them which can be exploited as groundwater resources. Parts of the Atlas Mountains in North Africa, the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges of Syria, Israel and Lebanon, the Jebel Akhdar (Oman) in Oman, parts of the Sierra Nevada and neighbouring ranges in the United State's South West, have shallow aquifers which are exploited for their water. Over exploitation can lead to the exceeding of the practical sustained yield, i.e. more water is taken out than can be replenished. Along the coastlines of certain countries, such as Libya and Israel, population growth has led to over-population which has caused the lowering of water table and the subsequent contamination of the groundwater with saltwater from the sea (saline intrusions). This diagram indicates typical flow directions in a cross-sectional view of a simple confined/unconfined aquifer system. The system shows two aquifers with one aquitard (a confining or impermeable layer), between them, surrounded by the bedrock aquiclude, which is in contact with a gaining stream (typical in humid regions). The water table and unsaturated zone are also illustrated. An aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. An aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitards are composed of layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity. Saturated versus unsaturated Groundwater can be found at nearly every point in the earth's shallow subsurface, to some degree; although aquifers do not necessarily contain fresh water. The earth's crust can be divided into two regions: the saturated zone or phreatic zone (e.g., aquifers, aquitards, etc.), where all available spaces are filled with water, and the unsaturated zone (also called the aeration), where there are still pockets of air with some water that can be replaced by water. Saturated means the pressure head of the water is greater than atmospheric pressure (it has a gauge pressure > 0). The definition of the water table is surface where the pressure head is equal to atmospheric pressure (where gauge pressure =0). Unsaturated conditions occur above the water table where the pressure head is negative (absolute pressure can never be negative, but gauge pressure can) and the water which incompletely fills the pores of the aquifer material is under suction. The water content in the unsaturated zone is held in place by surface adhesive forces and it rises above the water table (the zero gauge pressure isobar) by capillary action to saturate a small zone above the phreatic surface (the capillary fringe) at less than atmospheric pressure. This is termed tension saturation and is not the same as saturation on a water content basis. Water content in a capillary fringe decreases with increasing distance from the phreatic surface. The capillary head depends on soil pore size. In sandy soils with larger pores the head will be less than in clay soils with very small pores. The normal capillary rise in a clayey soil is less than 1.80 m (six feet) but can range between 0.3 and 10 m (1 and 30 ft). The capillary rise of water in a small diameter tube is this same physical process. The water table is the level to which water will rise in a large diameter pipe (e.g. a well) which goes down into the aquifer and is open to the atmosphere. Aquifers versus aquitards Aquifers are typically saturated regions of the subsurface which produce an economically feasible quantity of water to a well or spring (e.g., sand and gravel or fractured bedrock often make good aquifer materials). An aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. An aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitards comprise layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity. In mountainous areas (or near rivers in mountainous areas), the main aquifers are typically unconsolidated alluvium. They are typically composed of mostly horizontal layers of materials deposited by water processes (rivers and streams), which in cross-section (looking at a two-dimensional slice of the aquifer) appear to be layers of alternating coarse and fine materials. Coarse materials, because of the high energy needed to move them, tend to be found nearer the source (mountain fronts or rivers), while the fine-grained material will make it farther from the source (to the flatter parts of the basin or overbank areas - sometimes called the pressure area). Since there are less fine-grained deposits near the source, this is a place where aquifers are often unconfined (sometimes called the forebay area), or in hydraulic communication with the land surface. Confined versus unconfined There are two end members in the spectrum of types of aquifers; confined and unconfined (with semi-confined being in between). Unconfined aquifers are sometimes also called water table or phreatic aquifers, because their upper boundary is the water table or phreatic surface. (See Biscayne Aquifer.) Typically (but not always) the shallowest aquifer at a given location is unconfined, meaning it does not have a confining layer (an aquitard or aquiclude) between it and the surface. Unconfined aquifers usually receive recharge water directly from the surface, from precipitation or from a body of surface water (e.g., a river, stream, or lake) which is in hydraulic connection with it. Confined aquifers have the water table above their upper boundary (an aquitard or aquiclude), and are typically found below unconfined aquifers. The term "perched" refers to ground water accumulating above a low-permeability unit or strata, such as a clay layer. This term is generally used to refer to a small local area of ground water that occurs at an elevation higher than a regionally-extensive aquifer. The difference between perched and unconfined aquifers is their size (perched is smaller). If the distinction between confined and unconfined is not clear geologically (i.e., if it is not known if a clear confining layer exists, or if the geology is more complex, e.g., a fractured bedrock aquifer), the value of storativity returned from an aquifer test can be used to determine it (although aquifer tests in unconfined aquifers should be interpreted differently than confined ones). Confined aquifers have very low storativity values (much less than 0.01, and as little as 10-5), which means that the aquifer is storing water using the mechanisms of aquifer matrix expansion and the compressibility of water, which typically are both quite small quantities. Unconfined aquifers have storativities (typically then called specific yield) greater than 0.01 (1% of bulk volume); they release water from storage by the mechanism of actually draining the pores of the aquifer, releasing relatively large amounts of water (up to the drainable porosity of the aquifer material, or the minimum volumetric water content). A common misconception is that groundwater exists in underground rivers (e.g. caves where water flows freely underground). This is only sometimes true in eroded limestone areas known as karst topography which make up only a small percentage of Earth's area. More usual is that the pore spaces of rocks in the subsurface are simply saturated with water — like a kitchen sponge — which can be pumped out and used for agricultural, industrial or municipal uses. The beach provides a model to help visualize an actual aquifer. If a hole is dug into the sand, very wet or saturated sand will be located at a shallow depth. This hole is a crude well, the wet sand represents an aquifer, and the level to which the water rises in this hole represents the water table. If a rock unit of low porosity is highly fractured, it can also make a good aquifer (via fissure flow). Porosity is important, but alone, it does not determine a rock's ability of being an aquifer. Areas of the Deccan Traps (a basaltic lava) in west central India are good examples. Similarly, the micro-porous (Upper Cretaceous) Chalk of south east England, although having a reasonably high porosity, has a low grain-to-grain permeability, with much of its good water-yielding characteristics being due to micro-fracturing and fissuring. Human dependence on groundwater Fresh water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by meteoric water, can be over-exploited and, depending on the local hydrogeology, may draw in non-potable water or saltwater (saltwater intrusion) from hydraulically connected aquifers or surface water bodies. This can be a serious problem especially in coastal areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. In some areas the ground water can be contaminated by mineral poisons, such as arsenic - see Arsenic contamination of groundwater. Aquifers that provide sustainable fresh groundwater to urban areas and for agricultural irrigation are typically close to the ground surface (within a couple of hundred meters) and have some recharge by fresh water. This recharge is typically from rivers or meteoric water (precipitation) that percolates into the aquifer through overlying unsaturated materials. In unconsolidated aquifers, groundwater is produced from pore spaces between particles of gravel, sand, and silt. If the aquifer is confined by low-permeability layers, the reduced water pressure in the sand and gravel causes slow drainage of water from the adjoining confining layers. If these confining layers are composed of compressible silt or clay, the loss of water to the aquifer reduces the water pressure in the confining layer, causing it to compress from the weight of overlying geologic materials. In severe cases, this compression can be observed on the ground surface as subsidence. Unfortunately, much of the subsidence from groundwater extraction is permanent (elastic rebound is small). Thus the subsidence is not only permanent, but the compressed aquifer has a permanently-reduced capacity to hold water. Saltwater intrusion Aquifers near the coast have a lens of freshwater near the surface and denser seawater under freshwater. Seawater penetrates the aquifer diffusing in from the ocean and is more dense than freshwater. For porous (i.e. sandy) aquifers near the coast, the thickness of freshwater atop saltwater is about for every 1 ft of freshwater head above sea level. This relationship is called the Ghyben-Herzberg equation. If too much ground water is pumped near the coast, salt-water may intrude into freshwater aquifers causing contamination of potable freshwater supplies. Many coastal aquifers, such as the Biscayne Aquifer near Miami and the New Jersey Coastal Plain aquifer, have problems with saltwater intrusion as a result of overpumping. An example of a significant and sustainable carbonate aquifer is the Edwards Aquifer in central Texas. This carbonate aquifer has historically been providing high-quality water for nearly 2 million people and, even today, is completely full because of tremendous recharge from a number of area streams, rivers and lakes. The primary risk to this resource is human development over the recharge areas. One of the largest aquifers in the world is the Guarani Aquifer, with 1.2 million km² of area, shared by Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. Aquifer depletion is a problem in some areas, and is especially critical in northern Africa; see the Great Manmade River project of Libya for an example. However, new methods of groundwater management such as artificial recharge and injection of surface waters during seasonal wet periods has extended the life of many freshwater aquifers, especially in the United States. • The Great Artesian Basin is one of the largest groundwater aquifers in the world. It plays a large part in water supplies for remote parts of South Australia. North America • United States - The Ogallala Aquifer of the central United States is one of the world's great aquifers, but in places it is being rapidly depleted by growing municipal use, and continuing agricultural use. This huge aquifer, which underlies portions of eight states, contains primarily fossil water from the time of the last glaciation. Annual recharge, in the more arid portions of the aquifer, is estimated to total only about ten percent of annual withdrawals. • United States - The Mahomet Aquifer supplies water to some 800,000 people in central Illinois and contains approximately four trillion US gallons (15 km³) of water. The Mahomet Aquifer Consortium was formed in 1998 to study the aquifer with hopes of ensuring the water supply and reducing potential user conflicts. • United States - The state of Washington has numerous large aquifers, as shown in this map of the Hydrogeology of Washington State. aquifer in Catalan: Aqüífer aquifer in German: Grundwasserleiter aquifer in Spanish: Acuífero aquifer in French: Aquifère aquifer in Galician: Acuífero aquifer in Hebrew: אקוויפר aquifer in Lithuanian: Vandeningas sluoksnis aquifer in Dutch: Aquifer aquifer in Japanese: 帯水層 aquifer in Polish: Warstwa wodonośna aquifer in Portuguese: Aqüífero aquifer in Simple English: Aquifer aquifer in Slovak: Akvifer aquifer in Sundanese: Aquifer aquifer in Swedish: Akvifär aquifer in Turkish: Akifer Privacy Policy, About Us, Terms and Conditions, Contact Us Material from Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Dict Valid HTML 4.01 Strict, Valid CSS Level 2.1	<urn:uuid:5d6739ee-b70a-4a2d-8da5-f8dfef2c3596>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.27418041229248047, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9365501999855042, "url": "https://aquifer.askdefine.com/" }
Rot13 is a coding method of the alphabet.As its name suggest,rotate the alphabet by thirteen place. code: cypher ab no unpx hack ROT13 has been described as the "Usenet equivalent of a magazine printing the answer to a quiz upside down".[1] ROT13 is a variation of the Caesar cipher, developed in ancient Rome. ROT13 is its own inverse; that is, to undo ROT13, the same algorithm is applied, so the same action can be used for encoding and decoding. The algorithm provides no real cryptographic security and is not normally used for such. It is often cited as a canonical example of weak encryption. ROT13 has inspired a variety of letter and word games on-line, and is frequently mentioned in newsgroup conversations. Applying ROT13 to a piece of text merely requires examining its alphabetic characters and replacing each one by the letter 13 places further along in the alphabet, wrapping back to the beginning if necessary.[2] A becomes N, B becomes O, and so on up to M, which becomes Z, then the sequence reverses: N becomes A, O becomes B, and so on to Z, which becomes M. Only those letters which occur in the English alphabet are affected; numbers, symbols, whitespace, and all other characters are left unchanged. Because there are 26 letters in the English alphabet and 26 = 2 × 13, the ROT13 function is its own inverse:[2] ROT13(ROT13(x)) = ROT26(x) = x for any text x. In other words, two successive applications of ROT13 restore the original text (in mathematics, this is sometimes called an involution; in cryptography, a reciprocal cipher). March 11, 2008 at 12:18 PM See Here March 16, 2008 at 1:42 AM	<urn:uuid:2bd77f98-5ad8-41b7-98c6-4cc96c5ad45c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.27386415004730225, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9326014518737793, "url": "http://mynetsecurity.blogspot.com/2008/03/rot13.html" }
prefect or praefect both: prē´fĕkt [key], in ancient Rome, various military and civil officers. Under the empire some prefects were very important. The Praetorian prefects (first appointed 2 BC) usually numbered two they commanded the powerful Praetorians . From the 2d cent. AD they had juridical functions, and important legists (e.g., Papinian and Ulpian) held the post. The prefect of the city was at first a deputy for absent consuls the office fell out of use but was revived by Julius Caesar. Under the empire this prefect had power over the summary court for the region within 100 mi (160 km) of Rome. The prefect of the watch had charge of the fire brigade set up by Augustus. Augustus also established a prefect of the grain supply. There were other officers called prefects, such as the Roman viceroy of Egypt and many other officials of Italian cities. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Ancient History, Rome Browse by Subject	<urn:uuid:40175039-37fd-418e-9510-5d078e698054>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.0888969898223877, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.948305606842041, "url": "https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/ancient-greece-and-rome/ancient-history-rome/prefect" }
SimuLab 9: The Deer Program and Population Dynamics The Deer program (see Java Applet Page, uses the 2-dimensional random walk to model the variations that occur in a deer population. A deer moves randomly on a field, eating the grass wherever it steps. Grass grows back in each eaten square after a certain amount of time. (Time is measured in steps: in one time step, every deer takes one random step.) Will the deer population grow or decline? A deer dies if it takes a specified number of steps in a row onto squares where the grass has been eaten and has not yet grown back. Every live deer has an offspring after another specified number of steps. Q3.42: What happens to the size of your deer population? Does it grow and grow? Does it increase, then decrease? Does it die out? Q3.43: Suppose you started again with a deer in exactly the same position. Would the population at every step of the second run be exactly the same as the first? Would the final result be the same? Now you are going to place a dozen deer in the field and let the program run as before. Before doing this, write down your predictions about what will happen: Will the initial population growth be different for 12 deer than for one deer? Will the final outcome be different for 12 deer than for one deer? Now start the program as before, but this time click at a dozen different points on the field. Then start the program by clicking outside the field. Q3.44: What happens to a deer that wanders off, say, the right-hand side of the field? Q3.45: Q45: Look back at your predictions for 12 deer. Were your predictions correct? Previous: HandsOn 12 - Random Walk in 2-Dimensions Next: 3.8 - Models in Science	<urn:uuid:81f1b416-c8b0-44af-aa4c-c5ca18249075>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.8111096024513245, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9061682820320129, "url": "http://polymer.bu.edu/ogaf/html/chp37lab1.htm" }
Emily Mis By Keith Burns,2014-12-29 13:55 13 views 0 Emily Mis Emily Mis Discrete Math Final Paper A Brief Look At the Four Color Theorem In the early 1850‟s, a law student named Francis Guthrie pondered over a map of England and noticed the following; on this particular map, each region could be colored using only four different colors such that each region would be designated a different color than the regions that were adjacent to it. (May, Mitchem, Calude, Brun) After making this observation, he wondered if this concept could be expanded to include all possible maps with any arrangement, and posed the question to his brother, Frederick. Not surprisingly, the observation made its way to DeMorgan, who posed the question to his class and even wrote of the observation to his friend Hamilton. Both men observed that they had not heard of a four-coloring theorem before, but while DeMorgan was interested in how one would go about proving its validity, Hamilton stated outright that “… [He was] not likely to attempt your „quaternion of color‟ very soon.” (May) It was not until almost 27 years later that a proof of the four-color theorem was attempted. In 1878, Cayley questioned the mathematical community about the state of affairs regarding a proof of the four-color theorem. (May) A year later, Alfred Bray Kempe published a proof of the four-color theorem. Though Kempe‟s proof failed to hold up to scrutiny, in the ten years after he published the proof, Kempe enjoyed fame, prestige, and was even knighted for his work on the four-color theorem. (Calude) His work also introduced what are now called Kempe‟s chains, a new concept that would later be the basis of the current proof. (Saaty) A B Figure 1: A shows a four-sided region R that has four regions (Regions 1 4) as its boundaries. Applying the four colors to the surrounding regions produces a partially colored graph that would require another color to be used for R in the current B utilizes Kempe‟s chains to change the color assignment of one of the regions in order to free up a color (in this case, color b) to be used in R without violating the four-color theorem. (Malkevitch) Kempe‟s chains are used by identifying a region that is at least four-sided and surrounded by at least 4 regions as the center of a ring. The members of the ring surrounding the central region are colored using four colors. When a contradiction is met, as in Figure 1A above, a pair of colors is evaluated. In the example above, the colors d and b are considered. If a chain of alternating colors d and b exist in the graph connecting two regions, then there must be a chain of alternating colors a and c. If no such chain exists of colors b and d, one of the colors is switched to its partner, allowing the central region to be colored in the resulting free color. (Malkevitch) When Heawood found Kempe‟s proof to be incomplete in 1890, the example with which he displayed Kempe‟s fault was in fact four-colorable. However, when Kempe‟s proof was applied to the graph Heawood was using to test the theorem, the method of determining the coloring resulted in an improper coloring. Heawood did not state that Kempe‟s original concepts were completely incorrect, but that the application of his concepts on every possible graph provided a counterexample. Peter G. Tait also wrote a proof in 1880, where he found an equivalent formulation of the four-color theorem in terms of three-edge coloring, which has been used in other mathematical equations and proofs, though his proof of the four-color theorem was found to be incomplete by Peterson in 1891. In terms of proof complexity, the four-color theorem is not a difficult theorem to understand. The four-color theorem was even used as the basis for a game for children created by Lewis Carrol, where a player draws a map in order to try and force the other player to use as many colors as possible, while the player filling in the map tries to color it using as few colors as possible. The difficulty in finding a correct proof for the four-color theorem is not in the comprehension of the problem, but in determining a mathematical proof that holds true for any size map with every possible arrangement of its members. As time progressed, many mathematicians provided proofs for the four-color theorem using limited sets of regions, but no proof was found that would hold true for a complete set of an infinite number of regions. In 1976, Mayer released a proof that was able to hold the four-color theorem true for a set size of 90 regions. As the four-color problem remained unsolved through time, the original conceptual basis for the theorem evolved. The first book on graph theory was published in 1936, and the inclusion of graph theory helped to generalize the four-color conjecture. Instead of looking at the question from a physical map and region-arrangement problem, the four-color theorem was rewritten in terms of planar graph theory. A region therefore became a vertex, and a boundary became an edge that connected two vertices. The theorem was generalized to the following: “In any plane graph each vertex can be assigned exactly one of four colors so that adjacent vertices have different colors.” A planar graph is defined as a graph drawn in a plane without any of its edges intersecting at a point other than a vertex. Figure 2. Both A and B are considered planar. Graph B is simple another representation of graph A, but graph B has been drawn to remove the intersecting edges. (Brun) It was not until 1976 that Appel and Haken released a proof of the four-color theorem that has not yet been disproved, but has acted as the catalyst for an ongoing debate over the nature of proofs. Appel and Haken‟s proof contained over 1200 hours of computational power and used an exhaustive validation of over 1400 examples in order to prove the theorem, using a computational check on each example to determine that it could be four-colored following the original rules of the conjecture. Appel and Haken, using concepts of reducibility and discharging, created an unavoidable set of configurations, or arrangements of vertices, that would have to be shown to be four-colorable. This unavoidable set is created in such a way that every possible configuration of vertices in a planar graph contained one of the members of this set. In their proof, Appel and Haken were able to show that if a configuration could be reduced to a sub graph that was four-colorable, the whole graph could be four colorable. Discharging is used to find regions of the configuration that could be four colorable. Each vertex in the configuration is given a charge based on its connectivity to other members of the configuration, and all charges add up to 12. By moving charges along the vertices to try to remove the positive and negative charges, the vertices that remain positively charged are good candidates for a region that could be reducible. Using these tools, Appel and Haken created a computer program containing thousands of lines of code to validate the four-color theorem. Their ultimate goal was to prove the theorem by removing the possibility of a counterexample. In 1996, a group of mathematicians formulated their own computer-based proof that reduced the unavoidable set size to 633 configurations. (Robertson et al) The proof utilized the work of Appel and Haken, but updated the algorithm used to determine reducibility and discharging, thereby simplifying the set of configurations that needed to be manually checked for the validity in four-coloring. Their rules for discharging especially aiding in the reduction in set size. Figure 3. A selection of rules for discharging the vertices in the configurations of the unavoidable set. The arrows imply the directionality of the charge-passing. (Robertson et al) The proof by Appel and Haken, though considered to be valid, has raised debate over computer-based proofs in general. The definition of a proof is “a sequence of statements, each of which is validly derived from those preceding it or is an axiom or assumption, and the final member of which, the conclusion, is the statement of which the truth is thereby established.” (Borowski) Since the Appel and Haken and subsequent proofs are not in the traditional format of a proof, and also rely upon large amounts of behind-the-scenes computation, many members of the mathematical field are still waiting for a proof of the four-color theorem that is in the traditional proof format. Questions also arise regarding the computational aspect of these proofs. The data sets are so large that a manual check of the configurations would be virtually impossible, which causes many mathematicians to question whether they can trust the results that were produced by the computer‟s calculations. Also, since this theorem was unanswered for so long, many people, mathematicians and otherwise, expect that the proof to this theorem would provide insights or new ideas in mathematics. An exhaustive check on hundreds of configurations does not, on the surface, appear to contribute to the mathematical community. Though the mathematical community does not completely disregard computer-based proofs, many interested parties hope that one day a traditional proof of the four-color theorem, and other theorems, will be found. Works Cited Bernhart (1991) Review of Every Planar Map is Four Colorable by Appel and Haken, American Mathematical Society, Providence RI, 1989 Borowski, EJ, Borwein, JM, The Harper Collins Dictionary of Mathematics, Harper Perennial, 1991 Brun, Yuriy (2002) The Four Color Theorem, MIT Undergraduate Journal of Mathematics, Cambridge, MA, pp 21-28 Calude, Andreea (2001) The Journey of the Four Colour Theorem Through Time, The New Zealand Mathematics Magazine, 38:3:27-35 Cayley (1879) On the colouring of maps, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography New Monthly Series, 1:4:259-261 Malkevitch, Joseph, (2003) Colorful Mathematics: Part I, American Mathematical Society Feature Column. May, Kenneth (1965) The Origin of the Four-Color Conjecture, Isis, 56:3:346- Mitchem, John (1981) On the History and Solution of the Four-Color Map Problem, The Two-Year College Mathematics Journal, 12:2:108-116 Robertson et al (1996) A New Proof of the Four-Colour Theorem, Electronic Research Announcements of the AMS, 2:1:17-25 Saaty, Thomas (1967) Remarks on the Four Color Problem: the Kempe Catastrophe, Mathematics Magazine, 40:1:31-36 Thomas, Robin (1998) An Update on the Four-Color Theorem, Notices of the AMS, 45: 7:848-859 Report this document For any questions or suggestions please email	<urn:uuid:11aefadb-0e2a-47b2-af5a-0df83e96c688>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.11456167697906494, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9392760396003723, "url": "http://www.docsford.com/document/4326630" }
Dismiss Notice Dismiss Notice Join Physics Forums Today! Finding Increase in Temperature for Two Rods 1. Apr 25, 2016 #1 A steel rod and an aluminum rod of equal length and diameter are placed end to end and secured so that they cannot flex. The rods are heated to the same final temperature, and the steel is found to increase in length by one-tenth of a percent. If the total length of the rods together remains constant, find the increase in temperature for the rods and the mutual stress on the rods. Ans: 375 oC , 700 MPa 2. Relevant equations H = ΔT/R R = L/KA ΔL = L0αΔT F/A = -YαΔT 3. The attempt at a solution I first solved for ΔT from the linear heat of expansion equation... Lf(steel) - li(steel) = li(steel)αΔT 1.001Li(steel) - li(steel) = li(steel)αΔT 0.001 = αΔT where α = 1.2 *10^-5 ΔT = 83.33 C After I find this, I though I would then plug this into the Stress equation for a given metal since they have the same change in temperature. Though this is obviously not the correct answer. Am I missing something here? 2. jcsd 3. Apr 25, 2016 #2 You need to find the change in the length of aluminium rod. Do you expect it to be the same as that of steel if they are not secured together? First calculate and then visualize. 4. Apr 25, 2016 #3 User Avatar Staff Emeritus Science Advisor Homework Helper All I see are calculations for the steel rod. What happened to the aluminum rod? Also, you need a formula which relates mechanical stress to axial deflection in a rod. 5. Apr 26, 2016 #4 User Avatar Science Advisor Homework Helper Gold Member 2016 Award My guess is that you are missing a crucial piece of the statement of the question. I believe the idea is that the rods are clamped in such a way that overall length cannot change, as well as not being able to flex. Thus, the tendency to expand due to the raised temperature is exactly compensated by the compression of the rods due to the end loading. You will need the Young's modulus of the materials, though it gets a bit messy since that may depend on the temperature, which you do not know yet. Perhaps it doesn't make enough difference to matter. Have something to add? Draft saved Draft deleted	<urn:uuid:b21c6c7f-b4dd-4497-afdb-ba6d029fb517>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.6138541102409363, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.930285632610321, "url": "https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/finding-increase-in-temperature-for-two-rods.868910/" }
About Zika Zika virus was first discovered in Uganda in 1947 with the first human case observed in 1952. Since then, outbreaks have been reported in tropical Africa, Southeast Asia, Pacific Island, South and Central America. Zika virus is spread to people through mosquito bites which makes it a part of the group of arboviruses. Symptoms of Zika can include fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis (red eyes) but not necessarily all of them. Many individuals infected with Zika often do not realize they have it because the illness is usually mild and the symptoms overlap with other more common diseases. Symptoms usually last from several days to a week with severe disease that requires hospitalization uncommon. Below is a interactive map which discusses the history of Zika.	<urn:uuid:c56a9260-b95a-431e-b1de-402bf8d71498>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.875, "fasttext_score": 0.036608338356018066, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9471161365509033, "url": "http://www.fbchealth.org/zika/" }
Text Illustrations One day, in 1888, Alfred Nobel picked up the morning newspaper and read his obituary. It was his brother who had passed away, but an over-zealous reporter, who had failed to check the facts, wrote that the world saw Alfred Nobel as the inventor of dynamite, an armaments manufacturer, a merchant of death. Because of this unusual chance to see his life as others saw it, Nobel resolved to make clear his true desire for peace. He arranged that the income from all of his fortune would fund an award to be made to those persons who did the most for the cause of peace. And so, today we remember Alfred Nobel not as an arms merchant, but as the founder of the Nobel Prize for Peace. Related Text Illustrations Related Sermons	<urn:uuid:67eeb1de-6a41-40fb-8613-d5046596001d>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.625, "fasttext_score": 0.07558971643447876, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9825055599212646, "url": "https://www.sermoncentral.com/illustrations/sermon-illustration-david-yarbrough-stories-god-brings-purpose-love-of-the-disciples-6421" }
Duck for Farmer Context for this Lesson TOPIC: Qualities of leadership and election processes. FOCUS QUESTION: Review of writing questions and good leadership characteristics. Introduction to election processes. MATERIALS: List of chores, 3 blank pieces of paper, 3 clipboards, 3 markers, cell phone, tie, shawl & nametag (for Teacher in Role). Activity Two: Guided Imagery "It’s early in the morning in the morning, the rooster has just crowed, waking you up from your deep sleep. You hear the other animals starting to move in their hay beds. You slowly stretch our your hoofs and yawn. The pigs always wake up first. If you feel a gentle tap on your shoulder then you are a pig. Your pig stomach is grumbling loud because you can hear one of the farm helpers pouring breakfast into the troughs. The sheep wake up next, and you know you are a sheep if you feel a gentle tap on your shoulder now. You sheep scratch all that itchy fur and wonder when it will be shearing time. It’s getting hotter, so it must be soon. And, finally the cows wake up. You know you are a cow if you feel a gentle tap on your shoulder. You cows chomp your teeth, you are also hungry and can’t wait to get out to the grasys fields. But now it is time to get up, today is a big day. Duck is coming to visit the barn, because he is running for Farmer. You and all the other animals are going to brainstorm questions to ask Duck when he comes." Activity Three: Students in role preparing for and at a barn meeting. TIR: "Good morning farm animals. Let me see those bright eyes. I know that it is early, but we’ve got a big day. I’ve meet many of you before, but just in case you are new, I am Ms. Sarah and I work for the Farm Election Board. Introduce yourself to each group of animals, calling them by name, asking them to make their best pig/sheep/cow sounds and “hoof bumping” each. The Farm Election Board sent me over to help organize Duck’s visit. As you know Duck is running for Farmer and he’ll be coming by today to answer all the questions you might have. The Farm Election Board thought I should come and just make sure you have some questions ready to find out if he is going to be a good leader, a good head farmer. I know that you have been talking to your fellow farm animals about what makes someone a good leader. And, that you all have been thinking about what you need on the farm to be happy and to get all your chores done. And I see that you have a list of the farm animal chores is right over there on the barn wall. I am hear to help you all come up with some questions. Should we get started? Why don’t you tell me the questions you have and I’ll write them down. What would you like to know about Duck?" Facilitate 2 – 4 questions about good leaders. "Do you all think this is a good list of questions? I sure do. If I were voting for Farmer these are all things I would want to know. I know the Farm Election Board also wanted specific questions from each of the different types of farm animals, so why don’t we break into our pig, sheep and cow groups and come up with some questions each group might have. For example, at the apple farm down the road the horses asked if the Duck would provide them with ladders because, you know, it is their job to pick the apples and they have a hard time climbing the trees. So, I’ll let you write your questions and I’ll come around if you need any help. It is also ok if you want to draw a picture of your question." Students write out 1 - 2 specific questions. "Well, I think we all have some great questions and (look at watch) Duck is scheduled to arrive very soon. Why don’t we share our questions with the rest of the farm animals before he arrives?" Students share questions. "Oh, I just got a text that Duck is here. Let me go make sure he can find his way to the barn. You all sit tight and practice your questions. TIR transitions into tie and re-enters as Duck. Duck: "Good morning/afternoon farm animals. I am so thrilled to be here today." Shake hands with all of the farm animals. "I have been looking forward to talking with you all. I know I’ll be a great Farmer and I am here to prove that to all of you. Now, how about some questions." Take questions from the audience. Answer some positively and some negatively. "Oh, dear. Look at the time. I really must be going. Campaigning for Farmer is a lot of work and right now I have a meeting with the horses at the next farm down. It was wonderful to talk to you all and I hope you vote Duck for Farmer." Shake hands and exit. TIR transitions back into Ms. Sarah. "Well, I think that went really well. You all had some great questions. I’m really glad that Duck was able to come by today because tomorrow is Election Day. I know you are all getting very sleepy because it’s been a long day, and you still have to do your chores. It’s okay, go ahead and close your eyes and settle into your hay for a quick nap. I’ll be back tomorrow morning, right after the rooster crows to help you vote for Farmer." Take off shawl/nametag and ask student to open their eyes and come together in a circle. Describe: What did we do today? Who did you become? As farm animals, what did you talk about? Analyze: How did you feel about the answers Duck gave to your questions? Did you like or dislike any of the answers? Why? Was it easy or hard being a farm animal? Why? Relate: We’ve been studying what makes a good leader, how did we use that knowledge today? We’ve also been studying questions, how did we use that knowledge today? Tomorrow is Election Day on the farm. What do you know about elections? What (might) happens on Election Day? EVALUATE: Did the students seem to enjoy being in role? Were the students able to come in and out of role? Were they able to come up with questions that pertained to the characteristics of a good leader? Were they able to formulate good questions?	<urn:uuid:631cf10a-5e31-4146-9946-67c22588be46>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.01856410503387451, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9665203094482422, "url": "http://dbp.theatredance.utexas.edu/content/duck-farmer" }
As with myriad elements of food science, the transport of food has slowly evolved into a cutting-edge process. Not long ago, food was grown and transported from a local farm to your table using nothing more than a horse-drawn wagon. Today, our everyday meals are more likely to contain foreign-grown ingredients that have traveled thousands of miles en route to our collective tables. The transport of food has a direct impact on food safety. Food contamination can occur at any point in the food supply chain, including during transport. Additionally, as the development of food transport parallels the advancement of civilization itself, so does the demand for enhanced levels of food safety. While advancements in technology have helped to accelerate food delivery across the world, increasing consumer demand for food safety has necessitated the evaluation, modification and—indirectly—the advancement of food transport methods. To this end, technological advancements are being continuously relied upon to ensure the safe delivery of food. Food Transportation: The Past In ancient times, man was limited to hunting and gathering food. As such, this nomadic period accomplished little in terms of food transportation developments. It can be assumed that any food that did need to be transported was moved to another location mostly on foot, with the limited assistance of domesticated livestock—perhaps the most significant transportation achievement during this period. pottery on pottery wheelFor approximately the first 2 million to 3 million years of human existence, our distant ancestors lived on the very land used for sustenance. In such days, it was common for people to live in groups and possess certain responsibilities for food, such as hunting, fishing, and gathering. These distant people commonly lived in areas where food and water were located, moving only when their necessities needed to be replenished. The invention of the wheel for transportation—originally, it was used as a potter’s wheel—occurred sometime around 3300 B.C. In retrospect, this was the first significant development in the history of food transportation. Up to this point, humans were limited to food that could be carried or stocked on a domesticated animal. With the discovery of the wheel, humans effectively transitioned from a sustenance-based existence to one that allowed them to trade and barter food and other goods. Of course, the invention and subsequent development of the wheel ultimately led to the evolution of food transportation, which continues to this very day. Food Transportation: The Present The most significant advancement in the development of food transportation occurred in the 19th century with the advent of rail, steam, and the automobile. In essence, this allowed for relatively safe, long-distance transport of foodstuffs for the first time in history. In addition to being safer, such methods were also more reliable and less expensive. food refrigerationAs agricultural processes evolved, so did the reliance on fleets of planes, trucks, boats, and trains “to transport food over thousands of miles, from where it is produced to where it is eaten.” Combined with the capabilities of refrigeration, it was now possible to transport perishable food products, such as eggs, meat, and produce, in a safe manner. Other developments, such as free trade agreements and increased consumer demand, led the United States to drastically increase the amount of food imported from other countries. Inventions such as refrigerated transport, allowed for the expansion of food importing events to naturally unfold. Today, the traditional American diet is more globalized than ever. The United States primarily imports from Canada and Mexico. The US also imports from Europe (France and Italy); Southeast Asia (Vietnam and Thailand), and beyond (Japan and New Zealand). By no means is this an all-inclusive list. According to data accumulated by the United States Department of Agriculture, the United States actively imports goods from 64 countries. In 2013, it is estimated that the U.S. imported over 123 billion pounds of food. Food Transportation: The Future The safe transport of food continues to be a top priority for developed countries around the world. In the United States, the passage of the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) in 2011 consisted of the most sweeping changes to food safety laws in history, including statutes exclusively for this purpose. A rule within FSMA, appropriately called the “food safety transportation rule,” prioritizes the safe transport of food. Among the statutes are guidelines for “best sanitation practices in transportation,” including proper cleaning of transportation carriers between loads, the use of proper protections for food during transport, and proper refrigeration. Food safety experts ascertain that technology will continue to have a marked impact on the safe transport of food. This becomes clear when one considers the goals of multiple stakeholders, ranging from producers who aim to keep costs down to consumers who demand rigorous safety measures to the governing bodies responsible for managing these interests. Furthermore, environmental considerations such as greenhouse gases must be taken into account when considering any technological developments. Technologies that continue to demonstrate advancements, including controlled atmosphere technologies, the development of vessel technology, and advanced refrigeration methods are all currently being evaluated and implemented to help ensure the safe and timely transportation of food.	<urn:uuid:30c2da48-2881-419e-8387-e5cbb4e33ba3>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.7948700785636902, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9615474343299866, "url": "https://bruceeatonphd.wordpress.com/2016/08/09/the-evolution-of-food-transportation-and-safety/" }
AskDefine \| Define pheromone Dictionary Definition User Contributed Dictionary 1. A chemical secreted by an animal, especially an insect that affects the development or behavior of other members of the same species, functioning often as a means of attracting a member of the opposite sex. Extensive Definition A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" + ‘ορμόνη "hormone") is a chemical that triggers a natural behavioral response in another member of the same species. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented, although many vertebrates and plants also communicate using pheromones. The term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek pherein (to transport) and hormone (to stimulate). They proposed the term to describe chemical signals from conspecifics which elicit innate behaviours soon after Butenandt characterized the first such chemical, Bombykol (a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female silkworm to attract mates). Produced by one or the other sex, aggregation pheromones attract individuals of both sexes. Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight (in aphids) or aggression (in bees) in members of the same species. Pheromones also exist in plants: certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon, resulting in tannin production in neighboring plants. These tannins make the plants less appetizing for the herbivore. Recognized in insects, epideictic pheromones are different from territory pheromones. According to Fabre (translated from French), "Females who lay their eggs in these fruits deposit these mysterious substances in the vicinity of their clutch to signal to other females of the same species so that they will clutch elsewhere." Releaser pheromones are powerful attractant molecules that some organisms may use to attract mates from a distance of two miles or more. This type of pheromone generally elicits a rapid response but is quickly degraded. In contrast, a primer pheromone has a slower onset and a longer duration. Primer pheromones trigger a change of developmental events. Laid down in the environment, territorial pheromones mark the boundaries of an organism's territory. In dogs, these hormones are present in the urine, which they deposit on landmarks serving to mark the perimeter of the claimed territory. Trail pheromones are common in social insects. For example, ants mark their paths with these pheromones, which are non-volatile hydrocarbons. Certain ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest with food. This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide. As long as the food source remains, the pheromone trail will be continually renewed. The pheromone must be continually renewed because it evaporates quickly. When the supply begins to dwindle, the trailmaking ceases. In at least one species of ant, trails that no longer lead to food are also marked with a repellent pheromone. In animals, sex pheromones indicate the availability of the female for breeding. Male animals may also emit pheromones that convey information about their species and genotype. Many insect species release sex pheromones to attract a mate, and many lepidopterans can detect a potential mate from as far away as 10 kilometers (6 mi). Pheromones can be used in gametes to trail the opposite sex's gametes for fertilization. Pheromones are also used in the detection of oestrus in sows. Boar pheromones are sprayed into the sty, and those sows which exhibit sexual arousal are known to be currently available for breeding. This classification, based on the effects on behavior, remains artificial. Pheromones fill many additional functions. • Nasonov pheromones (worker bees) • Royal pheromones (bees) • Calming (appeasement) pheromones (mammals) Few well-controlled scientific studies have ever been published suggesting the possibility of pheromones in humans. The best known case involves the reported synchronization of menstrual cycles among women based on unconscious odor cues (the McClintock effect, named after the primary investigator, Martha McClintock, of the University of Chicago). This study proposes that there are two types of pheromone involved: "One, produced prior to ovulation, shortens the ovarian cycle; and the second, produced just at ovulation, lengthens the cycle". However recent studies and reviews of the of the McClintock methodology have called into question the validity of her results. Other studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates who are not closely related to themselves. Using a brain imaging technique, Swedish researchers have shown that homosexual and heterosexual males' brains respond differently to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the homosexual men respond in the same way as heterosexual women. The study was expanded to include homosexual women; the results were consistent with previous findings meaning that homosexual women were not as responsive to male identified odors, but their response to female cues was similar to heterosexual males. According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of sexual orientation. Another study demonstrated that the smell of androstadienone, a chemical component of male sweat, maintains higher levels of cortisol in females. The scientists suggest that the ability of this compound to influence the endocrine balance of the opposite sex makes it a human pheromonal chemosignal. In 2002 a study published in the quarterly journal Physiology and Behavior showed an unnamed synthetic chemical in women's perfume appeared to increase intimate contact with men. The authors hypothesize, but do not demonstrate, that the observed behavioural differences are olfactory mediated. In 2006 it was shown that a second mouse receptor sub-class is found in the olfactory epithelium. Called the trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR), some are activated by volatile amines found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone. Orthologous receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection. Some body spray advertisers claim that their products contain human sexual pheromones which act as an aphrodisiac. In the 1970's "copulins" were patented as products which release human pheromones, based on research on rhesus monkeys. Subsequently, androstenone, axillary sweat, and "vomodors" have been claimed to act as human pheromones. Despite these claims, no pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed study. See also Further reading pheromone in Arabic: فيرومون pheromone in Bulgarian: Феромон pheromone in Catalan: Feromona pheromone in Turkish: Feromon pheromone in Danish: Feromon pheromone in German: Pheromon pheromone in Modern Greek (1453-): Φερομόνη pheromone in Spanish: Feromona pheromone in French: Phéromone pheromone in Galician: Feromona pheromone in Indonesian: Feromon pheromone in Italian: Feromone pheromone in Hebrew: פרומון pheromone in Lithuanian: Feromonas pheromone in Dutch: Feromoon pheromone in Japanese: フェロモン pheromone in Norwegian: Feromon pheromone in Polish: Feromony pheromone in Portuguese: Feromônio pheromone in Russian: Феромоны pheromone in Sundanese: Féromon pheromone in Finnish: Feromoni pheromone in Swedish: Feromon pheromone in Chinese: 費洛蒙 Privacy Policy, About Us, Terms and Conditions, Contact Us Material from Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Dict Valid HTML 4.01 Strict, Valid CSS Level 2.1	<urn:uuid:88fe27bf-ed10-4e04-872e-da373ab0a4b9>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.08934754133224487, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9172996878623962, "url": "https://pheromone.askdefine.com/" }
Signs found in San Francisco, California, point in the direction of ethnic neighborhoods in the city: Chinatown, North Beach (an Italian-American neighborhood) and Fisherman's Wharf, traditional site of travel and trade. In 1848, San Francisco was a town of 1,000 people, mostly Mexican American and white merchants. By 1849, the first year of the California Gold Rush, the city boomed to 25,000 people from the eastern United States, Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America. Photograph by Laura Sheahen, MyShot • Like many urban areas, the city of San Francisco, California, is made up of distinct neighborhoods. Three of them (Chinatown, North Beach, and Fisherman's Wharf) are close enough to share room on this street sign. These neighborhoods share space in the northeastern, or "bay" side of the San Francisco peninsula. San Francisco's Chinatown is the oldest "Chinatown" in North America. North Beach was the traditional neighborhood of Italian immigrants—"Little Italy." Fisherman's Wharf is home to the city's fishing fleet. All three neighborhoods are major tourist destinations in San Francisco. • San Francisco's Chinatown is the largest Chinese community outside Asia. • The earliest Chinese immigrants to settle in the area arrived in 1848 from Guangdong Province. • North Beach is not a beach! The area was on the coast of the San Francisco Bay until the 19th century, when massive landfills added acres to the shoreline. • Italian immigrants settled in the area following San Francisco's 1906 earthquake. These immigrants came mostly as construction workers to help rebuild the city. • The original fishermen of Fisherman's Wharf were immigrants (mostly Italian) who established ocean and bay fisheries during the California Gold Rush. • One of the oldest, most profitable, and sustainable fisheries of Fisherman's Wharf is Dungeness crab. As seen in this sign, the crab has become a symbol of the entire neighborhood. • Term Part of Speech Definition Encyclopedic Entry bay Noun Encyclopedic Entry: bay beach Noun narrow strip of land that lies along a body of water. Encyclopedic Entry: beach California Gold Rush Noun (1848-1855) worldwide immigration to California following the discovery of gold. city Noun large settlement with a high population density. coast Noun Encyclopedic Entry: coast earthquake Noun establish Verb to form or officially organize. fishery Noun immigrant Noun person who moves to a new country or region. landfill Noun site where garbage is layered with dirt and other absorbing material to prevent contamination of the surrounding land or water. neighborhood Noun Encyclopedic Entry: neighborhood ocean Noun large body of salt water that covers most of the Earth. Encyclopedic Entry: ocean peninsula Noun piece of land jutting into a body of water. Encyclopedic Entry: peninsula sustainable Adjective symbol Noun something used to represent something else. tourist Noun person who travels for pleasure. urban area Noun developed, densely populated area where most inhabitants have nonagricultural jobs. Encyclopedic Entry: urban area wharf Noun structure built above or alongside a body of water, usually so boats can dock.	<urn:uuid:b4f51e89-6d7d-4dd2-bbde-b78324eeb4c2>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.1628897786140442, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9336385726928711, "url": "https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/san-francisco-signs/" }
Archaeology Magazine Archive A publication of the Archaeological Institute of America Special Introductory Offer! Conversation: Insights from Insects Volume 61 Number 1, January/February 2008 Ancient bugs offer clues to the human past. (Courtesy Paul Buckland) Archaeoentomologist Paul Buckland studies the remains of insects, which provide a unique perspective on events from mass human migrations to the failure of Norse settlements in Greenland. He spoke with journalist Josie Glausiusz about Roman grain weevils, Egyptian bedbugs, and Arctic sheep ectoparasites. What do insects tell us about a site that pottery or bones can't? We can infer a range of diseases from insect remains. Both the human louse and human flea are common as fossils in archaeological deposits. Body lice are vectors in the spread of typhus, and fleas of plague. Also, there may be occasions when bone preservation is very poor but insect preservation is good. Sheep ectoparasites, for example, are extremely common at sites in Norse Greenland and Iceland. How do sheep ectoparasites help us understand the human past? They tend to indicate wool processing rather than the presence of live animals, since the parasites are very reluctant to leave their hosts and only occur away from the animal in large numbers on fleeces pulled from the animal during the spring molt. High concentrations almost certainly reflect cleaning of wool, which the Norse did by washing it in urine. Why do insects sometimes preserve better than bones? Their exoskeletons are pretty robust, and will survive in completely dry conditions, as well as in water-logged acidic conditions. On the whole, insects of one sort or another are the most common macrofossils in sediments of the last two million years. One cubic centimeter of lake sediment may contain several thousand chironomids, or non-biting midges. What have you learned about ancient Egypt by studying insects? There are extensive assemblages of species associated with stored grain, particularly Sitophilus granarius, the grain weevil, whose origins are probably in rodent caches of grass seeds up in the area of the Fertile Crescent. The weevil is certainly present at the Step Pyramid at Saqqara [ca. 2650 B.C.], and it's been taking its tithe on all cereal production from then on. Do grain weevils reveal anything about human migration? We have only two examples of the weevil in Northern Europe from the Early Neolithic, and then the next time they're present is in the Roman period, in almost every sample. So they are clearly moving in the baggage train of the Roman army, and this large-scale movement of grain provides them with an opportunity to move to places outside their natural climatic range. With the expansion of Rome, the grain weevil goes as far north as the Antonine Wall in Scotland, and as far south as Mons Claudianus, the site of Roman quarries in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. You and your collaborator Eva Panagiotakopulu discovered that bedbugs are first associated with humans in fourteenth-century B.C. Egypt. What else have you learned about this irritating insect? Scottish evidence [from mid-eighteenth-century sites] indicates that people in peat-fired houses don't have bedbugs. But when you go over to coal fires, buildings are warmer and dryer and get infested with them. The natural environment of bedbugs has to be warmer and dryer, and the probability is that they originated in the Near East. You examined insects from two Norse farms in western Greenland. What light did they shed on the failure of the Norse settlers in the fourteenth century? One thing that was very evident was that there were no insect remains associated with waste fat. Things that would live on marrow and similar fatty materials from butchered animals--the piophilid flies, or cheese skippers, for example--were missing. This suggests that in order to consume enough fat to enable them to digest the proteins in lean meat, these farmers were having to process animals to recover every last bit of fat. Were you especially attracted to insects as a child? No. I think my mother would have been horrified. © 2008 by the Archaeological Institute of America	<urn:uuid:30022763-3afd-4ca1-abc7-f06e20b21327>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.27514463663101196, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.952743411064148, "url": "https://archive.archaeology.org/0801/etc/conversation.html" }
Can Phytonutrients Help Prevent Cancer? In addition to vitamins and minerals, plants contain compounds called phytonutrients (sometimes referred to as phytochemicals). Essentially, these compounds are the plants protection. A plant cannot fight or flee, so it is equipped with “phyto” or nutrients that defend against disease, blight, radiation, weather, insects and anything else that may threaten the plant’s survival. When we eat the plants, we not only benefit from the vitamin and mineral content of the plant, but from the protection these phytonutreints provide. Phytonutrients are considered anti-inflammatory and have been shown to possess anti-cancer properties, repair DNA damage, aid detoxification, enhance immunity, and influence insulin glucose balance. How do you know if you are getting enough phytonutrients? Hundreds of phytonutrients have been discovered so far. Because fruits and vegetables contain different amounts of these beneficial compounds, it is best to eat a variety of plants. Phytonutreint content is categorized by color (Dark Green, Light Green, Red, Orange, and Purple.) If you get at least one from each of these color groups daily, you will not only be getting a variety of beneficial phytonutrients, but meeting the recommended minimum of 5 to 10 servings of fruits or vegetables a day. (Note: while color indicates the predominant phytonutrient content, most fruits and vegetables contain multiple phytonutrients.) Examples of sources of beneficial phytonutrients: • Cabbage, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, kale, cauliflower and turnips all contain the phytonutrient Indole-3-carbinol. • Oranges, tangerines, lemons, and limes all contain a flavonoid called limonene. • Grapes, apples, cherries, blueberries, and raspberries contain anthocyanins. • Onions and garlic contain the phytonutrient quercitin. • Tomatoes, red pepper, watermelon and radishes all contain lycopene. • Peaches, carrots, apricots, pumpkin, squash; the phytonutrient carotinoids • Swiss chard, kale, parsley contain the phytonutrient lutein More from the Author	<urn:uuid:8604d4f6-8a89-495b-9c43-0c4d10833e17>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.08350038528442383, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8559386134147644, "url": "http://womenpla.net/can-phytonutrients-help-prevent-cancer/" }
Egypt lost all of it’s chariots at the time of the Exodus. Any chariot found (other than in the Red Sea) would have been produced after the Exodus. Egypt’s chariots were all destroyed at the time of the Exodus. Only Chariots produced after the Exodus would be found by archaeologists. No discoveries horse drawn chariots have been found prior to the 15th dynasty. This would tend to suggest that the Exodus took place before the 15th dynasty. One would not expect to find chariots of dynasties prior to the Exodus because they were all destroyed at the time of the Exodus. Wyatt found chariot wheels covered with coral strewn across the bottom of the Red Sea. There was a well preserved golden 4 spoked chariot wheel. He also found six and eight spoked chariot wheels covered with coral from one side of the Red Sea to the other in the Gulf of Aqaba where there is a large beach and a natural land bridge at the opening of the Wadi Wadir, just a little bit north of Jabel Lawz on the opposite side. Wyatt also found a pair of columns which appeared to have been left by Solomon to mark the site of the Red Sea crossing at this point. Unfortunately, as no examples of 12th dynasty chariots have been found, the chariot wheels found by Wyatt were dated to the 18th dynasty. This has lead many an archaeologist to go looking for the Exodus in the 18th dynasty. There is no evidence for a mass Exodus in the 18th dynasty. There was an exodus at the end of the second intermediate period but this is when the Hyksos kings were evicted from Egypt and is clearly not the Israelite exodus. The Bible states that the exodus pharaoh pursued the Israelites with all of Egypt’s chariots and that these were lost in the Red Sea. One would, therefore, not expect to find a chariot that predated the exodus. If a chariot has been found, other than in the Red Sea, then it must have been produced after the Exodus. While the Hyksos (15th dynasty) did use chariots to invade and occupy lower Egypt, they were only able to do this because the Egyptian army had been decimated by the Exodus and all of it’s chariots were at the bottom of the Red Sea. Many historians and archaeologists believe that the horse drawn chariot was introduced to Egypt by the Hyksos because there are no findings of 12th and 13th dynasty chariots. If all of Egypt’s chariots were lost at the time of the exodus, the finding of 15th dynasty chariots should suggest that the Exodus occurred prior to the 15th dynasty, namely the 13th dynasty. It also follows that the chariot wheels found in the Red Sea by Wyatt were from the 12th and 13th dynasties. The Hyksos were credited with having introduced the chariot to Egypt only because no 12th and 13th dynasty chariots have been found. The fact that Hyksos chariots are the earliest surviving chariots to have been found means that the exodus took place immediately before the Hyksos entered Egypt. This would further support a 13th dynasty Exodus. Also supporting a 13th dynasty exodus is the prolific use of mudbricks in the 12th dynasty and the finding of a slave village at Kahun that was rapidly evacuated in the 13th dynasty when Neferhotep I was ruling (as evidenced by scarabs found by Petrie). Amenemhet III has the credentials to be the pharaoh of Moses birth and the pharaoh that Moses fled from. Sobeknefru has the credentials to be Moses foster mother and Amenemhet IV has the credentials to be Moses himself! This slideshow requires JavaScript. 4 spoke, 6 spoke and 8 spoke chariot wheels have been recovered from the bottom of the Red Sea A painting by Edward Poynter in 1867 entitled "Israel in Egypt". (Click to enlarge) The Birth and Identity of Moses in the 12th Dynasty Moses was born in the 12th dynasty of Egypt. The Israelites were forced to make mud bricks by the pharaohs of this dynasty. Pyramids of the 12th dynasty had an inner core made of mudbricks with a limestone veneer. As limestone was becoming scarce, the Pharaohs were forced to use mudbricks to construct the core of the pyramids of the 12th dynasty and limestone was used only for the outer surface. A large labour force was required to make mud bricks. The Jews had grown to number over 2 million by the 12th dynasty. They were housed in Kahun – a semetic workers village close to Lahun, Dashur and Hawara where the 12th dynasty mud brick pyramids can be found. Petri excavated Kahun in 1889 and found evidence that it was occupied from the early 12th dynasty to the 13th dynasty by foreign Semetic slaves. Scarabs with the names of pharaohs that were found in the town indicate that it was built during the time of Sesostris II and occupied up until the 13th dynasty. Amenemhet III, the son of Sesostris III is most likely the Pharaoh who ordered that the Hebrew children be killed at birth by the midwives. Sobeknefru, his daughter appears to have adopted Moses after finding him amongst the reeds of the Nile in a basket. Moses would have become the next Pharaoh (Amenemhet IV). Moses may have even co-reigned with Amenemhet III for 9 years before he had to flee to Midian after killing an Egptian. Sobekneferu became the Pharaoh when Amenemhet died. Sobeknefru reigned almost 4 yrs before she died and so ended the 12th dynasty. A number of pharaohs followed in quick succession until Neferhotep in the 13th dynasty. Neferhotep was the Pharaoh who Moses confronted when he returned to Egypt 40 yrs after fleeing to Midian. Moses then lead the Israelites (numbering around 2 million) out of Egypt, thru the Red Sea into Arabia where they received the Law at Mt Sinai (Jabel Laws). Discovering the Route of the Exodus and the True Mt Sinai in Arabia – Jabel Lawz Ron Wyatt was a nurse who decided to become an archaeologist. He made some very significant findings, none the least being the discovery of the true Mt Sinai in Arabia – Jabel Laws. He also found the two pillars left by Solomon to mark the site of the Red Sea crossing. He found Chariot wheels on the floor of the Gulf of Aqaba which were encased in coral. These findings are to his credit. Around the same time, the late 1970’s, early 1980’s he went looking for the remains of Noah’s ark on Mt Arrarat in Turkey. He found a boat shaped object whick was composed of fossilized wood and giant iron rivets. It had the right dementions to be Noah’s ark. Giant anchor stones were found near by. As with most of his discoveries, many of the artifacts he found like the pilar of Solomon on the Jordanian side and the anchor stones that he found at Ararat were removed by unknow parties. It is forbidden to go to Mount Sinai, so few have seen it. The Photos that Wyatt took were confiscated by the Jordanians and Wyatt was held in a Jordanian jail for some time for his efforts. I believe that these finds are significant and credible exactly as he reported them and I agree with his conclusions. It was around the same time that Wyatt also went looking for the Ark of the Covenant. He spent a year exploring caves around Golgotha extending under the temple mount. After exploring the caves for a year, he got into a cave which had two entrances, one of which had been bricked off. In the cavern he claims to have found the Ark of the Covenant. He also claims to have found a crucifixion site immediately above the cavern and connected to the cavern by an earth quake crack. He says the crucifixion site had been marked by a round stone with the same dimentions that the missing stone of the garden tomb would have had. He found red material which he thought could have been the blood of Christ. After announcing his discoveries, the excavation was shut down by Israeli authorities. He was not able to bring the ark out and has never been able to substantiate his claim. He is now dead. Remarkably, though, he is the only person who has been permitted by the Israeli govenment to explore the caves. His associates lead by Richard Reeves were allowed to reopen his excavations 20yrs later around 2001. The cavern where the Ark was found is now filled with rubble. It is gone. It looks like he fabricated everything. But did he? That is the question. Did the Israeli government remove the Ark after shutting down his excavation? Why is Wyatt’s team the only team that is allowed to drill and excavate at the garden tomb even now over 25 yrs since the site was closed? The Israeli government has recentlt let them go in there with bulldosers! Why is this? May be it is because he did find the Ark and he suffered humiliation because the Israeli government covered it up. There is another group of Jews who claimed to have the ark in their possession not long after Wyatt claimed he found it. They went through the caves under the temple mount and found the bricked off end of the cavern that Wyatt found and removed the ark. The red stuff that Wyatt found was very unlikley to be Christ’s blood according to Richard Reeves. Reeves also found red material at the site 20 yrs after Wyatt, but it was a mould! Wyatt seems to have drawm the wrong conclusion about this but he never fabricated any evidence. Because much of what he found has gone missing and he could not substantiate his claim to have found the Ark of the Covernant, he has been discreditted in the eyes of many people. He is still one of my heros and I do not believe that he fabricated anything. His discovery of Mt Sinai, the Red Sea crossing site and maybe Noah’s ark still stand. It is hard to believe that one man could achieve so many discoveries in such a short period of time but look at Imhotep and what he achieved!! I stand by Wyatt and hope that one day he will be vindicated. He was an honorable man and I believe he was a reliable source of information.–Drnhawkins The Red Sea Crossing Revealing God’s Treasure – Red Sea Crossing	<urn:uuid:123a883f-2887-42a9-a8ec-3f6cd3ce81b8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.02348768711090088, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.986230731010437, "url": "https://redseaexodus.wordpress.com/tag/gulf-aqaba/" }
Younger Dryas At least two species of muskoxen inhabited areas of North America during the last Ice Age: the muskox (Ovibos moschatus)and the woodland muskox (Bootherium bombifrons). Ovibos moschatus is the same muskoxen still found in the artic today. However, when the glaciers expanded south into the Midwest, arctic animals like the muskox found hospitable habitat in area. This living muskox is one of the relatively few large mammlas in North America that did not go extinct approxiamately 10,000 years ago. The woodland muskox and survival of the muskox is being studied by paleoontologists.	<urn:uuid:d7bebd49-28d7-4694-99e8-f590e7e80b39>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.19710522890090942, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9379186034202576, "url": "http://hoopermuseum.earthsci.carleton.ca/climate/MAMMAL2.HTM" }
When given a choice, cattle will drink from a trough If you lead or direct a cow to clean water, it will usually drink faster and grow better. The best way to make that happen is with an off-site system like a water trough, say experts. Water facts Livestock behaviour research in the Kamloops, B.C., area studied how water influences cattle behaviour. • Proximity to water is the most important factor determining where livestock are distributed. This means water is the most effective tool at manipulating livestock behaviour. Although cattle will travel three to four kilometres for water, it is recommended that they have water within 1.5 km in gentle terrain and less in steeper terrain. In general, studies have shown that cattle tend to spend most of their time within about 300 metres of water. (DelCurto et al. 1999) • The amount of time cattle spend drinking depends on water source, water quality, taste and weather. Time spent drinking can vary from three to six minutes per day to 26 minutes per day. (Veira, D. and Liggins, L. 2002) • The water requirements of cattle vary with weather conditions and the physiological state of the animal. Source: Kelsey Spicer-Rawe, riparian specialist with Cows and Fish Read more…	<urn:uuid:59466a58-dd2d-4bbc-9b2d-745f8706d6b5>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.07544195652008057, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.930566668510437, "url": "https://blog.yourstores.co/2017/04/" }
In Brief 7 June 2003 Cut the clicks The “clicks” that whales produce for echolocation are loud, while the echoes that bounce back are faint. Alexander Supin of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow wondered how they hear the echoes above the noise of their outgoing clicks. To find out, his team placed a suction-cup electrode near the blowhole of a false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens). This eavesdropped on electrical signals in the whale’s brain stem. The team found that the original click and the echo evoked the same strength of brain-stem response (The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, vol 113, p 2408). So they say whales’ brains may suppress the sound of an outgoing click to make the echo easier to detect. To continue reading this premium article, subscribe for unlimited access. Quarterly by Direct Debit Inclusive of applicable taxes (VAT)	<urn:uuid:6cddbe55-81fc-48e2-b0d2-8c8ee2edbdaf>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.04576069116592407, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8823400139808655, "url": "https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17823983-600-cut-the-clicks/" }
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Psittaciformes Family: Cacatuidae Subfamily: Calyptorhynchinae Genus: Nymphicus Wagler, 1832 Species: N. hollandicus Binomial name Nymphicus hollandicus (Kerr, 1792) Psittacus hollandicus Leptolophus hollandicus Cockatiels are small birds originally from Australia and are related to many other cockatoos. They are the second most common bird species kept as a pet. Cockatiels can live from 10 to 25 years, depending on how healthy their lifestyle is, although wild cockatiels usually live longer. Cockatiels have tiny feathers on their head called a crest. The crest allows the owner to have an idea of what they are feeling; straight up if scared or excited, flat when they're angry, and slightly curved is normal/happy. In the wild, cockatiels are prey animals, meaning there are predators that eat them. As a result, cockatiels can scare easily, especially when they meet someone or something they do not know. With enough patience and affection, an owner can tame the cockatiel and help them get over their natural fear. Like many other parrots, cockatiels are very good at climbing, and use their beak to position themselves each time. Cockatiels come in many different colours, some naturally while others were specifically bred. Gray is considered to be their original colour, and is one of the most popular, along with Lutino (yellow). Males have a brighter crest and face, and sing louder and more frequently than females. A cockatiel has very long tail feathers compared to other birds. Seeds make up most of their diet, but veterinarians strongly recommend various fruits, vegetables, and beans as well. However, a few of these may be harmful to them, and it is advised to be cautious with what they eat. It can be very hard to get adults to try new foods, so it is best to have them try little by little at a time instead of all at once. Like other birds, they can be taught to do many tricks; including flips, handshakes, fly-on-command, showing their wings, and more. Patience and repetition is key, as teaching one trick can take many months. They can also be taught to sing, but may become confused and ruin the song if it's too complex. Cockatiels are social birds, and like to spend time with others. They can become overly attached to their owners over time (especially if raised young), and may start to shriek when they feel lonely. If the owner is unable to spend a lot of time with them, getting them a partner (preferably another cockatiel) can help resolve their clinginess.	<urn:uuid:a93482c9-0314-4af2-8ac2-c320c139046b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.5060811638832092, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9559915065765381, "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockatiel" }
Illustrated Dictionary of British Churches History and Architecture Funerary Helm When a knight or member of the nobility died, particularly if they had a reputation as a warrior, a special helmet called a funerary helm was hung near or above their monument. Such funerary helms could be purely ornamental, but were more commonly actual armour worn by the person during their life - though not necessarily a helm used in battle. For example, the helm of Edward, the Black Prince, hangs on a wall near his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral. Framlingham, Suffolk Framlingham, Suffolk Attraction search National Trust National Trust membership National Trust membership Membership details About the National Trust Name the Historic attraction Name the mystery historic attraction See larger image British History Quiz This Christian missionery served as the first Archbishop of Canterbury This Day in British History 19 October, 1216 Death of King John Monarch Mayhem Passionate about British Heritage!	<urn:uuid:656bb571-32e3-48e2-bd8b-010c16c322cc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.1373845338821411, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9263080954551697, "url": "http://www.britainexpress.com/church-history.htm?term=Funerary+Helm" }
the differences in the amount of gas and dust contained in these general types. Please complete the PDF file title Galaxies_1.pdf Use only the resources that are provided to you. Do NOT use outside sources. ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS IN PDF file title Galaxies_1.pdf. The following link can be used to answer questions regarding the PDF file Galaxies_1.pdf The following resources are available if questions should arise. YouTube: Live Lab Help Session Recording – Galaxies Lab • Edwin Hubble was the first astronomer to conceive of a classification for the different types of galaxies. His classification scheme is known as Hubble’s “Tuning Fork”. It is NOT a sequence of galaxy development, it simply shows how the shapes of different types of galaxies are related. An excellent diagram can be found at the Sloan Digital Sky Survey web site: • There are four basic types of galaxies: Elliptical, Spiral, Barred Spiral, and Irregular. The first three types are subdivided into subtypes. ◦ Spiral (S) and Barred Spiral (SB) galaxies have a pinwheel pattern of bright spiral arms and a circular central region (galactic nucleus) when viewed face on. When viewed from the side they look like edge on disks with dark dust lanes and bright nebulae indicating the presence of a lot of interstellar matter and star formation. The difference between a regular spiral galaxy and a barred spiral galaxy is the shape of their nucleus. A regular spiral has a round galactic nucleus whereas the nucleus of a barred spiral is longer in one direction making it look more like a bar. ▪ The subtypes are assigned based on the size of the nucleus and the spacing of the spiral arms. Spirals, either barred or normal, are subtype “a” if they have a large bright nucleus and closely spaced arms: Sa or SBa. If a spiral has a small nucleus and widely spaced arms, it is given the subtype c (Type Sc or SBc). Subtype b represents the medium size of the nucleus and spacing of spiral arms. ◦ Elliptical (E) have very little interstellar gas and dust and no young stars. They shaped symmetrically ranging from perfectly round to very elongated similar to a football. The density of stars is greater in the center and becomes less toward the edges. ▪ Their subtypes are based on their overall shape determined by the relationship of their longest axis and their shortest axis. The subtypes range in numbers from 0 to 7 with type 0 of perfectly round shape and type 7 of the most elongated shape. However, these numbers are based on the way they look from Earth. Even a football shape may look round when viewed from one end. ◦ Irregular galaxies (Irr) have rather unusual shapes and many of them contain large amounts of interstellar gas and dust. • The laboratory exercises include the determination of the relative distances of galaxy clusters. All galaxies in a galaxy cluster are pretty much the same distance away from Earth. We can also make the assumption that the size range of the galaxies in one cluster is very similar to that of any other cluster. We can determine how many times further one cluster is away from Earth than the other by measuring the ratio of the sizes of the largest few galaxies in each. For example, you can measure the longest axes of the five largest galaxies in each cluster. Then, take the average for each cluster. The ratio of this average for the closer cluster (that size average is going to be larger) divided by the size average for the further cluster (that size average is going to be smaller) is going to be the factor of how many times further the further cluster is than the closer one. If the absolute distance of the closer cluster is known, this absolute distance can simply be multiplied by this factor to get the absolute distance of the further cluster. • The last phenomenon investigated in this laboratory is that of galaxy cannibalism. Unusual shapes of some galaxies are caused by the gravitational interaction of galaxy with another one they are on collision course with. Gravity is an action-at-a-distance force so that the colliding galaxies are already distorting each other’s shapes before their visible matter intertwines. Question Hints Note: For questions 1 – 6 including Table I: Classification of Galaxies, you will use . For the remaining questions you will use the Galaxies Fields file in the table of contents of the Galaxies Lab Content Module. • Q1: Look at the third image in the first row, Milky Way Galaxy (infrared) taken by the COBE satellite. There are three general types of galaxies: Spiral (specify: regular or barred), Elliptical, and Irregular. When you look at the image, think about what these general types of galaxies might look like from different perspectives. Also, think of the differences in the amount of gas and dust contained in these general types. • Q2: Again, decide on one of the three general types and specify regular or barred if you think it is Spiral. Pay particular attention to the nucleus of the galaxy. • Q3: Think about whether or not you would be able to discern the particular shape of the galactic nucleus from the COBE infrared image of the Milky Way Galaxy Type of paper Academic level Subject area Number of pages Paper urgency Cost per page:	<urn:uuid:1d1b13fc-22fc-40e3-9602-83b61314ec55>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.84375, "fasttext_score": 0.05402112007141113, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9190675020217896, "url": "https://www.rushtermpapers.com/the-differences-in-the-amount-of-gas-and-dust-contained-in-these-general-types/" }
The Maya Calendar Chapter 3: The Yearbearer Systems In addition to having three calendars, namely, the long count, the tzolkin and the haab, the Mayas further complicated matters by occasionally using different systems to number the days in the haab months and by shifting the haab one or two days in relation to the tzolkin. The Classical Mayas apparently numbered the days in a month from day 0 to day 19, after which came day 0 of the next month. Sometime shortly before the Spanish Conquest a system came into use in Mayapan in which days were numbered from 1 through 20. Thus the "month base" can be either 0 or 1. The matter of the shift of the haab in relation to the tzolkin can be explained in terms of what are known as "yearbearers". A "yearbearer" is a tzolkin day name that can occur on the first day of the year. Assuming that the month base is 0, the first day of the year is 0 Pop. Every 0 Pop is also some tzolkin date, for example, 1 Ik 0 Pop. Since there are twenty tzolkin day names, and the haab year has 365 (= 20*18 + 5) days, the tzolkin name for each succeeding new year's day will shift by 5 in the cycle of day names, as in the following sequence of new year's days: 1 Ik 0 Pop 2 Manik 0 Pop 3 Eb 0 Pop 4 Caban 0 Pop 5 Ik 0 Pop Only four of the tzolkin day names can coincide with 0 Pop, and these four are called the "yearbearers". In the historical records are found three different systems of yearbearers. The most common is the system Ik, Manik, Eb, Caban, as shown above. This system is found at Tikal, and in the Dresden Codex. According to Bricker and Bricker: "Another set of yearbearers, Akbal, Lamat, Ben and Edznab, were occasionally employed during the Late Classic period. They are called Campeche yearbearers after the region where they were first identified ... A third calendar, based on Kan, Muluc, Ix and Cauac, was introduced in Yucatan during the Postclassic period and is documented in the Chronicle of Oxkutzcab ..." ([14], p.S4) These authors also note that it was "in Mayapan on the eve of the Spanish conquest" that the Mayas began to number their months from 1 to 20, instead of from 0 to 19. For these Mayas the first day of the year was not 0 Pop but rather 1 Pop. In such a system the yearbearers are the tzolkin day names that can occur with 1 Pop. Such a system is used in the Madrid Codex, where the yearbearers are Kan, Muluc, Ix, Cauac. A third system of yearbearers, namely, Akbal, Lamat, Ben, Edznab has been reported. Three systems of yearbearers and two month bases (0 and 1) gives six possible systems for relating haab dates and tzolkin dates. Some tzolkin/haab dates are possible within some systems and not within others, and no tzolkin/haab date is possible within all six systems. Thus when interpreting tzolkin/haab dates it is necessary to be aware as to whether the month base number is 0 or 1 and which are the yearbearers. Of the six logically possible systems, only four were actually used, as shown in the following table. Year bearers Month base 0 Month base 1 (Dresden Codex, Paris Codex) System A (not used) Campeche System B (not used) (Madrid Codex) Some scholars, notably Sir J. Eric S. Thompson ([70], p.127), state that the Dresden and Paris Codices use the Akbal/Lamat system of yearbearers. This results from interpreting "the first of Pop" to mean 1 Pop rather than 0 Pop. If this interpretation of "yearbearer" is adopted then the Dresden Codex does use the Akbal/Lamat system, for the fact that only Ik, Manik, etc., can occur with 0 Pop implies that only Akbal, Lamat, etc., can occur with 1 Pop. Thompson adduces some evidence that the 0 day of a month was really the last day of the preceding month, so that 0 Pop was really the last day of the old year, not the first day of the new year, but suggests that the Mayas themselves (at this late stage in their history) may have become careless in drawing such distinctions. Be that as it may, the system of yearbearers used in this software interprets the 0 day of a month to be the first day of that month, implying that the system of yearbearers used in the Dresden Codex is Ik/Manik and not Akbal/Lamat. Bibliography The Maya Calendar Index Home Page	<urn:uuid:6f9fee09-1a5b-42a7-ae7a-9b88587c9ccc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.08360952138900757, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9331284761428833, "url": "https://hermetic.ch/cal_stud/maya/chap3.htm" }
Saturday, 9 April 2016 The Cat Came Back Today the Grade 1 classes got to enjoy the fun song "The Cat Came Back." Listening to song 'stories' is a great way to build literacy awareness, oral language skills, critical-thinking, comprehension, and self-expression. Vocabulary: cat, yellow, farm, farmer, tractor, trucker, truck, pilot, plane, train, train conductor, little girl Some great questions ask about the song: What color was the cat in this story? Why do you think Mr. Johnson wanted to give the cat away? Who was the first person that Mr. Johnson gave the cat to? What were the sequence of events? How do you think the cat felt each time Mr. Johnson gave him away? How many times did the cat go back to Mr. Johnson? Can a cat really a drive a truck, fly a plane or eat up an entire field of corn? Is this story real or make-believe? How did the story end? How do you think the cat felt when the little girl took him home? Why do you think he felt that way? What was your favorite part of the story? What do you think the little girl named the cat? What was the song form? Original Content: The Cat Came Back No comments: Post a Comment	<urn:uuid:36847e3f-9431-4f61-a31a-3b6397efe053>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.75, "fasttext_score": 0.4177185893058777, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9711755514144897, "url": "http://snagmusicblog.blogspot.com/2016/04/the-cat-came-back.html" }
A new wasp genus discovered on the Indonesian island of Borneo has a historical namesake. Named Wallaceaphytis after Alfred Russel Wallace, one of the “forgotten heroes” behind the theory of evolution by natural selection, the insect was collected in 2012 during a trip to the Danum Valley. A description of the unusually large parasitoid wasp is described in a new paper in the Journal of Natural History. "Wallaceaphytis is so unusual that one of my volunteers called me over to the microscope saying, 'This looks really strange'," Andrew Polaszek, head of the Terrestrial Invertebrates Division at the Natural History Museum in London, who was part of the team that found the insect, told the BBC. "Not only is it a new species but also a completely new genus. And we found it in Wallace's old stomping ground." While Charles Darwin set out to the Galapagos Islands to observe natural selection, Wallace went to the islands of south and east Asia, including Borneo. He describes thousands of new insect species he collected from the Indonesian island between 1854-56, including the Rajah Brooke’s birdwing butterfly, which is now a protected species and the national butterfly of Malaysia. "The beauty and brilliancy of this insect are indescribable," wrote Wallace in his book The Malay Archipelago."On taking it out of my net and opening the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death." The Wallaceaphytis is a parasitoid wasp that lays eggs inside other insects and spiders. While these kinds of wasps are typically less than a fifth of a millimeter in length, this new wasp is just under a millimeter, making it “a bit of a whopper,” according to the Natural History Museum. DNA confirmed that it wasn’t related to a known species. Entomologists have identified about 130,000 species, but Polaszek predicts there are thousands yet to be discovered. "I'm going to stick out my neck and say the true number is closer to a million species in total," Polaszek told NBC News. Polaszek said his team plans to return to Borneo to collect more insects in a different area of the island. “There’s still this remarkable hidden biodiversity in Borneo as well as right under our noses here in England,” he said.	<urn:uuid:d587f6a8-22a7-4639-947d-2b7b28b20ad0>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.020250260829925537, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9548312425613403, "url": "http://www.ibtimes.com/new-wasp-genus-discovered-wallaceaphytis-named-after-evolution-naturalist-alfred-russel-wallace" }
Day 29 (part 1): Throughout history, tribes were portrayed as savages Last night, we discussed everything we had learnt about the situation in Attapadi so far. Having understood both the tribal and government side of the story, we were now able to draw conclusions on how alienation of land propagated social exclusion that eventually led to abject poverty and absolute dissolution of tribal demography. While displacement of aboriginal groups from their natural habitat began in the colonial era, it was during the fifties that it gained rapid momentum. Since most of the communities had lost their farms to the Attapadi Forest Reserve, the tribes soon started selling their land to settlers in hopes of saving their families from starvation. Gradually, they were introduced to the monetary system and became completely dependent on locals for survival. Throughout history, tribes have been portrayed as savages who were subjugated by tyrants and forcefully initiated into a materialistic paradigm. In a bid to magnify revenue by levying taxes, the British resorted to harsh measures including threatening and taking severe action against recalcitrant tribal leaders and those in favour of the communities. While a section of their administration favoured a holistic approach with respect to nurturing tribal beliefs, spirituality and their lifestyle, many preferred brute force and military action to ascertain their power over helpless tribesmen. Though several Kurumba families own lands, they are unable to make any profit from farming. A large portion of the land that the Attapadi tribes possess are rocky and infertile. Hence, most of the tribal people work as porters or construction workers today. Based on a report released by the Planning Commission of India a few years ago, only 4% of the Kurumbas have access to high school within a 5 km radius. Many hamlets don’t even have navigable roads upto 8 km. Moreover, owing to their reluctance in consuming allopathic medicines, there were five deaths reported due to tuberculosis in the hamlets. Blind faith combined with remoteness and inaccessibility could eventually prove to be fatal for those residing in the hills. The literacy rate of the tribe is estimated at 32.36 but the number of girls dropping out of schools saw a major spike in the past one decade. Although, parents were made aware of the importance of education and how it could empower such marginalised communities by elevating their social, economic and cultural status, it was found that more than 143 children were not enrolled in schools. Some couldn’t afford to send them and others believed it was pointless to go to institutions that do not cater to tribal aesthetics or culture. For, they are taught to move ahead with time and leave behind everything they believed in; everything they stood for. Some feared the outcome. Some embraced it. Nonetheless, they all fought hard to grasp the last floating remnants of their identity that once defined who they are; that they once took great pride in… (to be continued…) Find more about the campaign here: Leave a Reply You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change ) Twitter picture Facebook photo Google+ photo Connecting to %s	<urn:uuid:3fbf1bc5-7b19-4351-a1d1-6789e0ef0f51>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.734375, "fasttext_score": 0.1688573956489563, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9589400887489319, "url": "https://restofmyfamily.blog/2015/10/06/day-29-part-1-throughout-history-tribes-were-portrayed-as-savages/" }
AskDefine \| Define proscenium Dictionary Definition 1 the part of a modern theater stage between the curtain and the orchestra (i.e., in front of the curtain) [syn: apron, forestage] 2 the wall that separates the stage from the auditorium in a modern theater [syn: proscenium wall] [also: proscenia (pl)] User Contributed Dictionary from Greek προσκήνιον. 1. In the context of "in a modern theatre": the area between the curtain and the orchestra 2. In the context of "in an ancient theatre": the area between the background and the orchestra 3. a proscenium arch Extensive Definition The term has a complex origin and originally meant something very different. It derives from the Greek proskenion, meaning 'in front of the scene'. The scene was a building with doors that served as the backdrop in Ancient Greek theater. The proskenion was a raised stage in front of the scene which appeared in the Hellenistic era and in Roman theater; it served simply to make the actors higher to aid visibility, and to separate them from the chorus. Ancient theaters thus lacked the modern proscenium arch. It was also absent from Renaissance theaters. The proscenium arch developed in seventeenth century theaters, alongside the development of illusionist scenery. This design has been the most common for theater spaces in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Western theater. The proscenium arch creates a 'window' around the scenery and actors. The advantages are that it gives everyone in the audience a good view because the actors need only focus on one direction rather than continually moving around the stage to give a good view from all sides. A proscenium theater layout also simplifies the hiding and obscuring of objects from the audience's view (sets, actors not currently performing, and theater technology). Anything that is not meant to be seen is simply placed outside the 'window' created by the proscenium arch. The side of the stage that faces the audience is referred to as the "fourth wall". The phrase "breaking the proscenium" refers to when the actor addresses the audience directly as part of the dramatic production (is also known as breaking the fourth wall). The phrase can also refer to when a member of the cast or crew walks onto the stage or into the house when there is an audience inside, also breaking the fourth wall. Proscenium theatres have fallen out of favor in some theater circles because they perpetuate the fourth wall concept. The staging in proscenium theatres often implies that the characters performing on stage are doing so in a four-walled environment, with the "wall" facing the audience being invisible. Many modern theatres attempt to do away with the fourth wall concept and so are instead designed with a thrust stage that projects out of the proscenium arch and "reaches" into the audience (technically, this can still be referred to as a proscenium theater because it still contains a proscenium arch, however the term thrust stage is more specific and more widely used). Other forms of theater staging • Alley Theater: The stage is surrounded on two sides by the audience. • Thrust: The stage is surrounded on three sides (or 270˚) by audience. Can be modification of proscenium staging. Sometimes known as "Three Quarter Round". • Theater in the round: The stage is surrounded by audience on all sides. • Environmental theater: The stage and audience either blend together, or are in numerous or oddly shaped sections. Includes any form of staging that is not easily classifiable under the above categories. • Studio Theatre Layout: Not technically a form of staging, rather a theater that can be reconfigured to accommodate many forms of staging. External links proscenium in German: Proszenium proscenium in Spanish: Proscenio proscenium in French: Avant-scène proscenium in Japanese: プロセニアム・アーチ proscenium in Latvian: Proskēnijs proscenium in Polish: Proscenium proscenium in Swedish: Proscenium Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words L, R, acting area, anteriority, apron, apron stage, backstage, band shell, bandstand, board, bold front, brave face, brave front, bridge, coulisse, display, dock, dressing room, facade, face, facet, facia, flies, fly floor, fly gallery, fore, forefront, foreground, forehand, foreland, forepart, forequarter, foreside, forestage, foreword, front, front elevation, front man, front matter, front page, front view, frontage, frontal, frontier, frontispiece, greenroom, grid, gridiron, head, heading, lap, lightboard, obverse, orchestra, orchestra pit, performing area, pit, preface, prefix, priority, proscenium stage, shell, stage, stage left, stage right, switchboard, the boards, window dressing, wings Privacy Policy, About Us, Terms and Conditions, Contact Us Material from Wikipedia, Wiktionary, Dict Valid HTML 4.01 Strict, Valid CSS Level 2.1	<urn:uuid:9005ee45-bbbe-40fb-ab71-4e24778e7050>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.796875, "fasttext_score": 0.19131696224212646, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9213748574256897, "url": "https://proscenium.askdefine.com/" }
Mamba is the common name given to snakes of the genus Dendroaspis. 'Dendroaspis' translates as tree snake (Greek dendron (tree) + aspis (shield); shield in this case also refers to asps, with their neck hood). While most of the Dendroaspis are arboreal, the most well known of the mambas, the black mamba, lives in burrows and crevices (although it can climb quite well when the situation calls for it). Members of genus Dendroaspis are long thin snakes (from 0.5 meters to 3 meters), with thin heads. They are diurnal. They live throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. They are closely related to the cobras, and have small hoods. They can rear up, and may even crawl in an upright position. They are also very poisonous, and will strike repeatedly. They tend to favor small prey, like rodents, hyraxes, and birds. They bite their prey, injecting them with a paralyzing neurotoxic venom, and then stand back and wait for them to die. They can be aggressive when threatened, attacking humans and larger animals, and are quite poisonous enough to kill what they bite. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Serpentes Family: Elapidae Genus: Dendroaspis Species -- Dendroaspis angusticeps, Eastern green mamba Species -- Dendroaspis jamesoni, Jameson's mamba Species -- Dendroaspis polylepis, Black mamba Species -- Dendroaspis viridis, Western green mamba	<urn:uuid:ae2fd70d-f09a-4168-9924-22484d195465>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.23902618885040283, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9096438884735107, "url": "https://everything2.com/user/Tem42/writeups/Mamba" }
June 8, 2010 Madagascar’s Lemurs Offer Clues To Global Warming Impact Research by Amy Dunham, a Rice assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology, detailed for the first time a direct correlation between the frequency of El NiÃƒ±o and a threat to life in Madagascar, a tropical island that acts as a refuge for many unique species that exist nowhere else in the world. In this case, the lemur plays the role of the canary in the coal mine. Dunham said most studies of global warming focus on temperate zones. "We all know about the polar bears and their melting sea ice," she said. "But tropical regions are often thought of as refuges during past climate events, so they haven't been given as much attention until recently. This time, she set out to learn how El NiÃƒ±o patterns impact rainfall in southeastern Madagascar and how El NiÃƒ±o and cyclones affect the reproductive patterns of the Milne-Edwards' Sifaka lemur. The warming of global sea temperatures may "enhance" El NiÃƒ±o cycles, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Dunham found that in Ranomafana, contrary to expectations, El NiÃƒ±o makes wet seasons wetter. "When it rains heavily, lemurs are not active. They sit there and wait for the rain to stop, huddling for warmth," Dunham said. Anecdotal evidence suggested heavy rains knock fruit off the trees when lactating lemurs need it most, and may even kill trees outright. Dunham learned from the data that cyclones making landfall have a direct negative effect on the fecundity "“ or potential reproductive capacity "“ of lemurs. The team also discovered that fecundity "was negatively affected when El NiÃƒ±o occurred in the period before conception, perhaps altering ovulation, or during the second six months of life, possibly reducing infant survival during weaning," they wrote. On the Net:	<urn:uuid:b3959b4f-b034-4a58-8679-4d894079668e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.16557496786117554, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9399869441986084, "url": "http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1876377/madagascars_lemurs_offer_clues_to_global_warming_impact/" }
How It Works Why do we hiccup? There are over 100 physiological reasons as to what sets hiccups off, the most common being expansion of the stomach and movement of stomach acid into the oesophagus. After this then it could be an irritation of the thorax or the phrenic nerve (the nerve to the diaphragm). The mechanism of a hiccup usually involves a strong contraction of the diaphragm, the neck muscles and some other surrounding muscles. Just after the contraction begins we start to inhale at which point the glottis (a kind of fl eshy trap door which separates the food and air tubes in your throat) shuts off the windpipe and this produces the ‘hic’ noise. Scientists are still trying to find the actual purpose of hiccups. One theory is that they may have served useful for a common ancestor of ours. Standing on two legs gives us the advantage of using gravity to help digest our food, whereas four-legged creatures have to digest horizontally which means it’s easier for food to get stuck in their throats. Some scientists think the lodged food could have hit a nerve responsible for triggering the hiccup allowing the food to be swallowed. If this is the case then hiccups could have been highly useful rather than just making you look daft!	<urn:uuid:29da550e-9ff2-4079-a258-b5e11d8f274b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.90625, "fasttext_score": 0.992412805557251, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9396799802780151, "url": "https://www.howitworksdaily.com/why-do-we-hiccup/" }
Medieval Cruck Hall Medieval Cruck type Great Hall was a significant architectural development of the middle ages The early halls of the Saxons and Vikings were isled buildings characterised by rows of upright wooden posts that supported the roof. A new type of construction technique, based on the use of cruck trusses, came into use just before the Norman conquest that allowed the size of the interior spaces to be increased without being interrupted by rows of supporting posts. The technique is based on the use of pairs of curved blades of wood that spring from the base of the structure and meet at or near the apex of the roof, forming an arch, from which the walls and roof are supported. The blades would normally be made from English Oak, each one hewn from a single tree. Trees the right shape and large enough for a 20 foot high great hall are very rare, even in medieval times, so it is likely that they could have been sourced from woodlands located many miles from the place of construction. The wood used to build houses in the later Tudor and Stuart periods would have been treated with a bituminous black paint that gave them a distinctive black and white look. The timbers in earlier buildings would have been untreated and left in their natural condition on the inside and outside of the building. The wattle and daub infill would have been treated with a lime wash giving it a white colour. The inside of this infill may have been further decorated with paintings or covered over with tapestries depicting great events from the past. Floors may have been left as natural earth covered with hay, covered with wooden boards or laid with paving stone. In the middle of the hall there would have been an open fire on a pedestal made from clay or in an earth pit surrounded by stones. The fire served to heat and light the hall and also provided heat for cooking. The roof would have been thatched without a chimney, the smoke simply rising into the roof spaces and filtering out through the thatch, helping to kill any infestations that were taking refuge there. Windows were sometimes incorporated to provide additional light to illuminate the hall. These would have been unglazed and fitted with panels that could be closed from the inside as a security measure and to keep out the worst of the English weather. The hall would have been the main focal point of a small settlement or of a group of buildings within a larger settlement. Typically the Lord of the Manor or some other important person would live in a hall like this with his family and close retainers.	<urn:uuid:4a572901-0b5f-4c2a-b4ae-42ecb1dd543a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.921875, "fasttext_score": 0.027301013469696045, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9830513000488281, "url": "http://3dhistory.co.uk/article/medieval/medieval-cruck-hall" }
A relative of Cynognathus, Massetognathus was a plant-eating cynodont belonging to the Traversodontid family. This cynodont lived in what is now South America, in Brazil (paleorrota) and Argentina (Los Chañares Formation) during the Middle Triassic period (~237 million years ago). Massetognathus was about 50 centimetres (1.6 ft) long. It had cheek teeth specially adapted to chewing on vegetation. It still had the distinctive long snout of its cynodont relatives, with nipping incisors and fang-like canines, but its cheek teeth were not pointed.[1] Instead they were flat-topped and were covered with a number of low ridges, which made them good for grinding any stems, roots and other plant materials. Massetognathus had clawed feet and a long dog-like tail. Like most of its cynodont relatives it may have had hair, but not a full fur Other related generaEdit Ad blocker interference detected!	<urn:uuid:13b6366e-c882-41d0-8639-9047870a53be>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.15923279523849487, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9652778506278992, "url": "http://prehistopedia.wikia.com/wiki/Massetognathus" }
north carolina highway historical marker program North Carolina Highway Historical Marker Program Marker Text: William Blount, United States senator and Governor of the Southwest Territory, was born on March 26, 1749 in Bertie County, son of Jacob and Barbara Blount and brother of John Gray Blount. As a member of one of the wealthiest, most respected families in North Carolina, Blount received an education at private academies in both North Carolina and Virginia. The family resided at Blount Hall. During the American Revolution, Blount served briefly as the paymaster of the 3rd North Carolina Continental regiment before resigning in 1778. He served six terms as a state representative and senator, before accepting a position with the Continental Congress, and later served both state conventions concerning adoption of the United States Constitution. Blount also supported the cession of the state’s western lands to the United States government, and became Governor of the “territory of the United States south of the Ohio River.” From 1790 to 1796, Blount served as Superintendent of Indian Affairs and was instrumental in forging the 1791 Treaty of Holston with the Cherokee. The agreement provided the United States legal right to a large amount of land, some of which whites already had occupied. Blount helped found the state of Tennessee and chaired the convention that drafted the state’s first constitution in 1796. Blount College, the forerunner of the University of Tennessee, was named in his honor. Upon admission of Tennessee into the Union, Blount was elected to the United States Senate. In 1797 he was found guilty of “a high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public trust and duty as Senator,” and was expelled from the Senate for having been involved in a scheme to incite the Creek and Cherokees to aid the British in conquering Spanish-held West Florida. An impeachment trial began in the House of Representatives, but Blount was acquitted before the Senate. Blount was elected a state senator in Tennessee and chosen as president at its first session in December 1797. The charges were subsequently dismissed. Blount died in Knoxville, Tennessee on March 21, 1800, and is buried in the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery. He left a widow, Mary Moseley Grainger, and seven children. William H. Masterson, William Blount (1954) William S. Powell, ed., Dictionary of North Carolina Biography, I, 182-183—sketch by Stanley J. Folmsbee Samuel A. Ashe, ed., Biographical History of North Carolina (1905) Biographical Dictionary of the American Congress (1928) William Blount Papers, Tennessee State Library and Archives, Nashville Location: County: Original Date Cast: north carolina highway historical marker program William Blount (portrait by Washington B. Cooper, Tennessee Historical Society)	<urn:uuid:742959bc-df0f-4a9b-9f42-d4877e7af4e1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.018667936325073242, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9455521702766418, "url": "http://ncmarkers.com/Markers.aspx?sp=Markers&k=Markers&sv=A-41" }
Summary: The figure of a lion is fitting to describe the true nature of our Lord and inspires us to commit our lives to Him. Study Tools Revelation 5:1-5 In 1930, Haile Selassie became the Emperor of Ethiopia. The Christian ruler was the 111th emperor in succession of King Solomon. Upon assuming power, Selassie sought to modernize the nation. He built schools and universities, established newspapers, expanded electricity and telephone service and increased public health services. Then in October 1935, Italian forces under orders from Benito Mussolini invaded Ethiopia. Selassie’s forces were no match for the Italian army and in May, 1936, he went into exile. He appeared for help to the League of Nations, saying, "apart from the Kingdom of the Lord there is not on this earth any nation that is superior to any other. Should it happen that a strong government finds it may, with impunity destroy a weak people, then the hour strikes for that weak people to appeal to the League of Nations to give its judgment in all freedom. God and history will remember your judgment." The League did not help, and for the next five years Selassie remained in Britain trying to garner world support against Italy with little results. One day, British field marshal Sir William Edmund Ironside asked Selassie what he was going to do now? Selassie, known as "The Lion of Judah" replied: "After all, there is God!" In May of 1941, Selassie’s faith in the power of God was rewarded as he re-entered Ethiopia and remained Emperor until 1974. But I know of another, far greater "Lion of Judah." It is the One written of by John the Revelator. In Meredith’s "Book of Bible Lists," it is stated that there are 39 names attributed to Jesus, found in the New Testament. One of these is "Lion of the Tribe of Judah" (Rev 5:5). The central figure in C.S. Lewis’ "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" is Aslan the lion. He is the true ruler of the mystical land called Narnia. Who can doubt that Lewis has Christ in mind? Aslan fights the White Witch (Satan) and saves Narnia from perpetual darkness. He sacrifices his life for the people of Narnia, hence becoming, in a sense, a Lamb who takes away the curse and defeats Narnia’s ancient foe--not unlike John’s description in Revelation 5:6. In some reards, it almost appears as though Lewis sat with the New Testament open, especially the book of Revelation, as he penned this story. Aslan, was just this wonderful, magical lion, the epitome of goodness--full of love (a type of Christ). When Susan meets Aslan, that’s when she really believes in Narnia and kind of gets a grip that things are going to be okay. Aslan really serves as a symbol of hope--especailly when he rises from the dead! Of all the images presented in the Bible for Christ, the lion is the most magnificent. The title, "Lion of Judah" goes back to Jacob’s final blessing of his sons before his death. In that blessing he calls Judah "a lion’s whelp" (Genesis 49:9). If Judah himself is a lion’s whelp, it is fitting to call the greatest member of the tribe of of Judah "The Lion of Judah." In the books written between the Testaments, this became a messianic title. 2 Esdras speaks of the figure of a lion and says: "This is the Annointed One, that is the Messiah" (2 Esdras 12:31). The strength of the lion and his undoubted place as king of beasts make him a fitting emblem of the all-powerful Messiah who the Jews and Christians await. Talk about it... Davon Huss commented on Dec 6, 2006 Good sermon! Lots of Biblical references and lots of Jesus Christ! Join the discussion	<urn:uuid:4a8ceeb7-e80c-4fee-a7bd-44d660bc1458>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.027897357940673828, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9613540768623352, "url": "https://www.sermoncentral.com/sermons/narnia-lion-of-judah-bruce-howell-sermon-on-narnia-84315" }
What is Manipuri Dance? Manipuri ' is one of the major classical dances of India . It originates from Manipur , a state in northeast India bordering Myanmar (also known as Burma ). In Manipur, surrounded by mountains and isolated is the meeting point of East and mainland India, the dance has developed with its own specific aesthetics, values, conventions and ethnicity. The worship of Radha and Krishna , particularly raslila, is central to its themes, but the dances, exceptionally, include signature dishes ( kartal or Manjira) and a two-headed drum ( pung or Manipuri mridanga) sankirtan visual performance. The Manipuri dancers, do not use the bells on their ankles to accentuate the rhythms with their feet, in contrast to other forms of dance from India, and support the dancer's foot gently on the ground. The movements of the body and feet and facial expressions in Manipuri dance are subtle and are intended for the devotion and grace. The traditional style of Manipuri dance movements embodies delicate, lyrical and elegant. The goal is to make rounded movements and avoid abrupt expressions, sharp edges or straight lines. It is this that gives the Manipuri dance its soft and wavy. The foot movements are seen as part of a compound movement throughout the body. The dancer puts his feet on the floor, even during vigorous steps, with the front touching the ground first. The joints of the knees and ankles are effectively used as shock absorbers.The dancer's feet or left on the floor or the specific points raised in the rhythm of the music, but a little before or after expressing the rhythmic points more effectively. The musical accompaniment for Manipuri dance comes from a percussion instrument called pung , a singer, cymbals , a stringed instrument called a penalty and a flute . Drummers who are always male artists, and after learning to play the pung, students are trained in dance with him while playing the drum. This dance is known as Pung Choloma. © General Infromations. Do not copying or reproducing.	<urn:uuid:43ee2755-473a-4b7d-ad6f-cea9fb769eb1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.2908150553703308, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9336883425712585, "url": "http://www.maininformations.com/2011/02/what-is-manipuri-dance.html" }
More than 100 genera of fusulinids are distributed in the late Paleozoic geosynclines and adjacent marine shelves of Eurasia and the western hemisphere. Geographic distribution of these genera is uneven and forms the basis for recognizing 14 fusulinid faunal associations or subassociations which can be grouped into four faunal realms: Eurasian-Arctic realm (middle and late Carboniferous and earliest Permian), Midcontinent-Andean realm (Pennsylvanian and most of Permian), Middle Cordilleran realm (early Permian), and a Tethyan realm (middle and late Permian). A gradual concentration of endemic genera in the Tethyan realm and a gradual restriction of other genera to the Tethyan realm occurred during the Permian. By the middle of late Permian time, nearly all fusulinids became extinct, except in the Eurasian Tethyan seas where advanced members of the Schubertellidae and Staffellidae formed a distinctive association in the youngest fusulinid faunas. You do not currently have access to this article.	<urn:uuid:38a91f77-2622-4bfe-a960-623a6f125004>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.33604341745376587, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9011467695236206, "url": "https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jpaleontol/article-abstract/41/6/1341/80299/development-of-fusulinid-foraminiferida-faunal?redirectedFrom=fulltext" }
How to Draw a Musk Ox In this quick tutorial you'll learn how to draw a Musk Ox in 8 easy steps - great for kids and novice artists. At the bottom you can read some interesting facts about the Musk Ox. How to Draw a Musk Ox - Step-by-Step Tutorial Step 1: First, draw the head as shown above, leaving a gap for the neck and body. Step 2: Draw a tiny oval for the eye, a hook shape for the horn, a semi-circle inside of an oval for the ear, a small line for the mouth, and a small circle for the nose Add a curved line going across near the bottom of the head. Step 3: Draw the body by creating two wavy lines starting at the top and bottom of the head. Try to think of a cloud when making the lines. Step 4: Draw the front leg with two vertical lines that curve in and then out, then use one more line to make them meet. Step 5: The other front leg will be mostly hidden by the first one, but add a line curved just like the left side of the first front leg. Step 6: Draw the bottom of the body, then make the hind leg like the first front leg you drew except a bit smaller. Step 7: Draw the tail using two lines from the right of the body that meet at a point. Step 8: Make the other hind leg like the first, except that the right half of it will be hidden by the other hind leg. Your Musk Ox is now done! Interesting Facts about Musk Oxen Musk oxen are large mammals that weigh about 600 to 900 pounds. They have thick layers of dark brown fur that is so long that it almost touches the ground. Their massive size and layered fur helps them survive the freezing cold. Musk oxen are from the Arctic Tundra, specifically northern Canada, parts of Alaska, and Greenland. Did you know? • Musk oxen are about 5 feet tall at their shoulders and are about 8 feet long. • Musk oxen live for 20 to 25 years. • Musk oxen are herbivores. They eat various kinds of plants, flowers, and grasses. They have large hooves that help them dig through the snow to find their food. • Musk oxen are related to sheep and goats. Musk oxen are sometimes also called musk sheep, although they look more like buffalos. • Musk oxen live in herds with up to 100 members. They travel in a large group to protect each other from predators. • Both male and female musk oxen have downward-curved horns. Musk oxen used to be hunted freely by humans, until Canadian law banned people from hunting them for sport. Their population was almost extinct until the 1910s, when the law was put in place. Musk oxen are most often used to make wool items such as scarves.	<urn:uuid:d8c905f7-e04b-402e-aa88-2a14daa2088f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.08674770593643188, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9469456672668457, "url": "http://www.wedrawanimals.com/how-to-draw-a-musk-ox/" }
Saturday, February 20, 2010 Historical Evidence Proves Calendar and Sabbath Change Historical References of Calendar and Sabbath Changes Encyclopedia Biblica 1899 "The Hebrew Sabbathon was celebrated at intervals of seven days, corresponding with changes in the moon's phases..." Encyclopedia Biblica, 1899 edit., p.4180 In the years following Clement of Alexandria’s time, an ominous change started to take place that was to radically change the Christian concept of the Sabbath. “This intimate connection between the week and the month was soon dissolved. It is certain that the week soon followed a development of its own, and it became the custom -- without paying any regard to the days of the month (i.e. the lunar month) -- that the new moon no longer coincided with the first day of the week." Encyclopedia Biblica (The MacMillan Company, 1899. P. 5290). “The introduction...of the custom of celebrating the Sabbath every 7th day, irrespective of the relationship of the day to the moon's phases, led to a complete separation from the ancient view of the Sabbath...” Encyclopedia Biblica 1899 p4179 "The four quarters of the Moon supply an obvious division of the month... it is most significant that in the older parts of the Hebrew scriptures the new moon and the sabbath are almost invariably mentioned together. The [lunar] month is beyond question an old sacred division of time common to all the semites; even the Arabs who received the week at quite a late period from the Syrians, greeted the New Moon with religious acclamations. We cannot tell [exactly] when the Sabbath became dissociated from the month." Encyclopedia Biblica (1899 edit) pp 4178 and 4179 "The Hebrew Month is a lunar month and the quarter of this period-one phase of the moon-appears to have determined the week of seven days." Encyclopedia Biblica, (1899 edit.) p.4780 Encyclopedia Britannica The calendar was originally fixed by observation, and ultimately by calculation. Up to the fall of the Temple (AD 70), witnesses who saw the new moon came forward and were strictly examined and if their evidence was accepted the month was fixed by the priests. Eventually the authority passed to the Sanhedrin and ultimately to the patriarch. Gradually observation gave place to calculation. The right to determine the calendar was reserved to the Patriarchate. The Jews of Mesopotamia [in Babylon] tried in vain to establish their own calendar but the prerogative of Palestine was zealously defended." So long as Palestine remained a religious centre, it was naturally to the homeland that the Diaspora looked for its calendar. Uniformity was essential, for if different parts had celebrated feasts on different days, confusion would have ensued. It was not until the 4th century A.D. that Babylon fixed the calendar." Encyclopedia Britannica; Vol 4, article "Calendar" In the 21st century, we take for granted a seven-day week. However, in some ancient cultures, the length of the week differed. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica: “Among primitive peoples, it was common to count moons (months) rather than days, but later a period shorter than the month was thought more convenient, and an interval between market days was adopted. In West Africa some tribes used a four-day interval; in central Asia five days was customary; the Assyrians adopted five days and the Egyptians, 10 days, whereas the Babylonians attached significance to the days of the lunation that were multiples of seven. In ancient Rome, markets were held at eight-day intervals; because of the Roman method of inclusive numeration, the market day was denoted nundinae (“ninth-day”) and the eight-day week, an inter nundium.” Measurement of time and types of calendars: Standard units and cycles”; Britannica 2002 Deluxe Edition; 1994-2002; Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Philo of Alexandria "[The moon] receives the perfect shapes in periods of seven days-the half-moon in the first seven days period after it's conjunction with the sun, full moon in the second..." The Works of Philo, The Special Laws, I, XXXV (177), page 550 The Popular and Critical Bible Encyclopedia "Among all early nations the lunar months were the readiest large divisions of time... (and was divided in 4 weeks), corresponding (to) the phases or the quarters of the moon. In order to connect the reckoning by weeks with the lunar month, we find that all ancient nations observed some peculiar solemnities to mark the day of the New Moon." The Popular and Critical Bible Encyclopedia 1904 edit) Vol. 3, p. 1497 Rest Days; Hutton Webster "The (early) Hebrews employed lunar seven-day weeks, which ended with special observances on the seventh day but none the less were tied to the moon's course." Hutton Webster in his book Rest Days, page 254-255 "These imported [from Babylon] superstitions eventually led Jewish rabbis to call Saturn Shabbti, 'the star of the Sabbath.' [and] it was not until the first century of our era, when the planetary week had become an established institution, that the Jewish Sabbath seems always to have corresponded to Saturn's Day [Saturday]." Rest Days, p244 Hutton Webster An old and still common theory derives the Sabbath institution from the worship of Saturn after which planet the first day of the astrological week received its designation. The theory is untenable for more than one reason. In the first place the Hebrews did not name their weekdays after the planets, but indicated them by ordinal numbers. In the second place Saturn's day began the planetary week, while the Jewish [Hebrew] Sabbath was regarded as the last day of the seven, a suitable position for a rest day. And in the third place neither the Hebrews nor any other Oriental people ever worshipped the planet Saturn as god and observed his day as a festival. Rest Days p243, Hutton Webster Those who argue that the present Saturday of the Roman planetary week was always the 7th day of the week are either ignorant of the real facts or otherwise are plain and blunt liars. All authoritative sources plainly show that originally in Rome the week consisted of EIGHT days. And as long as this was the case the week did not begin with SUNDAY but rather with SATURDAY. Yes, in ancient Rome SATURDAY was the FIRST and not the SEVENTH day of their consecutive week. Hutton Webster in his book Rest Days: A Study in Early Law and Morality, on p. 264 clearly points out that originally in Rome, SATURDAY - the DAY of SATURN - began the Roman astrological week: “…the worship of SATURN after which planet the first day of the astrological week [Saturday] received its designation…SATURN'S DAY [SATURDAY] BEGAN THE PLANETARY WEEK, while the Jewish Sabbath was regarded as the LAST DAY.” It is therefore not true that Saturday was ALWAYS the 7th day of the week. At the time the Romans changed their weekly cycle and made Sunday to be their 1st day of the week and Saturday therefore the 7th, the Jews themselves ceased to observe the Sabbath according to the LUNAR PHASES - as they have done for hundreds of years - adopting the Roman planetary week and Saturday their new 7th day of the week. The Jews did not only abandon and discard the older practice of observing the Sabbath which was closely tied to the phases of the moon but they have eventually even come to call this new Saturday of the Roman planetary week by the name SHABBATH and the planet Saturn by the name SHABBTI, which means “the star of the Sabbath.” Explains Hutton Webster: “These imported superstitions eventually led Jewish rabbis to call Saturn SHABBTI, "the STAR OF THE SABBATH," [and] was not until [after]the first century of our era, when the planetary week had become an established institution, THAT THE JEWISH SABBATH SEEMS ALWAYS TO HAVE CORRESPONDED TO SATURN'S DAY… Dio Cassius [Roman historian born 155 A.D., died after 230 A.D.] also speaks of the Jews having DEDICATED TO THEIR GOD THE DAY CALLED THE DAY OF SATURN “ [Rest Days, p. 244-245]. Roman Calendar Encyclopedia; Days of the week 1st Century (A.D. 70) How great are the things the enemy did wickedly in the Holy place. They hated your glory in the midst of your solemnities. They placed their signs and banners on the highest places. . . . They burned with fire your sanctuary; they befouled the tabernacle of your name in earth. The kindred of them said together in their hearts; make we all the “feast days” of God to cease from the earth. Psalms 74:3, 7, 8 Wycliffe Bible 1378 2nd Century (Emperor Hadrian) This change from the luni-solar to a fixed solar calendar occurred in Rome during the repressive measures which were enacted against ALL Jewish customs . . . during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. With the fall of the Nazarene Jerusalem, this new Roman calendar quickly spread throughout ‘Christendom.’ This new calendar not only replaced yearly festival dates such as Passover, but it also revamped the concept of the week and its seventh day. Iranaeus 2nd Century A.D. 4th Century (Emperor Constantine in 321) Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia The association of sabbath rest with the account of creation must have been very ancient among the Hebrews, and it is noteworthy that no other Semitic peoples, even the Babylonians, have any tradition of the creation in six days. It would appear that the primitive Semites had FOUR CHIEF MOON DAYS, probably the first, eighth, fifteenth, and twenty-second of each month, CALLED SABBATHS from the fact that there was a tendency to end work before them so that they might be celebrated joyfully. Among the Babylonians these seventh days through astrological conceptions became ill-omened, while the sabbath in the middle of the month [15th] was made a day of propitiation, and its name was construed as meaning "the day for ending the wrath of the gods." The Israelites, on the other hand, made the sabbath the feasts of a living and holy God. The work of man became symbolic of the work of God, and human rest of divine rest, so that the sabbaths became preeminently days of rest. Since, moreover, the LUNAR MONTH had 29 or 30 days, the normal lapse of time between sabbaths was six days, although sometimes seven or eight; and six working days were accordingly assigned to the creation, which was to furnish a prototype for human life. the connection of the sabbath with lunar phases, however, was [later] discarded by the israelites..." (The New Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia pp. 135-136). Scribner's Dictionary of the Bible "In the time of the earliest prophets, the New Moon stood in the same line with another lunar observance, the Sabbath. Ezekiel, who curiously enough frequently dates his prophecies on the New Moon.... describes the gate of the inner court of the (new) temple looking eastward as kept shut for the six working days, but opened on the Sabbath and the New Moon." Scribner's Dictionary of the Bible (1898 edit) p.521 Shawui Calendar; Ancient Sabbath Observance "The [lunar] calendar was used by all the original disciples of Yeshua. This original Nazarene lunar-solar calendar was supplanted by a Roman "planetary week" and calendar in 135 C.E. when the 'Bishops of the Circumcision' (i.e. legitimate Nazarene successors to Yeshua) were displaced from Jerusalem. This began a three hundred year controversy concerning the true calendar and the correct Sabbath." Shawui Calendar: Ancient Shawui Observance Early historical records clearly confirms that very early Gentile Christians also kept the same Sabbath as the Nazarenes. This practice was first changed by [Pope] Sixtus in 126 AD, and later officially changed by a royal Roman decree from the emperor Constantine. Observance of the Sabbath day was made illegal and observance of a "sunday" of a fixed week was made mandatory for all except farmers. Previous to this time the Roman saturday was the first day of the Roman week. The veneration of the Sun in the second century AD began to pressure Roman culture to change the first day of their week from Saturn Day to sunday. Shawui Sabbath: Ancient Sabbath Observance “Most theologians and some scholars assume that mainstream Jewish society, at the time of Jesus...was practicing a fixed seven-day week which was the same as the modern fixed seven-day week. This is extremely doubtful. The change, from a lunar to a fixed week, was brought about by the power and influence of Rome. As long as the Nazarenes held power in Jerusalem, all Roman practices and customs, including that of THE CONSECUTIVE WEEK, WERE HELD AT BAY” Shawui Sabbath: Ancient Sabbath Observance The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar; Arthur Spier The Seven Day Circle; Eviator Zerubavel The Jewish and and astrological weeks evolved quite independently of one another. However, given the coincidence of their identical length, it was only a matter of time before some permanent correspondence between particular Jewish days and particular planetary days would be made. a permanent correspondence between the sabbath and "The Day Of Saturn" was thus established...[some time] later than the first century of the present era, Jews even came to name the planet saturn shabtai, after the original hebrew name of the sabbath, shabbath. Moreover, as they came into closer contact with Hellenism, their conception of their holy day was evidently affected by the astrological conception of saturn as a planet that has an overwhelming negative influence (a conception which, incidentally, is still evident even from the association of the English word "saturnine" with a gloomy disposition). There are traditional Jewish superstitious beliefs about demons and evil spirits that hold full sway on the Sabbath, and an old Jewish legend even links the choice of "the day of Saturn" as the official Jewish rest day with the superstition that it would be an inauspicious day for doing any work anyway! (The Seven Day Circle: The History and Meaning of the Week, Eviator Zerubavel, New York: The Free Press, 1985. P. 17). Zerubavel goes on to say that A continuous seven-day cycle that runs throughout history paying no attention whatsoever to the moon and its phases is a distinctly Jewish invention. Moreover, the dissociation of the seven-day week from nature has been one of the most significant contributions of Judaism to civilization. Like the invention of the mechanical clock some 1,500 years later, it facilitates the establishment of what Lewis Mumford identified as "mechanical periodicity," thus essentially increasing the distance between human beings and nature. Quasi [lunar] weeks and [continuous] weeks actually represent two fundamentally distinct modes of temporal organization of human life, the former involving partial adaptation to nature, and the latter stressing total emancipation from it. The invention of the continuous week was therefore one of the most significant breakthroughs in human beings' attempts to break away from being prisoners of nature [and from under God's law] and create a social world of their own (The Seven Day Circle, p. 11). The Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q320 Mishmerot A (fragment 1, column 1): Line 6: [On the fifth day of Jeda]iah is the twenty-ninth day (of the lunar month), on the thirtieth day of the (first solar) month. Line 12: [On the Sabbath of the course of Seori]m is the twenty-ninth day (of the lunar month), on the twenty-fifth day of the seventh (solar month). 4Q321 Mishmerot Ba (fragment 1, column 1): Lines 4 and 5: . . . and the first crescent [of the moon] is on the sabbath of the course of Pethahiah, on the ninth of the [solar] month. Line 5: [(The full moon is) on the first day of Eliashib, on the twenty-ninth day of the third (solar) month, and the first crescent] is on the second day of Jeshua, on the [sixteenth] of the month. Universal Jewish Encyclopedia "...each lunar month was divided into four parts corresponding to the four phases of the moon. The first week of each month began with the new moon, so that, as the lunar month was one or two days more than four periods of seven days, the additional days were not reckoned at all." The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol 10. p482 Article "week" "The idea of the week, as a subdivision of the month [was found] Babylonia, where each lunar month was divided into four parts, corresponding To The Four Phases Of The Moon. The first week of each month began With The New Moon, so that, as the lunar month was one or two days more than four periods of seven days, these additional days were not reckoned at all. Every seventh day (sabbatum) was regarded as an unlucky day. This method of reckoning time spread westward through Syria and Palestine, and was adopted By The Israelites, probably after they settled in Palestine" (The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia vol. 10, p. 482. Article "Week."). "In the Diaspora the New Moon came to occupy a secondary position in contrast to the Sabbath; the prohibition against work and the carrying on of commerce was lifted, and the New Moon, although still celebrated by means of increased offerings, soon was reduced to the rank of a minor of half holiday. Its importance was confined to the fact that it remained of great value and necessity for the fixing of the festivals." (Universal Jewish Encyclopedia, "New Moon," Vol. 8, p. 171. Revised July 10 2011 1. Paul, I have been keeping a lunar Shabbat for over two years now and it has been amazing how many people have been enlightened to the truth of it. Keep reading the Dead Sea Scrolls because in them you will find the true birth date of our Lord (The New Grain Pentecost) and the true day when the Shekina fell in the Temple (the New Wine Pentecost- Acts 2). May the the Beloved bless you and Keep you. 1. Hi Cynthia, I have recently started studying the Lunar Sabbath and am very convicted of its truth, do u know of any Lunar Sabbath congragations in the London area, hope u can help. 2. Welcome to my blog Tony. May IAUA bless you in your pursuit of His ultimate truth. 2. bal-shit! jews worship saturn..end of 3. many of my companion dont know about this, that they still kept their faith on that solar calendar. we dont know wat to do. we already told them that they celebrated the wrng sabbath... 4. may yahweh bless u. it is realy very hard for a believer to change directly, change the one one very important. we already know that becoZ of this many big churchs wil be knowing this. 5. It just seems to make sense that we should be observing the most obvious calendar, one readily available to the naked eye, and based on the Genesis account. The idea of using "Saturn's" day, just seems wrong, or a papal calendar? 6. This is so true! Yahweh's calender is so obvious and different then the one that we use today. We have so much technology today that we can find out truth just a click away, to see if there was ever any change. I have struggled with our home church to understand this truth and they say that Yehweh will not hold them accountable for not having enough evidence that to make a change. In my option, if the Bible shows that our Savior kept the real Sabbath and we find proof in history of this change, then why even doubt it! I have seen that I must separate myself from those that choose to worship a day that is not Yeshua's! My husband and I have shown our home church all the evidence and Bible proof of Moses,Yeshua and Genesis keeping the real Sabbath and the rest is in Yeshua's hands to make them aware of the error. I must follow the path of truth and continue strong without the options of men Only Bible will be our Safeguard!!! 7. Hi Cynthia, Thanks for your great testimony to Yah. Many of us are experiencing similar situations with friends and family, who think we have gone off the deep end. I can hardly get my long time church friends to investigate for themselves, choosing instead to continue to stand on what they have always believed, although they can't prove even what they stand on. Bless you in your own ministry. May Yah strengthen all of us for what lies ahead. Shalom. Paul 8. The true Names "Yahweh and Yahshua" caused me and my wife to leave SDA church. Today, that assembly would not still accept the true Names. Will they even understand, talk less of keeping Sabbath on defferent days of the gregorian week? Adventist, the only world-wide church close to the truth must listen to what Yahweh says. He is saying something. And that thing is better than a church position. No matter how sincere we are, if we do not follow the truth which gives life,it means we as rejecting life. 9. Thanks for your post Anonymous. I left the SDA church in Jan 2011 because of similar reasons. I saved them the trouble of disfellowshipping me because I was standing on a different platform than the church espouses. I'm now standing on the platform of the true calendar and sabbath, which means the SDA church needs to reexamine some of the platform they stand on. Best to you. 10. I left SDA in 2006 after knowing the true name of the Father and the son, our Savior. I joined an assembly the has been using the true names for more than 20 years. Recently I tried to introduce the keeping of Yahweh's Shabbats on Lunar dates but met very strong opposition. I have left that one again. Two out of 5 elders are leaving with me with their families. It's great to know the truth. Praise Yahweh for opening my eyes and my wife's eyes and ears. My name is Ini Mbebeng 11. Hello Anonymous/Ini Mbebeng; Thanks for you thoughtful comments. I too have met with strong opposition while trying to introduce Yah's true calendar and sabbath to my SDA friends. It is a sign of the times we are living in. The Assembly and Church of God folks are a tough bunch as well, as they have been keeping Yah's holidays for many years, but cling to the sabbath on the papal gregorian calendar. I often wonder when folks have part of Yah's truth, why they don't make the leap to see the biggest feast day on the list in Leviticus, that of the 7th day sabbath. At least you have some siding with you that have seen the truth. I have some SDA friends as well that have seen the truth when they were initially opposed to the idea of lunar sabbaths. When someone will take the time to honestly study, I believe they will see the truth fairly quickly. Praise Yah for your discovery, and may He bless you in your continued pursuit of truth. Shalom Paul 12. Let us clear up something very important which is being misrepresented in this article. firstly ... it is correct to say that the romans had a 8 day cycle. this was called the nundinal cycle secondly ... it is correct to say that from the time of augustus to the time of constantine ... that the romans also used a 7 day cycle called the planetary week BUT ... in the 8 day nundinal cycle ... only one day was named ... and that was the market day in the 7 day planetary cycle ... all the days were named ... and the first day of that 7 day cycle was called saturnus... NEVER did the romans call the first day of the nundinal cycle saturday the nundinal cycle and the planetary week cycle were put on roman calendars side by side Constantine did something totally different... he made a whole new calendar ... merging aspects of the nundinal cycle ... the planetary cycle ... the egyptian 365 dat calendar ... and the roman republic calendar months ... 13. I am thankful for this blog. Praise Yahuah that I came upon it. I was going to prepare for the sabbath today, today being Friday morning, but now I can wait a few more days until the lunar sabbath. Wow. Now I have some explaining to do to all my brothers and sisters why I said weeks ago that lunar sabbatarians were yahoos, and now I am one of them...May Yahuah forgive me,and the lunar sabbatarians, too... 14. I do not care too much for encyclopedias or dictionaries. Where did the editors get their information? Most of the editors are naturalists, meaning they do not entertain the notion of God, and therefore reject the possibility that the Sabbath came from the Creation week. The only sources I would accept are the ancient sources. I read the Philo source in context here: From the context. Philo first addresses the weekly animal sacrifices made on the Sabbath. Then, he goes into another discourse on animal sacrifices made at the new moon and the daily sacrifices of the lunar month. He does not imply at all that the Sabbath is dependent on the moon; rather, he implies it is not by separating it from the discourse on the daily sacrifices beginning at the new moon. Regarding the Roman references, they do not clearly state that anything about a lunar-dependent Sabbath, but only that the calendars of the Romans were altered. The Romans at one time had a lunar calendar, but even their week was not dependent on the moon; rather, it was an unbroken cycle. See the image of an ancient Roman calendar here: Regarding the Dead Sea Scrolls, I have read the transcriptions you posted here several times, and I see no clear statement regarding a lunar-dependent Sabbath. That is the conclusion of the ancient evidence presented here. Like I said, I do not accept encyclopedias because even they depend on sources. Where are their sources? 15. The Dead Sea Scrolls absolutely do NOT teach a lunar calendar. To the contrary they clearly provide a 364 day solar calendar year. The 364 Psalms of the Daily Sacrifice along with the 52 Psalms of the Sabbath Day, 4Q320 and 4Q321 all prove that they were following a solar calendar, NOT the Greek pagan lunar calendar. In fact the War Scroll depicts the Son's of Light (Zadok priests following Yah's solar calendar) fighting the Son's of Darkness (lunar calendar of the Greeks and Babylonians being imposed) and the New Testament uses the exact same terminology. In addition the Old Testament timelines refute a lunar calendar and prove a solar calendar was being followed. The evidence is literally overwhelming. The Hellenized Jews (wanting to adopt Greek customs) began following a lunar calendar after they killed off the Zadok priesthood and took over the Temple using "elected" priests. The NT writers frequently reference the "feast of the Jews" because Jesus and His disciples did not observe the Jewish calendar...just as Moses, David, Solomon did ot follow a lunar calendar for ANY feasts or Sabbath days.	<urn:uuid:cc799385-7ee0-4539-b4c8-126e4d21749a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.02803558111190796, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9196992516517639, "url": "http://yahwehstruelunarsabbathcalendar.blogspot.com/2010/02/historical-evidence-proves-calendar-and.html" }
The arrow doesn´t mean that the whole hand moves to the right side. Is that correct? In German Sign Language "few" is signed not parallel to the floor but to the wall. So same writing - just without the gaps? is that correct? The hand stays - just changing from closed fist to 5 fingers hand. Could you show us examples? ANSWER 0009: Examples 0009, Part 1: The arrow means traveling to the side. So Yes....the arrows do mean that the whole hand moves to the right side. Examples 0009, Part 2: These diagrams show the same kind of finger openings, with different directions of arm movements, and different palm facing. They are not signs - just examples of possible writing. When I show you these diagrams, I am not teaching ASL... Nor are my examples necessarily correct in ASL...the Part 1 examples were taken from our ASL dictionary with movement to the side while the hand opens. That is the way our Deaf staff members wrote the sign for FEW back in 1995, but I am sure there are many different versions for the same sign in ASL, in different parts of the country. So even if you have a similar sign for FEW in Germany, and even if that sign originally came over from the USA from a Deaf person who had graduated from Gallaudet (or whatever the influence)...once the sign is used by Deaf people in another culture, it becomes uniquely theirs - with their direction of movement and their emphasis and their palm facing...so even foreign signs change as they are used. That is what happened in the English spoken language - we borrowed so many words from French and German and Scandinavian languages...but the words themselves changed and became uniquely English. EXAMPLES 0009, Part 1: EXAMPLES 0009, Part 2: Questions? Write to: Valerie Sutton	<urn:uuid:3c0969d3-f73e-42b9-90a7-4e981c90bb01>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.6411595344543457, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9492821097373962, "url": "http://www.signwriting.org/lessons/elessons/less004.html" }
Previous page List of subjects \| Sources \| Feedback Share \| Discover in a free daily email today's famous history and birthdays Enjoy the Famous Daily Portland Vase: c.25 BC Late in the first century BC, probably in Rome, a glass vase is made by a process of astonishing difficulty and sophistication. A highly skilled glass-blower begins with a molten blob of opaque white glass. Into it he inserts another molten blob of glass, in this case blue. Then he expands this hot lump, by blowing air into it through a tube, at the same rotating it into the shape of a vase - white on the outside, blue inside. When the vase is cold and solid, another craftsman carves away the white surface to make a cameo image in white on blue. The vase undoubtedly has great importance in its own time, being made for a special occasion to which the figures somehow relate. Depicted in statuesque poses in a classical setting, they clearly derive from Greek mythology. Their identity has been the subject of much debate, but they probably have a link with Achilles. The vase may have been commissioned for a member of the family of the emperor Augustus. In about 1582 the vase is discovered in Rome. It passes through various collections before coming into the possession of the third duke of Portland in England in 1786. To protect such a precious object from damage, the fourth duke lends the vase in 1810 to the British Museum. His decision proves unfortunate. In the museum, thirty-five years later, the vase is smashed into more than 200 pieces by an Irish visitor, known only by the false name of William Lloyd. The fragments are gathered up and glued together. In 1987, with the benefit of modern expertise, the vase is taken apart and reassembled again in a process of restoration lasting a year. In spite of its chequered history, this most famous piece of Roman glass remains a miraculous work of art. Previous page	<urn:uuid:f90a1586-9515-4c03-8102-bbefbc3815cc>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.03646725416183472, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9373573660850525, "url": "http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=010" }
The African buffalo Giant African land snail October 23, 2017 The African buffalo or Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is a large African bovine. The adult buffalo’s horns are its characteristic feature; they have fused bases, forming a continuous bone shield across the top of the head referred to as a “boss”. They are widely regarded as very dangerous animals. Savannah-type buffaloes have black or dark brown coats with age. Old bulls have whitish circles around their eyes. Females tend to have more-reddish coats. Forest-type buffaloes are reddish brown in colour with horns that curve back and slightly up. Calves of both types have red coats. The African buffalo is one of the most successful grazers in Africa. It lives in swamps and floodplains, as well as mopane grasslands and forests of the major mountains of Africa and also found on Sibuya Game Reserve. This buffalo prefers a habitat with dense cover, such as reeds and thickets, but can also be found in open woodland. While not particularly demanding with regard to habitat, they require water daily, so depend on perennial sources of water. African buffaloes make various vocalizations. Many calls are lower-pitched versions of those emitted by domestic cattle. They emit low-pitched, two- to four-second calls intermittently at three- to six-second intervals to signal the herd to move. To signal to the herd to change direction, leaders emit “gritty”, “creaking gate” sounds.	<urn:uuid:0e6b3f74-cc73-4950-b688-0225a39ec7dd>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.515625, "fasttext_score": 0.01916724443435669, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9605255722999573, "url": "http://www.sibuya.co.za/2017/10/23/the-african-buffalo/" }
Soldiers have been using white flags to signify capitulation for thousands of years. The ancient Roman chronicler Livy described a Carthaginian ship being decorated with “white wool and branches of olive” as a symbol of parley during the Second Punic War, and Tacitus later wrote of white flags being displayed as part of the surrender of Vitellian forces at 69 A.D.’s Second Battle of Cremona. Most historians believe blank banners first caught on because they were easy to distinguish in the heat of battle. Since white cloth was common in the ancient world, it may have also been a case of troops improvising with the materials they had on hand. The white flag later became well established in Western warfare, but evidence shows it also arose independently in China during the Eastern Han dynasty in the first three centuries A.D. The color white has long been associated with death and mourning in China, so its soldiers may have adopted white surrender flags to show their sorrow in defeat. In more recent history, the white flag has become an internationally recognized symbol not only for surrender but also for the wish to initiate ceasefires and conduct battlefield negotiations. Medieval heralds carried white wands and standards to distinguish themselves from combatants, and Civil War soldiers waved white flags of truce before collecting their wounded. The various meanings of the flag were later codified in the Hague and Geneva Conventions of the 19th and 20th centuries. Those same treaties also forbid armies from using the white flag to fake a surrender and ambush enemy troops.	<urn:uuid:b93cae3b-b550-46dc-b9f6-eb5c6911aa0c>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.96875, "fasttext_score": 0.2089177966117859, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.971391499042511, "url": "http://www.history.com/news/ask-history/when-did-the-white-flag-become-associated-with-surrender" }
Minerals (Category B) Apatite is named for the Greek word apate, which means "deceit", since Apatite is similar in appearance to many other minerals. Apatite describes a group of similar isomorphous hexagonal phosphate minerals. The primary Apatite group includes Fluorapatite, Chlorapatite, and Hydroxylapatite. The extended Apatite supergroup describes additional minerals such as Pyromorphite, Mimetite, and Vanadinite, but these are described individually in this guide. It can be difficult to distinguish between individual members of the primary Apatite group. A designation of the specific Apatite type is not usually made, being called simply "Apatite" by collectors and dealers. However, most of the fine crystals and collector specimens are of the Fluorapatite type, which is by far the most common form of Apatite. Apatite is the most common phosphate mineral, and is the main source of the phosphorus required by plants. The bones and teeth of most animals, including humans, are composed of calcium phosphate, which is the same material as Apatite. (These biological Apatites are almost exclusively the Hydroxylapatite type.) msm linked	<urn:uuid:35ef78e9-b2b8-4b56-bbdc-a989af86917b>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.5483599305152893, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9386242032051086, "url": "https://msmlinked.com/product_details.php?id=361" }
trench on Mars The robotic arm on Phoenix used the blade on its scoop to make 50 scrapes in the icy layer buried under subsurface soil. The robotic arm then heaped the scrapings into a few 10- to 20-cubic centimeter piles, or piles each containing between two and four teaspoonfuls. Scraping created a grid about two millimeters deep. The scientists saw the scrapings in Surface Stereo Imager images on Sunday, June 29, agreed they had "almost perfect samples of the interface of ice and soil," and commanded the robotic arm to pick up some scrapings for instrument analysis. The scoop will sprinkle the fairly fine-grained material first onto the Thermal and Evolved-Gas Analyzer (TEGA). The instrument has tiny ovens to bake and sniff the soil to assess its volatile ingredients, such as water. It can determine the melting point of ice. Phoenix's overall goals are to: dig to water frozen under subsurface soil, touch, examine, vaporize and sniff the soil and ice to discover the history of water on Mars, determine if the Martian arctic soil could support life, and study Martian weather from a polar perspective. News Media Contact Media contacts: Guy Webster 818-354-6278 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. Dwayne Brown 202-358-1726 NASA Headquarters, Washington Sara Hammond 520-626-1974 University of Arizona, Tucson	<urn:uuid:5bf1df6f-00d9-4622-9134-332edb8182ce>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.6875, "fasttext_score": 0.02052128314971924, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8902953863143921, "url": "https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2008-124" }
Chamosite is a monoclinic-prismatic mineral containing aluminum, hydrogen, iron, magnesium, oxygen, and silicon. It is a member of the Chlorite, and it forms a series with the mineral Clinochlore. Chamosite is the iron rich end member, and Clinochlore is the magnesium-rich end member. Their properties are very similar, and they are difficult to distinguish from each other, though Chamosite is harder, heavier, and usually less transparent than Clinochlore. Chamosite is named after the municipality of Chamoson, between Sion and Martigny, the canton of Valais, Switzerland. In 1820, Pierre Bertier; a mineralogist and mining engineer from Nemours, France, discovered chamosite. Chamosite is a product of the hydrothermal alteration of pyroxenes, amphiboles and biotite in igneous rock. The composition of chlorite is often related to that of the original igneous mineral so that more Fe-rich chlorites are commonly found as replacements of the Fe-rich ferromagnesian minerals. Occurrence and Structure of Chamosite The new mineral was found in an area of low to moderate grade metamorphosed iron deposit. Chamosite is a relatively uncommon mineral in nature. Early chamosite stirred some controversy after they discovered to have possessed the structure of kaolin rather than chlorite. The occurrence of the hydrous ferrous silicate, chamosite, in sedimentary ironstones was described by Hallimond1. Later, with Harvey and Bannister2, he concluded that chamosite differed from the iron-bearing chlorites. Brindley3,4 examined chamosites from laterites and other sources, and concluded that they were of kaolin-type. Many of the variations in X-ray diagrams were accounted for by the existence of two kaolin-type structures, one ortho-hexagonal and one monoclinic, with simply related cell dimensions. In common with some other clay minerals, chamosite had random displacements of layers parallel to the b-axis of integral multiples of b/3, giving rise to sharp (hkl) reflexions only for k = 3n. The chamosite structure is very similar to typical chlorite in which they are alternated regular layers with tetrahedral and tri-octahedral components. Its 2:1 layer structure is similar to that of mica, with a basal spacing of 14 Å. In most common chlorites, there are 12.0 octahedral cations per O20(OH)16 and approximately equivalent amounts of aluminium in tetrahedral and octahedral sites; e.g. the magnesia chlorite, clinochlore, (Mg10Al2)(Si6Al2O20)(OH)16. Formation of chamosite bearing oolites record periods of increasing wave energy corresponding to storm conditions between quiet shallow marine sedimentation. Chamosite is a mineral from which elements may be extracted for commercial purpose. Xuanwei City in Yunnan Province has one of the highest lung cancer mortality rates in China. This epidemic had long been blamed on hydrocarbons released from the burning of coal conducted a mineralogical and geochemical study of coal from two coal mines in this region, and identified chamosite as one of the main minerals in the coal. Properties and Uses of Chamosite Chamosite may be greenish gray or brown in color. The cleavage are length-slow, the orientation may be α ∧ c=small, β=b, γ ∧ α=small, optic plane= [0 10] and has good cleavage on the {011} axis. It has a dull luster and grayish-green streak. Birefringence is much lower than that of the micas, illites, montmorillonites and vermiculite, and refractive indices are higher than those of kaolinite. The chamosite spectra shows the reflection d=7.18 Å (main value of the chlorite) and the reflection d=14.4 Å. It has a laminar shape, sheets measure from 20 to 200 μm. 4. wikipedia	<urn:uuid:0cb92a1c-9045-441b-890d-e1a180b52cdd>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.578125, "fasttext_score": 0.05923980474472046, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9245816469192505, "url": "http://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/physics/chamosite.html" }
early development of romewere there any geographic factors that led to the early development of rome, is so, what were they? Expert Answers Karen P.L. Hardison eNotes educator\| Certified Educator A couple of important geographic factors were the less rugged nature of the hills on the Italian peninsula and the accessibility of the rivers. These factors encouraged overland trade and a unification of the separate groups of people. Compare this to Greece with more rugged mountains, less accessible rivers and more obstacles to the unification of groups. pohnpei397 eNotes educator\| Certified Educator The major geographic factor that led to the rise of Rome was its location on the Tiber. It was located at a ford in the river at a point that was more or less in the center of the peninsula. This meant that it could control trade routes (and get money in tolls and such) that had to cross the river at that point. litteacher8 eNotes educator\| Certified Educator As they say in the real estate business: location, location, location! Rome was centrally located. It had great amenities, including access to seas and rivers for transportation. It was had good soil and a strong, sturdy people. Add that to Rome's ambition and boom, ready-made empire. accessteacher eNotes educator\| Certified Educator Certainly the position of Rome on the coast was a great bonus to Rome's initial development. Having ready access to the Mediterranean was vital in terms of both trade and military conquest, as Rome was able to effectively marshall troops and also allow the trade of Rome to develop.	<urn:uuid:9939326b-9bae-4bb2-b3ab-e09e4d10bb83>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.703125, "fasttext_score": 0.3861014246940613, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9756584167480469, "url": "https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/early-development-rome-402555" }
bible resources The Book of Judith is a deuterocanonical book, included in the Septuagint and in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christian Old Testament of the Bible, but excluded by Jews and Protestants. It has been said that the book contains numerous historical anachronisms, which is why many scholars now accept it as ahistorical; it has been considered a parable or perhaps the first historical novel. The Book of Judith has a tragic setting that appealed to Jewish patriots and it warned of the urgency of adhering to Mosaic Law, generally speaking, but what accounted for its enduring appeal was the drama of its narrative. The story revolves around Judith, a daring and beautiful widow, who is upset with her Jewish countrymen for not trusting God to deliver them from their foreign conquerors. She goes with her loyal maid to the camp of the enemy general, Holofernes, to whom she slowly ingratiates herself, promising him information on the Israelites. Gaining his trust, she is allowed access to his tent one night as he lies in a drunken stupor. She decapitates him, then takes his head back to her fearful countrymen. The Assyrians, having lost their leader, disperse, and Israel is saved. Though she is courted by many, she remains unmarried for the rest of her life. View the Chapters Of Judith:	<urn:uuid:022e3113-8642-4c0d-8176-bb77f9db10d4>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.020097792148590088, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9483270645141602, "url": "http://www.bible-glory.com/bible/apocrypha-judith.html" }
Skip to Content Indiana University Bloomington Feuds & Controversy Oliver Hazard Perry Oliver Hazard Perry The events of the war made the careers of many partipants, but it also damaged the reputations of others. Post-war battles over the interpretaton of wartime conduct involved a number of military leaders. General William Hull, whose surrender of Detroit at the beginning of the war brought him up before a court martial spent years arguing against his conviction. General James Winchester, who was captured by the British in the defeat at the River Raisin, also published works defending his conduct. A dramatic feud surrounded a celebrated hero, U.S. Commandant Oliver H. Perry, the hero of Battle of Lake Erie, and one the commanders reporting to him, Master Commandant Jesse Elliott of the U.S. sloop Niagara. In short, during the battle Elliott followed the letter of Perry’s plan of attack, keeping his place in the line of ships even when he had the opportunity to move forward and assist Perry’s ship, the Lawrence, as it fought the British line almost alone. Elliot’s lack of action was not criticized by Perry, but it became the subject of conversation among naval officers on both sides of the war. Elliott sought and received a public statement from Perry attesting to his right conduct, but it was not enough to satisfy him. He spent the rest of his life trying to smear Perry’s reputation and “clear” his name, demanding a court martial for himself (in which he was cleared) and challenging Perry to a duel (which Perry declined). The capture of the U.S. capital and the burning of the White House also prompted arguments over responsibilty and blame among both civilian and military leaders.	<urn:uuid:96a1bc9d-74b8-4f38-8a64-eb4b8e8646bf>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5, "fasttext_score": 0.030438482761383057, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9766817092895508, "url": "http://collections.libraries.indiana.edu/warof1812/exhibits/show/warof1812/after-the-war/feuds---controversy" }
Where results make sense Topic: Manchu language Related Topics In the News (Sat 18 Nov 17) Manchu language - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Manchu language is a member of the Tungusic languages of Altaic family; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin Chinese and there are fewer than 100 native speakers of Manchu out of a total of nearly 10 million ethnic Manchus. It is an agglutinizing language that demonstrates limited vowel harmony, and it has been demonstrated that it is derived in the main from the Jurchen language though there are many loan words from Mongolian and Chinese. Manchu began as the primary language of the Qing dynasty Imperial court, but by the 19th century even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Manchu_language (813 words) Manchu - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Manchus were descendants of the Jurchen, who had conquered a vast area in northeastern Asia in the twelfth century and established the Jin Dynasty (Golden Dynasty) that ruled over the northern half of China until being conquered and destroyed by the Mongols under Genghis Khan. The Manchu language is a member of the Tungusic language group, itself a member of the disputed Altaic language family (and hypothetically related to the Korean, Mongolic and Turkic languages). Written Manchu, however, was still used for the keeping of records and communication between the emperor and the Banner officials until the collapse of the dynasty. en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Manchu (1045 words) Today, Manchus have been largely assimilated by the surrounding Han Chinese and the Manchu language is almost extinct. Manchu (manju) was originally a tribal group of the Jurchen that Nurhaci belonged to. These efforts were largely unsuccessful in that Manchus gradually adopted the customs and language of the surrounding Han Chinese, and by the 19th century, the Manchu language was rarely used even in the Imperial court. www.ebroadcast.com.au /lookup/encyclopedia/ma/Manchu.html (369 words) Kids.net.au - Encyclopedia Manchu language - (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) The Manchu language is the only extant representative of the Tungusic branch of the Altaic family; it is the language of the Manchu. It is an agglutinizing language that demonstrates limited vowel harmony, and it has been demonstrated that it is essentially identical to the Jurchen language. Historically, the Manchu language is important in that Europeans were exposed to and familar with Manchu before they encountered the Chinese language. www.kidsseek.com /encyclopedia-wiki/ma/Manchu_language (474 words) Languages & Writing Systems In East Asia the languages spoken are largely Chinese languages (or dialects) in China, Japanese in Japan, and Korean in Korea, though the Altaic group is represented in China by Uighur, a Turkic language, and Manchu, a Manchu-Tungus language. www.crystalinks.com /languages.html (2993 words) Tungusic Research Group: Bibliography A sketch of vowel harmony in the Tungus languages. Hezheyu Jianzhi [A Grammatical Sketch of the Hezhen Language]. Xibo yu Jianzhi [A Grammatical Sketch of the Sibo Language]. www.dartmouth.edu /~trg/biblio.html (2590 words) Manchu Minority - Chinese Nationalities (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) www.paulnoll.com /China/Minorities/min-Manchu.html (167 words) The Manchu (Manchu: Manju; Simplified Chinese: 满族; Traditional Chinese: 滿族; pinyin: Mǎnzú) are an ethnic group who originated in the "dong bei" or "North East" region consisting of Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang provinces, collectively known in English as Manchuria. Manchus have been largely assimilated by the surrounding Han Chinese and the Manchu language is almost extinct, being spoken only among a small number of elderly people in remote areas of northeastern China; however, there are around 10,000 or so speakers of Sibe (Xibo), an innovative Manchu dialect spoken in the Ili region of Xinjiang. The Manchus were descendants of the Jurchen ethnic group, who had conquered northeastern China in the twelfth century. www.voyager.in /Manchu (1098 words) Manchu-Tungus languages - Britannica Concise Juchen, the tribal language of the founders of the Juchen dynasty, is now extinct, and Manchu is spoken by fewer than 100 people, though some 10 million inhabitants of northeastern China count themselves as ethnically Manchu. Manchu language - the most important of the Manchu-Tungus language group (a subfamily of the Altaic languages), formerly spoken by the Manchu people in Manchuria. concise.britannica.com /ebc/article-9371139 (614 words) Languages of the World The label language isolate is used for a language that is the only representative of a language family, as Basque or the extinct Sumerian language; the presumptive but unknown sister languages of isolates are dead and unrecorded. The languages of seven of the nine extant branches of the Indo-European language family are spoken in Europe. Dialects of two languages in the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European also are or were spoken in Europe: the Jassic dialect of Ossetic, an Iranian language, formerly spoken in Hungary; and the European dialects of Romany, which was spread by Gypsies throughout Europe and into America. ling.lll.hawaii.edu /faculty/stampe/Linguistics/lgsworld.html (1332 words) China Ethnic Minority: manchu People Kowtow is one of the formal salutes of Manchu. www.travelchinaguide.com /intro/nationality/manchu (532 words) Manchu alphabet and language www.omniglot.com /writing/manchu.htm (307 words) Manchu (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) The Manchu eventually ruled the whole of China by 1680 and the Chin Dynasty retained its power until the beginning of the 19th century. The Manchu language belongs to the Tungusic language family, a subdivision of the Altaic language family. The Sanjiazi dialect is spoken in Sanjiazi villages in China and Sibe is spoken by the Sibe contemporary. www.mnsu.edu /emuseum/cultural/oldworld/asia/manchuculture.html (501 words) The Manchu live mostly in the northeastern region of China that borders Russia. Whether residing in cities or in rural areas, the Manchu usually live in one-story dwellings that are grouped closely together and connected by narrow alleys. The Manchu deserve the chance to meet Jesus, the only true "Son of heaven." He desires to be their High Priest who will ever make intercession for them before the Father. www.ksafe.com /profiles/p_code/383.html (777 words) Manchu Studies at Harvard (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) As an intellectual project, Manchu Studies traces its history back to the 17th and 18th centuries, when Jesuit missionaries at the Qing court found that to accomplish their goals it was necessary to become conversant in the language and culture of China's rulers at that time. The earliest published works on Manchu history and language, largely in French, were the result of Jesuit endeavors, and their belief that the Manchu translations of Chinese texts provided the best point of entry into the Chinese classical corpus shaped not only Manchu studies, but also the field of Sinology, then in its cradle. Concomitant with the revelation that Manchu was an important research language for Qing history came the "ethnic turn" in Chinese studies, a term that refers to the burgeoning interest in the non-Han peoples of China that began in the late 1980s. www.fas.harvard.edu /~manchust/Intro.html (492 words) ipedia.com: Manchu language Article (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) The Manchu language is a member of the Tungusic languages ; it is the language of the Manchu. It is an agglutinizing language that demonstrates limited vowel harmony, and it has been demonstrated that... www.ipedia.com /manchu_language.html (632 words) Qing Dynasty - China History - China Manchu got into antagonism with Han Chinese only as a result of enforcing the 'queue order', which forced the Han Chinese to adopt Manchu hairstyle (the pigtail) and Manchu-style clothing. Manchu edited and forged the history of the former dynasty, i.e., "Ming Shi" (i.e., History of Ming Dynasty). The Manchu rulers, keenly aware of their own minority status, reinforced a strict policy of racial segregation between the Manchus and Mongols from Han Chinese for fear of their being assimilated by Han culture while living in close proximity with the newly subjugated Han people. www.famouschinese.com /virtual/Qing_Dynasty (4919 words) East Asian Studies 210 Notes: The Manchu pandora.cii.wwu.edu /vajda/ea210/manchu.htm (1403 words) Languages of Qing - China History Forum, online chinese history forum (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) Xibo and Manchu belong to the South west branch of Tungus, the South east branch is Hezhe/Nanai, Udeghe (and a bunch of small tribes in present day Russia). The Manchurian language was in use in the court until the 19th century when Beijing Mandarian became to replace both Manchurian and Nanjing Mandarian as the main language of the court. Manchu study in the 'west' is finally catching on again (it hasn't been big since the early Qing empire when missionaries and whatnot would learn Manchu- and usually not Chinese- in order to communicate with the court. www.chinahistoryforum.com /index.php?showtopic=1625 (1934 words) Manchu - China-related Topics MA-MD - China-Related Topics The Manchus were descendants of the Jurchen, who had conquered northeastern China in the twelfth century. The Manchu language is a member of the putative Altaic languagesAltaic language group, and is hypothetically related to Korean, Mongolian and Turkic languages. Near the end of the Qing Dynasty, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalismChinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-Sen, even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers. www.famouschinese.com /virtual/Manchu (771 words) Manchurian Folk Tales, Part One: The Origins of the Manchu People - Pack Carnes The Manchu dynasty was the last dynasty in China, and its last ruler was the Last Emperor, or "the last of the Manchu." The Manchurians are traditionally thought of as coming from the Long White Mountains, a locale that figures prominently in their tales. The Manchu language, altogether different from and unrelated to Chinese, is an Altaic language; sadly, it is very nearly (if not yet completely) extinct. With the loss of the language there is naturally a concomitant loss in the oral transmission of tales, but a significant number have been preserved by effective collecting among the Manchu and the Mongolians. www.worldandi.com /specialreport/1992/May/Sa20476.htm (303 words) All Empires History Forum: Manchus (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) I just check on the website, the man language is still being taught in the schools in the manchu autonomous area in northestern china. Man language and Madarin both are the teaching language in those schools. manchu was once the official language along with han chinese in china (the most populas country in the world even back then) less than a century ago. www.allempires.com /forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=895&PN=1 (1060 words) Conversations on Diversity: Endangered Languages, Lost Cultures After centuries of domination, the Manchus were overthrown, and within a very short time, their language was all but lost. Nepali is the national language and English the language of commerce. In China, the government claims to encourage indigenous language and cultures, but Li said, "The language policy of the country is such that any minority language would not have any chance of surviving." In Nepal, a short-lived socialist government supported indigenous languages with policies like bilingual education. www.csuchico.edu /pub/inside/archive/98_03_12/divers.html (570 words) China History Forum, online chinese history forum > Manchu's conquest of China (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-10-21) Jun 28 2004, 11:07 PM The Manchurian language actually belongs to a tungusic branch of language that is closely related to the Altaic-Turkic language family. I had a teacher who was Manchu from Dalian, Liaoning Province, of course she spoke perfect Mandarin and though she looked a little different than your average Han, no one could tell that she was Manchu until she told us. He figured that the Manchus would come in and sweep up the rebels and then leave...The Manchus were sucessful in putting down the rebels, but they never left like they were supposed to. www.chinahistoryforum.com /lofiversion/index.php/t29.html (2629 words) The Epoch Times \| Official Language of Qing Dynasty Borders on Extinction In a formal study conducted by the Heilongjiang Manchu Research Institute, the fact that Sanjiazi Village is viewed as the “living fossil” of the study of the Manchu language, shows that the decline of Manchu language has obviously accelerated. The majority of those with a good command of the Manchu language are between 50 and 70 years old. As it was the official language of the Qing Dynasty, the importance of the Manchu language in China’s history cannot be overemphasized. english.epochtimes.com /news/5-10-7/33075.html (824 words) Manchu -- Britannica Concise Encyclopedia - The online encyclopedia you can trust! From the Chinese records it is evident that the I-lou, the Tungus ancestors of the Manchu, were essentially hunters, fishers, and food gatherers, though in later times they and their descendants, the Juchen and Manchu, developed a primitive form of agriculture and animal husbandry. The Manchu were urged to retain their own language and to give their children a Manchu education. www.britannica.com /ebc/article-9050463?tocId=9050463 (1387 words) SIM People Group Profile: Manchu Manchu are found in no less than 2,092 of China's 2,369 counties and municipalities. Manchu speakers are located in a few villages in Heilongjiang--Sanjiazi Village in Fuyu County and Dawujia Village in Aihui County. Most of the Manchu speakers use Mandarin as their first language and speak Manchu "with a pronounced Chinese accent." Manchu was the only Tungus language to possess an orthography, but this too is now extinct. www.sim.org /PG.asp?pgID=79&fun=1 (583 words) Try your search on: Qwika (all wikis) Copyright © 2005-2007 www.factbites.com Usage implies agreement with terms.	<urn:uuid:7056032b-c6f0-4fcc-b918-03238634e7c8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.2438402771949768, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.914347231388092, "url": "http://www.factbites.com/topics/Manchu-language" }
Component Identification : Digital Fill in the notes below using the presentation in myPLTW 1.1.6 on Introduction to Logic Gates and Integrated Circuits Component Identification: Digital Slide 3.What does a transistor allow a small voltage to control ? What are 2 thiings a transistor can act as? Slide 4: How many states does a transistor have? What does a truth table show? Slide 5: Transistors can be grouped together to form a ____ which is the main component inside an IC. Slide 6: We will use DIPs. Look up some DIP ICs. What sizes do they come in besides 8 and 14 pin? Slide 7: What are the inputs in the truth table? What is the output in the truth table? How many different outputs are possible with 2 inputs? Slide 8 What is binary? If 00 is 0 in binary, and 01 is 1 in binary, what are 2 and 3 in binary (use the values of XY) Slide 10: what are the 3 ways that ICs are categorized? Look up how many logic gates are inside each of these kind of ICs: Slide 11: Complete this table about TTL vs CMOS constructed from Slide 13: Why do we use thte DIP packages for ICs instead of the smaller, higher density chips? Slides 14-15: Fill in the table about THT vs SMT How is it attached to the PCB? Slide 16: We will use LS chips. What is an advantage of these? Slide 17: Describe everything you can about an IC with this written on it: SN 74 LS 04 N Slide 18: Which of these is NOT information on a manufacturer datasheet for an IC? Slide 19: how many AND gates are on a DM74LS08 chip? Slide 20: How many pins are on EACH SIDE or a DM74LS08 chip? Slide 21: Instead of writing 0 and 1 for the logic table, the data sheet uses the letters ___ and ___ Slide 22: What is the maximum low level out put current for a DM74LS08?	<urn:uuid:5dcb2554-2b09-42b5-840e-692a3a10cc6e>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.5625, "fasttext_score": 0.9999549388885498, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8557149171829224, "url": "http://mrs-o-c.com/de/componentIdentificationDigital.html" }
Right-hand screw rule From Citizendium, the Citizens' Compendium Jump to: navigation, search This article is developing and not approved. Main Article Related Articles [?] Bibliography [?] External Links [?] Citable Version [?] CC Photo Corkscrew driven by right hand downward into the cork. The right-hand screw rule, also known as corkscrew rule, associates the direction of an electric current with the direction of the magnetic force lines circling the current, see Ampère's law. By convention, an electric current runs from positive to negative voltage (in a direction opposite the actual flow of the—negatively charged—electrons). The magnetic field points toward the North pole, i.e., a compass needle will align itself along (be tangent to) the green magnetic field line in the figure, pointing in the same direction as the green arrow. The corkscrew rule is depicted in the figure, where the corkscrew is rotated downward into the cork. When the electric current runs straight downward through the center of the corkscrew, the magnetic force lines are directed along the green line shown in the photograph.	<urn:uuid:85ad4348-e1c9-40e4-a385-4bd8ad8957be>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.546875, "fasttext_score": 0.2876856327056885, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9004812240600586, "url": "http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Right-hand_screw_rule" }
The Philosophies of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois Essay by texy October 2004 download word file, 1 pages 4.0 Downloaded 50 times Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois had diverse views of philosophy. Washington was born in the southern agriculture into slavery. He shared the hectic years of Reconstruction, and warily developed a compromise with the white establishment. Du Bois was born in the northern state of Massachusetts. He attended two different Universities and received his doctorate. Washington and Du Bois diverse philosophies, shaped from the differences in their backgrounds and environmental experiences. Washington urbanized a philosophy of moral and economic "up-lift" through work. He also developed the theory that blacks and whites were equally dependent economically but could remain separate socially. Not wanting to cause disagreement with the white power that dominated the south, he emphasized the values of hard work and self-respect of labor. Washington was still willing to make compromises with racial issues. Du Bois on the other hand was one of Washington's biggest critics. Du Bois was a sociological and educational pioneer. He challenged the segregated system that harshly limited the educational opportunities of African Americans. Unlike Washington, Du Bois stood unyielding against segregation and racism. His relentless and strong efforts aided the outlaw of segregation in public schools. Du Bois believed a person's occupation should be determined by ability and choice instead of by racial stereotyping. Du Bois worked for deliberate social change, where as Washington compromised with the white society.	<urn:uuid:95bc53bd-07d2-41b6-ab42-d15b38c809c8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.890625, "fasttext_score": 0.020651936531066895, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9652732014656067, "url": "http://www.writework.com/essay/philosophies-booker-t-washington-and-w-e-b-du-bois" }
Friday, June 22, 2012 Quasars - Have you heard of them before? These massive objects put off so much energy that current physics models can't explain how it is possible for them to exist. A quasar is actually the result of accretion of matter around a supermassive black hole. Most black holes are virtually invisible, this is because light cannot escape if it gets too close to the black hole. A quasar has a mass of material that remains above the event horizon (the point of no return). This material is subjected to unimaginable forces from the black hole. Essentially, the matter is torn apart. A black hole literally rips matter into pieces. Quasar by: Snedex, deviantart The most luminous quasars radiate at a rate that can exceed the output of average galaxies, equivalent to two trillion suns. That is (2×1012) times brighter than our own sun! These objects are so massively bright they outshine stars billions of light-years closer. It is completely impossible to even grasp how bright these objects are. To help you try and grasp the magnitude of these objects, here is a list: (A Joule is a standard unit for measuring energy, a single joule isn't a whole lot) An apple dropped 2 feet 1 Joule A 10 Watt flashlight left on for 1 minute 600 Joules Energy from firing an Elephant rifle 7,000 Joules ~ 7 Kilojoules Accelerating a 4 ton (8000lb) car to highway speed (55mph) 1,200,000 Joules ~ 1.2 Megajoules Energy in average lightning bolt 1,000,000,000 ~ 1 Gigajoule Energy released by an average hurricane (per second) 600,000,000,000,000 ~ 600 Terajoules Energy released from the Tsar Bomba (the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated) 210,000,000,000,000,000 Joules 210 Petajoules Energy from the sun that the earth receives every year 5,500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Joules 25 million Tsar Bombas or 5.5 yottajoules Total energy released by the sun every second 380,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Joules 70 times the amount energy we receive from the sun annually Now, the amount of energy released by a Quasar is: 750,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Joules Every. Single. Second. Because such large numbers are hard to comprehend, let me break that down further. The amount of energy released is equivalent to 2 quadrillion of our suns. Our milky way galaxy has an estimated 200 - 400 Billion stars, however, our sun is significantly brighter than the average star. Our milky way galaxy has an estimated output of around 5*10^36 Joules. The energy output of a quasar is roughly equivalent to the energy output of 150 thousand galaxies. Think about that. Freakin' Awesome.	<urn:uuid:edb52c87-697b-411b-a579-3ab69791f27f>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.671875, "fasttext_score": 0.785245954990387, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8849107623100281, "url": "http://photonicrain.blogspot.com/2012/" }
1. Sampling Overview 1. Culturable air sampling 2. Non-culturable air sampling 3. Surface sampling 4. Special cases 2. Interpretation Overview 1. Activity levels 2. Weather conditions 3. Condition of the area sampled 3. Additional Information 1. Spore trap air sampling 2. Andersen or Biocassette air sampling 3. Surface sampling (Tape, Swab, Bulk) 4. Surface sampling (Dust) 4. Environmental Reporter 5. Ask Dr. Burge 6. Allergen Glossary 7. Food Microbiology Glossary 8. Fungal Glossary 9. Resources Overview – Culturable Air Sampling Culturable air sampling is one of the most common methods of volumetric air sampling, and Andersen Instruments manufactures the most commonly used culturable air sampling devices. The Andersen sampler works by drawing measured volumes of air through an instrument that contains a petri dish (or dishes) with culture media. Spores that impact onto the plate are then allowed to incubate and grow, after which the colonies may be counted and identified. An alternative to the Andersen sampler is the BioCassette, developed by EMLab P&K. The BioCassette avoids high capital expense and is less prone to contamination issues during the air sampling process Our philosophy regarding the interpretation of biological air samples is formed primarily by two guiding principles. First, an effective interpretation is based on the comparison of indoor and outdoor samples. There are currently no guidelines or regulations to indicate "safe" or "normal" spore levels, however, we typically expect indoor counts to be 30 to 80 percent of outdoor spore counts, with the same general distribution of spore types present. And second, variation is an inherent part of biological air sampling. The presence or absence of a few genera in small numbers should not be considered abnormal. Culturable air sampling allows for the differentiation of Aspergillus and Penicillium (speciation when required). It also provides counts indicative of how many spores are viable and present in the air. It can also be used to provide a bacterial count. Culturable air sampling methods require that the spores in the air are alive, survive the sampling process, germinate on the sampling media, and compete well with other species present on the growth media. Culturable air sampling does not indicate the presence of non-viable spores, which may also be capable of producing allergies or irritation. Culturable air sampling also requires five to seven days for incubation after the sampling has taken place. A few tips... A three-minute sampling time for Andersen samples is a good starting protocol. Sampling times should be reduced if visible mold growth is present, if dust is excessive, or if semi-aggressive sampling techniques are utilized. Sampling locations should include problem areas, an indoor non-problem area if available, and an outdoor sample (or samples) for interpretation. Samples should be sent to us (with volumetric data) within 24 hours using overnight courier services, and should be packed with care to prevent breakage and contamination. Cold packs or cooling chambers are unnecessary since cold surfaces attract moisture, and excessive moisture during transit is not good. Please remember that air sampling data represents a specific moment in time, and that field observations are of equal importance. Sampling at multiple times may be helpful. The recommended industry practice for the number of field blanks is to provide two field blanks for every 10 samples with a maximum of 10 field blanks for each sample set. Reference: Jensen, Paul A., Ph.D., PE, CIH, and Schafer, Millie P., Ph.D., NIOSH/DPSE "Sampling and Characterization of Bioaerosols", NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, Chapter J, 1/15/98.	<urn:uuid:3bae30ba-3a7f-4e18-b99d-7263e8736f4a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.1453099250793457, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8905590772628784, "url": "https://www.emlab.com/s/sampling/Culture.html" }
Ye Olde Activity One Great Britain controlled 13 colonies in the New World. After a long and costly war with the French, they also acquired the land east of the Mississippi River. Your task is to locate and label the original 13 colonies. Your map is located in your Handout Folder. After locating and labeling your map, print a copy of Colony Questions, also located in your Handout Folder. Answer the questions using your map. *Hint: Do not color two adjoining colonies the same color. Ye Olde Map of the Original 13 Colonies	<urn:uuid:423ead6c-5fd1-4523-b98c-96d056c388c1>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.59375, "fasttext_score": 0.17029500007629395, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9040557146072388, "url": "http://www.greatneck.k12.ny.us/GNPS/Pages/elemlinks/webquest/revolutionary/activityone.htm" }
Plato's Allegory of The Cave Summary by Clare In Plato's Allegory of a Cave, Socrates is telling a story to one of his students. He describes a cave to the student. This is the set up of the cave in the story. In this story there are prisoners, which are meant to represent the general public. These prisoners spend their days watching shadows on the cave wall. Because they have lived in the cave their whole lives, they believe that what they see, the shadows, are reality. Eventually, one prisoner escapes. These two photos show what the prisoner could see at first, and what he could see once his eyes adjusted to the light. The prisoner's eyes are used to the dark inside the cave and so at first, the sunlight is blinding. Eventually, their eyes adjust to the light and they begin to see reality, as opposed to the shadows that they always thought were reality. This was meant to symbolize philosophy and the path to enlightenment. When you first begin questioning your perception and the world around you, the answers you come across can be confusing and even overwhelming. However, if you continue to search for the truth, eventually it will become easier and you will see things clearly. The escaped prisoner, meant to represent a philosopher, returns to the cave to try and tell the other prisoners what he has seen. They refuse to believe him and tell him if he releases them from their chains they will try to kill him. This is meant to show how fiercely people cling to what is familiar to them, and how you cannot force someone to question things. They have to become ready to do so in their own time. Made with Adobe Slate Make your words and images move. Get Slate Report Abuse	<urn:uuid:5da5c25b-2fbf-4b84-ad7d-806f0dbb923a>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.640625, "fasttext_score": 0.6945253610610962, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9740599989891052, "url": "https://spark.adobe.com/page/VqSr9lVCCNw1x/" }
Kamgata maru case; Gadar movement Date: December 19, 2014 Introduction to Komagata Maru Incident The SS. Komagata Maru was a ship that travelled from Hong Kong to Vancouver in 1914, carrying economic migrants who did not like their living conditions back in India. A ship named – Komagata Maru – carried 376 Indians [ 12 Hindus, 24 Muslims and 340 Sikhs] to Vancouver, canada. The Komagata Maru incident was an incident in which the Canadian government denied their entrance to enter Vancouver. Why they traveled to Canada Canada was liberal at that time compared to other colonial power. It was a resource rich nation but lacked sufficient manpower. So these factors attracted many youths from many Asian countries [mainly China, Japan & India] to Canada. How Komataga Maru traveled to Vancouver? Komagata Maru sailed from Hong Kong, Shanghai, China toYokohama, Japan and then to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Asian Exclusion act Canada passed an act called – Asian Exclusion act’ – to prevent the entry of persons of Asian origin to canada. [ because more number of Asian people reached Canada for livelihood purposes] What happened to Komagata Maru journey ? In canada – Canadian authorities did not allow Indians into Vancouver. Even Indians stayed in Ship itself and waited for two months. Still Canadian authorities didnt show any sympathy. Then they forcibly sent back the ship to India. In India – Ghadar movement was going on at that time. Ghadar party was started in Canada with the purpose of overthrowing British rule from India. So British suspected that Komagata Maru ship was carrying many revolutionaries of Ghadar movement. So British asked to dock the ship at BUDGE BUDGE. British Indian army started searching for revolutionaries. In the fight, nearly 19 people died. It became famously known as “Budge Budge” Incident. Significance of Komagata Maru incident. Ghadar party used Komagata Maru incident as an opportunity to recruit more members for the Ghadar Movement. It exposed the oppressive nature of British rule in India. In 1951, the government of the new Republic of India erected its first monument at Budge Budge to commemorate the massacre there. Why recently in news Recently Government of India has decided to celebrate 100th anniversary of Komagata Maru incident.	<urn:uuid:8a279d99-01b8-4bd3-84c1-c0d45b4ff0e8>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.53125, "fasttext_score": 0.0429387092590332, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.944492518901825, "url": "http://prepareias.in/subject/gs/indian-history-and-culture/kamgata-maru-case-gadar-movement" }
William Stott writes that in "the thirties' documentary movement...feelings come first" and that "emotion counted more than fact." 1 John Grierson, who coined the term documentary, believed that "the essence of documentary is not information" but is rather "the same power to move that [he] had all along sought in Hollywood's films." 2 Edward Steichen was also convinced that photography could produce "the most remarkable human documents...that told stories and told them with such simple and blunt directness that they made many a citizen wince...." 3 Frontier Films productions are extraordinary examples of the use of documentary to invoke feelings in the viewer, point out struggles and injustices, and urge an active response to current social problems. In these films, created by individuals who agreed with Stott, Grierson, and Steichen concerning the purpose of documentary, emotion comes before education. Each production achieved the status of a human document in many ways, including presentation, use of music and images, prudent yet powerful narration, and choice of subject matter. The makers of Frontier films use several different techniques of presentation. Native Land, for example, uses professional actors to re-enact past events while Power and the Land takes the camera inside one family's farm. People of the Cumberland also places the camera in front of actual people, those forgotten pioneers of the badlands, and Valley Town travels to an industrial town in Pennsylvania inhabited by displaced workers. Yet, each film uses some means of re-enactment or drama to portray the feelings of the people on the screen. People of the Cumberland, for instance, shows actual poverty-stricken families standing in dilapidated doorways, children sick with scurvy, and graves marked only by broken glass. People of the Cumberland Yet, as unions organize, a dramatic scene is portrayed of one man being gunned down in the small town by anti-union gangsters. The narrator speaks the man's last thoughts before his death, then sharply returns to a third person voice, urging the town and the viewers not to mourn but to stand organized and unified. See People of the Cumberland. Another film also depicts a dramatic scene of innocent men killed by those against unionization. In Native Land two sharecroppers are gunned down by deputized citizens, a scenario based on actual events in Arkansas in July 1936. People of the Cumberland As the second sharecropper runs into the barbed wire and falls to his death, the viewer is left with the image of one piece of his ripped clothing clinging to the wire. The scene then fades slowly to black as the narrator recites how night erases the tragedy for millions of Americans. See clip from Native Land: QuickTime On the foreign front, Frontier Films also portrayed heartache and the death of innocent men, women, and children in Spain. With dramatic footage of people standing in bread lines and the horrific effects of air attacks, the viewers' hearts go out to those suffering in Spain, even if they don't understand the politics behind the war. See clip from The Spanish Earth: QuickTime Also, reminiscent of Pare Lorentz's The River, The Plow that Broke the Plains, and other documentaries focused on the destruction of the land and need for preservation and proper irrigation, The Spanish Earth shows sweeping shots of the dry Spanish land that men must somehow make fruitful, a problem faced by many Americans during the same time period who were also fighting a battle--against the Great Depression. See a second clip from The Spanish Earth: QuickTime Music and Narration In addition to using varying techniques to present the struggles of humankind, each film relies heavily on dramatic music and editing. In several works, the composed music falls in perfect rhythm with machines grinding, men working, and automobiles cruising. Some films take the role of music further, such as Valley Town, in which the music is integrated directly into the documentary as husband and wife sing their unemployment and hunger woes. See Valley Town. In films such as The City, the difference between American country life and the big city is dramatically shown by changes in music and camera shots. A boy and his dog leisurely walk into a big wooden barn where blacksmiths manually heat and pound materials into functioning tools. Suddenly, the calm music with slow cadences changes pitch, the tempo increases, and the key turns minor. Loud drum beats usher in images of hot iron, buckets of flame, and slag heaps. Soon the rhythm of the train pipes in and the beat increases as shots of a train traveling through the factory, smoke billowing into the sky, are shown. All of a sudden, there is complete silence as the slag is dumped down the heap. Then the red hot bubbles seems to bring the music back, as a single man braves the smoke and heat to make his way down the man-made hill. See clip from The City: QuickTime Towards the end of this film clip the narration begins, in fast pace reciting the American pillars of progress, the machines man made in the name of advancement. The stark difference in pace, tone, and background music of the first and latter parts of this clip demonstrate the documentary's emphasis on the goodness of rural, planned community life and the horror of industrial, machine-age cities. By the use of music, the film invokes feelings of serenity followed by anxiety and the desire to burst into motion in time to the train. Native Land also uses music to strike up emotions in the viewer, in addition to breathtaking footage of the American landscape, again contrasted to the machines, trains, and smoke stacks of the growing cities. With a steady drumbeat as accompaniment, the narrator describes patriotically how we all came to America in search of freedom and faced danger alone. Yet, with hope and perseverance, we built our roads and our communities, we made machines and "wheels for a new country." With background music again imitating the chugging of the train, we are taken through American cities "built with the steel girders of America," where freedom, happiness, life, liberty, and all men created equal are still shining hopes. See clip from Native Land: QuickTime Subject Matter It is apparent that the leftist nature of Frontier Films influenced most of its subject matter. Perhaps the most blatant political statement was the film Native Land. With its emphasis on a government conspiracy taking the rights away from ordinary American citizens, especially those organizing labor unions, the film makes a strong statement against propaganda, spies, and the blackmailing and murder of innocent people. The subject matter of the other domestic films are more focused on American landscapes and the plight of man versus the land, the city, and the machine, instead of man versus man backed by a government system against the Bill of Rights. Two films brilliantly portray the ideal American family and community. Power and the Land shows an actual family's transition from the technology of seventy years ago to a new electric cooperative. Tugging at American heartstrings, the film shows a warming scene of the hard-working family sitting down to a nice dinner, complete with kerosene lighting. In contrast, The City shows the beginnings of fast food, as city goers eat as fast as machines can process food. With fast music and editing, like that of the trains and machines depicted in earlier scenes, the viewer is startled by the contrast of the sit-down American family dinner and the automatic, electrified and mechanical mode of eating in the big city. See clip from Power and the Land: QuickTime See clip from The City: QuickTime With the use of human elements as subject matter, re-enactments and live footage to portray the actions and emotions of actual people, the dramatic use of music, and narration that reminds the viewers of the American ideal and the wonder of our technological developments, all of the films discussed above fall into the category of a new radical genre of American documentary--social art work intent on showing not only the facts of life, but the feelings in the hearts of American citizens. Introduction History Definition Interpreting Documentary Biographies Films Themes Conclusion Home 1 Stott, William. Documentary Expression and Thirties America. New York: Oxford University, 1974. (8-9). 2 Stott. Documentary. (11). 3 Stott. Documentary. (11).	<urn:uuid:99916ffc-f62c-4275-9edd-ba1fec957f57>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.65625, "fasttext_score": 0.025253236293792725, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9414264559745789, "url": "http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA01/Huffman/Frontier/themes.html" }
Gear up to see some great balls of fire flashing through the sky this month. During the peak of the Perseids, stargazers under dark skies could see more than 100 meteors per hour, but some bright fireballs can also be spotted in urban, light polluted areas. "We have found that one meteor shower produces more fireballs than any other," Bill Cooke of NASA's Meteoroid Environment Office said in a statement. "It's the Perseid meteor shower, which peaks on August 12th and 13th." Cooke and his team of scientists have used meteor cameras around the southern United States to track fireballs since 2008. The Perseids produced 568 tracked fireballs while the Geminid meteor shower came in a close second, producing 426 from 2008 to 2013. The Geminid fireballs, however, are not quite as bright as the Perseid-produced streakers. Scientists use a magnitude scale to rate the brightness of objects in the night sky. Lower numbers mean brighter objects, with negative numbers denoting exceptionally bright events. "The average peak magnitude for a Perseid observed by our cameras is -2.7; for the Geminids, it is -2," Cooke said. "So on average, Geminid fireballs are about a magnitude fainter than those in the Perseids." The high rate of fireballs could have something to do with the meteor shower's progenitor: Comet Swift-Tuttle. Every year, the Earth passes through a trail of dust left behind in the comet's wake. The dust burns up in Earth's atmosphere, creating the brilliant shower. It's possible that the size of Swift-Tuttle could cause the high number of fireballs produced during the meteor shower. "Comet Swift-Tuttle has a huge nucleus — about 26 kilometers [16 miles] in diameter," Cooke said in a statement. "Most other comets are much smaller, with nuclei only a few kilometers across. As a result, Comet Swift-Tuttle produces a large number of meteoroids, many of which are large enough to produce fireballs." "Get away from city lights," Cooke said. "While fireballs can be seen from urban areas, the much greater number of faint Perseids is visible only from the countryside." More on and MNN:	<urn:uuid:bde0dab7-6ffd-4814-b557-b0b0b24e18c6>	{ "dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu", "edu_int_score": 4, "edu_score": 3.78125, "fasttext_score": 0.025605440139770508, "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9400255084037781, "url": "https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/space/stories/great-balls-of-fire-next-weeks-perseid-meteor-shower-expected-to-dazzle" }

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