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Para español, seleccione de la lista
A Blended Heritage
The Hispanic Culture of Mission San Luis
During the three generations of contact at San Luis, Apalachee society and culture began to favor European customs and fashions. When Spanish men married Indian women, their mestizo children and grandchildren favored Spanish language, custom, religion, and clothing over Apalachee traditions. A few Indians, mainly chiefs and their mestizo descendants, learned to read and write in Spanish.
The mixing of European and Native American blood and customs at San Luis marked a blending of cultures that still exists throughout Hispanic American countries. Throughout the Spanish colonies, the Catholic Church used the power of Christianity to "civilize" native populations.
This process of religious conversion was accompanied by native peoples adopting Hispanic customs, beliefs, and practices. In making the Catholic doctrine more attractive, the Church allowed some native religious beliefs and customs to continue. This occurred even as European Catholics were punished for the slightest deviation from strict doctrine.
At San Luis for example, Father Paiva wrote down his objections to the Apalachee ballgame, especially the gambling that took place. However, at San Luis and other villages in Apalachee Province, the traditional ballgame dedicated to the gods of rain and thunder continued even after the majority of native people worshiped Christian beliefs.
Widespread adoption of Christianity left physical evidence at Mission San Luis, too. Archaeologists found many rosary beads, crucifixes, and other ritual items, supporting the written history of Christian conversions among the Apalachees. Most important was the discovery of the Christian graveyard. Christianized Indians adopted Catholic burial ritual, choosing to be buried beneath the floor of the Mission San Luis church.
More than 700 native burials have been estimated in that location. Some burials were close to the church altar, a place usually set aside for friars and priests. Those individuals might have been Apalachee chiefs and other important natives.
The native practice of including valuable personal items in graves was forbidden by church doctrine. However, traditional items such as shell beads and other personal ornaments were placed in the graves of Christian natives. This is another example of the cultural blending taking place at San Luis and throughout the Apalachee Province during the 1600s.
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Some notes on water qualities and treatment for Rift Lake Cichlid Aquaria
The cichlids in Lakes Malawi and Tanganyika have evolved in a chemically very stable environment.
The seasonal effect of rains and run-off of top soil into a lake as big as Tanganyika, which holds around one sixth of all the fresh water on the planet, is minimal when compared to the variations in water quality in river systems. While anecdotal evidence exists of rift lake cichlids being kept successfully in soft, acid water, I would not recommend such a practice. This is because no member of this group of fishes has encountered such water conditions in nature throughout the course of their development over, in the case of Tanganyika, millions of years. Therefore any gene variations that would benefit an organism in such variable conditions are likely to have been lost, as there has been no benefit to be derived from such abilities over the course of their development from the earliest
times in the lake to the present day.
The original cichlid populations in the large lakes will have come from elsewhere and therefore from more variable water systems. It is a safe assumption that these fishes would have been able to cope with the big changes in water chemistry they would have encountered in the seasonally variable river systems and smaller lakes in which they had developed. As generations passed in the new, stable lake environment, the genetic advantage of this ability will have become an irrelevance, with no advantage gained by individuals which retained it.
The contrast between this and the conditions in which those cichlids that have evolved in coastal regions, such as Etroplus, is probably the easiest way to understand this point. Fishes moving from fresh to brackish and even salt water are coping with very large changes in 'osmotic gradient': in fresh water the inside of the fish has a relatively high concentration of salts, and the body system must be adapted to expel excess water which enters the body through osmosis. In salt water, the reverse is true: water will have a tendency to move from inside the body, where the concentration of salts is lower than that of the surrounding water, to the outside environment. Etroplus therefore have retained this ability: any genetic mutation in their history which lost the ability to regulate the body's systems in both fresh and brackish water would have been a genetic dead-end - the individuals could not survive in their environment without it.
The relevance of the above argument for keepers of rift lake cichlids is that we should not impose unnecessary and unnatural stresses on the internal regulatory systems of the fishes we keep. As these fishes have evolved in such chemically stable ecosystems, we should do our best to provide similar chemistry and stability of the systems in which we keep them.
By providing such conditions we aim to allow the fishes to live out a relatively 'normal' life pattern (as much as it can be in an aquarium setting) in good health. Give them unsuitable water and their regulatory body systems will be in a constant struggle to maintain a healthy equilibrium, and as explained they simply have not evolved to deal with this. The result is likely to be unhealthy fishes, constantly struggling to maintain bodily equilibrium while not properly equipped to do so.
We would not expect tropical fish to survive in cold water: the reasoning is the same. The fish have never encountered such conditions in the course of their development, and so can be expected to lack the regulatory body function to cope with such variations in the environment.
Therefore, if your water is soft and/or acid, it makes very good sense to adjust the water parameters to make it more suitable for your rift lake cichlids. If you are lucky enough to live in an area with hard water and a pH of more than 7.2 then water treatment is probably not required but I would still recommend the use of buffer substances, either in the tank decor and/or substrate, or as filter material. Suitable substances are tufa rock (can be unsightly, however), chipped limestone, calcified seaweed (the best I have found when used in a filter or by mixing a few handfuls with your substrate) or coral sand used in the filter - I advise against using this material as tank substrate (see Tips page).
Buffer materials will protect against sudden drops in readings caused by filter failure, unexpected changes to mains water, etc.
Back to top of page
Water in my set-up
My fish room has now been closed down, but I have kept the description below on the water treatment regime I used, for information.
The Water
pH is around 7.6
Carbonate hardness (KH or TAC) is around 9°dKH (161 ppm)
Total hardness (GH, DT or TH) is around 8°dGH (143 ppm)
Nitrite nil
Ammonia nil
Nitrate <20ppm
The mains tap water here is pH 7 with no hardness reading at all.
In my fish room set up, two 37 gallon (165 Litre) reservoir tanks are set at the highest level on the top of four-tier stands.
Mains water is piped direct to these tanks.
For water changes, the tanks are filled from the mains, and the following added to each 165 litre tank:
9ml API Tap Water Conditioner (480ml for £8-£10 treats around 1850 gallons)
45g of Sodium Bicarbonate (local Chinese Supermarket is cheapest)
30g of Epsom Salts (Magnesium Sulphate)
These mineral salts achieve the pH and hardness figures given above. Note that the API Tap Water Conditioner is used at the high dosage rate, to remove the chloramine that is added to Edinburgh's water. If you have no chloramine to remove, the 480ml bottle will treat four times the amount of tap water, namely around 7500 gallons.
The water is then aerated strongly and heated to the ambient temperature of the room and stock tanks, which takes from three to six hours, depending on the incoming mains temperature.
Water changes are then effected by simply syphoning water from these reservoir tanks into the tanks in use. Drainage for waste water from tanks is in the water cupboard adjacent to the room.
For a set up with over 1200 gallons (5400 Litres), this arrangement allows for 50% of water in all tanks to be changed each week by doing one or two changes per day (each change takes 45-60 minutes). In practice, the Malawi tanks get at least 50% of water changed each week, the Tanganyikan tanks a bit less.
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Vestibular Discrimination Disorder
Someone with a vestibular discrimination disorder will find it very difficult to determine their position in space without using their other senses. They find it hard to work out if they are lying down, standing up, or even if they are upside down, if they can’t rely on their other senses for information. For example, if you were to blindfold someone with vestibular discrimination disorder and turn them upside down, they would be unlikely to be able to tell whether they were the right way up or not.
They may also choose to avoid activities involving movement, as they find it very difficult to gauge their own movements.
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"language_score": 0.9751752018928528,
"url": "https://autismsuppliesanddevelopments.com/spd-course-menu/how-does-spd-affect-our-senses/vestibular/vestibular-discrimination-disorder/"
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Sunday, June 13, 2010
wormy new gut-ecosystem model
Video - live trichuris in the cecum.
Researchers at the University of Manchester in the United Kingdom report this week in Science that they have found that parasitic worms of the genus Trichuris -- inhabitants of many a mammal's large intestine -- are dependent upon common gut bacteria, such as E. coli, to reproduce inside their mammalian hosts. This means that the worms likely evolved alongside the bacteria that share their host and may play a more crucial role in building and modulating mammalian immune responses than previously expected.
"Having a low number of worms that don't cause disease may be effective in developing a robust and effective immune response," University of Manchester microbiologist Ian Roberts told The Scientist. "You end up with a kind of beneficial ecosystem."
Looking at a species of Trichuris that commonly infects mice, Roberts and his colleagues found that the worm's eggs would only hatch in the presence of bacterial cells, which clustered around tiny trap doors in the oblong egg capsules through which the worms would emerge. When bacteria were absent, hatching ceased.
This strategy makes sense for the worms, Roberts added, because their dispersal to different hosts depends upon a life spent in the nether regions of the digestive tract, during which they hatch out of eggs and lay more that are released in the host's feces. Trichuris worms don't hatch in stomachs or small intestines -- only in large intestines, where large numbers of bacteria also reside.
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kids encyclopedia robot
Galium matthewsii facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Bushy bedstraw
Scientific classification
Galium matthewsii is a species of flowering plant in the coffee family known by the common names bushy bedstraw and Matthews' bedstraw. It is native to the mountains and deserts of southeastern California (Kern, Inyo and San Bernardino Cos), and southern Nevada (Clark and Esmeralda Cos).
Galium matthewsii is a shrubby perennial growing from a woody base and reaching heights of about 20 to 30 centimeters. It forms short, thin, tangled masses. The small, sharp-pointed leaves grow in whorls of four about the stem at intervals. The plant is dioecious, but male and female flowers are similar in appearance and grow in clustered inflorescences of hairy yellow corollas. The fruit is a nutlet covered with very long, straight, white hairs.
The plant was named for Washington Matthews.
kids search engine
Galium matthewsii Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Social Studies and Science: Totem Poles
By Laurie Nakauchi-Hawn, Finalist for Target® 2009 Iditarod Teacher on the TrailTM
First Grade, Friends’ School Boulder
With the Iditarod coming up, my first grade class has been studying the people and animals of the arctic. As a way for students to learn more about arctic animals and the Athabaskans, we made totem poles.
First, to introduce the animals of the arctic, we read Animals of the Tundra by Richard Vaughan. The children were fascinated by the variety of arctic animals. We discussed the adaptations that enable these animals to live in the icy arctic. Once the students were familiar with the animals, I brought in photos of totem poles and we talked about the significance of the totems and animals represented on them. We also talked about why Inuits would not make totems like the Northwest Coast Indians.
The children were excited to create their own totems. Using wrapping paper tubes, construction paper, crayons, scissors and glue; each child made a totem pole with the image of an arctic animal.
As a follow-up activity each child will identify the specific adaptations of the animal(s) on the totem.
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Memory and Learning
Mary A. Mason Clay Elementary School
13233 South Burley
Chicago IL 60409
(312) 535-5600
The teacher will introduce primary students to the various parts of the brain
and provide specific activities and a plastic model designed to help improve
Materials Needed:
One gallon plastic water container (for each student)
A child's silhouette (for each student)
A drawing of a brain, that can be divided, into three puzzle pieces of the
three science words below, (for each student)
Science Words, Medulla, Cerebellum, Cerebrum (for each student)
Activity One
Teacher will ask three (3) volunteers to come up, close their eyes and put their
hands behind their backs. Teacher will prick one with a pencil. The student
should make an involuntary movement. Teacher will touch another student on the
neck. Teacher will touch the other student lightly on the hand. The medulla is
responsible for respiration, circulation, muscle tone, nerves, reflexes, and it
controls all internal functions.
Teacher will draw a line on the floor and ask a student to walk in a straight
line while the class observes. The cerebellum is responsible for balance,
muscular coordination and motor skills.
Teacher will discuss students' various emotions. When students feel sad or
happy, the cerebrum is stimulated. The cerebrum is also responsible for higher
level skills and critical thinking.
Activity Two
Teacher will whisper a nonsense sentence to a student. The student whispers
the nonsense sentence to the next student. This continues until every student
has heard the sentence. "Cherry Berry is my favorite fairytale for toddlers" is
a good choice. Rhyming and alliteration with the "F" and "T" sound help the
memorization process even though the sentence is a nonsensical one.
Activity Three
Song to teach the Continents
When teaching a song, the medulla and cerebrum are at work. The medulla allows
a person's muscles to perform in such a way that she/he can pucker so air can
pass, thus forming the lips to sing. The cerebrum is responsible for the part
that allows students to "know" the words and the tune to the song.
"Continents, continents, what are you?
Continents, continents, what are you?
Continents, continents, what are you?
You are a great big world.
A is Africa
A is Australia
A is Asia
A is Antarctica
E is Europe
N is North America
S is South America
You are a great big world."
This song is sung to the tune of any familiar nursery rhyme.
Activity Four
"I know the five great lakes.
I know the five great lakes.
I know the five great lakes.
All I need to know is HOMES.
H is Lake Huron
O is Lake Ontario
M is Lake Michigan
E is Lake Erie
S is Lake Superior
All I need to know is HOMES."
Activity Six
Each student is given an empty one gallon water container and a silhouette of
a child's head. They will color the picture, cut it out and paste the silhouette
on the container. Each student will be given a "brain puzzle". He/She will
match each puzzle piece with the original copy that they received earlier.
Teacher and students will discuss and label the 3 (three) parts of the brain.
When a child can say the vocabulary words and demonstrate an understanding of
the functions of the brain, then he/she can place the words and brain parts into
The container will be used for the entire year to collect data that the
students have learned. The students can put the five Great Lakes and the Seven
Continents into the brain (container). Students can also put math facts and
times tables into the container. This is an excellent source of recall for
students to use to review skills already learned. I emphasize reviewing the
information in the brain (container) frequently to put knowledge into long
term memory.
Student will demonstrate mastery of material in the brain through a periodic
checking system set up by teacher. If student forgets material that he/she has
already learned, he/she must take it out of the brain. This is an ongoing
process. Checking can also be done by another peer. Peer tutoring is
strongly encouraged.
The knowledge that we have acquired as teachers and techniques for teaching it,
if combined with what I believe to be a "true calling", is the greatest formula
for becoming an effective, highly motivated educator.
Memory and learning go hand in hand. All students do not learn at the same
rate, but all children can learn. Using different strategies and creating a
safe and positive learning environment will enable students to learn and
be successful.
Return to Biology Index
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Rainbows and Spanish Speaking Dinosaurs!
Pre K 4 had a special visit from Leiana Hawkins, Parker’s K-5 science teacher, who visited the preK 4 to help the students learn about rainbows. This morning, students greeted visitors with the question, “Do you know how to make a rainbow?” When the answer was “no,” the student escorted visitors to a window with prisms. What made this more than just a trick with a toy, though, was that the students could also explain that a rainbow is made when the light is bent–and some students even remembered the word “refracted.” The trick of using the prism is linked to a natural phenomenon in the students’ learning.In another part of the room, a group of students gathered around Spanish teacher Emily Hollister. As they showed her the dinosaurs and played with the blocks, she chatted with them in Spanish in order to help them develop an impression of another language, along with some vocabulary.
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Last Updated 28 Jan 2021
Martha?S Vineyard – Labov
Words 3148 (12 pages)
Views 629
1. 0 Introduction 1. 1 Martha? s Vineyard – where old traditions are still of value Martha? s Vineyard is a small island located south of Cape Cod in Massachusetts, USA. The island has a permanent population of about 6000 inhabitants. It is separated from the mainland by the Atlantic Ocean and there are no big businesses or any McDonald to be found on the island. Here, life is not as hectic as on the mainland and old traditions are still of value. The inhabitants have a way of showing their connection and dedication to their homeland, which is also a way of identifying themselves.
This term paper will be about sound changes in connection with social identity. I will examine the innovative study of language variation and change in the islands community, observed and examined by William Labov (1963). I will analyze and discuss the study made by Labov. Labov? s study is based on the characteristic sound pattern discovered while listening to the inhabitants of Martha? s Vineyard. This sound change has a focus on the centralization of diphthongs. Centralization is the phonological change in which a vowel becomes more central than normal (Lawrence Trask 2000 : 53).
Diphthong is a vowel sound which is pronounced by quickly moving from one vowel position to another (Deckert, Vickers 2011 : 33). The sound changes made by inhabitants of Martha’s Vineyard, observed by Labov were: /ay/ as in fight, right and sight and /aw/ as in loud and about. Labov? s observations exposed that the centralized diphthongs only occurred in a particular linguistic context. Some groups used the sound change more than others. The group of fishermen was among these. Labov also observed that some inhabitants purposely did not pronounce the diphthongs differently to people from the mainland.
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Having looked at different social factors, as for example, age, ethnic group and occupation it became obvious that the attitude towards the island was an essential aspect to explain this phenomenon. The decision whether or not to use the island or the mainland pronunciation depended the attitude towards Martha’s Vineyard, whether or not being positive or negative. Labov named this phenomenon “island identity” (1963). To understand what “island identity” is it is important to define the term “identity”. What is identity and how do we identify ourselves?
Can there be a connection between identity and speech? In this term paper I will attempt to answer these questions. 2. 0 The study, sociolinguistic pattern and meaning 2. 1 Background knowledge Martha’s Vineyard is divided into two parts, which are the up-island and the down-island. By the time Labov made this study, the island had approximately 6000 inhabitants. The majority lived in an area of the down-island which contains of three small towns, called Vineyard Haven, Oak Bluffs and Edgartown. The remaining inhabitants lived in the rural up-island area with only a few villages (Labov 1972: 5).
The inhabitants of Martha’s Vineyard were divided into four major ethnic groups. The main group was the descendants of old families with English origin. The second major group was descendants of Portuguese origin who migrated from the Azores and the Cap Verde Islands. The third group was descendants of remnant native Americans. The last group consists of inhabitants of various origins, who were of no relevance for this study (Labov 1972: 6). Another group became relevant for this study. This was the group of summer visitors who came in large groups in June and July.
There would be around 42. 000 visitors on the island every summer (Labov 1972: 6). It could be a possibility that the summer visitors brought the sound change from the mainland to the island, which would mean that this group would have the major influence on the pronunciation of the diphthongs /ay/ and /aw/ but it becomes clear that the influence of visitors are not as obvious as it might seem, since Labov only mentioned that this group had an indirect influence. To clarify this, it is essential to have a look at the economic situation of the island.
In 1960 Martha's Vineyard was the poorest of all countries of Massachusetts and this was not only due to the high unemployment rate in Massachusetts back then (Labov 1972: 27). The islands? major industry was the fishing industry on the up-island. The large-scale of fishing went out of New Bedford on the Grand Banks and as a result it became harder to keep this industry going (Labov 1972: 27). It became almost impossible for the fishermen to make a living from their wages and their families became dependent on two earnings. Another problem forced the economic and psychological pressure.
Convenience goods were at a very high price (Labov 1972: 28) and the goods were brought on the island with ferry from the mainland. This transport was expensive and permitted the salesmen to expand the prices of their goods. Some would say that the constantly growing tourism came as a blessing for the inhabitants of Martha’s Vineyard, but at the same time it also became a curse, especially for the fishermen who felt very connected to the island and the traditions connected to it. For them it was difficult to accept the increasing dependence on tourism.
The following observations and results are of importance in order to understand the connection between the above mentioned background information and the language variation in this study. 2. 2 Accomplishment by Labov and its meaning for the inhabitants In 1963, as the study of Martha’s Vineyard was relized, Labov observed a striking way of pronouncing words such a fight, right and sight, and words such as loud and about. This striking ways of pronunciation clearly diverged from the near parts of the mainland (Meyerhoff 2006: 16f. ). The inhabitants of Martha’s Vineyard pronounced the diphthongs /ay/ and /aw/ in a more entral position which is a phonological change termed centralization. In order to figure out why many inhabitants used the centralized diphthongs, Labov deliberated an interview schedule in which /ay/ and /aw/ frequently occurred (Labov 1972: 12). Here Labov did not only put his focus on the linguistic aspect but on the social aspect as well. This means that Labov did not only put focus on the language but furthermore he wanted to examine the reasons for this sound change and in which way it was used in a social context and by whom. Why did some speakers use the centralized diphthongs more than others?
This is why this study by Labov is not just of study of linguistics but also counts as a sociolinguistic study (Deckert, Vickers 2011: 1). Labov started asking inhabitants questions concerning their lives on the island. He also recorded them while they were reading lists of words naturally containing /ay/ and /aw/ sounds out loud (Meyerhoff 2006: 17). He interviewed 69 inhabitants of different ages, occupation, ethnic groups and from different geographical distribution. The table underneath is taken from Labov? s study and shows age levels and numbers of inhabitants using the centralized vowels /ay/ and /aw/:
Table 1 (Labov 1972: 22) |age |(ay) |(aw) | |75- |25 |22 | |61-75 |35 |37 | |46-60 |62 |44 | |31-45 |81 |88 | |14-30 |37 |46 | Having a look at this table, it appears that inhabitants from the age of thirty-one up to age forty-five frequently tended to centralize the diphthongs. However, inhabitants younger than thirty-one and older than forty-five, did not have a high use of the centralized diphthongs.
This means that the sound change could not only be dependent on the age of inhabitants being interviewed. Therefore Labov focused on other social factors which might have an effect on the production of this sound change. He interviewed inhabitants from different parts of residence, hereby people form the up-island as well as people living at the down-island. The statistics shown below demonstrates different cities on Martha’s Vineyard. It also shows the numbers of inhabitants from these cities using the centralized diphthongs: Table 2 (Labov 1972: 25) |(ay) |(aw) | |Down-island |35 |33 | |Edgartown |48 |55 | |Oak |33 |10 | |Bluffs | | | |Vineyard Haven |24 |33 | |Up-island |61 |66 | |Oak |71 |99 | |Bluffs | | | |N. 35 |13 | |Tisbury | | | |West Tisbury |51 |51 | |Chilmark |100 |81 | |Gay Head |51 |81 | This table clearly shows that the inhabitants living on the up-island used the sound change more frequently than inhabitants living on the down-island, especially the inhabitants of the town Chilmark. In Chilmark they were shown o have a unique tendency of centralized diphthongs. The up-island was more of a rural area and it was known for its fishing industry. Most fishermen were living and working in Chilmark. The following table shows the centralization by the different occupational groups observed by Labov. . Table 3 (Labov 1972: 26) | |(ay) |(aw) | |Fishermen |100 |79 | |Farmers |32 |22 | |Others |41 |57 |
According to this table which shows the usage of centralized diphthong by fishermen, farmers and other occupations, shows it becomes clear that the fishermen were the one group who most frequently made use of centralization. Some of the farmers and people of other occupations also used this sound change but their numbers were strikingly low compared to the numbers of fishermen using the centralization. When comparing the results of all three tables it becomes obvious that the Chilmark fishermen in the middle working age level were using the centralization more frequently than any other groups on the island.
However, hereby it is still not revealed why this group of inhabitants at this age and living and working in that one place where the fishing industry still played a big role in the island economy (Labov 1972: 29), were using the sound change more frequently than the other groups of inhabitants. It is central to understand the meaning and importance of the fishing industry for the inhabitants and the island itself to fully understand the interaction of social and linguistic patterns. Most of the fishermen from Chilmark felt deeply connected to the island since most of them were descendants of the old families (Labov 1972: 28).
The fishing industry used to be a major part of the economy, before the large-scale fishing went out of New Bedford on the Grand Banks (Labov 1972: 27). The fishermen were proud to be independent, to stand on their own feet and earn their living with their own bare hands. Fishing was an old tradition on this island (Labov 1972: 29) but as an ever-growing number of summer visitors came to the island a big part of the fishing industry moved away and the inhabitants became forced to be more dependent on tourism. Chilmark changed from the traditional fishing industry to modern tourism.
Many of the inhabitants accepted but the fishermen had a hard time acknowledging this change (Labov 1972: 28). They made their living from fishing. For these men fishing was not just a job, but it was also a way of living and an old tradition they did not want to give up. Two brothers from Edgartown which were also fishermen were among the interviewed. They both had a tendency to centralize the diphthongs very frequently (Labov 1972: 30). These two brothers were the last decendants from the old families (Labov 1972: 30).
If they were to leave the island, there would be no descendant left in Edgartown and there would be no one to keep up the traditions of the old families. These two brothers are another example that clarifies the importance of the fishing industry. It also clarifies that the Chilmark fishermen as well as the fishermen from Edgartown shared social orientation. They felt deeply connected to the island which was their home. For this reason they also both shared an aversion to the many summer visitors. The summer visitors would invade the cities of Martha’s Vineyard, and thereby the growing tourism would invade ajor a part in the economy. Though many of the inhabitants appreciate the tourism, the fishermen suffered more and more under economic as well as psychological pressure (Labov 1972: 28). The dependence on summer visitors grew and thereby the independence of the fishermen was reduced. The more inhabitants lived a traditional way of life the more they used the centralization. This fact demonstrates the relationship to the diphthong centralization and the social orientation. Labov learned that another social factor had an outstanding influence on the sound change.
He observed attitude towards the island, whether it was positive or negative, was of reason for the usage of this sound change. Labov found out that high school students and their use of the centralization depended on their plan whether or not to stay on the island. He therefore interviewed students from Martha's Vineyard Regional High School. The students who wanted to stay on the island showed a much higher use of the centralized diphthongs than the students who wanted to leave the island after finishing school (Labov 1972: 32).
Not only inhabitants from the old families had a high use of the centralization, but Portuguese at the age of thirty-one to forty-five revealed to have a very high use of the sound change in comparison to the other age groups (Labov 1972: 26). The Portuguese of this age group belonged to the third and fourth generation. This generation was the first one which had entirely adopted the ways of life on the island (Labov 1972: 33). They too felt deeply connected to the island, their home.
The middle aged Portuguese showed a higher use of centralization than the younger Portuguese, even though the younger Portuguese showed a higher centralization than the young inhabitants with English origin (Labov 1972: 26). This phenomenon can be explained by the attitude towards the island. Most of the young inhabitants with English origin wanted to leave the island opposed to the majority of the young Portuguese who wanted to stay on the island (Labov 1972: 26). This proves that social attitude towards Martha’s Vineyard was to blame for the use of the centralization.
In relation to the social attitude the term "island identity" becomes important. To fully understand this term it is important to explain what “identity” really means. To define what “identity” really is, is easier said than done. Identity can be a name of a person but it can also be a way of behaving or other details like gestures or mimics. In Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English by Langenscheidt, there are more than a few explanations. For example: "The qualities and attitudes that a person or a group of people have, that make them different from other people" (Langenscheidt 2006: 805).
The term "national/cultural/social identity" is listed in this dictionary as well and is defined as "a strong feeling of belonging to particular group, race, etc. " (Langenscheidt 2006: 805). After having studied Labov`s observations, his results and defining the term identity, it becomes clear that the inhabitants of Martha’s Vineyard used the sound change to identify themselves. They created an access to their identity with the help of language, and used the centralization as a way to differentiate themselves from summer visitors. This strong bond to their home, the island, is termed by Labov as “island identity”. Island identity” describes the use of the centralization as an expression of the strong connection, the inhabitant? s ancestry and their home land. Inhabitants who used this sound change also revealed their attitude and connection to the island. The ones using the sound change were the ones who felt deeply connected and identified themselves with the island. Thereby the sound change became an indicator of the inhabitant's attitude. The inhabitants who showed a negative attitude towards the island the ones who did not feel connected to it and wanted to leave, did not use this centralization.
They simply did not identify themselves with the island. On behalf of those inhabitants who had a positive attitude towards the island the language variant hold prestige. For some inhabitants the sound change had a higher status than for others, although the speakers were not always aware of the importance of the sound change. This is the reason why there are two types of prestige which are termed overt and covert prestige (Meyerhoff 2006: 37). Overt prestige is linked with language variants that speakers use for special reasons.
The speakers using the overt prestige have the motive of sounding, for example, politer or even more educated, which means that they obviously are aware of using that variant (Meyerhoff 2006: 37). For the inhabitants of Martha’s Vineyard the covert prestige played a central role. The speakers who were using the centralization did not want to sound nicer or better than other people on the island. This pronunciation was not the standard or the general norm but it was based on group identity and the way the inhabitants differentiated themselves from other inhabitants and summer visitors. 3. 0 Conclusion
Through the study of Labov, he demonstrated that social factors play a role in how people speak and he also clarified the deep social function language has to define sn identity. Labov? s study was of importance for the social linguistic. The centralized diphthongs observed by Labov were most frequently used by the thirty-one up to forty-five age group and was typically observed used by people who lived and worked on the island, who felt deeply connected to the island. The connection between the positive attitude towards life on the island and the usage of centralization was outstanding.
The inhabitants who lived a traditional way of life, had the highest degree of centralization. Since being a fisherman was a traditional occupation, this means that the main part of the inhabitants on the up-island had a higher use of the sound change since that was the place where the fishing industry was based. The down-island was the area where less people were using the centralization. It consist of small towns and these towns were the attraction for the increasing number of summer visitors.
Consequently, it can be said that the centralization is an indicator of solidarity. A way of showing where you belong and that you are proud of your home and its traditions. For the inhabitants of Martha’s Vineyard it was also a way to oppose to the people of the mainland and the new service economy. This sound change made them stand out. By centralizing the diphthongs the inhabitants of island created a way to connect their social identity to language. The language functions as a tool to stick out of the crowd. It is as a reminder of their roots. . 0 Bibliography Deckert, Sharon K. ; Vickers, Caroline H. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2011. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Labov, William. Sociolinguistic Patterns. 1972. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Langenscheidt. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 2006 Meyerhoff, Miriam. Introducing Sociolinguistics. 2006. Abingdon: Routledge Trask, Robert Lawrence. The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics. 2000. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd
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The Annunciation essay
HansMemlingand Sandro Botticelli were among the most noteworthy artists of thefifteenth and sixteenth centuries. During that period, Biblepaintings were dominant because the Roman Catholic had beguninfluencing the entire Europe. The two artists created paintings of“”, an event when the Archangel Gabriel visitedVirgin Mary to inform her that she had divinely conceived and wouldgive birth to Jesus Christ. Botticelli and Memling had a similarsituation from the Bible, but their paintings prove that they hadinterpreted it differently.
Theartworks differ from each other based on thecolor,light and composition. Virgin Mary is the central figure in thepaintings, but each artist portrays her differently. On Botticelli’spainting, Virgin Mary leans towards angel Gabriel forming an “S”.She is wearing clothes that are red and dark green. Mary and angelGabriel’s hands have a bigger role to play in the painting. Atfirst glance, it seems like the Virgin Mary stretches her hands outto defend herself, but a closer look changes that view. The hand onthe slight upright confirms that she is greeting the angel. TheGolden Section had rules and guidelines on how to paint and so,Botticelli’s painting of the hands was following those rules,linking both the halves. These rules are proved by the sections andlines on the painting that are divided based on some ratios. It isfascinating that the angel and Virgin Mary try to touch each other,but there seems to be some invisible force preventing them from that.The doorway shows the two halves at the centre of the artistic work.TheAnnunciation is presented in a jewel-like manner and is set a by theuse of a one-point outlook to provide a deeply recessed spaceillusion.The interior of Mary’s room is shown in dark colours withoutfurniture. It symbolizes poverty. Adrapery panel has been drawn to the back, showing Mary in a posturethat depicts humbleness.This depiction gives a general understanding of Mary’s situationand the obedience in following the angel’s instructions. Itachieved the moment of Annunciation. The artwork’s space is deeplyrecessed. The quare pillars divide the space occupied by Mary andangel Gabriel. The curtain is open to reveal Mary in a peacefulstate. The painting has a jewel-like depiction of the Annunciation.Shadows are not present. Angel Gabriel seems to have just landedbecause his wings remain raised.
HansMemling also realises the Annunciation but in a different way.Through the window, one can see a palatial residence, which looksheavily guarded due to the wall around it. A person is moving towardsthe main gate, and a statue is seen on its left. The sky is clearsymbolizing the angel’s visit. He did not use dark colours inVirgin Mary’s room, which is different from Botticelli’spainting. The Virgin is wearing red and dark blue clothes. Theartists use red colors for the Virgin’s clothing, but they differon the cover fabric. In addition to that, the Virgin was in herbedroom reading a book when the angel visited her, which is also anevent in the Annunciation. Hans did not intend to show Mary’spoverty. He uses bright colours in the room. The angel is dressed ina robe similar to that of a priest, and the bed is present. They mayrepresent the Virgin Mary’s wedding. The painting may have been aleft part of a triptych because of the narrowness, tallness and thecomposition, which has a diagonal inclination.
Thereare many details shown in the painting, and each carries a meaning.For example, the lily in front of the Virgin Mary represents herpurity and virginity. Angel Gabriel’s right hand is placed on hischest as a sign of being humble in Mary’s presence. He is holding across in his right hand. This gesture symbolizes the role of JesusChrist on earth and how he shall be crucified. Memling’s colouringof the room is eye catching because of the fluorescence. Looking atMary’s raised hand, one can conclude that she is inquiring more,but a closer scrutiny reveals that she is flipping a page, or maybe,she has just opened a new chapter. The book that she was reading hasa hidden meaning. It was open on a given page, and we are left tofill the gaps. One can imagine that the page was about a visit fromthe archangel, a prophetic revelation by the Prophet Isaiah.
Inconclusion, Botticelli and Memling were two different people whointerpreted the Annunciation based on their personal understanding.There are many other factors, which contributed to the difference.For instance, the period of their lifetimes was different. Memlinghad a beautiful view of the Virgin’s room in his mind and correctlytransformed it through art. The room has a good bed, a carpet, andcolorful pillows. He also presented a very smart neighbourhood. Onthe other hand, Botticelli uses both the interior and the exterioraspects to prove his point. He shows angel Gabriel slightly far fromMary whereas Memling shows them closer to each other. It is clearthat artists employ different techniques even when they areexplaining a similar situation. Botticelli and Memling are an obviousexample. Art is important in describing various circumstances andconditions. Therefore, we should embrace it.
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Fort Hamby Gang (Civil War)
The American Civil War was a tumultuous time. In the North Carolina mountains, in particular, the war offered opportunities for mountaineers to be unjustifiably violent. In some high country places, civility ended, outlaws ruled, and cruelty prevailed. The Fort Hamby Gang of Wilkes County provides an example.
After Union General George Stoneman’s devastating raid in Wilkes County, the Fort Hamby Gang bullied people in the area. Even after the war had ended, the twenty-five to –thirty men, stationed out of the Hamby widow’s house and led by a defected Union soldier, “Major Wade,” targeted prominent families in neighboring counties and seem to do so for the sheer sake of violence.
There were several unsuccessful attempts to stop the vandalism and terrorism. Caldwell citizens (home guard) crossed county lines to attack the Hamby Gang at their base of operations, the Hamby house in Wilkes County. The home guard had the element of surprise and the upper hand in battle, until Major Wade tricked them. When a cease-fire was agreed upon, Wade and his men emerged from their fort with guns blazing.
Another attempt was successful at disbanding the group of thugs. Several former Confederate soldiers put Major Wade and gang in their sights. After an initial siege failed to dislodge the encamped outlaws in the Hamby house, the home guard started to burn outbuildings and then the house itself. The Hamby gang, no doubt coughing smoke out of their lungs and wiping their burning eyes, emerged from the house. Some surrendered. Some fled. Some were shot, and some captured and quickly executed. Major Wade, however, escaped.
John C. Inscoe and Gordon B.McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia: Western North Carolina in the Civil War (Chapel Hill, 2000).
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What was the purpose of the protest in Birmingham Alabama in 1963?
In April 1963 King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) joined with Birmingham, Alabama’s existing local movement, the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR), in a massive direct action campaign to attack the city’s segregation system by putting pressure on Birmingham’s merchants during …
What happened in Birmingham in the summer of 1963?
Why was the Birmingham Campaign significant?
What was an effect of protests and violence in Birmingham in 1963?
What did the Birmingham campaign of 1963 accomplish?
What was an effect of protest and violence in Birmingham in 1963?
What was the impact of the Birmingham Campaign?
What happened at the Birmingham riots?
The Birmingham riot of 1963 was a civil disorder and riot in Birmingham, Alabama, that was provoked by bombings on the night of May 11, 1963. The bombings targeted African-American leaders of the Birmingham campaign, but ended in the murder of three adolescent girls, a mass protest for civil rights.
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The trajectories of pointy intruders in sand
Original article: Collisional model of energy dissipation in three-dimensional granular impact
An alien spaceship commander was preparing to drop a cone-shaped spy shuttle into the sand of a Florida beach near Cape Canaveral. The shuttle needed to burrow deep enough that any passing humans wouldn’t see it while the aliens used it to spy on Earth’s space program. “From how high should I drop the shuttle so that it is hidden?” the commander asked their science advisor. The science advisor pulled out their alien high school mechanics book, hoping to calculate this based on the laws of motion and Earth’s gravitational force.
Not so fast, alien science advisor! While the mechanics of a falling shuttle are relatively simple, the forces the shuttle would experience while penetrating the sand are much more complicated. Sand and other granular materials are composed of millions of individual solid particles that, together, may be stiff like a solid or flow like a fluid. This interstellar scientist first needed to know how sand particles interact with one another and how the uneven distribution of forces between them before dropping the cone-shaped probe.
In “Collisional model of energy dissipation in three-dimensional granular impact”, C. S. Bester and R. P. Behringer asked a similar question. In their study, they looked at the forces that a conical object (such as the alien commander’s spy shuttle) experienced as it penetrated a granular material and investigated how these forces affect the depth a conical object will burrow.
Bester and Behringer dropped conical intruders into a container filled with sand with a thin rod attached to the top of the intruder for tracking. They filmed each falling intruder from the side with a high speed camera, from which they determined the depth z, velocity, and acceleration as the intruder penetrated the sand. For a video of the experiment, see here. They used the seven intruders shown in Figure 1 . The intruders all had the same mass m but different shapes. The sharpness of the intruder’s cone-shaped tip was characterized by a parameter s= \frac{2 L_{tip} }{w}, the ratio of its length to half its width. A higher value of s corresponded to a sharper cone. They were dropped from a range of heights between 6 cm and 2 m, which resulted in intruders reaching different speeds upon impact with the sand.
An image of seven intruders used in the experiment, ranging from a blunt intruder to an intruder with a conical top.
Figure 1: intruders of equal mass used in the experiment, from the bluntest (s = 0) to the sharpest (s = 2.1). Image adapted from original article.
Bester and Behringer measured the stopping depth zstop and the time to stop tstop as a function of the initial kinetic energy each intruder had upon hitting the sand, K_i = \frac{1} {2}m z_i. They found that sharp intruders penetrated deeper into the sand than blunt intruders with the same kinetic energy Ki, as shown in Figure 2a. Figure 2b shows that, above an initial kinetic energy of 1 J, the time the intruders took to stop was the same regardless of shape or initial energy.
Graphs of stopping depth as a function of kinetic energy and stopping time as a function of kinetic energy.
Figure 2: (a) Stopping depth as a function of kinetic energy. (b) Stopping time as a function of kinetic energy. Blue represents blunt intruders while red represents sharp intruders. Figure adapted from original article.
To understand what forces the intruder experiences as it comes to a stop, the authors focused on the inertial drag, or the drag caused by the pressure of the sand on the intruder. Previous studies hypothesized that the inertial drag depended on the penetration depth and was proportional to the velocity squared of the intruder as it enters the granular material. Bester and Behringer found that this was not the whole story. They calculated the inertial drag coefficient h(z) from the intruder trajectories, as shown in Figure 3a. Surprisingly, they found that the drag coefficient oscillated as the intruder penetrated the material. This suggested that the inertial drag was caused by collisions of the intruder with particles that are part of “force chains”. Force chains in a granular material are made up of connected particles that bear the majority of the forces in the material (see this earlier Softbites post for a detailed description). When the intruder hit a force chain, the drag increased due to the added resistance. The drag then decreased again when the chain was broken.
To investigate how the drag force was affected by the shape of the intruder, Bester and Behringer used the sum of the drag coefficient as the intruder penetrated the sand \int {h(z) dz} [1]. Blunt intruders had a drag that increased nearly linearly with depth, while the dependence of drag on depth was much more curved for sharp intruders, as seen in Figure 3b. The authors suggested that the nonlinear drag for sharper cones was caused by the changing surface area interacting with the grains. Upon impact, a sharp cone only interacted with the sand through the tip. As it sunk, the area that was in contact with the sand increased nonlinearly, which resulted in larger drag.
Plots of the drag coefficient vs. height, showing a bumpy curve, and the drag dependence on the depth of different intruders, showing that the drag experienced by sharper intruders has a nonlinear relationship with depth.
Figure 3: (a) Drag coefficient h as a function of height z for an intruder shows fluctuations. (b) Drag dependence on depth for different intruders. The drag of blunt intruders has a roughly linear relationship with depth (blue curves) while that of sharp intruders has a nonlinear relationship with depth (yellow and red curves). Figure adapted from original article.
Bester and Behringer’s investigation into how the shape of a conical intruder falling into sand affects the forces it experiences is a beautiful example of how complex the interactions of everyday materials can be. According to their work, the aliens in our introduction should drop a pointy probe from very high up to make sure it gets buried — and also put some sensors on their probe to measure how its descent is interrupted by the force chains in the sand. The aliens may have imaginary science fiction technology that allows them to traverse light years, but even they may marvel at the countless collisions that affect the path of something they drop on the beach once they reach the Earth.
[1] The sum of the drag coefficient (\int {h(z) dz}) was calculated from the measured kinetic energy, and then the derivative of it was taken to obtain the drag coefficient h. Taking the derivative amplified the noise in the measurement. Bester and Behringer compared the sum \int {h(z) dz}. for different intruders to avoid this amplified noise.
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Developed by ETI BioInformatics
Characteristics, distribution and ecology
Taxonomische classification
Synonyms and common names
Literature references
Images, audio and video
Links to other Web sites
Comb grouper
Mycteroperca rubra
(Bloch, 1793)
Body strong and stout, with a large mouth. Body brownish to gray. Can pale or darker. Small whitish blotches over the upper body and fins and pale scrawled markings on the belly (M. rubra). Three to four dark lines extend from the eye and cheek to just beyond the gill cover. Markings become less distinct with age.
Size up to 144 cm.
Occurs over rocky and sandy bottoms, down to 40 m. Young individuals very common in mangrove-lined lagoons. Feeds on mollusks and small fish that are drawn into their gullets by a powerful suction created when they open their large mouths. Held securely by thousands of small, rasp-like teeth that cover the jaws, tongue and palate, the prey is swallowed whole. Groupers are hermaphroditic, beginning life as females, but changing to males with maturity.
Common southern Caribbean, rare in the north.
Comb grouper (Mycteroperca rubra)
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Definition of Antihero
An antihero is a main character in a story who lacks the typical heroic qualities of bravery, courage, morality, and the special ability and desire to achieve for the greater good. The antihero is thus still the protagonist of the narrative, yet is a foil to the traditional hero archetype.
The word antihero comes from Greek, where the prefix “anti” means “against” and the word “hero” means a “protector or defender.”
Difference Between Antihero and Antagonist
Though they may sound similar, the definition of antihero is very different from the definition of antagonist. The antagonist is always a character who has opposing goals from the protagonist. Even if the antagonist is not a bad character in and of themselves, he or she will put up obstacles that the protagonist must overcome. The antagonist, in fact, may be a heroic character such as a police officer who opposes the actions of the protagonist. An antihero, on the other hand, is always the protagonist in the story. Even if the audience does not agree with her or her actions, the audience is supposed to understand the antihero’s motivations and sympathize with this character.
Common Examples of Antihero
There are many famous recent examples of antiheroes in film and television. Here is a short list; you can probably think of many more:
• Taylor Durden from “Fight Club”
• Captain Jack Sparrow from “Pirates of the Caribbean”
• Don Draper from “Mad Men”
• Gregory House from “House”
• Walter White from “Breaking Bad”
• Michael Scott from “The Office”
• Hannah Horvath from “Girls”
Significance of Antihero in Literature
There have been antihero examples all the way back to Ancient Greek drama, though the term “antihero” was first used in the early 1700s. The rise of popularity in using antiheroes as the protagonist of a story parallels the rise of literary realism, in which authors attempted to portray life as it really is instead of in an idealized way. Literary realism as a genre became popular in the mid-1800s and remained so for many decades. Along with the faithful representation of reality displayed in this style, so too were characters more flawed and more realistic. The trend of antihero as protagonist has remained popular throughout the world even as authors have moved into subsequent literary movements. It is sometimes easier for an audience to relate to an antihero because they are imperfect human beings.
Examples of Antihero in Literature
Example #1
HAMLET: To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Whether ’tis Nobler in the mind to suffer
The Slings and Arrows of outrageous Fortune,
Or to take Arms against a Sea of troubles,
And by opposing end them: to die, to sleep
No more; and by a sleep, to say we end
The Heart-ache, and the thousand Natural shocks
That Flesh is heir to? ‘Tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep,
To sleep, perchance to Dream; aye, there’s the rub,
For in that sleep of death, what dreams may come,
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil,
Must give us pause.
(Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
Hamlet’s most famous speech from William Shakespeare’s eponymous tragedy indicates his status as an antihero. The central drama from the play is that Hamlet’s uncle, Claudius, has killed Hamlet’s father, married Hamlet’s mother, and assumed the throne of Denmark. Hamlet wants to enact revenge on Claudius, but is too contemplative and cautious to act at first. He is also plagued with thoughts of suicide and of the after-life, as we can tell from the above quote. When Hamlet finally does act, he does so rashly and erratically, and fails to achieve what he means to do though bravery or with noble intentions.
Example #2
It was James Gatz who had been loafing along the beach that afternoon in a torn green jersey and a pair of canvas pants, but it was already Jay Gatsby who borrowed a rowboat, pulled out to the Tuolomee, and informed Cody that a wind might catch him and break him up in half an hour.
I suppose he’d had the name ready for a long time, even then. His parents were shiftless and unsuccessful farm people — his imagination had never really accepted them as his parents at all.
(The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald)
Jay Gatsby is one of the most famous examples of antihero in literature. He wants to see himself as a hero, and early on in his life he renames himself Gatsby rather than his given name, Gatz. As the narrator Nick Carraway indicates above, Gatsby did not connect himself to his unsuccessful parents. He is a character who dreams of rising above his station due to greed. Even though he does many unsavory things in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, the audience continues to have sympathy for Gatsby because through it all he tries so hard to have everyone like him.
Example #3
(The Stranger by Albert Camus)
The main character in Albert Camus’s novel The Stranger is a French Algerian man named Meursault. His chief characteristic is one of indifference, shocking indifference at times. The novel opens with the above lines, showing Meursault’s seeming indifference even to his own mother’s death. Later in the novel when Meursault murders another man this emotional indifference will ultimately lead to his downfall.
Example #4
In the depths of her soul, she was waiting for something to happen. Like a sailor in distress, she kept scanning the solitude of her life with anxious eyes, straining to sight some far-off white sail in the mists of the horizon. She did not know how it would come to her, what wind would bring it to her, to what shores it would carry her, whether it would be a launch or a towering three-decker, laden with sorrow or filled to the gunwales with bliss. But every morning when she awoke she expected it to arrive that day; she listened to every sound, periodically leapt to her feet with a start and was surprised when she saw it had not come; then, at sundown, sadder than ever, she longed for the next day.
(Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert)
Emma Bovary is the protagonist from Gustave Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary and she is plagued by the ordinariness of her own life. As Flaubert writes in the above passage, Emma desperately longs for something to happen, but has none of the gumption or courage to make anything happen for herself. Instead, she waits for her life passively.
Test Your Knowledge of Antihero
1. Which of the following statements is the best antihero definition?
A. A character who works in opposition to the protagonist.
B. A main character who displays a lack of typically heroic qualities.
C. A villain who always acts in antisocial ways.
Answer to Question #1 Show
2. Which of the following characters from William Shakespeare’s Othello is an example of antihero?
A. Othello—The main character, a man who intends to be brave in all areas of his life, yet trusts the wrong person and kills his beloved
B. Iago—The villain and one who misleads Othello
C. Desdemona—Othello’s wife who is innocent throughout the entire play
Answer to Question #2 Show
3. Which of the following quotes from Albert Camus’s novel The Stranger is the best example of how Meursault is an antihero?
She said, “If you go slowly, you risk getting sunstroke. But if you go too fast, you work up a sweat and then catch a chill inside the church.” She was right. There was no way out.
As if that blind rage had washed me clean, rid me of hope; for the first time, in that night alive with signs and stars, I opened myself to the gentle indifference of the world. Finding it so much like myself—so like a brother, really—I felt that I had been happy and that I was happy again. For everything to be consummated, for me to feel less alone, I had only to wish that there be a large crowd of spectators the day of my execution and that they greet me with cries of hate.
Answer to Question #3 Show
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1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Breeze
From Wikisource
Jump to navigation Jump to search
BREEZE. (1) A current of air generally taken as somewhat less than a “wind,” which in turn is less than a “gale.” The term is particularly applied to the light wind blowing landwards by day, “sea-breeze,” and the counter wind, blowing off the land at night, “land-breeze.” The word appears in Fr. brise (admitted by the Academy in 1762). The Span, brisa, Port. briza, and Ital. brezza are used for a wind blowing from the north or north-east. According to Cotgrave, Rabelais uses brize in the sense of bise, the name of a dry north or north-east wind prevalent in Switzerland and the bordering parts of France, Italy and Germany. The word is first used in English as applied to the cool sea-breeze blowing usually from the east or north-east in the West Indies and Atlantic sea-coast of Central America. It was then applied to sea-breezes from any quarter, and also to the land-breeze, and so to any light wind or current of air. (2) Fine ashes or cinders, the refuse of coal, coke and charcoal burning. This is probably from the O. Fr. brese, modern braise, a word connected with braser, whence Eng. brazier, a pan for burning coals, charcoal, &c.
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William Thomas Okie, Kennesaw State University – Georgia Peaches
On Kennesaw State University Week: How can something rare become a lasting symbol for a state?
William Thomas Okie, associate professor of history, determines one symbol that has stood this test despite not being plentiful.
William Thomas Okie, Ph.D., Associate Professor of History Education and History, researches the history of agriculture and the environment, especially in the U.S. South. Dr. Okie has won multiple prizes for his research, including the Georgia Historical Society’s best book award for his book, The Georgia Peach: Culture, Agriculture, and Environment in the American South. His work on the study of the Georgia peach has been featured by numerous media outlets, such as the New York Times, NPR, Smithsonian Magazine, and even a popular YouTube cooking show. Dr. Okie also co-edits the KSU-hosted international journal Agricultural History.
Georgia Peaches
Georgia peaches are something of a national celebrity. The fruit is on the state license plate, the tail side of the state quarter, and the state map. It’s plastered on billboards and water towers, it’s the nickname of the one of the state’s most famous baseball star Ty Cobb, it’s in songs by Lauren Alaina, Lynyrd Skynyrd, The Allman Brothers and Jimmy Rogers, to name a few.
In short, the peach is easily Georgia’s most visible symbol. And yet the fruit itself is surprisingly rare.
So what gives?
Peaches are a big deal in the South because of nature, culture, and historical timing.
First, nature. Peaches could never have become a profitable crop if they were not both prolific and delicious. Native to China, the vigorous trees grow well in the hot, humid, irregular climate of the South, and the fruit’s tart sweet juiciness, soft porous skin, and early ripening gave southern growers an advantage in the early days of the industry.
Second, culture. It’s not wild peaches that made the commercial industry, and so peaches also owe their fame to the work of harvesters, packers, horticulturists and other scientists who bred the varieties and conducted the experiments that made commercial cultivation possible.
Third, historical timing. Peaches emerged as a viable agricultural commodity in the late nineteenth century, after the Civil War, after Reconstruction. This was a moment when southerners were crowing about “the New South” and hoping to attract northern investment. Peaches seemed new. But as a perishable crop, the fruit needed a large number of workers for a very short season. The South’s cotton economy provided that labor source, principally in the source of impoverished tenant farmers, a disproportionate number of who were African-Americans.
The Georgia peach would not exist today without each of these elements, which is worth remembering the next time you take a big juicy fuzzy bite of the fruit.
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Mollicutes is a class of bacteria[2] distinguished by the absence of a cell wall. The word "Mollicutes" is derived from the Latin mollis (meaning "soft" or "pliable"), and cutis (meaning "skin"). Individuals are very small, typically only 0.2–0.3 μm (200-300 nm) in size and have a very small genome size. They vary in form, although most have sterols that make the cell membrane somewhat more rigid. Many are able to move about through gliding, but members of the genus Spiroplasma are helical and move by twisting. The best-known genus in the Mollicutes is Mycoplasma.
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Tenericutes
Class: Mollicutes
Edward and Freundt 1967[1]
Mollicutes are parasites of various animals and plants, living on or in the host's cells. Many cause diseases in humans, attaching to cells in the respiratory or urogenital tracts, particularly species of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma. Phytoplasma and Spiroplasma are plant pathogens associated with insect vectors.
Whereas formerly the trivial name "mycoplasma" has commonly denoted any member of the class Mollicutes, it now refers exclusively to a member of the genus Mycoplasma.
Origin and development to parasitic life
Analysis of the genomes of mycoplasmas gives solid support for the hypothesis that mycoplasmas have developed from Gram-positive bacteria by a process of reductive evolution. By adopting a parasitic mode of life with use of nutrients from their hosts, mycoplasmas were able to reduce their genetic material considerably. On the other hand, mycoplasma lost the genes for many assimilative processes. Thus, Mycoplasma possibly became the smallest self-replicating organism in nature. Mycoplasma genitalium, with 580,000 base pairs, has an especially small genome size. Some phytoplasmas also have a very small genome size. The genera with the smallest genome are considered to be phylogenetically the most "recent" mollicutes.
History of the classification
The classification of the Mollicutes has always been difficult. The individuals are tiny, and being parasites, they have to be cultivated on special media. Until now, many species could not be isolated at all. In the beginning, whether they were fungi, viruses, or bacteria was not clear. Also, the resemblance to L-forms was confusing. At first, all members of the class Mollicutes were generally named "mycoplasma" or pleuropneumonia-like organism (PPLO). Mollicutes other than some members of genus Mycoplasma were still unidentified. The first species of Mycoplasma/Mollicutes, that could be isolated was Mycoplasma mycoides. This bacterium was cultivated by Nocard and Roux in 1898.[4]
In 1956, D.G. Edward and E.A. Freundt made a first proposal for classifying and naming PPLOs. They left undecided, however, whether they belong to the bacteria (prokaryotes, in 1956 called "Schizomycetes") or to the eukaryotes. As type species (name-giving species) of the PPLOs/mycoplasmas, Edward and Freundt proposed Mycoplasma mycoides, being the causative organism of bovine pleuropneumonia and referring to the pleuropneumonia-like organisms. Until then, Mycoplasma mycoides was known as Asterococcus mycoides, but later that name was not recognized as valid. In their publication of 1956, they described 15 species of Mycoplasma.[5] In 1967 the class Mollicutes, containing the order Mycoplasmatales, was proposed by the Subcommittee on Taxonomy of the Mycoplasmata.[1] Now, the name Mycoplasma should exclusively be used for members of the genus Mycoplasma, rather than the use as a trivial name for any mollicute. As the trivial name has been used in literature for a long time, this is yet not always the case.
Three divisions of the kingdom "Procaryotae"
Traditionally, the taxonomy of bacteria was based on similarities and differences in morphology (Linnaean taxonomy).
In 1962, R.G.E. Murray proposed to divide the kingdom Bacteria into three divisions (= phyla) on the basis of the cell wall types:
1. Gram-negative Gracilicutes, with a thin cell wall and little peptidoglycan;
2. Gram-positive "Firmacutes", with a thicker cell wall and more peptidoglycan (the name was later changed in "Firmicutes"), and
3. the "Mollicutes", without a cell wall.[6]
Modern taxonomy
Phylogenetic position of Mollicutes among bacteria, using 16S rRNA sequences.[7]
For classification and nomenclature of Mollicutes, there are special rules, which are maintained by the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes (ICSP) Subcommittee on the Taxonomy of Mollicutes (formerly the International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology (ICSB) Subcommittee on taxonomy of Mycoplasmatales).[8]
Traditionally, Mollicutes taxonomy has been based on serology and phenotypic characteristics. However, most modern classifications are based on DNA or RNA sequences, especially 16S rRNA sequences[9] (see Figure).
The phylum for Mollicutes
The results of Mollicutes phylogenetic analyses have been controversial. Some taxonomists place them in Firmicutes, others in Tenericutes. Woese et al. suggested that the Mollicutes might have been derived from different branches of bacteria. They concluded, that the Mollicutes are not a phylogenetically coherent group and therefore do not form a distinct higher level taxon. Instead, they cluster within Gram-positive bacteria of the phylum Firmicutes.[10] The results of molecular phylogenetic analyses have partly depend on the chosen molecular marker, like rRNA, elongation factor or another protein.[11] Phylogenetic trees based on phosphoglycerate kinase (Pgk) amino acid sequences' indicated a monophyletic origin for the Mollicutes within the Firmicutes.[12]
An early edition of Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology placed class Mollicutes within phylum Firmicutes,[13][14] whereas in the announced 2nd edition, they are moved to a separate phylum Tenericutes.[15][16][17] The change is motivated by "their unique phenotypic properties, in particular the lack of rigid cell walls, and the general low support by alternative markers".[11] In the Taxonomic Outline of Bacteria and Archaea (TOBA Release 7.7), March 2007, the Mollicutes are a class in the phylum Firmicutes.[18]
1. Edward, D.G.; F.A. Freundt (July 1967). "Proposal for Mollicutes as name of the class established for the order Mycoplasmatales" (PDF). Int J Syst Bacteriol. 17 (3): 267–268. doi:10.1099/00207713-17-3-267.
2. "Mollicutes", from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 15 Oct. 2011.
3. Shmuel Razin, David Yogev and Yehudith Naot Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity of Mycoplasmas. Micr. and Molec. Biology Reviews, December 1998, pp. 1094–1156, Vol. 62, No. 4
4. Hayflick L. & Chanock, R.M. (1965). "Mycoplasma Species of Man" (PDF). Bacteriological Reviews. 29 (2): 185–221.
5. Edward DG, Freundt EA (February 1956). "The classification and nomenclature of organisms of the pleuropneumonia group". J. Gen. Microbiol. 14 (1): 197–207. doi:10.1099/00221287-14-1-197. PMID 13306904.pdf
6. N.E. Gibbons & R.G.E. Murray Proposals Concerning the Higher Taxa of Bacteria Int J Syst Bacteriol Vol. 28 (1) Jan. 1978, pp. 1–6.
7. Oshima, K; Maejima, K; Namba, S (2013). "Genomic and evolutionary aspects of phytoplasmas". Frontiers in Microbiology. 4: 230. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2013.00230. PMC 3743221. PMID 23966988.
8. Revised minimal standards for description of new species of the class Mollicutes (division Tenericutes) PDF ; Daniel R. Brown, Robert F. Whitcomb and Janet M. Bradbury (2007) Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 57 2703–2719; doi:10.1099/ijs.0.64722-0
9. C.R. Woese, J. Maniloff and L.B. Zablen Phylogenetic analysis of the mycoplasmas Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 77, No. 1, pp. 494–498, January 1980
11. Ludwig, W. and Schleifer, K.H. Molecular phylogeny of bacteria based on comparative sequence analysis of conserved genes Microbial phylogeny and evolution, 2005, p. 70-98.
12. Wolf, Matthias; Müller, T; Dandekar, T; Pollack, JD; et al. (2004). "Phylogeny of Firmicutes with special reference to Mycoplasma (Mollicutes) as inferred from phosphoglycerate kinase amino acid sequence data". Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 54 (Pt 3): 871–875. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02868-0. PMID 15143038. DOI 10.1099/ijs.0.02868-0
13. Taxonomic Outline of the Prokaryotes. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. Archived 2009-12-29 at the Wayback Machine Garrity, Bell & Lilburn; Second Edition, Release 5.0 (2004); pp. 140–204. doi:10.1007/bergeysoutline200405.
14. K. Johansson and B. Pettersson, Taxonomy of Mollicutes (2002)
15. "Tenericutes". Taxonomy Browser. NCBI. Retrieved 2008-09-11.
16. Wolfgang Ludwig, Karl-Heinz Schleifer and William B. Whitman (In press, release in 2009). "Revised road map to the phylum Firmicutes". In P. De Vos et al. (eds.) Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, 2nd ed., vol. 3 (The Firmicutes). Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-95041-9; PDF Archived 2010-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
17. Validation of the Publication of New Names and New Combinations ... Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.; July 1984, pp. 355–357
18. Garrity, et al. The Taxonomic Outline of Bacteria and Archaea (TOBA Release 7.7); March 2007. "Taxonomic Outline of Bacteria and Archaea" (PDF). Taxonomic Outline of Bacteria and Archaea. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-07. Retrieved 2009-08-13.
Mollicutes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
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MS 05 Gases
ABOUT THIS LESSON: Material Science, Gases
Lesson 5 of 33. The material properties of gases are presented in this lesson. The ideal gas law is described as well as the various ways of expressing pressure.
Knowledge Check:
What is the ideal gas law?
What is described by “one atmosphere” of gas?
What gas was used in the blimp known as the Hindenburg?
Play Video
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Theodore Miner has a B.S. degree in Physics and a degree in Electronics. He has worked for many years in the area of Industrial Control systems. His work involves evaluating materials and components used in electronic systems and performing failure analysis on control systems. His hobbies include tinkering with microcontroller home projects and ham radio.
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Statue of Horemhab as a Scribe
Horemhab was a royal scribe and general of the army under King Tutankhamun. He continued to serve during the reign of Aya and eventually succeeded Aya as king. This statue was made before Horemhab ascended the throne. By having himself depicted as a scribe, Horemhab declares himself to be among the elite group of literate individuals, thus following a tradition more than a thousand years old of depicting great officials as men of wisdom and learning.
Horemhab as a Scribe of the King. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 23.10.1
In this statue the unlined, youthful face is belied by the potbelly and the folds of flesh beneath the breasts. These artistic conventions indicate that the subject has reached the age of wisdom. Although the scribal pose exhibits the frontal orientation common to all formal Egyptian statues, it may be appreciated more fully as a piece of sculpture in the round since it has no back pillar.
New Kingdom, late 18th Dynasty, reign of Tutankhamun, ca. 1332-1323 BC. Now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. 23.10.1
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Why did they move?
The Pull Factors 3
At this time it was not just the Circassians who were seeking a new life in the Ottoman Empire. Crimean Tatars, the Nogai and Muslims from the Balkans were also migrating westwards. Why did the Empire welcome so many immigrants at this time?
The Empire had just experienced a series of disastrous wars, nationalist movements were emerging in the Balkans seeking independence from Ottoman rule and the Ottoman economy was badly in debt particularly to the Western powers.
The newly-arrived Circassians were seen as a source of recruitment for the army and as settlers in areas of the Empire where there was unrest or the populations were difficult to control.
[At first] the Circassians were settled in Constance, Varna, Sofia, Pristina, Kosovo, Plevne and surrounding regions.
Marc Pinson, “Ottoman Colonization of the Circassians in Rumili after the Crimean War”, Études Balkaniques 3, Academie Bulgare des Sciences, Sofia, 1972.
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Machete for Gregory
Melvin Edwards ( American, 1937 )
more object details
General Description
During a particular moment in American history, African American artists such as Melvin Edwards voiced their own experience of the civil rights movement through art. Edwards has said, “As the civil rights movement advanced, sculpture started to take over when, in response to the events of the time, I began to feel that I had ideas that seemed to have no possible place in the painting I was doing.” Machete for Gregory becomes an abrasive reminder of the historical racial tension and implicit violence in the United States. The machete, an instrument used for survival but also by African slaves in the harvesting of plantation crops, is prominent. In dedicating the work to his brother Gregory, Edwards references the struggles one may encounter in life and the tools needed to protect oneself. The machete is transformed from a symbol of oppression into a symbol of emancipation.
Excerpt from
Web Resources
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• Norwegian: kalksvamper
Calcareous sponges take a wide range of shapes, including irregular massive forms, vase-shaped bodies on a stalk or meshworks of thin tubes. A common feature is the supporting skeleton, made of calcareous, star shaped structures - or spicules. These usually have three points, but some species have two or four pointed spicules. Reproduction may be both sexual and asexual, by budding. The eggs hatch to free swimming larvae which attach themselves to the bottom after a few days.
The class of calcareous sponges, Calcarea, includes 400, strictly marine species. Although most species are found in tropical waters, there are approximately 10 species along the coast of Norway.
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Alaska Native Collections – Sharing Knowledge
Related Media
Related Objects
Game pieces
manigaunnat “gambling pieces”
Language: North Slope Iñupiaq
The pieces would fall. When they fall, some of them are laid on the side, others land standing up. You win by the number of pieces that have tipped over, signifying that they’re dead. The ones standing up like this are the birds that get away. So the more pieces that are down, you win.
—Ronald Brower, Sr., 2002
Small ivory carvings of loons, ducks, and swans were pieces for a gambling game played by Inuit peoples from Siberia to Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Each player threw the birds down in turn, and they could land upright or on their sides. Tipped-over birds were “dead” and depending on local rules, their number determined either the winner or loser of the game.
Culture: Iñupiaq
Region: Northwest Alaska
Village: Point Barrow
Object Category: Toys, games
Dimensions: Length 3.8cm (head to tail)
Accession Date: 1920
Source: Museum Purchase
Museum: National Museum of the American Indian
Museum ID Number: 099872.000
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In the later Western Roman Empire, following the reorganization of Diocletian, a pagus (compare French pays, Spanish pago, "a region, terroir") became the smallest administrative district of a province. By that time the word had long been in use with various meanings. Smith's Dictionary says of it, "The meaning of this word cannot be given in precise and absolute terms, partly because we can have no doubt that its significance varied greatly between the earliest and the later times of Roman history, partly because of its application by Latin writers to similar, but not identical, communities outside Italy ..."[1]
Pāgus is a native Latin word from a root pāg-, a lengthened grade of Indo-European *pag-, a verbal root, "fasten" (English peg), which in the word may be translated as "boundary staked out on the ground".[2] In semantics, *pag- used in pāgus is a stative verb with an unmarked lexical aspect of state resulting from completed action: "it is having been staked out", converted into a noun by -us, a type recognizable in English adjectives such as surveyed, defined, noted, etc. English does not use the noun: "the surveyed", but Latin characteristically does. Considering that the ancients marked out municipal districts with boundary stones, the root meaning is nothing more than land surveyed for a municipality with stakes and later marked by boundary stones, a process that has not changed over the millennia.
Earlier hypotheses concerning the derivation of pāgus suggested that it is a Greek loan from either πήγη pége, "village well", or πάγος págos, "hill-fort". William Smith opposed these on the grounds that neither the well nor the hill-fort appear in the meaning of pāgus.[1]
Roman usage
In classical Latin, pagus referred to a country district or to a community within a larger polity;[3] Julius Caesar, for instance, refers to pagi within the greater polity of the Celtic Helvetii.[4]
Post-Roman pagus
The pagus survived the collapse of the Empire of the West, retained to designate the territory controlled by a Merovingian or Carolingian count (comes). Within its boundaries, the smaller subdivision of the pagus was the manor. The majority of modern French pays are roughly coextensive with the old counties (e.g., county of Comminges, county of Ponthieu, etc.) To take an instance, at the beginning of the 5th century, when the Notitia provinciarum et civitatum Galliae was drawn up, the Provincia Gallia Lugdunensis Secunda formed the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, with six suffragan sees; it contained seven cities (civitates). For civil purposes, the province was divided into a number of pagi: the civitas of Rotomagus (Rouen) formed the pagus Rotomagensis (Roumois); in addition there were the pagi Caletus (Pays de Caux), Vilcassinus (the Vexin), the Tellaus (Talou); Bayeux, the pagus Bajocassinus (Bessin, including briefly in the 9th century the Otlinga Saxonia); that of Lisieux the pagus Lexovinus (Lieuvin); that of Coutances the p. Corilensis and p. Constantinus (Cotentin); that of Avranches the p. Abrincatinus (Avranchin); that of Sez the p. Oximensis (Hiémois), the p. Sagensis and p. Corbonensis (Corbonnais); and that of Evreux the p. Ebroicinus (Evrecin) and p. Madriacensis (pays de Madrie) (EB "Normandy").
• Media related to Pagus at Wikimedia Commons
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About Seesaw Sign Up
Students use creative tools in the Seesaw app or website to complete classroom activities like "Combo Robot (Lego +…"
Mr. Wagner Guy Pierre
Student Instructions
Combo Robot (Lego + VEX)
Review these questions = https://s3.amazonaws.com/assets.flocabulary.com/pdfs/units/robots-activities.pdf You can EITHER type (in NOTES) or speak (in a VIDEO). Answer the following questions: 1. How does a car engine work? https://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine.htm 2. How does an electric motor work (i.e. Lego motor)? https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/motor.htm 3. What is the similarity between an engine and a motor? 4. Why are you able to combine Lego robotic parts with the Vex robotic parts? Additional resources: 1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=106&v=DKF5dKo_r_Y 2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAtPHANEfQo 3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dhe2jXi3Fc4
Other, STEAM
5 teachers like this
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World Cultures StoryBoard
World Cultures StoryBoard
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Storyboard Text
• Morocco was a close ally with the U.S. They were getting several firearms from the U.S. which caused many problems The U.S. later stopped selling Morocco firearms.
• Morocco had large amounts of Uranium under their land. The U.S. was trying to make nuclear weapons which made the two countries allies again. Lots of stress was put on Morocco because of the constant demand for the radioactive metal.
• Morocco was sending the U.S. with cooking oil, but it wasn't going well. The oil contained Triortho-cresyl Phosphate. People who consumed this oil resulted in 10,000 people becoming paralyzed.
• Morocco lost its significance with the U.S., which brought some economic problems. They later became allies again because of the Western Sahara Despute. The United States wanted to remain on good terms, which helped Morocco's economy with their interests in Algeria.
• The government turned into a military style government while the Cold War was going on. Many said the government would give freedom to the citizens, but it didn't. The Cold War caused the government to be a monarchy and a Parliamentary System government.
• The End
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This article is from
Creation 19(4):37, September 1997
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‘Instant’ stalagmites!
The photo records a large stalagmite shawl. A shawl is a limestone formation which has formed by running down the rock, rather than being free-standing like stalactites (which ‘stick tight’ because they hang from the roof) or stalagmites (which grow up from the ground).
Guides to limestone caves usually say that such large lumps of limestone take many thousands—even millions—of years to grow. However, this specimen was found in an abandoned gold mine tunnel near Burrendong Dam in central New South Wales, Australia. This is not far from Stuart Town, the town of ‘The Man from Iron Bark’ in A.B. (‘Banjo’) Paterson’s poem by the same name.
stalagmite shawl
The Australian gold rushes began not far from here at Ophir in 1851, so the tunnel dates after that. Since the tunnel cuts through solid basalt rock, it was probably blasted out with a considerable amount of explosives. Such engineering feats were not undertaken by the average gold rush fossicker and so this tunnel almost certainly dates from considerably later than 1851. In any case, the tunnel and the shawl can be no older than about 140 years.
The horizontal tunnel is about 1.6 metres (about 5 feet) high and runs 50 metres (160 feet) straight into a hill. There are no side-tunnels, so the exploratory tunnel apparently failed to reveal any worthwhile gold-bearing veins. The shawl in the photo is near the inside end of the tunnel—in the middle of the hill.
The lesson? Stalactites and stalagmites do not need a long time to form!
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Where do the dail and seanad meet
Dáil | Irish parliament | junkgenie.info
where do the dail and seanad meet
The Seanad can amend a Bill that has been passed by the Dáil and delay, but Seanad Éireann normally meets on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays. Seanad Éireann is the upper house of the Oireachtas (the Irish legislature), which also Meeting place Its powers are much weaker than those of the Dáil and it can only delay laws with which it disagrees, rather than veto them outright. The first meeting of Dáil Éireann took place on 21 January The Constitution provided that the Seanad should be composed of citizens who had done.
Seanad Éireann Tour - Irish Version
The Parliament met for a brief period and then adjourned sine die. The Treaty provided for the establishment of the Irish Free State with jurisdiction over twenty-six of the thirty-two counties. From then until the government or cabinet of the Irish Free State was known as the Executive Council, and the head of government was known as the President of the Executive Council.
Cosgrave was nominated to be President of the Executive Council, and the other members of the Provisional Government were nominated to be members of the Executive Council. The Home Rule Bills of the 19th and early 20th centuries also provided for a bicameral legislature.
This was continued in the Government of Ireland Act which provided that the Senate, the Upper House of the Southern Ireland Parliament, should consist of 64 members. Elections to this House were held in at the same time as the elections to the Lower House.
The functions and powers of the first Seanad were modelled on those of the British House of Lords.
The future of the Seanad - Eolas Magazine
Substantial changes were made to these in subsequent years and the election process was also amended. The first, and last, direct election took place inas provided for in the constitution. The Triennial Periods commenced on 6 December6 Decemberand so on. Triennial elections were held in,and Abolition of the Seanad Following somewhat unsatisfactory relations between the two Houses over a number of years serious conflict developed after the change of government in Legislation to remove the oath required to be taken by Members of the Oireachtas, as laid down in Article 17 of the Constitution commonly referred to as the Oath of Allegiancewas opposed by the Seanad and its enactment postponed for almost a year.
where do the dail and seanad meet
Having rejected later Bills, the Seanad, as it then existed, was abolished on 29 May under the Constitution Amendment No. The final sitting was held on 19 May The amendment also deleted all references to the king in the Constitution.
Evolution of Parliament in Ireland
Since 25 June the Constitution may only be amended by referendum. Following the report of the Commission, the Constitution of Ireland provided for the establishment of a Seanad more firmly under the control of the government. By the first Seanad election inonly a quarter of the electorate turned out to vote amid an anti-Treaty boycott.
where do the dail and seanad meet
In the event, only eight of the senators nominated by Cosgrave in were returned. However, in a new Seanad, with an intentionally emasculated status and based on the vocationalism of contemporary Catholic teaching, was enshrined in the Constitution of Ireland. Indeed, the party-political nature of the Upper House has smothered the potential for the panels to be populated by genuinely vocational candidates.
where do the dail and seanad meet
Notable members appointed this way have included: Speaking on previous attempts to ensure greater unionist representation, Seamus Mallon noted: Reform Ina Fine Gael-Labour Government proposal to abolish the Seanad was rejected by the electorate in a referendum, with While Varadkar himself was a proponent of abolition, in light of the referendum he told the Seanad: It will not be revisited.
A committee with an eight-month mandate to legislate for Seanad reform has now been established by An Taoiseach. The Committee will examine the recommendations contained in the Manning Report made by the Working Group on Seanad Reform which had been formed by the previous Taoiseach Enda Kenny.
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The Tigray (Tigre, Tigris, or Tigrinya) have a history that goes back thousands of years. According to Tigre an history, the empire, which later became the Ethiopian empire, was founded by Menelik (1889–1913), the son of King Solomon of Israel, and Queen Sheba (or Saba). According to this history, it was Menilik’s men who captured the Ark of the Covenant from the Israelites and brought it to Axum (also spelled Aksum ) in what is now Tigray state in Ethiopia, where it remains to this day
.During the colonial era, Italy briefly ruled Tigrinya lands. With the expulsion of Italy in 1941, Eritrea was officially made a province of Ethiopia. A struggle for Eritrean independence from Ethiopia began in the 1960s and finally succeeded in 1991. Today roughly half the Tigrayans live in Ethiopia and the other half in Eritrea.
Tigrinya, the language spoken by the Tigray, is from the Semitic family of languages, and is related to Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic. To the north of the Tigrinya speakers live people who speak the closely related language known as Tigre. Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia, is so closely related to Tigrinya that most Tigray have little difficulty communicating in Amharic. Tigrinya, Amharic, and the ancient religious language Geez are written with the same alphabet. Many of the letters used in writing these languages are derived from ancient Greek.
Today, Tigrayans number about 4.9 million and are concentrated in Tigray state (Ethiopia) and inEritrea. The regions of Ethiopia and Eritrea where most Tigrayans live are high plateau, separated from the Red Sea by an escarpment (cliff-like ridge) and a desert.
Many people think of Christianity in Africa as a European import that arrived with colonialism, but this is not the case with the Tigray (or with the Amhara). The empire centered in Axum and Adowa was part of the Mediterranean world in which Christianity grew. The arrival of Christianity in Tigrinya lands happened about the same time that it arrived in Ireland. The Tigrayans, in fact, had been converted to Christianity hundreds of years before most of Europe. Many Tigrinya churches were cut into cliffs or from single blocks of stone, as they were in Turkey and in parts of Greece, where Christianity had existed from its earliest years. The church is a central feature of communities and of each family’s daily life. Each community has a church with a patron saint.
An infant is recognized as a member of the community in a naming ceremony held forty days after birth for boys, and eighty days after birth for girls. Should a baby die after the naming ceremony, a funeral is required; death in early infancy prior to the naming is not marked with a funeral. About the age of twelve, children reach the “age of reason” and take on more responsibility, such as helping care for younger brothers and sisters and for herding farm animals. Also at about this age, children are baptized and enter the community of religion. With adulthood come new responsibilities. One of the signs of adulthood is citizenship; that is, attendance at village meetings after church on Sunday mornings. Other signs are marriage and becoming a deacon. Death of a person requires a funeral. Funerals, with ceremonies in both the village and the church, normally take place before the sun sets on the day following death.
Until recently, most rural Tigray considered farming to be the most honorable work. Today’s food shortages have made many rethink this idea. Trade and government employment are seen as providing better opportunities. Those who make their living as blacksmiths, weavers, potters, or musicians are looked upon with some disfavor and suspicion.
Traditional Tigray clothing is white, which is regarded as Christian, with little adornment. For dressy occasions and church, women wear ankle-length dresses with long sleeves made of fine material. Men wear ankle-length pants that are tight from the knee to the ankle and baggy in the upper legs and hips. A fitted, long-sleeved shirt covers the upper body. The shirt extends to just above the knee for laymen and to just below the knee for priests and deacons. Both men and women wear a gabbi (shawl or toga) draped around the shoulders. For many Tigrays, used clothing imported from Europe has replaced traditional clothing for day-to-day wear.
Probably the most important fact about food in Tigray is that there is not enough of it.Households must make up for food deficits with government subsidies. In Tigray, bread is one of the main foods. Two of the more common varieties are thin, pancake-like bread preferred by most people, and a dense, disk-shaped loaf of baked whole wheat bread. Pancakes are 12 to 18 inches (30 to 45 centimeters) in diameter, and are made from many kinds of cereal grains (wheat, barley, etc.). A variety oftsebhi (spicy stews) are eaten with the bread. Families and guests normally eat from a messob (shared food basket), with each person breaking off pieces of bread from the side nearest them and dipping it into stew in the center of the basket.
There are two main categories of music: church music and praise songs. Deacons sing and accompany the song with drums and a sistrum (a rattle-like instrument) as part of the mass. Praise singers form a kind of clan. Families of praise singers intermarry with other families of praise singers. Singers accompany themselves with a one-stringed instrument that is a little like a violin. Hosts often hire singers to entertain at parties, such as weddings. Guests give tips to the performers to sing, often humorously, about their friends. Passages from the Book of Psalms are frequently brought into discussions of people’s behavior. Many priests and deacons carry the psalms dawit (for King David) in a leather pouch.Qene is an admired form of poetry known for its use of double meanings, beautiful language, and cleverness. A pair of lines should have a surface meaning and a deeper one. Qene is called “wax and gold,” an analogy that refers to the process of casting gold objects in wax molds pressed into sand. In qene, the listener “hears the wax” and must use thought to find the gold inside. Tigray kings and princes are often remembered for their qene compositions.
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Kelp DNA records destructive power of ancient earthquake
Kelp DNA records destructive power of ancient earthquake
Otago biologists (Professor Jon Waters and PhD student Elahe Parvizi) sampling kelp on the southern New Zealand coast that was uplifted by the Akatore earthquake around 1000 years ago. The uplifted rocky bench visible in the background represents the old shore. Credit: Dave Craw
One of the most memorable and astonishing aspects of the recent Kaikoura earthquake was the sudden uplift of the sea floor, which left populations of coastal species like kelp and shellfish literally high and dry.
That of November 2016 provided proof of the destructive power of sudden geological uplift. While such events are clearly devastating for coastal populations—at least in the short term—their potential longer-term implications are not so clear.
In a new Marsden-funded study, Otago University researchers have revealed an ancient genetic "footprint" of a similarly large earthquake that hit southern New Zealand some 1000 years ago, before humans had even reached the South Pacific nation.
This prehistoric rupture of the Akatore Fault—just south of Dunedin—uplifted a large-stretch of New Zealand's southeastern coast by 2–3 meters, and was likely a high magnitude event. The Akatore Fault remains a bigger threat to Dunedin than the Alpine Fault which runs through the length of the South Island's alpine zone.
The research team, led by geologist Professor Dave Craw, and biologist Professor Jon Waters, combined geological and to assess the impacts of the ancient quake.
"The old Akatore earthquake would have been similar in magnitude to the 2016 Kaikoura quake, with tens of kilometers of rocky coast affected, and the old shore lifted out of the water, well beyond the reach of the waves," says Professor Craw.
Zoology Ph.D. student, Miss Elahe Parvizi, used DNA evidence to compare modern samples of kelp along the uplifted Akatore coast, against populations from either side of the raised region.
"We were astonished to find a modern DNA footprint of the ancient quake—with a clear genetic difference between kelp in the uplifted zone, versus stable populations outside the uplift zone," Miss Parvizi says.
Similar to the recent Kaikoura earthquake, the ancient Akatore uplift was big enough to eliminate entire populations of intertidal species—which were subsequently replaced by genetically distinct lineages from outside the zone. This DNA anomaly is still detectable today, and represents a modern trace of the ancient Akatore quake.
"These findings show that a major disturbance event—even an ancient one like the Akatore quake—can leave a lasting DNA signature. In the same way, major events happening now will leave a lasting legacy for the future," says Professor Waters.
The team now plans to use genetic approaches to shed new light on ancient disruption events elsewhere in NZ and overseas.
Explore further
Seattle Fault Zone -- 900-930 AD earthquake larger than previously thought
More information: Elahe Parvizi et al. Kelp DNA records late Holocene paleoseismic uplift of coastline, southeastern New Zealand, Earth and Planetary Science Letters (2019). DOI: 10.1016/j.epsl.2019.05.034
Citation: Kelp DNA records destructive power of ancient earthquake (2019, June 5) retrieved 18 June 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2019-06-kelp-dna-destructive-power-ancient.html
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Jan Scholten
655.30.00 Malvales
English: Malva order.
Botany: 204 genera; 2300 species; phloem stratified with fibrous and soft layers; hairs stellate; sepals connate; leaves with malvoid teeth, palmate venation; stamens numerous, develop centrifugally from a few bundles; nectaries of glandular hairs; typical infloresence.
Content: sesquiterpenes; sesquiterpene quinones; thorbromine; caggeine; flavonols; cyclopropenoid fatty acids; mucilage.
The order of the Malvales has been established a long time. But the exact placement has been problematic. It was for a long time thought to be connected with the Rosales. In the Cronquist system Malvales included Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae and Elaeocarpaceae
Numerous molecular phylogenies have shown that those families as traditionally defined are paraphyletic and closely related. This has resulted in expanding Malvaceae to include the other families. The traditional families are now treated as subfamilies of the extended Malvaceae. The membership though of many genera has been transferred to other subfamilies and new subfamilies have been created:
Byttnerioideae, Grewioideae, Sterculioideae, Tilioideae, Dombeyoideae, Brownlowioideae, Helicteroideae, Malvoideae, Bombacoideae.
In the Apg3 classification 3 groups can be distinguished in Malvales: the Families Thymelaeaceae and Neuradaceae that are early diverging, Cistales and Malvaceae.
In the Plant theory the order of the Malvales is split into 3 clades: Malvales, Cistales and Thymelaeaceae with Neuradaceae. Malvales is placed in Phase 3 of Malvidae. Cistales, with Cistaceae and Dipterocarpaceae is placed in Phase 5 of Malvidae. Thymelaeaceae and Neuradaceae are placed in Huerteales in Phase 2.
The extended Malvaceae is raised to the level of Order, Malvales and the subfamilies are treated as families.
1. Sterculiaceae.
2. Tiliaceae, including Dombeyoideae.
3. Malvaceae.
4. Bombacaceae.
5. Brownlowiaceae.
6. Helicteriaceae:
7. Grewiaceae, Byttneriaceae.
They have to please others in order to be accepted by the group and to get into a position of distinction. They want to be special, have a special position in society as a manager or teacher, as an artist or scientist. They like to be revered for their unique qualities. But they feel that they have to hold themselvesin, in order to be appreciated. They feel they can only half be themselves and half the personality demanded by family or society. They feel they have to suppress half of themselves, their anger, their sexuality, their weird and chaotic ideas. They fear being humiliated when expressing their unwanted sides, their shadow side. It leads to conflicts of loyalty, in their family, with their parents, in their marriage, in society.
They like to be seen as warm and lovely, to be loved by everybody. In order to attain that they can be quite outgoing, showing that they are there. As a child they have the same strong desire for a bond, mostly with the mother.
Loyal, desire to belong to a group; deny parts of themselves to belong to the group.
Aversion: anger, quarrels, conflicts, disharmony.
Ailments from showing emotions, anger, convictions, feelings.
Airy, untidy, transitory; ungrounded.
Sensitive, to noise.
Mirth, cheerful, excitement, affectionate.
Reserved, hold in their anger.
Theme: cotton; slime.
Split between love and sex.
Suppressing their anger, aggression, sexuality.
Desire to be loved, appreciated.
Desire: harmony, art, knowledge, culture, music.
Fear: separation.
Delusion: separated from the world; being alone; being watched.
Delusion: split, confusion of identity.
Dreams: murder; death; accident; death of a friend.
Sensation: bond, attachment and loss of connection, wind.
Weather: intense cold.
Sweat: profuse, < night.
Desire: sweet, juicy, fresh; tobacco; chocolate.
Aversion: cheese; chocolate; coffee.
Food: > eating.
Vertigo: < riding in a car, tramcar, at sea, < roundabouts, roller coaster.
Nervous: paralysis; tendency to fall, sideways.
Eyes: eruptions, lateral canthi.
Nose: pain, root; sinusitis, chronic, ethmoid.
Mouth: eruptions, corners.
Throat: inflammation; voice hoarse, lost.
Stomach: anxiety.
Heart: palpitation.
Female: miscarriage; milk scanty; lactation problems; infertility; dysmenorrhoea.
Back: backache, as giving way, < bending forward.
Skin: hard; thick callosities; cracks, deep and bleeding; eruption, itching, scratching till raw.
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round 翻译 - 英汉词典 - Chinese-English Dictionary & Thesaurus - YellowBridge
YellowBridge Chinese Language & Culture
Chinese Language Center
Learn Mandarin Mandarin-English Dictionary & Thesaurus
New Search
English Definition
(形) As an adjective
1. Expressed to the nearest integer, ten, hundred, or thousand.
2. (of sounds) full and rich.
3. Having a circular shape.
(名) As a noun
1. The usual activities in your day.
2. The activity of playing 18 holes of golf.
3. A series of professional calls (usually in a set order).
4. Any circular or rotating mechanism.
5. A charge of ammunition for a single shot.
6. A crosspiece between the legs of a chair.
7. An outburst of applause.
9. A cut of beef between the rump and the lower leg.
10. A serving to each of a group (usually alcoholic).
11. A regular route for a sentry or policeman.
12. The course along which communications spread.
13. A division during which one team is on the offensive.
14. An interval during which a recurring sequence of events occurs.
(副) As an adverb
1. Round.
(动) As a verb
1. Become round, plump, or shapely.
2. Make round.
3. Express as a round number.
4. Bring to a highly developed, finished, or refined state.
5. Attack in speech or writing.
6. Pronounce with rounded lips.
7. Wind around; move along a circular course.
Part of Speech(形) adjective, (名) noun, (介) preposition, (副) adverb, (动) verb, (及物的动) transitive verb
Matching Results
yuáncircle; round; circular; spherical; (of the moon) full; unit of Chinese currency (Yuan); tactful; to justify
球形qiúxíngspherical; ball-shaped
整整zhěngzhěngwhole; full
十足shízúample; complete; hundred percent; a pure shade (of some color)
巨大jùdàhuge; immense; very large; tremendous; gigantic; enormous
周围地zhōu wéidìperipherally
循环地xúnhuán decircularly
循环xúnhuánto cycle; to circulate; circle; loop
轮唱lúnchànground (music); canon
圆圆的yuányuán deround
qiónground; stare
回合huíhéround (of negotiations); bout (of sporting competition, boxing match, confrontation etc); rally (in volley-ball, tennis etc)
Page of 2
Wildcard: Use * as placeholder for 0 or more
Chinese characters or pinyin syllables
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Figure of Sound in Prose and Poetry
Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms
Figures of sound can often be heard in advertising jingles and slogans. This advertisement for Swift's Pride Soap appeared in 1909. (Transcendental Graphics/Getty Images)
A figure of speech that relies primarily on the sound of a word or phrase (or the repetition of sounds) to convey a particular effect is known as a figure of sound. Although figures of sound are often found in poetry, they can also be used effectively in prose.
Common figures of sound include alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia, and rhyme.
Examples and Observations:
• Alliteration
"A moist young moon hung above the mist of a neighboring meadow."
(Vladimir Nabokov, Speak Memory: An Autobiography Revisited, 1966)
• Assonance
• Consonance
"'This earth is tough stuff,' he said. 'Break a man's back, break a plow, break an ox's back for that matter.'"
(David Anthony Durham, Gabriel's Story. Doubleday, 2001)
• Onomatopoeia
"Flora left Franklin’s side and went to the one-armed bandits spread along one whole side of the room. From where she stood it looked like a forest of arms yanking down levers. There was a continuous clack, clack, clack of levers, then a click, click, click of tumblers coming up. Following this was a metallic poof sometimes followed by the clatter of silver dollars coming down through the funnel to land with a happy smash in the coin receptacle at the bottom of the machine."
(Rod Serling, "The Fever." Stories From the Twilight Zone, 2013)
• Rhyme
"A veritable fusillade of smells, compounded of the pungent odors of deep fat, shark's fin, sandalwood, and open drains, now bombarded our nostrils and we found ourselves in the thriving hamlet of Chinwangtao. Every sort of object imaginable was being offered by street hawkers--basketwork, noodles, poodles, hardware, leeches, breeches, peaches, watermelon seeds, roots, boots, flutes, coats, shoats, stoats, even early vintage phonograph records."
(S.J. Perelman, Westward Ha! 1948)
• Figures of Sound in Poe's Prose
(Edgar Allan Poe, "The Fall of the House of Usher," 1839)
• Figures of Sound in Dylan Thomas's Prose
"There was no need, that holiday morning, for the sluggardly boys to be shouted down to breakfast; out of their jumbled beds they tumbled, and scrambled into their rumpled clothes; quickly at the bathroom basin they catlicked their hands and faces, but never forgot to run the water loud and long as though they washed like colliers; in front of the cracked looking-glass, bordered with cigarette cards, in their treasure-trove bedrooms, they whisked a gap-tooth comb through their surly hair; and with shining cheeks and noses and tidemarked necks, they took the stairs three at a time.
"But for all their scramble and scamper, clamour on the landing, catlick and toothbrush flick, hair-whisk and stair-jump, their sisters were always there before them. Up with the lady lark, they had prinked and frizzed and hot-ironed; and smug in their blossoming dresses, ribboned for the sun, in gym-shoes white as the blanco'd snow, neat and silly with doilies and tomatoes they helped in the higgledy kitchen. They were calm; they were virtuous; they had washed their necks; they did not romp, or fidget; and only the smallest sister put out her tongue at the noisy boys."
(Dylan Thomas, "Holiday Memory," 1946. Rpt. in The Collected Stories. New Directions, 1984)
• Figures of Sound in John Updike's Prose
- "Do you remember a fragrance girls acquire in autumn? As you walk beside them after school, they tighten their arms about their books and bend their heads forward to give a more flattering attention to your words, and in the little intimate area thus formed, carved into the clear air by an implicit crescent, there is a complex fragrance woven of tobacco, powder, lipstick, rinsed hair, and that perhaps imaginary and certainly elusive scent that wool, whether in the lapels of a jacket or the nap of a sweater, seems to yield when the cloudless fall sky like the blue bell of a vacuum lifts toward itself the glad exhalations of all things. This fragrance, so faint and flirtatious on those afternoon walks through the dry leaves, would be banked a thousandfold and lie heavy as the perfume of a flower shop on the dark slope of the stadium when, Friday nights, we played football in the city."
(John Updike, "In Football Season." The New Yorker, November 10, 1962)
- "By rhyming, language calls attention to its own mechanical nature and relieves the represented reality of seriousness. In this sense, rhyme and allied irregularities like alliteration and assonance assert a magical control over things and constitute a spell. When children, in speaking, accidentally rhyme, they laugh, and add, 'I'm a poet / And don't know it,' as if to avert the consequences of a stumble into the supernatural. . . .
"Our mode is realism, 'realistic' is synonymous with 'prosaic,' and the prose writer's duty is to suppress not only rhyme but any verbal accident that would mar the textual correspondence to the massive, onflowing impersonality that has supplanted the chiming heavens of the saint."
(John Updike, "Rhyming Max." Assorted Prose. Alfred A. Knopf, 1965)
• Poetic Functions of Language
"[English poet] Gerard Manley Hopkins, an outstanding searcher in the science of poetic language, defined verse as 'speech wholly or partially repeating the same figure of sound.' Hopkins' subsequent question, 'but is all verse poetry?' can be definitely answered as soon as the poetic function ceases to be arbitrarily confined to the domain of poetry. Mnemonic lines cited by Hopkins (like 'Thirty days hath September'), modern advertising jingles, and versified medieval laws, mentioned by Lotz, or finally Sanskrit scientific treatises in verse which in Indic tradition are strictly distinguished from true poetry (kavya)--all these metrical texts make use of the poetic function without, however, assigning to this function the coercing, determining role it carries in poetry."
(Roman Jakobson, Language in Literature. Harvard University Press, 1987)
• Word Play and Sound Play in a Poem by E.E. Cummings
(a paw s
(E.E. Cummings, Poem 26 in 1 X 1, 1944)
• The False Dichotomy Between Sound and Sense
"'In plain expository prose, such as this book is written in,' says [literary critic G.S. Fraser], 'both writer and reader are consciously concerned not mainly with rhythm but with sense.' This is a false dichotomy. The sounds of a poem connected by rhythm are indeed 'the living body of thought.' Take the sound as poetry and there is no further stage of interpretation into poetry. Just the same is true of periodic prose: the rhythm of the period organizes sound into a unit of sense.
"My criticism of the logical tradition in grammar is just that stress, pitch, attitude, emotion are not suprasegmental matters added to the basic logic or syntax but other glimpses of a linguistic whole which includes grammar as usually understood. . . . I accept the now unfashionable view of all the old grammarians that prosody is a necessary part of grammar. . . .
"Figures of thought like understatement or emphasis are no more and no less expressed in sound than anything else."
(Ian Robinson, The Establishment of Modern English Prose in the Reformation and the Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 1998)
• Figures of Sound in 16th-Century Prose
- "Suspicion that an inordinate attraction to figures of sound was likely to tyrannise a writer's style, that the claims of the ear threatened to dominate those of the mind, has always dogged analysis of Tudor prose, especially in the case of [John] Lyly. Francis Bacon indicted [Roger] Ascham and his followers for precisely this failing: 'for men began to hunt more after words than matter; more after the choiceness of the phrase, and the round and clean composition of the sentence, and the sweet falling of the clauses, and the varying and illustration of their works with tropes and figures, than after the weight of the matter, worth of subject, soundness of argument, life of invention, or depth of judgment' [The Advancement of Learning]."
(Russ McDonald, "Compar or Parison: Measure for Measure." Renaissance Figures of Speech, ed. by Sylvia Adamson, Gavin Alexander, and Katrin Ettenhuber. Cambridge University Press, 2007)
- "Shall my good will be the cause of his ill will? Because I was content to be his friend, thought he me meet to be made his fool? I see now that as the fish scolopidus in the flood Araris at the waxing of the moon is as white as the driven snow, and at the waning as black as the burnt coal, so Euphues, which at the first increasing of our familiarity was very zealous, is now at the last cast become most faithless."
(John Lyly, Euphues: the Anatomy of Wit, 1578)
See also:
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Kiama Harbour
harbour-1874Kiama Harbour has always been important to the growth and development of the region. The difficulties of overland transport to Kiama meant access from the ocean was a vital link to the rest of Australia in the early days. All goods, equipment, and people arrived and left by sea. However all larger ships had to use a smaller boat to ferry the cargo and passengers to Black Beach as there wasn’t a large enough jetty or adequate mooring.
It became apparent that Kiama was in need of better harbour facilities and lobbying began with a petition sent to the NSW Government 1864 seeking the construction of a shipping basin. Construction didn't start for another 7 years with the new harbour opening in 1876, five years after starting. The project was fraught with difficulties, with problems obtaining; the blasting powder, steel for drilling, pumps powerful enough for the task and a dredge for working under water. Local Kiama residents felt the construction of the harbour was not seen as important as infrastructure development in the more major towns and were very bitter towards the NSW Government.
harbour-1880sHigh tide meant that prior to 1871 Blowhole Point was cut off at the eastern end of Terralong St at Storm Bay. The rock from the floor of the basin was used to join the point to the rest of Kiama. Joining up Blowhole Point meant that the harbour was protected as large seas would wash through the gap into the harbour and across to Pheasant Point, disrupting shipping and creating dangerous conditions. Residents and visitors today enjoy the picturesque walk around the harbour and out to the blowhole and lighthouse. Following the harbour development in 1876, residents and business people of Kiama enjoyed the trade boom that resulted with all the additional ships able to use the harbour. Due to the increase in shipping activity a lighthouse was vital, and 11 years later the Kiama Lighthouse was completed.
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"url": "http://www.kiama.nsw.gov.au/library/explore-kiama/local-history-articles/kiama-harbour"
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@article {MATHEDUC.02344753, author = {Young, Elizabeth}, title = {Bridging the cultural gap: A webliography of juvenile literature.}, year = {2001}, journal = {Internet Reference Services Quarterly}, volume = {6}, number = {1}, issn = {1087-5301}, pages = {69-80}, publisher = {Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY}, abstract = {Cultural diversity continues to expand as new families arrive in the United States. Each family brings with them the culture and customs of their home country. Cultural diversity and differences are basic in our 'melting pot' society. Perhaps a more correct phrase would be a 'tossed salad' society where individual differences are respected and not molded into a common 'American' culture. Unfortunately, diversity remains a concern today and acceptance is still a challenge. Since our value and belief systems are formed at an early age, children's literature is a most appropriate tool to instill an attitude of acceptance and tolerance of diversity and to alleviate prejudice and injustices suffered by many cultures. Literature that focuses on cultural differences, as well as similarities, is needed for communicating acceptable values. No matter what our background, we all have much in common and much to share. The following Web sites are meant to enlighten, inspire, encourage, and be enjoyed by all who value each other - whatever their culture.}, msc2010 = {A50xx}, identifier = {2002b.00915}, }
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"url": "https://www.zentralblatt-math.org/matheduc/en/?id=70474&type=bib"
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French Neoclassical Ideals
French Neoclassical Ideals
Decorum: a term which meant that all dramatic characters
should behave in ways based on their age, profession, sex, rank,
and the like. Each Character should follow this set behavior.
Verisimilitude: all drama was to be “true to life.” Thus, because
they were not observed in everyday life, such things as ghosts,
apparitions, and supernatural events were forbidden.
The Unities: Time, Place, Action.
Unity of time: Required that the dramatic action in a play
should not exceed the 24-hour rule. A few radical
neoclassicists argued that time should be limited to 12 hours.
Their argument for unity of time was based on their belief
that audiences could not accept a long passage of time as
Unity of place: restricted the action of a play to one locale.
Unity of action: required one central story, involving a
relatively small group of characters. No Sub-plots.
Purity of Dramatic Types: Comedy and Tragedy should not be
mixed. Tragedy dealt with royalty, Comedy dealt with
common people; Comedy must resolve happily, Tragedy
must resolve calamitously.
No deus ex machina.
No soliloquy
Purpose of Drama: Teach and Please
Must teach a Moral Lesson and entertain at the same time.
French Neoclassicism
1. When was the French renaissance?
1630 to 1700.
2. Who is France's greatest comic playwright?
Jean Baptiste Poquelin (1622-1673), better known as Moliere.
3. Why did Jean Baptiste Poquelin change his name to Moliere?
Jean Baptiste Poquelin's father was a minor official (royal upholsterer and
furniture maker) in the court of King Louis XIII (reigned 1610-1643). When
Jean Baptiste decided to become an actor, (his father wanted him to become
a lawyer) and organized the Theatre Illustre in 1643, his father requested
that he change his name so Jean would not embarrass either his family or the
King's court. Acting was still an unacceptable profession in France.
4. What two types of comedies did he write?
Moliere's ten major works are divided into two groups: (1) the farcical
comedies (primarily influenced by the Commedia) and the (2) high comedies
(comedy of character).
5. List the title of one major work from each group?
Farcical comedy-- The Doctor In Spite of Himself (1666), The Tricks of
Scapine (1671) (sometimes known as Scapino
Comedy of character-- Tartuffe (1664), See the Play Synopsis on page A-3
in the Appendix. The Miser (1668), The Imaginary Invalid (1673)
6. How did he die? Where?
He collapsed, on stage, during the fourth performance of The Imaginary Invalid and
died later that evening at his home.
7. Why was he buried in a private ceremony?
Because he had not reconciled with the church and did not die in a state of grace.
Moliere was an actor, as well as a playwright, and all actors had been
excommunicated from the church since the middle ages. Since he died before he
had a chance to confess his sins, he could not be "legally" buried in hallowed
ground. It was only after the intervention of King Louis XIV, that his body was
buried after dark in a private (and probably secret) ceremony in the graveyard at
St. Joseph's in the parish of St Eustache in Paris.
In 1792, after the French Revolution and the establishment of the Empire, his
remains were moved to Alexandre Lenoir's newly established Musée des
Monuments Français (Museum of French Monuments). In 1817 his remains were
again moved, this time to their final resting place in the Cemetery Père Lachaise in
Paris. (Note: There are those who believe that when Moliere's body was exhumed in
1792 the wrong grave was opened and it is therefor not his body in the monument
at Père Lachaise
The Academie Francaise
The French Academy, is the pre-eminent French learned body on matters pertaining
considers itself to have been suspended, not suppressed, during the revolution. It is
the oldest of the five académies of the Institut de France.
binding on either the public or the government.
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"url": "https://studylib.net/doc/8897314/french-neoclassical-ideals"
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How Long Is The Human Timeline of Grand Canyon?
Grand Canyon was already very old when the first humans arrived thousands of years ago. There were small groups of people whose use of this area had little impact on the canyon compared to that caused by the millions who have come to Grand Canyon during the last 100 years. In this lesson students create and interpret a visual representation of some of the events in human history that have occurred at Grand Canyon. At the conclusion of the lesson, students will be able to give examples of archaic, pioneer period, and contemporary human activities at the canyon.
How Long is the Human Timeline of Grand Canyon? Lesson Plan
Timeline Cards
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"url": "http://grcahistory.org/k-20-education/elementary-lessons/grand-canyons-human-timeline/"
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Bergmann’s Rule
Bergmann’s Rule (the third ecographic rule) was formulated in 1847 by Karl (also seen as Carl) Bergmann (1814 – 1865), a German biologist. It states that the same or closely related species tend to be larger in colder climates. It was originally formulated for species within a genus, but now it also applies to populations within a species.
As noted with Allen’s Rule (see “Allen’s Rule” on 02-26-19), all mammals give off approximately the same amount of heat per unit surface area. The surface of an object increases as the square of the linear dimension and the volume increases as the cube. Thus the larger the surface area in relation to the volume, the less heat is lost. The lower the surface area, the better the adaptation to colder climates and higher latitudes. Larger animals conserve heat better than their smaller relatives.
Some zoologists argue that the relatively smaller surface of a larger animal would not give enough of a reduction in heat loss to be significant. However, although there are exceptions to Bergmann’s Rule, evolution seems to have favored larger animals with relatively short ears, limbs and tails in colder regions. Moose (Alces alces) in Sweden demonstrate Bergmann’s Rule as do white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). White-tailed deer in Michigan are significantly larger than those in Nicaragua.
There is evidence in the literature that humans, some ectothermic species (for example ants) and some plants also follow Bergmann’s Rule. Meiri and Dayan in the “Journal of Biogeography” (2003) reviewed the literature for various species and listed many that followed Bergmann’s Rule, including American kestrels (Falco sparverius) and bobcats (Lynx rufus).
The bobcat was photographed at sunrise on our ranch near Lookout CA (Modoc County) while the kestrel was on a fence in our barnyard.
Gallery | This entry was posted in Birds, Mammals and tagged , , , , , . Bookmark the permalink.
1 Response to Bergmann’s Rule
1. Lin Erickson says:
Great photos and interesting info!
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<urn:uuid:a0ff1487-52c0-4f6b-82bd-3dfc1a2d60c7>
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"url": "https://thenatureniche.com/2019/02/27/bergmanns-rule/"
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Painting Dinosaurs, early 20th century
Painting Dinosaurs, early 20th century
Painting Dinosaurs, early 20th century
Charles R. Knight’s illustrations shaped the public’s view of prehistoric life.
Jan 1, 2019
Diana Kwon
ABOVE: FACE OFF: Charles R. Knight completed this mural of a Tyrannosaurus rex and a Triceratops in 1927. The painting later inspired an epic battle sequence between the two beasts in the 1966 adventure film One Million Years B.C. (See video below.)
American artist Charles R. Knight produced some of the most iconic paintings of prehistoric life to date. Several major natural history museums in the US have featured Knight’s murals: detailed, colorful, and dynamic portrayals of dinosaurs and other ancient flora and fauna. Knight’s work also seeped into popular culture, influencing depictions of dinosaurs into the present day.
“He really had a huge impact on how the public perceived paleontology,” says Peter Makovicky, a curator at the Field Museum in Chicago, “because most people are interested in some sort of educated estimate of what these things would have looked like in life—bones are inspiring, but they are not quite enough.”
Knight was born with severe nearsightedness in Brooklyn, New York, in 1874. When he was six, he suffered an injury to his right eye that further impaired his sight, and he was legally blind for most of his adult life. Still, Knight grew up sketching animals, drawing inspiration from the many museums and zoos in New York City. He enrolled at the Metropolitan Art School, housed in the basement of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, at age 12. Knight would later compensate for his poor vision by painting with his “nose pressed up against the [canvases],” Makovicky says.
In his 2012 book, Charles R. Knight: The Artist Who Saw Through Time, science historian Richard Milner writes that in Knight’s early 20s, he was a freelance illustrator for children’s books and magazines and spent his spare time haunting the halls of the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) in Manhattan, carefully examining and drawing the carcasses of taxidermied animals. His work caught the attention of the staff, and museum paleontologist Jacob Wortman eventually hired the artist to paint the Entelodon, a prehistoric pig, based on fossilized bones. The scientist was pleased with the results and commissioned Knight to produce several more pieces of art for the museum. Later, Knight met Henry Fairfield Osborn, another AMNH paleontologist with whom he worked closely for much of his career.
Prior to Knight’s work, most dinosaurs had been portrayed as dull, slow-moving creatures. Leaping Laelaps, an iconic piece Knight produced for the AMNH, was one of the first illustrations to depict the ancient beasts in action—in this case, in combat with each other.
In addition to his work for the AMNH, Knight produced numerous pieces depicting prehistoric life for the Field Museum in Chicago and contributed regularly to National Geographic, Popular Science, and other magazines. He painted his final mural in 1951.
Although Knight worked closely with paleontologists to make his pieces as accurate as possible, some of his representations have not stood the test of time. For example, scientists now know that rather than simply sharing a common ancestor, birds evolved from small, feathered dinosaurs—but the creatures in Knight’s paintings are mostly lizard-like and lack plumage. Even so, the artist continues to exert a strong influence on the popular vision of prehistoric life.
“Not since the Lord himself showed his stuff to Ezekiel in the valley of dry bones had anyone shown such grace and skill in the reconstruction of animals from disarticulated skeletons,” the late paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould wrote in his 1989 book, Wonderful Life. Knight, he continued, “painted all the canonical figures of dinosaurs that fire our fear and imagination to this day.”
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"url": "https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/painting-dinosaurs--early-20th-century-65253"
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How do Astronauts Weld in Space?
On Earth, metals need to be heated past their melting points in order to weld together. But how does that work in space where there isn't oxygen to facilitate a flame?
This video from the minds at Veritasium explains the science of "cold welding." When two metals touch in space, they can fuse together without the need for an open flame. Why? Because metals have both positively moving ions in a "sea" of negatively moving electrons. Without oxygen in space, the oxide layer over the metals disappears. Just add a little bit of force and the metals can fuse together.
We also applaud this video's use of PayDay bars for scientific learning. Great tool, guys.
Via Veritasium
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"language_score": 0.8884540796279907,
"url": "https://interestingengineering.com/video/astronauts-weld-space"
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Child Dev. 1998 Aug;69(4):1074-91.
Rejection sensitivity and children's interpersonal difficulties.
Author information
Some children respond to social rejection in ways that undermine their relationships, whereas others respond with more equanimity. This article reports 3 studies that test the proposition that rejection sensitivity--the disposition to defensively (i.e., anxiously or angrily) expect, readily perceive, and overreact to social rejection--helps explain individual differences in response to social rejection. Data were from urban, minority (primarily Hispanic and African American) fifth to seventh graders. Study 1 describes the development of a measure of rejection sensitivity for children. Study 2 provides experimental evidence that children who angrily expected rejection showed heightened distress following an ambiguously intentioned rejection by a peer. Study 3 shows that rejection sensitive children behaved more aggressively and experienced increased interpersonal difficulties and declines in academic functioning over time.
[Indexed for MEDLINE]
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<urn:uuid:b11afce0-e782-4bfb-a364-cf38be913021>
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"url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9768487"
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Indigenous History SA. A Brilliant Blend.
The People.
The traditional owners of Yorke Peninsula are the Adjahdura people whose land reached from Port Broughton in the north to the Hummock Ranges in the east. The Kaurna People of the Adelaide Hills and the Nukunu people in the north shared their borders, and often met with the Adjahdura people for trade and ceremony.
The Adjahdura people consisted of four different groups - the Kunara from the north, the Windera in the east, Wari in the west and the Dilpa group in the south.
Evidence suggests that prior to European colonisation the Adjahdura People lived in settlements around the coast, with the young and old staying there while others went off for a day or two, returning with food. These settlements were at places with fresh water and food, including Moonta Bay, Tiddy Widdy Beach, Point Pearce, Point Yorke and many more.
Shallow graves of the Adjahdura people have been found with necklaces and other objects as well as ochre, which could have been used during the burial ceremonies for decoration.
Hunting and Gathering.
Living on the Yorke Peninsula meant that the Adjahdura people had plenty of fresh plants and animals to live off including roots, seeds, and a huge variety of fruit. Emu, kangaroos, possums, bandicoots, lizards, wombats, and bettongs were just some of the animals hunted.
The Adjahdura people were skilled at fishing, which made up a large part of their diet, as did shellfish such as periwinkles and warreners, crayfish and crabs. Fires were used to clear the grasses and promote growth of vegetation, and waterholes were covered with large boulders to keep them clean.
Their clothing mainly consisted of cloaks that were made from possum and kangaroo skins, dried and sewn together with the tendons from kangaroos and wallabies. In the wintertime, the men would rub emu oil on their skin to keep warm.
Archaeological evidence shows that the Adjahdura people used stone materials to make hammer stones, cutting tools, scrapers and spear tips. The spear tips would then be attached to a wooden shaft using resin or gum. Wood and roots were used to make spears, digging sticks and for building shelters.
The nets used for both fishing and hunting were called Buntu Buntu. They were made of reeds by the women and took a couple of days to make by the time they were picked, dried and rolled into string.
After European Settlement.
In the early days of settlement it was estimated that the population of the Adjahdura Tribe was 500. In the first 30 years of European settlement, 80 per cent of the Adjahdura tribe were wiped out through introduced diseases and by the bullet - massacres were a common practice. By 1880 there were less than 100 survivors.
Watering holes were how the Aboriginal people of the area sustained life. When Europeans arrived they took most of the water holes and cleared most of the natural vegetation for farming. In the early 1860s the Yorke Peninsula Aboriginal Mission Committee was established and teaching began in a wool shed in Moonta Bay under the command of Reverend W Julius Kuhn.
In 1867 the mission was moved to Point Pearce on 639 acres of land.This land grew in acreage as a small township developed, including housing, woolsheds, a church and large underground stone tanks.
The Adjahdura people harvested their own crops and the mission included a hall, meat shop, blacksmiths, wheat barn, piggery, shearing sheds and chaff houses. Bad things are spoken about Aboriginal missions - but Adjahdura elders Irene Agius and Elaine Newchurch talk about how important Point Pearce was in the survival of their people. They say it was a place they could run away from the bullet - a sanctuary for Aboriginal people.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, missions from other areas in South Australia were closed down by government and Aboriginal people from other clan groups were moved to Point Pearce to live with the traditional owners of the area. This caused many problems that are still evident today.
From this time, the word Narungga - which means campsite - was used to describe the Aboriginal people who lived at Point Pearce. But today, the direct descendants of the traditional owners, who live on the land, still see themselves as Adjahdura people.
Point Pearce - SA Memory
Before the coming of the European pastoralists, the Yorke Peninsula was the home of the Narungga people, who occupied the land from near Port Wakefield in the east, over to Port Broughton in the west, and all the way down to the tip of the Peninsula.
Discovery of copper on Yorke Peninsula in 1859 lead to a swelling population, and the establishment of sizeable townships. These attracted many Narungga and the previously mobile population began to settle closer to these towns where they were exposed to damaging influences, such as alcohol and disease. Concerned for the welfare of these fringe-dwellers and with an aim to 'civilise' them, the local population began petitioning the Government and laying plans for a mission.
The land selected was familiar to many of the Narungga who would have often travelled though it. Known to them as Bookooyana, the area was a place where one could find an abundance of shellfish, game and fresh water soaks. Leaseholder Samuel Rogers, was concerned about the effect that such a settlement would have on his water supplies, and tried to fight the Government, but was eventually placated. And so in 1868 about six hundred acres, 35 miles south of Wallaroo, was given over for the establishment of the Yorke's Peninsula Aboriginal Mission, later called Point Pearce.
About 70 Narungga came to live at the Mission. But conditions were hard, and after a spread of illness led to a number of deaths in 1872, by 1874 the population had dropped to only 28.
Those Narungga who had resisted living on the Mission were reluctant to pass on their cultural knowledge and language to Mission residents. In 1894 the Mission was thrown into chaos when the former residents of the closed Poonindie Mission were shifted to Point Pearce. This introduction of people from a variety of Aboriginal language groups, some who had been living long under colonial influences, compounded the loss of the Narungga's own cultural identity.
By the end of the 1910s many of the Mission residents had grown up on the Mission and considered it their home. But there was frustration that despite all of their toil, they were not able to claim any of the land for their own, and work for themselves.
In 1915, the Mission was taken over by the State Government and became known as the Point Pearce Aboriginal Station. Residents continued to fight for their rights to benefit from their labours, but only after World War II were Aboriginal farmers able to reap any such reward - even then only earning one in ten bags produced by the white farmers they worked along side of.
Throughout the 1930s and 1940s residents were taking positions as domestics, or farmhands or joining the armed services and then in the 1950s many gained exemptions under the Aborigines Protection Act and left Point Pearce to try and make better lives for themselves under less strict controls.
The Aboriginal people of Point Pearce were finally given control of the land in 1972, when 5,777 hectares was transferred to the ownership of the Point Pearce Community Council under the Aboriginal Lands Trust Act.
Sat 3 Jul 1926, Observer (Adelaide, SA : 1905 - 1931)
By a Special Representative of The Register.
An Aboriginal Hunting Ground.
Close to Minlaton, on tbe eastern side of the town, lies Gum Flat, so called by reason of its many stately gums, similar in variety to those met with along the River Murray. The flat, some 50 acres in extent, is the only part of Yorke's Peninsula in which native gums have ever grown. Each winter the rains convert most of this flat into flooded swamp, and this perhaps, is the reason why a number of the old trees are dying. The old Gum Flat homestead was situated among the trees, only half a mile on the eastern side of Minlaton. The flat was a favourite hunting ground of the aboriginals in the early days, and many of their remains have been found at various times in the swamp land region. At one time kangaroos, wallabies, and emus abounded in the locality. Kangaroos are still plentiful in the Stansbury scrub, although wallabies and emus have completely left the peninsula. Between Minlaton and Stansbury there is a tract of scrubland country, 10 miles in extent, which is reckoned to be a worthless area, unsuitable for agricultural purposes. The scrub is gradually being encroached upon by farmers whose holdings adjoin it, and there is every probability that it will in the future be brought into crop-yielding order. At Minlaton this scrubby country is known as the "Stansbury Scrub," while Stansbury residents speak of it as the "Minlaton Scrub," neither town seemingly desiring to own it.
Reminiscences By Mr. L. G. Phillips, of Strathalbyn
Police Depot on the Station
In the early days of Moorowie there was a police depot on the station property, as the blacks were very troublesome. This police depot was at one time in charge of the late Inspector Tolmer. The late Tom Coward was also there for a time. I believe the Police Department still hold the piece of land. It is a little north of the old shearing shed, and still called the "Police Reserve." The little well where the police got their drinking water is still there.
My earliest remembrance of the location of the blacks camp was a little north of the homestead and slightly west of the old men's kitchen. When a boy I attended many a blacks' corroboree there. Their principal burying place was in the sandhills, near Longbottom's farm. There is a reserve there called "Onegowie," meaning "fresh water in the sand."
Some of the old station hands still reside on the Peninsula, viz., Mr. Tom Eggington at Warooka; George Eggington, at Marion Bay; and Alex Thomson, near Yorketown, who erected most of the stone walls round the homestead. At shearing time Mr. Christian Twartz, of Yorketown, was on the job.
I omitted to mention earlier that practically all the carting was done by bullock teams. The family vehicle was a spring dray or spring cart. Yorketown was known as "Weaner's Flat." I believe Penton Vale Station had a hut and sheepyards near there, where they used to send the lambs to be weaned, shepherded, of course, as there were no paddocks in those days.
Rabbits brought from England
In reply to a question, Mr. Phillips said, "Yes, Mr. Fowler did bring rabbits from England to Moorowie, and introduced them to some old wombat holes in the old station home paddocks, south of the homestead, near where there was afterwards an orchard planted. I can quite remember when there was a wool-washing plant at Moorowie, but all evidence of this has long ago disappeared, and the old well filled in."
The Corroborees
We put some further questions to Mr. Phillips in reference to the blacks and their corroborees. He said corroborees were usually held at night. The male blacks would dance round a fire, and imitate kangaroo hunts, fishing exploits, fights with other tribes, etc They used to daub themselves with pipe clay and red ochre. The men would chant a kind of song and the women would sit around in a circle with an oppossum rug in their laps, rolled up to make a drum, which they used to beat with their hands, and keep excellent time, too. Each song would represent some event, such as the "hunt corroboree." I remember one vividly, the "rain corroboree," or, in native lingo, "the Munga corroboree." The natives had a meeting place for north and south blacks at Minlacowie, somewhere between the Baptist Church and the fingerpost, known as the "old chimney," or "Yonglacowie." Anstey and Giles a hut there. I believe the ruins are still there. I remember a shepherd named McDonald being in charge. Corroborees used to last for nearly a week. There was a good crowd of blacks in the tribe, whose hunting grounds extended from Moorowie to Warrenben. About 100 used to congregate at the station, and they were very troublesome in the early days; that was why the police camp was formed.
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ESL Kids Game: Meatballs!
This is a really cool language game which is fun in the classroom and actually requires quite a bit of skill! In short, your students will be blowing ping-pong balls off of a plate and saying sentences while they go.
Before Class
Before class, go to a shop or supermarket and buy ten ping-pong balls and a plastic plate. Buy nine balls of one colour i.e. orange and one ball a different colour i.e white.
Number each ball from 1-10 using a permanent marker, get your plastic plate and head to class!
Pingpong balls.jpg
In Class
On the board, write ten sentences using structures your students have recently been learning. Number your sentences 1-10. When you're ready put your students into pairs and get the first pair to stand up. The two students face each other holding the plastic plate between them. The teacher then puts all the ping-pong balls on the plate.
The idea is to blow the orange balls off the plate one by one, leaving only the white one on at the end! One of the pair goes first and blows off an orange ball. Let's say she blows off ball #7 onto the floor, she now has to say sentence #7 on the board. It is now the other person's go.
Keep going until all the orange balls have come off the plate. The kids then finally say sentence #10 on the board. If the white ball is last on the plate, then the team get 10 points. If the white ball is accidentally blown off the plate with one orange ball left on, then they get nine points, two orange balls eight point, and so on. Give each pair a go.
Time for Round 2! Now rub off your sentences and leave just one word from each sentence on the board. For example, in Round 1, maybe one of your sentences was 'I have never eaten hamburgers', rub off all of the other words and just leave 'hamburgers'. Get the first pair up and have them play again, trying to blow the orange balls off. This time, when a ball comes off, they still need to say the same sentence i.e. 'I have never eaten hamburgers' but they only have a single word to prompt them.
This is an excellent TEFL activity for speaking and pronunciation practice. It will really raise their confidence and oral English fluency. The team with most points after two rounds is the winner!
Like this ESL game for kids and would like to see more to help your teaching?
There’s loads of ESL games for kids on this website. Navigate to some of these other games for teaching English to see if they’re for you!
ESL Game of the Day: Coin Flipper
ESL Board Game: Variations to ‘Hangman’ that aren’t so morbid!
ESL Game of the Day: Memory of a Goldfish
ESL Flashcards Game for Kids: Teacher is a Monster
ESL Flashcards Game for Kids: Balancing Act
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Vergil - World Literature
World Literature
BORN: 70 BCE, Andes, Cisalpine Gaul
DIED: 19 BCE, Brundisium, Italy
GENRE: Poetry
Eclogues (42-37 BCE)
Georgics (37-30 BCE)
The Aeneid (31-19 BCE)
Vergil, or Virgil (both spellings are considered correct), was a Roman poet who wrote chiefly in the epic genre. His poems, written as the Roman republic was collapsing and the Roman Empire was taking shape under Augustus, reflect the concerns of his day as well as broader human emotions. They remain widely studied and admired both for their technical ability and thematic content.
Works in Biographical and Historical Context
Pastoral Beginning Publius Vergilius Maro was born on October 15, 70 BCE at Andes, in Cisalpine Gaul (now a part of northern Italy), thereafter a province in the expanding Roman Empire. His mother was the daughter of the small landowner who employed Vergil’s father, Maro, a day laborer. The couple’s marriage elevated Maro’s social status, possibly enhancing the quality of his son’s education. The boy received elementary schooling in Mantua and then studied rhetoric in Rome and philosophy under the Epicurean philosopher Siro in Naples. Vergil planned to practice law but proved too shy to speak comfortably in public.
Restoration of the Family Farm. Returning to the small family farm his mother and father operated, he studied and wrote poetry until, in 41 BCE, the land was confiscated to compensate retiring soldiers. Friends urged Vergil to appeal to Octavian (known as Augustus after 27 BCE), Julius Caesar’s adopted son and eventual successor. Octavian restored the farm—perhaps, scholars speculate, because he was impressed by Vergil’s work—but the poet soon moved to Naples.
Success in Naples. While in Naples, between 42 and 37 BCE, he composed the Eclogues, whose title means ‘‘Selections.’’ These ten poems, also referred to as the Bucolics, depict shepherds singing of unhappy loves in an idealized landscape, no doubt influenced by the rural region in which he grew up. Their publication attracted widespread praise and the sponsorship of Octavian’s friend, the art patron Maecenas. Maecenas allegedly prevailed upon Vergil to compose his next work, the Georgies, as an agricultural paean to persuade Romans, then deserting the countryside in large numbers, to return to farming. Written in Naples between 37 and 30 BCE, the Georgies, or ‘‘Points of Farming,’’ consists of four books that offer instruction in grain production, the cultivation of trees and vineyards, animal husbandry, and beekeeping. The work further enhanced Vergil’s reputation upon its appearance in 29 BCE. Octavian, to whom Vergil read the completed poem, honored him with two villas and a generous stipend, and Octavian’s friends asked Vergil to compose an epic honoring the emperor.
Deathbed Request Goes Unmet. This project, which became The Aeneid, occupied the last ten years of Vergil’s life. According to several of his friends, he first drafted the epic in prose, then laboriously reworked it in verse. Composition was slow and revision constant; Vergil responded to one of Augustus’s many inquiries about the poem’s progress by asserting that he ‘‘must have been just about mad to attempt the task.’’ When he left Naples in 19 BCE to gather new material in Greece and Asia Minor, he planned to devote another three years to revisions, but caught fever at Megara and died soon after returning to Italy. His deathbed request was that his companions burn The Aeneid. However, Augustus countermanded the request, asking Vergil’s friends, the writers Varius Rufus and Plotius Tucca, to edit the manuscript but specifying that they neither add, delete, nor alter significantly. Published in 17 BCE, the epic’s resounding success assured Vergil’s fame. More manuscripts of Vergilian works exist today than of any other classical author.
Vergil's famous contemporaries include:
Augustus Caesar (63 BCE-14 CE): Born Gaius Octavius, grand nephew and adopted heir of Julius Caesar, Augustus rose to become the first Roman emperor.
Cleopatra VII (69 BCE-30 BCE): Hellenistic ruler of Egypt, Cleopatra was the last in a centuries-long dynasty of Greek-speaking pharaohs tracing their lineage back to the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Wang Mang (45 BCE-23 CE): Wang Mang led a palace coup in China, installing himself as emperor of the newly proclaimed Xin dynasty in place of the ruling Han dynasty, though his success was short-lived.
Strabo (64 BCE-24 CE): A Greek academic specializing in history, philosophy, and geography. His seventeen-volume Geographies described the peoples and history of the known world at the time.
Horace (65-8 BCE): Considered by his contemporaries and later historians as one of the greatest Latin poets, Quintus Horatius Flaccus specialized in lyric poetry and coined many famous Latin phrases such as earpe diem (''seize the day'').
Works in Literary Context
Considered the greatest of Roman poets, Vergil is acclaimed for transforming the Greek literary traditions that provided Roman writers with material, themes, and styles. Latin authors, Joseph Farrell explains, were fully expected to imitate their Hellenic (Greek) precursors, and Vergil’s three major works adapt the characteristics of numerous Greek models, although particular influences predominate. Vergil’s pastoral poem, the Eclogues, is modeled after Theocritus’s Idylls.; his poetic treatise on the significance of human labor, the Georgies, after Hesiod’s Works and Days; and his epic poem of Augustan Rome, the Aeneid, after Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. However, Farrell and numerous critics agree that surpassing the Greeks was far more esteemed than merely emulating them, and Vergil, synthesizing a more diverse array of literary examples than other Latin poets, reworked Hellenic influences so completely that he supplanted them.
Vergil’s literary developments include populating a more idealized pastoral setting with contemporary figures, synthesizing vivid description with philosophical inquiry, increasing grammatical complexity, and enhancing psychologically realistic characterization. These technical innovations have informed all subsequent literature, yet Vergil is equally noted for his awareness of the uncertainties specific to the times in which he lived, as well as those inherent in the human condition. In addition, his work offers an insightful perspective on the anxieties of empire during the Augustan age.
The National Epic. The Aeneid was composed at least in part to celebrate and promote the rebirth of the Roman way of life under Augustus. The epic poem also universalizes Roman experience, ideals, and aspirations. Critics have praised Vergil’s ability to adapt a variety of traditions, motifs, ideas, and literary techniques to suit his poetic intentions in the work. As scholars have maintained, he forged a characteristically Roman epic from such disparate sources as archaic myths and mysteries, Homeric epic poetry, ancient beliefs such as reincarnation, and Stoic precepts. What makes The Aeneid so eminently Roman is its pervasive spirit of Augustan patriotism and imperialism, expressed through the idea of pietas, which, although formally denoting religious respect, in practice describes Augustus’s strategy of using religion, history, and morality to create a Roman national identity with himself at the center.
Scholars have also carefully studied the formal structures of Vergil’s epic. For example, Brooks Otis divides The Aeneid into symmetrical halves, each corresponding to one of Homer’s epics. Thus, in the first six books, Aeneas’s journey to what will eventually be Rome parallels Odysseus’s homeward journey, while the last six books recount a Latin inversion of the Trojan War: the Greeks fought to destroy a city, while the Trojans fight to found one. This structural reading also supports the perception of some critics for whom the first six books constitute a spiritual journey that matures Aeneas so that he can lead the battles of Books VII-XII. Another popular approach to the epic’s structure proposes that the books of the poem are alternately lighter and darker in tone. Viktor Poschl and George Duckworth perceive the poem as divided into three segments of four books each. The first four books they see as dark; the middle four, light; and the last four, dark. Such an interpretation of the poem’s structure reinforces the critics’ view of Vergil’s attitude toward Augustan Rome—both believe that he stresses its human costs and moral ambiguity.
Poetic Innovations. Vergil is credited with significantly refining narrative technique in The Aeneid. A characteristic reworking of Homeric episodes consists in shifting from an objective tone to the subjective perception of his characters. In addition to contributing to psychologically credible characterization, this narrative procedure enabled the poet to introduce ironic contrasts between different characters’ interpretations of a particular event, and between the reader’s wider and the characters’ more limited knowledge. Vergil is also noted for developing the dactylic hexameter (a line consisting of six feet, with a predominance of dactyls—a long syllable and two short syllables), a typically Greek meter that such early Roman poets as Ennius used with questionable success, into an outstanding instrument of Latin poetry. Vergil was able to do this without unduly complicating his syntax, which generally remains straightforward.
Legacy Endures after Rome Falls. Immensely popular in Augustan Rome, Vergil’s poems became part of the standard curriculum in Roman schools within fifty years of his death, ensuring the production of numerous copies. After the collapse of the western Roman Empire in the fifth century CE, Vergil’s works remained accessible to scholars through numerous manuscripts copied in monasteries throughout Christendom during the early Middle Ages. In particular, the surge of scholarly interest in classical literature during the reign of Holy Roman emperor Charlemagne (800-814) produced numerous cursive copies, many annotated and elaborately illustrated. Collectively, the four most reliable codices, so considered because they are the oldest, provide complete copies of Vergil’s three major works; they are preserved in the Vatican library and the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence.
The Aeneid is one of the great poetic national epics; other such works, that succinctly encapsulate the spirit and outlook of a people in verse form, include:
The Kalevala. Passed down via oral tradition for centuries, this national epic of Finland was compiled and put into print in the nineteenth century by Elias Lonnrot. Its length (more than twenty-two thousand verses) and narrative depth made an immediate impact on students of folklore and mythology; J. R. R. Tolkien claimed it as an inspiration for developing his own mythology for Middle Earth.
The Song of Roland. First appearing in the twelfth century and in other forms over the following two centuries, this epic poem of France describes the historical exploits, recast in a legendary, mythological mode, of Charlemagne and his paladin Roland, who fought a doomed battle against Spanish Moors. The poem's popularity was such that it launched an entirely new literary genre, the chanson de geste (''song of heroic deeds'').
Mabinogion. A collection of prose and poetry, drawn from both oral and written sources, this is the medieval Welsh folkloric tradition encapsulated in a single volume. There is evidence that certain details may be rooted in pre-Christian, Iron Age society.
Beowulf. Dating from between the eighth and eleventh century, this Anglo-Saxon epic poem is the oldest work of English literature. Despite the fact that it describes events in the Saxon homeland of Scandinavia and Germany, it is often called England's national epic.
Works in Critical Context
Although critical reception of Vergil’s works has fluctuated over the centuries, his themes and techniques have influenced virtually all subsequent Western literature, with Dante Alighieri, Geoffrey Chaucer, Edmund Spenser, John Milton, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Matthew Arnold numbering among his prominent heirs. As centuries have widened the gulf between the present and pagan antiquity, scholars have increasingly appreciated the encyclopedic description of Greco-Roman culture Vergil’s poetry provides.
The Aeneid. Even in his own lifetime, Vergil’s poetry had become a school text. Early Christian writers who attempted to reject Vergil could escape neither his style nor his attitudes. Christian thought assimilated them both. The Aeneid and the Bible were arguably the two most consistently read books in Western Europe for two thousand years. In that time, The Aeneid has been a pagan bible, a Latin style manual, a moral allegory, a document of European unity, a pacifist document—and one of the most-read and most-studied works of world literature of all time.
The Georgies. Joseph Farrell has deemed the Georgies the most allusive poem of antiquity, and, though Hesiod’s Works and Days is Vergil’s most commonly cited model (perhaps because Vergil characterized his poem as ‘‘a Hesiodic song for Roman cities’’), the influences of the De Rerum Natura of Lucretius, the Odyssey and the Iliad of Homer, the De Re Rustica of Varro, and the Phaenomena of Aratus are also significant.
The Georgics is widely considered the most polished of Vergil’s works; John Dryden, who translated all of Vergil’s works, called it ‘‘the best poem of the best poet.’’ In the view of L. P. Wilkinson, ‘‘The Georgics is, in fact, the first poem in all literature in which description may be said to be the chief raison d’etre and source of pleasure.’’
Responses to Literature
1. Define the difference between folk and literary epics. Into which category would you place The Aeneid ? Why?
2. Roman civilization was strongly associated with the city, yet poets like Vergil were fond of writing about rural settings, describing them in the highest terms. Why do you think this was the case? Can you draw any parallels to our own modern, urban society?
3. Why do you think Vergil chose Aeneas as a hero for Romans to look up to? What was the significance of his Trojan heritage, and of his activities after the Trojan War? What were the personal traits of Aeneas that Romans might have looked up to?
4. How did the ongoing political situation during Vergil’s lifetime affect his composition of The Aeneid? Was the work meant to stand above current politics, or did it address contemporary issues?
Bloom, Harold, ed. Virgil. New York: Chelsea House, 1986.
Commager, Steele, ed. Virgil: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966.
Frank, Tenney. Vergil: A Biography. New York: Russell & Russell, 1965.
Knight, W. F. Jackson. Vergil, Epic and Anthropology. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1967.
Williams, R. D. Virgil: His Poetry through the Ages. London: British Library, 1982.
Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 211: Ancient Roman Writers. Edited by Ward W. Briggs. A Bruccoli Clark Layman Book. Detroit: Gale, 1999.
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"Mainstays among the Massassi infantry even today, the warbirds are used as mounted assault avians that can carry a rider into battle and rip apart enemy soldiers with their beaks."
―Sorzus Syn[src]
The Sith warbird was a species of flightless bird from the planet Khar Delba that was commonly used as an artillery mount by the Sith, a Force-sensitive species from the world Korriban. By the time of the arrival of Dark Jedi Exiles on the planet Korriban around 6900 BBY, warbirds were a mainstay of the Massassi infantry of the Sith Empire, and the birds were later used by the Sith Empire of the fallen Jedi Exar Kun during the Great Sith War. Sith warbirds were notorious for their bad temper, and they typically used their large size to ram and trample down their prey.
Biology and appearanceEdit
A warbird being approached by a humanoid being
Sith warbirds were large, flightless birds[1] from the icy planet Khar Delba. When fully grown,[5] they stood at approximately six meters in height from ground to top of the head, and ten meters long from head to tail.[1] In place of wings, warbirds had two[3] short[2] dual-clawed arms, and the birds also sported two legs and a large,[3] blunt beak, which was used for devouring prey. Their feathers ranged from yellow[2] to yellowish-green in color, and they had two eyes, with iris colors ranging from black[3] to blue.[4] The creatures also had extremely thick hides, which allowed hooks and spikes to be embedded into the sides of domesticated warbirds without causing the creatures to come to harm.[2]
Sith warbirds were predators and were notorious for their bad tempered nature, attacking anything that they saw as a threat. Though lacking in power, warbirds could move with great speed and maneuverability; they typically used their large size to ram and trample their prey, and they were also known to use their large beaks to gore their enemies.[2]
"During the same war that birthed the silooth, the Sith introduced the warbird and the war behemoth."
―Sorzus Syn[src]
Warbirds originated on the planet Khar Delba[5] in the Stygian Caldera,[6] where they inhabited the world's frozen mountains.[5] Khar Delba lay within the bounds of the Sith Empire,[6] a civilization established by the Force-sensitive Sith species, and, during the early history of the Empire, the birds were discovered and subsequently domesticated by the Sith.[4]
In the midst of an ancient conflict in which the Empire became embroiled, the domesticated warbirds were pressed into military service to be used as artillery mounts,[4] as was common practice for tamed animals within the Empire at the time.[1] By the time of the arrival of Dark Jedi Exiles on Korriban[4] around 6900 BBY following their banishment from the Galactic Republic,[7] warbird mounts were mainstays of the Massassi infantry forces employed by the Sith, and the Dark Jedi alchemist Sorzus Syn mentioned the creatures in a chronicle of her encounters with the Sith.[4]
The first Sith Empire ultimately collapsed in 5000 BBY,[7] and warbirds were later used by the Sith Empire of the fallen Jedi Exar Kun during the Great Sith War[2] in 3996 BBY.[7]
Sith warbirds in the galaxyEdit
A Sith warbird wearing a battle harness
Sith warbirds saw common usage among the military forces of the Sith Empire as battle mounts,[4] and when employed for combat purposes, the birds were fitted to carry battle harnesses, which contained a cockpit to house the rider and a mounted blaster cannon supported by a fusion generator.[1] The Sith used the birds as mobile platforms that were deployed in front of infantry columns to weaken enemy ground-based troops. During the Great Sith War, the creatures were also commonly used for scouting and reconnaissance assignments because, as living creatures, they were less likely to be spotted by enemy detection devices.[2]
After the end of the Great Sith War, Sith warbirds continued to be found throughout the galaxy, with survivors of the conflict breeding on worlds where battles had been fought by the Sith. These wild-once-more warbirds were prone to terrorizing local forms of wildlife that posed little threat to them.[2]
Behind the scenesEdit
The Sith warbirds were created by Michael Mikaelian and were first mentioned in The Sith Compendium, an article that appeared in the 2001 Wizards of the Coast magazine Star Wars Gamer 5. The warbirds later received a further mention in the 2004 roleplaying sourcebook Ultimate Adversaries, which became the first source to provide a visual depiction of the creatures, in an image by the artist Matt Hatton. Subsequently, the birds received an entry in the 2008 compendium The Complete Star Wars Encyclopedia, and were referenced within the Jedi Academy Training Manual of 2009 and the 2012 reference book Book of Sith: Secrets from the Dark Side, both of which expanded upon the history and usage of the birds among the Sith.
Notes and referencesEdit
In other languages
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Michigan Abolitionist George DeBaptiste
(George DeBaptiste in his later life, Detroit Public Library)
(George DeBaptiste in his later life, Detroit Public Library)
George DeBaptiste was a prominent abolitionist and conductor on the Underground Railroad in his home in Detroit, Michigan. DeBaptiste was a catalyst for the American Civil War working with other nationally known abolitionists like John Brown, famous for his raid on Harpers Ferry, and Fredrick Douglass, a writer and escaped slave. DeBaptiste during the war acted as a recruiter in Michigan for the Union Army helping form Michigan’s first black regiment. DeBaptiste was not a soldier himself but instead chose to move with the regiment to act as a sutler, someone who provides provisions to soldiers, for the 102nd regiment that he helped create and inspire (Detroit Free Press, 1875)
George DeBaptiste was an African American man born in Fredericksburg, Virginia in 1814 to free parents. George DeBaptiste never was a slave himself though he felt a deep connection with those who were. George attended a few years of school in his hometown of Frdericksburg, enough to read and write and preform basic mathematics. After schooling he apprenticed as a barber to learn a trade and eventually was a hired hand to many wealthy whites. One man George assisted was a Southern gambler and through this George traveled through the South. During this time George was treated not as a slave but as hired help and saw the true face of slavery (Detroit Post, 1870), (Detroit Tribune, 1886).
(George DeBaptiste in his early life, Historical Society of Pennsylvania)
George then moved to Madison, Indiana in 1838 where he opened a barber shop and started a family. It was almost immediately that George started to assist escaped slaves. Madison is a border town located next to Kentucky, a slave state at the time. George helped slaves reach 12 miles across the Ohio river, away from Kentucky and into Indiana. George would stand by the river with a lantern and wait for any that needed his help. DeBaptiste had kept his certificate of freedom issued to him in his 20s to prove his free birth. DeBaptiste claimed to have used this 33 times to assist slaves which matched the description printed on it, mulatto skinned, about five foot seven and a half inches, and his birth date (Henderson, 2002).
George was soon suspected of helping slaves and was cited under black code laws for helping fugitives. George and his family faced expulsion form the state if these charges were met. George fought the Indiana Supreme Court over this matter saying that these laws were unjust and unconstitutional. George achieved a small victory, convincing the judges to allow him to stay in the state, however he did not convince them of the unconstitutional of the laws. Soon after the case the state of Kentucky put a $1000 bounty for his arrest. The news of the bounty and growing political tensions in the area inspired George and his family to leave Madison and find new work (Lumpkin, 1967).
George DeBaptiste was lucky enough to be invited to serve as a personal steward for Gen. William Henry Harrison in 1841. Harrison was later inaugurated as president of the United States and he and in extension George moved to the White House in Washington D.C. Gen. Harrison’s presidency did not last long, however, when giving his inaugural address in the rain he caught pneumonia and died in less than a month. George staying in Washington for less than 2 months in total and was left with no choice but to return to Madison for the time being. In Madison George was frequently a target for harassment and decided to move to Detroit, Michigan (Henderson, 2002).
(The Death of Harrison, United States Library of Congress)
(The Death of Harrison, United States Library of Congress)
There were many reasons for DeBaptiste to move to Detroit. Detroit was a border city much like Madison where DeBaptiste could continue work in emancipation. Detroit had a small but vigilant black community at the time of his move. This community can be described with the events of the Blackburn Riots which occurred a few years before DeBaptiste’s move. A man and woman with the name Blackburn, both fugitive slaves from Kentucky settled in Detroit seeking refuge. When their master arrived to lay claim to them they were arrested, jailed, and brought before a judge for sentencing. The black community was outraged and rescued the couple through subterfuge, force, and rioting. The couple were transported away to Canada though left Detroit in a state of disarray. The white community was in awe of the events, the black community in an outrage. The sheriff was badly injured in the riots and the Mayor called for Federal assistance in the form of the Company E 4th Artillery which were dispatched to act as a policing force. The company were given the orders to control “terror into which the citizens of Detroit have been thrown in consequence of some hostile movements of the black population” (Wright Museum).
In Detroit George was an instantaneous business success and a pioneer for African American owned business in Detroit. DeBaptiste became a co-owner of a popular barber shop and worked as a sales clerk in a downtown clothing store. Soon DeBaptiste has enough money to purchase a bakery in 1850. George used his business success to try to influence politics and promote emancipation (Detroit Post, 1870). George perused legal means to emancipate slaves and fought for African American voting rights acting as a delegate in political conventions, however the results were lackluster to George. With little change in politics George increasingly pursued illegal means of emancipation.
DeBaptiste sold his bakery and with the money bought a steam boat named the T.Whitney. Despite being the owner of the ship DeBaptiste could not captain it, George hired a white captain because black men were not legally allowed to captain ships. DeBaptiste used this boat for business as well as to illegally transport slaves across the US border into Canada.
To transport slaves DeBaptiste would take his “broken” wagon to a repair shop with a pro-emancipation owner. He would leave his wagon there while in the dead of night the slaves would move from DeBaptiste’s home or the 2nd Baptist Church into the wagon. The wagon was then covered in straw and horse manure. George would cover his horse’s hooves with carpeting to muffle their sound and transport the slaves to the T.Whitney where they were loaded on and marked on the international trade manifest as “Black wool”. DeBaptiste did this for years and it is unknown how many slaves he had helped escape to freedom. The Detroit Historical Museum estimates over 5000 slaves passed through the 2nd Baptist Church in Detroit.
(A Station in the Underground Railroad, New York Public Library)
George DeBaptiste acted as a major part of the Underground railroad from the early 1830s into the 1860s. DeBaptiste acted as a manager of the Underground Railroad, a network of abolitionists designed to move slaves northward away from their southern oppressors. The railroad would communicate through coded messages in church sermons or posting disguised as notices to stockholders of a fake railroad. DeBaptiste was also involved in many more visible activism groups such as The Colored Vigilance Committee and The Negro Union League, often funding these groups from his own money gained through his businesses.
George was a member of multiple secret societies dedicated to anti-slavery activism and activity. DeBaptiste formed an organization that went by multiple names consisting of “The Order of the Men of Oppression”, “The African American Mysteries”, and “The Order of Emigration” (Detroit Tribune, 1886). These societies are believed to be quite large and allowed few white members. A member of this society, William Lambert, described the ritual used to confirm entrance into the society. A long ritual where entrants must memorize actions and oaths relating to revolution, revolt, and governance. Lambert described the ritual as being clad in “a good deal of frummery” in an interview with the Detroit Post in May of 1870. DeBaptiste thought this process necessary as the only members of the society must be “A man fit to be trusted with its unlawful secrets and tried in dangerous enterprise.” (Detroit Post, 1870).
It was in this society where George DeBaptiste met with famous abolitionist figures such as John Brown and Fredrick Douglass. John Brown and George DeBaptiste were in close contact with another and developed an intricate cypher for communication via telegraph. Messages sent regarding activities of the underground railroad were hidden behind common language. John Brown met with both George DeBaptiste and William Lampert in Detroit to discuss his plans for emancipation. John Brown believed that he could spark a rebellion in the south and that all free black men of the north would join his cause. His target was Harpers Ferry, West Virginia and he was determined to conduct a raid to muster support for rebellion. DeBaptiste thought his plan was misguided though failed to convince John Brown of its shortcomings. In October of 1859 John Brown conducted his raid and was small force was quickly overrun resulting in Brown’s execution (Mythic Detroit).
John Brown’s actions are seen as a catalyst for the Civil War which started very shortly after. When the war began DeBaptiste, supporting the newly elected president Abraham Lincoln and his long time goal of abolitionism, began organizing the Michigan Colored Regiment. DeBaptiste acted as an organizer and by 1863 the regiment known as the 102nd U.S. Colored Troops had gained over 1400 volunteers. The regiment left Detroit fore service across the Southern states in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina and others. George went with the regiment as well not as a soldier but a sutler. DeBaptiste sold supplies to the regiment as well as being an unofficial figurehead. The regiment was disbanded after the war suffering casualties of about 150 men (American National Biography, 1999).
After the war George returned to Detroit and continued managing his thriving businesses as well as his activities with the underground railroad. The 13th amendment to the constitution was written but was not fully enforced in the south. DeBaptiste felt his duties in the railroad necessary until April 7th 1870 a few weeks after the 15th amendment to the United States Constitution was written giving African Americans the right to vote. George DeBaptiste put a final notice on his office building reading “Notice to Stockholders — Office of the Underground Railway: This office is permanently closed.”. George DeBaptiste died of cancer in 1875 survived by a son and daughter.
Primary Sources
1. “Supplement: Underground Railroad. Reminiscences of the Days of Slavery.” Detroit Post, 15 May 1870.
2. “Freedom’s Railway. Reminiscences of the Brave Old Days of the Famous Underground Line Historic Scenes Recalled.” Detroit Tribune, 17 Jan. 1886, p. 2.
3. “Death of George DeBaptiste.” Detroit Free Press, 23 Feb. 1875, p. 1.
4. “George DeBaptiste, His Death Yesterday.” Detroit Advertiser and Tribune, 23 Feb. 1875.
5. DeBaptiste, George, et al. “Resolution.” Received by Family of Jacob M. Howard, 5 Apr. 1871, Detroit, Michigan.
Secondary Sources
1. Henderson, Ashyia N. Contemporary Black Biography: Profiles from the International Black Community. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2002.
2. Lumpkin, Katherine DuPre. “‘The General Plan Was Freedom’: A Negro Secret Order on the Underground Railroad.” Phylon (1960-), vol. 28, no. 1, 1967, pp. 63–77. JSTOR, JSTOR,
3. “Debaptiste, George.” American National Biography. 6 (1999). Print.
4. “George DeBaptiste, a Michigan Abolitionist.” African American Registry, 2000.
5. “The Detroit Gunpowder Plot – George De Baptiste, Frederick Douglass, and John Brown’s Raid.” The Detroit Gunpowder Plot – George De Baptiste, Frederick Douglass, and John Brown’s Raid — Mythic Detroit, 2012.
6. “Blackburn Riots of 1833.” Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History,
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10 Etymological Origins Of Ethnic Slurs
David Tormsen
10 ‘Cracker’
Colonial White Guy
Many assume that the term “cracker” originated from Southern slave owners (who cracked their whips), but the truth is more complicated. It was used in the United States in the 18th century to refer to poor whites living in Maryland, Virginia, and Georgia, who often made their living driving livestock using a whip. However, over time, the term “cracker” came to be used by upper-class whites to refer to the indigent, criminals, or those of Scots-Irish descent in general. The first use of the term can actually be traced back to the 16th century, when it denoted an obnoxious blowhard. It was used by Shakespeare in his King John: “What craker is this same that deafs our ears with this abundance of superfluous breath?”
This expression apparently made its way to the New World to describe a certain class of people, which a 1766 letter described as “great boasters [and] a lawless set of rascals on the frontiers of Virginia, Maryland, the Carolinas and Georgia, who often change their place of abode.” It was generally used to describe Scots-Irish immigrants perceived to be unruly. One Florida governor is said to have complained: “We don’t know what to do with these crackers—we tell them to settle this area and they don’t; we tell them not to settle this area and they do.”
In the late 1800s, people in the North began to refer to Southern homesteaders as “crackers,” referencing slavery although few of the descendants of the original “crackers” would have owned slaves at the time. However, by that stage, the descendants of Scots-Irish immigrants had begun to take on the term as a self-identifier, linking it with distinctive cultural, culinary, and architectural characteristics. Georgia itself became known as the “Cracker State.” It wasn’t until the 1940s that the term began to be used to describe bigoted whites in general. It may have been brought and popularized by African-Americans moving into the North and West during the Great Migration.
9 ‘Kaffir’
Offended South African
Most commonly used as a pejorative term in South African English, the word “kaffir” originates from the Arabic term qafr, meaning “nonbeliever.” It was used by Arab merchants in Africa and India to describe non-Muslim locals. It derived from the word kafara (“to cover”), with the implication that non-Muslim Africans were covering up or obscuring the truth of a monotheistic deity. The term was a fair bit stronger than the English word “pagan,” as it could be translated as “concealer” or “denier” and suggested someone who willfully disbelieved despite all evidence to the contrary.
While the Arabic term could be applied to any nonbeliever regardless of race, later Portuguese explorers, slavers, and merchants operating on the East African coast began to use it to refer to all black Africans, though they spelled it cafre. This spread to other colonial powers, where it was adopted in South Africa as a pejorative word for black people. Some later began to use the term specifically to describe the Xhosa people south of the Natal region. By the 20th century it was considered a general pejorative. “Kaffir” was also used in India to describe the hill tribes of the northwestern frontier.
Though this etymology is well-accepted, not everyone was convinced. South African satirist Herman Charles Bosman was one such rebel, although his reasoning is problematic in itself: “The etymologists’ tame derivation of the word ‘kaffir’ from the Arabic for ‘unbeliever’ must be rejected by anybody with a feeling for the significance of words. It is a strong, florid word, broad as the African veld, and in its disyllabic vehemence is a depth of contumely that I am sure no Arab would ever be able to think up.”
8 ‘Kike’
Offended Jewish Guy
The common 20th-century pejorative word for Jews entered American English as early as 1914 in New York but would not appear in the Oxford dictionary until 1961. Prior to that, “kike” was only listed as an alternative spelling for the Scottish/Northern English dialect word “kick” or “keek,” meaning “to peep” or “to glance.”
The pejorative “kike” clearly has its origins stateside, and it likely actually originates from Yiddish. One early explanation was that the term was used by German Jews, who had assimilated into US culture, to describe more recent Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. Many Ashkenazic names ended in “-ski” or “-sky,” and the theory goes that they were taunted by being called “ki-ki,” which eventually became “kike” and was applied to Jews in general by anti-Semites. This theory was advanced by the linguist J.H.A. Lacher, who claimed to have heard it from Jews “of German origin, who soon insisted that the business ethics and the standard of living and culture of these Russians were far lower than theirs.”
Another theory, perhaps more plausible, suggests that Eastern European Jewish immigrants arriving at Ellis Island were often illiterate or at least unlettered in the Latin alphabet. They couldn’t sign their names on immigration documents and had to make a mark instead. Rather than signing with an “X,” associated with Christianity and the brutal Roman mode of execution, they signed with a circle “O,” called a kikel or kikeleh (“little circle”) in Yiddish.
Jewish storekeepers on the Lower East Side and Jewish traveling salesmen in the interior of the US, who both depended on credit for their trade, would also check off payments in account books with such circles. Soon, both immigration inspectors and Midwestern sales customers were referring to Jews as “kikes,” and this spread to the rest of the population. The Yiddish origins were quickly forgotten.
7 Jjanggae And Gaoli Bangzi
A common Korean pejorative term for Chinese people is jjanggae, which is generally translated into English as “chink.” It is often used casually to refer to citizens of China, Taiwan, Koreans of Chinese descent, and even Chinese or Korean-Chinese food. The term has its origins in the Chinese word zhanggui, which means “shopkeeper” but is considered an archaic expression (like the English “barkeep,” meaning “bartender”). Supposedly, Korean customers at restaurants in China would hear employees referring to the boss as zhanggui, which became the basis for the Korean term jjanggae and developed a pejorative edge over time. It may also have referred to boxes used by Chinese merchants to collect money during the Japanese colonial era.
The Chinese in turn refer to Koreans as gaoli bangzi, which the New York Times translated as “Korean hicks.” Gaoli is a reference to the ancient Korean kingdom of Goryeo, which existed between the 10th and 14th centuries and was allied with the Tang dynasty. Bangzi literally means “stick” and is apparently a reference to the Japanese occupation of Manchuria and the Shandong peninsula. While the Japanese police had guns, Korean police working for the Japanese were supposedly only given batons, which were used to beat Chinese people. This may also have been linked to older history, which states that when the Sui dynasty invaded the Goryeo kingdom during the Middle Ages, the Koreans defended themselves with sticks. Others say that the expression emerged from the idea that Korean immigrants to China were used by the Japanese as a figurative baton as a way to keep Chinese people in line during the occupation period.
6 Farang
Foreigners in Thailand
Many people visiting Thailand assume that farang is a slur, though it is generally not used as such. Many foreign residents of the country believe it to be pejorative, insisting on more neutral terms like khon tang chat or khon tang prathet, meaning “foreigner” or literally “different country person.” While Thais insist that farang is a neutral term in and of itself, some claim that it’s almost always used negatively. The ultimate meaning could arguably be understood as “barbarian,” though it’s used casually by most Thais to describe Western foreigners.
There are a number of folk etymologies relating to the term. Some believe it comes from farangseet, the Thai word for the French, but farang predates the arrival of Europeans in Southeast Asia. In fact, the word more likely came from the Arabic firinjia, used to refer first to the Franks and then Western Europeans in general during the Crusades. Different versions of this word spread through trade to languages as far removed as Greek (frangos, firanja) and Vietnamese (pha-rang, pha-lang-xa).
It was first used in Thailand to refer to the Portuguese but was then applied to Western Europeans in general. It is also the word for “guava,” which was introduced from the Americas by the Portuguese, though it was likely originally known as kluai farang (“Frankish banana”). Farang turns up in other food items as well, such as “potato” (man farang or “Frankish tuber”), “asparagus” (naw maai farang or “Frankish bamboo shoots”), and “parsley” (phak chii farang or “Frankish cilantro”).
5 Rosbifs And ‘Frogs’
England vs France
The traditional rivalry between England and France created the strange offensive terms that the two countries used for each other, les rosbifs and “the frogs.” Initially, rosbif referred to the English method of cooking roast beef. As linguistics expert Professor Richard Coates from Sussex University told the BBC, “Rosbifs became a mark of the Englishman as far as the French were concerned in the 18th century, simply because it was a very popular way of cooking. That style began to apply to other meats cooked in the same way, so you would also have ‘rosbif de mouton’ and that sort of thing.” By the 1850s, however, the expression was being used to describe the Englishmen themselves, though it was generally seen as reasonably inoffensive.
The Francophobic expression “frog” may appear to derive from eating frog legs, but it is actually an older insult that was first applied to the Jesuits and the Dutch, who were compared to frogs because they were “marsh-dwellers.” It was only after 1805 that the term became applied to the French, who were considered a national enemy at the time. This was likely reinforced by Gallic frog leg–eating as well as the fleur-de-lis (the French national symbol) being described by some as three frogs or toads saluting.
4 Terrone
Italian Farmer
The Italian slur terrone is derived from terra (“earth”) and is generally used by Northern Italians to refer to both Southern Italians and African immigrants. The term literally means “people of dirt” or “the dirt beneath one’s feet” and became popularized during the 1950s and 1960s as Northern Italy went through rapid industrialization, and many Southerners moved north to find work in the cities. According to Gregory Pell, the term “implies backwardness and primitiveness . . . it alludes to a notion of the South being a third-world culture, as compared to the first-world industrial society of northern Italy.”
Later, when African immigrants arrived in Italy, the term was also applied to them, a process no doubt encouraged by the fact that many newcomers took on agricultural jobs in the South. This coincided with popular far-right notions of Northern Italians being descended from “industrious” Celts, as opposed to “lazy and agrarian” Mediterraneans in the South, associated with the ancient Greeks and Etruscans. Southern Italians and Africans were conflated into an inferior and subhuman “other” by Northern supremacists. Indeed, one of the terms used by Northern Italians to refer to Southern Italians is africani. However, new slurs specific to immigrants have also emerged, such as marocchini, denoting both Arabs and sub-Saharan Africans, as well as sottoterrone, meaning “sub-dirt beneath one’s feet.”
3 ‘Wop’
2 Pindos
Ugly American
This Russian term is used to refer to Americans, known by the pluralized form pindoses, while the United States itself can be referred to as “Pindostan” or “Pindosia.” It is commonly used on the Russian Internet to refer to disliked US companies or politicians. In Russian, the etymology is not entirely clear. It was first used to refer to a kind of pony found in the Pindos Mountains in Greece. By the 19th century, it was used by Russians to refer to Azov and Black Sea Greeks.
The word had various meanings in the 20th century, describing homosexuals or black people or being used as a general term of disparagement by members of the military. Some say that the term originates from the Spanish word pendejo (“idiot”). However, the most popular etymology states that it was introduced to the Russian language through Serbian. During the Kosovo War, the Serbs believed that US peacekeepers, who were loaded with heavy equipment, resembled penguins, and the British became known as half-penguins. Russian soldiers are supposed to have picked the word up from the Serbs and popularized it back home.
The only problem with that etymology is that the Serbian word for penguin isn’t pindos, but rather pingvan. Perhaps the truth is closer to speculation in The Moscow Times: “It seems like it was a word in search of a definition. It has richly obscene, vaguely comical and highly derogatory sound associations.”
1 ‘Foreign Devil’
Foreign Devil
Early in Chinese history, foreigners were generally known by two terms—fan or yi. Following the Opium Wars (which were known in China as the “Yi Peril”), xenophobic sentiment saw the rise of the term yangguizi (“foreign devils”) to describe Westerners. Carl Crow, an American businessman who worked in China in the early 20th century, claimed that it was because, “With their red faces, protruding eyes, and absurdly complicated and uncomfortable clothing, all foreigners had the appearance of devils.”
Gui, meaning “devil,” was a term with a deeply negative connotation, and during early encounters with European explorers, the Chinese perceived many aspects of the Western physical form, such as deep-set eyes, long noses, narrow mouths, overall paleness, and bizarre hair color, as being reminiscent of monsters of ancient Chinese myth. The term was popularized as a weapon of political rhetoric following the Opium Wars and was commonly used between the 1840s and the 1940s.
During the Boxer Uprising, a political declaration called the “Sacred Fist” was posted, stating:
The devil’s eyes were blue . . . Wiping them out is a breeze . . . France is desolate, and Britain and Russia in despair . . . The foreign devils are at the end of their tether . . . The Great Qing Empire will rule the land.
Gui was later applied to foreigners in various ways, such as to foreign diplomats (“devil-diplomats”) as well as currency bearing the heads of foreign monarchs (“devil heads”).
In mainland China, yangguizi was replaced by more neutral terms like waiguoren (“foreign person”) or laowai, (“old foreign”), which has a positive association in China. In Hong Kong, the expression gweilo (usually translated as “ghost man” though deriving from the same Chinese characters as guizi) is still widely used, though the government has been reducing their use through anti-racism legislation.
In Singapore, the equivalent expression was the Hokkian term ang mo kwuy, which means “red-haired devil” and was used to describe Caucasians. More recently, this has been commonly shortened to simply ang mo (“red-haired”), which is less obviously offensive. It may have been the inspiration for Singapore’s Ang Mo Kio district, which can be translated as “Caucasian Bridge” or “Red-Haired Bridge.”
David Tormsen is sad there wasn’t enough information online to include ‘seppo’ in this list. Email him at [email protected].
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Consider the Sausage
Consider the Sausage
"Alles hat ein Ende, nur eine Wurst hat zwei."
"Everything has an end, only a sausage has two."
- German Proverb
The sausage is a seemingly simple food, but it has a deep history and is a complex interplay of meat, fat, and flavour.
Sausages are one of the oldest-known forms of processed foods known to humanity. The word sausage stems from the mid-15th century English sawsyge, from Old North French saussiche, from Vulgar Latin's salsica "sausage", from salsicus "seasoned with salt", originating from the Latin word salsus meaning "salted". (1)
While the roots of the word can be traced, the exact origins of sausages will likely never be known due to the limitations of recorded history, but it likely began as a way to economise and preserve meat. Almost any animal's meat can be used to make sausages, but the main ingredients in early sausages were probably parts of the animal's carcass that could not be consumed fresh after slaughter or would turn rancid quickly without further processing for preservation, such as organ meats or blood. (2)
Sausages now come in nearly infinite variations and may be sold raw and eaten freshly cooked; they may be fermented; air-dried, cooked and/or smoked to varying degrees in order to be kept for a few days or indefinitely. (4)
Though there is great variation, the sausage's origin as a method of preservation helps us understand the reasoning of ingredients that are crucial in defining the variations and unique styles of sausage making. While some may associate the ingredients of fat, rusk, or the additions of curing agents to be signs of a poorly-made sausage, it is not necessarily so. For example:
• Just because a sausage contains a higher meat content does not make it a better sausage. The traditional British method of adding bread (rusk) was originally used to stretch the pork and make more sausages. But the addition of rusk also helps the sausage to retain its pleasing moisture during the cooking process and is what gives the traditional, correctly made British sausage its uniquely light texture. (3)
• Fresh sausages are unfermented and uncooked and, therefore, highly perishable. Curing agents and preservatives (salt, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, etc.) are necessary for these sausages due to the highly perishable nature of the ingredients. These ingredients halt the growth of harmful bacteria ensuring the sausages remain wholesome for us to enjoy.
• The correct pH is important in inhibiting bacterial growth, ensuring the sausage remains fresh and delicious. As well as helping inhibit bacterial growth, the addition of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) or other acidity regulators help give some sausages their mouth-watering tang.
Originating out of necessity, sausage making has evolved, improved, and has been refined into a respected culinary art with delicious results. Many countries have developed their own unique sausage-making traditions with even more diverse and distinct regional variations. But, regardless of the type of sausage being made, a common view among sausage makers that take their craft seriously is that good quality meat from animals that have been raised ethically and with high welfare standards will translate into a better sausage. These craftsmen and craftswoman also understand that their sausages are not a way to utilise the "odd-bits". Carefully selected cuts of meat, blended together with the proper ratios of fat, curing agent, rusk, and seasonings create a modern sausage that can be truly enjoyed.
(1) Anon., n.d. Online Etymology Dictionary. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 29 July 2015].
(2) Marchello, M. & Garden-Robinson, J., 2012. The Art and Practice of Sausage Making. Fargo: NDSU Extension Service.
(3) Lishman, D., 2012. What makes a British sausage British? [Online] Available at: [Accessed 29 July 2015].
(4) McGee, Harold 2004. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of The Kitchen.New York: Scribner.
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Information About Dandelions
Dandelion Information clipart dandelion seeds
The common dandelion is a flowering, biennial or perennial herbaceous plant of the Asteraceae (Compositae) family, which is a member of the daisy family. Dandelion is the most well know of all wildflowers.The scientific name for the Dandelion is Taraxacum officinale. Carl Linnaeus named the species Leontodon Taraxacum in 1753. The genus name Taraxacum, might be from the Arabic word "Tharakhchakon", or from the Greek word "Tarraxos". The common name "dandelion," comes from the French phrase "dent de lion", which means "lion's tooth", in reference to the jagged shaped foliage. Some sources claim the word dandelion descended from the Greek word leontodon, also a word that translates to 'lions's tooth'.
[History] [Ecology] [Habitat] [Roots] [Seedling] [Leaves] [Maturity] [Flowers] [Fruit] [Seeds] [Reproduction] [Common Issues]
History and Origin
Herbalists trace the plant's origins to the Asian and European continents. The dandelion was most likely intentionally introduced to America for its nutritional and medicinal value. The plant eventually found its way to most parts of the world. Dandelions were well known to ancient Egyptian, Roman, Greek and Chinese cultures. The plant was used for thousands of years in traditonal Chinese medicine. Prior to the 20th century, dandelion was often used to treat vitamin deficiences and other early ailments. [more]
The dandelion grows in various climates and environments, often in harsh conditions and sometimes year-round. The plant's rapid growth cycle and difficulty to eradicate causes it to be considered a noxious weed and nuisance to many. Over population of dandelion in field crops is a significant cause of economic damage in agriculture. Dandelions bloom throughout the growing season. They are a nutritious food source for both animals and humans, and a variety of insects feed upon and pollinate the flower. [full text]
Dandelions originated in Eurasia but are now found all over the world.They can be found in almost every climate except in polar or artic regions and the driest deserts. They thrive best in areas with moist nutrional soil, mild temperatures, direct sunlight, and areas with disturbed soil. They are commonly found in lawns, on roadsides, parks, meadows, rocky hills and on the shores of water ways. Dandelions are extremely resiliant plants that can grow in unusual places or areas with rugged terrain. They also have the ability to survive harsh conditions. [full text]
The dandelion grows from unbranched taproots that can be as thick as 1/2 inch in the largest specimens. The taproot is deep, twisted, and brittle, and usually extends about 6 to 18 inches underground. Attempts to uproot dandelion to control growth is sometimes unsuccesful because just a small portion of root left behind can grow an entirely new plant. Dandelion root is filled with nutrients and even used as a coffee substitute. [full text]
Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. Common dandelion seedlings emerge in early springtime. The first and later leaves of the dandelion seedling are green, oval or spoon shaped with no hairs. The stem below the seed leaves does not elongate and seems to dissapear as the plant matures. Dandelion seedlings take between 8 and 15 weeks to reach full maturity and bloom. The warmer the conditions, the quicker the plant will begin flowering. [full text]
The foliage of the dandelion plant form a circular arrangement of leaves, called a basal rosette, clustered around the base where it emerges from the ground. Dandelion leaves are oval to oblong shaped and have irregular, jagged tooth-shaped edges, hence the root meaning of its name which translates to "lion's tooth". Dandelion greens are the an extremely nutritious leafy vegetable, often used for salads. The green leaves also make a great spring tonic, and are rich in vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. [full text]
Mature Plant
The dandelion is a common weed with a yellow flower that is found in many home owner's yards. The stages of a dandelion are growing from a seedling to a mature plant. The next stage is when the flower appears. The fruit will then appear within the flower, and the final stage is when it goes to seed. The dandelion plant itself has no visible stem. Leaves are sparsely hairy or hairless, with deeply serrated edges. The leaves cluster and form into a rosette at the base of the plant. The strong, deep taproot of the dandelion exudes a milky substance when cut.
Dandelions flower most often in early summer with "late bloomers" flowering in mid-September to early October, repeatedly blooming throughout the growing season. Dandelion flowers are bright golden-yellow and The flower head consists of many small, yellow, petal-like flowers referred to as 'ray flowers', or 'ray florets'. After pollination, the dandelion flower dries out and the familiar white seed puff appears. The dandelion blossom, along with the leaves, has nutritional and medicinal value and is a source of nourishment for different wildlife. [full text]
The dandelion contains tiny, brown, one-seeded fruits called achene which contain the actual seed. An achene is considered a dry fruit which does not bloom or release its seed upon maturity. The seed-fruits terminate in a parachute-like structure called a pappus that allows the seeds to be carried by wind-current across long distances. Each dandelion flower can produce dozens of flying achenes, making for quick distribution and a abundance of new dandelion plants. [full text]
It takes between 9 to 15 days for the dandelion bloom to fully ripen and transform into the familiar, white, spherical, seed head. The seed heads contains many single-seeded fruits called achenes. Each seed achene is attached to a tiny parachute-like structure, called pappus enabling the seeds to be carried by the wind currents and transported over long distances, producing more plants wherever they land. Each dandelion that goes to seed produces between 135-300 seeds. [full text]
The dandelion has multiple ways to reproducing themselves, with the most common method being through its wind-aided dispersal of seeds. Dandelion florets are possess both male (pollen-producing) and female (seed-producing) parts. The dandelion can also regrow an entire new plant from its taproot by sending off new shoots underground. Dandelions are capable of reproducing themselves even under harash conditions. Dandelion plants typically have 24 or 40 pairs of chromosomes, but some have 16 or 32 chromosomes. [full text]
The dandelion is a host of aster yellow disease, which affects a number of vegetable crops. Because dandelion contains high amounts of certain minerals, it serves as a complement to pasture forage for livestock. In addition to the dandelion being very weedy, the fine hairs of this one-seeded fruit can sometimes clog cultivation equipment.
[back to Top]
For more information about the dandelion, check out the dandelion factoids section,
or explore some unique dandelion folklore, myths and legends.
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Aboriginal bones
Aboriginal art (left), Aboriginal woman (right)Rob and Cath talk about why it’s important that Aboriginal bones, which were kept in museums, are being returned to their people.
The question is:
Where in your body would you find the humerus bone? In your:
a) leg
b) arm
c) head
Listen out for the answer at the end of the programme!
-Written text-pdf
-The vocabulary to understand the text is:
A native of a country or region is somebody who was born there.
An object which is of interest to archaeologists, usually something made by humans.
The people we are descended from: our parents, grandparents, etc.
People who originally belonged to a place.
To look after something for someone.
Extreme unhappiness, pain or upset.
A formal or religious event, such as a wedding or a burial.
Actions which are traditionally carried out in a particular situation or ceremony.
Something that makes you feel very emotional.
To put your arms around somebody or something.
A group of people who work together to persuade an organisation to do something.
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Caste in Jaffna
Posted on Updated on
The development of Ceylon society is the same in all respects to South India. The emergence of the first group in the Indian peninsula, according to Mr. V. Kanagasabai who wrote the history of the Tamils using the Sangam Classics were the Villars (the bowmen) and the Meenars (who were fishermen). In the development of South India, land was divided into kurinji (hill), palai (desert), mullai (grassland), marutam (valleys) and neytal (seas). The various groups developed depending on the work they did.
In Ceylon, the Govigamas emerged as the highest caste. There was no large scale grazing lands and the Govis took over the function of herding. The Govis also indulged in trade. The Brahmins, who came later, were accepted as the highest caste. Other groups also developed. The Karava (fishermen) refused to accept the superiority of the Govis. In Jaffna, the groups developed in this way. The Paravas (Naga fishermen) founded Jaffna and inhabited the place. It only rained during the Northeast monsoon and there were no rivers. But there was plenty of underground water. The soil was such that it retained most of the water underground. Wells had to be dug to draw water out, and then agriculture was possible. There were groups that came. The first were the Pannikans, described as teachers and workers. They easily took to weaving, agriculture and trade. The called themselves the Pillais. They settled in Madurai and Tirunelvelly and came from the Malabar coast. They are Nagas, or related to them, and could have migrated to Jaffna. If they had acquired land and carried on agriculture, they could claim to be Vellalars. The deep-sea fishermen of the Nagas could have become the Karaturai Velllars. The Pattavans (fishermen who lived in pattinams or towns) could have acquired land and took to farming and called themselves the Varnakular Vellalars. Caste migration could have taken place. Mudhaliyar C. Rasanayagam feels that Kailamalai, Yalpana Vaipavamalai and Vyapadal (all are ancient Tamil texts on Jaffna) are not reliable as they lack historicity. Maylvagana Pulavar, author of Vaipavamalai, indulged in fanciful deduction. Vya Iyer led his imagination run wild. He wrote Vyapadal. According to Tolhapiar, who wrote the Tamil grammar text Tolhapiam, said in it that the Vellalar had no other calling other than to produce rice. This probably led to the Tamil proverb that a Vellalar can never be king. Visvanathan Mudaliyar, the Vijayanagaran ruler of conquered Tamilagam, left out the Vellalars when creating the Palayam system (where the whole country was divided into administrative section and given to various chieftains to govern and defend). Some dissatisfied Vellalars in Tamillagam emigrated to Ceylon and mostly settled in the Singhalese areas of the south of the island.
The Madapalis, the relatives of the Chakravarti rulers claimed a higher caste position as they were Brahmins. The Dutch authorities in Ceylon had been warned by the home Government not to interfere in the disputes of the local people. The Dutch solved the problem by registering the Madapalis as Vellalars in the population Thombus (register of people). There are many proverbs that emerged regarding the Vellalars. The Vellalar is like brinjal, palatable when cooked with any kind of vegetable. The Kallan, Maravan and Akmadyan slowly became Vellalars as they acquired land and started farming. Another proverb says that agriculture is no agriculture unless done by a Vellalar.
Dr. D. M. Rajanagiam in his book on Jaffna, said the herdsmen (Mullainatars) of South India were the Idayars, the Konnars, the Kovinders, the Kopiars and Koviars. Some of these Mullainatars could have emigrated to Jaffna They sold milk and milk products in Punalai and other places. Dr. Rajanayam disagrees with Mudaliyar C. Rasanayagam that Koviars were the remnants of the Singhalese Govi traders. Mudaliyar Rasanayagam is right when he says that there was no such caste in Jaffna before Sankili’s (one of the Chakravarti kings) action of expelling Singhalese Buddhists from Jaffna during the 16th century. It appears that the corruption of the Singhalese word Govi (into Koviar) is correct. It is possible that the Koviars were equated by the Jaffna residents to the herdsmen in South India. When the Naga Singhalese-speaking Buddhist of Valigamam acculturized to Tamil Hindus, which was quite easy for them, they were referred to as Koviars. Ugra Singan, the Kalingan ruler of Jaffna, shifted the capital from Kathiramalai to Singainagar (near Vallipuram) on the East coast of Jaffna because the people of Valligamam were Buddhist Singhalese speakers. Kathiramalai, when it was populated by Singhalese speakers, was called Kathirgoda. Today, the place is known as Kandarodai. Chunnakam, Uduvil, Malakam, Veemagamam were all Singhalese names. Some kanis (rice fields) were owned by Singhalese people and had Singhalese names. According to Michael Banks, who has made a study of this, the Vellalars and the Koviars arose from the same stem. The richer landowners who were agriculturists, considered the poorer ones who lived on their lands and worked for them, as Koviars. In Vadamarachi, Thenmarachi and the islands, this was so. It explains the ritual equality and similarity of customs and cattle brands of the two groups.
The Karaiyars are the descendants of the Naga fishermen who colonized Jaffna. At first, the Paravars carried on fishing as their traditional occupation. Plenty of underground water was discovered and some took to agriculture. Some of the Karaiyars still carried on with the tradition of fishing. When the Portuguese in India had trouble with the Nayak of Madurai, the preachers and the new Catholics went to Mannar and Jaffnapatinam. Previously, the Karaiyars served in the armies of the Annuradhapura and Jaffna kings. During the Chakravarti rule, the Karaiyars of Jaffna manned their powerful navy. The Karaiyars refused to accept the caste superiority of the Vellalars. During the Portuguese period, the Karaiyars along with the Vellalars were appointed village headmen. In the early days when the Catholics came to Mannar and occupied two towns (Periakareapattinam and Sinnakareapattinam), they were put to death by the Chakravarti ruler, Sankili. Within Karaiyur are the Jaffna town proper. Within the town is St. Patrick’s Cathedral, the Catholic Seminary, St. Patrick’s College, Holy Family Convent, St. James’ Church and Central College. The Karaiyas claimed direct descent from the Pancha Pandavars (royal family from the Mahabaratha) and in landtitles, they entered their caste as Kurukulam. There are two classes of Karaiyars: the Melongi and the Kelongi. The former are socially advanced, having enjoyed the benefits of higher education and employment in government and the private sector. The other group continues with coastal and deep-sea fishing. According to Reverend Father S. Gnanaprakasar (the author of the history of the Catholic Church in Ceylon), the Karaiyas should be classed as Kshatriyas (warrior caste) They constitute about 15 per cent of the population of Jaffna.
At one time, the Indian peninsula was controlled by the farmer. The farmers, either because of non-payment of rent or by being driven away by others, became unemployed. The term Paraiyar came into use only after the 10th century AD by the Imperial Cholas. They found that caste divisions would make it easier for the collection of land rent. Tiruvalluvar was one among them. People are aware of this group’s connection with the land from ancient times. The Paraiyar is accepted as an expert on determining land boundaries. His decision is respected. In North Ceylon, many of this group took to weaving. In the Dutch Thombus, the Paraiyars registered themselves as weavers. The cotton industry was very important. There was large scale growing of cotton in Mannar and the Vannis. The town of Parititurai (Cotton Port) is enough evidence of the existence of the cotton industry in north Ceylon. The Nagas were skilled in the art of weaving. The Veddahs learnt it from them. Swami Vivekananda says that caste is not hereditary but depends on qualification. If anyone is qualified, there is nothing to prevent him from reaching a higher status. The basis for this line of thought is traced to the Baghavadgita. In the village of Chiviateru, the weavers produced fine cloth using the handloom. This group also lives in Kalmunai and call themselves the Valluvarkulam. Mr. Harry Williams, and English planter in Ceylon, wonders why Vellalars say that they have a common origin with the Paraiyars but the Paraiyars are still untouchable. In Jaffna, Paraiyars who lacked the means of support opted for menial work. It would not have been possible for Paraiyars to emigrate from Indian as they lacked money and other means to get to Ceylon. The Paraiyars form about 10 per cent of the Jaffna population.
They are the descendants of the Veddahs. It was the Veddahs who brought the palmyra, coconut, betel leaves and nut to the Indian peninsula. The Nalavars saw service as soldiers for Indian kings. In Jaffna, they are the toddy drawers.
They are the offshoot of the Sanars of India and are recent immigrants to Ceylon. The Sanars of India were oppressed by the higher groups there. Those who emigrated to Ceylon became the Chandars. In Jaffna, Chandars are found in Annaikoddai, Vanarpanai, Navali, Changanai East, Sandalipay and Alaveddi. Their main work is growing sesame and extracting its oil.
The Brahmins form a small percentage in Jaffna. They came in after temples were built. They came in large numbers during Chakarvarti rule.
Saiva Kurrukals
They came from among Vellalars. They were priests in temples. They felt that they are Brahmins. The real Brahmins would not mix with them, considering them lower. The Madapalis, the kin of the Chakravarti rulers, considered themselves Brahmin but the Vellalars refused to accept their superiority.
The Others
The Nagas produced the Tachars and the Kapal Tachars (woodworkers). The blacksmiths (Kullars), goldsmiths (Patthars) probably came from India. It is the same with the barbers (Ambatans) and Vannan (dhobbies). The Natuvars (temple musicians), Pandaram (temple priests) and forty other casts have been identified in Jaffna. They are quite insignificant in numbers and could be recent immigrants in India They form three per cent of the Jaffna population.
People of different castes are so widely diffused that they are prone to cross-fertilization. After sometime, the distinction is forgotten and most people pass off as members of various groups.
According to Dr. Gautam Kshatriya of the University of Delhi, the population of Jaffna consists of a mixed gene pool constituting 55.2 per cent Singhalese, 25.4 per cent Bengalis and 19.4 per cent South Indian genetic origins. The Chandas, the recent immigrants from India, the personal service groups, the temple priests and the Brahmins and the craftsmen form the 19.4 per cent of the population. What is stated as Bengali is Kalingan. In the old days, Angga, Wanga and Kalinga were populated by the same people and they inter-mingled. The Singhalese are the Nagas and the Naga Buddhist Singhalese speakers of Valligama. Vellalars form about 50 per cent of the Jaffna population. Not all of them could have come from India.
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004 -TNCs
Geographic Knowledge and Understanding
Two contrasting detailed examples of TNCs and their global strategies and supply chains.
The operations of TNCs connect places.
• To have knowledge and understanding of two contrasting TNCs and their global strategies and supply chains.
Key Terminology
No specific terms are needed for this lesson.
Activity One - Detailed Example - IKEA
You have all heard of the furniture store IKEA and I am sure that most of you will own something from IKEA in your house. When I moved to work abroad and needed to furnish my apartment quickly IKEA is the first place I went - in both Atlanta and Geneva. You only have to look on facebook to see what people are selling in the local area and a large proportion of it started as a flat packed piece of furniture in Aubonne or Vernier's IKEA warehouse. In fact, IKEA is now so popular there are more households that own an IKEA catalogue than they do a bible.
• Listen to the podcast about Billy Bookcases which outlines how influential this piece of furniture is (1st link in the 'Useful Resources' box and fill in the question grid that Mr. Allaway has prepared. As Mr. Allaway is kindly teaching this lesson for me it is only good manners to use the resources he has prepared!
Google Document
TNC Worksheet - Please visit www.geographyalltheway.com for the full lesson.
Activity Two - Detailed Example - Coke Cola
Coke Cola is a major drinks company that started in the deep South of the USA. Its distinctive colour and font have made it an easily recognisable refreshment. What has allowed this company to become a major TNC and how does its supply chain link together? Watch the youtube clip and read the two articles below to fill in the relevant sections of the resource in Activity One.
Exam Style Question
Using examples, explain how the operations of TNCs connect places. [12 marks]
Google Document
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Open main menu
Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo
Simplified parse tree S = sentence
NP = noun phrase
RC = relative clause
VP = verb phrase
PN = proper noun
N = noun
V = verb
The sentence employs three distinct meanings of the word buffalo:
More easily decoded, though semantically equivalent, would be: Bison from Buffalo that other bison from Buffalo bully [themselves] bully bison from Buffalo.
Sentence construction
Reed-Kellogg diagram of the sentence
Buffalo engaged in a contest of dominance. This sentence supposes they have a history of being bullied by other buffalo, and they are from Buffalo, New York.
A comic explaining the concept
• a. a city named Buffalo. This is used as a noun adjunct in the sentence;
• n. the noun buffalo (American bison), an animal, in the plural (equivalent to "buffaloes" or "buffalos"), in order to avoid articles.
• v. the verb "buffalo" meaning to outwit, confuse, deceive, intimidate, or baffle.
Buffaloa buffalon Buffaloa buffalon buffalov buffalov Buffaloa buffalon.
A diagram explaining the sentence
Diagram using a comparison to explain the buffalo sentence
Thomas Tymoczko has pointed out that there is nothing special about eight "buffalos";[1] any sentence consisting solely of the word "buffalo" repeated any number of times is grammatically correct. The shortest is "Buffalo!", which can be taken as a verbal imperative instruction to bully someone ("[You] buffalo!") with the implied subject "you" removed,[2]:99–100, 104 or as a noun exclamation, expressing e.g. that a buffalo has been sighted, or as an adjectival exclamation, e.g. as a response to the question, "where are you from?" Tymoczko uses the sentence as an example illustrating rewrite rules in linguistics.[2]:104–105
The idea that one can construct a grammatically correct sentence consisting of nothing but repetitions of "buffalo" was independently discovered several times in the 20th century. The earliest known written example, "Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo", appears in the original manuscript for Dmitri Borgmann's 1965 book Language on Vacation, though the chapter containing it was omitted from the published version.[3] Borgmann recycled some of the material from this chapter, including the "buffalo" sentence, in his 1967 book, Beyond Language: Adventures in Word and Thought.[4]:290 In 1972, William J. Rapaport, now a professor at the University at Buffalo but then a graduate student at Indiana University, came up with versions containing five and ten instances of "buffalo".[5] He later used both versions in his teaching, and in 1992 posted them to the LINGUIST List.[5][6] A sentence with eight consecutive "buffalo"s is featured in Steven Pinker's 1994 book The Language Instinct as an example of a sentence that is "seemingly nonsensical" but grammatical. Pinker names his student, Annie Senghas, as the inventor of the sentence.[7]:210
Neither Rapaport, Pinker, nor Senghas were initially aware of the earlier coinages.[5] Pinker learned of Rapaport's earlier example only in 1994, and Rapaport was not informed of Borgmann's sentence until 2006.[5] Even Borgmann's example may not be the oldest: computational linguist Robert C. Berwick, who used a five-"buffalo" version in a 1987 book,[8]:100 claims he had heard the sentence as a child ("before 1972, to be sure") and had assumed it was part of common parlance.[5]
In popular culture
• A parsed version of the sentence is in the lyrics for the song "Buffalo" by Alt-J, from the soundtrack for Silver Linings Playbook.[10]
• The phrase "Buffalo buffalo buffalo", a shortened allusion to the phrase, appears on the song "Wow Wow" from the album Mouth Moods by Neil Cicierega.
See also
1. ^ Henle, James; Garfield, Jay; Tymoczko, Thomas (2011). Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 1118078632.
10. ^ "Buffalo – Alt-J". Google. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
External links
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7a English Monday / Wednesday
Open your books at page 40 and read situation 3 including the ‚Letter to the Queen‘.
Now watch the following video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Orom5_PAFdk
Go back to the ‚Letter to the Queen‘ and do the following for each sentence:
1. circle the verb
2. highlight the indirect object (person) in pink
3. highlight the direct object (thing) in blue … like they did in the video.
Finish the lesson doing exercise 9.
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(1897–1987). German chemist Georg Wittig’s studies of organic phosphorus compounds won him a share (with Herbert C. Brown) of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1979.
Wittig was born on June 16, 1897, in Berlin, Germany. He graduated from the University of Marburg in 1923, received his doctorate there in 1926, and remained as a lecturer in chemistry until 1932. He taught at the Technical University in Braunschweig and at the universities of Braunschweig, Freiburg, and Tübingen before joining the faculty of the University of Heidelberg in 1956, where he became emeritus in 1965 but continued to pursue research.
In investigating reactions involving carbanions (organic species that contain a negatively charged carbon), Wittig discovered a class of organic phosphorus compounds called ylides that mediate a particular type of reaction that became known as the Wittig reaction. This reaction proved of great value in the synthesis of complex organic compounds such as vitamins A and D2, prostaglandins, and steroids. Wittig died on Aug. 26, 1987, in Heidelberg, West Germany. (See also Nobel prizes.)
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Atlantis Article
Atlantis: Proof that Something Very,
Very Big Happened 9620 BCE
by Rod Martin, Jr.
Atlantis Proof - Space Shuttle Atlantis
The allure of the name, Atlantis, is compelling. One of America's space shuttles was named for the fabled lost island.
Atlantis Proof - space
According to the Greek philosopher, Plato, approximately 9,600 years before the Common Era, a large island was swallowed by the sea. Atlantis is the subject of popular fiction, an icon of fanatical debate, and the name of one of America's space shuttles.
Is there any truth behind the myth?
In 2002, while researching the background for a novel, I found three items of scientific evidence that may help to answer that question. They may not yet prove Atlantis was real, but they do prove that something big happened when Atlantis supposedly sank.
Proof? Incredible! Yes and each item of proof supports the hypothesis that the destruction of Atlantis was a real event. Each item of evidence could have been caused by the destruction of Plato's legendary island empire.
3 Items that Prove Something Big Happened 9620 BCE, The Year Atlantis Died
1. An abrupt and major change to climate worldwide.
2. A moderately large trace of volcanic debris in the Greenland ice cores.
3. A sudden, 2-meter drop in sea levels worldwide.
Atlantis Proof - Abrupt Climate Change, 9620 BCE
After a 1300-year return to Ice Age conditions, during the period known as the Younger Dryas, Earth's climate found itself suddenly warmer. Within half a century, climate had warmed significantly worldwide.
Atlantis Proof - space
The first item refers to the Younger Dryas, a 1300-year return to Ice Age conditions, after thousands of years of gradual warming. The abrupt start of the Younger Dryas has one widely accepted theory regarding a large, freshwater flood from the deglaciation of North America. The end of this period, however, is not as readily understood. If the Younger Dryas mini-Ice Age was caused by a cap on the thermohaline circulation in the North Atlantic, what could have broken that cap?
Most current estimates place the end of the Younger Dryas at about 9620 BCE. If Atlantis existed, and if it was between one and two times the size of Texas, an overnight collapse would likely have created a mega-tsunami as much as a kilometer or two high at landfall. It is easy to imagine such a wave stirring up the Atlantic with sufficient force to break the freshwater cap that started the Younger Dryas. Are there other possible sources for this sudden climatic shift? Of course there are. This one item does not prove Atlantis. By itself, it is merely an interesting coincidence with Plato's date.
Atlantis Proof - Volcanic Trace in Greenland Ice Cores, 9620.77 BCE
GISP2 survey ice cores show a moderately large volcanic trace right at the end of the Younger Dryas — 9620.77 BCE.
Atlantis Proof - space
The second item comes from the GISP2 survey — ice cores that detail the content of air over the last tens of thousands of years. About 9620.77 BCE volcanic debris found its way to Greenland from somewhere in the world. Perhaps a chemical signature might tell the source location, but it might be difficult to know for certain what flavors volcanoes were belching so long ago. This moderately large volcanic trace tapers off over the next two or more years. Was this from Atlantis? The date is close enough to be a match. And such an event as the collapse of Atlantis would likely have been accompanied by volcanic eruptions. The traditional location of Atlantis, at the Azores, is a field of volcanic activity astride the Africa-Eurasia tectonic plate boundary.
Atlantis Proof - A 2-meter drop in sea levels worldwide, 9620 BCE.
A 1989 Nature magazine article shows a 2-meter drop in sea levels worldwide at the end of the Younger Dryas — 9620 BCE. If this measurement is a proxy for a real event, then we have our smoking gun in the case of Atlantis' death.
Atlantis Proof - space
The third item is from a 1989 article in Nature magazine (Vol. 342, 7 December 1989). A graph of 17,000 years of sea level change shows a sudden drop in sea level at the end of the Younger Dryas (approximately 9620 BCE). On the original chart, the date was different, but the dates were less accurately known then. However, the slowdown in sea level rise during the Younger Dryas is quite apparent on the graph. Right before sea level rise accelerated (at the end of the Younger Dryas), there was approximately a 2-meter drop in sea levels worldwide.
Anywhere else on the graph, such a small blip would have remained unnoticed. Is this drop a proxy for some real tectonic collapse? Certainly this needs corroboration. What is significant about the magnitude of this drop in sea level is that it is equivalent to the drop one would expect from a Texas-sized plot of land collapsing 1000 meters somewhere in the oceans of Earth. In our Goldilocks fairytale, this amount is "just right" — a perfect fit for Atlantis.
Was Atlantis geologically feasible? Yes, but that is the subject of another article.
Want to know more?
Download the Free Extended Article, Today
"Proof that Something Very Big Happened"
by Rod Martin, Jr.
"I can say without reservation that the article is great.... You have a way of making difficult concepts sound relatively simple." — R. Cedric Leonard,, author of Quest for Atlantis (Manor Books, New York, 1979).
We finally have proof in support of Atlantis. Three items of scientific evidence, from three different disciplines, tell us that something very big happened when Plato's Atlantis was swallowed by the sea. This electronic article is packed with more information, references, charts, maps and diagrams. The implications of this article are profound. You owe it to yourself to investigate this further. If anything could change the meaning of history, this may very well be it. (PDF format, 8.5x11", full color, version 1.02, 888 KB, 10 pages.)
Simply right click on the link for "Atlantis: Proof that Something Very Big Happened" and select "Save Target As" (Internet Explorer), or "Save Link As" (FireFox), or similar wording in other browsers. (Or you can left click to open the PDF file and click the save button in Adobe Reader within your browser.)
Managed by Tharsis Highlands for Mission: Atlantis
Copyright © 2009–2011 Rod Martin, Jr., All World Rights Reserved
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Fairy tales and legends can be thought as good bedtime stories for our children. Yet, to learners of English, those stories can also be a good method to remember the meanings of idioms. Just open your Oxford Idioms Dictionary for Learners of English, and you will see it is a real story book for adults.
Achilles' heel:
Achilles, the well-known legendary Greek hero, reminds us of the battle at Troy. Thanks to the magical water at the river Styx, his body is thought to be strong and immune to any injuries except for his heel. From this legend, Achilles' heel is associated with "a hidden weakness or fault in somebody which may be used to harm them"1.
An Aladdin's cave:
Walt Disney's story of Aladdin and the humorous genie must be familiar to lots of our children. As this story has grown so popular worldwide, its details enter the word list of many languages, including English. The English idiom "an Aladdin's cave" is understood figuratively as "a place full of valuable or interesting objects"2.
Fiddle while Rome burns:
Historically famous stories from ancient Greek culture or Roman culture usually appear in many European languages in various forms. In English, these myths make up the idioms. For instance, Nero, the renowned ambitious and sometimes cruel emperor of Rome, was rumored to burn Rome for his own strategy to gain more power. When Rome was on fire, he was thought to play violin with great calmness. Such indifference is reflected in the idiom "fiddle while Rome burns", which means "do nothing or waste your time when you should be dealing with a dangerous or serious situation"3.
Untie the Gordian knot:
The wits of the ancient kings are always appreciated through the course of time, and Alexander the Great is an example for this. When being asked to untie a tricky knot by King Gordius, King Alexander quickly solved the problem by making a single cut through that knot with his sword. The story has gone into English idiom: when you untie the Gordian knot, you "solve a very difficult or complicated problem with forceful action"4.
Have the Midas touch:
Have you ever heard about a king who could turn everything into gold with just one touch? In ancient Greek legends, King Midas was granted a wish by Dionysus, the Greek god of grape harvest. He finally regretted what he wished for. But nowadays, the idiom "have the Midas touch" has a positive denotation: to have the Midas touch is to "be very successful in making money"5.
Pandora's box
This idiom derives from another Greek legend. Because of her natural curiosity, Pandora, the first woman created by the Greek gods, opened the box that Zeus gave her. Of course she should not have opened it. This legendary box, when left opened, released evil things. Hence, to date, the Pandora's box refers to "a source of great trouble and suffering, although this may not be obvious at the beginning"6.
As rich as Croesus
You might think King Midas was the richest emperor in the ancient Greek thanks to the "golden wish" that Dionysus granted to him. Still, there was another wealthy king in Greece who remains a symbol of wealth nowadays. He was the first king to issue gold coins and blessed by the Greek gods. It may be the gold coin issue that earns this king the title for wealth. When someone is as rich as Croesus, he/she is "extremely rich"7.
Theresa T.
1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Oxford Idioms Dictionary for Learners of English (2001). Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 2, 6, 119, 145, 235, 274, 318
Keywords: dich thuat
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Graafian follicle
A Graafian follicle, also known as an ovarian follicle, is a fluid-filled cyst-like cavity found in the ovaries. It surrounds and protects the developing ovum. Once the ovum is released into a Fallopian tube, the follicle develops a yellowish mass of tissue called the corpus luteum. Graafian follicles are named after Regnier de Graaf.
Graaf, Regnier de (1641–1673)
Regnier de Graaf
Regnier de Graaf was a Dutch anatomist and doctor who after whom the Graafian follicles are named. Graaf investigated the functions of the pancreas and the nature of the sexual organs. He was the first user of the term "ovary".
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Social Studies Close this window
Modelling the Tools HeaderWhat's this?
Offering a Fair-minded Account
This modelling the tools is incorporated into critical challenges at grade 10, however, it can be adapted for use at all grade levels.
Session One
Introduce the event.
• Briefly set the context for the event by showing a visual such as the detail of Trumbull's painting, which is the right-hand third of the painting (see References). Invite students to comment on the painting and identify the key actions.
Introduce concept: Point of view.
• Discuss the notion of point of view. All observations and opinions are, of necessity, from a point of view with a perspective or set of presuppositions or values. Therefore each side will see the same event differently. Focus the discussion on the following questions:
Are there suggestions that the artist conveys a pro-American point of view in the portion of the painting? (e.g., the noble, brave-looking, almost solitary citizen in the centre of the picture, the large number of British troops that look to be running away)
How might a pro-British painter characterize the battle? (e.g., put the British troops in centre-stage, portray their courage, characterize the battle as a tragic event)
Introduce concept: Bias.
• Solicit student reactions to the following event:
In the United States the Hearst newspaper chain was concerned that an American textbook had a pro-British bias on the Battle of Bunker Hill. In the description of the battle, it is stated that "three times the British returned courageously to the attack." As a result of pressure exerted by the newspaper chain, the textbook was revised to read "three times the cowardly British returned to the attack."
Discuss the notion of bias—that a point of view is unfairly prejudged because of an individual's preference for one perspective over another.
As a further example of a biased point of view, share with students the following descriptions in British newspapers appearing during the Gulf War (Manchester Guardian, February 1991). The left-hand column contains the words used to describe Allied forces; the right-hand column contains the words used to describe Iraqi forces.
Allied forces . . .
Iraqi forces . . .
are cautious and loyal
are brave
are cautious
cause collateral damage
launch first strikes
hold press briefings
are cowardly and blindly obedient
are fanatical
are cowardly
cause civilian casualties
launch sneak missile attacks
engage in propaganda
These accounts are biased because otherwise identical actions are described in significantly different language depending on whether they were performed by "friendly" or "enemy" troops.
Examine the text passage.
• Assign students to read the passage in the text:
In June 1775, British troops attacked American forces defending Bunker Hill, the heights overlooking the city of Boston. The heroic stand of American patriots in this battle inspired the colonists in their struggle for independence.
As a class discuss the following questions:
What words suggest that this battle is seen as a positive event from an American point of view? (e.g., "The heroic stand of American patriots in this battle inspired the colonists in their struggle for independence.")
How might a pro-British historian have rewritten this sentence? (e.g., "The bloodthirsty stand of American rebels in this battle provoked other colonists to undertake further treachery against the British king.")
Introduce concept: Fair-minded or balanced accounts.
• Define and discuss fair-minded or balanced account—that one's observations and opinions can be from a point of view that gives fair consideration to alternative perspectives on the question, i.e., not be biased, not be determined solely by the interests or preferences of the individual offering the observation or opinion, that some points of view are clearly biased and that we should try to consider alternative perspectives impartially before arriving at a final opinion.
Reveal the full picture.
• Present the entire Trumbull painting (available online at http://www.americanrevolution.org/bunksm.html) and compare it to the detail shown earlier. Present or ask students to read Background to Trumbull's Painting (Background Information), which gives an account of the battle and Trumbull's purpose in completing the painting. Notice how the perspective changes between viewing the entire painting or the smaller section. Discuss whether or not the full painting presents a fair-minded account of British-American actions in the battle. As an extension, consider the artist's point of view toward war generally. Present an additional critical challenge: Has Trumbull painted a fair-minded account of the horror and glory of military battle?
Pose the critical challenge.
• Invite students to write a fair-minded account of the battle using the information they have.
Discuss students' accounts.
• Form small groups to discuss students' accounts and then share results with the whole class. Point out that being fair-minded does not mean that we cannot make positive or negative judgements; rather, it means that we must reach these conclusions only after considering all sides impartially and with an open mind. It may be useful to move physically from one position in the room to another to illustrate the different things one may notice when a situation is viewed from different vantage points. A fair-minded account would try to be sensitive to many points of view.
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Last updated: July 1, 2014 | (Revision History)
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(left, mosque) Bernd Fitzner; (right, Worcester College wall) Heather Viles
Drip, drip. Light bands reveal salt damage in walls at a mosque in Cairo (left) and at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom.
How Tiny Drips Can Crumble a Building
It doesn't take a flood to destroy a building. Mere moisture over many years can do the same. Now, materials scientists have found a way to predict how moisture works its way through a given building and location, something that should lead to better assessments of the health of historic structures.
Any building made of porous stone or brick is vulnerable to destruction by moisture. Groundwater rising up through the material via capillary action can weaken chemical bonds, and the salt it carries will eventually crystallize and expand, cracking rock and mortar. Over 100 years' time, even slightly salty groundwater can transport as much as 4.2 kilograms of salt through 1 meter of wall.
Until now, however, no one had developed a way to gauge exactly how water behaves inside a masonry wall, or how climate can affect its movement. So for 3 years, materials scientists Christopher Hall and Andrea Hamilton of the University of Edinburgh in the United Kingdom and colleagues studied two centuries-old stone walls: one a freestanding wall at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom and the other part of a mosque in Cairo. They then developed a mathematical model to explain where, how far, and how much water wicks upward through the tiny channels, or capillaries, within the walls.
The team found that, depending on humidity and ground moisture, stone and mortar can transport more than a liter of water a day. It's a "largely invisible process," says Hall. But over the long term, "the total amounts of water flowing through structures can be huge," he says, particularly in historic buildings that are hundreds of years old, where water has begun to hollow out the stones.
The researchers also discovered that the way moisture travels through stone is largely determined by local climate—a factor called the potential evaporation (PE) of the atmosphere, which combines temperature and humidity over time. As the team reports online today in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, the average PE in Oxford is about half of that in Cairo. That means more evaporation occurred at the Cairo site, which should have caused water to leach out of the walls before it could rise very high. But because the Cairo wall is much thicker than the Oxford wall, it takes water longer to leach out, and thus the salt water actually rises higher in Egypt than it did in the United Kingdom (see photo). Either way, it's bad news for the buildings, as salty water in walls will eventually destroy them.
The paper "makes excellent predictions about a complicated and important problem," says materials scientist George Scherer of Princeton University. It shows that the amount of water and salt are "strongly dependent on the local climate." Therefore, warming temperatures could "enhance the deterioration of monuments by accelerating the rate of evaporation."
This item has been corrected. It originally said that water rises through stone via osmosis. Capillary action is responsible for the rise.
Posted in Math, Technology
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31 December 2011
CBSE Class 8th Science Assignments
Q.1. Explain the structure of eye.
Q.2.How are we able to see in dim and bright light?
Q.3.What is the function of the ciliary muscles?
Q.4.What kind of image is formed by eye-lens?
Q.5.What are photo receptors?
Q.6.How we can see colours?
Q.7.What is persistence of vision?
Q.8.How does persistence of vision help to see the object as moving?
Q.9.How are we able to see a moving picture?
Q.10.Which principle is used in cinematography?
Q.11.What happens when an object is brought closer to the eye and why?
Q.12.What is the near point of the eye?
Q.13.What are the two defects of the eye?
Q.14.What are the different reasons for vision problems?
Q.15.Who developed Braille system?
Q.1.What initiates changes at puberty?
Q.2. Is there any role of hormones in completing life history of insects and frogs?
Q.3.What is the function of endocrine system?
Q.4.Name the major glands that make up the endocrine system.
Q.5. Write a short note on Adam’s apple.
Q.6. Name some vitamins and minerals needed by adolescents to build strong and healthy bones.
Q.7.Name the hormones released by the various glands in our body. Mention the function of each hormone.
Q.8.Write some habits that adolescents need to adopt to maintain personal hygiene.
Q.9.Discuss the consequences of taking drugs by the adolescents.
Q.10. Is mother responsible for determining the sex of a child? Give reasons for your answer.
Lesson 13 ( Synthetic Fibres and Plastics)
Q1. Give some examples of Natural and Synthetic fibres.
Q2. What are monomers and polymers ?
Q3. What is polymerisation ?
Q4. What is Rayon ? Why is it not truly an artificial fibre ?
Q5.Give some features and uses of Terylene and acrylic fibres.
Q6. What are the advantages of synthetic fibres ?
Q7. Write some disadvantages of synthetic fibres.
Q8. What are plastics ? What are its different types ?
Q9. Differentiate between Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics.
Q10. What are the characteristics of synthetic plastics ?
Q11. Differentiate between biodegradable and non-biodegradable.
Q12. Give some measures to control the damage caused by plastic waste.
Q13. Name the first fully synthetic fibre. What are its different uses ?
Q14. Should the handle and bristles of a tooth brush be made of the same material ? Explain your answer.
Q15. Explain why the following materials are made of thermosetting plastics –
(i) Saucepan handles (ii) Kitchenware
Q.1. Define the following terms -- reproduction , hatching.
Q.2.Explain the process of budding in hydra and yeast.
Q.3. How does external fertilization take place in frogs?
Q.4. Explain the male reproductive system in humans.
Q.5.Draw the diagram of human sperm and explain its structure.
Q.6. Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction.
Q.7. Why does a child show some characteristics of the father and some of the mother?
Q.8. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.
Q.9. Differentiate between oviparous and viviparous animals.
Q.10.Why do fish and frogs lay eggs in hundreds whereas a hen lays only one egg at a time?
Q1 What is crop production?
Q2 Define agriculture and agricultural practices.
Q3 What are rabi crops?
Q4 Write agricultural practices required for growing crops.
Q5 What is soil made up of ?
Q6 Write short note on ”SOWING”and “SEED DRILL”.
Q7 What is manuring? Why is it important?
Q8 How do farmers prepare manure?
Q9 What are the advantages of manure?
Q10 Why is overuse of fertilizer harmful?
Q11 How do leguminous plants help in increasing the nitrogen content of the soil?
Q12 Define irrigation. How is it done ?
Q13 Why is the minimum use of pesticides advised?
Q14 What is harvesting? What are its different methods?
Q15 What is winnowing? How is it done?
Q16 Why do we sundried the grains before storing?
Q17 What is green revolution?
Q18 Why were Mexican wheat introduced in India?
Q19 Define – Hybridization , Emasculation .
Q20 Why is cross breeding done?
Q21 Where is hybridization done?
Q22 How can we provide food to a large number of people in our country?
Q23 Why can paddy not be grown in the winter season?
Q24 Why do some plants grow better than others?
Q25 Explain how fertilizers and manures are different from each other.
Source :www.davblb.ac.in
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Defined literally the word vivisection signifies the dissection of living creatures; ordinarily it means any scientific experiment on animals involving the use of the scalpel; incorrectly it is used for any experimental observations of animals under abnormal conditions. The literal dissection of living animals is practised nowhere, as it is much more convenient to study the structure of man's body in the cadaver. According to Aulus Cornelius Celsus, who lived in the reign of Tiberius, and Tertullian (about 160-240) living criminals were dismembered at Alexandria in the reigns of Ptolemy II (285-247 B.C.) and Ptolemy III (247-221 B.C.). The same act was maliciously attributed to Jacobus Berengarius, Andreas Vesalius, and Gabriel Fallopius, celebrated anatomists of the sixteenth century. The history of scientific observation of and experimentation upon animals, both bloodless and bloody, began at the moment when it was perceived that the processes of nature could be discovered only by the exact observation of nature and not by philosophical methods. For physiological and pathological research experimentation with animals is an indispensable aid, while for medical science it is of much value. It gives a view of the working processes of the living organism, permits us to produce diseases artificially, and to investigate the organic changes produced by these diseases in each stage of their course.
Before William Harvey (1578-1657) could announce his discovery of the circulation of the blood he was obliged, as he confesses, to make for years innumerable vivisections of animals of all kinds, for he could investigate the mechanism of the circulation only in the living animal. He was thus able to reach the conclusion that the arteries which are empty in the corpse are filled with blood during life and not with air, as was believed until then. The Jesuit Jaspar Schott (1608-66), professor of mathematics and physics at Würzburg, put animals into an enclosure where the air was rarefied and described the phenomena of death by suffocation on the basis of his experiments. He injected solutions of drugs into the veins of dogs, and proved that medicines administered in this manner produce effects more quickly than when taken into the stomach. Christopher Wren made similar experiments at Oxford in 1656. Thomas Willis (1622-75) propounded, after numerous experiments, the theory of the localization of the different faculties in the several parts of the brain, and all our knowledge as to the functions of the brain has been acquired almost entirely in the same way. Albrecht von Haller (1708-77), the founder of modern physiology, repeatedly emphasizes in his works the importance of experiments on animals. Observation and reflection led Alexander Walker to the conclusion that the nerves arising from the anterior spinal ganglion serve to convey sensation, and those from the posterior convey motor impulses. Charles Bell (1774-1842) proved the opposite to be the fact by simply cutting through the anterior roots. The experiments made on animals by Claude Bernard (1813-78) yielded information concerning the use of the pancreas in the digestion of fats, concerning the morbid process of forming glucose or sugar in the liver, the origin of diabetes, etc. Our knowledge concerning assimilation and digestion, the appearance of emboli or obstructions in blood-vessels, the effects of poisons, and of modern drugs is derived from similar sources. The treatment of hydrophobia and the whole of serum therapeutics rest on almost endless and laborious experiments on animals. It was proved by feeding animals with trichiniferous meat that parts of the body are first and preferably attacked by trichinae. The experiments led to the establishment of careful inspection of meat by which thousands of people have been preserved from the danger of trichinosis. Before the attempt could be made to excise a degenerated thyroid gland the larynx,.or a kidney in human beings, the operation had to be made on innumerable mammals and the processes of the cure observed. How can a surgeon make a practical test of a theoretically established new method of sewine UP a wound if not on animals? There is no branch of medical science that cannot be essentially benefited by experiments on animals. In the last instance the results of the experiments do good to humanity. Consequently it appears inadmissible to declare vivisection a means morally forbidden and to characterize experiments on animals as the torture of animals.
About 1870 the societies for the protection of animals, especially those in England, began a violent agitation against vivisection, which led in 1876 to a bill entitled "Cruelty to Animals Act." In this way vivisection was essentially restricted. The agitation spread later to Germany and Austria and in 1885 led in both countries to legislation which permitted vivisection under conditions that did not prevent experiments for research. The opponents of vivisection claim that experiments on animals have no direct value for medical science, that it is an aimless torture, brutalizing the mind, and that distinguished scholars have denounced it. Compassion for the defenseless animal plays a large part in the opposition. It is just at this point, however, that an incongruity becomes evident between the feeling for the human being and for the animal, as the instances cited above show that experiments on animals are undertaken for the benefit of suffering humanity. Rudolf von Ihering remarks very appositely: "The sympathy with the animal that is shown in each attack is in reality disregard of man, a confusion of moral feeling that sacrifices the human being in order to protect the animal" ("Zweck im Recht", II, 141). Windthorst, the leader of the Centre party, said in the German Reichstag on 23 January, 1882: "There is absolutely no doubt that we should not try to prevent what is really necessary for science. I am certainly of the opinion that an animal can in no way be placed on an equality with man ; it is created to serve him, and when necessary it must serve him in this manner." It is unjust to accuse vivisectors of cruelty, for in operations causing blood every investigator, to avoid being disturbed while at his work, uses narcotics if possible. It has also been asserted that the customary curare, which is an arrow-poison, paralyzes only the motor nerves and not those of sensation. Besldes curare, however, other poisons are used, as ether, chloroform, and morphine. Far more painful and morally impeachable are those operations on animals which spring from a perverted taste or fashion, as the castration of mammals and birds, the scaling of living fishes, the cooking of live crustacea, and the clipping of the tails and ears of pet dogs
There may be a few physicians among the opponents of vivisection, yet these are always men who have no interest in scientific investigation and who are often not able to comprehend an investigator's method of thinking. Even were there among the opponents of vivisection actual scientific investigators, the judgment of so small a number should not be taken into consideration in view of the numberless declarations made by all the medical faculties of Austria, Germany, and Switzerland, as well as by large numbers of medical societies throughout the civilized world, that experiments on animals are absolutely essential for investigation, and cannot be replaced by any other method. The celebrated anatomist of Vienna, Josef Hyrtl, was frequently called an opponent of vivisection. This error arose from quoting as proof sentences torn from their context. Hyrtl was only an enemy of excesses, and made many experiments on animals himself. He wrote: "Every thoughtful physician will acknowledge that the science of medicine owes great and important discoveries to vivisection. But for it, what would we know of the lacteals, of the functions of the nervous system, of fecundation and embryological development?" The objection that experimentation on animals is inadmissible as a means of instruction, because the pupil ought to believe the teacher, is just as false as if it were asserted that physics could be taught without experiments. It is certain, however, that limitations are possible for the lecture room. A legislative body exceeds its authority when it wishes to prescribe to the investigator the methods and means to be used in investigation. But it may have the right to prescribe certain conditions. Thus, in the nineteenth century, Austria adopted the following rational regulations: Experiments on living animals can be made only in government institutions, only by the heads of the institutions or instructors, or under their supervision by other persons. They were also permitted in exceptional cases for purposes of instruction. When possible, the animals were to be thoroughly anaesthetized. Higher animals were to be used only when it is absolutely necessary. In England an Act relating to vivisection was passed in 1876. It placed various restrictions upon the practice of experiments on animals. A license was required, besides one or more certificates setting forth the conditions under which the experiment was to be made. The Home-Secretary was empowered by the Act to issue such additional regulations as he saw fit. (See also CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.)
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Image 43
Tile with image of a phoenix
Tile with image of a phoenix
Late 13th century
Iran, probably Takht-i Sulaiman
Stonepaste; underglaze-painted in blue and turquoise, luster-painted on opaque white ground, molded; 14 3/4 x 14 1/4 in. (37.5 x 36.2 cm)
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.49.4)
Previous Image Next Image
Cultural exchange, Genghis Khan, Ilkhanid Mongols, Chinese Yuan, phoenix, simurgh, relief, stonepaste
The phoenix (featured here) and dragon (found on many other tiles found at the same site) are important symbols in Chinese art and culture, in which they are regarded as benevolent and auspicious beasts (fig. 50). Both subjects made their way from China into Iran. The phoenix was transformed into a mythical Persian bird, the simurgh. In its Persian context, the simurgh retained its benevolent and magical associations. It is legendary for saving the life of prince Zal in the Shahnama. (See The Making of a Persian Royal Manuscript: The Shahnama (Book of Kings) of Shah Tahmasp.) This is just one of many Chinese motifs—such as scroll-like clouds and vegetal spirals of flowers, leaves, and vines—that began to appear in Persian art during the thirteenth century.
Archaeological evidence indicates that this tile was once one of hundreds that decorated the interior walls of the Ilkhanid imperial palace Takht-i Sulaiman (near Tabriz, in present-day northwestern Iran). Together with other decoration such as carved stucco, the tiles created a richly colored and textured surface in the interior of the palace.
A phoenix, or simurgh, adorns the center of this tile, the body pointing upward toward the sky and the blue and turquoise plumage spreading out behind it. The entire surface is molded in relief and painted in blue, turquoise, white, and luster—a gold-colored metallic sheen achieved by firing at a specific temperature. One can imagine the stunning visual effect created by hundreds of such intricate and colorful tiles adorning the inside of a palatial room.
This tile indicates the close economic, political, and artistic relationship between the Ilkhanid Mongols and their Chinese Yuan cousins within the vast area controlled by descendants of the Mongol conqueror, Genghis Khan. As east-west trade flourished throughout the Mongol domains, so did the transmission of artistic techniques, aesthetic tastes, and decorative motifs. The Ilkhanids, whose name means "subordinates to the Great Khan [of China]," ruled Iran and its surrounding territories. Nomads and traders transported luxury items, such as textiles and works of art on paper and silk, throughout the vast empire, introducing dragons, lotus flowers, phoenixes, and other creatures from Chinese mythology into the Ilkhanid decorative repertoire, where they took on new meanings and forms.
Fig. 50. Canopy with phoenixes and flowers, Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), China; silk and metallic thread embroidery on silk gauze; overall: 56 3/8 x 53 in. (143.2 x 134.6 cm); The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Purchase, Amalia Lacroze de Fortabat Gift, Louis V. Bell and Rogers Funds, and Lita Annenberg Hazen Charitable Trust Gift, in honor of Ambassador Walter H. Annenberg, 1988 (1988.82)
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
Tile with image of a phoenix
The lesson plan related to Ceramics in China and the Near East features a late thirteenth-century tile with the image of a phoenix.
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Do you have a book? Who wrote that book? Who made the book for you to read? Human beings, that is who! All people are called humans. We are not birds or trees or airplanes. We are humans! Humans can make things. Some human helped make your socks, your desk and your pencil. Read this lesson to find out what Little Bill made.
You will be watching a video book about Little Bill, Alice the Great, and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. After watching the video and completing an activity about producers, you will produce your own book about Little Bill, Alice the Great, or Dr. King."
Have you ever made something to give your mom or dad? Have you colored a picture for your mom and dad? Then you are a producer! Producers are people who make things for other people. Follow along with this interactive activity to learn more about producers. What else have you made? Have you made a card? Have you made a book?
In the story, we are going to watch Little Bill makes a friendship flower. He made his friendship flower out of hand shapes in all different colors. He made the flower to thank Dr. King for helping children of all different colors to go to school and play together.
FlowerGo to Thank You, Dr. King. This is a video book about Little Bill and Alice the Great. Little Bill helps make a book honoring Dr. King.
Did you see the friendship flower that Little Bill made? Did you see the book that Little Bill and Alice the Great made? They produced the book. People who make things are called producers.
Little Bill was the producer of the friendship flower. Alice the Great and Little Bill were the producers of the book honoring Dr. King.
Human beings produce things. What does a baker produce? A baker can produce doughnuts, cakes, cookies, and a lot of yummy things to eat. What does an artist produce? An artist produces art work such as paintings and pottery.
Complete this activity. Can you tell what these producers are making?
Now you should be able to tell that producers are humans that make things. You should be able to tell what kind of goods humans can produce. Were Little Bill and Alice the Great human beings in the story? What did they produce? Here's a couple of hard questions for you: Could a robot produce something? Is a Robot human?
Now we know that producers are people who make things. We call these people producers. Could a robot make things? Could a robot be a human?
Orange CrayonMake a book about Little Bill, Alice the Great, or Martin Luther King, Jr. You can run off some coloring pages from the websites to help you. But you have to color the pictures if you are the one making the book! Tell who produced the book (you did!). Are you a human? I sure hope so!
The coloring book about Little Bill can be found at:
1. To learn more about being an author, read this interview with an author: . You can find the book at .
2. To find out more about Martin Luther King, Jr., click on .
3. Other crafts you can make are at:
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Black Pneumonia: What It Is and How it Came to Existence
Black pneumonia can be referenced from the early 1918 influenza flu. The term ‘black’ is define from the same era since it was the same time that Black November was defined after the disease was born. Though tracing to the geographic location of the disease is not yet known, the event is that the black pneumonia has its origin in the New Zealand.
The 1918 pandemic is a memorable one in the minds of New Zealanders. The community was left with a scar that is un-rubbed from the impacts the flu that is today known as black pneumonia had. It was Professor Rice father who experience the detrimental effects of 1918 which Rice and his team of researchers brought into publication. His father narrated on how the atmosphere was filled with agony “lightning fires in the morning and adults were ill lying in the sheds all day, you could find a woman lying besides his husband’s body eyes filled with tears.”
At the end Professor Rice was able to compile a first seller book termed “black November” that detail different families that encountered the pandemic across the New Zealand society. The first chapter revolves around the society at the time nearing an incoming war and yet an incoming flu that would affect all and sundry. He explains that there was no life in the city for two to three weeks as rumors of an unprecedented civil emergence gushed the air, but yet the height of effect that the flu would give was not yet defined. It was during the war that interviewed individual suggested the US troops was responsible for the outbreak that killed many like flies.
People used sulphate sprayer to prevent the disease from spreading across the expanse. The health department in Auckland had sulphate sprayer in early November of 1918 and his book details information on how sulphate was a potential suppressor of the spread. The history of the black pneumonia explains the sources and the many assumptions that people had concerning the mind threatening illness that amazed many. It shows the attitude people had whether the world had reached its terminal since two coinciding disaster occurred; the Great War and the great flu.
In his second chapter he explains the movement of troops and how it further disbursed flu without people noticing it. This was carried to the great Europe in a single wave through the railway that moved people across the country and in particular the northern and southern hemispheres. This movement contributed to the wide spread of black pneumonia to china where it was defined to be a pneumonic plague.
Today black pneumonia and bubonic pneumonia are known to be of the same form that cropped from China but its predecessor is as defined above. The theory behind the disease is that it was reborn in wild creatures, rodents, and insects found in shambles of cities. The story then reiterates the disease to have been moved to San Francisco then to Mexico by riding fleas on burros. In 1924 the Newspapers are hit with headlines on a certain Mexican woman who caused a series of death in the quarter of Los Angeles. It follows that the government issues an emergency and a number of armed guards landed on the district to quarantine those infected in order to reduce the spread. The death toll came to 30 but successfully 500 doses of serum was dissipated to do away with the epidemic.
Black pneumonia has its path down history lane, and it’s a dangerous disease that swept a pool of people in New Zealand, today however it is possible to contain it wherever its origin are.
More Articles
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Japanese: Plantation Development
New arrivals, waiting to be assigned camp site.
Seventy-two plantations had started by 1890 and these all produced 259,789,462 pounds of raw sugar a year. This sugar was transported to processing companies on the West Coast of Hawaii. Sugar cane cultivation required labor-intensive work everyday an the industry looked for other technologies that would make their work less strenuous. They needed to recruit laborers to work the fields, so they recruited the Japanese. The Japanese came in the mid-1880s.
At that time, the plantations were using railroads more often to transport the laborers to the sugar cane fields and the cane to the mills. They also had stationary steam plows that made the work of preparing the land for planting much easier. Still, though, other things like planting the cane, pulling weeds, and fertilizing the cane was all the same hard labor for the people.
Identification Tags or bango
They all worked very hard and since it was easier, the industry made indentification tags for every person. People knew what ethnic group you were from because of the way your bango (identification tag) was shaped and numbered.
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Geology 12 - Historical Geology
Course Syllabus Course Schedule Assignments Department Home Page Kusnick Home Page
Key to text colors and fonts
Find information in book
Get information in class
Get information in both book and class
Reading: Chapter 10
The main things we want out of this chapter are 1) the evidence for Cambrian environments and 2) the evidence severe weather leaves behind. Be sure to note the links to other Web Sites and be sure to visit them to answer the questions.
Terms you should know:
aulacogen -
Key Concepts and Questions:
1. Breakup of the Proterozoic supercontinent
What is the evidence that at least one supercontinent existed in the Proterozoic? (we'll do this in class)
To see reconstructions of the Proterozoic supercontinent:
What is the evidence that a supercontinent broke up at about 500- 600 mya?
2. Cambrian rocks
How did deposition change toward the end of the Cambrian? What does this tell us about paleogeography and plate setting?
3. Episodic events
Find at least three indications of severe weather events left behind in Cambrian rocks. Why would we expect the sedimentary rocks of this large epeiric sea to be impacted primarily by large episodic storms rather than gradual deposition?
4. What was the paleoclimate of North America during the Cambrian?
What evidence exists to tell us about paleoclimate?
1. Proterozoic supercontinents
You should be able to:
2. Cambrian sediments
You should be able to:
3. Episodic events
You should be able to:
3. Paloeclimate
You should be able to:
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The Didjeridu
The most interesting Aboriginal musical instrument is the didjeridu. It was only known to the tribes of Eastern Kimberly and the northern third of the Northern Territory. The instrument is an unstopped hollowed piece of bamboo or termite-hollowed wood, usually the latter, about four or five feet long, and two or more inches in internal diameter, with a mouth-piece made of wax or hardened gum. The player blows into the instrument in trumpet fashion.
The Didjeridu is used with other instruments such as the Bull Roarer and Click (or Clap) Sticks. It is often used as an accompaniment to song and dance. It is also used in ceremonial functions.
Three distinct styles of traditional playing have been identified. West Arnhem Land uses quiet and uncomplicated patterns. A feature of that style is that hummed notes are used in conjunction with blown notes to produce slower patterns. North- East Arnhem Land uses the first overtone, at about a tenth above the fundamental droning note. This may be heard as a long hoot or a short sharp "toot". Eastern Arnhem Land styles use the second pitch as well as a variety of techniques using manipulations of the tongue, lips and breath to create fast energetic rhythmic patterns. The precision and variety of rhythm produced on the didjeridu are very striking. Sometimes it sounds like a deep pipe organ note being played continuously; at other times like a drum beaten in three-four time, and so on, varying according to the type of song and dance which it is accompanying.
The continuous nature of the sound is most remarkable. The breath is taken, or "snapped", through the nose. Two quick breaths are usually taken but some of the incoming air is kept in the mouth to be blown into the instrument while the next quick intake is being made. This process, called circular breathing, results in the cheeks being used much like a bellows.
The Didjeridu is the center-piece of most of the Corroborees danced by the Northern tribes in the Territory and the East Kimberleys. A corroboree is an important ceremonial when all the various tribes of a region would come together to hear and recount the sacred stories.
- Ed Drury
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Collage of Images for February Newsletter
Parturition in Livestock
By Steve Tonn, UNL Extension Educator
Image of Mother & CalfLate winter and early spring are common times for domesticated livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats to have their young. Parturition is defined as the process of giving birth. Ensuring that parturition goes smoothly is the key to avoiding newborn losses as well as maintaining the well-being of the mother.
A majority of births occur without any incidents or problems; however, things can go wrong during parturition that livestock owners must be prepared to deal with when they occur. In general the process for parturition is similar for all mammals, but it does vary from species to species. Every livestock owner should know the process that is specific to the animals they raise.
Parturition is the defining moment of the entire pregnancy that determines whether or not live offspring are produced. Generally speaking, there are three stages of parturition. It is very important that during parturition the animal moves smoothly through the three stages in a reasonable amount of time to ensure a safe and normal birth.
The first stage of parturition is known as the Preparatory Stage. It is during this stage that the female prepares to give birth. Some signs that parturition is near include, the female becomes restless and may be seen raising her tail and separating herself from the herd. In addition, there may be mucus discharge from the vulva, decreased body temperature, filling of the mammary glands with milk, and mild straining. Behavioral signs include nesting behavior and possibly stealing other newborns in the herd.
During the preparatory phase, the fetus rotates itself from the position that it has maintained throughout the pregnancy into the position required for parturition. Fetal membranes may be visible as they protrude out through the vulva at this time.
The second stage of parturition is the Expulsion Stage. It is at this point that the walls of the uterus begin to contract more frequently and with increased force, thus pushing the fetus into the birth canal. When the contractions become strong enough, the fetus is actually forced out of the female’s body, hence the name Expulsion Stage. Once an animal has entered this stage, delivery should occur fairly soon; otherwise, there may be difficulties preventing normal delivery. The proper position for a calf, lamb or kid exiting the birth canal is facing forward with its back up and its head resting between its front legs. Any other presentation is considered malpresentation, and more than likely will lead to difficulties in giving birth.
The final stage of partition is the Cleaning Stage. It is at this point in the process that the afterbirth, or the placenta, is expelled from the body. In order for the animal to make a normal, healthy recovery from parturition, the afterbirth must be expelled. If the fetal membranes and fluid remain in the animal, they can become infected and lead to serious illness and possible death of the mother.
Giving birth is a miracle that livestock owners get to see often first hand. Knowing the stages of parturition and knowing how and when to assist the mother, adds to this wonderful experience.
Source: Parturition in Livestock ; Neary and Hepworth. Purdue Extension AS-561-W.
Acreage Videos-
February 2012
We're having another typical Nebraska winter - January saw temperatures from 60 degrees to windchills of -11! During those cold days we're sure to experience in February, you may want to think about food for good health, good agricultural practices, and soil moisture in your yard.
Stay in shape this winter so you are ready for spring. Alice Henneman, University of Nebraska Extension, shares ways to stay fit through wise eating.
Sarah Browning, University of Nebraska Extension, describes GAPs - good agricultural practices for commercial vegetable growers and home gardeners. Understand the practices recommended for your farm to keep your produce safe.
With a lack of precipitation so far this winter, Al Dutcher, Gary Zoubek, and Bob Klein, all with UNL Extension, are concerned about dryness in Nebraska due to another La Nina year.
Brooding and Rearing Ducks & Goslings
From University of Missouri Extension
Image of Mallard Duck & ducklingsDucks and goslings can be raised in much the same way as baby chicks. In fact, broody hens can be used to care for young ducks and goslings, just as they would their own chicks. Ducks and geese are hardy and are not susceptible to many of the common poultry diseases. This makes them easy to raise.
Learn more with Brooding and Rearing Ducks & Gooslings.
Stand By Your Stream
From Cornell Cooperative Extension
If a stream runs through your acreage, actions taken on your property will affect water quality and quantity in the stream, as well as health and ecology of fish and other aquatic life.
For more information on how to maintain a healthy streamside buffer, review Cornell University listing Do's and Don'ts to help protect streams. "Stand By Your Stream: Streamside Management Do's and Don'ts".
New NebGuides Will Help Rural Nebraskan’s Protect Private Drinking Water Supplies
By Sharon Skipton, UNL Extension Educator
Image of wellheadA series of six new University of Nebraska – Lincoln Extension NebGuides will help rural families protect their private drinking water supplies. The NebGuides, developed by UNL Extension faculty Sharon Skipton, Jan Hygnstrom, and Wayne Woldt, are available at, and can be downloaded free of charge.
Groundwater provides nearly all the drinking water in rural Nebraska. The layers of soil, sand, and gravel above groundwater aquifers provide some, but not complete protection from contamination. Groundwater can be contaminated when pollution sources are not managed carefully. By increasing knowledge and using careful management, rural families can greatly reduce the risk of contamination to their private drinking water supply, often with little or no cost or effort.
The six new NebGuides are designed to help rural families evaluate the activities around their acreage or farmstead that can present a risk to their water supply. The NebGuides also provide information on how to reduce risks and better protect the health of family members. Some of the information will be reassuring, while some may encourage people to modify certain practices. Either way, people with private drinking water wells will have the information they need to do the best possible job of protecting their family’s drinking water.
If a well is poorly located, constructed, or maintained, pollutants such as bacteria or nitrate may contaminate the groundwater serving as the drinking water source. A contaminated well can pose a serious health threat to water users. The NebGuide “Protecting Private Drinking Water Supplies: Water Well Location, Construction, Condition, and Management” will help people evaluate possible risks associated with their well.
Most rural families use a septic system or lagoon to treat wastewater and return it to the environment. A poorly designed, located, constructed, or maintained wastewater treatment system can contribute to groundwater contamination. Potential contaminants in household wastewater include disease-causing bacteria, infectious viruses, household chemicals, and excess nutrients, such as nitrate. The NebGuide “Protecting Private Drinking Water Supplies: Wastewater (Sewage) Treatment System Management” will help people evaluate the type of onsite wastewater treatment system in use, the return of treated wastewater to the environment, and potential threats to the well.
Watch next month for information on the four remaining topics covered by this series of publications.
The series of publications is the result of a collaborative effort between the University of Nebraska – Lincoln Extension, the Nebraska Department of Health and Human Services, the Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality, the Nebraska Well Drillers Association, and the Nebraska Onsite Waste Water Association, all of whom place a high priority on protecting Nebraska’s drinking water resources. Partial funding was provided by the Nebraska Well Drillers Association, the Nebraska Onsite Waste Water Association, and the Water Well Standards and Contractors' Licensing Board.
Ultrasonic Devices and Deer Whistles: Do They Work?
By Barb Ogg, UNL Extension Educator
People contemplating a move to rural living often don’t realize how extensive the pest load is likely to be. These folks often call the extension office for help dealing with the hoards of home invaders. Home invaders include mice and a wide variety of insects and spiders.
It is ingrained in the human condition to find easier ways to do things. It is the reason why people buy ultrasonic devices. These devices have existed for many years and are marketed through mail-order companies, home shopping cable channels and gardening magazines. They are readily being sold on the Internet and at hardware and other stores.
Manufacturers claim these devices use ultra-high frequency sound waves to chase away pests from rodents to spiders. But, do they work?
I decided to check out credible sources of information on the internet to see if I could find recent information about the effectiveness of ultrasonic devices. For me, credible sources include university websites (with the .edu suffix) or research articles by scientists.
Insect pests. I found a nicely written fact sheet from Dini Miller and Phil Koehler (2009), called Least Toxic Cockroach Control. In this fact sheet they note, “Ultrasonic devices are frequently advertised as a non-toxic method of cockroach control. However, extensive research has shown that these devices neither kill nor repel cockroaches ...”
Other research has shown ultrasonic collars do not drive fleas off cats and dogs or change flea activity patterns. And, ultrasonic bracelets do not repel mosquitoes or change mosquito behavior.
Wildlife. I found a number of research publications whose authors looked at the effectiveness of these devices on wildlife. None of these research articles concluded ultrasonic devices were effective at repelling or deterring wildlife pests.
Researchers found they did not repel wildlife, including rats and mice, white-tailed deer, bats, cats, starlings, pigeons and other bird species.
Why don’t these devices work? Many animals hear in the same range humans do. Others may hear higher frequencies, but may not be highly irritated by the sound. Even if they can hear the ultrasound frequency, animals readily become habituated to repeated sounds. They quickly learn the ultrasound isn't dangerous and return to their normal activities.
Another reason ultrasonic frequencies don’t work is they are very weak and drop off rapidly with distance from the source. Half the energy of ultrasound produced is gone at 15 feet, and no energy remains at 30 feet. Ultrasound is blocked by objects like walls and furniture and it can’t travel through walls and around corners.
It is possible for ultrasound to cause convulsions and permanent damage, but the sound intensity must be so great it would also damage humans and domestic animals. Commercial ultrasonic pest control devices do not produce sounds of this intensity.
Why are these devices still being marketed? The FTC has repeatedly tried gone after the companies that manufacture these devices. The companies are shut down, but the company changes the ultrasonic frequency and begins selling them again. If only people stopped buying these devices, companies would stop selling them.
There are plenty of non-toxic or low-toxic methods to keep pests outside, but admittedly, they take more work. For mouse and invading insects, seal cracks and crevices.
Eliminate weedy growth or vegetation near the house.
For controlling mice indoors, check out Moue Trapping 101, on the December 2011 acreage newsletter.
Deer whistles? While on the same internet search, I found information about another type of “sound” repeller: the deer whistle. I have relatives who have purchased these devices, which are mounted on the front of the car or truck. Air rushing through the whistle is supposed to make a sound which alerts animals and keep them from crossing the road, hence preventing deer-car accidents.
Do these work? Very unlikely.
A University of Connecticut researcher found the whistles produce a signal either at a frequency of 3 kilohertz (kHz) or 12 kHz. Because white-tailed deer has a hearing range of 2 kHz -6 kHz, it cannot even hear the 12 kHz signal.
It is possible for a deer to hear the 3 kHz signal, but the sound is drowned out by the road noise created by the car. Some whistle manufacturers claim deer can hear the sound a quarter mile away, but this has not been verified by research.
The Ohio State police installed deer whistled on patrol cars and found no significant subsequent decrease in deer accidents.
So, if you’ve got a deer whistle on your car or truck, don’t count on it very much to keep the deer on the side of the road. Your best protection is to drive carefully, especially at sunrise and sunset when deer are hard to see. And, if you see one deer, slow down....there will often be another deer behind it.
By Nicole Haxton, UNL Extension Educator
A word that no one wants to hear, but everyone should be aware of is cockroach. Cockroaches can be found in homes any time of the year, but hopefully never. These insects can cause a real bad infestation problem in your home. We all need to be aware of the problems, how to identify cockroaches, and how to control them if they get into our homes.
There are four main types of cockroaches that we may sometimes find in our homes; German cockroaches, oriental cockroaches, brown-banded cockroaches, and American cockroaches. These are the four species that can become quite numerous and be very invasive in our homes, if they find their way in initially.
German cockroaches are small, light brown roaches with two black stripes that run length-wise down their pronotum, or the area behind their head. These cockroaches are most commonly found in the kitchen or in the bathroom. German cockroaches are one of the two most common cockroaches found in the home and they can multiply very quickly.
The second most common is the oriental cockroach. Oriental cockroaches are a slightly larger cockroach than the German roach, typically. Oriental cockroaches are also a shiny black color. Oriental cockroaches are typically found in basements of homes because they prefer to live in an environment that is cool and damp.
Another, less commonly found, cockroach is the Brownbanded cockroach. Brownbanded cockroaches are so named because they are dark brown in color with two lighter brown bands across their abdomen. These cockroaches are commonly found in kitchens and bathrooms, but can also be found in living rooms and bedrooms.
The fourth kind of cockroach that you may find in your home is the American cockroach. These are more often found in restaurants, grocery stores, and hotels. This cockroach is also the largest of the common cockroaches to be found in Nebraska. American cockroaches are a reddish-brown color and will fly readily, unlike the other cockroaches that do not typically fly around your home.
It is important to control cockroaches if they get into your home because they reproduce often and tend to grow in population size quickly. They also can spread germs to humans that cause diseases. When a cockroach is in your home, it will dig through your trash looking for things it can eat such as food scraps and other garbage. They will then travel around your kitchen possibly walking on your counters, dishes, and silverware, depositing these germs like e coli and salmonella onto your clean dishes that you may eat off of.
Control of cockroaches can be very difficult. There are methods you can try on your own to control them, but you still may want to work with a pest control operator to ensure that the infestation is managed adequately. You should start your control efforts with sticky traps to determine the species of cockroach as well as an approximate population size. After that you should make sure to eliminate their food source and their hiding places. Keep your home clean and free of clutter. Finally, you can use baits and dusts that you can get from the box stores or the hardware stores to kill the population. Be sure to always read and follow the label when using any kind of pesticide. The dusts can be beneficial to get into the cracks where the cockroaches are. The baits are effective and easier to apply but they make take longer to start working.
Leaves Get in the Way
By John Fech, UNL Extension Educator
February is a good time of year to evaluate tree health, especially for trees that you may have been wondering about for a while. Why? Sometimes leaves get in the way of being able to observe defects and make an accurate determination of the current status. Without leaves, the job of detecting cracks, co-dominant leaders, root plate defects, leaning and decay is much easier.
When it comes to tree evaluation, it's best to leave it to the pros. Perhaps the best approach is one that utilizes a checklist format, so that comparison of several firms can be made. These are the factors for your checklist:
1. Certification. This is very important. Ask the firm if they employ workers that have been certified by the Nebraska Arborists Association or the International Society of Arboriculture. Certification is not required by any city or the State of Nebraska, but is a good measure of competence. Some municipalities require that arborists be licensed, which is a minimum qualification.
2. References. Ask the potential company for addresses of properties with trees that were damaged similarly to yours. Drive by and take a look at the finished work. If possible, chat with clients of the company.
3. Insurance. Ask the company for a certificate of insurance. Check the policy to make sure that it is in force currently. Workers compensation, and proof of liability for personal and property damage is important. If the worker makes a mistake and drops a limb through the roof and into your living room, you need protection.
4. Claims and Practices. Beware of a tree service that advertises “tree topping” as one of its services. This is not an approved practice, rather is a harmful one. Avoid a tree service whose workers use tree spikes to climb a tree. Climbing spikes open unnecessary wounds and are only acceptable when removing a tree.
5. Expense. As with most things in life, you get what you pay for. Good tree work is not inexpensive. A professional service must pay workers a reasonable wage, purchase good equipment, purchase insurance, etc. Beware of an estimate that falls well below the average.
Three Things Not To Do When Pruning Trees
By Kelly Feehan, UNL Extension Educato
February through March is one of the best times to prune shade trees; if and when they need pruning. Here are three things not to do when pruning shade trees.
• Do not be in too big of a hurry to remove the lowest branches on young trees.
• Do not thin out large branches in shade trees to try and reduce the crowns weight.
• Do not top trees.
When pruning young shade trees, the lower branches are typically removed to raise the height of the lowest branch for head and mowing clearance. Unless you want a tree whose branches drape close to the ground, which is fine to do, this is a good pruning practice. However, do not be in too big of a hurry remove the lowest branches on newly planted trees.
Research shows the extra leaves and green tissue on these branches produce food, through photosynthesis, that young tree needs for establishment and to fight off attacks by diseases and insects due to transplanting stress. Trunk diameter also becomes larger more quickly when lower branches are left on for a while.
Unless a lower branch is a major nuisance, wait about two to three years after planting to begin removing lower branches. Then gradually remove them by pruning one or two off each year until the lowest branch is at the desired height, usually six to eight feet above ground.
Do try to remove lower branches before they reach two inches in diameter as smaller wounds close over quicker. Make the correct pruning cut just outside the branch bark ridge and branch collar. Do not make flush cuts and do not use pruning paints or wound dressings on pruning cuts after pruning.
Tree care professionals are sometimes asked to prune large branches from shade trees to decrease the weight of the trees crown. It is believed this will make the tree less likely to blow or fall over in wind storms; however, this is incorrect thinking. By doing this, a tree may become more susceptible to branch breakage in wind and ice storms.
The majority of a trees weight is in the trunk, not in the branches. Removing large branches from the crown of a tree will not have much affect on the trees weight. Trees do not fall or blow over because they become top heavy. Trees fail because of root problems, trunk decay, or severe winds.
Removing large branches that do not need to be removed creates large wounds for decay organisms to invade trees; and promotes sucker growth. Suckers are a trees response to stress, such as the loss of one or more large branches. Suckers grow from latent buds found just beneath the bark of trees.
A number of suckers can develop from one pruning cut and each sucker can eventually become quite large and heavy. Because they have weak attachments to the main branch they are growing from, suckers are more likely to break during wind and ice storms than regular branches. This is the also reason trees should not be topped.
If you think a large tree or large branches of a shade tree need pruning, ask for the opinion of a respected Arborist. If pruning is needed, use the services of a certified Arborist to prune large trees for safety reasons.
10 Garden Catalog Rules
By John Fech, UNL Extension Educator
Garden catalogs are being delivered to the mailboxes of Midwest gardeners, acreage owners and other property owners throughout January. These colorful guides can be an asset if used with these 10 rules in mind.
1. Start off with a landscape sketch and a list of current needs for the property. Hey, you don't go to the grocery store without a list for fear stuffing everything that looks good at the time into your grocery cart, so why would you start looking at a garden catalog without a list?
2. Find the "holes" in your landscape and fill them with plants from the catalog. In this context, holes are places where plants have died due to disease or need to be replaced because they were annuals.
3. Choose plants that are hardy to zones 2-5 only….unless you're a riverboat gambler and are willing to risk the entire investment of time and money.
4. Choose plants with built-in disease resistance and drought tolerance. You can save big bucks on preventing diseases through resistance rather than spraying fungicides. Likewise, if a plant that is touted to be drought tolerant and provide the same color and other features, it just makes good sense to give it a try.
5. Keep size and shape in mind as you peruse the plethora of options. After all, plants grow, and if you treat them well, they'll probably grow to be larger than you expect. Strive for a balance between immediate impact and eventual crowding or need for shearing and pruning.
6. Location, location, location. Evaluate the location of the planting site and consider whether the spot is sunny, semi-shady, filtered or dappled shady or really shady. Soil and slope are important location aspects as well, as it's important to hold sufficient water near the roots to supply their needs, but not so much that they rot off from excess.
7. Consider views. As you sit inside your cozy house with a cup of hot cocoa this winter, gaze outside towards the areas that you want to brighten up with garden catalog plants. If one side of your house doesn't have any windows and you don't spend much time there during the summer, that's probably not the part of the landscape to enhance.
8. Strive for color in all seasons. Whether it's spring blooms, summer leaves, fall color or winter fruit, choose plants based on what they provide at various times of the year.
9. Both accent plants and neutral plants are needed in a landscape. This embodies the key concept of mass/void. Too many accent plants are distracting, while too many neutrals can be boring or monotonous. If you need help with this, hire a landscape designer from a full service garden center; their assistance is usually well worth the expense.
10. Try at least one new plant in 2012 - maybe an ornamental that is also edible….maybe a favorite that Grandma grew that you just recently discovered or possibly a plant that was featured on Backyard Farmer.
Marestail- aka Horseweed
By Mary Anna Anderson, UNL Extension Assistant
Image of marestailMarestail, Conyza canadensis, is an annual weed found throughout all of the United States including Alaska, Hawaii, and even Canada. This is one weed native to the U.S. that has invaded Europe. It is in the aster family.
This weed starts out as a rosette that lays close to the ground. At this point it can be confused with shepherd’s purse or Virginia pepper weed. Marestail will grow in almost any soil, whether moist or dry, but prefers disturbed sites. While this weed can form colonies in ideal sites, it rarely becomes a serious problem.
The plant grows into large, roughly hairy stalks that can reach over 6.5 feet tall. Marestail is readily identifiable by the narrow alternate leaves that attach directly to the stem without a petiole. The edges of the leaves may be hairy. Some people mistake this plant for goldenrod while marestail is young. But goldenrod has shiny smooth leaves, whereas marestail is dull with hairs on the edges.
The plant branches at the top where flower stalks emerge at the base of the leaves. The flowers are small, white, sometimes pink. Flowers start out looking like small green vases with petals coming from the top. When they go to seed they look like tiny dandelions. The seed is an achene, which is readily dispersed by the wind. In Missouri the plant is considered one of the top problem plants for fall allergy sufferers.
Marestail has no known forage value for domestic livestock, and contains volatile oils, tannic acid and gallic acid that my cause irritation to mucous membranes of animals, especially horses. The plant is beneficial for a number of small wasps and flies who seek the nectar from the flowers.
Phragmites - Winter Is The Best Time To Spot
By Brent Meyer, Lancaster County Weed Control Superintendent
Most of us have gladly forgotten about noxious weeds during the winter months. However, the winter months are the easiest time of year to spot phragmites infestations that might be invading your property.
What to look for?
During the summer when everything it is green and growing it is difficult to spot phragmites until it heads out. Phragmites is a deep rooted perennial grass that will grow 6 – 15 feet tall and likes to grow in wetlands, around lagoons, near streams, creeks or in any area that may be wet for a period of time. Wetland areas typically occupied by cattails are great places to look for phragmites. Phragmites mixes in well during the growing season, but in the winter months when the cattails break down, the phragmites will drop its leaves and stay standing tall with the seed head intact.
Check out the publication "Phragmites vs. Ornamental Grass Identification" for images of common ornamental grass compared to Phragmites.
Image of Winter Stand of Phragmites
Winter Stand of Phragmites
When and How to Control?
The best time to get control is when the patch is new and there are just a few scattered plants. Once it gets established it will form a dense circular patch that is very easy to spot, but control will become much more difficult and expensive. Research and field data results show that herbicide control with Imazapyr (Habitat) or Glyphosate (Rodeo) have proven to be the most effective.
Three Ways To Spread
Phragmites will spread by seeds blown by the wind or moved by water. By underground rhizomes that if broken or cut and moved will start a new plant and also by stolons that run across the top of the ground and root down and send up new plants every few inches. Stolons can grow as much as 30 feet in one year.
Phragmites Rhizome
Phragmites Stolon
Phragmites Seedhead
Why should I be concerned?
Phragmites left untreated will create a monoculture and crowd out all other vegetation. It will eliminate natural refuge and feeding grounds for invertebrates, fish, waterfowl and limit recreation values for birdwatchers, walkers, naturalists, boaters and hunters. The tender-dry vegetation left in the fall creates the potential for fast-spreading fire that can threaten surrounding areas including homes and buildings.
How can I learn more about Phragmites?
Contact the Lancaster Weed Control office at (402) 441-7817 or visit our website at and click on the Landowners Guide for Controlling Phragmites
Image of Burning Phragmites
February Is American Heart Month
Lisa Franzen-Castle, UNL Extension Nutrition Specialist
In Nebraska, heart disease is the leading cause of death. About 1 in every 10 Nebraska adults has been diagnosed with coronary heart disease, or have had a heart attack or stroke; placing them at extremely high risk for future heart attacks and strokes.
Did you know that February is American Heart Month, and not because of Valentine’s Day? Since 1963 Congress has required the president to proclaim February "American Heart Month” to raise public awareness about heart disease.
Although many associate heart disease with men, it's also the leading cause of death among women. Check out the following tips on how to be heart smart this February.
Tips for Being Heart Smart
• Know your Risks: Learn about your health risks at by taking risk assessments on diabetes, heart attack, and high blood pressure. Remember, knowledge is power, and knowing your risk is the key to keeping yourself healthy. Go to, scroll down the page and click on “What’s Your Risk?”
• Warning Signs: Some heart attacks are sudden and intense, whereas most start slow, with mild pain or discomfort. Often people aren't sure what's wrong and wait too long before getting help. Heart attack warning signs can include chest discomfort, discomfort in the upper body, shortness of breath, a cold sweat, nausea, or lightheadedness. The most common heart attack symptom for men and women is chest pain or discomfort. However, women are somewhat more likely than men to have other common symptoms, especially shortness of breath, nausea/vomiting, and back or jaw pain. Remember minutes matter and fast action can save lives.
• Lifestyle Changes: A healthy diet and lifestyle are your best weapons to fight cardiovascular disease. Remember it's the overall pattern of your choices that counts. Nutrient-rich foods have vitamins, minerals, fiber and other nutrients but are lower in calories. Choose foods like vegetables, fruits, whole-grains and fat-free or low-fat dairy products most often. Research shows exercise helps prevent heart disease and obesity, and lowers blood pressure. Aim for 30 to 60 minutes on most days. You can even spread it out over the course of your day.
• Quit Smoking: Did you know that cigarette smokers are two-to-three times more likely to die from coronary heart disease than nonsmokers? Don’t waste time when it comes to quitting smoking. Within a few years of quitting, your risk of stroke and coronary artery disease are similar to non-smokers. Visit and for more information and resources on quitting.
Being more aware of your health risks and what the warning signs are for cardiovascular problems is the first step to becoming more heart smart. Making small, manageable, and lasting lifestyle changes, such as eating healthier and being more active, is the key to reaching and maintaining your health goals. For more food, nutrition, and health information check out
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Upper Xiajiadian culture
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Upper Xiajiadian culture (simplified Chinese: 夏家店上层文化; traditional Chinese: 夏家店上層文化; pinyin: Xià jiā diàn shàngcéng wénhuà) (c. 1000-600 BC[1]) was a Bronze Age archaeological culture in Northeast China derived from the Eurasian steppe bronze tradition.[2]
A culture found mainly in southeastern Inner Mongolia, northern Hebei and western Liaoning, China the Upper Xiajiadian's range was slightly larger than that of the Lower Xiajiadian reaching areas north of the Xilamulun River. Compared to the Lower Xiajiadian culture, population levels were lower, less dense, and more widespread. The culture still relied heavily on agriculture, but also moved toward a more pastoral, nomadic lifestyle. The social structure changed from being an acephalous or tribal society into a more chiefdom-oriented society. The type site is represented by the upper layer at Xiajiadian, Chifeng, Inner Mongolia.
The Upper Xiajiadian culture produced inferior ceramic artifacts compared to those of the Lower Xiajiadian culture, although this was compensated by their superior bronze, bone and stone artifacts. The culture is well known for its bronze objects, producing bronze daggers, axes, chisels, arrowheads, knives and helmets. Upper Xiajiadian bronzes were decorated with animal and natural motifs, which suggest possible Scythian affinities and indicate continued cultural contact and exchange across the Eurasian steppes.[3] The locally produced bronze vessels were much smaller than comparable bronzes from Zhou states. In the later periods, Zhou-style dagger-axes and bronze vessels were found at Upper Xiajiadian sites. In one case, bronze vessels belonging to the ruling family of the State of Xu were discovered in an Upper Xiajiadian grave at Xiaoheishigou (小黑石沟), evidenced by the inscriptions on one of the vessels.[4]
Upper Xiajiadian culture shows evidence of a drastic shift in lifestyle compared to that of the Lower Xiajiadian culture. The Upper Xiajiadian culture placed less emphasis on permanent structures, preferring to reoccupy Lower Xiajiadian structures or reuse Lower Xiajiadian stones for building Upper Xiajiadian structures. The horse became important to the culture, as evidenced by the remains of horses and horse paraphernalia found at Upper Xiajiadian sites.[5] The culture also moved away from a centralized social organization, as no evidence for large public works has been discovered at Upper Xiajiadian sites. From relying on pigs to a dependence on sheep and goats for its primary source of domesticated protein, the culture built more extravagant graves for its elites than the Lower Xiajiadian, with more numerous and elaborate burial offerings. Upper Xiajiadian burials were typically marked by cairns and tumuli.
1. ^ Shelach, pp. 143
2. ^ Barnes, pp. 153
3. ^ Barnes, pp. 153
4. ^ Shelach, pp. 214-216
5. ^ Shelach, pp. 162
See also[edit]
Coordinates: 42°21′12″N 119°09′46″E / 42.3533°N 119.1629°E / 42.3533; 119.1629
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Themes and Meanings
(Comprehensive Guide to Short Stories, Critical Edition)
The ostensible purpose of Charles Waddell Chesnutt’s story is to entertain its readers, providing no serious or profound message about the complexities of life. Chesnutt wrote the story at a time when local-color literature had gained popularity and after Joel Chandler Harris began publishing his “Uncle Remus” stories. At that time the white reading public was in the mood to read folksy, humorous tales about African Americans, and Chesnutt’s short stories satisfied that mood.
On the surface, the tale told is in the tradition of the black folk hero putting one over on an old master. Brer Rabbit, High John the Conqueror, and Stagolee were all African American folk heroes known for fooling the rich and powerful. When McAdoo cannot stop the slaves from eating his grapes, he tries to control them by playing up to their fears of the unknown and their respect for the powers of the conjurer. He almost succeeds, but Aunt Peggy and Henry outsmart him. Aunt Peggy conjures the grapevines in such a way that Henry can eat all the grapes that he wants without suffering any ill consequences.
This first work published by Chesnutt reveals hints of the racial themes and topics that were to permeate his later works and make him increasingly unpopular with white critics and readers alike, causing him to cut short his writing career in 1905.
Chesnutt’s works comment about the hardships of slave life so subtly that they might easily be...
(The entire section is 524 words.)
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(a) Figure 5.7 includes a map and cross-section of a part of Grand Banks, Newfoundland, and the adjacent sea floor. On November 8, 1929, an earthquake occurred here, causing a huge submarine landslide and the subsequent breakage of several trans-Atlantic telegraph cables on the sea floor. Most geologists believe the landslide incorporated water as it moved downslope and became a turbidity current. Calculate the approximate speed of the current between points H and I, I and J, J and K, and K and L, in nautical miles per hour (i.e., knots). (1 nmi = 1.15 ml = 1.85 km.) Please read the figure legend before attempting to answer the question. You will need a ruler to accurately measure the distance along the scale at the bottom of the diagram.
• CreatedOctober 10, 2009
• Files Included
Post your question
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Learn More
1. INTRODUCTION. In the seventeenth century, Fermat defined the sequence of numbers F n = 2 2 n + 1 for n ≥ 0, now known as Fermat numbers. If F n happens to be prime, F n is called a Fermat prime. Fermat showed that F n is prime for each n ≤ 4, and he conjectured that F n is prime for all n (see Brown [1] or Burton [2, p. 271]). Almost one hundred years(More)
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Essay by bonnie24College, UndergraduateA, October 2014
download word file, 2 pages 0.0
The uncommon genetic condition called Progeria is a disease where a child experiences the rapid speed of premature aging. This disease is also known as the Hutchinson Gilford Progeria syndrome. Progeria is caused by a mutation in the gene Lamin A protein, which causes a child to look more of an elderly person than their normal age. This unplanned change in the DNA makes the nuclear envelope inside a child unstable, becoming damaging for the brain. This leads to cells dying way faster than they are supposed to. From various researches, Progeria is not inherited from neither mother nor father. One in every one-hundred cases of Progeria is passed down from generation to generation.
The first case of Progeria was discovered by Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson in 1886, and the second case of this disease was also found by Doctor Hastings Gilford. Progeria has become to affect 4-8 million newborns.
Cases of Progeria have been found in countries like Argentina, Austria, Cuba, China, Germany, Mexico, the US, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela. The first cases of the disorder Progeria was first seen between the ages of 18-24 months. Statistics show that as of July 2012, Progeria has been represented in more than 92 cases across 33 countries.
Research has found that no parent expresses this gene at all in their DNA, but it occurs in a single egg or sperm before the conception of the child is done. The body systems that are affected by this disease are the muscular, artery, and cardiovascular system. The changes that begin with the child while they are young are not very deadly, but when the child reaches their teenage years they are at high risk of getting premature progeria. Some symptoms that are caused by the rare condition of Progeria are: aged...
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Sticky Tongue
Third graders make inquiry about the adaptations that help a frog to survive in its environment. They identify the adaptations and define how they work. They also research the idea of how species have common characteristics.
3rd Science 3 Views 1 Download
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I can recieve exactly what I need as a teacher
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Cultural artefact from 25,000 years ago is transmitted horizontally
Jonnie Hughes writes this week about his time spent with the Sepik tribes of Papua New Guinea (tipped off by Michael Pleyer). As part of a documentary series, Hughes visited them and then arranged for some of the tribe elders to visit Britain. Of all the different technologies they encountered in Britain, the one that had the biggest impact was the idea of putting feathers on arrows to make them fly straight. The Sepik tribes used to achieve straight flight by using very heavy arrows, but a five minute tutorial at an archery range in a local community centre gave them the technology to use lighter arrows. This meant that a hunter could carry more arrows and catch more prey.
Fletching technology is thought to date from as early as 25,000 years ago (Ötzi the Iceman had some 5,000 years ago), so seems like an unlikely candidate for a horizontally transmitted cultural artefact. Yet, with the world becoming more globalised, isolated communities are now exposed to not only modern technology, but the whole history of development that they can adopt. Indeed, as Hughes relates, the Sepik tribes are now on Facebook and have access to Wikipedia articles on archery.
This is, of course, a nightmare for people trying to study the transmission of cultural artefacts. What is the descent of fletching in the Sepik tribes? Is it horizontal transmission from modern-day British archers? Or, since the transmitter in question was re-creating traditional techniques, was it horizontal transmission from 15th century Britain (when archery was last widespread), or is it horizontal transmission from the original developers of fletching thousands of years ago? If they continue to borrow technology from wikipedia articles, which are written by dozens of people from all over the world, what is the transmission trajectroy of these ideas?
Along with stories like the hunger-suppressing properties of Hoodia plant being transmitted from hunter-gatherers from the Kalahari to industrialised western cultures, the descent of technologies does not seem to respect cultural or historical boundaries.
Given the theme of this story, it’s strange that Hughes’ new book gives the impression of re-inventing the wheel. The brilliantly titled “On the Origin of Tepees: The Evolution of Ideas (and Ourselves)” has the following introduction:
An evolutionary approach to cultural transmission? What a great idea.
I may be too harsh here, it actually looks like quite a fun and interesting book. Perhaps there are already orders paced on Amazon by members of the Sepik tribes.
Hughes’ article: The tribesman who facebook friended me
1 thought on “Cultural artefact from 25,000 years ago is transmitted horizontally”
1. Excellent! I hope the Sepik tribesmen succeed in transmitting these cultural artifacts horizontally at great velocity to their local tasty fauna.
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Monday, 18 March 2013
Vivianni, and Stuff Like That
Vincenzo Viviani's birthday is coming up soon, and I was thinking about the common theorem named for him. Born on April 5, 1622, in 1639, at the age of 17, he became an assistant of Galileo Galilei in Arcetri. He remained a disciple until Galileo's death in 1642. A note from Thony Christie informed me that after Galileo's death, his papers were being used by the local butcher to wrap his meat and sausages until Viviani rescued what was left of them.
From 1655 to 1656, Viviani edited the first edition of Galileo's collected works. He was a leader in his field and founded the Accademia del Cimento. As one of the first important scientific societies, this organization came before England's Royal Society.
The theorem that bears his name is a simple idea approachable to most good HS students. It says that from any point in the interior or on the periphery of an equilateral triangle, the sum of the perpendicular distances to the three sides is constant, and equal to the altitude.
The simple proof by dividing up the area of the interior should certainly be within the grasp of most good geometry students.
If the theorem is allowed to die there, it will probably have little impact on the student's development. They'll lock it away in a curiosity file and little else will come of it. But if they are allowed and encouraged to explore, the theorem may help them develop the habits of generalization and experimentation that assist their mathematical development.
There are several nice related and similar ideas that occur around the theorem. The first is the question of what happens when the point moves outside the triangle.
Certainly at this point the sum of the lengths no longer equal a constant. But the curious student may begin to wonder how different is it, and why. Perhaps a guided query from the teacher may be needed. What was the key to the original proof? (please say area !)
How does that look now?
Why is the theorem about regular triangles. Would it work with other regular n-gons? How about a parallelogram? How about a rhombus? What about a trapezoid. What about any quadrilateral in general?
What if we move the point outside in the quadrilateral as we did with the triangle?
What about a pentagon? What about n-gons in general?
Do not overlook non-convex n-gons. What about a dart shape.
Just a few weeks ago I came across a couple of other little interesting theorems which reach from the basics of HS geometry to more advanced math, but they are too similar in nature, and too beautiful not to include as an appetizer.
The first two are related and about a random point in a circle. Construct a circle and pick a point at random inside it. Now construct two perpendicular lines through the point and mark the intersections of the lines with the circle. Can you prove that the two pairs (in red and blue) of opposite arcs sum to the same arc length?
It is less elementary to show that, in fact, the two opposite areas cut out by the perpendicular lines area also equal. Both these properties are true if 2n lines in equal angles around the point cut the circle in 4n points.
And to go back to a look at Vivianni's theorem that may not seem at first glance to be at all the same, but can be shown by inverting Vivianni's Theorem.
If a regular triangle is inscribed in a circle, and a point on the circumference is picked between two Vertices and the distance from P to the vertices in order around the triangle are called d1, d2, and d3, then it will be true that
In a similar way this can be extended to any regular n-gon. I like the triangle one for the sort of "Pythagorean-like" quality of it, but it would probably be easier for younger students to confirm the truth with a square carefully placed on the coordinate grid.
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63Eu Europium
Year Discovered
Discovered By
Eugene Demarcay of France
Biological Rating
Not necessary for life.
Named after Europe, europium is a soft, silvery metal. It is the most reactive of the lanthanides, strongly reacting with air, water and acids. Chemically, europium’s reactions are similar to calcium. It is used in some superconductor alloys and in television screens, where it produces the red color. Europium readily absorbs neutrons, so it has use in control rods for nuclear reactors. It is also used in lasers and certain alloys.
Biological Benefits
Europium has no known biological use.
Role in Life Processes
No known benefits for life processes in plants and animals.
Europium is obtained from bastnasite and monazite, where it occurs as an impurity. It is mined in the USA, China, Russia, Australia, and India.
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The Flight of Amelia Earhart
Students will learn about American hero Amelia Earhart's short but incredible life by following a timeline and writing a news story.
3–5, 6–8
Activity Type
• Computer Lab Activities
Set against the backdrop of fascinating but volatile world events, "The Flight of Amelia Earhart" provides a unique opportunity for students (grades 4–8) to study the enduring legacy of an American hero.
• The World of Amelia Earhart Timeline combines important events from her life with major world events of the time, offering a historical context for young readers.
• In Meet a Pioneer Pilot, students meet Sylvia Barter, a female trailblazer and contemporary of Amelia's, and learn about the challenges women faced in the early part of the 20th century.
• Finally, the Write a News Story writing activity allows students to demonstrate their grasp of the historical content by writing an article for The Earhart Gazette.
Learning Objectives
While participating in "The Flight of Amelia Earhart" project, students become proficient with several standards-based skills. Students will:
• Identify character traits that fulfill personal goals
• Use technology to research the life and accomplishments of an important American figure
• Use technology to tour Web sites about significant global events from early 20th-century history
• Compare and contrast the accomplishments of two notable women
• Write a news account of an American hero based on biographical information
This activity is also a part of the Women Who Changed History student activity.
Susan Cheyney
About Us
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The human race has been bestowed with the cycle of day and night which is right from the beginning and is something that cannot be ignored. In Science however, demanding why and how for the everyday happenings can demand considerable hurdle of originality and construct the most engaging answers.
The three American biologists, Jeffrey Hall, Michael Rosbash and Michael Young, who were awarded Noble Prize for medicine earlier this year for their innovation of the master genes managing the body’s circadian rhythms.
The first inkling of an internal clock emerged as early as 18th century when the French scientist Jean-Jacques d’Ortous de Mairan observed that plants retain at a stable temperature in a dark cupboard suddenly preserved their daily cadence of opening and closing their leaves. However, De Mairan himself inferred this was because they could “sense the sun without ever seeing it”.
When Hall, Rosbash and Young utilized fruit flies to single out a gene that dominates the rhythm of living organism’s daily life that scientists were able to have a glimpse of the time maintaining machinery inbuilt where it is explained that how plants, animals and humans modify their biological rhythm so that it is tuned with the Earth’s revolutions,” the Nobel prize committee said.
Utilizing fruit flies the team discovered a “period” gene which conceals a protein within the cell throughout the night which then deteriorates during the day in an infinite feedback cycle.
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Most Minnesotans probably can pick out their state on an unlabeled map. Its distinctive shape, with the Arrowhead pointing east and the Northwest Angle sitting up top like a tiny hat, is hard to miss.
William Lass might know more about that little hat than anyone else. Lass literally wrote the book on the creation of the Northwest Angle. “Minnesota’s Boundary With Canada: Its Evolution Since 1783,” was published in 1980 by the Minnesota Historical Society Press.
And it still bugs the 90-year-old Lass when he sees references to the Angle being formed as the result of a surveyor’s error, most recently cited in a White House petition to give the Angle to Canada.
“I’ve been fighting this legend since 1960,” Lass said last week. That was the year he joined the faculty at Minnesota State University, Mankato, where he taught history until 2002.
“Heaven knows where it started,” he said. “At an Anoka bar, for all I know. Once these things get going, they’re pernicious. They spread by word of mouth.”
Lass, who still lives in Mankato, became interested in the origin of the Northwest Angle when his college students started to ask questions about it. He began looking at the historical record, poring over dozens of maps and hundreds of pieces of correspondence from the Revolutionary War era and later.
He found no surveyor’s error. What he did find, though, was a map that set in motion the creation of the Angle. This map, which Lass’ book cited as “the most important and the most famous map in American history,” was published in 1755. It was the work of John Mitchell, a respected cartographer living in London.
Formation of the Northwest Angle
This 1755 map was used in 1783 to set the U.S.-Canada border at the end of the Revolutionary War, contributing to the formation of what became the Northwest Angle around Lake of the Woods. Many of Minnesota's largest and most notable lakes and water features were drawn wildly out of scale, allowing for some interesting errors. Click image for larger view.
This is an annotated digital map of Minnesota in the mid-1700s, which contributed to the accidental notch at the top of the state known as the Northwest Angle.
Mitchell created a map of British and French possessions in North America — what would later become the United States and Canada. But at the time, much of the area west of the Great Lakes was unknown to Europeans. The mapmaker hadn’t been there himself; instead, he relied on reports from ship captains, fur trappers, explorers and others who had visited the area.
When the Revolutionary War ended, diplomats from the United States and Britain gathered in Paris to hammer out a peace treaty, which included setting the northern border. Using Mitchell’s 1755 map, they decreed that the border would be on a line drawn from the northwesternmost point of Lake of the Woods.
Problem was, Mitchell’s map had Lake of the Woods in the wrong place — and with the wrong shape. It appears on that map as being smaller and more egg-shaped than it really is. He also failed to accurately place the source of the Mississippi River, which also figured into the border line.
In the 1820s, a joint U.S.-British survey determined the accurate placement and shape of the lake. But since the treaty that created the United States had specified the border as the northwesternmost point of Lake of the Woods, the U.S. insisted that it had to stay there.
“You could not negotiate away any part of the treaty under which you gained your independence,” Lass said. “That’s an important legal point.”
And the British weren’t all that interested in claiming the Angle either, he added.
“The U.S. had a long tradition of land acquisition, and they were just plain avaricious when it came to claiming territory,” he said. “The British were a tradition of naval power and building an empire by controlling the seas.”
“So,” he said, “the British were happy to let the Americans expand the frontier.”
Lass realizes not everyone cares about how the Northwest Angle came to be, but he’s determined to set the record straight at every opportunity. And he cautions against being too hard on the mapmakers whose errors set it all in motion.
“Through hindsight we can determine that they were wrong,” Lass said, “but they were accepted at that time.”
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Rights in Hobbes
I wanted to accomplish three things today:
1. Explain Hobbes’s method. Why does he start every chapter with definitions that we are just supposed to accept? I said he was influenced by Euclidean geometry.
2. Explain the thinking behind Hobbes’s infamous claim that people in the state of nature have a right to all things, including one another’s bodies. I said that he was trying to analyze the social preconditions for the view that justice consists in “giving to each his own.”
3. Show that the way Hobbes used the term “right” is more complex than he realized. I distinguished four possible meanings of “right”: claim, liberty, power, and immunity. I said that while Hobbes defined rights as liberties, he relied on treating them as powers as well.
Hobbes and geometry
I started off by trying to explain why Hobbes wrote the way he did: he was trying to come up with a political philosophy that mirrored Euclid’s geometry. Euclid started with definitions of the elements of geometry, like lines and circles. Then he added postulates about how lines and circles can be made: connecting two points with a straight edge and rotating a compass around a point, respectively. As you can see on the handout, Euclid just proposes these definitions and postulates. He thought they were obvious. (There are also what Euclid called “common notions,” such as that if line A is equal to line B and line B is equal to line C, then line A is equal to line C. I did not put those on the handout.)
After carefully laying out these definitions, postulates, and common notions, the fun starts. You can use these very simple, obvious propositions to make things like equilateral triangles.
I used an illustration of Euclid’s first proposition: that an equilateral triangle can be constructed based on any straight line using only the definitions, postulates, and common notions that Euclid laid out.
Hobbes started with definitions of rights and tried to show how we can use them to make other things, like the state or having something as one’s “own” (justice, as traditionally understood).
One thing that we need to keep our eye on is whether Hobbes’s definitions are really as uncontroversial and obvious as Euclid’s definitions are.
For instance, do you think it is obvious that people are allowed to do anything in order to preserve their own lives?
You have to understand the distinctions between claims, liberties, powers, and immunities on the handout.
As Will noticed, these concepts are defined in terms of one another. If you have a right in the sense of a claim, then someone else has an obligation corresponding to your right. E.g. if I have a claim right that you paint my house, you have a obligation to paint my house.
That means that you lack the liberty not to paint my house. Liberty, after all, consists in the absence of obligations. Conversely, if you retain your liberty not to paint my house, then I do not have a claim against you that you paint my house.
You can do something similar with powers and immunities. My powers consist in my abilities to make legal or moral changes. For instance, I have a right in the sense of a power to make a binding promise to you: I can make it so that I have an obligation to you where before I had none. Magic!
While I have this power over my obligations, you do not: you cannot make a promise that binds me. Consequently, I have an immunity against your attempts to make promises on my behalf.
Finally, as Val noted, these different elements are generally intermixed in the rights that we commonly talk about. Take property rights. My property right to my pen has all four elements.
1. Claims: everyone else has a duty not to interfere with the pen.
2. Liberties: I am permitted to use the pen as I like.
3. Powers: I can transfer my right to the pen by selling it or giving it away.
4. Immunities: no one else is capable of selling or giving away rights to the pen.
Generally speaking, the point of drawing the distinctions is to enable you to say more precisely what it means to have a right: exactly what mixture of claims, liberties, powers, and immunities do you have?
The distinctions are useful for our purposes because they enable us to see the logic of Hobbes’s position better than we otherwise could. In fact, we are going to see Hobbes inadvertently switch between these meanings at an important point in his argument. In doing so, he is going to make his position seem more paradoxical than it really is.
Rights in Hobbes
I said that you can distinguish three different kinds of claims that Hobbes makes about the terms “right” and “law.”
1. Analytical: what does the term “right” or “law” mean?
2. Substantive: what specific rights do we have and what specific laws are there?
3. Application: what is the consequence of combining the analytical and substantive claims about rights or laws with facts about the state of nature?
In the case of rights, I said that Hobbes’s analytical claim is that rights are liberties, meaning the absence of obligation. His substantive claim is that there is a right of nature, meaning that there is no obligation against doing anything that you think might help to preserve your life. (See Leviathan 14.1–3 for both points.)
When you combine these points about what rights are with facts about what life in the state of nature is like you get the conclusion that people have a right to all things or, to put the same point in other words, there is nothing they are obligated not to do (14.4).
In other words, Hobbes does not just assert that there is no justice or injustice, right or wrong, in the state of nature. He thinks he has an argument for that conclusion.
The argument for the right to all things
On the train home, it occurred to me that Hobbes’s argument could be expressed as a proof by contradiction. I wondered if this might be more illuminating than the extremely terse way he put the point in 14.4. So I’m going to try it out here. You be the judge!
1. Suppose there is such a thing as justice in the state of nature, meaning that people in the state of nature would have things as their own. (We are supposing this is so in order to see if a contradiction follows. If a contradiction does follow from assuming the truth of this premise, that shows the assumption is mistaken and the premise is false.)
2. Therefore, in the state of nature, people would have exclusive claim rights to some things, meaning that they are the only ones at liberty to use those things and that everyone else has obligations not to use them. (This follows from the initial supposition: having something as one’s own means having exclusive claim rights to it.)
3. Everyone has a right to use any thing that they think will help to preserve their lives. (This is the right of nature that Hobbes asserted in 14.1.)
4. The state of nature is so dangerous that, for any thing, several people would think they need to use that thing to preserve their lives. (Hobbes believes he established this in chapter 13.)
5. Therefore, in the state of nature, several people would have the same right to use any thing, meaning they would all be at liberty to use it. (This follows from points 3 and 4.)
6. Point 5 contradicts point 2. Point 2 says there would be some things that only one person is at liberty to use; point 5 says there would be no things that only one person is at liberty to use.
7. Since the original supposition leads to a contradiction, it must be false. Therefore, there is no such thing as justice in the state of nature. (Assuming that justice involves having things as one’s own.)
The fourth premise is awkwardly expressed. And it might not be true. Are the blades of grass in my front yard really necessary for defending anyone’s life? But Hobbes could say that the fourth premise is true of the most important things, like our bodies and other necessities. For in the state of nature, I will think that I need to use my body in order to preserve my life. And you might think the same. Only in my case, I want to keep my body alive while you have a, um, different use for it. In other words, no one cares about having exclusive rights to inconsequential things. What they want are exclusive claim rights to the security of their bodies and to their material property. Those are precisely the rights that Hobbes claims do not exist in the state of nature.
I am kind of fond of this argument, though it is way too long for the chalkboard. The slogan I gave to Hobbes is more memorable: my claim rights depend on your safety. Since no one is safe in the state of nature, no one has claim rights. If you want claim rights, you have to ensure that others are safe enough to be obliged to respect them.
In 14.5 Hobbes introduces the idea of laying down rights. His idea is impeccable: there cannot be peace until people do not pose a threat to one another and the first step to achieving that is for people to give up the right to attack one another.
Of course, saying that you give up that right is one thing but actually convincing others that you won’t is something else. By the standards Hobbes articulates in chapter 14, agreements not to attack others are invalid so long as some people suspect that others will not do their part. The point Hobbes is driving at is that the right to attack others cannot actually be surrendered until the state exists to ensure everyone’s safety.
But I want to go back to the first step. Hobbes has a very basic problem: he has not explained how anyone is capable of laying down their rights even under the most perfect circumstances.
Hobbes defines rights as liberties: to have a right to do something is to have no obligation not to do it. So where does the ability to lay down the right come from? You can’t get it out of that definition. It is as if Euclid had left out the postulates about making lines and circles. You cannot construct an equilateral triangle in the way Euclid demonstrated unless you can make a line and a circle. Hobbes needs a definition of rights that enables those who have rights to do things with them.
In other words, he needs rights to be powers as well as liberties. When Hobbes says people have rights, he has to mean that they are capable of bringing about moral change with their rights.
One kind of change they have to be able to make is that they have to be able to lay down their own rights and thereby create obligations. That is how they are capable of making contracts and covenants. In these agreements, two or more people agree to give up their rights provided others do the same. I give up my right to my pencil if you give up your right to your pen. Then I become obliged not to take what is now your pencil and you become obliged not to take what is now my pen. With our words alone we eliminate old rights and make new rights and obligations. As I said before: magic!
The other kind of change that have to be able to make is that they have to be able to authorize people to represent them. Before I authorized Jack to represent me, he could not sign contracts that bound me. But after I authorized him to act as my representative, he gained that ability. And if a bunch of us all authorize the same person to act as our representative, we will become a corporate person, as our common representative will be able to speak for all of us. More magic!
So people with rights have at least two powers, according to Hobbes: the power of alienating or giving up their rights and the power of authorizing a representative.
Key concepts
1. How did Hobbes support his contention that everyone has a right to everything in the state of nature?
2. The four meanings of “right” on the handout.
3. What authorization means.
Hobbes, Thomas. (1651) 1993. Leviathan. Edited by Mark C. Rooks. British Philosophy: 1600-1900. Charlottesville, VA: InteLex Corporation.
There was a handout for this class: 07.HobbesRights.handout.pdf
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Friday, July 15, 2011
History of Mount Kenya
Joseph Thomson
European sighting
The first European to report seeing Mount Kenya was Dr Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German missionary, from Kitui in 1849, a town 160 km (100 mi) away from the mountain. The sighting was made on 3 December 1849, a year after the discovery of Kilimanjaro.
Dr Krapf was told by people of the Embu tribe that lived around the mountain that they did not ascend high on the mountain because of the intense cold and the white matter that rolled down the mountains with a loud noise. This led him to infer that glaciers existed on the mountain. It was Krapf who gave the mountain the name "Kenya", but the derivation of this is not known with certainty (see the various local names below, some of which are similar).
Dr Krapf also noted that the rivers flowing from Mt Kenya, and other mountains in the area, were continuously flowing. This was very different from the other rivers in the area, which swelled up in the wet season and completely dried up after the rainy season had ended. As the streams flowed even in the driest seasons he concluded that there must be a source of water up on the mountain, in the form of glaciers. He believed the mountain to be the source of the White Nile.
In 1851 Krapf returned to Kitui. He travelled 65 kilometres (40 mi) closer to the mountain, but did not see it again. In 1877 Hildebrandt was in the Kitui area and heard stories about the mountain, but also did not see it. Since there were no confirmations to back up Krapf's claim people began to be suspicious.
Count Samuel Teleki
Eventually, in 1883, Joseph Thomson passed close by the west side of the mountain and confirmed Krapf's claim. He diverted his expedition and reached 1,737 m (5,700 ft) up the slopes of the mountain but had to retreat because of trouble with local people. However, the first European exploration high onto the mountain was achieved in 1887 by Count Samuel Teleki and Ludwig von Höhnel. He managed to reach 4,350 m (14,270 ft) on the south western slopes. On this expedition they believed they had found the crater of a volcano.
In 1892, Teleki and von Höhnel returned to the eastern side, but were unable to get through the forest.
Finally, in 1893, an expedition managed to ascend Mount Kenya as far as the glaciers. This expedition was travelling from the coast to Lake Baringo in the Rift Valley, and was led by Dr John W Gregory, a British geologist. They managed to ascend the mountain to around 4,730 m (15,520 ft), and spent several hours on the Lewis Glacier with their guide. On his return to Britain, Gregory published papers and a narrative account of his achievements.
George Kolb, a German physician, made expeditions in 1894 and 1896 and was the first to reach the moorlands on the east side of the mountain. More exploration was occurred after 1899 when the railway was completed as far as the site of Nairobi.
Sir Halford John Mackinder
Mackinder's expedition
On 28 July 1899, Sir Halford John Mackinder set out from the site of Nairobi on an expedition to Mt Kenya. The members of the expedition consisted of 6 Europeans, 66 Swahilis, 2 tall Maasai guides and 96 Kikuyu. The Europeans were Campbell B. Hausberg, second in command and photographer, Douglas Saunders, botanist, C F Camburn, taxidermist, Cesar Ollier, guide, and Josef Brocherel, guide and porter.
The expedition made it as far as the mountain, but encountered many difficulties on the way. The country they passed through was full of plague and famine. Many Kikuyu porters tried to desert with women from the villages, and others stole from the villages, which made the chiefs very hostile towards the expedition. When they reached the base camp on 18 August, they could not find any food, had two of their party killed by the local people, and eventually had to send Saunders to Naivasha to get help from Captain Gorges, the Government Officer there.
Mackinder pushed on up the mountain, and established a camp at 3,142 m (10,310 ft) in the Höhnel Valley. He made his first attempt on the summit on 30 August with Ollier and Brocherel up the south east face, but they had to retreat when they were within 100 m (110 yd) of the summit of Nelion due to nightfall.
On 5 September, Hausberg, Ollier and Brocherel made a circuit of the main peaks looking for an easier route to the summit. They could not find one. On 11 September Ollier and Brocherel made an ascent of the Darwin Glacier, but were forced to retreat due to a blizzard.
When Saunders returned from Naivasha with the relief party, Mackinder had another attempt at the summit with Ollier and Brocherel. They traversed the Lewis Glacier and climbed the south east face of Nelion. They spent the night near the gendarme, and traversed the snowfield at the head of the Darwin Glacier at dawn before cutting steps up the Diamond Glacier. They reached the summit of Batian at noon on 13 September, and descended by the same route.
Shipton and Russell made the first ascent of Pt John up the south-east gully in 1929
After the first ascent of Mt Kenya there were fewer expeditions there for a while. The majority of the exploration until after the First World War was by settlers in Kenya, who were not on scientific expeditions. A Church of Scotland mission was set up in Chogoria, and several Scottish missionaries ascended to the peaks, including Rev Dr. J. W. Arthur, G. Dennis and A. R. Barlow. There were other ascents, but none succeeded in summitting Batian or Nelion.
New approach routes were cleared through the forest, which made access to the peaks area far easier. In 1920, Arthur and Sir Fowell Buxton tried to cut a route in from the south, and other routes came in from Nanyuki in the north, but the most commonly used was the route from the Chogoria mission in the east, built by Ernest Carr. Carr is also credited with building Urumandi and Top Huts.
On 6 January 1929 the first ascent of Nelion was made by Percy Wyn-Harris and Eric Shipton. They climbed the Normal Route, then descended to the Gate of Mists before ascending Batian. On the 8 January they reascended, this time with G. A. Sommerfelt, and in December Shipton made another ascent with R. E. G. Russell. They also made the first ascent of Point John. During this year the Mountain Club of East Africa was formed.
At the end of July 1930, Shipton and Bill Tilman made the first traverse of the peaks. They ascended by the West Ridge of Batian, traversed the Gate of Mists to Nelion, and descended the Normal Route. During this trip, Shipton and Tilman made first ascents of several other peaks, including Point Peter, Point Dutton, Midget Peak, Point Pigott and either Terere or Sendeyo.
1931 to present day
In the early 1930s there were several visits to the moorlands around Mt Kenya, with fewer as far as the peaks. Raymond Hook and Humphrey Slade ascended to map the mountain, and stocked several of the streams with trout. By 1938 there had been several more ascents of Nelion. In February Miss C Carol and Mtu Muthara became the first woman and African respectively to ascend Nelion, in an expedition with Noel Symington, author of The Night Climbers of Cambridge, and on 5 March Miss Una Cameron became the first woman to ascent Batian.
During the Second World War there was another drop in ascents of the mountain. The most remarkable ascent during this period was by three Italian's who were being held in a British POW camp at the base of the mountain in Nanyuki. They escaped from camp to climb the mountain's third peak, Point Lenana, before "escaping" back into camp. Felice Benuzzi, the team leader, retold his story in the classic book No Picnic on Mount Kenya (1946).
In 1949 the Mountain Club of Kenya split from the Mountain Club of East Africa, and the area above 3,400 m (11,150 ft) was designated a National Park. A road was built from Naro Moru to the moorlands allowing easier access.
Many new routes were climbed on Batian and Nelion in the next three decades, and in October 1959 the Mountain Club of Kenya produced their first guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro. On Kenyan independence in 1963 Kisoi Munayo raised the Kenyan flag at the top of the mountain. He died in 2007 and was given a heroic funeral attended by the Kenyan president Mwai Kibaki. In the early 1970s the Mount Kenya National Park Mountain Rescue Team was formed, and by the end of the 1970s all major routes on the peaks had been climbed.
On July 19, 2003, a South African registered aircraft, carrying 12 passengers and two crew, crashed into Mount Kenya at Point Lenana: nobody survived. This was not the first aircraft lost on the mountain; there is also the wreckage of at least one helicopter that crashed before 1972.
The Gorges Valley is a major feature on the Chogoria Route.
Post a Comment
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Classical Demography
Classical Demography actually focuses on the absolute number of people, who were alive in civilizations around the Mediterranean Sea between the Bronze Age and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It also refers to the study of human demography in the Classical period. The period was characterized by an explosion in population with the rise of the Greek and Roman civilizations followed by a steep decline caused by economic and social disruption, migrations, and a return to primarily subsistence agriculture. But in recent decades historians have been more interested in trying to analyse demographic processes such as the birth and death rates or the sex ratio of ancient populations.
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abecedario y numeracion en ingles
English is a matter that is held as a material to guide students to their learning in this school year, encouraging the student to the interest of pronunciation of the words and numbers
the alphabet is important, as the numbering for student learning for pronunciation and learn the letters and numbers as large quantities for use in everyday life, such as in the purchase of products, know how to pronounce and not err in ordering any product.
(Puede quitar la publicidad ampliando la cuenta)
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By Bethany Bentley (4th Period)
Hydra was a multi-headed monster with around nine heads that was slain by Hercules in his second mission. The Hydra was almost impossible to kill because every time one head was cut off, two more would take its place. Hercules found a way to kill this monster by having his nephew close the wound of each neck with a hot piece of metal, therefore stopping the new heads from growing back. Hercules then burried the one head left under a large rock. This mission was made harder for Hercules by Juno who sent a crab to bite his feet while he fought the mighty Hydra.
Hydra is a long constellation, starting at almost Cantis Minor and ending near Libra. Hydra is best seen Feburary though May, lying along the southern horizion. It is the largest of the 88 modern constellations. Though one of the largest constellations, Hydra only has one noticablly bright star, Alphard.
Mythology from comfychair.org Pictures from Bing Images Information from wikipedia.com and comfychair.org
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Homeworks writing service
The symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd
Billy, Budd, Sailor is a novel written by Herman Melville. Contents [ show ] Characters Billy Budd - Discovered on a doorstep as an infant, Billy Budd is a fine the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd specimen at age twenty-one, renowned for his good looks and gentle, innocent ways.
While working on board the merchant ship Rights-of-Man, Billy is impressed into naval duty as a foretopman a sailor who sits atop the foremast or above on board the warship H. He has several shortcomings, however, including an inability to perceive ill will in other people. He also has an unpredictable tendency to stutter, and at certain crucial moments he is rendered completely speechless. A bachelor of aristocratic lineage, the forty-year-old Vere has made his mark as a distinguished sailor.
Vere remains somewhat aloof and diffident among his peers, though he is not haughty. John Claggart - The master-at-arms of the Bellipotent, an office equivalent to chief of police on board the ship.
His brow bespeaks cleverness, and his black hair contrasts starkly with his pallid complexion. Because of his pale face, he stays out of the sun as much as possible. The narrator gives few details about Claggart's past, although speculation runs rampant among the crewmembers. However, his compliant exterior disguises a cruel and sinister streak, which the narrator explains is actually a natural tendency toward evil and depravity. The Dansker - Billy's acquaintance and confidante aboard the Bellipotent.
A wizened old sailor with beady eyes, the Dansker listens and occasionally issues inscrutable, oracular responses when Billy seeks out his confidence.
At other times, however, the Dansker is decidedly reticent and unhelpful. Ship's Surgeon - Pronounces Claggart dead upon arriving in the captain's cabin. The surgeon considers Vere's decision to call a drumhead court somewhat abrupt and hasty.
Though unable to the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd for Billy's unusually peaceful death in the gallows, he refuses to believe that the event the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd attended by supernatural circumstances. Ship's Purser - Ruddy and rotund, the purser speculates that Billy's unusually peaceful death in the gallows shows a phenomenal degree of will on Billy's behalf, perhaps revealing a superhuman power.
Symbols and Symbolism in “Billy Budd” by Herman Melville
Ship's Chaplain - Reluctantly and unsuccessfully the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd to console Billy with words from the Bible on the eve of Billy's execution. When the chaplain realizes that Billy is already peacefully resigned to his death, and that his spiritual direction cannot do anything more for Billy, he leaves, kissing Billy gently on the cheek as he goes.
Squeak - Claggart's most cunning corporal. Squeak supports and fuels Claggart's contempt for Billy, and tries by various maneuvers to make Billy's life miserable. Albert - Captain Vere's hammock boy. Trusted by the captain, Albert is sent to summon Billy to the cabin on the the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd Claggart accuses him. Lieutenant Ratcliffe - The brusque boarding officer of the Bellipotent. Lieutenant Ratcliffe selects only Billy from the company of the Rights-of-Man for impressment, or involuntary recruitment into naval service.
Captain Graveling - Captain of the Rights-of-Man. At fifty, the slightly overweight Captain Graveling is a benign, conscientious shipmaster who is sorry to lose Billy Budd to the Bellipotent.
When Billy strikes him, his hatred of Billy turns to love, which both parallels and contrasts with Billy's disastrous striking of Claggart. Red Pepper - The forecastleman who reproves Billy for not taking greater disciplinary action against the stranger who tries to corrupt him. Plot The setting is the last decade of the eighteenth century. The British naval warship H.
Bellipotent impresses, or involuntarily recruits, the young sailor Billy Budd, extracting him from duty aboard the Rights-of-Man, a the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd ship.
Billy's commanding officer, Captain Graveling, though reluctant to let one of his best men go, has little choice in the face of the superior ship's demands. Billy packs up his gear without so much as a protest and follows the boarding officer of the Bellipotent, Lieutenant Ratcliffe, across the gangway to his new assignment. After a cheery good-bye to his old mates, Billy settles in quickly among the company of the Bellipotent. He proves most industrious and eager in his role as foretopman and soon earns the affection of his more experienced fellow sailors.
Billy is deeply affected by the sight of a violent lashing given to one of the ship's crew. Hoping to avoid a similar punishment, Billy attempts to fulfill his the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd in model fashion, but finds himself under constant scrutiny due to various minor infractions.
Puzzled by this persecution, Billy seeks out the advice of the Dansker, an aged, experienced sailor. After explaining the situation to him, the Dansker concludes that Claggart, the master-at-arms, holds a grudge against Billy. Refusing to accept this theory, Billy dismisses the Dansker's opinion but continues to wonder pensively the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd his situation.
Shortly thereafter, at a lunchtime meal, Billy accidentally spills his soup pan in the ship's dining room after a sudden lurch. The contents of the pan trickle to the feet of the passing Claggart, who makes an offhand, seemingly lighthearted remark in recognition of the spill. His comment elicits a stream of obligatory laughter from the ship's company, and Billy interprets the event as proof of Claggart's approval.
But Claggart is offended by the accident, and finds it indicative of Billy's contempt for him. He fixates on the accident as proof of Billy's hostility, and his assistant Squeak resolves to increase his surreptitious persecutions of Billy in recompense. One night, an anonymous figure rouses Billy from his sleep on the upper deck and asks him to meet in a remote quarter of the ship. Confused, Billy mechanically obeys.
At the mysterious rendezvous, Billy is puzzled when, after some vague discourse, the unidentified man flashes two guineas in exchange for a promise of cooperation. Without comprehending the exact details of this solicitation, Billy recognizes that something is amiss, and he raises his stuttering voice and threatens the man with uncharacteristic violence. The conspirator quickly slinks into the darkness, and Billy finds himself confronted with the curious inquiries of two fellow sailors.
Unsure of how to explain the situation, Billy explains that he simply happened upon a fellow sailor who was in the wrong part of the ship, and chased the man back to his proper station with a gruff rebuke. Somewhat later, after a brief skirmish with an enemy frigate, Claggart approaches Captain Vere with news of a rumored mutiny and names Billy Budd as the ringleader of the rebellion.
Vere summons Billy to his cabin and instructs Claggart to repeat his accusation. the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd
Billy, Budd, Sailor
Upon hearing of this unexpected blot on his character, Billy is rendered speechless. Vere commands Billy to defend himself, but then, noticing Billy's tendency to stutter, softens his approach. Left with no other means of defense, and twisted into a rage at Claggart's outrageous words against him, Billy strikes out in a fury, giving Claggart a swift punch to the forehead.
The blow proves forceful enough to knock Claggart unconscious, and he lies bleeding from the nose and ears as Billy and Vere attempt to revive him. Abandoning this effort, Vere dismisses Billy to a neighboring stateroom until further notice.
The ship's surgeon pronounces Claggart dead after a brief examination, and Captain Vere summons a group of his senior officers to the cabin.
In a decisive move, Vere calls a drumhead court consisting of the captain of the marines, the first lieutenant, and the sailing master. Vere, functioning as the main the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd, gives a testimony of the relevant events to the jury. Billy remains rather silent during his period of questioning, admitting to the blow but maintaining his innocence of intention and declaring his lack of affiliation with any potential mutiny. The court dismisses Billy again to the stateroom.
During a tense period of deliberation, The symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd hovers over the jury. When they seem to be deadlocked, unable to make a decision, Vere steps forward to declare his conviction that the rule of law must supersede the reservations of conscience.
He concludes his speech to the jury by insisting that they decide to acquit or condemn in strict accordance with the letter of military law. After a period of further deliberation, the jury finds Billy Budd guilty as charged and sentences him to death by hanging on the following morning. Captain Vere communicates to Billy the news of his fate and, after a discussion with him that we do not learn about directly, he withdraws to leave the prisoner by himself.
Later that evening, Vere calls a general meeting of the ship's crew and explains the events of the day. Claggart receives an official burial at sea, and all hands prepare to bear witness to Billy's hanging at dawn. Billy spends his final hours in chains on board an upper gun deck, guarded by a sentry. The ship's chaplain attempts to spiritually prepare Billy for his death, but Billy already seems to be in a state of the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd peace and resignation.
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As the chaplain withdraws from Billy's company, he kisses him gently on the cheek as a token of good will. That morning, shortly after four A. As the crew watches him being strung up, preparing to die, they hear him utter his last words: After Billy's death, the crew begins to murmur, but the officers quickly disperse them to various tasks. Whistles blow and the ship returns to regular business.
In the ensuing days, sailors engage in various discussions concerning Billy's fate and the mysterious circumstances of his expiration. A newspaper reports the incident from afar, implicating Billy Budd as the villainous assailant of an innocent Claggart. The the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd themselves, however, begin to revere Billy's growing legend, treating the spar from his gallows as the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd holy object, and composing laudatory verse in the symbolism in herman melvilles billy budd memory.
Symbolism The Ships Broadly speaking, the H. Bellipotent symbolizes society, with the actions of a few characters standing for the state of human society in general. In a sense, the various ships in the novel represent different types of societies: The Purser and the Surgeon The purser and the surgeon who debate Billy's story after his death represent faith and skepticism, the two fundamentally opposed attitudes toward religious mysteries. The purser believes that Billy's death indicates some special quality in Billy, possibly supernatural.
The surgeon, on the other hand, maintaining a scientific viewpoint, refuses to acknowledge Billy's unusually peaceful death as more than a quirk of matter. Besides dramatizing two long-standing attitudes toward religion, these two characters and their conversation are important because they initiate the narrator's exploration of Billy's posthumous legend. The narrator ultimately calls into question the novel's larger Christian allegory as he investigates how people transform events into legendary narratives.
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What’s in a word? Increasing Student Awareness of Racial Slurs
In this lesson students will focus on the use of racial slurs and helping students understand the impact slurs can have on an individual and societal level. Students will in engage in discussions focusing on the the usage of slurs in American and local history. It uses a variety of primary sources to exemplify the use of slurs within current american culture and specific communities. Finally, students will reflect on their own usage and comfort with racial slurs while focusing on the complex topic of when it is appropriate to use slurs within specific racial and ethnic groups.
Created By: Lauren Laucius, Centaurus High School
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Imagine the sound of a booming cannon sounding off in the distance and the smell of gunpowder slowly rising and wafting through the air. There are Spanish soldiers dressed for war with rifles in their arms pointed at the British waiting for them to make their move.
It may be hard to make this scene really come to life but the re-enactors of Fort Mose Historic State Park have managed to do just that.
This weekend is when the Fort Mose staff invites visitors to take a step back in time to the day the British attempted to invade the fort and claim it as their own at the Bloody Battle of Mose.
The historic site where the re-enactment takes place is the home of the very first free African-American settlement in the United States.
More than 170 years after Pedro Menendez de Aviles found St. Augustine, Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, otherwise known as Fort Mose, was founded as an establishment for African-American freedmen as well as the northern defense post for St. Augustine.
Fort Mose State Park Director Warren Poplin said, "In 1693 the Spanish issued an edict that promised freedom in St. Augustine to slaves that fled from the British plantations in South Carolina and Georgia. The Spanish hoped to attract enough slaves that it would weaken the economic base of the British colony and strengthen the Spanish colony with workers and militia, therefore the establishment of Fort Mose."
The Spanish accepted the runaway slaves on one condition. They had to defend the city and convert their religion.
"This is a group of African-Americans that were told that they could have their freedom. They were escaped slaves, many of them. They could have their freedom. All they had to do was convert to Catholicism - Spanish Catholicism - and defend the city," said Dana Ste. Claire, 450th commemoration director.
To defend the city at that time, the builders of Fort Mose tactfully built it to face Robinson Creek. This way, if the enemy attacked from the north, soldiers could escape by water to retreat to the Castillo.
Playing the part
Richard Shortlidge, who is a volunteer of Florida Living History, embodies a Spanish Royal Marine, named Ricardo Sanchez Solana, who lived around the time Fort Mose stood.
Speaking as Solana, Shortlidge recalled Fort Mose to have an earthen base and stand in the shape of a square with palm logs on the sides of the construction.
On the outskirts of the fort, there was a moat filled with Spanish Bayonet and prickly pear to keep enemies, like the British, out.
In the very center of the fort was a watch tower that allowed the watchdogs to see high above the fort.
This fort thrived until it was abandoned because of James Oglethorpe's attack on St. Augustine and the Mose.
The establishment came tumbling down when Oglethorpe and his troops used it as a place to lay their heads at night. Instead of building the fort back up, the British tore it down further. They did not realize this was a grave mistake because of what was coming next.
"Early in the morning on the 26th, about 300 Spanish soldiers, led by the Black militia and our Yamassee allies, we attacked the British in Fort Mose. The amazing thing about it is we caught them by surprise because you would think that within the 2 mile distance within the city of St. Augustine, which really had no trees, there was nothing to hide behind, but they were so cavalier, that they didn't think we'd every do anything. They actually thought we were more cowards. We were chickens. We weren't going to come out of the city and attack them. So you can imagine their surprise when we show up unexpected," said Shortlidge.
Shortlidge went on to say only three men were lost out of 300 Spanish soldiers. The British lost almost half of their force and about a quarter were captured and 25 percent escaped.
This was the Battle of Blood Mose and although the battle was won, Fort Mose lay in ruins and the inhabitants lost their homes.
When the British took possession of Florida, Fort Mose residents packed up and moved to Cuba to form a new town.
Luckily, that's not where the history ends.
Becoming a landmark
Fort Mose was bought by Florida and made a national landmark.
In order to recreate that day so long ago and make the re-enactments more impactful, the Fort Mose Historical Society and the African-American Community of Freedom has banded together with Focus 450 to raise funds and get the perimeter walls of Fort Mose rebuilt.
Thomas Jackson, central region supervisor at the St. Johns County Recreation and Parks Department and vice president at Fort Mose Historical Society, recalled a woman he met during the Olympics of 1996 when the torch was traveling through St. Augustine.
Jackson said she spotted a sign he was holding that read, "Fort Mose Historical Society welcomes the torch - the Olympic torch."
When the lady approached Jackson, she asked where Fort Mose was located. She said she wanted to just stand on the ground of Fort Mose, which was only bushes at the time, because it was sacred to her.
"It was something significant to her and I think that's what we need to be diligent about, telling the story, keeping the history alive and not letting other people tell all the story of what we experienced. We need to be the storytellers," Jackson said.
What: Scenes from the Battle of Bloody Mose
When: 11 a.m. today
Where: Fort Mose
Information: Call 823-2232 or go to floridastateparks.org/fortmose
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Even though Rome was known to sow salt in the fields of their enemies, they were lovers of plants and flowers. Just check the ruins of Pompeii if you doubt this. So long as the armies remained strong to protect her, Rome's agriculture flourished. But over time the soldiers changed some said, as requirements were lowered and training was lacking. At its zenith, a roman soldier was well-trained in engineering and construction as well as battlefield medicine. They not only built aqueducts and paved roads, they founded whole settlements that thrived long after Rome fell.
It was not the battle tactics, but a result of them that links Roman forts to the old world herb, yarrow, Achillea tomentosa and its wild relatives. This pungent herb with its familiar dried "everlasting" flowers contains a chemical that causes blood to coagulate. Therefore every Roman medic ensured a plentiful supply grew locally to stuff into fresh wounds on the battlefield, and to staunch bleeding later on. It was also grown by wood workers who grew it near the workshop for bleeding control of severed finger tips and cuts. While yarrow existed in only a few places before the Roman Empire, afterwards it naturalized wherever their villas, towns and forts once stood.
The last years of the Civil War were particularly difficult in the South after such prolonged conflict. More men died of dysentery and other diseases than actual war wounds. Southerners on their home territory knew locally useful plants and where to find them. Among these were poke weed, a toxic perennial of the south that bears dark purple berries. The berry juice holds its color like ink for awhile and was first used in the original 13 colonies. Some say poke ink may be found on some of our nation's founding documents. It is said that soldiers on both sides crushed poke berries in the field to write letters home with a sharpened turkey quill. Each time berries were gathered and pressed to extract the purple juice, the resulting pulp was tossed away seeds and all. It is possible that there is a link between southern bivouacs and large stands of wild poke there today.
Another coagulant plant that is also anti-bacterial used by the South was calendula flower petals. The petals later saved many a man during World War I trench warfare. During the worst of it, battlefield hospitals stripped towns of every sheet and petticoat to create bandages. It was in the trenches at the battle of Flanders, Belgium, raged, that supplies ran short. Because calendulas are a cool season annual, England's top garden diva, Gertrude Jekyll, organized gardeners to grow loads of calendula flowers for the hospitals. She coordinated shipping by the bushel across the channel to British field hospitals.
It wasn't until after this war ended that another flower became known to veterans everywhere. Corn poppies, or Papaver rhoeas, are European wildflowers that love to grow with wheat, once called corn in Europe. Poppy seed prefers disturbed ground to germinate along with the newly-sown wheat.
The first year after the armistice, former agricultural fields of Flanders, France, exploded in blood-red flowers cloaking the entire battlefield pitted and pocked with craters. But what really stimulated the poppies was blood with its heavy dose of nitrogen that had saturated the muddy earth. That spring the poppies thrived while little else did, with no competition for nutrition or water. Such an epic bloom to this day is linked to the veterans' cause.
From these stories we learn that plants tell our story better than so many other man-made things. Before the 20th century, they were the best and often the only medicines known. They helped soldiers survive on the battlefield and field hospitals. They allowed small gardeners in England to save a life with their flowers and herbs. And poke, if you know how and when to cook it safely, like the good old boys of Dixie, it lends an edge against starvation.
Read or Share this story:
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Altitude metres
tigure 8.2 The number of species (species richness) of breeding birds and mammals declines with increasing altitude in the Nepalese Himalayas (redrawn from Begon et al., 1996, who give the source of the original data).
amount of solar radiation available to fuel the growth of plants and other photosynthetic organisms.
Mountains provide an environmental gradient that occurs without a change in latitude. There are very few organisms that can survive the harsh conditions at the top of high mountains, but, at low altitude, depending on their location, there may be diverse communities of organisms. Several groups of organisms show a decline in species richness with increasing altitude (Figure 8.2). It is easy to accept that the environment becomes more harsh as you ascend a mountain, but the change is not a simple one and, in some ways, mirrors the changes seen with increasing latitude. Average temperatures decrease but temperature ranges increase with altitude. Organisms living at high altitude on tropical mountains experience sudden switches between very hot days o <u a
21- 41- 61- 81- 101- 121- 141- 161- 181- >200 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Salinity (parts per 1000)
figure 8.3 The number of animal species found in saline lakes of southeastern Australia declines with increasing salinity. This graph is based on the ranges of salinity tolerances of animals as given in Bayly & Williams (1973).
and freezing nights. Water and oxygen availability decreases with altitude, while winds and other sources of physical disturbance may increase. The area available for organisms to colonise decreases with increasing altitude and this could also be responsible for the observed decline in species richness.
Saline lakes vary in the concentrations of salts found dissolved in their waters. There are relatively few organisms that can live in highly saline lakes (those that have a salt concentration greater than 50 parts per 1000 or 5 per cent salt). The number of animal species found in the saline lakes of southeastern Australia declines with increasing salinity (Figure 8.3). For these lakes, there are no fish at salinities above 70 parts per 1000, no insects above 95 parts per 1000 and no molluscs above 112 parts per 1000. The most salt-tolerant animal in these lakes is a crustacean Parartemia zietziana, which has been found at salinities of up to 353 parts per 1000. There are no animals or higher plants living in the
Dead Sea, which has an average salinity of 370 parts per 1000, and it only supports one species of alga, a few species of halobacteria and some viruses. Thus, there seems to be a decline in the species richness of saline lakes with increasing salinity. However, the survival of organisms in saline lakes may be affected by factors in addition to salinity. Saline lakes may have high concentrations of substances other than sodium chloride. The Dead Sea, for example, has high levels of magnesium and calcium, which appear to be particularly difficult for organisms to cope with. High salinity also affects various physical characteristics of the water, including its density, freezing point and its ability to hold oxygen.
Productivity is another measure that ecologists use to categorise communities of organisms. This is the rate of production of new biomass (the total mass of organisms) and is related to factors such as the availability of light and nutrients, temperature and the length of the growing season. In general, we expect diversity to decrease with increasing harshness of the environment, but the pattern of change in productivity may be more complex (Figure 8.4). Dr Dev Niyogi, currently a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Otago, kindly provided me with Figure 8.4 and with some of the ideas on which the following interpretation is based. As environmental stress increases, diversity decreases, but productivity, as measured by biomass, initially increases. The reason for this is that, in a complex community of organisms, there are a number of levels in the food chain or food web. Plants use the energy of sunlight to produce organic material (they are the primary producers), the plants are eaten by herbivores and the herbivores are eaten by predators, which, in turn, may be eaten by bigger predators. Herbivores use the energy and organic material contained in the plants they eat to build their own bodies. This process is not efficient. The biomass of herbivores is always less than the biomass of the plants they have consumed. A community that consisted solely of plants (primary producers) would thus produce a greater total biomass than one which included herbivores and predators (all other things being equal). As the harshness of the environment increases, not only are there fewer species of organisms that can live in the conditions but
Altitude Stress
figure 8.4 As the harshness of the environment increases, the biodiversity (e.g. number of species) decreases, but the biomass (total mass of organisms) initially increases before declining. Based on a drawing by Dr Dev Niyogi, University of Otago.
whole levels in the food chain disappear. Large predators are the first to go, followed by smaller predators and then herbivores. Ultimately, only the primary producers are left, plus perhaps some decomposers (such as bacteria) which rely on the dead bodies, or products of, the primary producers. The Dead Sea, for example, has just one primary producer (the alga Dunaliellaparva) and several species of halobacteria that rely on its products. Finally, the conditions may become so harsh that no organisms can survive and the biomass declines to zero.
The decline in diversity and the increase in productivity in extreme environments suggests that the organisms which are able to colonise them gain a very great prize. The success of an organism, in terms of its numbers or biomass, depends not just on the physical conditions of its environment but also on its interactions with other organisms. It may m
Harshness of the environment figure 8.5 As the harshness of the environment increases, the amount of abiotic stress (physical factors such as temperature, pH and, salinity) increases (-), but biotic stress (predation, grazing, competition, parasites and diseases) decreases be eaten by other organisms, it may have parasites and diseases, and it may face competition for resources from other organisms. The increased productivity of extreme environments may be associated with a reduction in these biological pressures (Figure 8.5). The alga D. parva more or less has the Dead Sea to itself, with no other organisms present that eat it or compete with it. An extreme organism may thus be more successful (it can produce a greater biomass and/or occupy a greater proportion of the available habitat) than one which lives in a less extreme environment.
The first organism to colonise an extreme environment may be able to exclude other organisms that seek to do so (a sitting tenant effect). If an organism develops an adaptation which enables it to survive the conditions, although the solution may not be an efficient one at first, the process of natural selection may ensure that the adaptation becomes optimised. Any competitor which develops a similar adaptation will not have had the opportunity for it to become optimised and will be outcompeted by the sitting tenant. Perhaps the sitting tenant will only be evicted if the interloper comes up with a more efficient solution to the problem of coping with the conditions.
Although it seems to be generally true that species diversity is low in extreme environments, this might be driven by factors other than the harshness of the environment. Some extreme environments might be considered to be islands surrounded by less extreme conditions (as is the case with hot springs, hydrothermal vents and some saline lakes) or by even more extreme conditions (as in the ice-free areas of the terrestrial Antarctic that support moss and algal growth). These environments are small, rare and with a low complexity in terms of the sorts of habitats they provide within them. These sorts of island effects could in themselves be responsible for the low species diversity observed, rather than the extreme physical conditions per se.
The distribution and dispersal of extreme organisms Extreme organisms are usually limited in their distribution by a requirement for the extreme conditions to which they have become adapted. Some may, however, be capable of colonising less extreme conditions but are prevented from doing so by competition from, or predation by, other organisms. Populations of the brine shrimp Artemia, for example, are limited to saline lakes and ponds that are too salty to support the fish, and other predators, which would eat them. The extreme conditions thus represent islands of habitat that are surrounded by a 'sea' of unsuitable habitat. Suitable habitats may be separated by quite large distances. Organisms need to be able to disperse and colonise new areas. If they stayed in the same place, they would be vulnerable to catastrophes that could wipe out their population and cause them to become extinct. How do extreme organisms cope with the necessity for, and problems of, dispersal?
The fauna of deep-sea hydrothermal vents illustrate the problem.
Hydrothermal vents are temporary, opening and closing as the tectonic forces that create them shift. The animals living around hydrothermal vents must colonise new vent habitats, if they are to survive catastrophes and leave descendants in the long term. New vents sometimes appear hundreds of kilometres away from any existing ones and yet are rapidly colonised by animals. Vent animals are specialised to live there and have to cope with the extremes and gradients of temperatures and the high concentrations of metals and sulphides they experience. They rely on sulphide oxidation by bacteria for their sources of organic materials, rather than the products of photosynthesis by algae - as do animals living in the rest of the sea. The vents are thus widely separated by an environment that will not support the growth of adult vent animals. Like most marine animals, the animals of hydrothermal vents disperse by producing larvae. These are not capable of actively swimming the distances involved and must rely on ocean currents to carry them from one vent site to another.
Terrestrial Antarctic organisms (such as mosses, nematodes, spring-tails and mites) are limited to areas of ice-free ground which receive sufficient moisture from melting snow and ice to support their growth. Suitable sites are rare and may be separated by large distances. Many of these organisms are capable of anhydrobiosis, at least in some stages of their life cycle. In a dry state, they can survive being blown around in the air and could be transported large distances by this method. Springtails have water-repellent cuticles and rafts of springtails have been observed floating on the surface of water. They could perhaps disperse along coasts by this method. Some Antarctic mites can survive prolonged immersion in seawater. Transfer on the legs of seabirds (e.g. skuas, gulls and terns) is another possibility.
Trade-offs by extreme organisms
Organisms vary in the way they reproduce and conduct their lives. This includes aspects of their life history such as their fecundity (how many offspring they produce), how long a period they reproduce for, their age before they start reproducing, how often they reproduce and the size of their eggs (or other reproductive stages). The most successful pattern of reproduction might be to produce lots of large, well-provisioned eggs, frequently and early in the lifespan of the parent and to produce them for a long period of time. In practice, no organism can achieve such a strategy since food, and other resources, are limited. Organisms have thus had to evolve a compromise between the different characteristics of their life history. One trade-off is that parents who put a lot of resources into producing offspring might have to pay for this by having a shorter lifespan (or less growth) themselves. The resources they devote to their offspring cannot be assigned to supporting their own growth or survival. For example, a tree might produce more seeds or it might grow more quickly, but it cannot do both if it has limited resources. Another commonly recognised trade-off is between the number of eggs an organism produces and the size and amount of nutrients supplied by the parent to each egg.
Ecologists have proposed several schemes for classifying the life-history patterns observed in organisms. One commonly used scheme is to divide populations of organisms into 'r' and 'K' strategists (these refer to the characteristics of the growth curves of the organism's population). An r-selected population of organisms is thought to be adapted to short-lived or unpredictable environments by being able to reproduce quickly. These organisms are small in size, become reproduc-tively mature early on, they may have a single large breeding event and produce lots of small offspring. A K-selected population of organisms is thought to be adapted to competing with other organisms in a stable environment. These organisms have a larger size, become reproduc-tively mature later, may reproduce several times and produce fewer, but larger, offspring. For organisms in extreme environments, the patterns found in their life history depend on the predictability of the extreme conditions. An environment that is constantly and predictably extreme, would be expected to favour K-selected features, whereas an environment that is unpredictably extreme (or rather unpredictably favourable for growth) should favour r-selected features.
Organisms in extreme environments may have further characteristics that enable them to survive in harsh conditions. These are referred to as being A/S selected (adversity/stress selected). A/S-selected organisms take a long time to complete their life cycle, have low growth rates, low fecundity and rates of reproduction, a poor ability to compete with other species and an investment in survival strategies. Peter Convey of the British Antarctic Survey considers that terrestrial Antarctic plants and animals show the A/S selection pattern well. They have long life cycles, which are associated with low average temperatures, low water availability and short growing seasons. They also have physiological and biochemical mechanisms that enable them to survive low temperatures and desiccation.
In extreme environments, there may be three-way trade-offs between survival, growth and reproduction (Figure 8.6). Survival of low temperatures in terrestrial Antarctic organisms, for example, requires the production of sugars or polyols (trehalose, glycerol) and proteins (antifreeze proteins). Resources spent on producing these survival compounds cannot be spent on growth or reproduction. Where the severity of the environment varies with the season, there will be a seasonal shift in the production of survival compounds. Resources will be transferred entirely into survival during entry into winter and then shifted back into growth and then reproduction during the spring and summer (Figure 8.6A). Polar fish produce antifreeze proteins which enable them to survive the risk of freezing in polar waters. Since they are constantly exposed to this risk, the production of antifreeze proteins needs to be maintained. In a constantly extreme environment, the organism will achieve some sort of balance between the demands of survival, growth and reproduction (Figure 8.6B). This latter pattern may also be needed in environments where the stress is rapid and unpredictable, requiring the continual production of survival compounds to meet the risk. This might be the case in the more extreme terrestrial Antarctic habitats, or in rapidly drying habitats, where extreme conditions can occur at any time of the year and the change is too rapid to allow the production of protective compounds. Survival mechanisms thus have to operate continuously for the organism to persist.
Winter survival
Summer growth reproduction
growth reproduction ► survival figure 8.6 The allocation of resources to reproduction, growth and survival by organisms in extreme environments.
In (A), there is a seasonal shift in the allocation of resources as conditions become less extreme during summer and more favourable for growth and reproduction.
In (B), the conditions are constant and a balance between the resources allocated to survival, growth and reproduction is achieved.
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News | Published:
Species Formula
IN describing a beetle, for example, Dr. Icard chooses seven characters, always read in the same orderâ colour of thorax, colour of elytra, form of thorax, form of elytra, form of feet and tarsi, form of antennae, form of head. Each character, in a particular specimen, is represented by a numberâ the nombre signaletique or descriptive number, so that the total description of the specimen as regards specific characters may be represented by a series of numbersâ the formule signaletique or specific formula. We wish to identify a beetle; we translate one by one its characters into the appropriate number; then having composed our specific formula we search for this particular formula in another book of words, “Le Repertoire general”, and if we find the formula there we shall also find opposite it the name of the species which possesses this characteristic association of characters. It is an attractive idea that the plant and animal worlds should be so completely tabulated that a set of symbols would identify any of their members, and if the method would enforce upon describers of species definiteness in characterisation and brevity, it might be well worth a trial.
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Digital Photography School Resources
The amazing pottery skills of a wasp
Picture of a mud wasp pot nest.
Mud wasp nest
A potter wasp makes clay jars and stocked them well for her offspring.
A lot of work was involved.
Just to get and transport the clay, she can fly between 100 and 200 miles (160 and 320 km).
If the clay is too dry, she wets it by regurgitating water.
She forms the clay into pellets and uses them to make a disk that becames the base for a pot.
As the work progressed, the other pellets are drawn into strips and used to build a hollow globe.
Turning the inside of the completed sphere out at the top, she creates an open neck for her vessel.
The outside surface of her pot is rough, but the inside is smooth.
Next, a food supply is needed.
To stock the vessel, she paralyzes small caterpillars with her sting and pokes these into the jar.
Since the caterpillars are not dead, this assures a fresh food supply for the wasp larva that will hatch from the only egg in each vessel.
The egg hangs on a fine thread from the top of the pot.
How does the egg come to be in this position?
In the process of laying it, the wasp touches the inside of the vessel with the tip of her abdomen and secretes a liquid.
As the abdomen is pulled away, a thread forms and immediately hardens.
So, when the egg comes out, it is attached to the thread.
For females, the number of caterpillars is greater than for males—the female larval stage is one or two days longer.
Just how the wasp knows that a particular egg will be a female larva and needs more food is a mystery.
With a clay pellet, the wasp closes the jar containing the egg and the stock of caterpillars and smoothed down the neck of the vessel.
When the last pot is sealed the wasp’s work was done.
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Ariel The Tempest Character in the Play by William Shakespeare
Ariel The Tempest Character in the Play by William Shakespeare
Prospero And Ariel
Whilst on the island, she had imprisoned Ariel in a pine tree, had it not been for Prospero, he would probably have been left in the tree forever, thus there is an incredible aspect of dept and gratitude involved. Shakespeare uses languages and words to make it easier for the readers to know what Prospero and Ariel’s relationship is. The initial awareness of Ariel is heavily influenced by his descriptive and poetic language. Ariel communicates through poetry or song, his language is ordered and stylistic.
As in act one scene two, lines 375-386 and 397-405 where Ariel sings a song. It portrays a mind at ease with his environment, and a mind with creativity. Furthermore, Ariel’s speech is filled with alliteration, assonance, rhyme, and meter. In Ariel’s song, “come unto us these yellow sands… And sweet sprites, the burden bear”. The expression of his character is personifies by sea. Prospero applauds Ariel’s beauty when tells him “Go make thyself a nymph o’ the sea. ” This use of similes and metaphors throughout the act helps the readers know the impression of Ariel.
The Tempest Prospero And Ariel Relationships
Ariel’s poetic and fluent language and imagery reflects his character, and helps the audience establish him as a character of beauty. Shakespeare uses language as a means of introducing Ariel to the audience. The characters in Shakespeare’s play often reveal themselves by what they say and how they say it, what they do and how they do it, and their behavior towards others. Tone of language is often used by characters to know their relationships. In the case of Ariel and Prospero a lot can be shown, most obvious is the idea of possession where Prospero’s commanding tone is evident throughout the dialogue with Ariel.
Ariel wants his freedom and talks about how Prospero decided to reduce her service by a year and free him, as said in lines 248-“Without grudge or grumblings. Thou didst promise to bate me a full year”. Despite the promise, in act one scene two, line 262-263 “O, was she so? I must once in a month recount what thou hast been”, the sarcasm in this line shows Prospero’s authority over Ariel, and he reminds him, although sarcastically, that Ariel is indebted to him. In lines 294-296 Prospero threatens Ariel that, if he complains about his freedom again, he would split an oak tree and lock him up in it till he has howled for twenty years.
Ariel tries to calm Prospero down by saying “Pardon master, I will correspond to command, and do my spriting gently” which means that, Ariel will try to do all task Prospero asks him to do without any complains. Prospero doesn’t want to free Ariel and keeps reminding him of what he did for him. Shakespeare uses this technique to make us imagine what and why Prospero doesn’t want to free Ariel. Ariel’s tone also suggests that he is happy with what he does, although he wants his freedom, to an extent it could be argued. In line 300, when Ariel tells Prospero, “What shall I do?
Say what. What shall I do? ” demonstrates to an extent, an eagerness to carry out the tasks set by Prospero. There could be two explanations for this, it either gratitude towards Prospero or Ariel wants to be set free, however, it’s perhaps a mixture of two which best sums up this enthusiasm. Lines 195-206 also show the excitement Ariel had using his magical powers to complete Prospero’s task. He talks about how he made everyone astonished and terrified. He also talked about how he appeared in many places at once, and also how he even made the god of sea tremble underwater.
The tones adopted by both characters help the readers understand their relationship, establishing Prospero as superior to Ariel. Throughout act one scene two, Shakespeare’s excellent use of language, imagery and tone helps to introduce the character of Ariel. It allows the character to establish himself through his language, the poetry and fluency of which reflects his nature, and helps the audience in understand his character. The use of language, imagery and tone within this scene allows Shakespeare to introduce Ariel to the Audience in the intended manner, and is essential in helping the audience assess how he is presented.
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1885 | This day in history
This Day In History
Sunday, June 16, 2019
On This Day
January 20, 1885
L.A. Thompson patents the...
L.A. Thompson patents the roller coaster. The roller coaster is a popular amusement ride developed for amusement parks and modern theme parks. LaMarcus Adna Thompson patented the first coasters on January 20, 1885. In essence a specialized railroad system, a roller coaster consists of a track that rises in designed patterns, sometimes with one or more inversions (such as vertical loops) that turn the rider briefly upside down. The track does not necessarily have to be a complete circuit, as shuttle roller coasters exhibit. Most roller coasters have multiple cars in which passengers sit and are restrained. Two or more cars hooked together are called a train. Some roller coasters, notably Wild Mouse roller coasters, run with single cars. The oldest roller coasters are believed to have originated from the so-called "Russian Mountains", which were specially constructed hills of ice, located especially around Saint Petersburg. Built in the 15th century, the slides were built to a height of between 70 and 80 feet (24 m), consisted of a 50 degree drop, and were reinforced by wooden supports.
roller coaster, Russian mountain, Thompson
February 21, 1885
The newly completed Washington...
The newly completed Washington Monument is dedicated. The Washington Monument is an obelisk near the west end of the National Mall in Washington, D.C., built to commemorate the first U.S. president, General George Washington. The monument, made of marble, granite, and bluestone gneiss, is both the world's tallest stone structure and the world's tallest obelisk, standing 555 feet 5.125 inches (169.294 m).
Washington Monument, Washington
May 2, 1885
Cover from August 1908 made by John Cecil Clay.
Cover from August 1908 made by John Cecil Clay.
Good Housekeeping, magazine
June 17, 1885
The Statue of Liberty...
Statue of Liberty
November 29, 1885
End of Third Anglo-Burmese...
End of Third Anglo-Burmese War, and end of Burmese monarchy. The Third Anglo-Burmese War was a conflict that took place during 7–29 November 1885, with sporadic resistance and insurgency continuing into 1887. It was the final of three wars fought in the 19th century between the Burmese and the British. The war saw the loss of sovereignty of an independent Burma under the Konbaung Dynasty, whose rule had already been reduced to the territory known as Upper Burma, the region of Lower Burma having been annexed by the British in 1853, as a result of the Second Anglo-Burmese War.
Third Anglo-Burmese War
January 27, 1885
Jerome Kern
Jerome David Kern was an American composer of musical theatre and popular music.
February 9, 1885
Alban Berg
February 24, 1885
Chester W Nimitz
Fleet Admiral Chester William Nimitz was a five-star admiral of the United States Navy. He held the dual command of Commander in Chief, United States Pacific Fleet (CinCPac), for U.S. naval forces and Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas (CinCPOA), for U.S. and Allied air, land, and sea forces during World War II.
September 11, 1885
D. H. Lawrence
March 31, 1885
Franz Abt
May 22, 1885
Victor Hugo
July 23, 1885
Ulysses S. Grant
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Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck (/ləˈmɑːrk/;[1] French: [ʒɑ̃batist lamaʁk][2]), was a French naturalist. He was a soldier, biologist, and academic, and an early proponent of the idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Jean-baptiste lamarck2.jpg
Portrait by J. Pizzetta, 1893
Born(1744-08-01)1 August 1744
Died18 December 1829(1829-12-18) (aged 85)
CitizenshipFrench citizen/subject
Known forEvolution; inheritance of acquired characteristics; Philosophie Zoologique
Scientific career
InstitutionsFrench Academy of Sciences; Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle; Jardin des Plantes
InfluencedÉtienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, William Healey Dall
Author abbrev. (botany)Lam.
Author abbrev. (zoology)Lamarck
In 1801, he published Système des animaux sans vertèbres, a major work on the classification of invertebrates, a term he coined. In an 1802 publication, he became one of the first to use the term "biology" in its modern sense.[5][Note 1] Lamarck continued his work as a premier authority on invertebrate zoology. He is remembered, at least in malacology, as a taxonomist of considerable stature.
The modern era generally remembers Lamarck for a theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, called soft inheritance, Lamarckism, or use/disuse theory,[6] which he described in his 1809 Philosophie Zoologique. However, the idea of soft inheritance long antedates him, formed only a small element of his theory of evolution, and was in his time accepted by many natural historians. Lamarck's contribution to evolutionary theory consisted of the first truly cohesive theory of biological evolution,[7] in which an alchemical complexifying force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity, and a second environmental force adapted them to local environments through use and disuse of characteristics, differentiating them from other organisms.[8] Scientists have debated whether advances in the field of transgenerational epigenetics mean that Lamarck was to an extent correct, or not.[9]
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was born in Bazentin, Picardy, northern France,[4] as the 11th child in an impoverished aristocratic family.[Note 2] Male members of the Lamarck family had traditionally served in the French army. Lamarck's eldest brother was killed in combat at the Siege of Bergen op Zoom, and two other brothers were still in service when Lamarck was in his teenaged years. Yielding to the wishes of his father, Lamarck enrolled in a Jesuit college in Amiens in the late 1750s.[4]
After his father died in 1760, Lamarck bought himself a horse, and rode across the country to join the French army, which was in Germany at the time. Lamarck showed great physical courage on the battlefield in the Pomeranian War with Prussia, and he was even nominated for the lieutenancy.[4] Lamarck's company was left exposed to the direct artillery fire of their enemies, and was quickly reduced to just 14 men – with no officers. One of the men suggested that the puny, 17-year-old volunteer should assume command and order a withdrawal from the field; although Lamarck accepted command, he insisted they remain where they had been posted until relieved.
When their colonel reached the remains of their company, this display of courage and loyalty impressed him so much that Lamarck was promoted to officer on the spot. However, when one of his comrades playfully lifted him by the head, he sustained an inflammation in the lymphatic glands of the neck, and he was sent to Paris to receive treatment.[4] He was awarded a commission and settled at his post in Monaco. There, he encountered Traité des plantes usuelles, a botany book by James Francis Chomel.[4]
Lamarck by Charles Thévenin (circa 1802)
After his studies, in 1778, he published some of his observations and results in a three-volume work, entitled Flore françoise. Lamarck's work was respected by many scholars, and it launched him into prominence in French science. On 8 August 1778, Lamarck married Marie Anne Rosalie Delaporte.[10] Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, one of the top French scientists of the day, mentored Lamarck, and helped him gain membership to the French Academy of Sciences in 1779 and a commission as a royal botanist in 1781, in which he traveled to foreign botanical gardens and museums.[11] Lamarck's first son, André, was born on 22 April 1781, and he made his colleague André Thouin the child's godfather.
In his two years of travel, Lamarck collected rare plants that were not available in the Royal Garden, and also other objects of natural history, such as minerals and ores, that were not found in French museums. On 7 January 1786, his second son, Antoine, was born, and Lamarck chose Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, Bernard de Jussieu's nephew, as the boy's godfather.[12] On 21 April the following year, Charles René, Lamarck's third son, was born. René Louiche Desfontaines, a professor of botany at the Royal Garden, was the boy's godfather, and Lamarck's elder sister, Marie Charlotte Pelagie De Monet, was the godmother.[12] In 1788, Buffon's successor at the position of Intendant of the Royal Garden, Charles-Claude Flahaut de la Billaderie, comte d'Angiviller, created a position for Lamarck, with a yearly salary of 1,000 francs, as the keeper of the herbarium of the Royal Garden.[4]
In 1790, at the height of the French Revolution, Lamarck changed the name of the Royal Garden from Jardin du Roi to Jardin des Plantes, a name that did not imply such a close association with King Louis XVI.[13] Lamarck had worked as the keeper of the herbarium for five years before he was appointed curator and professor of invertebrate zoology at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in 1793.[4] During his time at the herbarium, Lamarck's wife gave birth to three more children before dying on 27 September 1792. With the official title of "Professeur d'Histoire naturelle des Insectes et des Vers", Lamarck received a salary of nearly 2,500 francs per year.[14] The following year, on 9 October, he married Charlotte Reverdy, who was 30 years his junior.[12] On 26 September 1794 Lamarck was appointed to serve as secretary of the assembly of professors for the museum for a period of one year. In 1797, Charlotte died, and he married Julie Mallet the following year; she died in 1819.[12]
Lamarck, late in life
In 1801, he published Système des Animaux sans Vertebres, a major work on the classification of invertebrates. In the work, he introduced definitions of natural groups among invertebrates. He categorized echinoderms, arachnids, crustaceans, and annelids, which he separated from the old taxon for worms known as Vermes.[13] Lamarck was the first to separate arachnids from insects in classification, and he moved crustaceans into a separate class from insects.
In his own work, Lamarck had favored the then-more traditional theory based on the classical four elements. During Lamarck's lifetime, he became controversial, attacking the more enlightened chemistry proposed by Lavoisier. He also came into conflict with the widely respected palaeontologist Georges Cuvier, who was not a supporter of evolution.[17] According to Peter J. Bowler, Cuvier "ridiculed Lamarck's theory of transformation and defended the fixity of species."[18] According to Martin J. S. Rudwick:
Lamarck gradually turned blind; he died in Paris on 18 December 1829. When he died, his family was so poor, they had to apply to the Academie for financial assistance. Lamarck was buried in a common grave of the Montparnasse cemetery for just five years, according to the grant obtained from relatives. Later, the body was dug up along with other remains and was lost. Lamarck's books and the contents of his home were sold at auction, and his body was buried in a temporary lime pit.[20] After his death, Cuvier used the form of a eulogy to denigrate Lamarck:
— Gould, 1993[21]
Lamarckian evolutionEdit
Lamarck stressed two main themes in his biological work, neither of them to do with soft inheritance. The first was that the environment gives rise to changes in animals. He cited examples of blindness in moles, the presence of teeth in mammals and the absence of teeth in birds as evidence of this principle. The second principle was that life was structured in an orderly manner and that many different parts of all bodies make possible the organic movements of animals.[16]
• Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants, 1802.
• Philosophie Zoologique, 1809.
Lamarck employed several mechanisms as drivers of evolution, drawn from the common knowledge of his day and from his own belief in chemistry before Lavoisier. He used these mechanisms to explain the two forces he saw as constituting evolution: force driving animals from simple to complex forms and a force adapting animals to their local environments and differentiating them from each other. He believed that these forces must be explained as a necessary consequence of basic physical principles, favoring a materialistic attitude toward biology.
Le pouvoir de la vie: The complexifying forceEdit
Lamarck's two-factor theory involves 1) a complexifying force that drives animal body plans towards higher levels (orthogenesis) creating a ladder of phyla, and 2) an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances (use and disuse, inheritance of acquired characteristics), creating a diversity of species and genera. Popular views of Lamarckism consider only an aspect of the adaptive force.[22]
Lamarck ran against the modern chemistry promoted by Lavoisier (whose ideas he regarded with disdain), preferring to embrace a more traditional alchemical view of the elements as influenced primarily by earth, air, fire, and water. He asserted that once living organisms form, the movements of fluids in living organisms naturally drove them to evolve toward ever greater levels of complexity:[23]
— Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres, 1815
L'influence des circonstances: The adaptive forceEdit
First law: use and disuseEdit
Second law: inheritance of acquired characteristicsEdit
The last clause of this law introduces what is now called soft inheritance, the inheritance of acquired characteristics, or simply "Lamarckism", though it forms only a part of Lamarck's thinking.[27] However, in the field of epigenetics, evidence is growing that soft inheritance plays a part in the changing of some organisms' phenotypes; it leaves the genetic material (DNA) unaltered (thus not violating the central dogma of biology) but prevents the expression of genes,[28] such as by methylation to modify DNA transcription; this can be produced by changes in behaviour and environment. Many epigenetic changes are heritable to a degree. Thus, while DNA itself is not directly altered by the environment and behavior except through selection, the relationship of the genotype to the phenotype can be altered, even across generations, by experience within the lifetime of an individual. This has led to calls for biology to reconsider Lamarckian processes in evolution in light of modern advances in molecular biology.[29]
Religious viewsEdit
In his book Philosophie Zoologique, Lamarck referred to God as the "sublime author of nature". Lamarck's religious views are examined in the book Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution (1901) by Alpheus Packard. According to Packard from Lamarck's writings, he may be regarded as a deist.[30]
The philosopher of biology Michael Ruse described Lamarck, "as believing in God as an unmoved mover, creator of the world and its laws, who refuses to intervene miraculously in his creation."[31] Biographer James Moore described Lamarck as a "thoroughgoing deist".[32]
Lamarck is usually remembered for his belief in the then commonly held theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, and the use and disuse model by which organisms developed their characteristics. Lamarck incorporated this belief into his theory of evolution, along with other common beliefs of the time, such as spontaneous generation.[22] The inheritance of acquired characteristics (also called the theory of adaptation or soft inheritance) was rejected by August Weismann in the 1880s[Note 3] when he developed a theory of inheritance in which germ plasm (the sex cells, later redefined as DNA), remained separate and distinct from the soma (the rest of the body); thus, nothing which happens to the soma may be passed on with the germ plasm. This model underlies the modern understanding of inheritance.
Species and other taxa named by LamarckEdit
During his lifetime, Lamarck named a large number of species, many of which have become synonyms. The World Register of Marine Species gives no fewer than 1,634 records.[38] The Indo-Pacific Molluscan Database gives 1,781 records.[39] Among these are some well-known families such as the ark clams (Arcidae), the sea hares (Aplysiidae), and the cockles (Cardiidae). The International Plant Names Index gives 58 records,[40] including a number of well-known genera such as the mosquito fern (Azolla).
Species named in his honourEdit
The honeybee subspecies Apis mellifera lamarckii is named after Lamarck, as well as the bluefire jellyfish (Cyaneia lamarckii). A number of plants have also been named after him, including Amelanchier lamarckii (juneberry), Digitalis lamarckii, and Aconitum lamarckii, as well as the grass genus Lamarckia.
The International Plant Names Index gives 116 records of plant species named after Lamarck.[42]
Major worksEdit
• 1778 Flore françoise, ou, Description succincte de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France 1st ed.
• 1809. Philosophie zoologique, ou Exposition des considérations relatives à l'histoire naturelle des animaux..., Paris.
• Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste (1783–1808). Encyclopédie méthodique. Botanique. Paris: Panckoucke. (see Encyclopédie méthodique)
On invertebrate classification:
See alsoEdit
2. ^ His noble title was chevalier, which is French for knight.
2. ^ Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. pp. 484, 541. ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4.
3. ^ Damkaer (2002), p. 117.
9. ^ a b c Haig, David (2007). "Weismann Rules! OK? Epigenetics and the Lamarckian temptation". Biology and Philosophy. 22 (3): 415–428. doi:10.1007/s10539-006-9033-y.
10. ^ Mantoy (1968), p. 19.
11. ^ Packard (1901), pp. 20–21.
12. ^ a b c d Bange, Raphaël; Pietro Corsi. "Chronologie de la vie de Jean-Baptiste Lamarck" (in French). Centre national de la recherche scientifique. Retrieved July 10, 2007.
13. ^ a b Damkaer (2002), p. 118.
14. ^ Szyfman (1982), p. 13.
15. ^ Osborn (1905), p. 159.
16. ^ a b Osborn (1905), p. 160.
17. ^ Curtis, Caitlin; Millar, Craig; Lambert, David (September 2018). "The Sacred Ibis debate: The first test of evolution". PLOS Biology. 16 (9): e2005558. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2005558. PMID 30260949.
18. ^ Bowler (2003), p. 110.
19. ^ Rudwick (1998), p. 83.
20. ^ Waggoner, Ben; Speer, B. R. (2 September 1998). "Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)". UCMP Berkeley. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
21. ^ Gould (1993) Foreword
22. ^ a b c Gould, Stephen (2001). The lying stones of Marrakech : penultimate reflections in natural history. Vintage. pp. 119–121. ISBN 978-0-09-928583-0.
26. ^ a b Weber, A. S. (2000). Nineteenth-Century Science: An Anthology. Broadview Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-55111-165-0.
27. ^ Bowler, Peter (1989). Evolution : the history of an idea (Revised ed.). University of California Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-520-06386-0. OCLC 17841313.
28. ^ Fitzpatrick, Tony (2006). "Researcher gives hard thoughts on soft inheritance: above and beyond the gene". Washington University in St. Louis. Retrieved October 8, 2011.
29. ^ a b Jablonka, Eva; Lamb, Marion J.; Avital, Eytan (1998). "'Lamarckian' mechanisms in darwinian evolution". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 13 (5): 206–210. doi:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01344-5.
36. ^ Mayr (1964), pp. xxv–xxvi.
37. ^ Darwin (1861–82), 3rd edition, "Historical sketch", page xiii
38. ^ WoRMS: species named by Lamarck; accessed: 17 November 2010
39. ^ OBIS: Species named by Lamarck; accessed: 17 November 2010
41. ^ IPNI. Lam.
42. ^ IPNI: plant species named after Lamarck; accessed: 17 November 2010
43. ^ WoRMS: species with the epithet "lamarcki"; accessed 17 November 2010
44. ^ IPNI. Lam.
External linksEdit
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Dominant Inheritance
When a bird has a dominant gene it can always be seen in their physical appearance, e.g. a spangle or a violet.
A bird can have the dominant factor on a single gene it will always show in the bird's appearance, it will not be affected by the other gene in the pair and it does not matter which one of the pair genes has the dominant gene. Such a bird is known as a single-factor bird, e.g. a single-factor spangle.
A bird can have the dominant factor on both copies of the same gene. Such a bird is a double-factor. Double factor birds may appear identical to single-factor birds (e.g. grey factor) or they appear very different (e.g. double-factor spangles appear all yellow or all white).
When breeding, each bird in the pairing just passes one of the two copies of each gene to the offspring; the one that gets passed is randomly selected. This all means that the offspring still have two copies of each gene, one from each parent.
To see the effect of pairing two birds we use expectation tables:
I am going to use the following symbols:
gene carrying the grey factor
normal gene (no grey factor)
(There are millions other genes, but we will consider just one pair at a time.)
So the following combinations are possible of these two genes:
no grey factor
single-factor grey
single-factor grey
double-factor grey
So a bird has millions of genes, if just one of the two genes that can carry the grey factor has it, then it will appear grey (grey-green, grey (-blue), grey yellow, grey white, etc.)
Do you remember that only one of each pair of genes is passed on by each parent? We can use this to calculate what to expect from a pairing.
single-factor grey x single-factor grey
(Gg x Gg)
can produce:
double-factor grey
single-factor grey
single-factor grey
This was produced by simply one gene from each bird until all possible combinations have been produced. (In this case, I simply took the first gene of the first bird (G) and matched it to the first gene of the second bird (also G) to give GG (the first line of the result) and then matched it with the second gene of the second bird (g) to get Gg (second line). I then repeated the process using the second gene of the first bird to get gG (g + G) and gg (g + g).)
Or more simply, watch this animated diagram:
Another way of finding the possible gene pairs is by using a table:
Dominant Genes
The arrows show which columns and rows each gene appears within (so the G of bird along the top row appears in the two cells on the left and the g of other bird appears in the bottom two cells - hence the bottom-left cell had the G from bird 1 and g from bird 2).
You may find tables easier to make and understand once you know how inheritance works.
The percentage of each type of offspring can be calculated simply by looking at the fractions of each type. Since in the above pairing there are 4 possibilities of combining the two sets of genes and each one has an equal chance of occurring:
1 in 4 will be GG = 25% GG
1 in 4 will be Gg = 25% Gg
1 in 4 will be gG = 25% gG
1 in 4 will be gg = 25% gg
But, the gG and Gg birds are identical (no difference in their appearances or when they breed) so
25% Gg + 25% gG = 50% Gg
25% GG (double-factor grey)
50% Gg (single-factor grey)
25% gg (normal)
In a single pairing, you are will not always (or even often) get these exact percentages, but over many thousands chicks produced from such pairings these percentages are very accurate.
Simulating Pairings using Dice
You can simulate a pairing like this with two dice. Each dice represents both genes from one of the parents, say that G is represented by even numbers and g by odd. Shake the dice and see what you get (e.g. 6 + 3 = G + g = Gg (single-factor grey)).
Other Dominant Genes & Incomplete Dominance
I have used the Grey factor in my examples because it is very common and most aviaries will have at least one or two budgies carrying it, but there are many others, see below:
Dominant pied
Most of these factors are actually incompletely dominant genes, which means that a single-factor bird is different in appearance to a double factor bird.
• Dark is an incomplete-dominant factor; in a green series bird a single dark-factor produces a Dark Green bird whilst a double-factor produces an Olive.
• Spangle is an incomplete-dominant factor that produces a very different bird when both genes carry it compared with a single-factor Spangle.
• Green, Grey and Dominant Pied are completely dominant, it is impossible to tell if a bird carrying any of these genes has them in single- or double-factor simply by looking at it.
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Make your own free website on
Module 4
Mistakes to be prevented
Discussions end with no agreement reached because of the attitude, "That is all there is to be said on the subject."
Prejudice arises from this attitude: "That is all that can be said about a nationality, creed, class, or individual."
Learning is blocked by an attitude of, "I know all about it."
Rumor and gossip result because people accept a statement as "all the story."
False impressions result when people accept one cause as the explanation of a complex matter.
(Above examples taken from Minteer, Words and What They Do To You, Lesson 5)
next arrow
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Plot Worksheets
These activity sheets will teach your students about the different components of story plots.
Most stories follow the same basic structure. They start by introducing the characters, setting, and central conflict (exposition), contain events that build in scope (rising action) until the "big event" (climax), after which, various conflicts are dealt with (falling action) until the end, where the lessons are learned or all conflicts are dealt with (resolution). These worksheets will have your students mapping essential elements of children's stories and fables to this pattern. Answer keys are provided as you might find them very helpful when grading.
Fun Project Idea: Have your students bring in their favorite books or stories and perform the same exercise, and present the result to the class.
Get Free Worksheets In Your Inbox!
Print Plot Worksheets
Click the buttons to print each worksheet and associated answer key.
Goldy Locks and the Three Bears
Below are the main components of Goldy Locks and the Three Bears. Place each component where it belongs on the Plot Diagram by placing its number in the circle.
The Plot of Gingerbread Man
Which is it? 1. The gingerbread man came to a river that he could not cross. 2. An old woman who lived in a cottage baked a gingerbread man. 3. The fox ate the gingerbread man.
The Plot of Henny Penny
Where do these fit into the scheme of the story? 1. Foxy Loxy told them that he would show them a shortcut to the king. 2. She ran to tell the king that the sky was falling. 3. She turned around and went back to her farmyard, never to give the king her message. 4. Henny Penny and all of her friends ran into Foxy Loxy who said he wanted to go with them.
The Little Red Hen
1. The little red hen ate the bread all by herself, enjoying every bite. 2. The little red hen did all the work while the other three lazed around all day and refused to help. 3. When the bread was done, the pig, the duck, and the cat all said that they were ready to eat it. 4. The pig, the duck, and the cat refused to help plant the corn.
The Three Little Pigs Plot
Place each component where it belongs on the Plot Diagram by placing its number in the circle. For example: 1. The first pig built his house of straw, and the big bad wolf came and blew it down. 2. The big bad wolf got mad about the pigs tricking him, so he decided to go down the chimney of the pigs' brick house and eat them for dinner. 3. The first pig went to live with the second pig, whose home was built of sticks, until the big bad wolf blew it down also.
The Plot of Little Red Riding Hood
1. Little Red Riding Hood met a wolf in the woods and told him that she was going to visit her grandmother. 2. Little Red Riding Hood arrived for her visit, not realizing that it was the wolf dressed as her grandmother. 3. A woodsman heard her scream, came to rescue her, and made the wolf spit out the grandmother.
The Plot of Rumpelstiltskin
1. Once she was Queen, she had a baby that the little man came to get. 2. A miller told the King that his daughter could spin straw into gold; therefore, the King asked that she be brought to the palace and show what she could do. 3. The little man told her that she had three days to guess his name, or the baby became his.
The Tortoise and the Hare- What's the Deal?
The Old Slow and Steady Wins the Race!
The Princess and the Pea Worksheet
1. When asked how she slept, she said that she felt something hard under her and was black and blue from it. 2. A prince wanted to marry a real princess, but was unable to find one. 3. The queen decided to test her and see if she was a real princess.
Cinderella- Needle In Haystack
A classic tale of finding a needle in a haystack.
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