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Kashmir Shawls
Indian textiles began flooding European markets in the seventeenth century with the founding of the Dutch East India Company in 1597 and the English East India Company in 1600. This early trade provided the foundation for the great popularity of Kashmir shawls among fashionable European women in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Kashmir shawls had been woven since the fifteenth century, but Europeans first became acquainted with them in the seventeenth century.
Kashmir shawls were made of fine cashmere, pashima, and shah tus wools, made from the soft hair of Tibetan mountain goats living in the high altitudes of the Himalayan Mountains. Indian women spun the fleece into yarn and one or two men worked between two to three years weaving the yarn into a shawl. Undyed shawls ranged in color from light cream to grey or brown. To produce more vibrant shawls, yarns were dyed with natural pigments or silk thread was woven into the shawl. Patterns called boteh, which means flower but the pattern is recognized as paisley in the West, were woven into the shawls named kani. Shawls with embroidered patterns were called amli. The great skill and long time it took to make each Kashmir shawl made them very expensive. In the early nineteenth century a Kashmir shawl was as expensive as a twentieth-century mink coat.
Despite the high price of these shawls, demand increased rapidly among European women. Recognizing the potential for profit, European textile manufacturers began to make imitation Kashmir shawls in factories located throughout Europe. Power loom woven shawls cost one-tenth the price of handmade Kashmir shawls. Paisley, Scotland had such high success producing imitation Kashmir shawls that the traditional Indian boteh pattern became known in the West as paisley.
Although the huge supply of imitation shawls damaged the popularity of Kashmir shawls, it was another fashion trend that ended the demand for these shawls. The large Kashmir shawls covered the hoops of crinoline skirts perfectly on chilly days. But the 1870 fashion for the bustled skirt, which made the back of a women's dress into a decorative bump, would be completely covered by a Kashmir shawl. Wanting to show off their bustles, women stopped wearing the shawls.
Askari, Nasreen, and Liz Arthur. Uncut Cloth: Saris, Shawls, and Sashes. London, England: Merrell Holberton, 1999.
Goswamy, B. N., and Kalyan Krishna. Indian Costumes in the Collection of the Calico Museum of Textiles. Ahmedabad, India: D. S. Mehta, 1993.
[ See also Volume 1, India: Chadar ]
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Friday, 11 March 2016
In her article on the ancient names of rivers in America, Susan Fenimore Cooper wrote in the year 1880, "The vast streams of this Western Continent flowed over a nameless course during that mysterious past whose secrets we would so gladly unveil. There are rivers on the globe, like the Jordan, the Euphrates, the Nile, the Tiber, which are known to have borne during thousands of years the names they bear to-day. But this Western hemisphere, shrouded in mystery, has no primeval names to repeat to us for the noble streams flowing from its heart. The wild races, succeeding each other on their banks, no doubt gave temporary names to different portions of the greater streams, changing them with the succeeding conquest or flight of each tribe..... When explorers and colonists crossed the ocean they gave, as a rule, the names of the wild tribes to the rivers on which they met them....".
She adds,"Very few received European names. The exceptions on the Atlantic coast number just half a dozen; the St. Lawrence, the Hudson, the Delaware, the James, the Ashley and the Cooper. Of these only one, the Hudson, recalls, the discoverer". The Hudson was named after its European discoverer who landed on its banks in 1609.
About the lost legacy of the Native American names of the rivers of America and their meanings, Edward Moor says in his book 'Oriental Fragments' (1834), "In America what fine names might probably have been left of the vast lakes and streams and hills, which ennoble, beautify, and enrich those extended regions. How poor and un-instructive are the Hudson, the St. Lawrence, in comparison with Niagara - pure Sanskrit I suspect....". [Click here to read about the Sanskrit connect to the name Niagara.]
Of the name Hudson, Edward Moor laments, "Sing-Sing, a state prison on the magnificent banks of the - Hudson! What a bathos! What a name for such a river!". (Bathos is 'an anticlimax created by an unintentional lapse in mood from the sublime to the ridiculous').
The Hudson is one of the most beautiful of rivers and Edward Moor thought that even the Sing-Sing prison had a better name than the Hudson. Said he, "In India sing or singha is a lion!"
The Hudson River.
Its native name was 'Mahicantuk'.
Mahikanta translates as Very Pleasing and
Mehikanta as 'Pleasing Mist' from Sanskrit
According to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation: “...native tribes had named the river long before Hudson's arrival. One of their names – Mahicantuck - means "great waters in constant motion" or, more loosely, "river that flows two ways." Uncannily 'mahi' seems like a distortion of the Sanskrit 'maha' (महा) meaning 'great' and 'kanta' (कान्त) means 'pleasing'. And the most pleasing of them all is 'Mahakanta' (महाकान्त) , Sanskrit for 'earth'. 'Ituk' is a Lenape geographical term which is the equivalent of territory or domain, 'itas' (इतस्) is the Sanskrit term for 'here'.
Historians believe it was the Mohican tribe that first settled on the river Hudson. It is stated in 'Stockbridge, past and present, or, Records of an old mission station' by Electa Jones published in 1854, "The tribe's name came from where they lived: 'Muh-he-ka-neew' (or People of the continually flowing waters). The word Muh-he-kan refers to a great sea or body of water...". 'Mehi' (मेही) is Sanskrit for 'mist'! Mehikanta is Pleasing Mist!!
The nearly 40 Indian tribes that had settled on the rivers Hudson, Delaware, Potomac and Susquehanna by the 1650s called their leading tribe, the Lenape, by the title 'Mochomes' which translates as 'grandfather' but is strangely close to the Sanskrit 'Mukhya' (मुख्य) meaning 'chief' which is the title of the village head in India.
"The tribes acknowledge this relation addressed the Lenne Lenapes with the title of Mochomes, that is to say, their grandfather, and were received with the appellation of Noochwissak or my grandchildren." write Yates and Moulton in their History of the State of New York. Wissak' may be explained by the the Sanskrit 'Vishakh' (विशाख) meaning 'branch'.
All of the above may be dismissed as conjecture except that language apart there are some cultural similarities to the Hindu/Vedic/Puranic tradition of India. In the Hindu tradition Lord Vishnu periodically descends in the form of an avatar to restore cosmic order in the world. In his Kurma or Turtle avatara, Vishnu carries the Mount Mandara on his back when the devas and asuras were churning the Ocean of milk in order to get amrita, the nectar of immortality.
Kurma Avatara of Vishnu who carried
Mount Mandara on his back
In the Lene Lenape tradition, the Turtle tribe is regarded as the most superior of the Lenapes because they consider themselves the descendants of the great tortoise who carries their great island on his back. "The turtle tribe, among the Lenapes, claims a superiority and ascendancy over the others because of their relation to the great tortoise, a fabled monster, the Atlas of their mythology, who bears, according to their traditions, this great island, as they term the world, on his back...". (quote from Yates and Moultons 'History' as mentioned in 'History of the Indian tribes of Hudson's River' By E.M. Ruttenber).
Suggested Links:
1. History of Indian Tribes on Hudson River by E.M. Ruttenber
2. Myths and Symbols by Stephen D. Peet
3. Hudson River
4. The Hudson River and its early names by Susan Fenimore Cooper
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University of Florida
Home > Tree Biology > Decay development
Decay development
lighter spot on tree stump caused by microorganisms
Click for the USDA Wood Decay in Living and Dead Trees: A Pictorial Overview (PDF).
Injuries result from inappropriate pruning cuts, storms, ice, snow, animals, wind, excess weight, temperature extremes, trunk wounds, disease, chemicals, and other stresses. A tree reacts to injury by creating boundaries around it. The boundary-setting process that resists loss of normal wood function and resists the spread of discoloration and decay has been referred to as compartmentalization.
Discoloration is the orderly response of the tree to microorganisms resulting in darkened wood but no strength loss. Decay is the orderly breakdown of tissue resulting in strength loss. The rate of the discoloration and decay process depends on the severity of the wound, position in the tree, size of the wound, time of year, species, tree age, and the types of infecting microorganisms.
Compartmentalization may be described using the CODIT (Compartmentalization Of Decay In Trees) model. Four different boundaries (also called walls) in trees have been presented in CODIT: wall 1, wall 2, wall 3, and wall 4. Each forms in a different manner and protects the tree in unique ways.
The walls are numbered in increasing order of their ability to retard movement of decay organisms. For example, wall 3 is stronger than wall 1. Wall 1 may or may not be present at the time of wounding. Walls 2 and 3 are present in the tree at all times. Wall 4 forms in response to injury.
Wall 1: Xylem vessels immediately above and below an injury plug with chemicals when a tree is injured. This plugging response forms wall 1. Some plugging occurs normally without injury. Plugging forms a weak boundary in some trees such a hackberry (Celtis) and poplars (Populus), but is stronger in others such as many of the oaks (Quercus). Because wall 1 is weak, decay in some trees can advance rapidly up and down the trunk from the injury resulting in long columns of decay and hollow branches and trunks.
Wall 2: The growth rings make up wall 2. The transition from one growth ring to the next retards advancing decay organisms. Decay organisms often have a tougher time moving across growth rings (wall 2) than they do up and down the stem (wall 1). The functioning of wall 2 can be demonstrated when you view a cross section of a trunk or branch that was injured previously. A darkened region often appears to stop its advancement inward toward the pith at the boundary of one growth ring with the next. This is wall 2 working.
Wall 3: The rays make up wall 3. They have plenty of decay fighting capability because they are rich in starch. Discoloration and decay have a tougher time moving across wall 3 that walls 1 and 2. The strength of wall 3 can be demonstrated by viewing a cross section of a trunk or branch injured several years ago. Notice that there is a clear demarcation between darkened tissue and normal light colored wood. If walls 2 and 3 fail and decay organisms break through, the affected trunk or branch can become hollow. Wall 4 forms the outside edge of the hollow.
Wall 4: This is the strongest boundary that retards spread of discoloration and decay in trees. This reaction zone forms from the cambium along the edge of the outer-most growth ring present at the time the tree was injured. It begins at the point where the tree was injured and it may extend all or part way around the tree. Wall 4 stays in the same position in the tree but may extend further around or up and down the trunk with time. It does not move out with the new cambium. There may be numerous wall 4s in a tree, depending on its wounding history. Wall 4 forms the edge of a hollow.
Wall 4 develops in response to many different types of injuries. It can take several years for wall 4 to reach the other side of the trunk - or it may never reach that far. Wall 4 extends above and below the injury essentially in the shape of a pipe. It may develop a few inches or many feet above and below the injury.
Wall 4 prevents discoloration and decay organisms from moving into the wood produced after the injury occurred. This means it is extremely difficult for discoloration or decay to move from inside wall 4 to the outside of wall 4. Although this task appears simple, it is vital to the longevity of trees. Imagine if decay organisms could spread into wood formed after injury - trees could not live to become old majestic masters.
The obvious advantage of wall 4 is that it retards decay; but there are two very important disadvantages. The first disadvantage is that sugars cannot move across wall 4, i.e. sugars have a more difficult time moving in or out of the portion of the bank (xylem) surrounded by wall 4. As a result, some stored starch can get trapped in the rays and xylem located inside of wall 4. However, the starch is available to decay organisms. The tree may have wasted the effort required to produce the sugar and store it as starch. It earned the money (made the sugars), deposited the money in the bank (stored it as starch), then could not withdraw some of the money (starched was trapped inside).
You can imagine how much stress this causes the tree by imagining your stress after you earned money, deposited it in a bank, and could not get some of it back. Creation of wall 4 also makes the energy bank smaller so less starch can be stored. This occurs because wall 4 essentially shuts off new deposits of sugars into the walled off portion of the xylem.
The second disadvantage is that a crack can form along wall 4. This separation or delamination is called a ring crack and it may follow wall 4 all or part way around the trunk. One or more secondary cracks, called radial cracks, can form from the ring crack along a ray.
Another serious crack is the closure crack that occurs as the callus and woundwood attempt to grow over and close the wound. This crack often extends from the point of injury out to the current location of the bark. Sometimes this crack never closes. Even if it closes, the crack remains along with its associated weakness. Cracks in trees cause weakness that can make them susceptible to breaking. In fact, cracks are probably of more concern than the decay that results from injury.
Trees vary in their ability to form walls 1, 2, and 3. These walls are weak in trees that are poor compartmentalizers of decay (See: list of species by compartmentalization ability). Hollow trunks result from weak walls. These three walls are stronger in trees that are good compartmentalizers. Following injury to a poor compartmentalizer, wall 4 may reach the opposite side of the trunk quickly, within a few years. Because walls 2 and 3 are stronger in a good compartmentalizer, wall 4 may only need to be produced around part of the trunk.
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Course Module Image
While there are many challenges to gene quantification, scientists are constantly developing new methods to overcome these problems. Using these new methods to analyze RNA-seq data, we can start answering some interesting biological questions such as:
Spider web
• How do spiders make silk? What makes spider silk so strong?
• What causes jet lag? Can we develop medicines to prevent it?
• What happens when HIV infects human cells? How can we prevent infection?
• What leads to drug side effects? Can we prevent them?
• How do our brains develop during childhood and adolescence?
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"url": "http://discoveringthegenome.org/discovering-genome/rna-sequencing-up-close-data/rna-seq-world"
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Home > Articles > Software Development & Management > UML
This chapter is from the book 16.13 Composition Over Aggregation
16.13 Composition Over Aggregation
Aggregation is a vague kind of association in the UML that loosely suggests whole-part relationships (as do many ordinary associations). It has no meaningful distinct semantics in the UML versus a plain association, but the term is defined in the UML. Why? To quote Rumbaugh (one of the original and key UML creators):
In spite of the few semantics attached to aggregation, everybody thinks it is necessary (for different reasons). Think of it as a modeling placebo. [RJB04]
Guideline: Therefore, following the advice of UML creators, don’t bother to use aggregation in the UML; rather, use composition when appropriate.
Composition, also known as composite aggregation, is a strong kind of whole-part aggregation and is useful to show in some models. A composition relationship implies that 1) an instance of the part (such as a Square) belongs to only one composite instance (such as one Board) at a time, 2) the part must always belong to a composite (no free-floating Fingers), and 3) the composite is responsible for the creation and deletion of its parts—either by itself creating/deleting the parts, or by collaborating with other objects. Related to this constraint is that if the composite is destroyed, its parts must either be destroyed, or attached to another composite—no free-floating Fingers allowed! For example, if a physical paper Monopoly game board is destroyed, we think of the squares as being destroyed as well (a conceptual perspective). Likewise, if a software Board object is destroyed, its software Square objects are destroyed, in a DCD software perspective.
The UML notation for composition is a filled diamond on an association line, at the composite end of the line (see Figure 16.13).
Guideline: The association name in composition is always implicitly some variation of “Has-part,” therefore don’t bother to explicitly name the association.
Figure 16.13 Composition in the UML.
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Research -E. coli’s adaptation to extreme temperatures helps explain resistance to certain drugs
Science Daily
Long before bacteria had to contend with antibiotic drugs, they had to survive extreme temperatures as Earth warmed and cooled over millennia. Could the adaptations they evolved to temperature — especially heat — help explain why certain strains are resistant to certain drugs? A new study by a research team at the University of California-Los Angeles that includes Santa Fe Institute External Professor Pamela Yeh suggests that defenses against extreme temperatures, do, indeed, give E. coli bacteria an advantage in fending off certain drugs.
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"url": "https://kswfoodmicro.com/2018/10/01/research-e-colis-adaptation-to-extreme-temperatures-helps-explain-resistance-to-certain-drugs/"
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How the Time Traveling 'Back to the Future' DeLorean Works (Infographic)
Doc Brown's time machine is a nuclear powered, stainless-steel flying car.
Credit: by Karl Tate, Infographics Artist
Inspired by an idea he had 30 years earlier, Emmett “Doc” Brown completed his time machine in October, 1985. Some of his first temporal experiments were trips to 1955 and the far-off future year of 2015. Here are some of the details behind Doc Brown’s breakthrough technology:
The key to time travel is the flux capacitor. The capacitor was designed by Doc Brown in October 1955 and was finally tested in October 1985.
This dashboard console is where the time travel destination is set. Readouts include destination time, present time within the vehicle, and last time departed.
Originally fueled by radioactive plutonium, the time machine was modified in 1955 to run on the electricity in a lightning bolt. In 2015, a Mr. Fusion power plant was installed, allowing the time machine to run on practically any available matter.
On a trip to 2015, Doc Brown had a repulsorlift flying unit installed. The wheels swivel 90 degrees to deploy the flight thrusters.
To an observer, the departure of the time machine is a dramatic event. Lightning coils around the vehicle as the flux capacitor creates the time displacement field. The car appears to implode into a ball of plasma, and fiery trails are left by the car’s tires.
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What are Covenants?
Racial covenants were tools used by real estate developers in the 19th and 20th century to prevent people of color from buying or occupying property. Often just a few lines of text, these covenants were inserted into warranty deeds across the country. These real estate contracts were powerful tools for segregationists. Real estate developers and public officials used private property transactions to build a hidden system of American apartheid during the twentieth century.
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"fasttext_score": 0.019349336624145508,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9638308882713318,
"url": "https://www.mappingprejudice.org/index.html"
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How To: Conduct a magic floating boat science experiment
Conduct a magic floating boat science experiment
Two little mad scientists investigate Helium and Sulfer Hexafluoride. Rosie and Anna study Helium, a gas that is lighter than air, and Sulphur Hexafluorid (SF6), an inert gas that is much heavier than air. Just like the Internet famous University of Bonn Physics Department Demonstration (Physikshow Uni Bonn) and Science Day displays they are able to magically float a small ship made of aluminum foil above the ground on a blanket of gas and then sink it by pouring the gas into the boat with a beaker. This is also known as the invisible water effect. Helium has the well known effect of raising the pitch of the voice. S6F has the opposite effect and lets you say things like "You're crazy man" (like Will Farrell in the movie Old School) or copy Darth Vader, "Luke, I am your father" (like James Earl Jones as Darth Vader in Star Wars).
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Faroe Islands History
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Faroe Islands
The Faeroese were part of Norway until 1380 when the Norwegian Crown came under the Danish monarchy. Protestantism came by decree of the Danish Crown in 1536. With the Reformation, the power of the medieval church was reduced and the king's power increased. The Faeroese bishopric was abolished and the properties of the church were taken over by the Crown.
The Reformation was also opening the way to Danish influence upon Faeroese society. Under the Danish monarchy, Danish officials and pastors were sent to the Faeroe Islands, and Danish became the language of the church and the court. The authority of the local Faeroese legislature was replaced by direct royal governance in the 1400s. Denmark became sole owner of the islands when Norway was separated from Denmark in 1814.
After losing Norway, Denmark experienced a severe economic depression and was unable to devote resources to developing the Faeroes. The Faeroese had to become more self-reliant and came to resent Danish rule. Faeroese national identity was reaffirmed with the restoration of the Lagting local community government in 1852.
The Danish Lutheran state church under the direction of Danish bishops was the official church of the Faeroes. It was responsible for keeping birth, death, and marriage records. But Scottish fishermen brought another religion in the 1870s. The first congregation of the Plymouth Brethren in the Faeroe Islands was established in 1876, and between 15 and 20 percent of the islands’ inhabitants came to associate themselves with the Brethren.
Following the invasion of Denmark by German forces, the islands passed under the military control of Great Britain in April 1940 and remained a British protectorate throughout the Second World War. British occupation ended in September 1945. Many Faeroese did not want to return to Danish rule. The British fresh fish market offered possibilities for large export revenues, and the Faeroese national movement was strong. After the war it was unthinkable to return to the old county status. In September 1946 as a result of a close plebiscite vote, the Lagting of the Faeroese declared the islands independent of Denmark, ratified by a vote of 12 to 11.
The Faeroe Islands today is a modern society with comparable living standards to the other Nordic countries. But the islands are not without controversy. Whaling became a significant Faeroese industry in the 1600s and 1700s, and this politically unpopular activity continues at a much reduced level today. The Faeroese economy is still supported by a substantial annual subsidy from Denmark.
872 - 1397 Norwegian control of the Faroes continued until 1814, although, when the Kingdom of Norway entered the Kalmar Union with Denmark, it gradually resulted in Danish control of the islands
1538 -1814 The Reformation with Protestant Evangelical Lutheranism and Reformed reached the Faroes in 1538. 1803 - 1816 Following the turmoil caused by the Napoleonic Wars, the Faroe Islands became a county in the Danish Kingdom
1814 - When the union between Denmark and Norway dissolved as a result of the Treaty of Kiel Denmark retained possession of the Faroe Islands; Norway was joined in a union with Sweden
1876 - The first congregation of the Plymouth Brethren in the Faeroe Islands was established
1940 - In the first year of World War II, British troops occupied the Faroe Islands, shortly after the Operation Weserübung with the Nazi German invasion of Denmark
1946 - The Faroe Islands subsequently declared independence, this declaration was annulled by Denmark on 20 September on the grounds that a majority of the Faroese voters had not supported independence
1973 - The Faroe Islands declined to join Denmark in entering the European Economic Community
Population Statistics
Population Statistics
The population of the Faeroe Islands has grown steadily from a few hundred people in the 900s to 1,000 people in the 1300s. Plague hit the Faeroes hard in the late 1300s and what were once important communities became insignificant hamlets. By 1800 the population reached 5,000. Over the period from 1801 to 1860 the number of inhabitants almost doubled, to about 9,000, reaching 12,000 in 1900. In 1925 there were 20,000 inhabitants and 30,000 in 1950. In 1970 the population stood at 41,824.The population peaked in 1989 at 47,838 and declined to 43,393 in 1995, whereupon it began again to rise, presently standing at 45,200. Eighty percent or more of the population are members of the state Lutheran church, though the Plymouth Brethren are also established on the island and constitute more than fifteen percent. Among other religious denominations (each with less than 1%) are the Pentecostalists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and Roman Catholics.
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• A fall line is the imaginary line between two parallel rivers, at the point where rivers plunge, or fall, at roughly the same elevation.
Fall lines are often located where different elevation regions, such as coastal and piedmont, meet. They are important to people and businesses. The fall line is the point at which boats traveling upriver usually cannot continue any further. It is also the point at which hydroelectric power generation may be possible, taking advantage of the energy of the waterfalls.
In the eastern United States, there is a major fall line between the hard rock of the Appalachian Piedmont and the soft sediment of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. This line was important to early European explorers because it marked the limits of river travel for ships. Many cities developed along this fall line, including Trenton, New Jersey; Richmond, Virginia; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
fall line
These waterfalls represent a fall line, the imaginary line where at least two rivers plunge at the same elevation. The falls here are actually part of the same river.
• Term Part of Speech Definition Encyclopedic Entry
coast Noun
Encyclopedic Entry: coast
coastal plain Noun
low, flat land lying next to the ocean.
Encyclopedic Entry: coastal plain
elevation Noun
height above or below sea level.
Encyclopedic Entry: elevation
fall line Noun
imaginary line along which parallel rivers plunge, or fall.
Encyclopedic Entry: fall line
hard rock Noun
dense rock that is difficult to crack or break. Usually igneous or metamorphic.
hydroelectric power Noun
usable energy generated by moving water converted to electricity.
parallel Adjective
equal distance apart, and never meeting.
piedmont Noun
area at the bottom of a mountain.
Encyclopedic Entry: piedmont
sediment Noun
Encyclopedic Entry: sediment
upriver Adjective
toward or near the source of a river.
waterfall Noun
flow of water descending steeply over a cliff. Also called a cascade.
Encyclopedic Entry: waterfall
Articles & Profiles
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The Princess Grace of 1902 Imperial Germany
In 1902, Wilhelm’s eldest son, the twenty-year-old Crown Prince and heir Frederick William, fell in love with an American girl from a prominent family and actually proposed, giving her a huge engagement ring. The situation was widely discussed in many newspapers of the day, given the excitement which surrounded such an early “Princess Grace” affair.
However, social traditions were very different in those days, and Wilhelm and court reacted with outrage against the notion of the future emperor of Imperial Germany marrying a commoner, let alone a foreign one, given that Germany itself contained so many eligible princesses. After a great deal of pressure, they forced the engagement to be broken off, and the incident seems to have totally disappeared from historical memory.
But just consider the massive historical impact which such an event would have had on American public opinion in the years leading to WWI, and—given the close balance over intervention—the reasonable likelihood it might have helped keep America out of that war, with vast consequences for the later history of the world.
“The German Crown Prince and an American Girl”
The Literary Digest, September 13, 1902, p. 323
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The story...
...of the Dijon mustard
It is not quite as ancient as the world, but it has been part of the oldest Mediterranean cultures. For the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans mustard enhanced the flavors in food and enflamed the senses. The Greeks and the Romans called it Sinapsis. They used to grind and add the grains to food.
Originating in the Mediterranean basin, this herbaceous plant with bright green leaves and vibrant yellow petals, produces fruits containing several grains of mustard. The grains of wild mustard or black mustard, sinapis nigra, are ground and mixed with vinegar, grape must, wine or aromatic plants to make the dietary mustard. The word Mustard has its origins in the Latin "Mustum Ardens" which means burning grape must, because the Romans diluted the ground mustard grains in grape must. The grape must is the grape juice that has not been fermented yet, and which gives quite a spiced up flavor to mustard. In the Celt language it was known as Mwstardd, in England it became Mustard and in Norway Mustardhr whereas in Italy they kept the Latin word Sinapis.
Mustard is not quite as ancient as the world
In the first century AD it was found on every Roman table. Apicius even created mustard-based sauces to serve with certain dishes. Mustard was introduced in France when the Romans invaded Gaul. It was adopted easily as wine, vinegar and mustard got along very well.
Manuscripts exist from those days where the words Mustum, Mustardum and Mustarum appear, replacing the word Sinapis, as they substituted a new wine called Mustum to dilute the mustard, whereas the Romans used to use vinegar Acetum.
Mustard was also one of the earliest products to be used in medicine. Pythagoras praised it as an antidote to scorpion bites. Later, war wounds were treated with it. It was even believed that mustard protected against yellow fever epidemics.
In the 9th century Charlemagne recommended growing the spice in all of his estates. In the 17th century it was distributed to the poor of Dijon to protect them against chilblains (inflamed hands and feet as a result of the cold). Today mustard seeds are used in many preparations of preventive and natural medicine.
The 3 glorious dedicacies of Dijon...
Thriving in sunny conditions, the plant multiplies very quickly and is harvested hardly 2 months after dissemination. Ideal to restore the fertility of the ground, as its cultivation allows the soil to rest temporarily.
Of the forty different species of mustard, the most common are the Black mustard, the White, the Brown and the Dijon-Burgundy ones.
With Cream of Cassis and gingerbread, mustard is reputed to be one of the 3 glorious delicacies of Dijon.
Burgundy's chalky and densely wooded soil, rich in potassium and carbon has made possible the harvest of strong and piquant mustard seeds.
With the well earned reputation of fine gourmets, and the gastronomic knowledge and experience, the people of Burgundy were capable of making a condiment that soon became inseparably associated with the city of Dijon: the Dijon mustard.
A vinegar maker
The best Dijon mustard was the one that was ground with verjuice grape, which is a grape that is a little ripe and is more acidic. Already famous during the 13th century, Dijon mustard was sent to the provinces, dry or in flakes, and it was the user who use to dilute it with vinegar. This way it was able to conserve it for many years. It was in the 17th century that Dijon started to sell liquid mustard like the also renown Angers mustard.
Always present on the tables...
The name Moutarde de Dijon is reserved to mustards in paste made by sifted and sieved products. Always present on the tables of the Dukes of Burgundy, many barrels were regularly sent to the court of French kings, such as Louis XIV who never went anywhere without his mustard pot.
In the 18th century the mustard range was much wider than it is now.
There were lists of types of mustard, such as mustard powder, red mustard, fine mustard with anchovies and câpres, garlic mustard, lemon mustard, à la grecque, à la marquise, à la reine, with truffles, champagne mustard, rose mustard, and the list goes on and on…
Brown mustard
They also started using vinegar to dilute the seeds and that's why mustard making was adopted in Orléans too, as Orléans was a major producer of vinegar.
Many producers made both vinegar and mustard. Excellent mustards were also made in Bordeaux and many other towns of France.
Today, mustard is a condiment that is made and used all over the world, in many different ways and in many different recipes.
Authentic Dijon-style mustard however, must follow the original recipe established in Dijon.
White mustard
Some sayings...
To end it on a more spiritual note with mustard in general, here are a couple of sayings on the mustard seed:
The Holly Bible.
The Holly Bible.
« He who has in his heart as much faith as a grain of mustard seed will not enter hell, and he who has in his heart as much pride as a grain of mustard seed will not enter paradise. »
(Sayings of Muhammad)
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T and O map
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This T and O map, from the first printed version of Isidore's Etymologiae, identifies the three known continents as populated by descendants of Sem (Shem), Iafeth (Japheth) and Cham (Ham).
The Hereford Mappa Mundi, about 1300, Hereford Cathedral, England. A classic "T-O" map with Jerusalem at center, east toward the top, Europe at bottom left and Africa on the right.
A T and O map or O-T or T-O map (orbis terrarum, orb or circle of the lands; with the letter T inside an O), is a type of medieval world map, sometimes also called a Beatine map or a Beatus map because one of the earliest known representations of this sort is attributed to Beatus of Liébana, an 8th-century Spanish monk. The map appeared in the prologue to his twelve books of commentaries on the Apocalypse.
History and description[edit]
The T-O map represents the physical world as first described by the 7th-century scholar Isidore of Seville in his Etymologiae (chapter 14, de terra et partibus):
Latin: Orbis a rotunditate circuli dictus, quia sicut rota est [...] Undique enim Oceanus circumfluens eius in circulo ambit fines. Divisus est autem trifarie: e quibus una pars Asia, altera Europa, tertia Africa nuncupatur.
English: The [inhabited] mass of solid land is called round after the roundness of a circle, because it is like a wheel [...] Because of this, the Ocean flowing around it is contained in a circular limit, and it is divided in three parts, one part being called Asia, the second Europe, and the third Africa. [1]
Although Isidore taught in the Etymologiae that the Earth was "round", his meaning was ambiguous and some writers think he referred to a disc-shaped Earth. However, other writings by Isidore make it clear that he considered the Earth to be globular.[2] Indeed, the theory of a spherical earth had always been the prevailing assumption among the learned since at least Aristotle, who had divided the spherical earth into zones of climate, with a frigid clime at the poles, a deadly torrid clime near the equator, and a mild and habitable temperate clime between the two.
Ideal reconstruction of medieval world maps (from Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1895) (Asia shown on the right)
A "T-O" map made with modern cartography
The T and O map represents only the one half of the spherical Earth.[3] It was presumably considered a convenient projection of known-inhabited parts, the northern temperate half of the globe. It was then believed that no one could cross the torrid equatorial clime and reach the unknown lands on the other half of the globe. These imagined lands were called antipodes.[3][4]
The T is the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the Don (formerly called the Tanais) dividing the three continents, Asia, Europe and Africa, and the O is the encircling ocean. Jerusalem was generally represented in the center of the map. Asia was typically the size of the other two continents combined. Because the sun rose in the east, Paradise (the Garden of Eden) was generally depicted as being in Asia, and Asia was situated at the top portion of the map.
This qualitative and conceptual type of medieval cartography could yield extremely detailed maps in addition to simple representations. The earliest maps had only a few cities and the most important bodies of water noted. The four sacred rivers of the Holy Land were always present. More useful tools for the traveler were the itinerarium, which listed in order the names of towns between two points, and the periplus that did the same for harbors and landmarks along a seacoast. Later maps of this same conceptual format featured many rivers and cities of Eastern as well as Western Europe, and other features encountered during the Crusades. Decorative illustrations were also added in addition to the new geographic features. The most important cities would be represented by distinct fortifications and towers in addition to their names, and the empty spaces would be filled with mythical creatures.
See also[edit]
1. ^ Isidore of Seville (c. 630). "14". Etymologiae. [permanent dead link]
2. ^ Stevens, Wesley M. (1980). "The Figure of the Earth in Isidore's 'De natura rerum'". Isis. 71 (2): 268–277. doi:10.1086/352464. JSTOR 230175.
3. ^ a b Michael Livingston, Modern Medieval Map Myths: The Flat World, Ancient Sea-Kings, and Dragons Archived 2006-02-09 at the Wayback Machine., 2002.
4. ^ Hiatt, Alfred (2002). "Blank Spaces on the Earth". The Yale Journal of Criticism. 15 (2): 223–250. doi:10.1353/yale.2002.0019.
Further reading[edit]
• Crosby, Alfred W. (1996). The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55427-6.
• Lester, Toby (2009). The fourth part of the world: the race to the ends of the Earth, and the epic story of the map that gave America its name. New York, NY: Free Press. ISBN 9781416535317.
• Carlo Zaccagnini, ‘Maps of the World’, in Giovanni B. Lanfranchi et al., Leggo! Studies Presented to Frederick Mario Fales on the occasion of his 65th birthday, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2012, pp. 865–874. ISBN 9783447066594
• Mode, PJ. "The History and Academic Literature of Persuasive Cartography". Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection. Cornell University Library. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
• Brigitte Englisch, Ordo orbis terrae. Die Weltsicht in den Mappae mundi des frühen und hohen Mittelalters. Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003635-4
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SSAT Middle Level Reading : Finding Context-Dependent Meanings of Phrases in Narrative Social Science Passages
Study concepts, example questions & explanations for SSAT Middle Level Reading
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Example Questions
Example Question #1 : Analyzing The Text In History Passages
Adapted from A Child’s History of England by Charles Darwin (1905)
On Christmas Day, William was crowned in Westminster Abbey under the title of William the First, but he is best known as William the Conqueror. It was a strange coronation. One of the bishops who performed the ceremony asked the Normans, in French, if they would have William the Conqueror for their king. They answered "Yes." Another of the bishops put the same question to the Saxons, in English. They too answered "Yes," with a loud shout. The noise was heard by a guard of Norman horse-soldiers outside, and was mistaken for resistance on the part of the English. The guard instantly set fire to the neighboring houses, and chaos ensued, in the midst of which the king, being left alone in the abbey with a few priests (and they all being in a terrible fright together) was hurriedly crowned. When the crown was placed upon his head, he swore to govern the English as well as the best of their own monarchs. I dare say you think, as I do, that if we except the great Alfred, he might pretty easily have done that.
When the author says William was “best known” as William the Conqueror, which of the following does he most nearly mean?
Possible Answers:
Most accurately known
Most sarcastically known
Most commonly known
Most humorously known
Most deservedly known
Correct answer:
Most commonly known
When the author says that William was “best known” as William the Conqueror, he means “most commonly known.” There is no contextual evidence to support the notion that the author thought William was “humorously” or “sarcastically” known as William the Conqueror, nor does it seem as if the author would be expressing that “Conqueror” conveys a sense of “accuracy.” It is possible the author could mean “deservedly,” but from the manner in which he goes on to use William’s title as “William the Conqueror” the next time he mentions him, we may infer that he is trying to say that William was “most commonly known” as “William the Conqueror."
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Primus inter pares is Latin for "first among equals". This phrase is usually used when talking about a certain group of people (often from a specific profession) one of whom is above the others for some reason.
This phrase can be used for any peer group, often to show someone with outstanding abilities. So a pupil could be seen to be 'primus inter pares' since she/he is first among their peer group.
For example, the Prime Minister of the UK is considered 'primus inter pares'. He is a minister but is considered the most important of the ministers (his position started out as a simple minister who had to represent the views of the monarch at the time, there was no special post of Prime Minister). This idea has a political influence since the first among the equals is often seen as "one of us" rather than some detached, super being. This means that the Prime Minister may be the leader of the government but he is still just a minister and can be attacked in Parliament just like all the other ministers. He also has the same responsibilities of other ministers so he has to accept collective ministerial responsibility like the other ministers. He also has to listen to the rest of the government, if the backbenchers or his Cabinet colleagues do not want to do something, he can't just tell them to sod off and do it anyway.
This is in contrast to the President of the USA. The President is a seperate entity from the legislature (unlike the Prime Minister in the UK since the Parliamentary system has a fusion of the executive and the legislature). This means that he is not controlled by members of his government who are the same as him. In fact he is treated as better than many others in the government (this is only speaking from personal opinion from what I have learnt about the USA President). For example, the insistence of everyone standing when he enters the room, or the incessant need of calling him "Mr. President". This is unlike in the UK where the idea of primus inter pares stands and so the aforementioned practices would seem degrading of the other ministers.
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Essay / On This Day
Baptism of Aethelbert
Bede tells us that Aethelbert “was the third English king to become High-King (Bretwalda) of all the provinces south of the river Humber, but he was the first to enter the kingdom of heaven.” So for anybody who wants to trace British Christianity back as far as possible, and has the good taste to avert their eyes from Glastonbury, Aethelbert the king and convert is a great and solid starting point.
Bede goes on to say of Aethelbert,
Among the many benefits that his wisdom conferred on the nation, he introduced, with the consent of his counsellors, a code of law framed on the Roman pattern, which was written in English and remains in force to this day. The first of his laws is designed to protect the Church he embraced, and decrees that satisfaction must be made by any person who steals property from the Church, the bishop, or other clergy.
So the origins of written British law go back to the first Christian king of the land. Aethelbert’s big idea seems to have been connecting specific fines to specific crimes; not so much “an eye for an eye” as “that eye will cost you fifty bucks, sir.” That seems pretty British. This ninety-law treatise is one of the first written documents in Anglo-Saxon.
Aethelbert was succeeded by his son, a pagan who went pretty far toward re-paganizing the territories Aethelbert had Christianized.
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Download a PDF to print or study offline.
Study Guide
Cite This Study Guide
How to Cite This Study Guide
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Course Hero. "Hills Like White Elephants Study Guide." Course Hero. 13 Mar. 2017. Web. 21 Sep. 2018. <>.
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Course Hero. "Hills Like White Elephants Study Guide." March 13, 2017. Accessed September 21, 2018.
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Hills Like White Elephants | Discussion Questions 21 - 30
In "Hills Like White Elephants" how does Hemingway capitalize on the idiom "the elephant in the room"?
In addition to using the hills that look like white elephants as a symbol for the feelings the main characters have about the pregnancy, Hemingway alludes to a well-known idiom that originated in the early 1800s: the elephant in the room. This idiom was first introduced into the English language and literary culture by the Russian author Ivan Andreyevich Krylov (1769–1844), who wrote "The Inquisitive Man." The story features a man who notices many items and small details in a museum's collection, but fails to notice a large elephant in the room. Of course, Hemingway would have been familiar with this story, as well as the inclusion of the idiom by Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821–1881) in his novel Demons. Through allusion to this proverbial phrase, Hemingway reveals there is a huge conflict between the girl and the American which neither of them is comfortable addressing directly. It then becomes the reader's task to figure out what exactly that conflict is by naming the elephant in the room (the pregnancy).
In "Hills Like White Elephants" for what purpose does the girl hold two strings of the bead curtain in her hand?
As with many aspects of "Hills Like White Elephants," there are multiple possible interpretations of the phase "the girl ... took hold of two of the strings of beads." Some critics suggest the strands of beads in her hand represent rosary beads which a Catholic would hold in her hands while praying. If the girl is Catholic, then this is a moral and spiritual issue she is confronting. Another possible interpretation is that the girl is looking for something solid to hold onto. When people are overcome with anxiety, one coping mechanism is to make a connection between the body and some physical element of the surroundings. She could be holding the beads to ground herself.
In "Hills Like White Elephants" what evidence does Hemingway present that the American may have been in this situation before with another girl?
From the outset of their discussion about abortion, the American positions himself as an expert on the issue. Initially, the reader might believe that he does so because he wants to sound convincing when he assures the girl that the procedure is "perfectly simple." As the story progresses, however, the American says some other things that imply he has been through this before. He says "And I know it's perfectly simple" to which the girl replies "Yes, you know it's perfectly simple." This, like many of the lines of dialogue in the story can be understood two ways. First, it reads as the girl saying "of course it's easy for you to say it's simple, because you aren't the one who has to do it." It also suggests that he knows it's simple because he has been through this before with another girl. When Jig says "Yes, you know it's perfectly simple," the American confirms that he has had this experience previously, saying "It's all right for you to say that, but I do know it."
What is the significance of the repeated references to light and darkness in "Hills Like White Elephants"?
The symbols of light and darkness may not have a single fixed meaning in the narrative, but work in multiple ways throughout the story. The American is described as sitting in the shadow of the bar or inside the bar, whereas the girl is described as standing at the edge of the platform in the sun, and sitting on the sunny side of the table outside the bar. This might suggest that there is something innocent or good about the girl, and something not so innocent or good about the American. Given that the story concerns terminating a pregnancy, the darkness belongs to the American attempting to convince the girl to have an abortion. The girl has reservations about terminating this pregnancy that do not occur to the American, even though he may have been in this situation previously with another lover. The girl's position in the sunlight may also represent her belief that if she has an abortion their relationship will necessarily change afterward, while the American's position in the darkness represents his denial of that reality.
For what purpose does Hemingway employ a simile in the title of "Hills Like White Elephants"?
A simile is a figure of speech that compares two things, pointing out similarities through the use of connecting words such as like or as. By employing a simile in the title of "Hills Like White Elephants" Hemingway suggests that certain things in the narrative will not be what they seem to be. To the girl, the hills she sees in the distance are like white elephants and this reference brings to the story all the different meanings that the idiom of white elephants implies. The title establishes the expectation that this will be a story where nothing is said directly by the narrator or between the girl and the American and where meanings must be inferred by the reader.
In "Hills Like White Elephants" how do the girl and the American represent gender stereotypes?
"Hills Like White Elephants" relies on gender stereotypes to help characterize both the girl and the American. One of the most obvious stereotypes is that a female would resist having an abortion, and her male partner would pressure her to do so. A range of other possibilities exist for unmarried couples faced with unplanned pregnancies, but the inferences that Hemingway requires readers to make are dependent upon the stereotypical response. Secondly, the girl in this story is characterized as a woman who does assert herself and who takes a more elliptical approach to communication than the American, who is more direct about what he wants. Once again there could be a variety of reasons why the characters communicate in these ways that have nothing to do with their gender. Various cultures, for example, have different communication styles, Americans being known, at times, for bluntness. However, Hemingway requires readers to draw on stereotypical notions of gendered communications to fill in the blanks in this story.
In what ways does the situation between the American and the girl in "Hills Like White Elephants" reflect the modernist existential need to create meaning?
Disillusioned by the barbarity of World War I, the lost generation of writers largely turned their backs on traditional narratives constrained by concerns of religious faith and morality. They adopted the existential concern for the meaning of life. Much of the fiction of the modernist period shows characters searching for and assigning meaning to their existence. In "Hills Like White Elephants" the American and the girl are both trying to understand what this pregnancy means, and it means very different things to each character. This difference of opinion reflects a modernist notion that meaning is not fixed, but rather created by the individual. Whereas the American seems to truly believe that the abortion is nothing more than a simple operation that will restore their relationship to the way it was before, the girl constructs an entirely different meaning of the abortion. She believes that the abortion will make it impossible to be happy. She sees the operation as taking away not only the fetus, but also the relationship she has with the American.
How does Hemingway use verbal irony to build tension in "Hills Like White Elephants"?
Since the objective third-person point of view prevents readers from knowing the characters' thoughts, Hemingway uses a variety of devices to imply what the girl and the American are thinking. One instance of this is when the girl says "I don't care about me." This is a clear example of verbal irony, or saying the opposite of what is meant. The girl certainly does care about herself, or she would not be engaging in this conversation where she attempts to share her perspective. This phrase also builds tension between the characters, because she is implying that the American doesn't care about her—at least not as much as he cares about everything going back to "normal."
In "Hills Like White Elephants" what does the setting at a train station imply about the decision the characters must make?
When the girl and the American arrive at the train station, they are at a metaphorical and literal crossroads and must decide on the direction they will take. The literal crossroads is represented by the two parallel railroad tracks, one leading to Madrid and the other leading away from the city. The metaphorical railroad tracks can be seen as returning the couple to the previous sterile relationship (by way of an abortion) or as leading to childbirth and a more settled relationship between the girl and the American. The characters have forty minutes before the arrival of the train to Madrid, which will pause only two minutes before departing. This compressed time frame lends a sense of urgency and tension to the story and the life-altering decision the characters must make. This is a comment on the permanence of decisions that people are often forced to make in a very short period of time.
In "Hills Like White Elephants" what does the girl's claim "we could have all this" suggest about what she wants?
In the middle of "Hills Like White Elephants," the girl walks to the end of the station. As she gazes at the landscape, she says they "could have all this ... could have everything and every day we make it more impossible." In front of her lie grain fields and the lush tree-lined banks of the Ebro River. Readers know she says this out of earshot of the American, because he asks "What did you say?" She replies "We could have everything," which carries a different meaning than her earlier statement. "We could have all this," refers to the beauty of creating and sustaining life that she observes on the opposite side of the valley. This suggests she wants to continue her pregnancy—that she wants to live on the fertile side of the valley, rather than the barren lifeless side. Of course, the American is unaware of her desire because of the girl's veiled communication attempt and his physical inability to hear what she had said.
Cite This Study Guide
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Long Bone Deformity in Calves
Author: Richard Laven PhD BVetMed MRCVS
Reviewed: Richard Laven PhD BVetMed MRCVS 2018
Published: 2002
Long bone deformity of new-born calves (also known as chondrodystrophy) is most commonly seen either in autumn (up to early October) or at the end of spring calving (around April). It is most commonly seen in Northern England and Scotland
What is long bone deformity?
Occasionally pregnant cattle (particularly beef cows or heifers), overwintered on silage give birth to deformed calves. The calves are small due to shortening of the long bones in the legs, which gives them a characteristic short, bow-legged, appearance. They may also have dished faces and domed heads. Heart defects are also occasionally seen. In severe cases calves can be so deformed that they cannot stand to suckle and have to be euthanased.
The condition is seen where winter rations for pregnant cows consist almost entirely of silage. The cause is almost certainly manganese deficiency, with the most critical period for that deficiency being the fourth and fifth months of pregnancy, as that is the time when the calf's bones and joints are rapidly developing. Good quality silage that has been well made from leafy, fast growing grass seems most likely to cause the problem, As a result long bone deformity is most commonly associated with high quality pit silage but it can occur in animals fed big bales. There also seems to be an increased risk if the silage contains a high level of red clover, so long bone deformity can be a particular problem on organic farms.
The manganese deficiency is not a simple one. The concentration of manganese in the silage is usually adequate; however there appears to be an as yet unknown compound within the silage that prevents the manganese from being absorbed fully by the cow.
Although these calves have a standard appearance, it is essential to have the condition confirmed by a full post mortem. This will ensure that there are no other causes of the problem that would require different control measures.
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The damage is irreversible
The best way to minimise the problem is ensure that the silage intake accounts for no more than 75% of the cow's dry matter intake (DMI). The other 25% of the cow's DMI should come from other feeds, such as untreated straw. In many cases this will mean that
silage access will have to be restricted. This can be done either by weighing out the required amount of silage or estimating the time taken for cows to eat their required amount of silage and feeding so that silage is all eaten within that time. It is important that this restriction begins before the critical 4th month of pregnancy; grouping cows based on expected calving dates can make this process simpler, and reduce the amount of time per cow that silage has to be restricted for.
Other recommendations include not over-fertilising fields used for silage making, and avoiding feeding high quality (leafy, high D value, high CP) silage to pregnant cows.
If silage intakes cannot be restricted, then measurement of blood manganese concentrations can be useful in herds which are thought to be at risk of long bone deformity. Cows should be blood sampled once they have been on the silage for more than one week. At least six cows should be sampled per group. If manganese concentrations are low then supplementation can be used. It is recommended that cattle be supplemented with 1000 mg of manganese per cow per day. This can be achieved using a mineral supplement containing around 7000 mg/kg of manganese.
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A Pole-catholic stereotype as seen by the polish press in Teschen Silesia (2nd part of the 19th century)
Izabela Ławrusewicz
Original title: Stereotyp Polaka-katolika w świetle polskiej prasy Śląska Cieszyńskiego (druga połowa XIX w.)
Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka 2010
In the 19th century a Pole-catholic stereotype acquired strong religious and political characteristics. Researchers often underestimate its meaning for Poles under the Austrian rule in Teschen Silesia. They do not analyze it at all or spread the opinion that the influence of the stereotype for social life here was not really important. This article is based on the Polish press in Teschen Silesia and its purpose is to present national and religious groups which drew to the stereotype. The most early the influence of the stereotype was visible in the national and religious context in 1860ties in the daily newspaper ‘Gwiazdka Cieszyńska’. From 1880ties the Pole-catholic stereotype was popularized in a radical form. It was used incidentally during the national, religious, language and educational disputes. The author discussed the attitude of particular national and religious groups to the stereotype. She paid attention to the election periods when the stereotype was the most exploited. The relations between evangelicals and catholics, who were often neighbours, were characterized as correct. From the sources used by the author comes a conclusion that using the Pole-catholic stereotype for political and propaganda purposes in Teschen Silesia, especially by the pro-German press, brought negative effects only in a hectic time of election campaigns.
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Indigenous people, native or aboriginal people are the groups protected in international or national legislation as having a set of specific rights which are based on their linguistic and historical ties to specific territory, and their historical and cultural distinctiveness from other populations. These people have preserved traditional ways of living like historical or present reliance on subsistence based production, hunting, and predominately non-urbanized society.
Kichwa people and their struggle against oil companies
The Amazon accounts for 60 percent of Peru and according to Peruvian Census 2007, the Kichwa population is the third largest ethno linguistic family in the 13 families living in Peruvian Amazon. Ninety percent of Kichwa people are peasants, producing cocoa, coffee, beans, plantains in small plots called chacras, and coffee. The Kichwa’s other main economic activity is hunting. Residing in the central Ecuadorian Amazon, the Sarayaku community of indigenous Kichwa people had one of the most successful histories of defending their territory from resource extraction.
Like most of the Amazon, Kichwa people’s lands were also divided up into oil concession blocks. “Argentine company CGC is the operator and 50% shareholder in Block 23, which overlaps the territory of Kichwa from Sarayaku, and some Achuar lands. ConocoPhillips is owner and operator of Block 24 that comprises both Shuar and Achuar territory” (Challenging Emerging Threats in Ecuador, 2011). Kichwa people are adamant in opposition to oil extraction, but because of aggressive company and government pressure incursions, it led to multiple confrontations with Kichwa community members being victims of rights abuses. In early 2000s, government let oil businesses exploited and explored oil in this area without proper consultation with locals. Many communities sold out to oil companies but Sarayaku community, Kichwa people did not sell their lands to oil companies to exploit oil. However, Ecuador community earlier ignored the community refusal to sell oil drilling rights and signed a contract with C.G.C. oil companies for exploring oil in Sarayaku. In 2003, when oil companies came for laying explosives and dig test wells, Sarayaku people mobilized and dedicated themselves to struggle for six months. In the six months of struggle, indigenous people were tortured, and strong suffering for their people mainly their children and mothers but still they continued their fights against the oil companies. In jungle camps Sarayaku leaders hatched a plan and women of their community prepared a strong batch of chicha, traditional Ecuadorian homebrew made from fermented cassava. The Sarayaku residents ordered the petroleros to off their ancestral land.
A battle between an indigenous community named Kichwa and a South America largest state backed oil company is looming in Ecuadorian rainforest. The area is near the Yasuni National Park, which is home of richest variety of life on earth (Main, 2013). A battle is looming between one of South America's largest state-backed oil companies and an indigenous community of 400 people in the Ecuadorian rainforest. The state backed oil company named Petroamazonas wanted to begin prospecting for the oil, but the tribesmen were ready for to die fighting for protecting their land that cover around 270 square miles of pristine rainforest. Around 80 percent of village opposes such oil deal but that small minority was pushing it through against their rights (Watts, 2013). Oil companies were treating them like dogs. Therefore, community decided to reject the offer from company which can put long term environmental impact of mining. Members of community started last-ditch legal efforts for stopping the company and they also get help of British businesswoman named Patricia Gualinga. Behind her, 400,000 people are in streets calling for the global action for stopping climate change. She stands beneath a sign “Keep the oil in the Ground”. Gualinga and other Sarayaku community members travelled to Europe for meeting with the foreign leaders and warm energy companies executives about their opposition to oil extraction from their lands and they also produced their own documentary films about their struggle, leverage with message with international groups like Amazon Watch. In 2003, Sarayaku community also brought their case in front of Inter-American Commission on Human Rights which formally recognized a number of human rights violations which had transpired. Commission issued precautionary measures to Ecuadorian government for the removal of critical river blockage and for also cleaning up of the all explosive material which is widespread by the company after it failed attempt for carrying out seismic testing. In an attempt for intimidating the community through the brute force, oil companies violently attacked several members of community but their voices would not be silenced. In light of continued abuses, representatives of Kichwa people petitioned the Inter-American Court of Human rights for issuing the provisional measures to the Ecuadorian government in 2004.
Current situation
Women play a key role in success of Kichwa people fight against the oil companies because they are the main victims of oil extraction as their ability to feed their families becomes impaired. In marches, conferences, protests, and international forums, women of Ecuadorian Amazon are standing with fierce conviction and love for forests. Women repeatedly put their bodies on frontline in an attempt for halting oil extraction across the Amazon. For decades, Indigenous community of Southern Ecuadorian Amazon successfully fought for protecting their land from the encroachment by oil companies, engaging in local action and campaigns with powerful message of respect for Earth natural laws and rights of Indigenous people.
Another major issue raised by people in such protests is the climate change and activities carried out by big organizations. The protestors claim that our ancestors and various spiritual leaders have always been concerned about climate change. Today, organizations are exploiting nature for their personal benefits and are leading world to a dark future. It is important for people to understand the consequences of practices like excessive oil extraction. Therefore, apart from community’s rights and oil companies’ wrongful acts, there is a big concern of climate change.
Amazon Watch has been a long time supporter of the efforts of Kichwa people in the central Ecuadorian Amazon for preventing the oil development of their ancestral lands. Block 23 that overlay a substantial portion of their territory is now currently owned by the Conoco Phillips which has changed the multiple times in past decade. Company also garnered the attention and support of Inter-American Commission and Court on Human Rights that both produced the provision and precautionary measures to the Ecuadorian government on behalf of the Sarayaku community. Jose, president of Sarayaku from 2011 to 14, led his community for taking its fight to Inter-American Court on Human Rights. In October 2014, Ecuador Minister of Justice Ledy Zuniga stood in Sarayaku and delivered an extraordinary message i.e. “we offer a public apology for violation of indigenous property, the right of consultation, cultural identity, having put at serious risk their lives and for violation of the rights to judicial protections. Court decision also appears to have given Sarayaku an extra measure of protection from the new oil company exploration (Goodman, 2015).
South America indigenous people struggle
There are several indigenous people tribe which come under the South America. One of the main tribe of indigenous people that struggled against the lodging companies and oil companies is U’wa.
The U’wa indigenous people
This is another tribe of indigenous people of South America who live in the cloud forest and struggling because of lodging and oil companies. They are involved in a battle against the Occidental Petroleum for saving their way of life and land. Just like another tribes of Colombia, they have been subjected to attempts at colonization throughout the history. In past history, these indigenous people have continuously fallen victim of the European diseases, natural resources ownership, forced loss of their land and violence over the land. Now the U’wa can only claim ownership of less than 15 percent of their original territory. Occidental Petroleum is a US based company which had its sights set on 1.5 billion oil barrels which lie beneath the Samore Block which lie in the region where U’wa territory lies (Beisner, 2012). The implication that drilling have for environment have been well documented and involves the pollution of waterways, air, soil, land degradation, an climate change. The area is extremely ecologically sensitive so any pollution put in water at this high elevation will be carried through all over the region until it empties into ocean. Because of oil spills death of aquatic animals and plants also took place in such areas. Until 2000, indigenous people’s struggle for preventing the drilling from beginning was effective in fending off Oil Company proposed drilling.
Strategies and solutions:
Later on, the U’wa people themselves maintained the strategy of non-violently occupying drilling site. They filed a lawsuit against government of Colombia claiming that land is their according to rights. They also petitioned Organization of America Stats for standing up for them. The U’wa has been effective in reaching out to US groups for the help. Through their campaign they aware the US citizens about Colombia situation as corporate media often ignore the struggles of indigenous people like U’wa. They also chose specific powerful people and the investment companies for pressuring for speaking out for U’wa. But because of lack of education on issue and efforts of targets of influence for preventing mass education, U’wa people were struggling to take a severe blow when the Oxy Company began drilling 2000. Despite oil drilling has started, but indigenous U’wa continuously maintains a peaceful fight till the end. This fight was important for raising the awareness of US citizens (Haren, 2010). Their efforts resulted that Oxy does continues drilling but they need to be pressurised for using some of their profits to benefits of U’wa community too. A list of human rights of indigenous people was put forth in a report of project underground on oil. It includes the rights of sharing profits made form oil companies and full disclosure by oil companies of their specific drilling plans.
Peru Indigenous People
Peru indigenous people are another which has open conflicts for saving their natural resources. They also have been major protests around the mines, logging, oil and mineral exploitations in Latin and South America. The arrival of dams or oil spells cultural death for the communities. All of these resulted in forest destruction at accelerating rate. Peru rapid deforestation is set for continuing with severe consequences like impacted the biodiversity. Industrial logging is another main problem which indigenous people are facing. Industrial logging also resulted in deforestation which impact the way of living of indigenous people. Of the thousands of trees in Amazon basin some 400 with proven value, only about 50 species were harvested. Logging operations leave 30 to 60 percent of residual trees damaged beyond the recovery. It is estimated that three-quarters of Peru exported timber is logged illegally (Abdulhadi, Kartawinata, & Sukardjo). Another reason of deforestation is gold mining and oil palm. Oil palm plantations are spreading rapidly in the Peruvian Amazon. Oil Palm also put destructive effects of crop which impact the fertility of soil. Several other environmental impacts include land clearance for subsistence, pesticides, fungicides into soils and dumping of chemical wastes. Therefore, it is very important for such tribes to put several controls on such activities.
In order for avoiding the conflicts like those of U’wa and Peru indigenous people and other indigenous groups who involved in the battles against the oil companies must take place in their current resource use paradigm. One of the main recommendations is reduction of fossil fuel dependence for countries like US. As oil destroys the biological and cultural diversity, and devastates fragile ecosystems, it leads to toxic pollution and other environmental justice issues in areas where fossil fuels are refined that destabilize the global climate. Similarly through the use of alternative media broadcasts, local teach-ins, education awareness and demonstrations such oil drilling companies can be pressurize for controlling this unethical works. Every human being has equal rights, so that it is very important for government to make policies for taking care of indigenous people rights.
Challenging Emerging Threats in Ecuador. (2011). Retrieved June 03, 2016, from
Abdulhadi, R., Kartawinata, K., & Sukardjo, S. (n.d.). Effects of mechanized logging. Retrieved June 03, 2016, from
Beisner, C. (2012). Why is Obama Lying About US Oil Reserves? Retrieved June 03, 2016, from
Goodman, D. (2015). Deep in the Amazon, a Tiny Tribe Is Beating Big Oil. Retrieved June 03, 2016, from
Haren, L. V. (2010). Environmental Justice Case Study. Retrieved June 03, 2016, from
Main, D. (2013). Ecuadorian Tribe Vows to 'Die Fighting' Oil Company. Retrieved June 03, 2016, from
Watts, J. (2013). Ecuadorean tribe will 'die fighting' to defend rainforest. Retrieved June 03, 2016, from
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The Full Wiki
Perfectionism (psychology): Wikis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Perfectionism, in psychology, is a belief that perfection can and should be attained. In its pathological form, perfectionism is a belief that work or output that is anything less than perfect is unacceptable. At such levels, this is considered an unhealthy belief, and psychologists typically refer to such individuals as maladaptive perfectionists.
Measurement and definition
Hamachek describes two types of perfectionism. Normal perfectionists "derive a very real sense of pleasure from the labours of a painstaking effort" while neurotic perfectionists are "unable to feel satisfaction because in their own eyes they never seem to do things [well] enough to warrant that feeling of satisfaction". Burns defines perfectionists as "people who strain compulsively and unremittingly toward impossible goals and who measure their own worth entirely in terms of productivity and accomplishment".[1]
Slaney (1996) created the Almost Perfect scale, which contains four variables: Standards and Order, Relationships, Anxiety, and Procrastination. It distinguishes between adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. Both adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists rate highly in Standards and Order, but maladaptive perfectionists also rate highly in Anxiety and Procrastination.[3]
In the book Too Perfect, the authors describe perfectionists as having obsessive personality types. The obsessive personality type is distinct from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD); OCD is a clinical disorder that may be associated with specific ritualized behavior. According to Mallinger and DeWyze, perfectionists are obsessives who need to feel in control at all times to protect themselves and ensure their own safety. By being constantly vigilant and trying extremely hard, they can ensure that they not only fail to disappoint or are beyond reproach but that they can protect against unforeseen issues (such as economic downturn). Vigilance may include constant monitoring of the news, weather, and financial markets.[4]
Perfectionists may be workaholics who cannot relax; people who reproach themselves for days after the smallest error, such as a word out of place; the person so intent on finding the perfect mate that they never settle down; the procrastinator; the finicky person; and so on. Perfectionists tend to be exceptionally sensitive to criticism.
Perfectionists often exhibit some or all of the following personality traits: emotional guardedness; a need for control; fear of making mistakes or errors; thrift; need to be above criticism; tendency to be stubborn or confrontational; and so on. Most of these traits are used as criteria to diagnose Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD).
Perfectionism is one of the 16 Personality Factors identified by Raymond Cattell, and its descriptors of High Range are "organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self-sentimental". In the Big Five personality traits, perfectionism is an extreme of Conscientiousness and can provoke increasing Neuroticism as the perfectionist's expectations are not met.
Stoeber & Otto (2006) recently reviewed the various definitions and measures of perfectionism. They found that perfectionism comprised two main dimensions: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. Perfectionistic strivings are associated with positive aspects and perfectionistic concerns with negative aspects (see below). Healthy perfectionists rate high in perfectionistic strivings and low in perfectionistic concerns, whereas unhealthy perfectionists rate highly in both strivings and concerns.[5]
Personality type
Daniels & Price (2000) refer to Perfectionists as Ones. Perfectionists are focused on personal integrity and can be wise, discerning and inspiring in their quest for the truth. They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws or what they believe are flaws (such as negative emotions) and can become hypocritical and hyper-critical of others, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices. The greatest fear of Perfectionists is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection.[6]
Positive aspects
Slaney found that adaptive perfectionists had lower levels of procrastination than non-perfectionists. High-achieving athletes, scientists, and artists often show signs of perfectionism. For example, Michelangelo's perfectionism may have spurred him to create masterpieces such as the statue David and the Sistine Chapel. Perfectionism is associated with giftedness in children.
Negative aspects
In its pathological form, perfectionism can be very damaging. It can take the form of procrastination when it is used to postpone tasks ("I can't start my project until I know the 'right' way to do it."), and self-deprecation when it is used to excuse poor performance or to seek sympathy and affirmation from other people ("I can't believe I don't know how to reach my own goals. I must be stupid; how else could I not be able to do this?").
In the workplace, perfectionism is often marked by low productivity as individuals lose time and energy on small irrelevant details of larger projects or mundane daily activities. This can lead to depression, alienated colleagues, and a greater risk of accidents.[8] Adderholt-Elliot (1989) describes five characteristics of perfectionist students and teachers which contribute to underachievement: procrastination, fear of failure, the all-or-nothing mindset, paralysed perfectionism, and workaholism.[9] In intimate relationships, unrealistic expectations can cause significant dissatisfaction for both partners.[10] Perfectionists may sacrifice family and social activities in the quest for their goals.
Perfectionists can suffer anxiety and low self-esteem. Perfectionism is a risk factor for obsessive compulsive personality disorder, eating disorders, social anxiety, social phobia, workaholism, self harm, and clinical depression as well as physical problems like chronic stress, adrenal exhaustion and heart disease.[citation needed]
See also
1. ^ Parker, W. D.; Adkins, K. K. (1994), "Perfectionism and the gifted", Roeper Review 17 (3): 173–176
3. ^ Slaney, R. (1996, September), The Almost Perfect Definition,, retrieved 2008-04-17
5. ^ Stoeber, J.; Otto, K. (2006), "Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges", Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (4): 295–319, doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2
8. ^ Psychology Today (1995, May), "Perfectionism: Impossible Dream", Psychology Today,
10. ^ # Allen, C. (2003, May), "The Perfectionist's Flawed Marriage", Psychology Today,
External links
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Schist specimen showing the characteristic "scaly" schistose texture, caused by platy micas
Schist (pronounced /ʃɪst/ SHIST) is a medium-grade metamorphic rock.[1] Schist has medium to large, flat, sheet-like grains in a preferred orientation (nearby grains are roughly parallel). It is defined by having more than 50% platy and elongated minerals (such as micas or talc),[2] often finely interleaved with quartz and feldspar.[3] These lamellar (flat, planar) minerals include micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others. Quartz often occurs in drawn-out grains to such an extent that a particular form called quartz schist is produced. Schist is often garnetiferous. Schist forms at a higher temperature and has larger grains than phyllite.[4] Geological foliation (metamorphic arrangement in layers) with medium to large grained flakes in a preferred sheetlike orientation is called schistosity.[4]
The names of various schists are derived from their mineral constituents. For example, schists primarily composed of biotite and muscovite are called mica schists.[1][5] Most schists are mica schists, but graphite and chlorite schists are also common. Schists are also named for their prominent or perhaps unusual mineral constituents, as in the case of garnet schist, tourmaline schist, and glaucophane schist.
The individual mineral grains in schist, drawn out into flaky scales by heat and pressure, can be seen with the naked eye. Schist is characteristically foliated, meaning that the individual mineral grains split off easily into flakes or slabs. The word schist is derived ultimately from the Greek word σχίζειν (schízein) meaning "to split",[6] which is a reference to the ease with which schists can be split along the plane in which the platy minerals lie.
Most schists are derived from clays and muds that have passed through a series of metamorphic processes involving the production of shales, slates and phyllites as intermediate steps. Certain schists are derived from fine-grained igneous rocks such as basalts and tuffs.
Historical mining terminology[edit]
Before the mid-18th century, the terms slate, shale and schist were not sharply differentiated by those involved with mining.[7]
During metamorphism, rocks which were originally sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic are converted into schists and gneisses. If the composition of the rocks was originally similar, they may be very difficult to distinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great. A quartz-porphyry, for example, and a fine grained feldspathic sandstone, may both be converted into a grey or pink mica-schist. Usually, however, it is possible to distinguish between sedimentary and igneous schists and gneisses. If, for example, the whole district occupied by these rocks has traces of bedding, clastic structure, or unconformability, then it may be a sign that the original rock was sedimentary. In other cases intrusive junctions, chilled edges, contact alteration or porphyritic structure may prove that in its original condition a metamorphic gneiss was an igneous rock. The last appeal is often to the chemistry, for there are certain rock types which occur only as sediments, while others are found only among igneous masses, and however advanced the metamorphism may be, it rarely modifies the chemical composition of the mass very greatly. Such rocks as limestones, dolomites, quartzites and aluminous shales have very definite chemical characteristics which distinguish them even when completely recrystallized.[8]
The schists are classified principally according to the minerals they consist of and on their chemical composition. For example, many metamorphic limestones, marbles, and calc-schists, with crystalline dolomites, contain silicate minerals such as mica, tremolite, diopside, scapolite, quartz and feldspar. They are derived from calcareous sediments of different degrees of purity. Another group is rich in quartz (quartzites, quartz schists and quartzose gneisses), with variable amounts of white and black mica, garnet, feldspar, zoisite and hornblende. These were once sandstones and arenaceous rocks. The graphitic schists may readily be believed to represent sediments once containing coal or plant remains; there are also schistose ironstones (hematite-schists), but metamorphic beds of salt or gypsum are exceedingly uncommon. Among schists of igneous origin there are the silky calc-schists, the foliated serpentines (once ultramafic masses rich in olivine), and the white mica-schists, porphyroids and banded halleflintas, which have been derived from rhyolites, quartz-porphyries and felsic tuffs. The majority of mica-schists, however, are altered claystones and shales, and pass into the normal sedimentary rocks through various types of phyllite and mica-slates. They are among the most common metamorphic rocks; some of them are graphitic and others calcareous. The diversity in appearance and composition is very great, but they form a well-defined group not difficult to recognize, from the abundance of black and white micas and their thin, foliated, schistose character. A subgroup is the andalusite-, staurolite-, kyanite- and sillimanite-schists which usually make their appearance in the vicinity of gneissose granites, and have presumably been affected by contact metamorphism.[8]
Engineering considerations[edit]
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b "Schist definition". Dictionary of Geology. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
2. ^ Jackson J.A., Mehl J.P. & Neuendorf K.K.E. (2005). Glossary of Geology. Springer. p. 577. ISBN 9780922152766.
3. ^ Bishop A.C., Woolley A.R. & Hamilton W.R. (1999). Cambridge Guide to Minerals, Rocks and Fossils. Cambridge University Press. p. 153. ISBN 9780521778817.
4. ^ a b Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak
5. ^ J., Tarbuck, Edward (2012). Earth science. Lutgens, Frederick K. (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall/Pearson. ISBN 0321688503. OCLC 693684089.
6. ^ "Schist". English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
7. ^ R. W. Raymond, Slate, A Glossary of Mining and Metallurigical Terms, American Institute of Mining Engineers, 1881, p. 78.
External links[edit]
• An Examination of Mica Schist by Andrea Samuels, Micscape magazine. Photographs of Manhattan schist.
• [1] by USGS: Idaho, Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, articles cited.
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J.C. Bose and the Invention of Radio
Appointment and Disappointment
Jagadish Chandra Bose
In 1885, a 27-year old Jagadish Chandra Bose returned to his native India from England, where he had been studying natural science at Cambridge. Originally sent there to study medicine, Bose had withdrawn due to ill-health exacerbated by the disagreeable aroma of the dissection rooms. Instead, Bose returned with a collection of degrees in multiple disciplines and a letter of introduction that prompted the Viceroy of India to request an appointment for him at Presidency College in Kolkata (Calcutta). One did not refuse a viceroy’s request, and despite protests by the college administration, Bose was appointed professor of physics.
Sadly, the administration found ways to even the score, chiefly by not providing Bose with any laboratory space, but also by offering him only 100 rupees a month salary, half of what an Indian professor would normally make, and only a third of an Englishman’s salary. Bose protested the latter by refusing salary checks – after three years his protest worked and he got his full salary retroactively – and worked around the former by converting a tiny cubicle next to a restroom into a lab. But in those 24 square feet, equipped with instruments of his own design and paid for at his expense, Bose would work wonders and begin to engineer the embryonic field of radio.
At around the time Bose joined Presidency College, Heinrich Hertz was confirming the existence of electromagnetic waves, postulated by James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s. Maxwell died before he could demonstrate that electricity, magnetism, and light are all one in the same phenomenon, but Hertz and his spark gap transmitters and receivers proved it. Inspired by this work and intrigued by the idea that “Hertzian Waves” and visible light were the same thing, Bose set about exploring this new field.
Bose’s microwave apparatus. Transmitter on right, galena detector in the horn on the left of the experiment stage. By Biswarup Ganguly
By 1895, barely a year after starting his research, Bose made the first public demonstration of radio waves in the Kolkata town hall. Details of the apparatus used are vague, but at a distance of 75 feet, he remotely rang an electric bell and ignited a small charge of gunpowder. The invited guests were amazed by the demonstration that Adrisya Alok, or “Invisible Light” as Bose would summarize it in a later essay, could pass through walls, doors, and in a particularly daring feat of showmanship, through the body of the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal.
Bose’s wireless demonstration was remarkable for a couple of reasons. First, it took place two years before Marconi’s first public demonstrations of wireless telegraphy in England. Where Marconi was keenly interested in commercializing radio, Bose’s interest was purely academic; in fact, Bose flatly refused to patent nearly all of the inventions that would spring from his tiny workshop, on the principle that ideas should be shared freely.
The 1895 demonstration also used microwave signals instead of the low and medium frequency waves that Marconi and others were working with. Bose recognized early on that shorter wavelengths would make it easier to explore the properties of radio waves that were similar to light, like reflection, refraction, and polarization. To do so, he invented almost all the basic components of microwave systems – waveguides, polarizers, horn antennas, dielectric lenses, parabolic reflectors, and attenuators. His spark-gap transmitters were capable of 60GHz operation.
Coherent Thoughts
Marconi Admiralty Pattern Coherer. Source: The Science Museum (UK)
Some of Bose’s most important work in radio concerned detection of electromagnetic waves. Early wireless pioneers had discovered that electromagnetic waves could be rectified by fine metal particles contained in a tube between metal conductors; the electrical energy would cause the particles to clump together and become conductive. The device was called a coherer because of the clumping action and was used as rectifiers in all the early practical wireless receivers, despite its operation being not well-understood. Experiments with coherers continue to this day.
Early coherers had a problem, though – the filings stayed stuck together after the signal had passed. The device needed to be reset by a tiny electromagnetic tapping mechanism that jiggled the filings back into a non-conductive state before the next signal could be detected. This had obvious effects on bandwidth, so the search for better detectors was on. One improvement invented by Bose in 1899 was the iron-mercury-iron coherer, with a pool of mercury in a small metal cup. A film of insulating oil covered the mercury, and an iron disc penetrated the oil but did not make contact with the liquid mercury. RF energy would break down the insulating oil and conduct, with the advantage of not needing a decoherer to reset the system.
Bose’s improved coherer design would miraculously appear in Marconi’s transatlantic wireless receiver two years later. The circumstances are somewhat shady – Marconi’s story about how he came up with the design varied over time, and there were reports that Bose’s circuit designs were stolen from a London hotel room while he was presenting his work. In any case, Bose was not interested in commercializing his invention, which Marconi would go on to patent himself.
The Father of Semiconductors?
Early Bose galena point-contact detectors. Source: National Radio Astronomy Observatory
Bose also did early work in semiconductor detectors. Bose was exploring the optical properties of radio waves when he discovered that galena, an ore of lead rich in lead sulfide, was able to selectively conduct in the presence of radio waves. He was able to demonstrate that point contacts on galena crystals worked as a better coherer, and in an uncharacteristic move actually patented the invention. Interestingly, the patent includes descriptions of substances that show either decreased or increased resistance to current flow with increasing voltage; Bose chose to describe these a “positive” and “negative” substances, an early example of the “P-N” nomenclature that would become common in semiconductor research. Decades later, William Brattain, co-inventor of the transistor, would acknowledge that Bose had beat everyone to the punch on semiconductors and would credit him with inventing the first semiconductor rectifier.
Inventions and innovations would flow from Bose’s fertile mind for many decades. He eventually turned his attention to plant physiology, studying the stress responses of plants with a sensitive device he invented, the crescograph, which could amplify the movements of the tips of plants by a factor of 10,000. Not surprisingly, he also did important work on the effects of microwaves on plant tissues. Bose also did work comparing metal fatigue and fatigue in physically stressed plant tissues. Bose is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction.
Bose is rarely remembered as a pioneer in radio, despite all he accomplished in engineering the wireless system that would eventually stitch together the world. Given his position on patents, that’s not surprising – his inventions were his gift to the world, and he seemed content with letting others capitalize on his genius.
66 thoughts on “J.C. Bose and the Invention of Radio
1. I’m not sure if you can define that as “as an example of what the (then) hacker community was up to”, when the “hackers” involved with radio where experimenting and building with tubes as well, and professional radio most likely where looking into point contact solid state circuits as well. The booklet was a publication of “professional radio” that includes circuits to boost the sales for those advertising their products in the booklet. Where the largest market for wireless was ocen traveling vessels, and wheren’t the most stable platforms it shouldn’t be a surprise that tubes what commercial radio went with. for a time Thank you for posting the link, but all in all I feel you are trying to put hacker on to high a pedestal. I say that understand most everyone who got technology to the point where it is today where hackers of a sort. However I feel that most of today’s self describe hackers put very much effort in discovering why something doesn’t work or does work. The sort of effort that advances technology.
1. I wonder how far you could push this. I remember something on a website (spark zap buzz or some such) about a gent using copper oxide (I think) as a semiconductor. He’d used a torch to heat the copper.
I’ve got this image of a thing like a plotter, with a torch on it, operating over something like a PC board. It’d either burn through to cut traces, or heat and oxidize to make a semiconducting point. Have a nozzle for doping the flame, maybe?
Wonder if it would be possible to burn a whole circuit that way.
Probably need a second pass to deposit copper onto points on the semiconductors for the “base” lead…
1. Yes, the Jeri From Scratch makes sense that it can be done.
I agree growing wafers would be too hard on a small scale – but I guess I’m kinda going the direction of if silicon wafers are too hard, does the doping on non-silcon things make it any easier on the hobby scale?
2. Silicon crystals are grown from vapourised silicon, in an oven at some ridiculous high temperature. I think there’s also a bit of chemistry somewhere along the line. It’s not the sort of thing you could do yourself, even if you had the money. Even if you did, getting clean, pure wafers would be an achievement. Better just to buy them.
Of course it’s better just to buy microchips too, but it’s still a hell of an achievement to make your own, even if you had to buy the raw silicon.
1. Bose was more influential on the development of radio than Marconi, but:
— from Wikipedia
A bit of clarification here: https://books.google.ca/books?id=c92LQsxMxEUC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=British+Court+tesla+radio&source=bl&ots=9enh3iv6Ri&sig=_cZbUxJcBpahYAzA9esD9bb_Tj0&hl=en&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=British%20Court%20tesla%20radio&f=false
1. It’s funny how the american inventor are ending up being restored in their patents… by the supreme court of america!
One time, I was at a american museum on Edison and it was claimed that he invented cinema…
1. Lumiere brothers. Also Joseph Swan for the light bulb. Edison invented an early form of exploiting your employees, betraying trust, and hyping yourself up to the public. Later perfected by Steve Jobs, of course.
1. Funny how the history of technology is full of idealistic geniuses being ripped off by butthole businessmen, who make big piles of money off their work while claiming it as their own.
In another story, Edison’s badmouthing AC current, “Westinghoused”, and all that. What a dick that guy was! I wonder if American schools are trying to implicity promote his values, which are very much in common with what goes on nowadays.
Actually I worry about the younger generation, they’ve lived in a world where nobody’s ever trusted a politician, or expected them to tell the truth. Where businesses routinely fuck people over for profit, where everyone lies, where “celebrity…” etc etc. I was born in the late 1970s, I saw these developments as they grew to be accepted as the norm. Not that corruption was invented in the 1980s, but the postmodern way we live now is very different to then. And there’s a generation of young adults who don’t know any different.
And that’s probably not good.
1. Yes Greenaum. Some Yanks promote Edison to the level of exemplar. Our adverts (commercials) tend to use him invariably. It’s so repugnant when they say “Like how Edison invented the light bulb…” BUT HE DIDN’T! He stole the IP from his employee. Westinghouse was pure evil. He had to go to Tesla hat in hand and Tesla STUPIDLY gave him the keys to the castle. Westinghouse today is a huge multi-national conglomerate and has more money than God!
Our public school textbooks have not been modified with the truth about these so-called American heroes yet. They still have the “many” lies about Columbus in them (i.e. not really Italian, never discovered America, etc.).
Lately here in USA, ever since off-shore outsourcing to India became vogue, Indian-Americans seem to be lobbying for re-inventing India’s role in world history. I wonder how much of that is due to Gov of Louisiana’s and ex-POTUS 2016 candidate’s (an Indian) tinkering.
2. Fascinating article!
60 GHz signals in 1895?!? Wow! To this day that’s many times the frequency of most radio signals. I’m going to have to look further into J.C. Bose and his story. Might make for an excellent subject to write about in my monthly column.
1. Dr. Amar G. Bose who designed audio systems was born in 1929 and died in 2013. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, which this article is about was born in 1858 and died in 1937. These are two different people
1. And S.N. Bose, of Bose-Einstein statistics fame and after whom the boson was named, was yet another famous and productive Bose. He actually was a student of J.C. Bose at Presidency College.
3. For the record, Tesla first demonstrated radio before the royal society in 1893. Range was only across a stage, but the demonstration did take place and is a matter of record. Not to detract from Bose, but to clarify an already muddled history that has a vast majority of people beliving that Marconi alone invented radio. Tesla gets little enough credit as it is for someone who contributed so much to the world.
1. Yes. To be totally honest to everyone, radio was a product of series of discoveries, from Maxwell and Hertz onwards. Tesla and Bose did their part, as did many others, including Marconi. Marconi seems to me a very clever tinkerer, who was quite capable of improving apparatus, but unable to come to real breakthroughs by himself. He would try anything and everything, and eventually made good progress and contribution to overall radio advance.
1. There is a series of articles in the IEEE Transactions, 1998 to prove that Marconi was present in the 1996 demonstration of JC Bose in the Royal Institute, London and all the notes of Bose disappeared. Marconi employed Prof. Flemming of London University to copy the instrument of Bose and used it in his famous experient. Thus, Marconi did nothing at all. Prof. Flemming should get the credit for enhancing the instrument used by Bose.
2. @Doc Pederson – Dr. Mahlon Loomis demonstrated to US Congress and won a cash award for his wireless device long before any of them. His allegation is that he was able to achieve in 1865 a radiotelegraph over the Blue Ridge mountains (USA) a distance of 14-miles (~22 Km) – actually 18-miles. Then was implemented in Wash DC in a 7-mile network around town in the 1870’s and a 2-mile maritime link between two ships at Chesapeake Bay. Tesla was just a teenager kid then. Marconi was just being born, and JC Bose was just going into college about 20-years away from his new-found interest in this new technology.
Dr. Loomis was not inspired by the Scottish scientist Dr. James Clerk Maxwell.as in 1864 Loomis claims he started thinking about this and Maxwell was too. He claims he was inspired by Ben Franklin and Samuel Morse. Here is a good link at Google Books: Wireless Personal Communications: Trends and Challenges
edited by Theodore S. Rappaport,
4. I remember we had lesson in our school about Jagadish Bose experiments with plants, to show that they too have senses like us. Although I was not aware about his works in radio, thanks from this nice & informative article.
5. Amazing.
At the dawn of the 20th century there were many pioneers in science, many of them forgotten now. I didn’t knew the work or Mr Bose. Thanks for the article.
As for demonstrating electricity and light interation, Father Landell de Moura [1] did it in 1899 but demonstrating a voice transmission over 7Km (~4.3mi) using a beam of light as the wave carrier. The device was named “Telephoro”. He also did other inventions like a wireless telegraph and patented its inventions in 1901-1904 [2].
[1] http://www.memoriallandelldemoura.com.br/landell_vida_obra.html
[2] http://www.memoriallandelldemoura.com.br/landell_patentes.html
1. @danjovic – What’s even more amazing is how Landell did it 10-years after Alexander Graham Bell did in USA with his Photo Phone later to be renamed Radio Phone. Probably the reason why Brazil decided to not fund his “invention” after they made the mistake to patent it in 1901 and then USA patented it in 1904. Strange none of the patents have prior-art citations to Bell (et al). It’s amazing how some people can “pull strings” with friends in high-places…
6. I tried this back in the 70’s from a Scientific American Amateur scientist article, with varying levels of success, I can’t find a link and have “lost” all my old copies of SA, but here are a few links I found…
this one was kinda cool, but harder to do
basically you heated up glass microscope slides on a lab hot plate and sprayed solutions of metallic salts on them.
I got maybe 1 in 10 to work…
1. maybe, I tried using photoresist to apply etching masks but finding a solvent that wouldn’t attack the mask was really hard.
I stopped experimenting after a few dozen failed attempts, drawing up masks by hand, having a bromide film shot at the local printers all started getting a bit expensive.
7. “The device was called a coherer because of the clumping action and was used as rectifiers in all the early practical wireless receivers”
“He was able to demonstrate that point contacts on galena crystals worked as a better coherer”
The coherer was used as a detector, not as a rectifier. Coherers are not rectifiers and rectifiers are not coherers, but the article muddles them up. A rectifier is necessary to demodulate a radio wave [i.e. to extract audio]. Early radio receivers could only detect the presence of radio waves, so they could only receive CW, not demodulate audio.
8. Bose certainly made his contribution, but apparently Alexander Graham Bell was the first when it comes to wireless transmission of information Using light for telephony no less, too bad fiber optic cable/wire didn’t exist at the time. Bose may have found using the shorter wave lengths made sense in regards to doing research, but the shorter wavelengths couldn’t lead to the practicle use of wireless at that time, anymore than Bell’s use of light could. No matter how he got there Marconi shown the practicle promise of wireless. Was only in the past year or two when looking for something else radio related I stumbled onto a peeing between Marconi supporter and Tesla Fan boys & girls contest where I first learned of Bose. Fortunately this article and comments to it contained far more information than that silly peeing contest
1. @Doug – Actually Alexander Graham Bell and crew where quite aware of the existence of stretched glass fibers in their timeline but had no idea how to exploit them for the Photophone.I would think it wouldn’t work anyway without some sort of reflective coating along the entire length of the cables. It had to wait until 1965 in where Manfred Börner at AEG-Telefunken found a way to use fiber optics for VLC (Visual Light Communications).
Bell and team also invented the first audio CD-like glass discs using photographic emulsions and a VLC modulator. However, they couldn’t figure out how to read it. The Smithsonian did recently and you can actually hear tBell and team hem making testing phrases into the microphone. You can listen to them here: http://newsdesk.si.edu/factsheets/early-sound-recording-collection-and-sound-recovery-project (Look for YouTube links halfway down)..
9. It’s a good article, but there’s a couple of rather confused points:
Bose did use microwave signals for his experiments, but in this he followed on from Hertz who also used VHF/UHF signals in order to explore reflections, diffraction, focusing, etc.
Marconi also started with microwaves but quickly changed to lower frequencies in order to achieve much greater range.
However it’s a big pity that you didn’t mention David Edward Hughes who developed a complete working radio system (complete with a Carbon Detector) decades before the others. Unfortunately, because he preceded Maxwell and Hertz, his discoveries were not understood until much later.
see David Edward Hughes https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Edward_Hughes
1. @F. Nurk – Yes indeed Dan Maloney published a very good article. However, JAGADIS CHANDRA BOSE (or JCB) was actually inspired by a book about Heinrich Hertz written by Oliver Lodge. JCB did some amazing things in a 24 sq ft toilet-room closet at the university that hated him and tried to thwart him at every step of the way. He refused his insulting salary that was far less than his Caucasian peers. Yet somehow he accomplished things that were allegedly 60-years before his time just like Nikola Tesla!
Regarding your comment about Marconi and microwaves: He did not exploit anything with microwaves until 1932. This was after he met JCB in UK at a symposium in 1896 and JCB told him of his 60-GHz experiment. JCB being a free-giver like Tesla was, he just gave away his IP (Intellectual Property) and Marconi took it happily without credit to JCB.Tesla also gave his IP away free to George Westinghouse and look where the Westinghouse company is today.
I don’t remember reading anything about David Edward Hughes inventing a COMPLETE working radio (wireless) system. What he did stumble upon was simply electromagnetic induction just as he was told by his contemporaries. It only reached 150 feet so that could not be compared with a wireless system like the one Dr. Mahlon Loomis (a dentist) also stumbled on in 1865. Loomis radiotelegraph system was able to propagate 14-miles between mountains in Virginia USA (via kites). And was later adopted by the USG (US government) in Washington DC to make up a 7-mile radiotelegraph network around Wash DC (via fixed towers). That was post-Civil War which was before David Edward Hughes even stumbled on his faulty microphone experiment in 1879. This was long before Marconi, JCB, and Tesla’s wireless exploits.
However, JCB’s personal associations disturb me. He was very close to the Gurudev, Rabindranath Tagore and the Swami, Vivekananda. As some of you know Telsa, Edison, and Rockefeller where all influenced by Vivekananda. Tesla’s inventions may even have been inspired by Vivekananda’s lofty eschatological pontifications. I still am quite amazed of the gadgets he built in his toilet closet and was beyond the understanding of most scientists of the day. How does one verify a frequency of 60 GHz’s in 1890’s? And how does one make a better coherer (that actually works) but one really had much experience with the bad ones yet? Read this paper about JCB and tell me your not baffled by this too: https://www.cv.nrao.edu/~demerson/bose/bose.html
And these people at NRAO in Arizona and they are using a variation of JCB’s invention in their telescope at National Radio Astronomy Observatory TODAY!
1. CORRECTIONS: “And how does one make a better coherer that actually works, but no one really had much experience with the bad ones yet? Read this paper about JCB and tell me your not amazed by this too. Go to https://www.cv.nrao.edu/~demerson/bose/bose.html
And these people at NRAO in Arizona USA … are using a variation of one of JCB’s inventions in their radio telescope at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory… TODAY! “
1. No. Satyendra Nath Bose (S.N. Bose) was the fellow from the Bose-Einstein condensate fame and a student of J.C. Bose. Subhas Chandra Bose (S.C. Bose) was a fellow who chose the wrong side during WW2 in an attempt to rid India of British rule.
Why did you bring that up? Because of my comment that JCB, Tesla, Edison, Rockefeller, and Westinghouse all had a very curious and weird attachment to Swami Vivekananda during the same timeframe? And NO I am not professing that Vivekananda gave them any direct inspiration for their respective inventions. I just find this unlikely coincidence very strange. And JCB and SNB both befriended the poet Rabindranath Tagore after he turned to the occult practices after his wife’s death. Any of this probably means absolutely nothing to an atheist or agnostic though.
10. Sorry, but there’s some appalling nonsense here…
Marconi’s very first experiments evolved from Hertz and used a spark with a “Hertzian Dipole” of two copper plates a few feet apart. It is fundamental that its output would have been on VHF/UHF frequencies. Later he developed the “Marconi Antenna” and moved to very low frequencies (VLF).
His notes and models have been preserved in the British museum, and the recent book “Before We Went Wireless”, documents in great detail how he developed a working Wireless-Telegraphy Transmitter and Receiver.
It became clear to his contemporaries that they were wrong when Maxwell and Hertz published, and the world became aware of Electromagnetism. Today it is clear that what Hughes achieved would have been impossible with Induction. Marconi himself acknowledged Prof Hughes’ work in his speech to the IEE
Regarding Bose:
His work followed on from Hertz who showed how to develop microwave energies with a spark and to measure their wavelength with a Resonant Cavity.
> How does one verify a frequency of 60 GHz’s in 1890’s?
You use a Resonant Cavity or a Lecher line, as had been demonstrated by Lecher, Hertz, Lodge and others.
> And how does one make a better coherer?
You start with a poor one and gradually increase the distance as you experiment with different materials and layout.
As did Hughes, Marconi, Lodge, Popov and so many others.
Regarding Loomis:
His kite experiments clearly made use of Electrostatic energy, and his later experiments were using Ground Conduction and also Induction. He work is fascinating, but he did not develop a communication system using Electromagnetics.
All of these people were brilliant pioneers. They deserve more respect than your unscientific nonsense.
1. @F, Nurk – I have no idea why you are being so defensive and egotistical in your reply. I simply researched your claims and discovered that you may have embellished or at least exaggerated a bit on some things. I was clearly talking about who was first in WIRELESS 2-way communications and that was clearly Dr. Loomis in 1864 during the same time Maxwell was doing his work. It is not pertinent to our civil conversation here HOW they did it or by what method they did so. I don’t deny Loomis’ invention is low-technology compared to others that followed him.
I also found that your claim that Hughes invented a so-called radio or wireless set but only had a paltry range of 150 feet. And that was caused by a defected carbon microphone he invented that was arcing. I don’t deny that Hughes invented something noteworthy to science, I just have difficulty calling it a wireless set when Mahlon made one with approximately 20 mile range in 1864 and had a 2-character per second rate.
Re: Measuring frequency… I agree with you that Dr. Lecher did it but he did it about 10 years after JCB did his 60-GHz experiment. Albeit, Lodge (JCB’s hero) did have a primitive method JCB obviously used to calculate 60-GHz. But I still find that measurement fantastic for the timeline he was in. I wonder if it was accurate at all. I still am not sure how his enigmatic transmitter was constructed after all of the documentation has been provided. That’s still not clear to me yet. I believe it worked, I just don’t know how yet.
Re: The COHERER. They were in fact quite primitive in his timeline and needed a kinetic kick to reset after use. I was just baffled how he acquired the knowledge so quickly (arguably no time for natural evolution of scientific thought) and invented the first semiconductor (Galena) in 19th century to replace the primitive coherer. I mean that’s like jumping from an ALTAIR 8080 to a iPAD in comparison. And he did this with NO HELP from contemporary peers or colleagues in a 24 Square foot closet. Again I believe he did it. I just need to know the evolution of his thought processes, I have the same questions for Tesla’s enigmatic quantum jumps in science. IMHO I know how Edison did it – he just stole others IP.
So in summary we are not in competition with you. We here at HaD are just exploring how things work and how pioneer hackers of yesteryear arrived at their respective hacks.So it would be nice if you could just make a minor correction to your tone and just have a friendly discussion and if we differ we can just have a friendly intellectual debate. It’s much more fun that way. :-)
1. @F, Nurk – Even though I may show a lack of respect for Marconi and Edison, I try to show it for others (Tesla the jury’s still out with me on that). Why do I feel this way? Well Edison is self-explanatory with his animal experimentation (e.g. several dogs and an elephant). All to prove a lie. Also he was a plagiarizer. Marconi was questionable to me. I think it is obvious that he plagiarized JC Bose’s work on microwaves when Marconi was in his 20’s and continued to work on the concept up until his death in 1937 with no credit EVER given to JCB. He was clearly a commercialistic materialistic human who was only in it for the money and fame. JCB was only in it for the acquired knowledge and was willing to share. That concept has NEVER worked in USA. Yes 1900’s was a cut-throat time here in USA. How has that changed?
BTW – you did know Marconi was an adherent to Mussolini’s fascist ideals? This was evidenced by his recently alleged racist college entry policies to Academy of Italy starting in 1930 when he was appointed the head of the school. This arguably prevented other potential great minds from evolving i that area of the world.
2. WIRELESS two way communications includes talking, megaphones, alphorns, the heliograph, semaphore, naval flags etc etc. You really have to get much more focused if you want to distinguish between different radio experiments, and then they each start looking a bit different.
11. > I simply researched your claims and discovered that you may have embellished or at least exaggerated a bit on some things.
And you call my post offensive? Some quick notes:
His carbon microphone was not defective and it was not arcing.
He noticed an unexpected effect and went on to develop various highly sensitive Detectors.
It is documented that he achieved 500 yds range.
When it suits you, you insist that that Loomis used “Wireless”, but then you discount Hughes by (falsely) claiming his method was “only Induction”.
When your errors are pointed out, you just duck and weave. I showed you how Bose measured his wavelength, and that the method came from Hertz and Lodge, and yet you bluster and try to discount Lecher.
I could go on, but clearly you can’t be bothered reading the references, and prefer to just make stuff up.
Your weird metaphysical and political side issues say more about you than I can.
1. Re: Hughes
In 1879 while working in London Hughes discovered that a bad contact in a Bell telephone he was using in his experiments seemed to be sparking when he worked on a nearby induction balance. He developed an improved detector to pick up this unknown “extra current” based on his new microphone design and developed a way to interrupt his induction balance via a clockwork mechanism to produce a series of sparks. By trial and error experiments he eventually found he could pick up these “aerial waves” as he carried his telephone device down the street out to a range of 500 yards (460 m).
I see where I may have arrived at my assumptions. Look to the BOLDED text above. I may have assumed “bad contact” meant defective and “sparking” implied arcing. The “induction” assumption is based on what he was working on in the first place and “sparking” would introduce induction or electrostatic noise in a receiving device. I may be wrong. His friends told him it was induction. that wasn’t my idea. I was just repeating what they told him. Albeit, it was probably electrostatic.
Yes I concede that I dropped a zero on the range. It wasn’t 150 feet but 1500 feet. Still does not sound like radio propagation to me.
I was not trying to be offensive. I was just sharing information. Loomis is not my hero as he used poor judgement in dealing with USG (US Government) and others (Just like Tesla did). He should have gotten a lawyer or at least a lobbyist in his pocket. He allowed the sleazy Congressmen to really screw up his deal. Albeit, he lost a lot of documents in the Chicago fire, he could at least have duplicated it and distributed it at other locations – like NY where he was from. During those post civil war days things were getting harder to deal with as there were so many con-artists everywhere looking to scam anyone. Even Samuel Clemons got severely conned.
I am not trying to discount Hughes. He made a great contribution to Bell’s telephone I think. And he did other great things. I just am not convinced he was involved in radio per se. I really don’t believe spark-gappers were radio either even though they did propagate several thousands of miles distance.
I did not discount Lecher. I was only pointing out his invention wasn’t made public until around 1902 or so. He had worked on it since 1888 but I believe it was under wraps, in German, or not finished yet until after JC Bose made his gadget around 1890-94. I did say JCB probably used Lodge’s primitive bandwidth measuring method. Did you miss that?
Wow! You do know me well! Yes I’m a bit eccentric I know. I tend to think outside the box as I get bored to easy the other way… :-D
12. The piece you quote is so badly written it is childish, but once again you quote a poorly written source without reference to the original.
Hughes first noticed the effect in an earpiece while working on his Induction Balance.
The “poorly formed” contact was in fact the normal function of a Carbon Microphone,
He then went on to develop a series of increasingly sensitive Detectors and efficient Transmitters.
This series of prototypes have survived and are quite separate from his work on the induction balance.
Some of his later Transmitters were fitted with a mechanical Interrupter so he could go walking with his receiver through the Village.
> Albeit, it was probably electrostatic.
Clearly it was neither. Both Magnetic and Electrostatic fields weaken with the inverse-cube of distance, which is why they are still not used today. To reach 500yds (and with low power) it could only be Electromagnetism, eg Radio..
> I did say JCB probably used Lodge’s primitive bandwidth measuring method.
It was a Wavelength measuring method, not Bandwidth.
But finally, your comment that “I really don’t believe spark-gappers were radio” is just breathtaking!
Are you so ill-informed that you don’t understand how a rapidly changing current generates Radio Frequencies?
That when the RF from a spark (or from a modern transmitter) is connected to an Antenna it produces Radio Waves?
All of this can be easily researched, so once again you are just making stuff up as you go along.
Regarding your Metaphysical comments. You gave the strong impression that Bose and others picked up their ideas via some Metaphysical linkage with Vivekananda. Why else include such an of-topic subject in an article about the invention of Radio?
1. It was from Wikipedia… Also I meant WAVELENGTH but my brain typed BANDWIDTH. Hazard of old age I guess. But any way I concede that I am out of my depth on the subject matter. I have a bit to learn about spark-gap transmitters, etc. I really want to figure out how that 60-GHz transmitter works by JC Bose.
1. > I really want to figure out how that 60-GHz transmitter works by JC Bose
Here’s a simplified explanation: You put a spark inside a tin can. The spark generates wideband RF noise, which is filtered by the tin can. If the can is resonant at 60GHz, there is your 60GHZ transmitter. The principle was described in detail by Hertz and others.
These days people build “Pringle Can antennas”. The principle is the same.
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<urn:uuid:3e22536a-54f5-41f4-9880-3f2305b68ccf>
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"url": "https://hackaday.com/2016/01/19/j-c-bose-and-the-invention-of-radio/"
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Monday September 10th, 2012
This Monday we learned about gerunds. They sound daunting but they really are just words that end in -ing.
We also talked about the importance of engaging hooks and thesis statements. To illustrate the effectiveness of a hook, we saw a clip from the movie “Independence Day” with a massive explosion. “Did you wonder what happened next?” I asked the students. Of course, they all said yes in unison. Next, to illustrate a thesis statement, we listened to the theme song from the 1990s show “The Fresh Prince of Bel Air” where the first line is the Fresh Prince’s thesis. He was going tell the story of how he became “the prince of a town called Bel Air.”
HOMEWORK: Write a paragraph and identify the hook and thesis.
PowerPoint: 9-10-2012 Thesis Statements
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"url": "https://www.mswillipedia.com/index.php/2012/09/10/monday-september-10th-2012/"
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Robben Island: A Prison for Many
Early Living Conditions of Prisoners
©Eric Miller
Conditions on Robben Island during the 1700s are difficult to ascertain because of the lack of documentation and the absence of any extant buildings, but one can only assume that life was no picnic.
Most prisoners were forced to do hard labour on the island, quarrying stone or collecting shells.
Food supplies were always low and rations were puny, prompting several protests by prisoners.
None of this could stop the constant yearning for freedom and several escape attempts were made over the years.
Indeed, many more people escaped from Robben Island than is generally acknowledged.
Rowboats were occasionally stolen from the boathouse, and foreign ships would sometimes stop at the island illegally, hoping to pick up some additional crew members. Others may have even swum across the frigid channel to the mainland.
The Second Generation of Prisoners on Robben Island
©Tracey Derrick
The first generation of political prisoners on Robben Island were Cape Khoikhoi who opposed Dutch rule and exiled rebel leaders from other parts of the Dutch East India Company’s empire, such as Indonesia.
The second generation were indigenous leaders from the Eastern Cape frontier who were captured and sent to the island, sometimes accompanied by their wives and children.
The British were fighting with the locals on all sides of their expanding South African territory. Accordingly, there were other political prisoners besides the Xhosa who spent time on Robben Island during the 1800s.
Some Bushmen and Khoikhoi were sent there because of their role in the Bokkeveld Rebellion of 1824. The Zulu chief Langalibalele, head of the Hlubi tribe, was held on the island from 1874 to 1875 for his rebellion against the British forces in Natal.
The leaders of the Koranna Wars, who fought along the Orange River in 1870 and 1879, were also imprisoned for their refusal to honour Queen and Country- a saying that refers to loyalty and service given by a member of the British armed forces.
By David Fleminger
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Japanese Invasion of Manchuria, 1931 - PowerPoint
This PowerPoint looks at two key questions, why did the Japanese invade and why did the League fail to stop them? The learning objectives are as follows:
Theme: Why did the League of Nations fail?
Know: What role did Japan play in the League of Nations?
Understand: Why did Japan invade Manchuria?
Evaluate: Why did the League fail to stop the Japanese invasion?
Skills: Cause, Consequence, Source Evaluation & judgement
What Am I Looking For this lesson?
Identify / Describe – What problems faced Japan in the 1930s?
Explain – Why did the Japanese invade Manchuria?
Analyse – begin to form a judgement on why the League eventually failed?
This resource includes information, maps, photographs from the time, primary and secondary sources, Oxford & Cambridge past paper questions and student mark schemes for peer and self assessment.
These resources can be easily adapted. This resource works extremely well with my assessment for learning booklet on the League of Nations.
Kind Regards
Save for later
• 5-Manchuria.pptx
About this resource
Created: Aug 29, 2016
Updated: Feb 22, 2018
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"url": "https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/japanese-invasion-of-manchuria-1931-powerpoint-11355190"
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Innovative Power Products Couplers
Electronic Warfare and Radar Systems Engineering Handbook
- Attenuators / Filters / DC Blocks / Attenuators -
[Go to TOC]
An attenuator is a passive microwave component which, when inserted in the signal path of a system, reduces the signal by a specified amount. They normally possess a low VSWR which makes them ideal for reducing load VSWR in order to reduce measurement uncertainties. They are sometimes used simply to absorb power, either to reduce it to a measurable level, or in the case of receivers to establish an exact level to prevent overload of following stages.
Attenuators are classified as either fixed or variable and either reflective or non-reflective. The fixed and variable attenuators are available in both waveguide and coaxial systems. Most of the receivers under 20 GHz use coaxial type attenuators.
The performance characteristics of a fixed attenuator are:
1. input and output impedances
2. flatness with frequency
3. average and peak power handling capability
4. temperature dependence
The variable attenuator can be subdivided into two kinds: step attenuator and continuously variable attenuator. In a step attenuator, the attenuation is changed in steps such as 10 dB, 1 dB or 0.5 dB. In a continuously variable attenuator, the attenuation is changed continuously and a dial is usually available to read the attenuation either directly or indirectly from a calibration chart.
For a variable attenuator, additional characteristics should be considered, such as:
1. amount or range of attenuations
2. insertion loss in the minimum attenuation position
3. incremental attenuation for step attenuator
4. accuracy of attenuation versus attenuator setting
5. attenuator switching speed and switching noise.
A reflective attenuator reflects some portion of the input power back to the driving source. The amount reflected is a function of the attenuation level. When PIN diodes are zero or reverse biased, they appear as open circuits when shunting a transmission line. This permits most of the RF input power to travel to the RF output. When they are forward biased, they absorb some input, but simultaneously reflect some back to the input port. At high bias current, most RF will be reflected back to the input resulting in a high input VSWR and high attenuation.
The VSWR of a non-reflective (absorptive) PIN diode attenuator remains good at any attenuation level (bias state). This is accomplished by configuring the diodes in the form of a Pi network that remains matched for any bias state or by use of a 90E hybrid coupler to cancel the waves reflected to the input connector.
Microwave filters are one of the most important components in receivers. The main functions of the filters are: (1) to reject undesirable signals outside the filter pass band and (2) to separate or combine signals according to their frequency. A good example for the latter application is the channelized receiver in which banks of filters are used to separate input signals. Sometimes filters are also used for impedance matching. Filters are almost always used before and after a mixer to reduce spurious signals due to image frequencies, local oscillator feedthrough, and out-of-frequency band noise and signals. There are many books which are devoted to filter designs. There are many kinds of filters used in microwave receivers, so it is impossible to cover all of them.
If a filter is needed on the output of a jammer, it is desirable to place it approximately half way between the jammer and antenna vs adjacent to either. The transmission line attenuation improves the VSWR of the filter at the transmitter. This may allow use of a less expensive filter, or use of a reflective filter vs an absorptive filter.
A filter is a two-port network which will pass and reject signals according to their frequencies. There are four kinds of filters according to their frequency selectivities. In the examples that follow, fL = low frequency, fM = medium frequency, and fH = high frequency. Their names reflect their characteristics, and they are:
1. A low-pass filter which passes the low frequency signals below a predetermined value as shown in Figure 1.
Low-Pass filter curve - RF Cafe
Figure 1. Low-Pass Filter
2. A high-pass filter which passes the high frequency signals above a predetermined value as in Figure 2.
High-Pass filter curve - RF Cafe
Figure 2. High-Pass Filter
3. A band-pass filter which passes signals between two predetermined frequencies as shown in Figure 3.
Band-Pass filter curve - RF Cafe
Figure 3. Band-Pass Filter
A band-pass filter with different skirt slopes on the two sides of the pass band is sometimes referred to as an asymmetrical filter. In this filter the sharpness of the rejection band attenuation is significantly different above and below the center frequency. One additional note regarding band-pass filters or filters in general, their performance should always be checked in the out-of-band regions to determine whether or not they posses spurious responses. In particular they should be checked at harmonics of the operating frequency.
4. A band reject filter (sometimes referred to as a bandstop or notch filter) which rejects signals between two predetermined frequencies such as high power signals from the aircraft's own radar as shown in Figure 4.
Band-Reject filter curve - RF Cafe
Figure 4. Band-Reject Filter
In general, filters at microwave frequencies are composed of resonate transmission lines or waveguide cavities that, when combined, reflect the signal power outside the filter frequency pass band and provide a good VSWR and low loss within the frequency pass band. As such, specifications for filters are maximum frequency, pass band loss, VSWR, and rejection level at a frequency outside of the pass band. The trade-offs for filters are a higher rejection for a fixed frequency pass band or a larger frequency pass band for a fixed rejection, which requires a filter with more resonators, which produce higher loss, more complexity, and larger size.
Inside DC block - RF CafeDC Blocks are special connectors which have a capacitor (high pass filter) built into the device. There are three basic types:
1. INSIDE - The high pass filter is in series with the center conductor as shown in Figure 5. DC is blocked on the center conductor.
2. OUTSIDE - The high pass filter is in series with the cable shield as shown in Figure 6.
3. INSIDE/OUTSIDE - A high pass arrangement is connected to both the inner and outer conductors.
Outside DC block - RF CafeDC Blocks are ideal for filtering DC, 60 Hz, and 400 Hz from the RF line.
In general, capacitors with a large value of capacitance do not have the least loss at microwave frequencies. Also, since capacitance is proportional to size, a large size produces more capacitance with more inductance. Because of these reasons, D.C. blocks are typically available with a high pass frequency band starting in the region of 0.1 to 1 GHz.
A termination is a one-port device with an impedance that matches the characteristic impedance of a given transmission line. It is attached to a certain terminal or port of a device to absorb the power transmitted to that terminal or to establish a reference impedance at that terminal. Important parameters of a termination are its VSWR and power handling capacity. In a receiver, terminations are usually placed at various unconnected ports of components such as hybrid and power dividers to keep the VSWR of the signal path low. It is extremely important that the isolated port in a directional coupler and the unused port of a power divider (i.e., only three ports of a four-way power divider are used) be properly terminated. All of the design considerations of directional couplers and power dividers are based on the fact that all ports are terminated with matched loads. If an unused port is not properly terminated, then the isolation between the output ports will be reduced which may severely degrade the performance of the receiver.
A termination is the terminology used to refer to a low power, single terminal device intended to terminate a transmission line. Similar devices designed to accommodate high power are generally termed dummy loads.
Terminations are employed to terminate unconnected ports on devices when measurements are being performed. They are useful as dummy antennas and as terminal loads for impedance measurements of transmission devices such as filters and attenuators.
The resistive elements in most terminations are especially fabricated for use at microwave frequencies. Two types are commonly employed: (1) resistive film elements, and (2) molded resistive tapers. The resistive film is very thin compared to the skin depth and normally very short relative to wavelength at the highest operating frequency. The molded taper consists of a dissipative material evenly dispersed in a properly cured dielectric medium. Both forms of resistive elements provide compact, rugged terminations suitable for the most severe environmental conditions with laboratory stability and accuracy.
Terminations should be properly matched to the characteristic impedance of a transmission line. The termination characteristics of primary concern are:
a. operating frequency range d. VSWR
b. average power handling capability e. size
c. operating temperature range f. weight
Many microwave systems employ directional couplers which require terminations on at least one port, and most have various modes of operation or test where terminations are needed on certain terminals.
A matched termination of a generalized transmission line is ideally represented by an infinite length of that line having small, but non-zero loss per unit length so that all incident energy is absorbed and none is reflected.
Standard mismatches are useful as standards of reflection in calibrating reflectometer setups and other impedance measuring equipment. They are also used during testing to simulate specific mismatches which would be encountered on the terminals of components once the component is installed in the actual system. The following table shows common mismatches with the impedance that can provide the mismatch.
Common mismatches - RF Cafe
A dummy load is a high power one port device intended to terminate a transmission line. They are primarily employed to test high power microwave systems at full power capacity. Low power coaxial loads are generally termed terminations and typically handle one watt or less.
Most radars or communications systems have a dummy load integrated into them to provide a non-radiating or EMCON mode of operation, or for testing (maintenance).
Three types of dissipative material are frequently employed in dummy loads: (1) lossy plastic, (2) refractory, and (3) water.
The lossy plastic consists of particles of lossy material suspended in plastic medium. This material may be designed to provide various attenuations per unit length but is limited as to operating temperature. It is employed primarily for low power applications.
The refractory material is a rugged substance that may be operated at temperatures up to 1600EF. It is virtually incapable of being machined by ordinary means but is often fabricated through diamond wheel grinding processes. Otherwise material must be fired in finished form. Such material is employed in most high power applications.
The dissipative properties of water are also employed for dummy load applications. Energy from the guide is coupled through a leaky wall to the water which flows alongside the main guide. Water loads are employed for extremely high power and calorimetric applications.
While dummy loads can operate over full waveguide bands, generally a more economical unit can be manufactured for use over narrower frequency ranges.
The power rating of a dummy load is a complex function dependent upon many parameters, including average and peak power, guide pressure, external temperature, guide size, air flow, and availability of auxiliary coolant. The average and peak powers are interrelated in that the peak power capacity is a function of the operating temperature which in turn is a function of the average power.
Table of Contents for Electronics Warfare and Radar Engineering Handbook
This HTML version may be printed but not reproduced on websites.
Windfreak Technologies PCB Directory (Manufacturers)
About RF Cafe
Kirt Blattenberger - RF Cafe Webmaster
Copyright: 1996 - 2018
Kirt Blattenberger,
My Hobby Website: AirplanesAndRockets.com
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Tipat Halav
Tipat Halav, Jerusalem, 1925 PHG1020876
When we think of pioneers, the images that come to mind are usually of agricultural endeavors of various kinds. But there are other forms of pioneering enterprises, ones that don't involve holding a hoe or plowing a field. One such enterprise is Tipat Halav (literally, A Drop of Milk).
Infant mortality in Jerusalem in the beginning of the 20th century was among the highest in the world, and in the rest of the country things were almost as bad. Poor sanitary conditions and the lack of a cohesive medical infrastructure were to blame, but also certain social conditions, such as the immigration of young families without the older generation, that usually guided new parents through the early stages of parenthood. Jewish philanthropists such as Moshe Montefiore and Betty Rothschild tried to mend the situation but failed to do so.
The woman that succeeded in transforming this harsh reality was Henrietta Szold. Szold, who arrived here in 1909, was horrified when she saw the difficult sanitary conditions and learnt of the high infant mortality. As a social worker, she knew that opening another hospital would not solve the problem. Instead, she decided to invest her efforts in preventive medicine: instead of curing sick babies, she would teach mothers how to prevent their babies from getting ill. In 1921, as a result of the joint efforts of WIZO and the Hadassah organization, headed by Szold, a clinic was opened in Jerusalem, which, for the first time provided services solely for pregnant women and young infants. The medical staff provided the mothers with guidance leaflets, adorned with the sentence "It is easier to maintain a healthy baby than cure a sick one." The leaflet taught young mothers the importance of daily showers, breastfeeding, and exposing the baby to sunlight. The clinic also provided milk to mothers that couldn't nurse their babies.
The project gained significant success, and provided services for Jewish and Arab women alike. Following the success of the first clinic, similar clinics were opened throughout the country, and were called Tipat Halav. Infant mortality in the country dropped significantly thanks to the clinics, and by the early 40s the rate was similar to that of Europe.
The CZA houses the Hadassah archive that includes documents from the early days of Tipat Halav. The files tell of the logistic hardships of this groundbreaking enterprise. The files contain many photographs that document an important chapter in the evolvement of a modern public health system in Palestine/Israel.
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Metaballs. 1: The influence of 2 positive metaballs on each other. 2: The influence of a negative metaball on a positive metaball by creating an indentation in the positive metaball's surface. ; three-dimensional metaballs tend to be most common, with two-dimensional implementations popular as well).
A thresholding value is also chosen, to define a solid volume. Then, represents whether the volume enclosed by the surface defined by. Exploring Metaballs and Isosurfaces in 2D. Introduction Posing the Question In the history of game development, there has always been a "standard" means to represent data in the game world.
Exploring Metaballs and Isosurfaces in 2D
During the 2D era the world and its components were shown by using sprites -- collections of pixels to form an image. As the industry moved into 3 dimensions, this standard-format became the 3D model. Metaball math. Introduction to metaballs Note: bold letters are vectors, normal letters are scalars Metaballs are described as: - mn = location of metaball number n - sn = size of metaball number n - k = number of balls - g = "goo"-value, which affects the way how metaballs are drawn - r = treshold for metaballs - p = place vector - |x| = magnitude (length) of vector x For a more "concrete" example, here's the same formula, written for two 2d metaballs: You could try to solve y from that equation and draw the metaballs like any normal 1-dimensional function, but as the number of balls increases, solving y becomes impossible.
Metaball math
Ryan's Guide to MetaBalls (aka Blobs) Metaballs (also known as: Blobs) By Ryan Geiss - 3/10/2000 Contents: I.
Ryan's Guide to MetaBalls (aka Blobs)
Metaballs II. Rendering III. An Optimization IV.
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Donglin, Wade-Giles romanization Tung-lin, also called Donglin Dang, party of Chinese scholars and officials who attempted to combat the moral laxity and intellectual weakness they felt was undermining public life during the last years of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).
The party was founded by Gu Xiancheng, a government official forced out of office because of his outspoken criticism of those in power. In 1604 he established the Donglin (“Eastern Forest”) Academy at Wuxi in southeast China as a centre for private learning and philosophic discussion. Many of the group that gathered around Gu were also active champions of governmental integrity; many were simply scholars; all were interested in returning to what they felt were the traditional Confucian values. Interpretations of this varied, but the Donglin scholars were united in their denunciation of Buddhist and Daoist influences that had crept into Confucian philosophy. Their prestige soon spread among scholar-officials, and between 1620 and 1623 they were able to dominate many government offices.
Their sense of moral outrage, however, made many enemies. When a Donglin leader, Yang Lian, attacked the powerful court eunuch Wei Zhongxian in 1624, Wei mobilized the enemies of the reformers. Over the next two years hundreds of Donglin supporters were barred from the government, and leading figures were tortured, imprisoned, and executed. By 1627, when Wei was forced to commit suicide under the succeeding emperor Chongzhen, the Donglin party had been practically wiped out (the remaining party members were rehabilitated the next year), but their martyrdom became an example to all of China.
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The Mode of Terrestrial Locomotion in
Alf G Johnels
A number of African as well as Indian catfish species belonging to the family Clariidae have more or less amphibious habits. These fishes are able to move over land from a desiccating pond to another body of water. They are also known to be able to withstand periods of drought by burrowing in the mud of dried-up pools. Shoals of Clarias lazera may leave water temporarily for a walk over dry land without being forced to do so by drought (Welman, 1948). Already in 1895 it was reported that specimens of Clarias lazera burrow in the ground of dried-up pools and that they may temporarily leave their burrows by night in search of food (Vaillant, 1895).
Thus it seems that these fishes are able to move actively on dry land outside their normal medium. Welman (1948) observed that the fishes "wriggled through the grass with snake-like movements." Locomotion on uncovered ground (Clarias anguillaris) has been described by Boulenger (1907: 281): "When placed on the ground the fish uses the spines of its pectoral fin for progression, moving first one spine and then the other alternatively."
In 1950 the present author observed and filmed a specimen of Clarias in the act of progressing on dry land. The species was probably C. senegalensis but as afterwards C. lazera was also recorded in the collections from the Gambia River (Johnels, 1954) it cannot be excluded that the specimen belonged to the latter species.
The observed specimen was about 40 cm long and was brought to our quarters by a native fisherman. Placed on the ground the Clarias specimen suddenly started to move along the ground and progressed for a considerable distance (about 10 m); the last few "steps" were recorded on an eight mm colour film.
Fig. 1. The locomotion on dry land of a Clarias specimen. The pictures (and Fig. 2) are enlarged from an 8 mm Kodachrome film. The film was exposed at the rate of about 16 pictures/s, and with an approximate exposure of 1/30 s. The time interval between the pictures: I-II 1.0 s, II-III 0.2 s., III-IV 0.3 s, IV-V 0.25 s, V-VI 0.4 s, VI-VII 0.4 s. (192 K MPEG MOVIE!)
Fig. 2 a. Locomotion of Clarias. The body is raised from the ground (note the shadow) and pectoral and pelvic fins are rigidly dilated. b. The speed of movernent in Kombination with the long exposure (1/30 sec.) caused a fogged picture of the body. The sharp focussing of the left pectoral fin (note the spine in front) indicates the position of the fixed point of the momentum of the locomotion.
Analysis of the individual frames of this film disclosed the mode of terrestrial locomotion used by the Clarias specimen (Figs. 1, 2). The spines of the pectoral fin play an important role but the progression is not caused by the alternate movement of the spines in relation to the body. On the contrary they are fixed in the erect position during locomotion. The paired fins, held at right angles to the body, serve to maintain equilibrium on land. It is likely that the pectorals help to prevent backward movement. As in many other catfishes the spines of Clarias can be locked by a special mechanism in the erect position. At the end of a step the spine may be momentarily bent caudally but this seems to be due to the effect of the sliding motion at the end of a step. It is typical that not only the pectorals but also the pelvic fins are rigidly expanded during the steps, although the latter fins can hardly be of importance for locomotion.
Fig. 3. Sketch illustrating the mode of
locomotion of Clarias. The direction of
movement is indicated by an arrow.
The length of movement of the pectoral
spine equals twice the length of a "step".
The progression of the body is effected by the alternate bending of the body from side to side caused by the contractions of the lateral muscles. Simultaneously the body is rolled laterally so that the body is alternately inclined downwards at the side of contraction. This rolling movement brings the tips of the pectoral spines alternately in firm contact with the ground. The spine serves as a lever by means of which the body is heaved from the ground. In the middle of a step the inclination is very pronounced and most of the body weight rests on the pectoral spine directed down towards the ground. During locomotion the body is alternately curved laterally. Consequently the head and the anterior part of the body as well as the tail are set in an oblique position in relation to the actual direction of the locomotion at the end of each step. The pectoral spines are situated just behind the head and therefore take part in the shift of position in relation to the direction of locomotion. The length of one step equals half of the distance between two consecutive points of contact with the earth of one and the same pectoral spine. The tip of the spine represents the fixed point during locomotion which transmits a niomentum to the ground. On a less firm ground, as in muddy pools, the surface of the pectoral fin may be of importance for progression.
The rate of the steps demonstrated by the film is five in slightly more than five seconds. There is often a short pause between the end of one step and the onset of another, and consequently the bending of the body is quicker than is indicated by the rate of one step/second. The speed of the movement may be estimated at 4-5 m/min. in the case of the filmed specimen. However, it may be suspected that the specimen was more or less exhausted by the conditions during its capture in a seine and subsequent handling.
Clarias specimens swim with a movement of the anguilliform type. This means that the body has more than one lateral curve due to the contractions of the lateral musculature. The contractions which cause the locomotion on land are different as they alternately affect the whole of the lateral musculature of the body halves. Further, the contractions are coordinated in a regular way with a rolling movement causing the body to incline laterally and ventrally to the side of active contraction. This rolling is of fundamental importance for the progression on land but is altogether lacking during normal swimming activity.
As a consequence it seems that the muscular activity on land is different from that in water. This implies that control of the movement on land must be based on an intrinsic neural process different from that in the normal medium, water. Thus, the ability of Clarias specimens to travel by land seems to be a very exceptional attribute which will most probably have evolved in response to particular environmental conditions.
In this connection the faculty to move actively on land, typical of several of the species of the Clarias heterobranchoides group, is of particular interest. In fact this faculty must be interpreted as an additional adaptation to the same environment as the accessory breathing organs. The shallow waters inhabited by these fishes are often more or less temporary in conjunction with a change between dry and wet seasons
BOULENGER, G.A. 1907. The fishes of the Nile. In Anderson's "Zoology of the Egypt". London.
JOHNELS, A.G. 1954. Notes on fishes from the Gambia River. Arkiv för Zoologi 6: 327-411.
JOHNELS, A:G. 1957. The mode of terrestrial locomotion in Clarias. Oikos 8: 122-129
VAILLANT, L. 1895. Sur les habitudes terrricoles d'un Siluroide africain Clarias lazera, Cuvier et Valenciennes. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1, 271.
WELMAN, J. B. 1948. Preliminary survey of the freshwater fisheries of Nigeria. Lagos.
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Lab #1 – Invisible Tension
Purpose: Electrons, electricity, electronic and other words that begin with “electr...” all originate from the Greek word “elektor,” meaning “beaming sun.” In Greek, “electron” is the word for the substance we call amber. Amber is a very pretty goldish brown "stone" that sparkles orange and yellow in sunlight. Amber is actually fossilized tree sap! It's the stuff they got the dinosaur DNA from in the movie “Jurassic Park”. Greeks were fascinated by it. In their mythology, amber was made from the tears of a nymph as they dropped into water. They discovered that amber behaved oddly - like attracting feathers - when rubbed by fur or other objects. They didn't know what it was that caused this phenomenon. The Latin word, electricus, means to "produce from amber by friction." So, we get our English word electricity from Greek and Latin words that were about amber.
In this lab we will be exploring some of the same effects that the Greeks saw over 2500 years ago! Part 3 of this lab will be a formal lab writeup and you will need to follow the instructions very carefully, and you must take notes as you perform each stage of the experiment. You will include in the introduction of the lab writeup a brief summary of what you found in parts 1 and 2 of this lab, as well as questions that may have arisen from these investigations. Answer all of the questions at the end as best you can after the in-class discussion – these answers should go into your analysis section of the lab. For the procedure section, include this handout, as well as indicating in your own words any deviations or additions that you made to the procedure so that your procedure actually corresponds with what you did. Record all your observations carefully and clearly.
Glass Rod, Plastic Rod, Rubber Rod, Wool, Fur, Polyester, Silk, Newspaper, Pith Ball
Part 1. What materials respond to the effect?
Tear a sheet of newspaper into small bits approximately one-half centimeter in diameter. Place the paper on your desk and:
1. Bring the plastic rod near the bits of paper.
2. Rub the rod with wool, then bring it near the bits of newspaper.
3. Try rubbing just a small corner of the wool on the rod, then bring the wool near the paper.
4. See what other kinds of light materials respond to the rubbed rod. Try to get materials of the same mass – i.e. very light. Try aluminum foil, pieces of plastic wrappers, saran wrap, hair, bits of lint, whatever you can find!
Part 2. Pith Balls
Have one person suspend a single pith ball in the air by lightly wrapping the end of the string around one of the screws of the arm-holder that is nearest to the vertical part of the stand so that the pith ball hangs within a few inches of the metal stand.
1. Rub a plastic rod with wool, and move it towards the pith ball without touching the ball.
2. Move the rod until it touches the pith ball.
3. Remove the rod (making sure not to touch the pith ball), then move your hand toward the pith ball.
4. Now touch the pith ball.
5. After having touched the pith ball, one person ‘prepares’ a plastic rod by rubbing it with fur or wool. The second person then suspends a pith ball. Slowly bring the rod towards the pith ball from one side while simultaneously moving your palm towards the pith ball from the opposite side, until the pith ball touches the rod. See if you can produce any ‘jumps’ – see how many you can get. Write down questions that may help organize your observations and lead to some hypotheses.
6. After touching the pith ball with your hand, bring a rubbed plastic rod near the pith ball until it touches the pith ball and is repelled by the rod. Now rub a glass rod with silk and bring it near the pith ball. Try the same experiment but start first with the glass rod this time.
7. Next you can suspend two pith balls next to each other, and bring a ‘prepared’ rod towards them. Play around with the rod and pith balls and see what kinds of behaviors occur. Note anything interesting!
Part 3. Swinging Rods (TO BE WRITTEN UP)
Have one person tie a string around the exact center of a plastic rod, and suspend the rod in the air by the string so that it hangs parallel to the ground and can rotate freely and won’t hit the physics stand. Use a piece of tape to mark one end of the rod (the end which will not be rubbed).
1. Now you will systematically try to collect data using all the available materials. First we must perform a ‘control’ experiment on an unprepared rod (which will be the suspended plastic rod) by examining the effects of all the possible ways of ‘preparing’ each type of rod. Each ‘run’ of the experiment will take the same format, only with different materials:
1. Ex. Prepare any rod by rubbing it with any fabric, then bring the rod near, but not touching, the hanging rod. Eventually you will try all possible combinations of rods and fabrics and record your data on the sheet provided.
1. Note whether the rod is ATTRACTED (A), REPELLED (R), or NEUTRAL (N).
2. Note the relative strength of the effect using the following descriptors: NO EFFECT (NE), LIGHT (L), MEDIUM (M), STRONG (S), or VERY STRONG (VS)
1. Take the rod away from the hanging rod and touch it (without rubbing it), all around with your hand – this helps lessen any residual effects before using the same rod with another fabric.
2. Once you are done with a single ‘run’, you may stabilize the hanging rod by touching only the marked side if necessary.
1. Now rub the unmarked side (only) of the hanging rod with the yellow polyester cloth, then try every possible combination of the materials to ‘prepare’ rods in different ways. Bring the ‘prepared’ rods near (but not in contact with) the hanging plastic rod that has been rubbed with polyester (your ‘base’ rod to which all further results will be compared). Record your data on the included data sheet. After a few runs you may need to re-prepare the hanging rod again.
2. Now see if you can get a response not from the rods, but from the fabrics that you use to rub the rods. In other words, instead of testing the prepared rods, now test the prepared fabrics. Rub the fabric with the rod and try to bring the part of the fabric rubbed with the rod near (but not touching) the ‘base’ prepared rod. Note any effects and record on the data sheet.
Questions to consider in your MLB lab writeup:
Part One: (This will help you write your introduction)
1. What is happening when you rub a plastic rod with wool or animal fur, or to a glass rod rubbed with silk? Can you ‘tell’ anything is different about the materials in a ‘before’ and ‘after’ comparison or not? What senses can you use?
2. Why do the newspaper bits behave the way they do when you bring a ‘prepared’ rod near them?
Part Two: (This will help you write your introduction)
1. Why is the pith ball initially attracted to the ‘prepared’ rod?
2. Why does the pith ball, when it is actually touched by the rod, sometimes immediately change from being attracted to the rod to being repelled by the rod?
3. Why is the pith ball, after having been touched by a charged rod, sometimes attracted to your hand?
4. What might be going on in #9?
5. What conclusion can you draw from #10?
Part Three: (All of the answers to these questions go in your Analysis section)
1. Explain what is happening when you bring a ‘prepared’ rod near the unrubbed rod in the control experiment, and why it behaves the way it does.
1. Why is a suspended rod that has been rubbed with a given material repelled by an equivalent rod prepared with the same material?
1. What is suggested by your results with #14?
1. What do your results, taken as a whole, seem to be suggesting? Can you form any hypotheses?
1. What are some sources of error in this experiment?
1. What could be done to improve this experiment to get better or more reliable results?
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Engines of Change in 1850's America:
Sectional Tensions Over Slavery
The Lesson of the Left and Right Banks of the Ohio: The Emergence of Sectional Cultures
One reason was the emerging sectionalism upon which Tocqueville focused. As he pointed out, both North and South were growing rapidly but along very different lines and at very different rates. These differences were, in turn, producing habits of mind, traditions, customs, the basic "stuff" of nationality. So was slavery. The plantation economy, dominated by the production of cotton, was a post-revolutionary development made possible by Eli Whitney's cotton gin and by the industrialization of the textile manufacturing in Great Britain and, later, in the New England states. In one of the most celebrated passages in Democracy in America Tocqueville contrasted the two sections:
. . . this truth [of the superiority of free labor] was most satisfactorily demonstrated when civilization reached the banks of the Ohio. The stream that the Indians had distinguished by the name of Ohio, or the Beautiful River, waters one of the most magnificent valleys which have ever been made the abode of man. Undulating lands extend upon both shores of the Ohio, whose soil affords inexhaustible treasures to the laborer; on either bank the air is equally wholesome and the climate mild, and each of them forms the extreme frontier of a vast state: that which follows the numerous windings of the Ohio upon the left is called Kentucky; that upon the right bears the name of the river. These two states differ only in a single respect: Kentucky has admitted slavery, but the state of Ohio has prohibited the existence of slaves within its borders. Thus the traveler who floats down the current of the Ohio to the spot where that river falls into the Mississippi may be said to sail between liberty and servitude; and a transient inspection of surrounding objects will convince him which of the two is more favorable to humanity.
Upon the left bank of the stream the population is sparse; from time to time one descries a troop of slaves loitering in the half-deserted fields; the primeval forest reappears at every turn; society seems to be asleep, man to be idle, and nature alone offers a scene of activity and life.
From the right bank, on the contrary, a confused hum is heard, which proclaims afar the presence of industry; the fields are covered with abundant harvests; the elegance of the dwellings announces the taste and activity of the laborers; and man appears to be in the enjoyment of that wealth and contentment which is the reward of labor.
However overstated the contrast, however mistaken in detail, Tocqueville's discussion offers several crucial insights. One is that the effect of slavery upon the master was as profound as upon the slave. Another is that the market more profoundly shaped the white Northerner than his southern counterpart:
The influence of slavery . . . affects the character of the master and imparts a peculiar tendency to his ideas and tastes. Upon both banks of the Ohio the character of the inhabitants is enterprising and energetic, but this vigor is very differently exercised in the two states. The white inhabitant of Ohio, obliged to subsist by his own exertions, regards temporal prosperity as the chief aim of his existence; and as the country which he occupies presents inexhaustible resources to his industry, and ever varying lures to his activity, his acquisitive ardor surpasses the ordinary limits of human cupidity: he is tormented by the desire of wealth, and he boldly enters upon every path that fortune opens to him; he becomes a sailor, a pioneer, an artisan, or a cultivator with the same indifference, and supports with equal constancy the fatigues and the dangers incidental to these various professions; the resources of his intelligence are astonishing, and his avidity in the pursuit of gain amounts to a species of heroism.
But the Kentuckian scorns not only labor but all the undertakings that labor promotes; as he lives in an idle independence, his tastes are those of an idle man; money has lost a portion of its value in his eyes; he covets wealth much less than pleasure and excitement; and the energy which his neighbor devotes to gain turns with him to a passionate love of field sports and military exercises; he delights in violent bodily exertion, he is familiar with the use of arms, and is accustomed from a very early age to expose his life in single combat. Thus slavery prevents the whites not only from becoming opulent, but even from desiring to become so.
One needs to make allowances for overstatement. Many Southerners coveted wealth with a zeal equal to that of the most avarious Northerner. Many Northerners coveted pleasure and excitement. Still, Tocqueville's main point holds. Slavery shaped white southern culture while the market shaped that of both but especially that of the North.
"The Weak Mistrust the Strong": A New Insistence on State's Rights
Since the free labor market of the North produced wealth far more effectively than the slave system of the South, there was a "constant gravitation of the Federal power and influence towards the northwest" which is "shown every ten years, when a general census of the population is made and the number of delegates that each state sends to Congress is settled anew."
In 1790 Virginia had nineteen representatives in Congress. This number continued to increase until 1813, when it reached twenty-three; from that time it began to decrease, and in 1833 Virginia elected only twenty-one. During the same period the state of New York followed the contrary direction: in 1790 it had ten representatives in Congress; in 1813, twenty-seven; in 1823, thirty-four; and in 1833, forty. The state of Ohio had only one representative in 1803; and in 1833 it already had nineteen.
This was a source of potential disaster for the Union. Tocqueville was impressed not only by the battles over the tariff but by the efforts of South Carolina, led by Vice Presidentand then Senator John C. Calhoun, to deny to the federal government a power clearly ennumerated in the Constitution. What had led Calhoun, once an ardent nationalist, to champion "states' rights"? Tocqueville believed it was the differential rate of growth of the North and South.
It is difficult to imagine a durable union of a nation that is rich and strong with one that is poor and weak, even if it were proved that the strength and wealth of the one are not the causes of the weakness and poverty of the other. But union is still more difficult to maintain at a time when one party is losing strength and the other is gaining it. This rapid and disproportionate increase of certain states threatens the independence of the others.
A state like New York might succeed in dominating the others, but "even if the more powerful states make no attempt to oppress the smaller ones, the danger still exists; for there is almost as much in the possibility of the act as in the act itself." He offered as a truism that "The weak generally mistrust the justice and the reason of the strong." As a result, states like South Carolina "look upon those that are more favored by fortune with envy and suspicion." This was the source of "the deep-seated uneasiness and ill-defined agitation which are observable in the South and which form so striking a contrast to the confidence and prosperity which are common to other parts of the Union." This suspiciousness and hostility were counterproductive. It was "the inhabitants of the Southern states . . . who are most interested in the maintenance of the Union; they would assuredly suffer most from being left to themselves; and yet they are the only ones who threaten to break the tie of confederation." The reason for this dangerous stance was not far to seek.
It is easy to perceive that the South, which has given four Presidents to the Union, which perceives that it is losing its federal influence and that the number of its representatives in Congress is diminishing from year to year, while those of the Northern and Western states are increasing, the South, which is peopled with ardent and irascible men, is becoming more and more irritated and alarmed. Its inhabitants reflect upon their present position and remember their past influence, with the melancholy uneasiness of men who suspect oppression. If they discover a law of the Union that is not unequivocally favorable to their interests, they protest against it as an abuse of force; and if their ardent remonstrances are not listened to, they threaten to quit an association that loads them with burdens while it deprives them of the profits. "The Tariff," said the inhabitants of Carolina in 1832, "enriches the North and ruins the South; for, if this were not the case, to what can we attribute the continually increasing power and wealth of the North, with its inclement skies and arid soil; while the South, which may be styled the garden of America, is rapidly declining."
"More Hurt in Their Feelings Than Their Interests": Southern Anxieties Over Nothern Power
These reflections led Tocqueville to make a prediction. Even though the South benefitted from the Union more than the North, even though it would be far less able to function independently, it would be the South which would threaten secession precisely because their own progress was being outpaced by the economic success of the North.
It must not be imagined, however, that the states that lose their preponderance also lose their population or their riches; no stop is put to their prosperity, and they even go on to increase more rapidly than any kingdom in Europe. But they believe themselves to be impoverished because their wealth does not augment as rapidly as that of their neighbors; and they think that their power is lost because they suddenly come in contact with a power greater than their own.
Tocqueville again returned to his dissent from Locke. White Southerners "are more hurt in their feelings and their passions than in their interests. But this is amply sufficient to endanger the maintenance of the Union." Feelings and passions, these are often the stuff of human behavior. "If kings and peoples had only had their true interests in view ever since the beginning of the world, war would scarcely be known among mankind."
The Immovable Prejudice That United and Divided
Working in the opposite direction, because also based in feelings and passions, was racial prejudice. White Northerners struck Tocqueville as even more biased against African Americans than were white Southerners. Most had no desire to abolish slavery in the South, only in expanding the area of free labor which they hoped to monopolize for themselves. They has abolished slavery in their own states in their own interest, not to benefit the slave. In a justly famous passage, Tocqueville wrote:
. . . slavery recedes, but the prejudice to which it has given birth is immovable. Whoever has inhabited the United States must have perceived that in those parts of the Union in which the Negroes are no longer slaves they have in no wise drawn nearer to the whites. On the contrary, the prejudice of race appears to be stronger in the states that have abolished slavery than in those where it still exists; and nowhere is it so intolerant as in those states where servitude has never been known.
It is true that in the North of the Union marriages may be legally contracted between Negroes and whites; but public opinion would stigmatize as infamous a man who should connect himself with a Negress, and it would be difficult to cite a single instance of such a union. The electoral franchise has been conferred upon the Negroes in almost all the states in which slavery has been abolished, but if they come forward to vote, their lives are in danger. If oppressed, they may bring an action at law, but they will find none but whites among their judges; and although they may legally serve as jurors, prejudice repels them from that office. The same schools do not receive the children of the black and of the European. In the theaters gold cannot procure a seat for the servile race beside their former masters; in the hospitals they lie apart; and although they are allowed to invoke the same God as the whites, it must be at a different altar and in their own churches, with their own clergy. The gates of heaven are not closed against them, but their inferiority is continued to the very confines of the other world. When the Negro dies, his bones are cast aside, and the distinction of condition prevails even in the equality of death. Thus the Negro is free, but he can share neither the rights, nor the pleasures, nor the labor, nor the afflictions, nor the tomb of him whose equal he has been declared to be; and he cannot meet him upon fair terms in life or in death.
Racial prejudice gave the white Southerner a purchase upon the imagination of the white Northerner. Would he free the slave? Would he then allow that free person of color any of the rights of an American?
David Potter has persuasively shown how white Southerners inexorably chipped away at this bond by demanding, as their power in the Union gradually diminished, symbolic gestures from Northerners which would formalize northern support of slavery. The first of these was the Gag Rule against anti-slavery petitions. White Southerners insisted upon a rule in the House of Representatives banning these petitions. They thus pitted two provisions of the Constitution against each other. One was the article empowering the House to make its own rules. The other was the amendment guaranteeing the right to petition. Former President John Quincy Adams led the campaign against the Rule, becoming known as "Old Man Eloquence" in the process and demonstrating to many in the North that Southerners intended to restrict their liberties in the name of protecting slavery.
What white Southerners failed to appreciate, wrote Potter, is that white Northerners were willing to leave slavery be, so long as it was the South's "peculiar institution." As late as 1858 this was Stephen Douglas' argument against Lincoln. [click on homepage, founders' library, nineteenth century] If the people of Maine chose to outlaw the sale of liquor or the people of Georgia chose to maintain slavery, that was their right under the Constitution. The people of Illinois were free to make their own choice. Lincoln denied this. Southerners were intent upon making slavery a national institution, indeed were engaged in a conspiracy with that very object. It was the demand for "symbolic victories," such as the Gag Rule, the Fugitive Slave Law, the Kansas-Nebraska Act with its "repeal" of the Missouri Compromise Line, that made Lincoln's argument plausible.
The U. of Virginia's Democracy in America site contains Tocqueville and Beaumont's journal entries which enable the reader to determine exactly what they saw of slavery. There is not a comparable section on the market in the North but the visitor can browse through the people Tocqueville consulted and learn what they told him.
Historians agree that Tocqueville did not supply an accurate picture of plantation slavery. Here are some useful resources:
Oratory in 19th Century America Rhetoric books and Schoolbooks The Influence of The Columbian Orator A Collection of Speeches
Responses to Orators and Orations Additional Resources Classroom Projects Project Home Page
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The Flammarion Woodcut
I bet you have seen this picture before. If not in black and white, then perhaps you’ve seen in it in colour. This is a much recycled illustration, reprinted many times, with or without adaptation, in various books, on book and magazine covers, posters and adverts. This illustration is famous on at least two accounts. First, it is famous on account of its uncertain date and origin. For instance, Ernst Zimmer, a German historian of astronomy, thinks that the woodcut goes back to the early 16th centuty, to the school of Albrecht Dürer. Owen Gingerich, the historian of astronomy of Harvard University and the Smithsonian, is convinced that it occurs for the first time in Ernst Kraemers five-volume popular science book Weltall und Menschheit from 1907. However, two scholars, Arthur Beer, an astrophysicist and historian of German science at Cambridge, and Bruno Weber, the curator of rare books at the Zürich central library, have independently traced the illustration back to Camille Flammarion’s popular science book L’atmosphère: météorologie populaire from 1888.
Second, the illustration is famous on account of its rich symbolism which is taken to represent the mediaeval world-view. The illustration depicts a flat Earth bounded by the sky. The man, dressed as a mediaeval pilgrim and carrying a pilgrim’s stick, peers through the boundary and sees the hidden workings of the universe. The prominent element of the cosmic machinery in the top left corner looks like the “wheel in the middle of a wheel” described in the visions of the Hebrew prophet Ezekiel (1:4-26). You can learn more about the woodcut’s symbolism from the wikipedia page dedicated to it and from Kerry Magruder’s page. What you cannot learn there, however, is the following.
Look at the pilgrim’s stick. Curious place to lay it down, don’t you think? Why would the stick be laid down half protruding through the curtain of the sky? Here is an explanation. The illustration is probably making reference to a famous passage from Simplicius’ commentary on Aristotle’s Physics, in which Simplicius refers to Eudemus’ report of Archytas’ thought experiment. (Eudemus of Rhodes was Aristotle’s pupil who wrote a history of astronomy, and Archytas was a Pythagorean philosopher whom Plato knew and from whom he probably learnt much of what he says in the Timaeus.) Anyway, here’s Archytas question:
“Thus Archytas will always go on,” Simplicius recounts, “in the same way to the freshly chosen limit, and will ask the same question. If it is always something different into which the stick is stretched, it will clearly be something infinite” (In Arist. Phys. 467.26-32).
The Epicureans and the Stoics used and elaborated on Archytas’ argument for the infinity of space or void. Also, it is found in slightly different versions in Locke, Newton and Kant. Modern physics would answer that space could be finite without having an edge, as presupposed by Archytas’ argument.
Be that as it may, I think we have an explanation for the protruding stick. Whoever was the author of the woodcut, he seems to have known the original Archytas’ formulation of the argument which mentions stretching out “hand or stick”.
Dürer’s Melancolia I
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AskDefine | Define offset
Dictionary Definition
1 the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the get-go that he was the man for her" [syn: beginning, commencement, first, outset, get-go, start, kickoff, starting time, showtime] [ant: middle, end]
2 a compensating equivalent [syn: counterbalance]
3 a horizontal branch from the base of plant that produces new plants from buds at its tips [syn: stolon, runner]
4 a natural consequence of development [syn: outgrowth, branch, offshoot]
5 a plate makes an inked impression on a rubber-blanketed cylinder, which in turn transfers it to the paper [syn: offset printing]
6 structure where a wall or building narrows abruptly [syn: set-back, setoff]
1 compensate for or counterbalance; "offset deposits and withdrawals" [syn: countervail]
2 make up for; "His skills offset his opponent's superior strength" [syn: cancel, set off]
3 cause (printed matter) to transfer or smear onto another surface
4 create an offset in; "offset a wall"
5 produce by offset printing; "offset the conference proceedings" [also: offsetting]
User Contributed Dictionary
1. Anything that acts as counterbalance; a compensating equivalent.
Today's victory was an offset to yesterday's defeat.
2. In the context of "international trade": A form of countertrade arrangement, in which the seller agrees to purchase within a set time frame products of a certain value from the the buying country. This kind of deals are often used in large international public sector contracts such as arms sales.
3. A time at which something begins; outset.
You can hear the gun go off at the offset of the race.
4. Offset printing.
5. The difference between a target memory address and a base address.
6. The distance by which one thing is out of alignment with another.
compensating equivalent
countertrade arrangement
• Finnish: kompensaatiokauppa
time at which something begins
• Finnish: alku, aloitus
offset printing
difference in memory addresses
distance by which one thing is out of alignment with another
1. To compensate for something.
I'll offset the time difference locally.
to compensate for something
• Finnish: kompensoida, korvata
• French: compenser, contrebalancer
• Spanish: compensar
See also
Extensive Definition
The term offset may refer to:
See also:
• Displacement (vector), specifies the position of a point or a particle in reference to an origin or to a previous position
offset in German: Offset
offset in Spanish: Offset
offset in French: Offset
offset in Italian: Offset
offset in Japanese: オフセット
offset in Polish: Offset
Synonyms, Antonyms and Related Words
absorb the shock, albertype, analog process, annul, antacid, antidote, antipode, antipodes, antipole, antithesis, antonym, atone for, balance, ballast, be at cross-purposes, be opposed to, behavior pattern, book printing, branch, break the fall, bring to nothing, buffer, cancel, cancel out, check, chromotypography, chromotypy, chromoxylography, clash, collotype, color printing, come to nothing, compensate, compensation, conflict, conflict with, consideration, contra, contradict, contrapose, contrast with, contravene, controvert, converse, counter, counteract, counteractant, counteraction, counteractive, counteragent, counterbalance, countercheck, counterirritant, counterpoint, counterpoise, counterpole, counterpose, counterterm, countervail, counterweigh, counterweight, counterwork, cushion, damp, dampen, deaden, digital process, electronography, electrostatic printing, equalize, equalizer, equipoise, equiponderate, equivalent, even out, even up, feeling, filiation, foil, frustrate, give-and-take, graphic arts, gravure, halftone engraving, history of printing, hunting, impress, impression, imprint, indemnify, input oscillation, invalidate, inverse, job printing, juxtapose in opposition, letterpress, letterpress photoengraving, line engraving, lithography, lithogravure, lithophotogravure, mackle, make amends, make good, make restitution, make up, make up for, makeweight, mimeograph, negate, negativate, negative, neutralize, neutralizer, nullifier, nullify, obverse, offcut, offprint, offset lithography, offshoot, onset, oppose, opposite, opposite number, oppugn, oscillatory behavior, outweigh, overcorrection of error, overshoot, palaeotypography, photo-offset, photochemical process, photoengraving, photogelatin process, photographic reproduction, photography, photolithography, phototypography, phototypy, photozincography, planographic printing, planography, play at cross-purposes, preventative, preventive, print, printing, printmaking, process, prophylactic, publication, publishing, quid pro quo, recompense, redeem, redress, reimburse, reissue, relief printing, remedy, repay, reprint, reverse, rotary photogravure, rotogravure, run counter to, self-excitation, set off, setoff, sheetwork, shoot, show consideration, show mercy, show pity, soften, soften the blow, something of value, sprout, square, square up, stamp, stencil, stop, stultify, suppress, the contrary, the other side, three-color printing, thwart, tit for tat, two-color printing, typography, typolithography, undo, vis-a-vis, vitiate, void, wood-block printing, xerography, xeroprinting, xylotypography, zincography
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Henry I
(c. 876—936)
Show Summary Details
Quick Reference
(c. 876–936)
Duke of Saxony (912–36) and King of Germany (919–36). He was elected king by the Franks and Saxons in 919 and was the first king of the Ottonian dynasty. He developed a system of fortified defences against Hungarian invaders whom he defeated in 933 at the Battle of the Riade. Despite challenges from the nobility, he laid a strong foundation for his son Otto I.
Subjects: Military History.
Reference entries
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"url": "http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095931109"
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Badlands South Dakota
Badlands have 3 characteristics
1. Sandstone and other soft rock formations
2. Very little vegetation
3. Very little or no topsoil
Examples of Badlands
• Makoshika State Park, Montana
• Badlands National Park, South Dakota
• Among the Henry Mountains area
• Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota, United States
What are Badlands?
Badlands are dry terrains that occur due to deep erosion of sensitive consolidated rocks which results in steep slopes, lack of vegetation and complicated stream networks. Badlands are a haven for paleontologists and fossil hunters as these lands have plenty of fresh rocks naturally. Structures like canyons, ravines, gullies hoodoos etc. can usually be found in badlands.
How are Badlands formed?
Bandlands are formed during periods when conditions were much different than today. In the distant past, they were covered by water and received many layers of sediment. This eventually hardened to become rock. Many badlands areas also experienced a tropical climate in the past. This can also create layers of sediment that later may harden to become rock. Badlands have also been formed artificially by mining operations and by poor agricultural practices that remove topsoil from the land.
Famous Badlands
One of the most well known badlands areas in the US is Badlands National Park of South Dakota. More badlands regions can be found in Makoshika National Park of Montana and Theodore Roosevelt National Park of western North Dakota.
• South Dakota Badlands
Badlands with Dinosaurs
Dinosaurs have lived in the past where there are now badlands. This is true for Dinosaur Provincial Park in Alberta, Canada and Valle de La Luna in Argentina where the bones of dinosaurs have been found.
Badlands Definition
Badlands are beautifully carved landforms that are barren, battered and eroded by water and shaped with the help of wearing and wind-driven sand and rain.
Submit Your Own Landforms
Today's Featured Picture
Landform Blog
Himalyan Mountain Range
The Roof of the World: Himalaya Mountain Range
Volcanic Eruption
Taal Volcano
Mayon Volcano
Mayon Volcano
How Landforms Affect Global Temperature and Weather
How Landforms Affect Global Temperature and Weather.
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"fasttext_score": 0.06411844491958618,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9328367114067078,
"url": "http://worldlandforms.com/landforms/badlands/"
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Cuesta Landforms
Cuesta Landforms Have 2 Main Characteristics:
1. Gently sloping ground formation
2. Cliff or steep face drops from upper edge
Example of a Cuesta Landform:
Ondondaga Formation, New York State and Ontario
The cuesta picture above is of Jurassic Coast in Dorset, UK. It also has a natural arch.
What is a Cuesta Landform?
A cuesta is a gently sloping ground formation that has a cliff or steep face dropping from the upper edge. Two or more of these may sometimes occur one after another, running parallel over an area of land.
How are Cuestas Formed?
Alternating layers of hard and soft rock can slope gently upward, eroding at the upper edge to form one or more cuestas in the ground. At the higher edge of the formation, soft rock erodes more easily than the hard rock layer above, forming a cliff or steep bank. The sloping formations are usually covered by soil and vegetation, and the rocky cliff or embankment may be exposed in some areas. In the desert, more of the rock formation may be exposed.
How Large is a Cuesta?
A cuesta can be just 20 feet wide to the upper edge and steep face below for example, or as much as a mile or more, depending on the slope and the height of the ridge or steep face dropping from the upper end of the formation. The length of a cuesta formation can be a few hundred feet or several hundred miles long.
Where can a cuesta be found?
Cuestas can be found in some plains regions. They occur more often near an ocean or large body of water.
Famous Cuestas
Ondondaga Formation, New York State and Ontario
Jurassic chalk White Horse Hills, UK
Cotswolds, UK
Côte d’Or and Côtes du Rhône regions of France
As part of the Onondaga Formation, In a portion of central and western New York State, a cuesta formation runs from the Hudson River westward across the state, passing the northern end of the Finger Lakes and to the city of Buffalo. The steep face of this formation is prominent in some areas and less visible in others.
Another cuesta formation of the Onondaga runs east and west through Ontario from Fort Erie to Windsor. In the coastal plains region of Texas north of the Gulf of Mexico there are multiple cuesta formations that lie parallel to the coast. Jurassic chalk White Horse Hills, UK, correct name, location and dimensions. Cotswolds, UK, correct name, location and dimensions.
The Côte d’Or and Côtes du Rhône regions of France are wine-growing country that have significant cuesta formations.
Cuesta definition:
A gently sloping formation with a cliff or steep face below the upper edge
Submit Your Own Landforms
Today's Featured Picture
Landform Blog
Himalyan Mountain Range
The Roof of the World: Himalaya Mountain Range
Volcanic Eruption
Taal Volcano
Mayon Volcano
Mayon Volcano
How Landforms Affect Global Temperature and Weather
How Landforms Affect Global Temperature and Weather.
|
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8951663374900818,
"url": "http://worldlandforms.com/landforms/cuesta/"
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The term Walkabout comes from the Australian Aboriginal. The idea is that a person can get so caught up in one's work, obligations and duties that the truly important parts of one's self become lost. From there it is a downward spiral as one gets farther and farther from the true self. A crisis situation usually develops that awakens the wayward to the absent true self. It is at this time that one must go on walkabout. All possessions are left behind (except for essential items) and one starts walking.
Metaphorically speaking, the journey goes on until you meet yourself. Once you find yourself, you sit down and have a long talk about what one has learned, felt and done in each other's absence. One talks until there is nothing left to say -- the truly important things cannot be said. If one is lucky, after everything has been said and unsaid, one looks up and sees only one person instead of the previous two.
Source unknown (from Gone Walkabout)
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<urn:uuid:de0d332d-fcb4-42d4-8231-7000b4f3b2b8>
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9551639556884766,
"url": "http://cuentosalbordedelalocura.blogspot.com/2010/09/walkabout.html"
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The jumps of the bunny
A one year old bunny is sitting on the number 0 in the number line. His father, Bugs Bunny, is waiting for him on the number 10.
The bunny has to reach his father. At each minute, he can:
• Move one step forward;
• Move two steps forward;
• Stay still;
• Move one step backward;
• Move two steps backward.
There are \(N\) possible ways the bunny can be on the number 10 after 10 minutes. Find the last three digits of \(N\).
Details and assumptions
• The bunny is allowed to hop beyond 10, and then come back.
• There are no restrictions on the bunny entering the negative numbers. The bunny can go as much backwards as he wants.
• Order does matter. For example, the steps \(\{0000022222\}\) and \(\{2020202020\}\) are considered distinct.
Problem Loading...
Note Loading...
Set Loading...
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<urn:uuid:707d065b-42a1-4954-84d0-5dbaf4b17fb0>
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"url": "https://brilliant.org/problems/the-jumps-of-the-bunny/"
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Evil, Neutral, and Good Logic Puzzle Walkthrough
Remember that hints in “Evil” cells are false.
(Back to puzzle)
1.) A1 tells you that D3 and E5 are both evil.
2.) According to C3, B3 must be evil.
3.) A1 tells you that the remaining two corners are good and neutral. B3 tells you that A3 and E1 are the same. E1 is a corner, so it must be good or neutral. A3 cannot be neutral, according to C3. Therefore, since A3 and E1 are the same, they must both be good.
4.) C3 now tells you that E3 must be good.
4.) A1 now tells you that A5 is neutral.
5.) E1 now tells you that Row 5 has no good. C3 tells you that Column C has no evil. Therefore C5 is neutral.
5.) E1 now tells you that Row 5 has no good. This means that one of the goods adjacent to C5 (A3’s clue) must be C4, so that the 2 goods adjacent to C5 can be adjacent to each other.
6.) According to C3, C1 must be neutral.
6.) According to C3, C2 must be good.
6.) According to C4, B5 must be evil.
7.) Since Row 1 already has two goods and E1 tells you that Row 5 has no goods, you know from C2 that the only remaining good(s) is/are in Row 4. This means that according to C4, B1 and D1 are both evil.
7.) Since the only good(s) remaining is/are in Row 4, you know E3 is talking about A5 or E5. Only corners are adjacent to exactly three cells, and you know that the upper corners are not adjacent to a good. Now according to B5, A4 or B4 or both is evil and D4 or E4 or both is evil. This means that E3 is definitely talking about E5. So E5 is adjacent to an evil in Row 4, as well as a good and a neutral somewhere. According to E1, there’s no good in Row 5, so D5 must be neutral.
7.) As established, there are at least two evils in Row 4 according to B5. D3 tells you there cannot be exactly two, so there must be more than two. E5 must be adjacent to a good, so you know that A4 and B4 are both evil.
8.) A3 now tells you that D4 is good.
9.) E3 now tells you that E4 is evil.
10.) D4 tells you that B2 is not evil. You know from C2 that B2 is not good, so it is neutral.
11.) C4 tells you that A2 must be evil.
11.) A4 tells you that not every column has a neutral. Right now Columns A-D have at least one neutral, so Column E cannot. C2 tells you E2 is not good, so it must be evil.
12.) E2 tells you that at least three rows are symmetric. Row 1 and Row 3 are symmetric. Row 4 and Row 5 are not. So Row 3 must be symmetric. So D2 is neutral.
(Back to puzzle)
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<urn:uuid:702564c4-cc0b-45e0-9721-68ab9c459581>
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{
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"url": "https://henrysporcler.wordpress.com/2015/09/01/evil-neutral-and-good-logic-puzzle-walkthrough/"
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|
Wikipedia has a page called:
The Hwacha is the unique unit of the Korean civilization.
Compared to the Catapult, which the Hwacha replaces, it is 50% more effective against Melee Units.
Civilopedia EntryEdit
The hwacha was an anti-personnel weapon developed by the Koreans, and it is believed to have been one of the first gunpowder-based anti-personnel weapons ever created. The hwacha was a platform constructed to launch large numbers of fire arrows (or "Shin Ki Chon") at enemy targets. Hwachas were mounted on carts and wheelbarrows. A typical hwacha platform held seven or more rows of fifteen arrows and could fire from 150 to 200 fire arrows at once. The fire arrows had hollow tips and the shafts were fitted with narrow pipes. The tips and pipes were filled with gunpowder and each was equipped with a fuse.
When lit, the fire arrows' fuses would first ignite the powder in the pipes, causing the arrows to shoot off like rockets. The fuses would continue to burn until they reached the gunpowder in the arrows' heads, which would then explode - with luck, somewhere near enemy soldiers. However, the weapons were extremely inaccurate and the Koreans had to fire off huge volleys to ensure significant damage to their targets.
The Shin Ki Chon fire arrows were first developed in Korea and China around 1400 AD, and the hwacha dates from shortly after this period. The fire arrows could travel as far as one kilometer, an amazing range for artillery weapons at that time. Given their famous inaccuracy, the hwacha was best used against massed enemy formations at medium range: even if not precisely on target when they exploded, shrapnel from the fire arrows could still significantly hurt the enemy. Hwacha also were useful shock weapons, due to the noise and light produced by the rocket-like exploding arrows, and even seasoned troops could break and run the first time they encountered the strange new weapon.
The best-known use of hwacha historically was during the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592-98. The Japanese samurai typically advanced in dense groups - easy targets for the hwacha. At the Battle of Haengju, 3400 Koreans were able to defeat 30,000 Japanese with the help of 40 hwacha.
The hwacha eventually became obsolete when more efficient metal projectiles (like bullets and artillery shells) replaced the fire arrows.
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"url": "http://civilization.wikia.com/wiki/Hwacha_(Civ4)"
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Age of Discovery.
Christopher Columbus discovered the "new world" in 1492. This discovery challenged the views of geography and medicine. Columbus landed in the Bahamas. The people were friendly and peaceful, he hoped to take some to the people back with him to show the King he also hoped to convert them to Christians. He believed that they could easily be governed due to the lack of modern weapons. The discovery of this "new world" spread quickly when Columbus returned back to Spain.
external image images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSimMqGw8tPmVTHANWOlzQzKrgtFiPmSDnK1Cbmvt5PV_hLDdc-Ok4DnmDY
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9186638593673706,
"url": "http://cweng4u.wikispaces.com/Age+of+Discovery+%28Columbus%29?responseToken=0f0e1957829dc3fffdb28bb9489c63387"
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Carpentry 1 - Introduction to Concrete
Home > Preview
The flashcards below were created by user heeres on FreezingBlue Flashcards.
1. True or false: Concrete has a very high tensile strength.
2. List the 4 main components of concrete.
• 1. Portland cement
• 2. Fine aggregates (Sand)
• 3. Coarse aggregates (Gravel)
• 4. Water
3. Concrete sets as the chemical process of ____ begins.
4. High early strength Portland cement is known as type ___ cement
5. The ______ possible size of coarse aggregate should always be used
6. What is a simple test for the mixing water that should be used?
7. What is the most critical ratio when mixing concrete?
Water to cement
8. What are the 7 of the many detrimental effects of adding water to the concrete mix at the job site?
• 1. Increased porosity
• 2. Cracking
• 3. Increased shrinking
• 4. Lower resistance to the effects of freeze/thaw cycles
• 5. Chalky or dusty surface (poor wear resistance)
• 6. Crazing
• 7. Surface cracking
9. What are the possible legal outcomes if a concrete truck driver is asked to add water to the mix at the site?
Driver will write down the request and the supplier will NOT be responsible for reduction in quality
10. How long does it take concrete to attain its designed strength?
28 days
11. The compressive strength of concrete is denoted in _____ in the imperial system and in _______ in the metric system.
psi; MPa (megapascals)
12. The test for the consistency of concrete is called the _______.
slump test
13. In cold climates the additive _________ must be ordered for all concrete that will be exposed to freeze/thaw cycles
air entrainment
14. Concrete that is to be pumped should have _____ coarse aggregates and ______ sand content.
smaller; higher
15. The maximum time allowed for the placement of the concrete from the time water is added is _______.
2 hours
16. What PPE should a worker wear when working with concrete? (2)
• 1. Eye protection
• 2. skin protection
17. To properly vibrate concrete the vibrator should be....? (2 things)
• 1. Lowered quickly and
• 2. Raised slowly
18. What is the major cause of honeycomb?
Inadequate vibration or segregation (rock pockets) caused by improper placement methods.
19. What can happen if concrete is vibrated excessively? (3)
• 1. Settlement of coarse aggregate
• 2. Increased lateral pressure on the formwork
• 3. Paste-rich layer at the surface
20. What are the 2 things that fresh concrete needs to properly cure?
• 1. Moisture
• 2. Heat
21. Which type of cement is used for: general concrete construction (floors, foundation wall, sidewalks, high rise office buildings)?
Type 1
22. Which type of cement is used when:
-Moderate danger of sulphate attack from ground water.
-Generates less heat while hydrating.
-Used for massive concrete pours or hot weather
Type 2
23. Which type of cement has:
-A high compressive strength fast
-Used for columns of a high-rise building
-Used in cold environments
Type 3
24. Which type of cement:
-Generates less heat at a slower rate than Type 1
-Used for massive concrete structures (dams, large foundations)
-Where temperature rises and therefore expansion due to hydration of the cement is a critical factor
Type 4
25. Which type of cement:
-Exposed to high concentration of sulphates in the soils or ground water
-Gains strength at a lower rate than Type 1
Type 5
26. What are the 3 most common types of cement?
1, 3 & 5
27. There are 2 types of aggregates; ____ and _____. These account for _____- _____% of the total volume of concrete.
• fine; coarse
• 65-75%
Card Set Information
Carpentry 1 - Introduction to Concrete
2014-03-19 16:51:16
Carpentry 1 - Introduction to Concrete
Show Answers:
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Engines of Our Ingenuity
No. 2326:
by John H. Lienhard
Today, ocean warships struggle to come of age. The University of Houston's College of Engineering presents this series about the machines that make our civilization run, and the people whose ingenuity created them.
The American Civil War was an odd interlude in the development of modern ships. The hornet's nest of controversy that arose over what elements should go into a modern steam vessel, reminds me of a certain WW-II drill sergeant. Frustrated by all the disruption of war, this fellow finally cried, "I'll be so glad when this damn war is over -- I want to get back to soldiering."
It was very hard to sort out what good ship design would look like, with war raging. That's why, in 1863, with guns still blazing, the Navy decided to build the Madawaska and the Wampanoag -- identical steam frigates 355 feet long. Their nominal purpose was to hunt down and sink enemy merchant ships. Their real purpose was to test two different engine systems. A naval architect named B. F. Delano, who later went on to design the purely sail-driven clipper ships, gave those two steam vessels long narrow hulls meant for speed.
The famous engineer John Ericsson designed the Wampanoag engine. He was the radical inventor who'd developed the hot air engine, then designed the Union ironside Monitor. A much younger Benjamin Isherwood designed the Madawaska's power system. Ericsson used a conventional direct drive between engine and propeller, so both turned the same speed. Isherwood built a slower engine. Then he used a transmission to make his propeller turn twice as fast as his engine.
The sustained cruising speed was to be 15 knots or 17 miles an hour. Both ships were coal eaters; both gave far too much hull space to their mighty engines. Ericsson's Madawaska was ready for speed tests two years after the War ended; and it failed. Worse yet, his fast-running engine subjected the hull to a beating and it took on water. Isherwood surpassed the tests a year later, but not without his own problems. Delano's narrow hulls left little room for anything other than engines, boilers, and coal. The engines in both ships crowded out the crews as well as materiel.
These weren't perfect vessels. Still, when we look at photos of the Wampanoag we no longer see a modified steamboat. This is the beginning of the modern ocean ship. So what of their fate?
Ericsson and Isherwood had developed a destructive fury toward one another. Ericsson saw to it that his Madawaska was scrapped to protect it from further criticism. The Navy soon mothballed Isherwood's Wampanoag in the face of all the opposition it'd stirred up. Then they scrapped it as well.
And we're left with an oft-repeated story of invention. Isherwood had built the ship that others would have to improve upon. Its tall smokestacks now got in the way of its vestigial masts, but no matter. Sails were a disappearing relic; and Wampanoag's top speed of almost 20 miles an hour would now be the mark modern ships would strive to meet.
We all owe a huge debt to the many inventors that fail while they set the direction of our future. Yet we continue, for some inexplicable reason, to waste all our adulation on mere winners.
(Theme music)
F. M. Bennett, The Steam Navy of the United States: A History of the Growth of the Steam Vessel of War in the U.S. Navy, and of the Naval Engineer Corps. (W. T. Nicholson Press, 1896): (reprinted: Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, Pubs., 1972). Both images from this source.
E. W. Sloan, III, Benjamin Franklin Isherwood, Naval Engineer: The Years as Engineer in Chief, 1861-1869. (Annapolis, MD: US Naval Institute, 1965.)
For a large schematic drawing of the Wampanoag, Click on the Thumbnail Below
Wampanoag schematic thumbnail
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Psychology Wiki
Head-related transfer function
34,139pages on
this wiki
Revision as of 19:33, December 6, 2006 by Dr Joe Kiff (Talk | contribs)
Hrtf diagram
HRTFs for left and right ear (expressed here as HRIRs) describe the filtering of a sound source (x(t)) before it is perceived at the left and right ears as xL(t) and xR(t), respectively.
The head-related transfer function HRTF, also called the anatomical transfer function ATF, describes how a given sound wave input (parameterized as frequency and source location) is filtered by the diffraction and reflection properties of the head, pinna, and torso, before the sound reaches the transduction machinery of the eardrum and inner ear (see auditory system). Biologically, the source-location-specific prefiltering effects of these external structures aid in the neural determination of source location, particularly the determination of source elevation. Thus, HRTFs can also be used in acoustics to create the impression of surround sound without multiple speakers. This technology is still on the outskirts of becoming commercially viable.
Linear systems analysis defines the transfer function as the complex ratio between the output signal spectrum and the input signal spectrum as a function of frequency. Blauert (1974; cited in Blauert, 1981) initially defined the transfer function as the free-field transfer function FFTF. Other terms include free-field to eardrum transfer function and the pressure transformation from the free-field to the eardrum. Less specific descriptions include the pinna transfer function, the outer ear transfer function, the pinna response, directional transfer function DTF or what is commonly termed the head-related transfer function HRTF.
The transfer function H(f) of any LTI system at frequency f is:
One method used to obtain the HRTF from a given source location is therefore to measure the head-related impulse response HRIR , h(t), at the ear drum for the impulse Δ(t) placed at the source. The HRTF H(f) is the Fourier transform of the HRIR h(t).
Even when measured for a dummy head of idealized geometry, head-related transfer functions are complicated functions of frequency and the three spatial variables. For distances greater than 1 m from the head, however, the HRTF can be said to attenuate inversely with range. It is this far field HRTF, H(f, θ, φ), that is normally measured.
HRTFs are typically measured in an anechoic chamber to minimize the influence of early reflections and reverberation on the measured response. HRTFs are measured at small increments of θ such as 15° or 30° in the horizontal plane, with interpolation used to synthesize HRTFs for arbitrary positions of θ. Even with small increments, however, interpolation can lead to front-back confusion, and optimizing the interpolation procedure is an active area of research. Humans are less sensitive to changes in the azimuth, φ, and HRTFs are often measured only on the horizontal plane or with 45° increments in the median plane.
See also
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Batia lambdella
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Batia lambdella
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Oecophoridae
Genus: Batia
Species: B. lambdella
Binomial name
Batia lambdella
(Donovan, 1793)
Borkhausenia lambdella (Donovan, 1793)
Batia lambdella is a species of gelechioid moth. It belongs to the subfamily Oecophorinae of the concealer moth family (Oecophoridae). The genus Batia is sometimes treated as monotypic, but this seems spurious considering how similar B. lambdella is to the type species B. lunaris (Lesser Tawny Crescent).[1]
Its wingspan is 11–17 mm, and in general the imagines (adults) resemble B. lunaris, but are about half as large again. The forewings are dark ochre, slightly darker at the tips and the hairy fringe surrounding them. At the border between the light and dark parts there is an interrupted broad dark line across the forewings, the dorsal part of which forms a continuous pointed patch if the wings are laid back while the moth rests.[2]
It is found in Europe, where it is not rare in many woodlands. It is even widely found at the outer limit of its range, ranging far into Scotland and Ireland on the British Isles. The generally nocturnal adults fly from June to September[verification needed]. The caterpillars inhabit dead twigs and small branches, where they feed on dried-out decayed wood. A notable host plant is gorse (Ulex).[3]
1. ^ Pitkin & Jenkins (2004), Kimber [2010]
2. ^ Kimber [2010]
3. ^ Grabe (1942), Kimber [2010]
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"url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batia_lambdella"
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scythe, Man using a scythe, lithograph by D.C. Fabronius, c. 1863.Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (Digital file no. cph 3b03424) one of the most important of all agricultural hand tools, consisting of a curved blade fitted at an angle to a long, curved handle and used for cutting grain. In modern scythes the handle has a projecting peg that is grasped by one hand, facilitating control of the swinging motion by which grass and grain are cut. The exact origin of the scythe is unknown, but it was little used in the ancient world. It came into wide use only with agricultural developments of the Carolingian era (8th century ad) in Europe, when the harvesting and storing of hay became important to support livestock through winters.
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The origins of the Daunia civilization and the early Iron Age
The term “Daunia civilization” can be used legitimately only starting from the 1st Iron Age up to the 4th century B.C. and it refers to that civilization that developed in northern Puglia, by the Dauni, similar but different from the Peucezi and Messapi, who settled in central and southern Puglia.
Towards the late Bronze Age (11th-10th centuries B.C.) Illyrian populations from the eastern coast of the Adriatic arrived in Puglia. These groups of population, united with the pre-existing people and groups from the Aegean, probably from Crete, created the Iapygian civilization, from which three cultures developed: the Daunia, Peucezia and Messapica.
The settlements were of two types: fortressed on hills that were difficult to reach, as in the Gargano, and settlements in the plain. The habitations were formed of cabins, with the floor in beaten earth and raised on structures of wooden stakes, covered in straw branches, made waterproof with layers of clay (examples in Salapia).
A characteristic of the Dauni was their custom to bury their dead in a crouched position, lying on their side (from their origins up to the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., in full Roman times).
There were four types of tomb: a pit in the form of a pyramid trunk excavated out of the rock and covered with stone slabs (Gargano); a simple pit in the ground, covered with pebbles; a tumulus tomb, or one made of a pit tomb surrounded by a circle of stones that bordered the bundle of stones above; an enchythrismos tomb, where the dead person was laid in a large recipient. The latter, very widespread, was reserved for newborn babies.
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Simpson's paradox
Simpson's paradox
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In probability
and statistics
, Simpson's paradox (or the Yule–Simpson effect) is a paradox
Similar to Circular reasoning, A paradox is a seemingly true statement or group of statements that lead to a contradiction or a situation which seems to defy logic or intuition...
in which a correlation present in different groups is reversed when the groups are combined. This result is often encountered in social-science and medical-science statistics, and it occurs when frequency
data are hastily given causal interpretations. Simpson's Paradox disappears when causal relations are brought into consideration (see Implications to decision making).
Though it is mostly unknown to laymen
, Simpson's Paradox is well known to statisticians, and it is described in a few introductory statistics books. Many statisticians believe that the mainstream public should be informed of the counter-intuitive results in statistics such as Simpson's paradox.
but the statisticians Karl Pearson
Karl Pearson
Karl Pearson FRS was an influential English mathematician who has been credited for establishing the disciplineof mathematical statistics....
, et al., in 1899,
and Udny Yule
Udny Yule
George Udny Yule FRS , usually known as Udny Yule, was a British statistician, born at Beech Hill, a house in Morham near Haddington, Scotland and died in Cambridge, England. His father, also George Udny Yule, and a nephew, were knighted. His uncle was the noted orientalist Sir Henry Yule...
, in 1903, had mentioned similar effects earlier.
The name Simpson's paradox was introduced by Colin R. Blyth in 1972.
Since Edward Simpson did not actually discover this statistical paradox,See Stigler's law of eponymy
Stigler's law of eponymy
Stigler's law of eponymy is a process proposed by University of Chicago statistics professor Stephen Stigler in his 1980 publication "Stigler’s law of eponymy". In its simplest and strongest form it says: "No scientific discovery is named after its original discoverer." Stigler named the...
some writers, instead, have used the impersonal names reversal paradox and amalgamation paradox in referring to what is now called Simpson's Paradox and the Yule-Simpson effect.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
A real-life example is the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Civil Rights Act of 1964
in the United States
United States
. Overall, a larger fraction of Republican legislators voted in favor of the Act than Democrats. However, when the congressional delegations from the northern and southern
Confederate States of America
States are considered separately, a larger fraction of Democrats voted in favor of the act in both regions. This arose because regional affiliation is a very strong indicator of how a congressman or senator voted, but party affiliation is a weak indicator.
House Democrat Republican
Northern 94% (145/154) 85% (138/162)
Southern 7% (7/94) 0% (0/10)
Both 61% (152/248) 80% (138/172)
Senate Democrat Republican
Northern 98% (45/46) 84% (27/32)
Southern 5% (1/21) 0% (0/1)
Both 69% (46/67) 82% (27/33)
Kidney stone treatment
This is another real-life example from a medical study comparing the success rates of two treatments for kidney stone
Kidney stone
The table shows the success rates and numbers of treatments for treatments involving both small and large kidney stones, where Treatment A includes all open procedures and Treatment B is percutaneous nephrolithotomy
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy is a surgical procedure to remove stones from the kidney by a small puncture wound through the skin. It is most suitable to remove stones of more than 2 cm in size. It is usually done under general anesthesia or spinal anesthesia.- Procedure :A Retrograde pyelogram is...
Treatment A Treatment B
Small Stones Group 1
93% (81/87)
Group 2
87% (234/270)
Large Stones Group 3
73% (192/263)
Group 4
69% (55/80)
Both 78% (273/350) 83% (289/350)
The paradoxical conclusion is that treatment A is more effective when used on small stones, and also when used on large stones, yet treatment B is more effective when considering both sizes at the same time. In this example the "lurking" variable (or confounding variable
In statistics, a confounding variable is an extraneous variable in a statistical model that correlates with both the dependent variable and the independent variable...
Which treatment is considered better is determined by an inequality between two ratios (successes/total). The reversal of the inequality between the ratios, which creates Simpson's paradox, happens because two effects occur together:
1. The sizes of the groups, which are combined when the lurking variable is ignored, are very different. Doctors tend to give the severe cases (large stones) the better treatment (A), and the milder cases (small stones) the inferior treatment (B). Therefore, the totals are dominated by groups three and two, and not by the two much smaller groups one and four.
2. The lurking variable has a large effect on the ratios, i.e. the success rate is more strongly influenced by the severity of the case than by the choice of treatment. Therefore, the group of patients with large stones using treatment A (group three) does worse than the group with small stones, even if the latter used the inferior treatment B (group two).
Berkeley gender bias case
One of the best known real life examples of Simpson's paradox occurred when the University of California, Berkeley
University of California, Berkeley
was sued for bias against women who had applied for admission to graduate school
Graduate school
s there. The admission figures for the fall of 1973 showed that men applying were more likely than women to be admitted, and the difference was so large that it was unlikely to be due to chance.
Applicants Admitted
Men 8442 44%
Women 4321 35%
But when examining the individual departments, it appeared that no department was significantly biased against women. In fact, most departments had a "small but statistically significant
Statistical significance
in favor of women." The data from the six largest departments are listed below.
Department Men Women
Applicants Admitted Applicants Admitted
A 825 62% 108 82%
B 560 63% 25 68%
C 325 37% 593 34%
D 417 33% 375 35%
E 191 28% 393 24%
F 272 6% 341 7%
and chemistry
). The conditions under which the admissions' frequency data from specific departments constitute a proper defense against charges of
discrimination are formulated in the book Causality by Pearl
Judea Pearl
Judea Pearl is a computer scientist and philosopher, best known for developing the probabilistic approach to artificial intelligence and the development of Bayesian networks ....
Low birth weight paradox
The low birth weight paradox is an apparently paradox
ical observation relating to the birth weight
s and mortality of children born to tobacco smoking
Tobacco smoking
Tobacco smoking is the practice where tobacco is burned and the resulting smoke is inhaled. The practice may have begun as early as 5000–3000 BCE. Tobacco was introduced to Eurasia in the late 16th century where it followed common trade routes...
mothers. As a usual practice, babies weighing less than a certain amount (which varies between different countries) have been classified as having low birth weight
Low birth weight
Low birth weight is defined as a birth weight of a liveborn infant of less than 2,500 g. regardless of gestational age-Causes:LBW is either the result of preterm birth or of the infant being small for gestational age , or a combination of...
. In a given population, babies with low birth weights have had a significantly higher infant mortality
Infant mortality
rate than others. However, it has been observed that babies of low birth weights born to smoking mothers have a lower mortality rate than the babies of low birth weights of non-smokers.
Batting averages
A common example of Simpson's Paradox involves the batting average
Batting average
s of players in professional baseball
Professional baseball
. It is possible for one player to hit for a higher batting average than another player during a given year, and to do so again during the next year, but to have a lower batting average when the two years are combined. This phenomenon can occur when there are large differences in the number of at-bats between the years. (The same situation applies to calculating batting averages for the first half of the baseball season, and during the second half, and then combining all of the data for the season's batting average.)
A real-life example is provided by Ken Ross and involves the batting average of two baseball players, Derek Jeter
Derek Jeter
Derek Sanderson Jeter is an American baseball shortstop who has played 17 years in Major League Baseball for the New York Yankees. A twelve-time All-Star and five-time World Series champion, Jeter's clubhouse presence, on-field leadership, hitting ability, and baserunning have made him a central...
and David Justice
David Justice
David Christopher Justice is a former outfielder and designated hitter in Major League Baseball who played for the Atlanta Braves , Cleveland Indians , New York Yankees , and Oakland Athletics .-Early life:David was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, the son of Robert and Nettie Justice...
, during the baseball years 1995 and 1996:
1995 1996 Combined
Derek Jeter 12/48 .250 183/582 .314 195/630 .310
David Justice 104/411 .253 45/140 .321 149/551 .270
In both 1995 and 1996, Justice had a higher batting average (in bold type) than Jeter did. However, when the two baseball seasons are combined, Jeter shows a higher batting average than Justice. According to Ross, this phenomenon would be observed about once per year among the possible pairs of interesting baseball players. In this particular case, the Simpson's Paradox can still be observed if the year 1997 is also taken into account:
1995 1996 1997 Combined
Derek Jeter 12/48 .250 183/582 .314 190/654 .291 385/1284 .300
David Justice 104/411 .253 45/140 .321 163/495 .329 312/1046 .298
The Jeter and Justice example of Simpson's paradox was referred to in the "Conspiracy Theory" episode of the television series Numb3rs
, though a chart shown omitted some of the data, and listed the 1996 averages as 1995.
Suppose two people, Lisa and Bart, each edit Wikipedia
articles for two weeks. In the first week, Lisa improves 60% of the 100 articles she edited, and Bart improves 90% of 10 articles he edited. In the second week, Lisa improves just 10% of 10 articles she edited, while Bart improves 30% of 100 articles he edited.
Week 1 Week 2 Total
Lisa 60/100 1/10 61/110
Bart 9/10 30/100 39/110
Both times Bart improved a higher percentage of articles than Lisa, but the actual number of articles each edited (the bottom number of their ratios also known as the sample size
Sample size
) were not the same for both of them either week. When the totals for the two weeks are added together, Bart and Lisa's work can be judged from an equal sample size, i.e. the same number of articles edited by each. Looked at in this more accurate manner, Lisa's ratio is higher and, therefore, so is her percentage. Also when the two tests are combined using a weighted average, overall, Lisa has improved a much higher percentage than Bart because the quality modifier had a significantly higher percentage. Therefore, like other paradoxes, it only appears to be a paradox because of incorrect assumptions, incomplete or misguided information, or a lack of understanding a particular concept.
Week 1 quantity Week 2 quantity Total quantity and weighted quality
Lisa 60% 10% 55.5%
Bart 90% 30% 35.5%
This imagined paradox is caused when the percentage is provided but not the ratio. In this example, if only the 90% in the first week for Bart was provided but not the ratio (9:10), it would distort the information causing the imagined paradox. Even though Bart's percentage is higher for the first and second week, when two weeks of articles is combined, overall Lisa had improved a greater proportion, 55% of the 110 total articles. Lisa's proportional total of articles improved exceeds Bart's total.
Here are some notations:
• In the first week
• — Lisa improved 60% of the many articles she edited.
• — Bart had a 90% success rate during that time.
Success is associated with Bart.
• In the second week
• — Lisa managed 10% in her busy life.
• — Bart achieved a 30% success rate.
Success is associated with Bart.
• — Lisa improved 61 articles.
• — Bart improved only 39.
• — Success is now associated with Lisa.
Bart is better for each set but worse overall.
The paradox stems from the intuition that Bart could not possibly be a better editor on each set but worse overall. Pearl proved how this is possible, when "better editor" is taken in the counterfactual sense: "Were Bart to edit all items in a set he would do better than Lisa would, on those same items". Clearly, frequency data cannot support this sense of "better editor," because it does not tell us how Bart would perform on items edited by Lisa, and vice versa. In the back of our mind, though, we assume that the articles were assigned at random to Bart and Lisa, an assumption which (for large sample) would support the counterfactual interpretation of "better editor." However, under random assignment conditions, the data given in this example is impossible, which accounts for our surprise when confronting the rate reversal.
The arithmetical basis of the paradox is uncontroversial. If and we feel that must be greater than . However if different weights are used to form the overall score for each person then this feeling may be disappointed. Here the first test is weighted for Lisa and for Bart while the weights are reversed on the second test.
By more extreme reweighting Lisa's overall score can be pushed up towards 60% and Bart's down towards 30%.
Lisa is a better editor on average, as her overall success rate is higher. But it is possible to have told the story in a way which would make it appear obvious that Bart is more diligent.
Simpson's paradox shows us an extreme example of the importance of including data about possible confounding variables when attempting to calculate causal relations. Precise criteria for selecting a set of "confounding variables,"
(i.e., variables that yield correct causal relationships if included in the analysis),
is given in Pearl using causal graphs.
While Simpson's paradox often refers to the analysis of count tables, as shown in this example, it also occurs with continuous data: for example, if one fits separated regression line
Linear regression
s through two sets of data, the two regression lines may show a positive trend, while a regression line fitted through all data together will show a negative trend, as shown on the picture above.
Vector interpretation
Simpson's paradox can also be illustrated using the 2-dimensional vector space
Vector space
. A success rate of can be represented by a vector , with a slope
of . If two rates and are combined, as in the examples given above, the result can be represented by the sum of the vectors and , which according to the parallelogram rule is the vector , with slope .
Simpson's paradox says that even if a vector (in blue in the figure) has a smaller slope than another vector (in red), and has a smaller slope than , the sum of the two vectors (indicated by "+" in the figure) can still have a larger slope than the sum of the two vectors , as shown in the example.
Implications to decision making
The practical significance of Simpson's paradox surfaces in decision making situations where it poses the following dilemma: Which data should we consult in choosing an action, the aggregated or the partitioned? In the Kidney Stone example above, it is clear that if one is diagnosed with "Small Stones" or "Large Stones" the data for the respective subpopulation should be consulted and Treatment A would be preferred to Treatment B. But what if a patient is not diagnosed, and the size of the stone is not known; would it be appropriate to consult the aggregated data and administer Treatment B? This would stand contrary to common sense; a treatment that is preferred both under one condition and under its negation should also be preferred when the condition is unknown.
On the other hand, if the partitioned data is to be preferred a priori, what prevents one from partitioning the data into arbitrary sub-categories (say based on eye color or post-treatment pain) artificially constructed to yield wrong choices of treatments? Pearl shows that, indeed, in many cases it is the aggregated, not the partitioned data that gives the correct choice of action. Worse yet, given the same table, one should sometimes follow the partitioned and sometimes the aggregated data, depending on the story behind the data; with each story dictating its own choice. Pearl considers this to be the real paradox behind Simpson's reversal.
As to why and how a story, not data, should dictate choices, the answer is that it is the story which encodes the causal relationships among the variables. Once we extract these relationships and represent them in a graph called a causal Bayesian network we can test algorithmically whether a given partition, representing confounding variables, gives the correct answer. The test, called "back-door," requires that we check whether the nodes corresponding to the confounding variables intercept certain paths in the graph. This reduces Simpson's Paradox to an exercise in graph theory.
How likely is Simpson’s paradox?
If a 2 × 2 × 2 table, such as in the
kidney stone example,
is selected at random, the probability
is approximately 1/60 that
Simpson's paradox will occur purely by chance.
External links
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a freely-accessible online encyclopedia of philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Each entry is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from over 65 academic institutions worldwide...
: " Simpson's Paradox" – by Gary Malinas.
• Earliest known uses of some of the words of mathematics: S
• For a brief history of the origins of the paradox see the entries "Simpson's Paradox" and "Spurious Correlation"
• Pearl, Judea, ""The Art and Science of Cause and Effect." A slide show and tutorial lecture.
• Pearl, Judea, "Simpson's Paradox: An Anatomy" (PDF)
• Short articles by Alexander Bogomolny at cut-the-knot
• The Wall Street Journal column "The Numbers Guy" for December 2, 2009 dealt with recent instances of Simpson's paradox in the news. Notably a Simpson's paradox in the comparison of unemployment rates of the 2009 recession with the 1983 recession. by Cari Tuna (substituting for regular columnist Carl Bialik)
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History of Holmdel, New Jersey
Cretaceous Period (65-145 million years ago)
More than 65 million years ago, what we know as Holmdel was under the sea. This news made the front page when it was discovered in 1941. At that time, architect Hart Tourison announced that workers discovered sand and seashells while digging a well on Peter Maher's 132-acre farm on Holmdel Road. Today, you can still find fossilized shark's teeth here in Holmdel by sifting through the riverbeds at Ramanessin Brook Greenway Nature Trail Park.
1500s-1600s - Native American Indians and European Explorers
Native American Indians
In the 1500s, Native Americans lived here in peace with nature. The Lenni Lenape Indians lived off the land. They fished from canoes built from tall trees and hunted with bow and arrows for deer and other animals. They used the deer meat for food, the antlers and bones for tools and the hides for clothing. These Native Americans buried their dead in a sacred burial ground, located near today's Holmdel Pool and Tennis Center. Today it is called Ackerson Cemetery in the Indian Hill section of town. The Lenape also used the highest point of land in Holmdel, now called Telegraph Hill Park, to send smoke signals. At about 280 feet above sea level, it has a panoramic view of the surrounding area. Indian tools, pieces of pottery and arrowheads can still be found on the Holmdel farmlands.
European Explorers
The first European explorer to visit this area was Giovanni Verrazano, an Italian navigator sailing under the French flag in 1524. Verrazano sailed up the coast of the New World and anchored at Sandy Hook. In 1609, Englishman Henry Hudson sailed for the Dutch in his wooden ship "Half Moon." Hudson went ashore and met with the Native Indians in Monmouth. He wrote in his logbook, "This is a very good land to fall in with and a pleasant land to see." Hudson's voyage established Dutch claims to the territory that included New York, New Jersey and Delaware. The Dutch called it New Amsterdam. They were mainly interested in the fur trade, but the English wanted to settle here.
About 50 years after Hudson's visit, the Dutch ceded the land to the English. In 1663, several Englishmen from Staten Island sailed over to Monmouth with the intent of buying land from the Indians. On January 25, 1664, they signed a deed for possession of the land. They gave the Indians wampum, 5 wool coats, 1 shirt, 1 cap, 1 gun, 12 pounds of tobacco and an anker (barrel) of wine.
To obtain sanction and confirmation of their purchases, the men petitioned Governor Richard Nicholls. Nicholls granted a Patent to the settlers, authorizing their purchases. John Bowne, Richard Stout and Obadiah Holmes were among the 12 original "Patentees" who were the first to settle in the Holmdel area. Bowne, a leader of this pioneer group, received 500 prime acres in Middletown. This historic document, dated April 8, 1665, is called the Monmouth Patent. The Patent also guaranteed "free liberty of conscious without any molestation or disturbance whatsoever in the way of worship." Copies of the original Monmouth Patent abound, but the location of the original document is unknown.
By 1693, Monmouth County was established and it consisted of three towns: Freehold, Shrewsbury and Middletown. The area we know as Holmdel today was the western part of Middletown.
1700s - Religious Freedom and the Revolutionary War
Religion Plays a Part
The Baptist and Quaker settlers came to America to escape prosecution and seek religious freedom. John Bray was an early settler in the village area of Holmdel that we know now as the corner of Main Street and Holmdel Road. Bray was a Baptist minister who opened his house for prayer meetings. Before 1700, this area became known as Bray's Meeting House. In 1709, Bray donated land to build the first Baptist Church in New Jersey, on Main Street. The church attracted more Baptist settlers and the area became known as Baptistown. Reverend Obadiah Holmes, one of the original signers to receive land under the Monmouth Patent, also helped organize the Baptist church. His two sons, Obadiah, Jr., and Jonathan settled in the Holmdel area. In 1667, Jonathan Holmes was an elected official in Middletown.
Revolutionary War
The Battle of Monmouth occurred on a Sunday, June 28, 1778. It was hot that day and several soldiers died of heat exhaustion. Sir Henry Clinton led the British soldiers on a march from Philadelphia to their ships anchored in Sandy Hook, passing right through Holmdel. Along their way the British soldiers plundered the farms and set them afire. During the Revolutionary War, the American Patriots fought for their lives and their liberty. They defended their land and their families.
A section of Middletown (now Holmdel) was known as the Hornet's Nest. Near today's Longbridge Road and Cross Farms, armed Patriots would hide in the woods waiting for British soldiers. Stings from the Patriots muskets often meant death to the British soldiers. They said it was like getting stung by a hornet. Today, as history repeats itself, Holmdel High School athletic teams call themselves the Holmdel Hornets, as they sting their opponents along their way to victory.
1800s - Origin of Holmdel and the Civil War
The first official use of the name "Holmdel" was on January 21, 1830, when the Postmaster General established the Holmdel Post Office. The date it was first used is clear, but the origin of the word "Holmdel" is not certain.
The earliest explanation found so far is in The History of Monmouth County, New Jersey, published in 1885, where Franklin Ellis wrote that "Holmdel Township was so named for the Holmes family, several of whom were, now are and have been for generations, large land owners and influential men in this region." On the 1830 Census there were eleven Holmes families in Middletown which then included the village of Holmdel.
In 1899, Reverend Abram I. Martine edited the Bi-Centennial Celebration of the Reformed Church of the Navasink and its two branches. Rev. Martine wrote, "The name Holmdel was derived from the two Saxon words 'Holmd' and 'dell' by Richard Cooke, ... 'the meaning of which when put together made a very near equivalent to Pleasant Valley." Separately we can confirm that Dr. Robert Cooke did have a brother/doctor named Richard born 1806, but not much is known about him.
The discrepancy continued in 1916, when William Reiley of New Brunswick, New Jersey, wrote a Letter to the Editor of the Freehold Transcript saying that the name "Holmdel" was not named after the prominent Holmes family in the area. Reiley wrote that "a sister of Dr. Robert W. Cooke, a famous physician and surgeon of his day, suggested "Holmdel," a combination of two Dutch words, "holm" meaning pleasant, and "del" meaning a valley, hence Holmdel, the name for Pleasant Valley." Unfortunately, Reiley did not explain how he knew this.
As a retired attorney and former Middlesex County Surrogate, Reiley seemed to be a credible source. He was born in the Holmdel section of Middletown in 1845, fifteen years after the word was first used. His father, Reverend William Reiley, was a clergyman of the Dutch Reformed Church and in 1840, the Reiley family and the Cooke family were close neighbors.
At the time the Holmdel Post Office was established, there were many families of Dutch descent in the area. Some of them still spoke the Dutch language. Reiley wrote that because of this Dutch influence, Cook's suggestion "met with immediate popular approval."
Dr. Cooke did have three sisters, Hannah Maria Cook (1802-) who married John Boggs in 1828, Teresa Ann Cook (1804-1897), and Alethia Bates Cook (1810-1893).
A problem with Reiley's statement is that when translated from English, the words "pleasant" and "valley" in Dutch, are "prettige" and "vallei," not "Holm" and "del." According to a Dutch language expert, "holm" is not a word in the Dutch language.
Holmdel Township became a township on February 23, 1857. Holmdel was formed from part of Raritan Township.
Raritan Township became a township on February 25, 1848. Raritan was formed from part of Middletown Township. Raritan also gave parts to form Keansburg, Keyport, Union Beach, and the remainder eventually became Hazlet Township in 1967.
Middletown Township formed on October 31, 1693.
So tracing a Holmdel family or property can be tricky: on and before the 1840 US Census it was called Middletown; in 1850 it was called Raritan Township, and in 1860 to current it was called Holmdel.
Civil War
During the Civil War, most of the farmers in newly formed Holmdel Township opposed freedom for slaves. New Jersey was the last northern state to abolish slavery. The Holmdel farmers used slave labor to work the land, but a few families were against it. Quakers in the area were particularly intolerant of slavery.
Some Holmdel residents may have allowed slaves to stay in hidden rooms in their houses until it was safe for them to continue traveling to find freedom. With help from Abolitionists, some African Americans traveled north along the elusive Underground Railroad. Before slavery was abolished it was illegal to help slaves escape, which is one reason why those secret activities are difficult to document. Years after the Civil War ended, some Holmdel farmhouse owners have discovered hidden rooms behind hidden doors.
Farming continued to be the way of life and farmers continued to prosper. After WWII, property values began to climb. In the 1960s, farmers realized they could make large profits by selling their acreage to land developers. Builders began building houses and streets and created new neighborhoods, like Heather Hill, Blue Hills and later The Vineyard. Before its development, this area was part of McCampbell's Grape Farm - the largest grape farm in New Jersey.
One by one the farms disappeared but there are still a few farms left. Some are privately owned. The farms purchased and now owned by Holmdel Township are restricted to agricultural use. These purchases were made to preserve examples of the farming way of life, which was for so long a part of Holmdel's history. You can still buy Holmdel grown fruits and vegetables in Holmdel produce stores and farm markets.
Holmdel Township today is a rural suburban community. For the year 2000, the US Census Bureau reported a population of 15,781 residents, of which, 17.4% were of Asian background. This pleasant valley with its illustrious past continues to be a comfortable place to live and its school system is highly rated.
Holmdel Historical Society
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In our beginning discussions of “The Tempest,” the themes of captivity and submissiveness were mentioned. I think both of these play an important role in how we as readers see the characters and start to understand them. The play is set on an island, which in the setting itself reveals the idea of captivity and containment. We are then introduced to the characters: Prospero, Miranda, Caliban, and the androngenous spirit, Ariel. Although all of them are trapped on the island literally, Miranda, Caliban, and Ariel are trapped under the power of the magician Prospero. Miranda is revealed to be submissive because Prospero is her father and the only family she has on the island and therefore must trust him. Caliban is a rugged, unearthy being, who became Prospero’s slave after Prospero arrived to the island after his banishment (which can be seen as another theme of submissiveness and having no power towards the current King…even though it is his own brother who stole it from him in the first place). And although Ariel is Prospero’s aid, the spirit is still submissive towards him and references Prospero with the terms “Sir” and “Master.”
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Definition of Chromaticism
1. Noun. the quality or state of being chromatic ¹
2. Noun. the act or action of chromaticizing: the use of chromatic notes or tones (contrasted with diatonicism) ¹
¹ Source:
Definition of Chromaticism
1. [n -S]
Chromaticism Pictures
Lexicographical Neighbors of Chromaticism
chromatic aberration
chromatic apparatus
chromatic audition
chromatic color
chromatic colour
chromatic fibre
chromatic granule
chromatic number
chromatic numbers
chromatic scale
chromatic scales
chromatic spectrum
chromatic vision
chromaticism (current term)
chromatin 3'-phosphatase-5'-hydroxy kinase
chromatin body
chromatin granule
chromatin network
chromatin nucleolus
chromatin particles
Literary usage of Chromaticism
1. Key to the Questions and Exercises in Studies in Musical Graces by Ernest Fowles (1908)
"The point involved can be made more evident by referring to the two main types of chromaticism. (A) Melodic chromaticism or the employment of chromatic ..."
2. A Study of Modern Harmony: (Étude Sur L'harmonie Moderne) by René Lenormand (1915)
"But if the oriental chromaticism spread in Greece in consequence of successive invasions, some peoples, the Dorian among others, remained hostile to the ..."
3. Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians by George Grove (1907)
"The Lucidarium is remarkable for the chromaticism employed and for the division of the whole tone either into three-fifths and two-fifths (diatonic and ..."
4. The Oxford History of Music by William Henry Hadow (1902)
"Another trait of the master which comes out very conspicuously in the pupil is the tendency to make rash experiments in chromaticism. As has been previously ..."
5. Overtones: A Book of Temperaments: Richard Strauss, Parsifal, Verdi, Balzac by James Huneker (1904)
"The Sorcery motive with its Chopin-like chromaticism has meaning ; but I confess I do not care for Parsifal's motive, beautifully as it is developed. ..."
6. Melomaniacs by James Huneker (1902)
"Seven times the first violins, divided, essayed one passage, and after its chromaticism had been conquered it would not go at all when played with the ..."
7. Unicorns by James Huneker (1917)
"The absolute originality of Chopin's personality, and that of its expression through novel harmony, chromaticism, figuration justifies the assertion. ..."
Other Resources Relating to: Chromaticism
Search for Chromaticism on!Search for Chromaticism on!Search for Chromaticism on Google!Search for Chromaticism on Wikipedia!
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This paper looks at the funerary rituals of the Antebellum period and how while it might appear on the surface that the funerary practices of the Antebellum period were standardized, the truth is that there were many differences among the classes and races that were fueled by the changing face of religion. This paper examines the differences in Antebellum funerary rituals for slaves and free blacks, the middle class, and the upper the class and how these rituals were influenced by the effects of the First and Second Great Awakenings. For each of these classes the paper also notes how the rituals change from the pre-Antebellum to the Antebellum periods. The changes are most evident when it comes to the slave class, but there are still clear changes for the middle and upper classes. The slave class also exhibits higher levels of surface conformity than the other classes do as most of the changes were forced upon this class by the whites. The middle and upper classes were relatively similar and most of the differences for these classes lay in the amount of money that was available to spend on the elaborate rituals that were practiced. Most of these changes show evidence of a softening feeling towards the concept of death as the issue of making it into a good afterlife became less worrisome.
Semester/Year of Award
Fall 2015
Carolyn Renee Dupont
Department/Professional Affiliation
Access Options
Restricted Access Thesis
Degree Name
Honors Scholars
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"url": "http://encompass.eku.edu/honors_theses/273/"
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A period called the Middle Ages began in Europe in about ad 500 and lasted until about 1500. Many advances during this time came from other places—for example, China, the Byzantine Empire, Persia, India, and the Islamic world.
By about the 1400s, Europeans learned the Chinese technique of casting iron. This involved heating iron in a special furnace and then pouring it into a mold to harden. Chinese inventors also developed black powder, the original…
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8846040964126587,
"url": "http://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Technology-and-Invention/353296/253808-toc"
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Theatre Database
A list of questions for discussion of Eugene Ionesco's play Rhinoceros
1. Who is the protagonist?
2. What are Berenger's flaws? Do they make him more or less interesting?
3. Who is the antagonist?
4. What event throws Berenger's world out of balance? How does he cope?
5. Why do Jean and Berenger quarrel?
6. In general, as the play progresses, are the characters who "turn" more or less important to Berenger than the characters who turned earlier?
7. Do you believe Berenger when he says he will never capitulate?
8. What is Berenger's character arc? Does he have a journey?
9. Could Berenger be considered a tragic hero?
10. What do the rhinos symbolize?
11. What is the theme of this play?
12. Does Ionesco's use of comedy distract us from the theme or emphasize it?
13. What genre of theatre is this play?
14. How does Rhinoceros demonstrate the qualities of the Theatre of the Absurd?
15. How difficult would Rhinoceros be to stage? What are the obstacles?
16. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this play?
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"language_score": 0.9261423945426941,
"url": "http://www.theatredatabase.com/20th_century/rhinoceros_study_questions.html"
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03 May 2013
Bryozoans and Hydroids Workshop Day 5
Deadly beauty! How do stingers work? What are the advantages of being a colonial animal?
Why do most hydroids look like feathery plants while byozoans look like encrusting layers? We learn more about these fascinating animals during the last day of the Bryozoans and Hydroids Workshop.
Prof Ryland taught us more about hydroids today, highlighting how to tell apart the different kinds of feathery hydroids. Often, our job can be complicated by having one kind of feathery hydroid growing on another larger feathery hydroid.
I've often wondered with the bulbous things are on feathery hydroids. These are reproductive structures that are important in helping us figure out the species of the hydroids.
Each hydroid colony is usually all female or all male. The male reproductive structures contain sperm and are usually white, while the females have pink, yellow or orange structures (eggs or yolk).
Here's an example of a rare hermaphroditic hydroid (photo on the left), with smaller male reproductive structures below and larger female blobs above.
Some hydroids contain their eggs or sperm in complicated elongated baskets instead of smaller capsules.
Here's a variety of other shapes that reproductive structures can take. These are often tiny and can't be seen in the field. This is why we need to take specimens back to the lab. These have to be carefully prepared so that the important features can be viewed under powerful microscopes.
Prof Ryland tells us more about the fascinating life cycle of hydroids. Just like bryozoans, hydroids are zombies too. A feeding polyp may die out and a new polyp develop within the same 'cup'!
Prof Ryland also pointed out how animals that capture food with stinging tentacles often angle their tentacle in the same way, some up and some down, to maximise the area of coverage.
All cnidarians have cnidae or stingers. These include jellyfish, corals, sea anemones and hydroids. Stingers are amazing constructs! The fastest action in the animal kingdom that can punch through crustacea skeleton like a bullet. Read more about how stingers are fast and powerful like bullets. And check out this awesome video clip with an animation of how a stinger works.
Prof Ryland spent some time explaining more about the challenges facing colonial animals. One challenge is to pack the most number of animals in a small area. It turns out a hexagonal arrangement is the best. This explains much of the patterns of bryozoan colonies. Nature is not wasteful and some of the solutions found in nature can help us in applications such as designing office workstations, engineering storage tanks and lots more.
While bryozoans gather food from the water by creating a tiny current with their 'hairy' tentacles, hydroids don't do this and simply place a net of stinging tentacles across an existing water current. This is why hydroids tend to look more like feathery plants and many may orientated in one plane at right angles to a current. Bryozoans, on the other hand, are often in flat layer.
Being in a colony allows animals to be small, yet gather enough food to allow expansion by having more zooids. Studies show larger colonies have smaller zooids. Being in a colony means zooids can also specialise: some only feeding, while others have defensive or reproductive functions. This means all the zooids have to be able to share food as well as communicate with one another. These challenges and solutions reminds me of humans in a social grouping!
My day began with a wonderful surprise. This magnificent booklet on Coral Reefs of Singapore by Jolene Wong and Dr Sin Tsai Min of the Tropical Marine Science Institute. My thanks to Dr Sin for providing me some copies of this booklet. I'll be giving them out to schools and other organisations where I give talks, for their library
Today, I went via the Pasir Panjang Ferry Terminal, which is right next to the massive reclamation to create a new Pasir Panjang Container Terminal.
It's been a frenzy of non-stop field trips, amazing lectures and lots of interesting conversations and ideas. Exhilarating but exhausting. Tomorrow one more trip to the shores, to guide at Chek Jawa with the Naked Hermit Crabs!
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World’s most sensitive scales
How do you weigh an atom down to the last proton? With scales accurate enough to measure the smallest unit of mass, aka the yoctogram.
That is 0.000000000000000000000001 grams!
No ordinary scales will do ‐ the tiniest weights are measured using nanotubes, which vibrate at different frequencies depending on the mass of the particles or molecules on them. Until now, 100 yoctograms ‐ or a tenth of a zeptogram ‐ was the smallest mass the most sensitive sensor could detect.
Now scientists have been able to weigh an atom of xenon to the nearest yoctogram, or 10-24 grams. This makes it the first scale capable of detecting a single proton, which weighs in at 1.7 yoctograms. Learn more here.
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"url": "https://mrbarlow.wordpress.com/2012/05/18/worlds-most-sensitive-scales/"
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Presentation on theme: "STRUKTUR TANAH."— Presentation transcript:
2 Soil Structure Structure – arrangement of individual particles in relation to each other. Soil structure is the arrangement of particles into small groups, or aggregates. Aggregates may be bound together with other aggregates in larger masses called peds. Peds come in different shapes that roughly resembel sphere, blocks, columns and plates. If the individual particles are arranged in small aggregates with rounded edges, we speak granular structure. This is very desirable for plant growth bc it provides both large and small pores. Some soils lack structure. Sandy soils the individual grains act independently of each other. No binding substances hold the particles together, so the soil has no peds.
3 (description in laboratory)
Struktur tanah Struktur granular Cause and Effect (description in laboratory) Struktur prismatic
4 Pembentukan strktur tanah
Flocculation + (chemical)
5 Luas Permukaan vs - large grain - aggregate of small particles
6 Pembentukan struktur tanah
Organik dan Anorganik ‘glues’ Agregasi
7 (what breaks the ‘glue’)
Stress Forces (what breaks the ‘glue’) Vertical Lateral
8 Sruktur tanah : Surface Horizons Spheriodal Granular
9 Pengelolaan yang tidak baik
Massive Pengelolaan yang tidak baik Granular
10 Pemadatan horison permukaan
compaction - Platy Structure -
11 Struktur tanah: ---- Prismatik ---- Lapisan bawah
Increased length in vertical direction lateral stress > vertical stress
12 (subsurface horizons)
Blocky Structure: (subsurface horizons) Increased (relative) age equates stress fractures
13 Timber Harvest Volcanic Ash Soil
14 Soil Structure (With Structure) Granular Blocky Columnar Prismatic
15 Columnar structure occurs in dry, desert soils
with high sodium content
16 Soil Structure (continued)
Without Structure Single Grained Massive Pencil is 19 cm
17 Squeeze a moist soil ped to see if it is:
Soil Consistence Squeeze a moist soil ped to see if it is: Loose* You have trouble picking out a single ped and the structure falls apart before you handle it.* Friable The ped breaks with a small amount of pressure * Soils with “single grained” structure always have loose consistence. Firm The ped breaks when you apply a good amount of pressure and dents your fingers before it breaks. Extremely Firm The ped can’t be crushed with your fingers (you need a hammer!).
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The Perfect Ramadhan Storyboard [Lesson Plan & Worksheets]
click image for a closeup view
In this activity, students will write and illustrate their idea of the perfect Ramadhan. Then they will generate a list of du’aa to Allah to get their ideal Ramadhan.
1. Print the Perfect Ramadhan Lesson Plan
2. Print the following for each student:
a) Perfect Ramadhan Storyboard worksheet
b) My List of Ramadhan Du’aa worksheet
3. Print out the two Example Storyboards or have them ready to view on the computer screen.
• Pencils
• Blank notebook or ruled paper
• Crayons, coloring pencils, or markers
Print Outs
No Printer Option
The lesson plan contains instructions for those who do not have printers but who still want to do the activity.
Although students will be illustrating their work, remind them not to draw souls.
Sharing is Caring! Do you have something you want to share with other readers?
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1. Students should understand the icon and its characters.
Possible Lesson Plan:
1. Open with prayer.
1. Scripture Reference: Acts 2:1-18, 36-41.
1. Songs of the Feast: Sing It!
1. Discussion questions:
What happened at Pentecost? Who descended? Who is the Holy Spirit? In which other feast did we meet the Holy Spirit? (as a dove at Theophany) In what sacrament do we receive the Holy Spirit? (Chrismation - Greek “chrisma” meaning anointing) How does the Spirit, God Himself, dwell in us? How can we tell He does – did we see tongues of fire? This is a great mystery, as are all the sacraments. Why is He called “Comforter”?
Why do we decorate the Church in green? (as a sign of the life the Holy Spirit brings us) In what way is Pentecost the birthday of the church? (the first Christians were baptized by the apostles) What changed the frightened disciples into the power-filled apostles? How did the apostles use their new power in the Holy Spirit?
1. Play a learning game: Alphabet Search. Bring in your Scrabble tiles or make
small squares of paper with letters on them – 2 full sets and several extra of each vowel. Place the squares in the center of the room. Ask a question from the lesson that can be answered with one word. The first player to lay out squares to spell the correct word is the winner of that round.
1. Make “Pentecost Placemats”: Give each child a piece of construction paper with a face shape. Have them color the face and draw in hair, eyes, etc. Glue a paper flame above the head. Cover with clear contact paper so it will wipe clean.
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"url": "http://orthodoxsundayschool.org/gospels/10-12-years-old/pentecost"
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Thursday, August 9, 2012
How Can Curiosity Determine Her Own Position?
A position line can be determined by a known point and its direction instead of using two points. One can use a variation of the previous method for finding Curiosity's position if the bearings of two known objects can be determined. One replaces Δ1 and Δ2 with unit vectors representing their directions and Δ3 is again the difference between the two positions. The calculation proceeds as follows using two of the known positions from the last blog and their calculated bearings from the determined position.
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Black Seminole: Did you know that the Seminole never signed a Treaty with the United States
By Ernest Rauthschild
You mentioned earlier the tribe called Washitaw Moor. Was this a Native American tribe and where are they now?
The Washitaw were direct descendants of the Olmecs who mixed in with the Malian Moors. The name "Washitaw" comes from the Washita River which flows along Northwest Texas and Oklahoma to the Red River, where the Cheyenne Native Americans lived with the Chawasha, meaning "Racoon People" . The Washo were a tribe of Negroids who lived above the New Orleans Bayou and were of Tunican linguistic stock. The name "Washitaw" is a derivative of the term "Ouachita" or what is now "Wichita". The term is a Choctaw term which means "Big Arbor" which represented the Grass thatched arbor homes that the people lived in.
The Washitaw was originally from lower Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama (named after Nubian-Sudanese Ali Baba). The tribe was officially named "Wichita" by the U.S. Government in the Camp Holmes Treaty of 1835. This tribe were unmistakably a Negroid tribe! The Wichita were also known as "Paniwassaha" or by the French "Panioussa" which means "Black Pawnee." French traders from Illinois called them "Pani Pique" which means "Tattooed Pawnee."
The Washitaw or "Racoon People" were called Racoons because of their black faces. When describing the Washitaw, the French describes the blacks who lived in large grass houses. The Washitaw called themselves "Kitikitish" which is an interpretation of "Raccoon Eyed." The term was later shortened to "Coon" which became a term used in reference to blacks in America. The Washitaw were an offshoot of the Pawnee Confederation. When the Moors came to America, they mixed in with the Washitaw Native Americans and became known as "Washo."
So the Washitaw Moors are the so-called "Lost" tribe of Indians that are spoken of in the history books? Yes! They are the hidden tribe that were the descendants of the Olmecs and Toltecs of Mexico. The Washitaw tribe are also the ancestors to such tribes as Pawnee, Osage, Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, Catawba, Comanche, Nez Perce, Tuscarora, Gingaskin, Mattaponi, Powhatten, Micmac, Lumbi, Mandan, Blackfoot, Natchez, Chickasaw, and many more tribes.
Were the Black Indians ever sold into slavery?
The misconception is that Black Indians were never taken into slavery. This is not the case. Black Indians were also captured and sold into slavery along with their African cousins. The land of the Black Indians were taken. Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama, Texas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Illinois, Florida, Delaware, Tennessee, Kansas, Iowa, Indiana all belonged to the Washitaw Moors. The land was invaded by the French and British. The women were sold as sex slaves and the men were sold into slavery as "Negros." The U.S. Government even persuaded the red Indian tribes to own slaves. The Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw tribes all agreed to slave holding of black Indians and Africans. The only tribe to resist the idea of slavery was the Seminole tribe. The Seminoles rejected the idea because they were the descendants of African explorers who settled in Florida and mixed with Muskogee refugees who had mixed in with the Spanish. They called themselves "Runaways." These black Seminoles who settled in the swampy terrain of Florida established cultivation methods that were identical to that of the methods of Sierre Leone in Africa. Georgia slave holders were soon invading Florida looking for runaway slaves and were soon met with opposition with Seminoles.
The Seminoles tried to live a peaceful life in their own territory but Georgia militias were preparing to raid Florida looking for African slaves (many whom had already sought refuge with the Seminoles and blended in perfectly since both Africans and Seminoles were black.) The Seminoles, African runaways, and the Spanish all aligned with each other to fight off the slave holders. In 1739 slave fugitives in St. Augustine built a fort to protect themselves and the British. Black Seminoles led the coalition against slavery in the North. Black Seminoles even planted "spies" posing as African slaves being sold by Creeks to the British just to gather information. Eventually the red Seminoles began to join the resistance. This is when the U.S. Government became worried. The government never anticipated the well working relationship between the reds and blacks. Georgia slave holders soon realized that the Seminole Nation could put an end to slavery. This caused the first Seminole War. Seminoles struck U.S. slave plantations. When the St. Augustine blacks joined in the Seminole raids were destructive and the Seminoles could not be stopped. General Andrew Jackson of the U.S. Military vowed to wipe out the Seminoles. The Seminoles took control of a British fortress and re-named it "Fort Negro" which was manned by black Seminole officers. The Seminole army consisted of 300 Seminole men in which only 34 were red Indians.
African slaves began to join the army the Seminoles seemed indestructible. With General Andrew Jackson's rank on the line, he gathered U.S. troops, Marines and sought the assistance of 500 Creek Indians. Jackson's orders were to kill the Seminoles, blow up the fort and restore the Africans to their rightful owners. A war erupted after the Seminoles refused surrender and a cannon ball was fired into the Fort Negro's ammunition barracks which blew up the fort. In the ruins, 270 Seminoles were dead, 64 were fatally wounded and the leader of the Seminole resistance, Garcia was captured alive and then executed. General Jackson kept this incident a secret from the public for 20 years because Jackson never had an official declaration of war signed, therefore it was considered murder, not war. However, this massacre was only the beginning of the Seminole resistance and was only the first of three Seminole wars that would carry on for years. The remaining black Seminoles relocated to the Tampa Bay area where they nursed their wounds and prepared for the next battle. The Seminoles this time joined forced with Chief Billy Bowlegs. Without the U.S. Congress knowledge, Andrew Jackson went on a rampage throughout Florida burning black Seminole villages of Fowltown. When James Monroe took the U.S. Presidency in 1817, Jackson proposed a secret plan to take Florida from the Seminoles who at the time owned certain territories of Florida.
Jackson soon captured Pensacola and without a declaration of war, Florida passed into U.S. hands! Another state owned by blacks that the U.S. captured. Since Florida was officially Spanish territory, the U.S. paid Spain $5 million for Florida, making Jackson's illegal seizure appear as a real estate purchase. The U.S. then tried to separate the black and red Seminoles by trying to convince the Seminole leader King Hatchy to turn over anyone who had black skin. King Hatchy replied that he would use force if any government tried to pass through the Seminole territory and he would not hand over any black Seminoles. To disrupt racial alliance between blacks and reds, the U.S. promoted slavery among the Seminoles and tried to convince them that the other "Indian" nations were also interested in slavery. The Seminoles rejected. The U.S. then sent in wealthy Creek Indians who owned slaves to persuade their tribal cousin the red Seminoles to become slave holders. Whites and Creek Indians were encouraged to raid black Seminole villages for slaves. Free Seminole men, women, and children were carried off and sold in southern slave markets as "Negros." Many black Seminoles relocated further into the swamps and became known as "Maroon." Other black Seminoles agreed to be taken into slavery as long as they were able to own their own cattle, horses, hogs, and were treated like family rather than like their African cousins.
These black Seminoles had equal liberty with whites. These Seminoles were not considered slaves but they were considered Seminoles who maintained their African names, dressed in fine Seminole clothing, and turbans. The remaining Seminoles migrated to Mexico for 20 years and others migrated to Texas and mixed in with the black tribes of the Washitaw.
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Egyptian Civilisation
Egyptians lifestyle, discoveries and progression. BBC Bitesize.
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Egyptian Civilisation
• World's first great civilisation- stability led to great progress in medicine
• They created a settled farming economy
• Organised government, laws and social conventions- people were wealthy enough to pay for medical treatment
• They developed a religion that included temples, Priests and mummification.
• Mummification helped Priests to understand the human body- many went on become doctors.
• Egyptians invented writing and calculation- PROGRESS- ideas could be recorded and passed on.
• They travelled and traded which led to the discovery of new herbs and spices which could be used in treatment.
• They developed a wealthy way of life which allowed them to observe and reflect on ideas
• THE CHANNEL THEORY: The River Nile's irrigation system led some people to believe that the body was also full of channels. They though that if the channels were blocked, this led to disease. They would use purging, bleeding and vomiting to help cure the patient.
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A Niger-Congo language and a member of the Nguni subgroup of Bantu (along with Xhosa, Zulu and Swati).
Northern Ndebele, also known as isiNdebele or Sindebele, is spoken by approx. 1.5 million Ndebele or Matabele people in Zimbabwe, where it is one of the main languages (together with Shona and English). [MARC lang code: NDE]
Southern Ndebele also known as Tabele or Sindebele (or isiKhethu), is also spoken by approx. half a million people in the Transvaal District of the Republic of South Africa (one of the 11 official languages). [MARC lang code: NBL]
Nguni languages are unique among the Bantu family in the use of click sounds as consonants. These sounds were borrowed form the neighbouring Khoisan languages. Like many other Bantu languages, Ndebele is also a tonal language.
CLASSIFICATION = Bantu family, SCRIPT = Roman
A practical Ndebele dictionary NDEB DICO 1
Lessons in Ndebele NDEB GRAM 1
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Characters: Colonies are thick corymbose to encrusting plates. Branchlets are short and thick and may be almost encrusting where colonies are exposed to strong wave action. There are usually several axial or incipient axial corallites per branchlet. Radial corallites are appressed, with thick flaring walls and are arranged in a rosette. Colour: Colonies are a mixture of colours, blue, mauve, purple and grey being the most common. Similar species: Acropora anthocercis exposed to strong wave action is distinctive; colonies in more protected environments are more like other species including A. hyacinthus, which has smaller and less appressed radial corallites. Acropora willisae also has multiple axial corallites per branchlet but has tubular radial corallites not in a rosette. See also A. appressa, A. desalwii and A. parapharaonis.Habitat: Upper reef slopes exposed to strong wave action. Abundance: Sometimes common.
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Croats in Dalmatia
It is conventional wisdom that Slavic tribes, and among them Croats, settled in Dalmatia in the 7th century. This thought is primarily based on the book De Administrando Imperio, written in the 10th century by Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. As Constantine wrote about things he thought that happened three centuries ago, some of his observations could be wrong.
Professor Neven Budak, for example, recently stated that there is no material evidence at all that Croats already lived in Dalmatia in the 7th or 8th century. He presented this "sensational discovery", as the paper Slobodna Dalmacija called it, at a conference organised by the University of Zadar.
De Administrando Imperio is known to contain a lot of errors, so Budak's disovery is not as sensational as Slobodna Dalmacija suggests. Much more surprising is the absence of further discussion in Croatia. I couldn't find the proceedings of the conference and read what Budak exactly said, but his findings should provoke some reactions in the small field of Croatian historians. Right?
Two painters put the arrival of the Croats on canvas. The first and most popular painting is by Oton Iveković. I can see why. Iveković portrayed the Croats as a well-dressed, civilised people, a kulturni narod as Croats like to say. Celestin Medović's painting, however, shows the Croats as a wild, barbaric and warlike tribe that fought its way to the Ardriatic Sea. We will probably never know how they looked like, but we might some day get an anwer to the question when they saw the sparkling Adriatic Sea for the first time.
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Audio hero - W.C. Sabine
Just over one hundred years ago, W.C. Sabine kicked off the modern science of acoustics. Perhaps he knew that sound engineering was just about to be invented...
We have Wallace Clement Sabine to thank for the modern science of acoustics. Although the ancients found out a thing or two - such as the amphitheater - in a 'suck it and see' kind of way, Sabine was the first to apply the process of science to acoustics.
As far back as 1898 - before anything that we would now recognize as sound engineering was invented - Sabine sought to link the physical characteristics of a room or auditorium with its perceived sound quality.
Sabine hit upon reverberation time as the principal defining factor and took measurements of the Fogg lecture room at Harvard. He came up with an empirical formula that does indeed work very well. (An empirical formula is a formula worked out from known data, not developed from first principles). The formula is this...
RT60 = 0.16 x V / A
Where RT60 is the time taken for a sound to decay to one millionth of its original intensity (or by 60 dB, in terms we would use today); V is the volume of the auditorium in cubic meters, and A is the absorption in sabins. The unit of the sabin is the absorption that is equivalent to one square meter of a completely absorbent surface (the 'open window unit'). What happened to the 'e' in sabin, history does not record.
The amazing thing is that this simple formula works very well to a first approximation. Better formulae have been developed from his work, and from first principles, but for Sabine to do this over 100 years ago was a major step forward, on a par with Edison's invention of the phonograph, for sure.
By David Mellor Thursday November 30, 2006
Free Ebook - Equipping Your Home Recording Studio
How to Avoid These 4 Huge Mistakes In Audio
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life as a slave
life as a slave was hard for Nat turner. One day he was fed up and went to his owner and killed him went in his home and killed his family and tuck his things. Nat tuner ran away hid then gathered 50 men and started a revolt.Nat turner killed tuns of slave owners.
telling stories
Nat turner would tell the other men all the things they do to day Nat turner was hiding in the decimal swamp and a hunter found him Nat turner surrender the hunter got a bounty and Nat turner was hung.But Nat tuner gave blacks the courage to fight back.
Bisson, Terry, and Nathan Irvin Huggins. Nat Turner. New York: Chelsea House, 1988. Print.
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1727 - 1780s French expeditions
The expansion of French commercial interests in the Great Lakes region of Canada began to grow rapidly once Sieur de La Verendrye was appointed commandant in 1727. Until then, the French had ventured no farther west than Lake Superior, but in the next ten years the intrepid Frenchman and his sons would establish a string of new trading posts that reached the Assiniboine River, in Manitoba.
From there, La Verendrye launched his overland expedition to find the Mandan Villages after hearing rumors from various traders of a great civilization that lived underground, and were said to have fields of corn, melons, pumpkins, squash and beans.
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I What are the rules that define a semiconductor?
1. Mar 2, 2017 #1
What are the rules that satisfy which combination of elements are semiconductors?
First one is to satisfy the octet rule to form covalent bond. This can be easily checked by looking at the group number, which is indicative of the number of valence atoms.
The other is the electronegativity
Are there any others?
2. jcsd
3. Mar 2, 2017 #2
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Science Advisor
You already noted in one of the numerous other threads you started on this topic that the octet rule is not always fulfilled in semiconductors like lead sulfide.
From the physical definition, a semiconductor must have a band gap. To be a useful semiconductor, the bandgap should not be too wide. This excludes both strongly covalent and strongly ionic compounds, although e.g. diamond is in some applications considered to be a semiconductor with a wide bandgap.
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Coenagrion angulatum
common name Prairie bluet
Prairie ponds and sloughs, slow moving streams.
Adults fly from late May until early August, later in the southern part of its range.
The prairie bluet is more robust and darker blue in colour than the other Eurasian bluets (C. interrogatum and C. resolutum) found in North America (Walker 1953). Males have a distinct colour pattern on the abdomen; segments 3 to 7 are black with blue bands that become progressively smaller towards the end of the abdomen. The end of the abdomen is almost completely blue (Walker 1953, Acorn 2004). Males also have a distinctive black spot on the top of the second abdominal segment and slightly widened terminal abdominal segments (Westfall and May 1996). Female colours are usually yellow-green to tan but can be blue like the males (Westfall and May 1996). Abdominal segments 3 to 7 are dark without coloured rings and segment 8 has pale colouration on top at the base (Walker 1953, Acorn 2004). The dorsal surface immediately behind the head on females has three lobes on the posterior margin; the middle lobe projects above the other two (Walker 1953). Prairie bluets are small damselflies, rarely exceeding 3 cm in length. Larvae of the prairie bluet are difficult to distinguish from the other Eurasian bluets or even American bluets (genus Enallagma) or forktails (genus Ischnura). The prairie bluet has no obvious characters that allows for identificaion in the field. Coenagrion larvae are of average stature with the posterior margin of the head rounded and eyes not very prominent (Walker 1953).
life history
Sawchyn and Gillott (1975) performed a detailed study on the biology of prairie bluets in Saskatchewan. Females lay soft, creamy-white eggs during June and July in cuts made in living, aquatic plant tissue. Embryonic development takes 2 to 3 weeks. Larvae develop rapidly and near completion by October. Larvae over-winter in one of the final three stages (instars) of development, frozen in the ice that forms in their shallow habitat. The larvae intentionally place themselves where they become embedded in the ice but do not freeze. The larvae remain dormant until April when the ice melts and then continues development. This adaptation likely does not occur throughout the prairies bluets range. Larvae leave the water to become adults by mid-June. Newly emerged adults disperse from the larval habitat to feed and mature. Maturation requires about 1 week and mating occurs away from the water, oviposition occurs within 2 weeks of adult emergence. Oviposition occurs with the male still attached to the female. Eggs are always deposited below the water surface on floating or emergent vegetation. Baker and Clifford (1981) report that taiga bluets can take two years to complete their life cycle; this is likely the case with prairie bluets.
Not currently a concern. Prairie bluets are abundant throughout their range.
diet info
Adults feed on flies (e.g. midges) (Sawchyn and Gillott 1975). Larval diet is likely similar to that of the taiga bluet, which feed on, fly larvae, water fleas, other odonate larvae and assorted invertebrates (Baker and Clifford 1981).
Prairie bluets can be found from the western edge of Ontario as far west as northeast British Columbia (e.g. Peace River area). There are records from the southern edge of the Northwest Territories to the north-central states (e.g. Minnesota, South Dakota) (Walker 1953).
species page authorJones, B. C.2005
quick link
Logo Department of Museums and Collections ServicesLogo University of Alberta
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Sunday, March 13, 2016
The History of Saltpeter - V
In today's post, we will look at the early history of saltpeter production in the US.
When the early colonists from England arrived in the US in 1620 and established a colony in Plymouth, Massachusetts, they brought supplies of gunpowder from Europe. However, as the Massachusetts Bay Colony began to grow, it became necessary for the settlers to start manufacturing their own gunpowder locally, because they could not depend on supply ships reliably coming across the ocean from England.
Since there were no known deposits of natural saltpeter in the area, the settlers began to make saltpeter plantations, using the same techniques that were in use in England. The first reference to saltpeter manufacture comes from an order of the General Court of Massachusetts, dating from June 6th, 1639, where it granted 500 acres of land at Pecoit to one Edward Rawson, "so as he goes on with the powder if the saltpeter comes." By 1640, a saltpeter house was operational in Boston. By 1642, the General Court of Massachusetts passed an order to promote public safety "by raising and producing such materials amongst us, as will perfect the making of gunpowder, the instrumental means that all nations lay hold on for their preservation etc., that every plantation within this colony shall erect a house in length 20 or 30 foote, and 20 foote wide within one-half year next coming, &c., to make saltpeter."
In 1666, we see two more orders passed in the General Court of Massachusetts. The first dating from May 23rd states, "whereas, there is necessity of having supply of gunpowder in this jurisdiction, and forasmuch as Sergt. Richard Wooddey, of Boston, in the county of Suffolk, and Mr. Henry Russell, of Ipswich, in the county of Essex, have been and are upon the work, and in preparation for saltpeter, for their future encouragement, or any other that shall appear to attend the promoting thereof, this Court doth declare and order that the said Richard Wooddey and Henry Russell are impowered to go on and proceed in the said work." It then grants them special permissions to build their business. The second order from October 10th states that "whereas the Court hath encouraged and authorized some persons to make gunpowder, and have promised to enable them thereunto by such public and necessary orders as may conduce to the effecting of the same, the consideration whereof hath moved the Court hereby to order and enact, that the selectmen of every town (where the powdermakers authorized by this Court shall desire it) be authorized and required hereby to make and execute such orders in their respective towns as they shall judge meet, with the advice of skilful men, for increasing and procuring of saltpetre, and to impose such penalties as the selectmen shall deem meet, not exceeding ten shillings for one offence, upon all persons that shall neglect or refuse to perform such order or orders for the propagating and increasing of saltpeter in their respective towns; and moreover, the said selectmen are further impowered to choose and appoint an officer or officers, and to allow him a convenient stipend annually for his pains out of the fines or otherwise, to look to the executing such orders as they shall make in their behalf."
The next big event we see is from 1675, when a powder mill was built in Milton, Massachusetts. It was water powered and built near the Neponset river. In August 1675, Governer Leverett wrote to this friend and revealed, "We are upon a work for making powder and have erected a mill in order thereunto at Neponset, about six miles from Boston. Our difficulty will be for peter, which we must, in our beginning, have from without us, but hope, in time, may raise it amongst us." The last sentence shows that the sources of saltpeter for this mill were still uncertain at this point.
Interestingly, as the colonies developed, Great Britain started to produce gunpowder based on cheap saltpeter imports from India (we will study that trade soon). Therefore, it actually became cheaper for Americans to import their gunpowder from England and this led to many powder mills in America closing down. Then, when the American revolution started, there was only one gunpowder mill in America, the Frankford Powder Mill, built by Oswald Eve in Frankford, Pennsylvania. However, this mill was pretty small and could only supply the American forces with small amounts of gunpowder. It was recorded that Oswald Eve signed a contract on January 11th 1776, with the Continental Congress, to supply gunpowder at $8 per hundredweight. In order to ensure that his was not the only mill to make gunpowder, Congress approved the construction of the Continental Powder Mill on February 16th 1776, on French Creek, eight miles from Valley Forge, based on the techniques learnt from inspecting Eve's mill. As it happens, Congress wasn't entirely certain about Eve's patriotism and suspected that he was dealing with the British as well. Therefore, eight other mills operated by other private businessmen were also contracted to supply additional materials. Eve's mill was later seized by the British forces in September 1777, when they captured Philadelphia. Eve was subsequently accused of treason by Congress for trading with the British and had to flee the US.
It must be noted that the new powder mills could not supply the needs of the Americans, because they couldn't obtain enough saltpeter. Desperate for gunpowder, American forces tried to get it by capturing supplies from the British. Both George Washington and Congress ran separate operations to raid a British magazine on the island of Bermuda. When the situation was very dire, help came from the other European nations. Dutch merchants were already trading with American ships and then, the French got into the act. The French had built up their saltpeter plantations with the help of gifted chemists such as Antoine Lavoisier (the father of modern chemistry) and they had plenty of supplies of saltpeter and gunpowder. The French were able to supply enough to meet the needs of America. In fact, if it wasn't for French supplies of gunpowder, American forces would never have been able to continue the war of independence.
The importance of being self-reliant on gunpowder was not lost on America's founding fathers and therefore, efforts were made to build up supplies after the American revolution. American ships began to import raw saltpeter from India, but the quality of gunpowder produced was not very good. Then, in 1800, a rich Frenchman named Éleuthère Irénée du Pont escaped with his family from the French revolution and came to America.
Éleuthère Irénée du Pont
Before he came to America, the young du Pont had studied for some years under the famous chemist, Antoine Lavoisier, who was a friend of his father. He had also worked in the Regie des poudres, the French government agency responsible for manufacturing gunpowder. From Lavoisier, he learned the latest techniques in manufacturing nitrates. Later on, he gave up his chemistry career and began to help his father run a publishing house. Then the French revolution happened and he and his father were arrested and nearly executed. They decided to flee France with their families and come to America. Meanwhile, his former mentor, Antoine Lavoisier, was not so lucky and was executed by guillotine during the French revolution.
When Du Pont first came to America in 1800, he didn't actually want to go into the gunpowder manufacturing business. As it happened, the quality of gunpowder manufacturing in the US was very bad. The story goes that Du Pont went hunting with a certain Major Louis de Tosard, who was a former French artillery officer who had also escaped from the French Revolution and was employed by the US army to buy gunpowder supplies. During the hunting trip, Du Pont's gun misfired and he commented that despite the high price of gunpowder in the US, it was of very poor quality. That's when he thought about his earlier career in making gunpowder in France. He arranged with Tousard to tour American gunpowder factories and came to the conclusion: "There already exist in the United States, two or three mills, which make very bad powder and which do however a very good business. They use saltpeter from India, which is infinitely better than that which is produced in France, but they refine it badly."
Du Pont decided that he could use his experience from France to better refine the saltpeter and thereby produce higher quality gunpowder. With his father's support, he began to raise capital in France to build a new factory in America and also arranged to import machinery from France. The new E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company gunpowder mill was established in 1802 on the Brandywine Creek in Delaware. Initially, the mill was just a saltpeter refining factory, but they soon moved into manufacturing gunpowder as well. Within a few years, his company became the largest gunpowder manufacturer in the United States and the Federal government became one of his biggest customers. The company he founded would go on to become one of the largest and most successful American corporations in history and is currently the world's fourth largest chemical company.
Other American companies that were founded after Du Pont include the Hazard Powder Company (founded 1832), the Oriental Powder Company and the Laflin Powder Company (the last two being owned by members of the Laflin family, who had a history of making gunpowder since the American revolution). By the time of the Civil war, these four companies were supplying most of the gunpowder to the Union side.
In our next post, we will study how saltpeter was manufactured by the Confederate forces, during the Civil war.
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The Wars
Grade: 95%
The abundant animal imagery in Timothy Findley's book The Wars is used to develop characterization and theme. The protagonist, Robert Ross, has a deep connection with animals that reflects his personality and the situations that he faces. This link between Robert and the animals shows the reader that human nature is not much different than animal nature.
The animals in this story are closely related to the characters, especially the character of Robert. Rodwell acknowledges Robert's close union with animals when he draws Robert in his sketchbook as "the only human form" among sketches of animals (155). When Robert sees the drawing, he notices that "the shading [is] not quite human"; it is a combination of animal and human qualities, like Robert's own personality (155). "Modified and mutated, he [is] one with the others" (155). Rodwell's sketchbook reveals the melding of Robert with the animal world.
Robert's encounter with the coyote is a significant step in his understanding of animals and, in turn, this leads to a greater understanding of himself. For Robert to be a soldier, it is important for him to see the point of view of a hunter. He learns from the coyote that a hunter must be generous and kill only in order to survive ("Animals and Their Significance" 1). Robert follows the coyote and watches as it passes two gophers and does not even "pause to scuffle the burrows or even sniff at them. It just [goes] right on trotting--forward towards its goal" (26). The coyote seems to sense Robert's connection with animals and realizes that he is not a threat. This is why the coyote continues to let Robert follow behind when it knows he is there. They drink together at the river, enjoying a "special communion" (Pirie 73). Then the animal tries to communicate with Robert by barking at him, "telling Robert the valley [is] vacant: safe" and then barks another three times to announce its departure (28). When Robert returns to the base, he pays the price for his time with the coyote and is confined to the barracks, but the experience has a profound impact on him. In his confinement, he feels as if the coyote has become a part of him, and he wishes "that someone would howl" (28).
Robert also has a special relationship with horses. When he is on the ship, it is the horses that are "his true companions" (Pirie 73). "He [becomes] intrigued with this world of horses, rats and bilge that [are] consigned to his care" and he spends time with them even when he is off duty. One of the horses breaks its leg and Robert is ordered to kill it. He shoots it once, but the horse is still alive and its mane is described as "a tangle of rattlesnakes" (68). The snakes symbolize the feelings of immorality that are welling up inside of Robert. He knows that killing an animal is against his moral values, but his role in the army is more important to him. He feels that he has "to show his nerve and ability as an officer" (66). Robert finally shoots the horse behind its ear and kills it. This is the first time he intentionally kills a living creature in the story.
Robert's ethics return to him and take priority over military obedience when he tries to rescue horses from the cruelties of war. Robert disobeys Captain Leather's orders and tries to free the horses from the barn that is threatened by falling shells. Unfortunately, the horses die before he can save them all and Robert is filled with anger, shooting Captain Leather between the eyes for causing their death. From this moment on, he rebels against anyone who does not respect his love for animals. This rebellion continues when he barricades himself in a barn with the horses and shouts, "[w]e shall not be taken" (212). It is Robert's strong connection with the horses that leads to his downfall, because the "we" implies to Major Mickle that Robert has an accomplice, and for that reason an attack is ordered. Robert burns in the barn with the horses, feeling the same fear and anguish as they do. The experiences that Robert shares with horses contribute to his sense of empathy and compassion for all animals.
Birds appear frequently throughout the story, especially in times of crisis. The birds often present themselves as omens for dangers that lie ahead. For instance, when Robert's team takes a wrong turn, "the fog is full of noises" of birds (80). Then the birds fly out of the ditch and disappear. Robert and Poole know that "[t]here must be something terribly wrong...but neither one knew how to put it into words. The birds, being gone, had taken some mysterious presence with them. There was an awful sense of void--as if the world had been emptied" (81). The birds return and when Robert nears the collapsing dike, "one of the birds [flies] up and cut[s] across Robert's path" as if it is trying to prevent him from going any further. Robert does not heed the warning and almost dies in the sinking mud.
Another ominous bird appears when Robert and his crew are close to enemy lines. A bird sings and Robert looks up to see the deadly gas easing towards them. He is able to react quickly and save most of his crew. Soon after, the same bird sings again, "one long note descending; three that [waver]" (142). Then Robert sees the German soldier whom he ends up killing when he thinks that the man is reaching for a gun. Robert realizes that the German was only reaching for his binoculars, even though there is a sniper rifle sitting right beside him. He wonders why the man did not kill them all, and then he hears the bird sing once again, its song wavering "on the brink of sadness. That was why" (146). The bird sings sorrowfully for the horror and tragedy of war, and like the soldier, all it wants is for the fighting to stop. The sound of that bird haunts Robert to the day he dies (146). Robert associates birds with the perilous times at war that he can never forget.
Findley uses rabbits to represent Rowena and Rodwell, both characters of pureness and compassion. Rowena is very much like her rabbits in that she is defenseless, innocent and dependent on others. When Rowena dies, her rabbits are killed for the simple reason that "they were hers" (17) and Robert is expected to kill them "because he loved her" (19). These justifications seem rather weak to Robert, who wants his sister to still be alive in some form. If the rabbits were killed, it "would imply that Rowena would truly be dead" and Robert cannot accept this ("Animals and Their Significance" 1). He promised Rowena that he would stay with her forever and that the rabbits would stay forever, too. He wants at least one of these promises to be kept. Unfortunately, a soldier is hired to kill the rabbits, and Robert fights him, yelling, "what are soldiers for?" (20). It is ironic that he later becomes a soldier himself and he learns to kill as well. So Rowena's rabbits are killed, "[b]ecause a girl died, and her rabbits survived her" (20).
Instead of the arbitrary killing that takes place with Rowena's rabbits, Rodwell's animals are being constantly protected from the dangers of battle. For example, when the dugout is shaken by mines, Robert sees the rabbit turn "with its eyes shut tight and huddles in the corner of its cage facing Robert. The hedgehog lay on his side in ball" (122). Rodwell tries his best to keep the animals safe from the many perils of war, but when the Germans attack with their flame throwers, the innocent creatures are asphyxiated by the gas. Rodwell was only able to save the toad by placing it in a water pail. Soon after this event, Rodwell commits suicide when he is "forced to watch the killing of a cat" (150). Rodwell and Rowena's situations are closely related. While Rowena's rabbits are killed because she dies, Rodwell kills himself because his animals die.
The nature of humans and animals reflect each other, proving that the strong bond Robert has with animals is true for us all. During the voyage on the SS Massanabie, the soldiers must live like trapped animals, enduring "airless jamming of their quarters" and "trough-like urinals" with no privacy (57-58). The horses must also suffer horrible conditions on the ship in a hold where "there [is] hardly any light and the scuppers [are] awash with sea bilge and urine" (62).
The animals are used as symbols of hope amidst devastation, portraying the will to survive that is strong in all of us. While Robert steps over the bodies of dead men, he sees a rat struggling in the wet earth and he sets it free, "thinking: here is something that is still alive. And the word alive [is] amazing" (127). The rat is a wondrous sign of life that emerges from death. Another creature that stands out from the surrounding chaos is the cat cleaning its paws during a raid. Marian Turner remembers this cat and says, "life goes on--and a cat will clean its paws no matter what". It is an "image of serenity amidst holocaust" (Klovan, 63). The pure white cat, symbolizing innocence and peace, contrasts the dreary corruption of war.
The connection between humans and animals is expressed by Harris when he speaks of the sea. According to Harris, the sea is the element that bonds humans and animals together. He explains:
Everyone who's born has come from the sea. Your mother's womb is just a sea in small. And birds come of seas in eggs. Horses lie in the sea before they're born. The placenta is the sea. And your blood is the sea continued in your veins. We are the ocean--walking on the land. (117)
Robert does not agree with Harris' idea that humans evolved from animals, "he believe[s] that everything [is] as it [is]" and that "we were always men" (116). It is somewhat of a paradox that he takes this point of view considering that his link with animals is unusually strong. The notion that all living creatures are connected by the sea explains the close relationship between humans and animals in this novel.
Findley uses animal imagery in The Wars as a powerful method of revealing important aspects of personality in the protagonist and other characters. He weaves the characteristics of Robert and those of the animals he encounters in the story. This animal imagery and the character development of Robert is used to express the story's theme of humanity's similarity to animals.
Works Cited
Anonymous. "The Animals and Their Significance," Timothy Findley: Word for Word, 1997. (Mar. 25, 1999).
Findley, Timothy. The Wars. Toronto: Penguin Books Canada Ltd., 1996.
Klovan, Peter. "Bright and Good: Findley's The Wars". Canadian Literature 91:58-69.
Pirie, Bruce. "The Dragon in the Fog: Displaced Mythology in The Wars". Canadian Literature 91:60-79.
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Open the online Arabic language course
824-811 BCE
Mesopotamia / Kings /
Assyria / Neo period / Kings /
Shamshi-Adad 5
Also called: Shamshi-Ramman
Stela of Shamshi-adad 5, found in the Temple of Nabu, Calah. British Musuem, London, UK
ZOOM - Open a large version of this image
Assyria at the time of Shamshi-Adad 5
(Dead 811 BCE) Ruler of Assyria 824-811 BCE, 13 years.
He succeeded his father, Shalmaneser 3 as king, but transition of power was conflicted. Over six years there was a civil war between him and his brother, Ashur-danin-pal. Briefly, Ashur-danin-pal even managed to secure the throne for himself. The conflict had serious effects on the Assyrian society, leaving its administrative and military structures weak for the following century, only to be revived by Tiglath-Pileser 3.
Although weakened by the civil war, Shamshi-Adad managed to make advances against Babylonia. The advances were small, but important in securing the integrity of the empire's borders.
He was married to Shammuramat, one of very few prominent female royals in Assyrian history.
826: Rebellion starting in Nineveh by prince Ashur-danin-pal against prince Shamshi-Adad. Ashur-danin-pal would manage to win over to his side 27 important cities.
824: King Shalmaneser 3 is removed from power by Ashur-danin-pal. Ashur-danin-pal is, however, himself defeated by Shamshi-Adad 5, who would secure the throne for himself. Shortly after, Shalmaneser dies.
820: Ashur-danin-pal is finally defeated.
814: Wins a battle against Babylonian king Murduk-balassu-iqbi.
811: Dies, and is formally succeeded by his young son, Adad-nirari 3, but it is his queen, Shammuramat, that is effective ruler for 3 years.
Where to begin?Detailed article
By Tore Kjeilen
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Describing DNA
18th February 2005 at 00:00
They called it the key to life, and in the early 1950s, chemists the world over were hellbent on claiming it for their own. But the DNA molecule, whose complex structure carried the genetic codes for every living cell, would not give up its secrets easily. Frontrunner in the race was the California Institute of Technology's celebrated chemist Linus Pauling. His work on chemical bonding had revealed the structure of proteins, a breakthrough which won him a Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1954.
For Cambridge chemists James Watson and Francis Crick, Pauling was both a threat and an inspiration. As Watson later wrote, they had to "imitate Linus Pauling and beat him at his own game". The difficulty lay in the size of their quarry. For although DNA was a giant among molecules, it was only observable with X-rays, being shorter than the wavelength of visible light. And who could possibly know how a helical molecule might diffract X-rays, and how to interpret the cryptic patterns that resulted?
Following Pauling's example, Watson began building models. And it was one such model, unsupported by experimental evidence, that led to the pair being taken off the DNA case.
Then, in January 1953, word reached them that Pauling had apparently solved the riddle. It was with a mixture of relief and disbelief, therefore, that the pair worked through Pauling's paper. For they saw almost at once that the great man had made an elementary blunder, and that his suggested structure was impossible.
"If a student had made a similar mistake," Watson wrote, "he would be thought unfit to benefit from CalTech's chemistry faculty." Having checked their reasoning in a copy of Pauling's own textbook, they drank "a toast to the Pauling failure" and got back to work.
On February 28, 1953, Watson and Crick revealed the double helix structure of DNA and, nine years later, received a Nobel Prize for their efforts. But if Pauling was still kicking himself, he did not show it. For in the same ceremony, he received his second Nobel Prize, for his longstanding opposition to nuclear bomb tests.
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Fish and Amphibians
Kathie F. Nunley, Granger High School
Fish & Amphibians: Conflict and Change Name__________________________ Period__________ Points________
Grading: 86-100 A 71-85 B 55-70 C 40 - 54 D
Section I. 65 points MAX. Must get 60 pts here to move to section II.
1. Write an autobiography. Include your name, age, your best physical feature, your favorite food, your favorite place to eat, describe your best friend and why, two conflicts you have in your life, where you go to feel the safest, and what you want to be doing five years from now. Write another autobiography. This time you are an amphibian. 15 pts.
2. Draw a water dwelling animal like a fish or octopus. Draw that same animal living on land. Describe the adjustments or adaptations that were made to move to land. This is an art project. It needs lots of artistic detail. Choose this only if you enjoying detailed drawing. 15 pts.
3. Watch the movie, Toadspell. Write 2 paragraphs summarizing the movie and 2 paragraphs on conflicts you saw in the movie and how change resulted from those conflicts. 15 pts
4. Listen to the lecture on amphibians. Take notes. 15 pts
5. How is a frog like a fish (list 10 similarities). How is it different (list 10 differences). 10 pts
6. Listen to the lecture on fish. Take notes. 15 pts.
7. Write a 10 sentence paragraph describing the difference between frogs and toads. Read it to 2 other classmates. Your paragraph can be in any language OTHER than English. 15 pts
8. Find 2 pieces of conflicting information on Fish or Amphibians between two textbooks. Explain why the books may differ on information. 15 pts
9. Watch any documentary-type t.v. show on fish or amphibians. List the title, network and date of broadcast. Describe the show in terms of conflicts in the amphibian world. 15 pts
10. Write a piece of poetry describing either conflict or change in an amphibian's world. Get written feedback from your English teacher. 15 pts
11. Read the chapter on Fish or Amphibians from any textbook. Outline the key concepts. Be prepared to summarize your reading. 15 pts.
12. Using adding machine paper, make a timeline showing when each vertebrate class appeared on earth. You must include a scale. 10 pts.
Section II. "B" level Choose One for 15 points
1. How fast does a fish swim in MPH?
2. Which moves faster, a fish or a frog?
3. How does temperature affect fish?
4. Do frogs have taste buds?
Section III "A" level. 20 points
What government agencies are responsible for game fishing in our state? What environmental concerns affect that industry? Research the current role of the Fish and Wildlife Division in the State. Write a letter to your state Senator arguing either for or against the continued funding of that program.
________________________parent signature contact phone #_______________
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Find the word definition
Crossword clues for mendeleev
Mendeleev (crater)
Mendeleev is a large lunar impact crater that is located on the far side of the Moon, as seen from the Earth. The southern rim of this walled plain just crosses the lunar equator. Intruding into the eastern rim of Mendeleev is the crater Schuster. Nearly on the opposite side, the smaller Hartmann intrudes into west-southwestern rim.
The nearly level interior of Mendeleev contains a number of smaller crater formations which have been given names. These form a rough pentagon formation that covers much of the interior floor. Along the western inner floor, the craters Bergman to the west-northwest and Moissan to the west just make contact with the western inner wall of Mendeleev. Together with Bergman, Fischer to the north-northeast and Richards in the north of Mendeleev form the northern side of the pentagon. The figure continues with Harden near Schuster, and Benedict just to the southeast of the midpoint of Mendeleev. The largest crater within the Mendeleev basin is Mendeleev P, to the south-southwest.
The remainder of the interior floor is relatively flat, at least in comparison to the rugged blast terrain radiating away from the exterior. There are, however, a number of small craters within the interior in addition to those mentioned above. A cluster of these craters lie near the midpoint of the interior, and there are several in the southeast part of the floor. In the western half of the floor is a chain of tiny craters named the Catena Mendeleev. These form a line that trends from near the southwest part of the interior, then tangentially grazes the western rim of the crater Richards. The line of craters points directly to Tsiolkovskiy crater far to the southwest, and are thought to be secondaries from it.
Even after formal naming in 1961 by the IAU, the crater was known as Basin IX until the early 1970s.
In Stanislaw Lem's More Tales of Pirx the Pilot, a story is wrapped around a fictional lunar science facility that is stationed in Mendeleev.
Mendeleev (disambiguation)
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834 – 1907) was a Russian chemist and inventor.
Mendeleev may also refer to:
• Mendeleev (crater), located in the far side of the Moon
• Mendeleev (volcano), a stratovolcano located in the Kuril Islands, Russia
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Friday, April 10, 2015
The Minoans: The Old Temple Period
The West Porch with the west facade behind it, at Knossos
As the brief Sumerian renaissance faltered and its culture was replaced by the Babylonians, the first megalithic signs of hierarchy on Crete were evolving. After around 100 years (by 2,000 BCE) Minoan scribes transformed their hieroglyphics into a new system, called Linear A. While aesthetically it is less elaborate, it refined and democratized the use of symbolism by Minoans. The need for faster writing continued to trend towards the simplification of the written Cretan language, in turn allowing for more people to learn the language. This opened the door for foreigners to learn the language, either after intermarriage or for trading, expanding the trading network and general cultural periphery of the Minoans. This helped their culture leap from not only their origin, but to other Aegean islands as well. Strangely enough, even with its successor deeply implanted in Cretan culture, the use of hieroglyphs did not vanish. The antique symbols were re-purposed, no longer representing the mode of everyday communication. Instead, they were used on specific objects or in a ritual context. The context of hieroglyphic signs are radically different than the context of Linear A. Linear A was the language of bureaucratic record keeping, personal seals, and trade contracts. Cretan hieroglyphics were used even hundreds of years after the ubiquity of Linear A, and it is not known what these hieroglyphs eventually came to symbolize. Their transition from a working script to an antiquated script may have been similar to various other transitions seen throughout recorded history known as sacred languages.
A fragment of Linear A writing
A tablet in Linear A from Zakros
A Minoan cylindrical seal using Linear A
The proliferation of writing, seals, and trade across Crete points to the ever expanding class of merchants and the general increase in wealth during this period. As wealth expanded, it centralized, and by 1,930 BCE the first palace structure at Knossos was built. Since the old period palaces were rebuilt/redesigned and used through the new period, it's difficult to completely understand the original structure of the Knossian palace. As Knossians erected their first megalithic structure on the island, they laid the foundations of the classical Minoan palace economy.
Generally, the institutions sitting in the palace survived through the wealth of the countryside. Periodically the crops or other objects were brought (or ordered) to the nearest palace, and redistributed across society. Redistribution was at the discretion of the ruling class, who also allotted themselves some of the wealth. This created the classical Minoan luxury focused and class based aristocracy. Orders to the countryside were reinforced, either by political or religious force (or both) it is not known. Different types of artisans were given patronage by this palace class, eventually being set up in and around the palace proper. The close connection between these early bands of artisans and their rulers/patrons was not accidental, they lived too close to shirk their taxes but operated in areas with the highest foot traffic in town. The art and craftsmanship of pottery was not squelched but continued its unending process of innovation. By 1,800 BCE a new style of pottery, Kamares ware, became popular but only among this new palace class.
A Kamares ware cup from the old palace at Phaistos, around 1,800 BCE
Kamares ware jug from Phaistos, 1,800-1,700 BCE
“The Fish Vase”, a Kamares ware jug
A flower petal or star design, Kamares ware
Kamares ware vases and cups from Phaistos and Knossos, made between 1,800-1,700 BCE
Knossos had set off a chain reaction, and between 2,000-1,900 BCE a wave of megalithic building swept the island, solidifying what top-down hierarchies had emerged in the prior few hundred years. The construction of such a building was symbolically similar to a countryside castle in medieval Europe, it exuded dominance over the local populace and projected your power at the expense of neighborly nobles. It is difficult to describe with high accuracy what exactly these buildings were used for, no record explicitly states their entire use, and the structures housed both cultic areas and food storage. They likely represented merging of both, projecting religious authority and political power through an aristocratic priesthood. Surprisingly the King did not stay in the temple-palace at Knossos, there was a complex interconnection between different groups, families, classes, and titles all within local Minoan politics. Those who did live and rule in the temple were wealthy, and shared similar enough unique clothing to be deemed a new class: the priestesses. This new class procured scribes to record the structure's stores in Linear A, and gave patronage to nearby potters to make Kamares ware (as well as many other specialty craft items).
A goblet with sculpted flowers, Kamares ware, made around 1,700 BCE. The flowers were made separately and attached after the goblet was completed
A beautifully decorated Kamares ware bowl from Phaistos
It should be said that the majority of people associated with a palace-temple were not wealthy priestesses, but were slaves, artisans, attendants, cooks, scribes, or guards. The entire civilization of megalithic structure building and expensive elite en vogue pottery rested on the shoulders of local farmers. Without the commoner's tithes of grain, the palace-temple hierarchy would have quickly collapsed, bringing down the rest of their precarious aristocracy. It is disingenuous to say the Minoan society as a whole wrote Linear A and made Kamares ware: the only people who could write were scribes, and only a select few artisans were given the patronage to craft Kamares ware. Commoners throughout the rest of society used pottery as well, and while it was not as extravagant as Kamares ware, it included its own styles made by its own popular artists. While merchants, potters, and artisans in general carved out a space for themselves, another channel to wealth was through writing. While the contemporaneous Babylonians in Mesopotamia sent their children to scribal schools, it is not known how Minoan scribes were trained and brought into the exclusive palace-temple system. If you could not pay to have your child taught to write, their economic success was not entirely stilted. Most people used seals as a method of signing their name to documents, allowing the illiterate inclusion into financial deals. While it is debated how far seal use proliferated throughout society, generally the use of seals gave the average personal both financial independence and power.
Ivory cone seal with spiral design, 2,300-2,000 BCE Minoan
While it is much easier to speak about a well represented king or priestess, it is absolutely necessary to talk about the lives of the rest, the invisible common people. They constituted the majority of Minoan society, and exhibited their culture as genuinely as any rich land owner. The great mass of farmers, fishers, traders, and laborers together form a silent majority within the historical record. Their discourse were stored in houses and leveled, instead of in large temple repositories and preserved. Their clothing was refitted, gifted, or ripped up, instead of being painted onto the walls of megaliths. From their silence, they become the most mysterious aspect of Minoan society, and the most appealing to reconstruct.
The Fisherman Fresco, the topknots on his shaven head are a hairstyle indicative of youth
For the moment, let's divert the straightforward chronological political history of Crete, and view their history laterally instead of sequentially. As the Old Temple period begins, Minoan society both flourishes, and many of its details are better preserved. Let's broaden the understanding of those individual cultural aspects, which constitute classical Minoan society during the Old and New Temple periods.
A Quick Aside on Notation and Chronology
With the creation of temple hierarchies on Crete, the political lives of everyday Cretans dramatically changed. The change is so radical that it creates a periodic divide, the boundary between EM (early Minoan) and MM (middle Minoan). While this common classification assumed Minoan society “began” around with the start of the EM period around 3,000 BCE, such a stifled formulation of society (truly only an archeological complex) is difficult to accurately define. While there is the rise and fall of the Minoan archeological complex, there are no finite divisions in Minoan civilization as any drawn lines are entirely artificial.
The beginning of Minoan society is arbitrary too, pinning its birth on material objects wrongfully asserts the primacy of those objects as the individual's identity. If some pottery is assigned to be the earliest Minoan pottery, what exactly changes when one crosses this boundary line? Its inventors had no changed their personal identities, they kept their name, language, family, land, clan, titles, and habits. If you followed the ownership patterns of the elite, warriors carried obsidian spearheads in the 4th millennium BCE and by the Old Temple period carried bronze ones. Different chronologies use this evidence to begin their EM period around 3,500 BCE instead (such as Andonis Vasilakis).
Constructing an end to Minoan civilization is somewhat easier, since specific habits such as fresco art (and its Cretan styles) and palace construction (and the scribal lifestyle) vanished entirely. These aspects of culture are still only material, there is no population interruption between the late bronze age (LBA) and the classical period (CP) on Crete. The distinction between LBA Minoan culture and that of the early iron age (EIA) culture is similar to the distinction between the CP Roman Empire and Byzantium.
One of many Bronze Age Aegean chronologiesI'll be using this one for simplicity's sake
Many images and objects people currently associate with the Minoans, such as palace-temples, priestesses, and bull leaping, are specifically from the MM and LM (late Minoan) periods. In popular culture these images are immediately considered Minoan, EM period people don't generate the same reaction. Popular culture rightfully so acknowledges a huge cultural leap between the two periods. If you examined the life of a fresco painter in LM Crete (around 1,450 BCE), and compared that person's life and habits to a fresco painter 1,000 years prior, every aspect of that person's existence would be drastically different. Their language, identity, beliefs, and artistic influences were confined within the immediate past. Identities were tribal and transitory: there is no evidence that Knossos led a confederation of city states, but was only one of many. The only connections those two fresco painters would have shared is location, urbanization, and a quasi-familiar religion.
In the next few sections, I'll talking about a general Minoan culture, which refers to people extant during the MM and LM periods. It can be said that the rise of the palace hierarchy along with its political baggage (around 2,000 BCE) is the beginning of a kind of golden age across the island. This period is the height of megalithic building, international trade, and artistic craftsmanship on the island's bronze age. It also has the most associated evidence. But, it is crucial to remember that the term Minoan is an invention. It's a catchall term, by the omniscient Arthur Evans, for objects made by many political identities in many periods on Crete and many nearby islands. The Old and New Temple periods only lasted around 600 years, and are themselves one small material snapshot of a much larger and more complex culture. In referring to Minoan culture, I'm primarily pointing to 2,000-1,100 BCE, tied into the popular conception of the term. Minoan or Cretan culture as an archeological complex stretches back through the neolithic, and forward into the Hellenistic era. Any culture brought under such a microscope will turn out to have subtle yet integral nuances.
The Minoans, by Rodney Castleden
Minoan Chronology by Andonis Vasilakis
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The atlatl was the first true weapon system developed by humans, originating in Europe over 30,000 years ago. It remained the principle form of projectile technology until the invention of the bow and arrow around 2,000 years ago.
Though in continuous use worldwide for 30 millennia, the atlatl was refined to its fullest potential in North America. The detachable foreshaft and atlatl weight are uniquely Native American refinements. The use of a detachable tip allowed the hunter to retrieve his 6-foot long spear and insert another foreshaft for faster follow-up, much like a modern hunter chambers a new round.
The stone weight caused the shaft to bend, storing energy which was transferred to the dart upon release. The flexible dart also compressed like a spring, storing energy to be used to push itself away from the atlatl, launching at velocities that could easily exceed 100 mph.
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Mutapa Empire
Mutapa Empire (1430 to 1760) was an empire, in present day Zimbabwe, extending to the Mozambique coast. It was the successor kingdom of Great Zimbabwe. The empire was comprised of a Karanga majority speaking population.
Around 1425, Mutota, king of the Shona, embarked on conquest of the inland plateau, the region located between the Zambezi River and the Limpopo River, to the coast of Mozambique.
Matope, son of Mutota completed the conquest and expansion started by his father. The empire was the most powerful political entity in the region for most of the 1470s. In 1480, Matope died, hurling the empire into a power struggle, with factions seeking to split from the empire. Dombo or Changa, a noble was able to split away from the empire to the south and founded a separate Shona kingdom, the Rozwi Kingdom.
Portuguese and Rozwi Empire
During the sixteenth century, the Portuguese arrived seeking gold, setting up trading stations. They tried to gain political control of Mutapa territory by siding with the various dynastic clans and forging alliance with rival kingdoms, like the Maravi. By 1628, the strategy worked. In 1628, Mavura a Portuguese puppet was placed on the throne. Mavura signed treaties giving away all mineral rights to the Portuguese. Overtime, the Portuguese was able to undermine and destroy the monomotapan system. The Portuguese then tried to use the populace to mine gold. The populace fled their villages, seeking protection from more powerful and wealthy strongmen, who had strong private armies. Much violence marked the Mutapan Kingdom, with private armies of the wealthy, raiding, resisting the Portuguese, and protecting cattle. Between 1684 through 1696, the Mutapa Kingdom was absorbed into the Rozwi Empire, which had become the dominant empire in the region. The Mutapa Kingdom became a much diminished kingdom in the empire.
Political Organization
The empire was ruled by the munhumutapa (mwanamutapa, monomotapa), who was considered divine. Divinity was achieved with conquering Mutota incorporating other territorial spirits and shrines. The capital changed with time. Mutapa continued the stone building traditions of Great Zimbabwe. Zvongombe was one of the early capitals and contains some of the elaborate stone structures seen in Great Zimbabwe. Conquest was solidified by land distribution. A type of feudal system developed.
The empire was ruled on the capital, provincial, and village levels. Initially, it was only kins of the munhumutapa were assigned to provinces and villages. Individuals called nevanje controlled provinces.
International Trade
Gold was a major commodity of trade. Gold minning was an important economic activity, more for international export via the Swahili town of Sofala and later Portuguese ports. The empire held a monopoly on gold. It was forbidden by law to reveal the location of gold mines. Transgression of this law held a death sentence. The state owned all gold in the empire.
Ivory was another important commodity for international trade and much sought after by the Swahili and Portuguese.
International trade, stimulated the growth of an African merhchant class called the vashambadzi. They were middlemen between african laborers providing goods and Swahili and Portuguese traders.
Africans mainly purchase cloth, beads, and other exotic goods from the Portuguese.
Local Trade
Iron was also mined. Iron was more important for the local trade, which was used for making hoes. Salt, especially in the Middle Save region, was very important to local trade. The empire grew cotton and produced cotton cloth. They even made cloth from the bark of the baobab tree.
Swahilis established bazaars in the kingdom. Later Portuguese traders in during the 1500s would usurp the Swahili traders in Mutapa, by establishing feiras.
Works Cited
Davidson, Basil. Africa in History, Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Touchstone Book, pp. 50, ISBN 0-684-82667-4
Ogot, Bethwell A(1992). Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Unesco. p. 640-682 ISBN 923101711X, 9789231017117
Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa, rev, 2nd. ed. New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2005, ISBN 0-333-59957-8
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Control thrusters DS9
Deep Space 9's control thrusters
Control thrusters were a type of propulsion technology utilized by space stations.
Shortly after the Cardassian withdrawal in 2369, Deep Space 9 had only six working control thrusters. Moving the station from the orbit of Bajor to the Denorios belt with those six would have taken about two months, so the station's deflector generators were modified to create a subspace field around the station, lowering its inertial mass. (DS9: "Emissary")
Later that year, DS9's control thrusters were used to bring the station back to its original position after a graviton field had moved the station closer to the Bajoran wormhole. (DS9: "Q-Less")
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How did the Industrial Revolution encourage imperialism?
Quick Answer
The Industrial Revolution encouraged imperialism in three critical respects. It assured Western economic and military ascendancy, it demanded both suppliers of raw materials and retail markets, and it provided transportation and logistical supports for conquest, colonization and resource exploitation.
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Full Answer
Because the Industrial Revolution increased the production capacity of Western states astronomically, there was an enormous hunger for raw materials to satisfy demands. Thus, Western powers sought colonies where raw materials were abundant and where they could be appropriated at little to no cost. Additionally, colonies gave the Western powers a ready-made market for their goods, as the colonized people were left with little to no legal recourse to produce their own finished products. Technological advances in Western arms and transportation commonly made indigenous resistance to imperial incursions futile and short-lived, as Westerners had far superior weapons, ammunition, strategy and tactics.
Additionally, technological advances made former threats to European settlement and survival in equatorial zones less daunting. For example, the development of the steamship eradicated the danger posed by the mouths of many African rivers. The steamship could simply be dissembled, brought inland and then reassembled for river travel, while wooden sailing ships previously could not. Similarly, industrial age advances in medicine brought quinine, a supplement that exponentially increased the survival rate of Western imperialists in malarial areas, acting as a preventative, though not a cure. Thus, Westerners could now worry much less about disease, whereas before quinine, severe fever and even death often came within weeks after arrival.
Learn more about Industrial Revolution
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Wednesday, September 22, 2010
What's a Cartographer?
As the students finish up their mapping unit they are learning the difficult job of a cartographer. They were asked to select a region, state, city, etc. that they have visited or are interested in. The students will then be asked to create a map that should include information about it. They will then share their map with the class and explain their selection. A rubric has been provided so that the students know exactly what needs to be accomplished.
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Decree enacted by the Council of Constance in 1417, requiring the pope to convene another general council within five years, a second one seven years after the first, and then a council every 10 years. This decree was a deliberate attempt to limit the autocratic power of the popes and to introduce the general council as a representative assembly expressing the general interests of the entire Christian community. It was inspired by the principles of Conciliarism. Although the pope elected at Constance, Martin V, pledged to observe the decree and did actually summon councils in 1423 and 1431, the papacy remained profoundly hostile to this effort to make the council a permanent element in the constitution of the church. After the failure of the Council of Basel, later popes denied the validity of this decree and summoned councils only when they wanted to.
Historical Dictionary of Renaissance. . 2004.
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Use of Naturalism and Impressionism in Crane’s Red Badge of Courage
In his novel “Red Badge of courage” Crane follows two narrative techniques namely impressionism and naturalism. Through his technique of impressionism Crane tries to give picture of the battlefield as well as the effects of the wars on the nature. By using his method of naturalism Crane mainly tries to portray Henry’s character.
Impressionism is a method of writing in which the author presents characters, scenes, and moods as he visualizes them at a particular moment rather than as they are in reality. The term comes from the French impressionist painter who painted an object in a few strokes thus suggesting the form rather than delineating it realistically. They were chiefly concerned with the effect of various kinds of light on an object or scene.
Crane was one of the chief impressionists of his day. Like the painters he had little sense of line. He characterized his people by giving an impression of a loud soldier, a tall soldier, a tattered soldier, or a cheerful soldier. Although the reader knows a great deal about Henry Fleming he does not know what he looks like physically.
Crane had the same concern as the painters for the effect of light on color. In the book the landscape and objects change their colors as the light changes. A river is “amber-tinted” in the early morning. Green trees and bushes appear blue in the distance. Crane describes troops on the battlefield as follows.
Crane has used impressionism as a painter but he also has carried this art beyond the physical level by creating images which are impressions of the mind rather than just impressions of line and color. Many of the seemingly disconnected images in the book are relevant to the emotional experiences of Henry. For instance in chapter 11 Crane repeatedly creates the image of the regiment as an insect.
1-It was now like one of those moving monsters wending with many feet.
2-There was an occasional flash and glimmer of steel from the backs of all these huge crawling reptiles.
3-They were like two serpents crawling from the cavern of the night.
4-But the long serpents crawled slowly from hill to hill without bluster of smoke.
Henry, as part of the “moving monster,” feels very much alone with his thoughts and problems. The army is like a monster to him which forces him to be part of it against his will and which makes him obey orders he cannot understand.
Naturalism is a theory of fiction which approaches life with a detached, objective, almost scientific outlook. Man is portrayed as an insignificant and helpless creature who acts according to his instincts in response to the conditions of his environment. He does not exercise his individual intelligence and free will to any great extent. He is like a puppet at the mercy of the physical conditions which surround him.
Nature is conceived of as being serene and indifferent to the troubles of mankind. Nature is not a person with attitudes, feelings, and intelligence. It is simply the natural environment and the physical forces which surround man.
Crane reflects these naturalistic concepts in The Red Badge of Courage. To Crane war is part of nature, a condition that is part of the physical environment. Crane many times repeats the idea that the individual loses his identity in the collective regimental personality. He writes of the military units as insects or machines. In the early march to the front Henry wants to run away but cannot do so.
He saw instantly that it would be impossible for him to escape from the regiment. It enclosed him and there were iron laws of tradition and law on four sides. He was in a moving box.
Henry discovers, in his flight from the battlefield, that he cannot fond refuge and consolation in nature. He goes into the dark forest seeking comfort. Instead he comes upon a ghastly corpse hidden in a “natural chapel” made of the boughs of trees. As he runs away from the scene panic-stricken, the bushes and trees seem to him to be impending his progress. Here is a picture of a youth who is helpless against his environment which is indifferent to his problems.
Crane points out the serenity of nature in contrast to the fighting that is taking place.
As he gazed around him the youth felt a flash of astonishment at the blue, pure sky and the sun gleaming on the trees and fields. It was surprising that Nature had gone tranquilly on with her golden process in the midst of so much devilment.
Crane has attempted to portray a “natural” man in the person of Henry Fleming, and “natural” actions. Henry follows his instincts when he runs from the battlefield. He later discovers that no harm was done by this action as no one knows about it and he comes to the following conclusion:
Later when Henry acts with great bravery he discovers that the heroic actions, too, are natural. In looking back at his actions he reflects the naturalistic conept.
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14 thoughts on “Honors World Regional Blog Posts – Africa 1
1. The Belgian Congo suffered heavily at the hands of its Belgian controllers, and while Belgium’s official end of colonization happened several generations ago its effects are still being felt today. The disruption of the cultural, religious, economic, and traditional elements of a multitude of societies was bound to have lasting effects. Adding insult to injury would be the outright abuse of local populations. Forced labor, as can be seen in the top left picture, amounted to horrendous slavery. The working conditions were far from humane, no doubt. And this is not even the worst of it. Severe punishments for forms of resistance were widespread, as can by the middle picture, left side. These three young men can’t be over thirteen years old, and have already lost one of their hands due to the cruelty of the Belgians. In this awful cocktail of oppression, misery, and violence, the Congo fractured as a functioning society. As horrible as they were, the Belgians were the powerhouse of the region once they began colonization. At the very least they provided a kind of awful stability, or perhaps a better descriptor would be they were predictably harsh. The Kind of Belgium, pictured bottom right, ensured the land was ruled with not only an iron fist but a malicious one at that. While this obviously needed to end, Belgium’s withdrawal from the region as a colonial overseer left the Belgian Congo with problems. A fractured society, it now was left to fend for itself. Unfortunately, Belgium had instated itself as the ruling class for long enough that it was able to sow discord among certain groups. They played tribes against one another in order to lessen the threats to themselves and ultimately boost their control. With a power vacuum in place, the Belgian Congo was easy prey to these tensions built after years of Belgian rule. Thus, despite the Congo’s rich economic possibilities, it was hamstrung by its deep tensions and fractured state of society. Had the circumstances been different, had the map on the top right perhaps not show so many miniature divisions and the Congo had been afforded greater unity, it may well look different today. But as the bottom left picture shows, such is not the case. While certainly many locals died at the hands of Belgian overseers, the killing did not stop when the Belgians left. According to the political cartoon, millions continued to die from the violence in the region in later years. Even today, the violence has not stopped. Clearly these days it’s not due to Belgian colonialists, but the inhabitants themselves are fighting each other for various reasons. While some may argue that many years have passed and we cannot keep blaming Belgium, and it is true at some point blame does start being at the hands of the locals, the effect Belgium had cannot be denied. In my opinion, whatever happens after will always be partially at the hands of Belgium. They came into the region and wrecked it so completely that they fractured it as a functional society, broke it down in every way that they could, and in a way broke the people. Any nation would have a difficult time rebuilding from that.
2. The Belgian Congo was a colonial factory for labor exploitation and the extraction of rubber. As Roger Casement discusses in his Report on the Congo, the ABIR and La Lulonga rubber factories of the Belgian Congo were primary internal contributors to Congolese exploitation and disparity. One of the images above shows children with hands chopped off – La Lulonga Society was famous for its mass murder and mutilation of workers, often of women and children when they would not meet their rubber quotas, or in the case of protest. Not meeting the rubber quotas was also punished by death. The company was also known for kidnapping the wives of male workers in an attempt to force the workers into increased productivity. The company would tie these women together in a shed on occasion, according to Casement. But the significant factor in the awful conditions and exploitation of the Congo was a direct result of the private ownership had over the land by King Leopold II, which allowed his colony to exploit workers and ignore any regional or global standards of civility. The Belgian Congo placed many of its workers into economic disparity, placing a strict relationship on how much food and resources they could have based on whether or not quotas were filled, and also by using illegitimate forms of currency like metal rods, for example.
As history continued, however, the Dutch did not follow suit with the British or French forms of decolonization, and continued to exploit the Congolese population for resources, while providing little to no access to forms of education or development, forcing the Congo to look at the extraction of raw resources as a main source of income post-independence, which led to serious economic problems. Most of the aid or health care was provided by missionary outposts and relief organizations, but the infrastructure and education to allow the area to autonomously develop was greatly lacking after the withdrawal of colonial forces. Forging a new society in the Congo was extremely difficult without any assistance or establishment of institutions of well-being by the Dutch colonists. Also worth noting is the lack of unity that the Congo had possessed post-independence. Some areas were more rich and resources than others, but developing a government that can properly fix the problems that came with colonial exploitation became very difficult, and often led to a series of Civil Wars in the ‘90’s and into the 2000’s.
But most importantly, what were the psychological effects on the population post-independence? The generation that lived through the colonial era and experienced independence would have most likely gone through immense trauma. I mean, imagine being forced into rubber labor for most of your life, and then gaining freedom from that, all the while having colonial white men try to intimidate you through forms of physical torture and abuse… There is no doubt that a large part of the Congolese population post-independence were highly traumatized- so something that I wonder is how much this level of trauma for the generation that straddled pre and post-independence affect the society of the Congo and may have allowed more people to be willing to mobilize in civil warfare? Just a thought…
3. The Congo
King Leopold II of Belgium convinced his government that Belgium needed an African colony. Most other large European countries had one, and Belgium did not want to fall behind. The Congo Basin of central Africa was largely unexplored, and King Leopold was up for the challenge (and the glory) of discovering its contents. King Leopold took this project personally as his government did not regulate him in any way. Leopold established his personal colony the Congo Free State in 1885. Less than 20 years later, the violence used by the officials of the colony to the natives was so great that Belgium was pressured by other countries to take official control of the Congo. The Free State had an intense system of destroying everything and everyone in its way in order to mine resources. These terrible conditions force Belgium to create the Belgian Congo in 1908.
The Belgian government still heavily favored private company and also missionary interest in the Congo over native population needs or environmental security. The areas of the Congo were literally divided into sections based on European business and religious interests (see map from prompt). Often times the government would help a private company remove a native tribe so that the area could be commercialized. Unlike the French and the British, the Belgians did not use local leaders for colonial government. Because of this, when Belgium finally gave into independence, The Congo was in ruin.
Growing up as a native in the Congo, one would see Europeans doing everything in their power to make a profit. Enslaving whole tribes, even women and children for backbreaking labor in mineral mining, displacing and destroying villages, urbanizing areas with no respect for the culture or environment. The Congolese people saw their people chained, beaten, and killed. They lived among intense racism and overwhelming greed.
With no locals trained in leadership, a shrinking fertile land area, racism, and greed, independence for the Congo meant Civil War. Rebel groups waged war fighting for power over a country that has no structure. Corrupt people battle for mining territory and the poor are left just as before- controlled by people who do not care whether they live or die.
King Leopold’s greed destroyed a land and a people for generations. Individuals change the world. His belief that he could do whatever he wanted had an impact on every leader in the Congo after him, causing immense destruction and death.
4. The image of King Leopold, shows the man directly responsible for the colonization and genocide of the Congolese, and indirectly of the ongoing civil war. This image is the most important one since, King Leopold is the reason for all the other images to be there, since his search for personal wealth was what created such a chaotic mess in the nation of Congo. Despite the different methods used by the different colonial powers of the 19th century, the Portuguese and, most importantly for this case, Belgian colonial methods were by far the harshest and most brutal. While the French and the British strived for assimilation of the local population, teaching them English and French, and building schools, the Belgians were only concerned with maintain power using mutilation and ignorance to control the population. The image of the map illustrates the creation of the “artificial” country of the Congo. Before the arrival of the Europeans, the region of the Congo was divided among different tribes that had varied relationships among them, yet when the Europeans arrived they traced the borders of Africa according to their own negotiations without regard to the inhabitants of the region, thus separating allies or forcing enemy tribes in the same region to live together. The lack of unity among the different inhabitants, meant there never was a Congolese identity, with the Belgian dictatorship being the only thing keeping the colony together, which was one of the main factors leading to the collapse of the country, as once the Belgian control disappeared the country was split among different factions.
The top two images on the left side shows the effects of colonization on the original inhabitants of the Congo. In order to keep control over the massive territory of the Congo, King Leopold engaged in the most aggressive colonization campaign seen in history, where he enslaved or mutilated most of the population of the Congo. The bottom image on the left side shows the outcome of this colonization, with Europeans all the riches of the Congo, while the inhabitants are left to deal with the death and chaos left after it’s exploitation. All these images relate to the ongoing civil war in the Congo as the current war is the legacy of what the images represent. One of the most important aspects of King Leopold practices is that he forbade the education of all African’s in the Congo, and based every infrastructure in the Congo on the Belgian colonizers. That means that when the Europeans decolonized the Congo, they left behind a region formed of unrelated tribes that were uneducated and had no infrastructure, a recipe that could only lead to the collapse of the Congolese government and the fragmentation of the region in smaller factions., with the government trying to keep the country together, and the different factions hoping to gain independence or control over the other factions.
5. King Leopold II (pictured bottom right) believed that Belgium needed colonial expansion if it wanted to become a major European power. When his country refused to agree to such an expansion, Leopold decided to purchase territory as an individual. At first, this came in the form of trying to buy The Philippines from Spain. When these talks broke down, however, Leopold sets his eyes on the interior of Africa. By 1885, After numerous talks with European nations, Leopold was able to finagle the Congo for Belgium, an area around 80 times bigger than the country itself (artificially constructed in the map).
The “Congo Free State” was excellent for the home country in terms of economic benefit. The area was replete with ivory and rubber. To expedite the process of securing these resources, however, atrocities occurred as locals were enslaved and forced to work under some of the harshest conditions ever documented. As seen in the top left picture, workers were shackled and held watch by others with weaponry to ensure the work continued. Children were shockingly not immune to this treatment. The picture of the mutilated children is appalling. In many cases, the amount of rubber exported out of the country was hard to keep up with as the resources lessened. The work supervisors saw this reduced product as laziness, and a common punishment was to have a limb chopped off.
King Leopold was well aware of this but worked hard to keep the atrocities out of light in Belgium. He largely silenced missionaries returning from talking about what they saw and worked outwardly in world politics to refute the need for violence in colonies. Only by around the turn of the century did works such as the Casement Report come out documenting what was really occurring in the areas. These works along with public pressure forced an end to the “Free State” and ushered in the Belgian Congo in 1908.
Death tolls are hard to estimate because of the lack of documentation during the time. Many historians believe the tolls to be somewhere between 5 and 15 million, with countless more disfigured. While many of these deaths were from violence, a large portion occurred from European diseases. Either way, Belgian expansion into the area was horrible for local populations. As the cartoon illustrates, Europe and Belgium were able to benefit tremendously from the horrors of colonial expansion into Africa. The Congo, however, still has not fully rebounded from European intervention.
While the area would become independent of Belgium in 1960, violence would occur into present-day. As the cartoon states, 6 million have died since 1996. This is a result of the first and second Congo wars which have been the bloodiest wars since World War II. In many ways, European intervention in the areas laid the groundwork for this violence. By arbitrarily marking countries and regions to their liking, they have pushed violence onto the local populations. It is hard to know the direct impact of King Leopold’s actions in the 19th century to present day conflict. But it would be unfair to not amount some blame on Belgian expansion into the area.
6. The legacy left by western colonization of Africa is very visible and fresh, but no where else is it as obvious in the Congo. Belgium’s harsh oppression in its colony has had lasting effects. King Leopold the second’s Belgian Congo exploited the region for everything it had. The photo of a native holding a gun and in charge of a group of chained natives shows the use of tribal conflict by the colonizers to accomplish tasks. Tribes did not have the extreme uneven distribution of power that existed during colonial times before Europeans arrived and made friends with some tribes, and traded weapons that had never been seen in the Congo before. This created personal and violent conflict between tribes in the Congo that lasts today and is the cause still of civil war and political instability today. Oppression of natives is shown to be maximally brutal in the photo of three young boys with one hand removed. The psychological repercussions of this kind of treatment are unimaginable, but they yet remain prevalent in the culture of the Congo today. The map of Congo with different regions seemingly named after various religious missions is an ironic contrast to the reality of the purpose and actions of the Belgians in the Congo. I am sure that somewhere, in some one or few, there were good intentions, but they did not make a good impact in truth. From the legacy, one wouldn’t think religion was actually effective anywhere in the Congo. The Congo today is so unstable that no foreign nations really want to take the risk of investing in the ever changing and instable region. However, the Congo has been able to generate significant profit for both the Belgians and the powerful in the Congo today. The political cartoon sheds light on how that wealth came to fruition. Millions of people have died in the strife for wealth and control in the Congo. So many current issues in the Congo, and for that matter other African countries, are related to the mess that was left from colonization. What must be asked now, is how the problems can be remedied, who is responsible for helping solve the problems, and whether these countries can be trusted to help out the nations which the so badly harmed. The civil war in the Congo is related to the ethnic conflicts that are a result of the tribal conflicts of colonial times. In the modern world, the Congo falls further and further behind in industrialization because it cannot get its act together for a long enough time to make progress. I think investment from several countries in a stable government and then in the private sector would help the region find stability. It is a worthwhile investment because the Congo has a vast amount of untapped resources that could create a strong Congolese economy which would benefit the whole globe.
7. The world has witnessed the extensive repercussions from European colonialism that has extended throughout the African continent. Evidence has shown a direct correlation between the standard of living and stability of African countries’ post-colonialism and the type of colonialism they endured. British and French Assimilation and Paternal Colonial systems were exploitative but provided some native residences with resources to become educated and gain leadership skills while Belgium colonies were under a brutal exploitative system.
The most horrendous example of Belgium’s system and its repercussions is the Congo. One primary difference between the Colonial Congo and its neighbors was that it started not as a national territory of Belgium but as a privately owned territory by Belgium’s King Leopold II (pictured in the bottom right of prompt). Because of its private ownership and lack of any real accountability for King Leopold’s actions, his focus for the Congo was stripping it of its resources and profiting from them at the expense of Congo’s native inhabitants.
Leopold’s focus was on extracting the Congo’s plentiful rubber resources and using brutal slave labor to do it. Even after political outrage lead to the transfer of the Congo from private to Belgium national rule, this trend of explanation and slave labor continued. Due to little oversight, the Europeans could freely subject the native slaves to kidnapping, mutilation, and murder. A common mutilation tactic was used for punishment when quota demands for rubber or ivory from workers within a specified area was not met. If this quota was not met, the hands and feet of men, woman, and children would be amputated, which is pictured in the prompt. This was used as an example to the people of the repercussions for not collecting enough resources for their European oppressors. Other tactics included taking hostages to ransom them for the payment of completing specified quotas as well as killing and also displaying the bodies of those murdered for refusing to work as a scare tactics which greatly worsened disease conditions.
The death toll was catastrophic due to the murder, disease, mutilation, and inhuman work conditions. Some historians project that over 10 million Congolese people died between 1885 and 1908 alone. All of these lives were traded for the western procurement of resources and profits.
Another aspect of the colonial Congo was a high involvement of religion. The map shown above depicts the Congo divided into areas based in the kinds of Church missions taking place in each area. Religion was used as a tactic to promote colonialism and gain more Belgium public support. The Belgium government left educating the population to the missionaries. This was a colossal failure due to the fact that there was an inadequate number of missionaries to educate more than a minuscule portion of the population and the missionaries’ teachings were unappealing to most Congolese people due to the fact they undermined their culture and worked to support the colonial practices.
This lack of focus on education and opportunity for Congolese natives to be involved in leadership left the country severely damaged and unequipped to deal with independence in 1960. The country quickly fell into a brutal series of civil wars with catastrophic death rates. The country is still enduring repercussions of their colonial rule as death, destruction, and conflict still continue today.
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Erase (Analysis)
Creates a feature class by overlaying the Input Features with the polygons of the Erase Features. Only those portions of the input features falling outside the erase features outside boundaries are copied to the output feature class.
Erase illustration
Erase_analysis (in_features, erase_features, out_feature_class, {cluster_tolerance})
ParameterExplanationData Type
The input feature class or layer.
Feature Layer
The features to be used to erase coincident features in the input.
Feature Layer
The feature class that will contain only those Input Features that are not coincident with the Erase Features.
Feature Class
The minimum distance separating all feature coordinates (nodes and vertices) as well as the distance a coordinate can move in X or Y (or both).
Linear unit
Code Sample
Erase example (Python Window)
The following Python window script demonstrates how to use the Erase function in immediate mode.
import arcpy
from arcpy import env
env.workspace = "C:/data/data/gdb"
Erase example (Stand-alone script)
Find areas of suitable vegetation which exclude areas heavily impacted by major roads.
# Name:
# Description: Find areas of suitable vegetation which exclude areas heavily impacted by major roads
# Author: ESRI
# import system modules
import arcpy
from arcpy import env
# Set environment settings
env.workspace = "C:/data/Habitat_Analysis.gdb"
# Select suitable vegetation patches from all vegetation
veg = "vegtype"
suitableVeg = "C:/output/Output.gdb/suitable_vegetation"
whereClause = "HABITAT = 1"
arcpy.Select_analysis(veg, suitableVeg, whereClause)
# Buffer areas of impact around major roads
roads = "majorrds"
roadsBuffer = "C:/output/Output.gdb/buffer_output"
distanceField = "Distance"
dissolveField = "Distance"
arcpy.Buffer_analysis(roads, roadsBuffer, distanceField, "FULL", "ROUND", "LIST", dissolveField)
# Erase areas of impact around major roads from the suitable vegetation patches
eraseOutput = "C:/output/Output.gdb/suitable_vegetation_minus_roads"
xyTol = "1 Meters"
arcpy.Erase_analysis(suitableVeg, roadsBuffer, eraseOutput, xyTol)
Related Topics
Licensing Information
ArcView: No
ArcEditor: No
ArcInfo: Yes
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Moa's Journey
Two thirds of the earth’s surface is water and in the warm tropics, much of it is virtually lifeless. Void of nutrients essential for the growth of plankton, anything that lives there is either a part of a reef ecosystem or in transit. Yet miraculously, for five months out of the year, nearly 1000 humpback whales migrate to a chain of 177 islands in the south Pacific known as the Kingdom of Tonga. It is where these colossal animals unite to mate and give birth.
A female humpback named Moa started her life here six years ago. She was birthed near the small Tongan island of Vava’u. Tonga is an ideal nursery as it provides sheltered areas with shallow warm water. Moa was born late in the season and didn’t have time to mature in preparation for the 5000 km migration from Tonga to the cold waters of Antarctica. Lacking strength, her mother pushed her along above her head over the course of the dangerous 24-day journey that stretches along the coast of New Zealand and Australia. Orcas and large sharks are the only natural predators to humpbacks.
Moa and other humpback whales spend 5 months of the year building fat reserves near Polar Regions where food is abundant and predatory impact is low. Consuming nearly 2 tons of food every day often means working as a team in a process known as “Bubble Netting”. A group of whales will ascend from as deep as 200 meters slowly releasing air, trapping small fish and krill, until the team surfaces together with their mouths wide open capturing their prey. They consume around 2 tons of krill every day.
June through October mark the cold winter months in the Antarctic. However, Moa and the other humpbacks returned to the Tongan waters early this year. A shift in global weather influenced the krill hatching cycle and by late September, a month earlier than reflected in recorded history, the mass of whales already left. Moa, showing signs of pregnancy, stayed behind. She can’t risk calving during her journey back through unprotected waters leaving her alone and exposed.
A week passed and a new female calf playfully swims around her exhausted mother. Over the next six months, the young humpback will consume nearly 400 liters of pink milk per day. Moa, Having already lost nearly a third of her body weight, is now starving. Yet, having been born late herself, Moa and her juvenile have a fighting chance of making it back to the feeding grounds. Little is known about humpback migrations but there’s a chance that a male escort could accompany them.
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Roman dates
From NovaRoma
Jump to: navigation, search
General Information
Roman dates are given by using references to three sacred days which fall at roughly the same time each month. These days are the Kalends, the Nones, and the Ides. These will be returned to again, shortly.
Dates are given by counting, inclusively, backwards from the next reference day, putting this number, ordinally, in the accusative case, after the words "ante diem," excepting one case, which is the day before the referenced day, in which case rather than the number and "ante diem," the word "pridie" is used instead. Usually, instead of writing each word out, the words "ante diem" are abbreviated to "a.d.," "pridie" is abbreviated to "pr.," and the number is just given as a numeral. Following this, the referenced sacred day and month is placed in the feminine accusative plural.
Kalends, Nones, and Ides
But there is an exception. When the date to be give in one of these three sacred days (Kalends, Nones, Ides), the date is given as strictly the day and month, both in the feminine ablative plural. Therefore, "Kalendis Aprilibus," "Nonis Septembribus," "Idibus Maiis."
Consular dating
When using Consular dating the names of both consuls are given in the ablative case, followed by the word "consulibus (cos.)." So, 63 BCE would be "M. Tullio Cicerone et C. Antonio Hibrida consulibus." Also, it was not uncommon to shorten this simply to the cognomina of the two consuls, so the previous would be "Cicerone et Hibrida cos."
Dating from the founding of the city
Month Forms
The table below gives the necessary forms for giving Roman dates. The pre-Julian Latin name and forms are only given when in disagreement with the Gregorian equivalents.
Month (English, Gregorian Latin,
pre-Julian Latin)
Plural Forms (Accusative, Ablative) Month (English, Gregorian Latin,
pre-Julian Latin)
Plural Forms (Accusative, Ablative)
January, Ianuarius Ianuarias, Ianuariis July, Iulius,
Iulias, Iuliis;
Quin[c]tiles, Quin[c]tilibus
February, Februarius Februarias, Februariis August, Augustus,
Augustas, Augustis;
Sextiles, Sextilibus
March, Martius Martias, Martiis September, September Septembres, Septembribus
April, Aprilis Apriles, Aprilibus October, October Octobres, Octobribus
May, Maius Maias, Maiis November, November Novembres, Novembribus
June, Iunius Iunias, Iuniis December, December Decembres, Decembribus
Table of Dates
Februarius Februarius
(leap year)
1 Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis
4 pridie Nonas pridie Nonas a.d. IV Non. pridie Nonas
5 Nonis Nonis a.d. III Non. Nonis
12 pridie Idus pridie Idus a.d. IV Id. pridie Idus
13 Idibus Idibus a.d. III Id. Idibus
Personal tools
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Rotary union
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Components of a rotary union
This image shows the components needed to make a rotary union; a shaft, housing, bearings, seals and retaining clip. The independent shaft and housing allow for continuous rotation of either component. This is an example of a two passage rotary union with independent channels that allow both liquids and gases to transfer simultaneously. [1]
A rotary union is a union that allows for rotation of the united parts. It is thus a device that provides a seal between a stationary supply passage (such as pipe or tubing) and a rotating part (such as a drum, cylinder, or spindle) to permit the flow of a fluid into and/or out of the rotating part. Fluids typically used with rotary joints and rotating unions include various heat transfer media and fluid power media such as steam, water, thermal oil, hydraulic fluid, and coolants.[2] A rotary union is sometimes referred to as a rotating union, rotary valve, swivel union, rotorseal,[3]rotary couplings, rotary joint, rotating joints, hydraulic coupling, pneumatic rotary union, through bore rotary union, air rotary union, electrical rotary union, or vacuum rotary union[4]
A rotary union will lock onto an input valve while rotating to meet an outlet. During this time the liquid and/or gas will flow into the rotary union from its source and will be held within the device during its movement. This liquid and/or gas will leave the union when the valve openings meet during rotation and more liquid and/or gas will flow into the union again for the next rotation. Often functioning under high pressure and constant movement a rotary union is designed to rotate around an axis. A rotary union’s design can be altered to change this or to increase the psi or rpm it needs to withstand as well as the number of valves required.
While rotary unions come in many shapes, sizes, and configurations, they always have the same four basic components: a housing unit, a shaft, a bearing (mechanical) (or bearings), and a seal. Rotary unions typically are constructed from stainless steel to resist rust and corrosion, but many other metals can be involved like aluminum.
The housing is the component that holds all of the other elements of the rotary union together. The housing has an inlet port, which is a threaded port to which the hose supplying the medium will be attached. The rotary union may also have an outlet port, if the same joint is being used both to supply fluid to a roll and to remove fluid from the roll. In smaller rotary unions the housing is stationary. In larger rotary unions the housing is usually bolted to the drum or roll using a flange. In these cases the housing rotates at the same speed as the drum
The shaft is the component that carries the medium through the rotary union into the drum or roll. In many cases the shaft will turn with the drum or roll. In some cases, like in larger flanged rotary unions, the shaft may be stationary while the housing rotates. The bearings and seal are typically assembled around the shaft.
The second most important part of the rotary union is the bearing. A rotary union may have only one bearing, but multiple bearing are much more common. Roller bearings; such as ball bearings and tapered roller bearings; or non-roller bearings, like graphite bearings and bronze brushings, may be used in a rotary union. The bearings are always used to allow a part of the joint, either the shaft or the housing, to rotate
Mechanical seal[edit]
The heart of the rotary union is the seal. The seal prevents the medium from leaking outside the rotary union while in operation. Seal types can vary from pusher-type end face mechanical seal, non-pusher type end face mechanical seal, lip seals, and o-ring seals. Most rotary unions have more than one seal. .[5]
Types of rotary unions[edit]
Many rotary unions incorporate multiple ports, some of which are designed to handle different types of material simultaneously. A rotary union with a straight port transfers the substance directly through the rotary union. Other designs include an elbow port, which causes the material to flow out at an angle, and multiple ports. A multiple port rotary union looks like a perforated cylinder. At the end of the cylinder is a threaded screw with seals that locks on to the output. The material being transferred flows into the cylinder and out of the input holes. In the case of a rotary union with multiple inputs, chambers separated by seals keep the materials from inadvertently mixing. This type of rotary union is often used in the manufacture of plastics and other petroleum products, for which multiple inputs may need to be streamlined, but kept separate.[citation needed]
Many assembly lines incorporate multiple rotary unions, because they are highly versatile and take up less space than other devices designed for a similar purpose. Rotary unions also appear in automobiles and other machines that require constant supplies of lubrication, air, or other liquids in order for moving parts to run smoothly. Brakes, for example, use rotary unions to maintain a constant supply of pressurized brake fluid. Rotary unions are also heavily used in crude oil processing, the chemical industry, commercial food production, and pharmaceutical applications.
Equipment used in grain harvesting including combines, tractors, grain carts and threshers employ rotary unions. Once harvested, many crops will be processed with equipment that uses rotary unions. Food processing equipment that use rotary unions include cooling conveyors, flaking mills, shredders, steam cookers, starch dryers, rotary cutters and roll-forming.
Auto manufacturing is a diverse user of rotary unions for a broad range of parts or components and materials, whether machined steel, iron or aluminum, stampings, plastics, glass or paperboard. Rotary unions are used for operations that require coolant, lubricant or hydraulics.
Car washes[edit]
There are two kinds of car wash facilities that use unions: the automatic and the hand operated. Most manufacturers of automatic systems have several revolving brushes which use 55 series to introduce low pressure detergent water through the supporting shaft to the brushes. In addition, automatic car washes have spinners that require rotary unions to transmit high-pressure water into the spinning mechanisms.
Downstream processing of paper, plastic film, foil and related substrate materials into finished, printed packaging such as bags, pouches, labels, tags, folding cartons and corrugated shipping cases is called converting. Rotary unions are used in all types of converting for water, steam, thermal oil, air or hydraulics.
Machine tools[edit]
Rotary unions may be used to transmit coolant, cutting oil, MQL, pressurized air in a bearingless or bearing supported configuration. Besides coolant delivery, rotary unions are used for chucking, tool sensing, rotary index table and other machine tool applications.
Electro-hydraulic equipment used in mining operations employ rotary unions including shuttle cars and coal cars, drill heads, backhoes, clam shell cranes and drag lines. In addition, boom hoists, retrieving drums and bucket drum clutches each require rotary unions.
Oil and gas[edit]
Drilling rigs (oil or gas) use air clutches and brakes that require rotary unions. Water unions are used to flush mud from the drill tip, and must withstand shock and vibration in this severe application. Oil and petrochemical refineries use batch mixers, flaking mills, blenders and drying rolls that each require rotary unions.
Paper applications span the supply chain from the raw pulp and paper mills, to the downstream paper converters. Mills use steam joint and siphon systems and water unions for heating and cooling. Converters use rotary unions for heating and cooling rolls, as well as winders with air clutches and brakes.
The manufacturing of plastic materials encompasses a wide variety of applications including cast film, blown film, foam, flexible and rigid sheet extrusion, single and multi-layer co-extrusion, blow molding, thermoforming, pelletizing, wire and cable, injection molding and winding. Rotary unions are used for heating or cooling the many processing rolls throughout the wide variety of applications. In addition, rotary unions for air and hydraulic service are used in winding and injection molding applications. Many of today’s modern winding applications will also utilize electrical slip rings.
Printing on flexible rolls of paper or plastic films requires rotary unions for air or hydraulics, as well as chill rolls for temperature control. Web offset and sheet printing equipment use many rotary unions on the ink vibrator and chill rolls.
Rubber is compounded on big industrial mixers which use rotary unions for water cooled rolls. Rubber extrusion is similar to plastic extrusion, with rotary unions used to cool the extruder screw.
The steel industry is one of the largest users of rotary unions primarily for continuous casting machines (CCM) which use rotary unions to cool the numerous rolls that support molten slabs as it moves by gravity through various segments onto a run-out table to downstream annealing and heat treating. The slab is formed into coil or sheet. Coil is further converted in processing centers that require hydraulic unions for actuation of mandrels.
Rubber tire plants use industrial mixers, extruders, calendar train cooling stacks and rayon slashers to make tire cord. Rotary unions are used in every process for temperature control.[6]
1. ^ "DSTI - Dynamic Sealing Technologies, Inc".
2. ^ [1], Kadant Inc., retrieved 10/13/2017.
3. ^
4. ^ [2], Rotary Systems Inc., retrieved 1/22/2013.
5. ^ [3], Duff Norton, retrieved 1/15/2013.
6. ^ "Industries". Deublin Company. Retrieved 5 November 2013.
External links[edit]
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May 10, 1773
Parliament Passes Tea Act
Enacted to support the floundering East India Company by allowing it to dispose of a massive surplus of tea in the American market on terms that were extremely favorable to both the company and colonial consumers. Or so British ministers thought because the selling price was set substantially below that of smuggled tea. American radicals characterized the measure as nothing more than a thinly disguised ploy to trick colonials into paying the remaining Townshend duty on tea and thereby tacitly accept parliamentary taxation.
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Chaim Rumkowski led the Lodz Ghetto as head of the ghetto’s Jewish Council. Rumkowski remains a controversial figure in the history of the Holocaust. His detractors say that he used his position to advance his own power at the expense of others and that he betrayed his fellow Jews. The supporters of Rumkowski argue that he had no choice other than to work with the Nazis who controlled Lodz as they decided what went into the ghetto in terms of food and others supplies.
Chaim Rumkowski was born on February 27th 1877. Before the Nazi invasion of Poland on September 1st1939, Rumkowski was a businessman who also ran an orphanage. As a Jewish resident of Lodz, Rumkowski was forced to live in the Lodz Ghetto where he was appointed head of the Jewish Council – a position that made him effective head of government in the ghetto. Rumkowski came to the decision that it was better to work with the Nazis to get supplies rather than not to do so. He developed a working relationship with the most senior Nazi administrator in Lodz, Hans Biebow. There is little doubt that Biebow used this working relationship for his own financial ends but for Rumkowski it was the only way for the ghetto to get food and other supplies.
Probably the most controversial issue surrounding Rumkowski was not so much his belief that the Jews should work (under duress) for the Nazis for their own survival but the power he acquired within Lodz Ghetto. To some he was ‘King Chaim’ who established a power base in the ghetto that was too great for one individual. The internal stamps used in the Lodz ghetto carried an image of Rumkowski and his friends and supporters in the ghetto always seemed to live better lives than his detractors – or so it seemed to them. Rumkowski also carried out marriage ceremonies when rabbis were forbidden to work. He also referred to Lodz by its new German name – Litzmannstadt as opposed to Lodz.
Rumkowski wanted to convince Biebow that the work done in the Lodz Ghetto was indispensable to the Nazis. He persuaded Biebow that he could lead the Jews in the ghetto into producing military equipment in exchange for food. By the end of April 1940, Biebow accepted his arguments and the people in the ghetto were given the equipment necessary for manufacturing military equipment. It is not known what people felt like knowing that they were producing equipment for those who had forced them into the ghetto. By the time the ghetto was freed by the Red Army in January 1945, there were only 900 survivors. However, those who did survive had their own views about Rumkowski who did not survive. Views are black or white with nothing in between. Survivors either supported what he did, which did lead to an extended life for the ghetto when compared to the Warsaw Ghetto as an example or they described him as a tyrant with a lust for power.
Rumkowski was in a difficult position from the start of the ghetto’s existence. The Nazis appointed him head of the Lodz Ghetto on October 13th 1939 and he had to report directly to Hans Biebow. If Rumkowski had refused his appointment, what would have happened to him? If someone else had been appointed, would the ghetto have been destroyed months or years earlier? Both are unanswerable questions and indicate just how difficult it is to judge Rumkowski and his behaviour.
His detractors saw Rumkowski as a dictator within the ghetto – or someone who had aspirations to be a dictator. Rumkowski was appointed head of the Jewish Council for the Lodz Ghetto. This meant that others were to be appointed to the Council to assist Rumkowski in running the ghetto. He appointed 31 men to help him run the ghetto in October 1939. By mid-November, 20 of these men were dead and the rest had been arrested. Some say that Rumkowski was involved in all of this because the men he appointed would not agree with the way he wanted the ghetto to be run. However, there is no proof of this. New members of the Council were appointed and they were far more willing to acquiesce to the suggestions of Rumkowski.
There can be little doubt that Rumkowski wanted what can only be described as effective control over the ghetto. There were two sides to this. He worked hard to establish medical facilities within the ghetto and in this he was successful. Seven hospitals and five clinics were established. However, it required the Nazis to hand over medicines and these were always in very short supply. Schools were also established for the children of the ghetto. Forty-seven schools were established. Plays were put on for those in the ghetto and an orchestra was created.
However, he also wanted the ghetto to become a powerhouse of manufacturing. Rumkowski believed that the Nazis had to be convinced that the work done in the ghetto was vital and as a result of this he pushed for long hours of work. This resulted in strikes, which if they continued for any length of time could have seriously undermined Rumkowski’s pledge to Biebow that the work done in the ghetto was very important. In response to these strikes, Rumkowski created a ghetto police force that was answerable to him. The ringleaders of the strikes were arrested. Their punishment was simple – they were refused permission to work. Without work, they had no food rations. With no food, they faced starvation. Such an autocratic approach had two results. The first was that it convinced Biebow that the work in the ghetto could continue to the benefit of the Nazis. The second was that the strikes had all but stopped by the spring of 1941. Most had come to accept Rumkowski’s slogan that “Labour Is Our Only Way”.
Rumkowski also carried out deportation orders without question. The head of the Jewish Council for theWarsaw Ghetto, Adam Czerniakow, committed suicide when it became obvious that those deported from Warsaw were not being resettled but were being murdered. However, Rumkowski still stayed with his belief that the only way for the ghetto in Lodz to survive was to ‘go along’ with the Nazis however distasteful this was. His most infamous association with the deportations involved the children of the ghetto. Ordered to deport 20,000 children from the Lodz Ghetto, Rumkowski made his ‘Give Me Your Children’ speech.
As the Red Army advanced across Eastern Europe, the Nazis made plans for the destruction of the ghettos – the so-called liquidation of the ghettos. In August 1944, Rumkowski boarded a train bound for Auschwitz. Specific details of what happened to Rumkowski at Auschwitz is not fully known. However, survivors of the death camp stated after the war that some of the Jews who had been deported from Lodz but who were still alive in Auschwitz recognised Rumkowski on his arrival. Apparently Rumkowski was so weak that he needed to be carried around in a litter. When told where he was it is said that Rumkowski replied, “Oh, my God” and started to recite a Jewish prayer. It is thought that he died on August 28th 1944.
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The SU UMa stars and the tidal instability
In spite of the apparent success of thermal instability theory to explain the many observational features of many classes of CVs, a subgroup called SU UMa stars had remained defying reasonable explanation. The SU UMa stars are originally characterized by presence of long-lasting, bright outbursts called "superoubursts" in addition to normal outbursts which are observationally equivalent to outbursts of SS Cyg-type stars. Instrumental development, such as high-speed photometry and time-resolved spectroscopy, led to a plenty of observational knowledge about SU UMa stars and superoutbursts in the late 1970's and early 1980's (for a review, see Warner 1985).
The main characterstics of superoutbursts can be summarized as follows:
1) The duration of a superoutburst is at least several times longer than those of normal outbursts. The typical duration is an order of ten days.
2) The maximal brightness of a superoutburst is about one magnitude brighter than those of normal outbursts.
3) Superoutburst light curve shows gradual exponential decline (~0.15 mag/d), followed by a rapid terminal decline.
4) Superoutbursts occur more regularly than normal outbursts. The typical interval between two successive superoutbursts (later we call it "supercycle") is 100 to 1000 days, depending on the object.
In addition to these features, the superoutbursts show unique light variation called "superhumps". Superhumps resembles in shape orbital humps in quiescence (which are believed to arise from the hot spot where the accretion stream from the secondary collides with the accretion disk), but have a much larger (~100 times) luminosity, which amounts to an amplitude of a few tenths of magnitude during superoutbursts. This is why these humps are called "super" ones. Most striking feature of the superhumps is found in its period: the period of light variation is a few percent longer than the orbital period of the binary determined by the radial velocity study. At present, the existence of superhumps is considered to be the definition of a superourtburst, rather than its general outburst characteristics.
sample of superhump light curves
Orbital period distribution
Yet another striking feature of SU UMa stars is their orbital period distribution. Almost all SU UMa stars occupy below the "period gap", between 2.2 and 2.8 hrs in which the number density of CVs is markedly decreased. The only exception is TU Men.
Tidal instability
Several mechanisms to account for the superhumps have been historically proposed ranging from the spot on an asynchronously rotating secondary star from the eccentricity of the binary orbit. None of the mechanisms could reasonably explain all the observational features of superhumps, superoutbursts and orbital period distribution characteristic to SU UMa stars. One must wait a decade for another intrinsic disk instability called "tidal instability" or "tidally driven eccentric instability" which was first discovered by 2-D numerical simulation of an accretion disk by Whitehurst (1988). The basic results of Whitehurst was confirmed by hydrodynamical simulations by Hirose and Osaki (1990) and by Lubow (1991a,b).
Criterion of tidal instability
The tidal instability theory predicts that the accretion disk is deformed when the disk reaches a critical radius in a binary with a high (q = M_1/M_2 > 4) mass-ratio due to the 3:1 dynamical resonance between the orbital motions of the secondary star and the particle in the disk (Whitehurst 1988; Hirose and Osaki 1990). A precession of the deformed disk in a non-axisymmetric gravity field, and a varying tidal dissipation resulting from a periodic modulation of viscous heating for varying aspect of the secondary against the disk naturally explains the superhump light variation and the difference in the superhump period (Psh) from the orbital period (Porb). The mass-ratio criterion of this tidal instability is shown to basically define the orbital period distribution of SU UMa-type stars among dwarf novae, that is, the high (q = M_1/M_2 > 4) mass-ratio is achievable only in short orbital systems in CVs due to the Porb vs. mass relation of Roche-lobe filling main-sequence secondaries and limited mass range of white dwarf primaries (Whitehurst 1988), altough the lower limit of the mass ratio in SU UMa stars still awaits observational confirmation.
Unique outburst cycle of SU UMa stars
The remaining feature of SU UMa stars -- existence of normal- and superoutbursts and characteristic recurrence pattern -- was explained by combination of the thermal and tidal instabilities (Osaki 1989). In SU UMa stars, the disk radius gradually increases by experiencing normal outbursts, then the tidal instability is triggered when the disk exceeds the critical radius during the "final" normal outburst The resulting eccentric deformation of the disk and effective angular momentum removal via tidal dissipation cause a superoutburst. The superoutburst is thus triggered by a normal outburst. During a superoutburst, a large part of mass in the disk is accreted and the disk effectively shrinks to start a new cycle of normal outbursts. This cyclic variation of disk radius accompanied by one superoutburst and intervening normal outbursts is called "supercycle".
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Explore BrainMass
Walking the Plank
Please do not place your response in a .pdf format, but Word documents are okay. Thanks!
A horizontal uniform bar of mass m and length L is hung horizontally on two vertical strings. String 1 is attached to the end of the bar and string 2 is attached a distance L/4 from the other end. A monkey of mass m/2 walks from one end of the bar to the other. Find T_1, the magnitude of the force of tension in string 1. Express your answer in terms of appropriate constants and any of the given variables.
Solution Preview
Note 1. Let x be the distance along the plank from string #1 to the monkey.
Note 2. Assume a reference axis at string #2. Distances from the axis are moment arms. Note ...
Solution Summary
The solution is given with notes in reference to the equation and a step-by-step completed equation.
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Where did the term "haymaker" come from?
Quick Answer
The term "haymaker" originated around 1400 and referred to a person who made hay by swinging a scythe, a long staff with a curved blade used to cut through the grass and weeds that comprise hay. Around 1907, the word was used to refer to an incredibly strong punch, usually made with full force and the same swinging motion made when swinging a scythe.
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Where did the term "haymaker" come from?
Credit: Dean Mouhtaropoulos Getty Images Sport Getty Images
Full Answer
Swinging a scythe through a field of grass took incredible strength, and the word is also thought to refer to the force with which a 15th century haymaker could hit someone.
In modern day, the haymaker is considered an impure punch in boxing as it takes a long time to wind up due to the force required to make the proper weight transfer. It is intended to knock an opponent out. A haymaker can also be a shoulder punch like that used in mixed martial arts from a grappling position. This punch leaves the attacker vulnerable to counter if the punch misses or is blocked.
A haymaker can be defended against with a grappling move, by rerouting the attacker's momentum, with a quick strike to the face or with a block that cuts off the punch's momentum by striking at the attacker's bicep.
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Related Questions
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Reindeer, Santa & Snowman Ornaments
Lesson #10130
Create your own Christmas ornaments.
Grade Level:
Celebrate the holidays with decorative ornaments. Learn about cultures and traditions and discuss how different people celebrate special occasions.
Create ornaments for the holiday season as special gifts for family and friends.
A11011-Sizzix Bigz Die - Reindeer, Santa & Snowman
Supplies Used: Cardstock or Construction Paper, Colored Pens, Pencils or Crayons, Glue or Tape (Double-Sided), Ribbon, Scissors
1. Die-cut the Reindeer, Santa and Snowman from several layers of cardstock or construction paper. Keep one shape whole and cut away parts from others. Layer and adhere to embellish. Decorate with pens, pencils, crayons or any other art media.
2. Cut a piece of ribbon. Secure the ribbon behind each shape to complete the ornament(see Main Photo).
Fine Arts: Visual Arts
Source: National Standards for Arts Education
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Gallatin Street’s close proximity to the port made it a quick and frequent stop for those who docked, worked, or lived near the booming economic area. Close to half a million immigrants came through New Orleans’ port between 1841 and 1860, and many of them didn’t make it past Gallatin Street. According to historian Judith Kellehar Schafer, the majority of prostitutes in and around the area were immigrant women. Prostitution, known as New Orleans' second most profitable industry, The second most profitable industry in New Orleans, prostitution, also benefitted from the transient guests of Gallatin Street.
Schafer cites a study published by William W. Sanger in 1858 on the sex industry. Sanger found that after women were entangled in sex work, they often died within four years. He also found that at least fifty percent of prostitutes had sexually transmitted diseases. Although Sanger's study is based in New York City, Schafer applies his findings to New Orleans, and she reinforces the prominence of venereal disease in New Orleans by citing the recurring ads in New Orleans’ papers during that period for “cures” and remedies for sexually transmitted diseases.
Gerald Capers notes that during the Civil War, when Union soldiers were stationed in New Orleans, venereal disease among soldiers (who were regular visitors to brothels) cost the Department of the Gulf “50,000 to 100,000 days of service.” If public women didn’t die of disease, they died from being subjected to violence at the hands of drunken patrons or angry bar owners. In 1857, a young Irish immigrant named Mary Jane died by the knife of an angry customer in John Swan’s brothel after refusing certain sexual services. Such violent acts were not uncommon on Gallatin Street.
While women were often victims of violent crime, some women were also active criminals. In 1859, three prostitutes were charged with larceny after working together to steal from a patron of Archy Murphy’s brothel, at which the women were employed. Another famous woman, Mary Jane Jackson, better known as Bricktop, skipped theft and went straight to assault. A scourge throughout New Orleans, Bricktop also worked for Archy Murphy until she was deemed too rough for even one of the roughest dance houses on Gallatin Street. It is said that she carried a knife personally designed with two five-inch blades on either end. In December 1861, she took her violent streak so far as to kill her own husband. The Times-Picayune commented on the murder as such: “Both were degraded beings, regular penitentiary birds, habitual drunkards, and unworthy of any further notice from honest people.”
Three brothel owners on Gallatin Street were particularly violent—Archy Murphy, the brothel owner noted before, George Kent, and John Swan. In 1856, Swan successfully led a brawl of men and women against the police, then assaulted a man and beat a woman in two separate instances. Kent and Swan’s violence seemed to be a family affair. In 1858, the two bar owners’ wives were involved in a fight in which George Kent’s wife attacked and kicked the wife of John Swan. The bar owners had to be tough to run a club on this street, whose drunk and rowdy clientele could often hold their own in a fight and had very little to lose.
A group of men known as the Live Oak Gang frequented Gallatin Street. Although a motley crew, they were the closest thing to organized crime in the area. Herbert Asbury claims that the group earned their name by carrying around oak clubs, and because of their meeting place near the river in a pile of live oak knees. They were generally unwelcome in brothels because they were sure to cause a fight. The only club where they were welcome was Bill Swan’s Fireproof Saloon. Asbury claims that Bill Swan was once a member of the Live Oak Gang, but after Swan made a good amount of money, he invested in business rather than crime. The Live Oak boys were even violent towards one another. In 1886, the O’Brien brothers got into an argument at Bill Swan’s Fireproof Saloon that ended with the younger brother, Matt, shooting his older brother, Hugh. Hugh later died in Charity hospital. It was a gamble to trust a member of the Live Oak Gang, even if you were a member yourself.
Police were known to avoid Gallatin Street without a partner, especially at night. Antebellum-era police in New Orleans were understaffed and underpaid--two factors that Schafer claims made officers susceptible to bribes and apathy. However, some police officers took advantage of the underworld they were meant to protect. For example, in 1852, the Times-Picayune reported that a watchman on Gallatin Street threatened to shut down a woman’s brothel “unless she consented to certain propositions made by him.” In 1857, a police officer named Lieutenant Legget was accused of preventing the arrest of Arthur Guerin. A year earlier, Guerin had been dismissed from the police force after trying to cover up a murder on Gallatin Street. The murderer, “Dutch Pete,” former owner of the California House on Gallatin Street, had killed a man near his dance house. Guerin allowed for Dutch Pete to flee to Havana while Guerin “took care” of witnesses to the murder in New Orleans. The lack of police presence on Gallatin Street created an environment where crime and violence ruled the streets.
Of course, some police officers attempted to uphold the law. In 1860, for instance, Schafer cites that 36 women were arrested in Gallatin Street brothels and were sent to the workhouse for six months, but were soon let off on a technicality. Often, police would target prostitutes while ignoring the more violent crimes in the area. However, the bad cops outnumbered the good, and so prostitutes, drunks and criminals became the law enforcers of Gallatin Street.
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NCERT Textbook (Important Exercise Questions Only)
Q.2: Seen from the window of an aeroplane, the city appears . . . .
Ans: (iii) as developed as necessary
Q.3: Which of the following statements are examples of ‘the logic of geography’?
Ans: (i), (iii) and (iv) are the correct statements.
Q.4: Mention two things that are
(i) clear from the height
(ii) not clear from the height
(i) The earth is round and that it has more sea than land are clear from the height.
(ii) Why men hate each other and build walls across the cities to kill each other is not clear.
Q.1: ‘The logic of geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ten thousand feet’.
a. Where was the poet?
b. Which place did he look upon from there?
c. What lesson of geography did the poet learn from the sky?
a. The poet was at a height of about ten thousand feet.
b. He looked upon the country from there.
c. He learnt the logic of geography It was clearly seen that the people settled at places where land and water were easily available. This is the reason why the cities in a country have grown along the rivers. Also that the earth is round and the sea is more than the land on the earth.
HTTP://CBSEKEY.COMQuestions (Additional)
Q.1: How did the earth appear to the poet from the height of sky? What was it that the poet could not understand even from the sky?
Ans: From about six miles above the earth, it appeared round. It was also clear that there was more water (sea) than the land. It was thus a lesson in geography which the poet had learnt. However the poet found it difficult to understand why people hated each other. He failed to understand why people built walls across the cities to kill other human beings.
In brief the poet says that from the height of sky it is easy to understand the logic of geography but, what remains a mystery is the human psychology that why people hate and kill one another
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"url": "https://internationaleducationalgroup.com/2009/09/18/311/"
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