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What the Romans called their numbers
Updated: May 20
If you are feeling adventurous in your study of the Romans then perhaps you might like to try your hand (or tongue I suppose) at reading numbers in Latin (the language of the Romans).
If you need some help with Latin pronunciation (some of the letters are pronounced slightly differently than today) then you can check out our handy guide here.
Something that is quite striking about the Roman counting system is that 1 - 10 seem to make sense (they all have their own numbers) however when you get to 18 & 19, or 28 & 29, you start counting down to the next decimal number. So duodeviginti (18) can be broken down to duo (2) de (less or taken away from) viginti (20), "2 less than 20", or 18!
Now if you are learning Latin numbers for a bit of fun to use in the classroom to impress your friends and you find it easier to say octodecim, octo (8) decim (10), rather than duodeviginti then go wild. Everyone will be super impressed at your ability and willingness to having a go. If however you are an adult using this with a bunch of Latin scholars then guess what... the same rule applies. People will be impressed and think that you are really cool!
© 2020 by Classroom Adventures
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Supriya Ghosh (Editor)
Siege of Malta (1798–1800)
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Period 1798 – 4 September 1800
Location Valletta, Malta
Result Allied victory
Siege of Malta (1798–1800) httpsuploadwikimediaorgwikipediacommonsthu
Combatants Kingdom of Great Britain, French First Republic, Kingdom of Naples, Kingdom of Portugal
Similar Invasion of Ceylon, Ahmed Barzani revolt, Pink's War, Capture of Ormuz, Ambela Campaign
Siege of malta 1798 1800
The Siege of Malta, also known as the Siege of Valletta or the French Blockade (Maltese: L-Imblokk tal-Franċiżi), was a two-year siege and blockade of the French garrison in Valletta, the largest city and main port on the Mediterranean island of Malta, between 1798 and 1800. Valletta had been captured by a French expeditionary force during the Mediterranean campaign of 1798, and garrisoned with 3,000 men under the command of Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois. When the French Mediterranean Fleet was destroyed at the Battle of the Nile on 1 August 1798, the British Royal Navy was able to initiate a blockade of Malta, assisted by an uprising among the native Maltese population against French rule. Forced to retreat to Valletta, the French garrison faced severe food shortages, exacerbated by the effectiveness of the British blockade: although small quantities of supplies arrived in early 1799, there was no further traffic until early 1800, by which time starvation and disease was having a disastrous effect on health, morale, and combat capability of the French troops.
In February 1800, a significant convoy under Contre-Admiral Jean-Baptiste Perrée sent from Toulon made a determined effort to resupply the garrison. The blockade squadron under Rear-Admiral Lord Nelson intercepted the convoy within sight of the starving troops on Malta and in the ensuing, but brief, battle, Perrée was killed and his flagship captured. The following month, the ship of the line Guillaume Tell set sail from Valletta to Toulon, laden with soldiers, but this too was intercepted and in a hard-fought battle was forced to surrender to a larger British squadron. These defeats rendered the French position on Valletta untenable, and its surrender inevitable. Although Vaubois held out for another five months, he eventually surrendered on 4 September, by which time the garrison mortality from malnourishment and typhus had reached 100 men a day. Malta was retained by Britain, and control of the island was a factor in the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803. Ultimately it remained under British government for 164 years, gaining independence in 1964.
French invasion of Malta
On 19 May 1798, a French fleet sailed from Toulon, escorting an expeditionary force of over 30,000 men under General Napoleon Bonaparte. The force was destined for Egypt, Bonaparte seeking to expand French influence in Asia and force Britain to make peace in the French Revolutionary Wars, which had begun in 1792. Sailing southeast, the convoy collected additional transports from Italian ports and at 05:30 on 9 June arrived off Valletta, the heavily fortified port-city on the island of Malta. At this time, Malta and its neighbouring islands were ruled by the Knights of St. John, an old and influential feudal order weakened by the loss of most of their revenue during the French Revolution. The order was composed of men from across Europe, including a significant proportion of Frenchmen, who ruled over the majority Maltese population of the islands. The head of government was Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim, who refused Bonaparte's demand that his entire convoy be allowed to enter Valletta and take on supplies, insisting that Malta's neutrality meant that only two ships could enter at a time.
On receiving this reply, Bonaparte immediately ordered his fleet to bombard Valletta and on 11 June General Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers directed an amphibious operation in which several thousand soldiers landed at seven strategic sites around the island. The French Knights deserted the order, and the remaining Knights failed to mount a meaningful resistance. Approximately 2,000 native Maltese militia resisted for 24 hours, retreating to Valletta once the city of Mdina fell to General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois. Although Valletta was strong enough to hold out against a lengthy siege, Bonaparte negotiated a surrender with Hompesch, who agreed to turn Malta and all of its resources over to the French in exchange for estates and pensions in France for himself and his knights. Bonaparte then established a French garrison on the islands, leaving 4,000 men under Vaubois while he and the rest of the expeditionary force sailed eastwards for Alexandria on 19 June.
Battle of the Nile
Bonaparte's convoy was pursued across the Mediterranean by a British fleet of 14 ships under Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, who learned of the invasion of Malta while anchored off Sicily, and subsequently attempted to intercept the French on their passage to Egypt. Nelson's force overtook the French fleet on the night of 22 June in the dark without discovering their presence, and arrived off Alexandria on 28 June ahead of Bonaparte. Believing that the French must have had a different objective, Nelson turned northwards the following day to investigate the coast of Anatolia and missed Bonaparte's arrival on 30 June by less than 24 hours. Unopposed, Bonaparte landed his army and marched on Alexandria, capturing the city and turning inland. The fleet was ordered to anchor in nearby Aboukir Bay and await further instructions. On 1 August, Nelson returned to the Egyptian coast and discovered the French fleet at anchor. Attacking immediately, Nelson's ships managed to capture nine French ships of the line and destroy two, including the flagship Orient with only moderate damage to themselves. The destruction of the French Mediterranean fleet granted control of the sea to the Royal Navy, soon joined by the navies of Portugal, Naples, the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire as part of the hastily organised Second Coalition against France.
Maltese uprising
On Malta, the French had rapidly dismantled the institutions of the Knights of St. John, including the Roman Catholic Church. Church property was looted and seized to pay for the expedition to Egypt, an act that generated considerable anger among the deeply religious Maltese population. On 2 September, this anger erupted in a popular uprising during an auction of church property, and within days thousands of Maltese irregulars had driven the French garrison into Valletta. Valletta was surrounded by approximately 10,000 irregular Maltese soldiers led by Emmanuele Vitale and Canon Francesco Saverio Caruana. The Maltese were armed with 23 cannon and a small squadron of coastal gunboats. Although there was intermittent skirmishing between the garrison and the Maltese, the fortress was too strong for the irregulars to assault.
In mid-September, a squadron of Portuguese ships had arrived at the island. They included the Príncipe Real (90 cannons; Captain Puysigur), Rainha de Portugal (74; Captain Thomas Stone), São Sebastião (74; Captain Mitchell), Afonso de Albuquerque (74; Captain Donald Campbell), and the brig Falcão (24; Captain Duncan). Four of the captains were British, and all were under the command of Domingos Xavier de Lima, Marquess of Niza. In addition, the British ship HMS Lion (Captain Manley Dixon) and the fireship HMS Incendiary (Captain George Baker) were attached to the squadron. The Portuguese government had sent this force from the Tagus to augment Nelson's fleet. After a brief stay off Malta the squadron continued to Alexandria. There Nelson sent the squadron back to blockade Malta.
Late in September, a British convoy consisting of 13 battered ships under Captain Sir James Saumarez appeared off the island. Survivors of the Battle of the Nile, they were in urgent need of repair and unable to directly assist in the siege. Nevertheless, Saumarez met with representatives of the Maltese and on 25 September, sent an offer of truce to Vaubois on their behalf. Vaubois replied "Vous avez, sans doute, oublié que des Français sont dans la place. Le sort des habitans [sic] ne vous regarde pointe. Quant à votre sommation, les soldats français ne sont point habitués à ce style" ("You might have forgotten that the French hold this place. The fate of the inhabitants is none of your concern. As for your ultimatum, French soldiers are not accustomed to such a tone"). Unable to persuade the French to give in, Saumarez instead provided the Maltese forces with 1,200 muskets with which to continue the siege. Saumarez, unable to delay repairs any longer, sailed for Gibraltar at the end of the month.
On 12 October, the British ships of the line HMS Alexander under Captain Alexander Ball, HMS Culloden under Captain Thomas Troubridge and HMS Colossus under Captain George Murray joined Niza's ships off Malta, marking the formal start of the blockade. On the same day, Vaubois withdrew the last of his soldiers into the fortified new city of Valletta, accompanied by approximately 100 Maltese nationals who had joined the French forces. The garrison numbered over 3,000 men and initially at least was well supplied. In the harbour lay the ships of the line Dégo and Athénien and the frigate Carthaginoise, all of which were former ships of the Maltese Navy, as well as the newly arrived Guillaume Tell and frigates Justice and Diane, survivors of the Battle of the Nile under Rear-Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, which had reached Malta at the end of September.
Capture of Gozo
On 24 October, after a ten-day passage from Naples, Nelson joined the blockade squadron in HMS Vanguard accompanied by HMS Minotaur. On 28 October, Ball successfully completed negotiations with the French garrison on the small island of Gozo, the 217 French soldiers there agreeing to surrender without a fight and transferring the island, its fortifications, 24 cannon, a large quantity of ammunition and 3,200 sacks of flour to the British. Although the island was formally claimed by King Ferdinand of Naples, it was administered by British and Maltese representatives, whose first action was to distribute the captured food supplies to the island's 16,000 inhabitants. Malta and the surrounding islands were not self-sufficient and quickly the challenge of feeding the population became a strain on the islands' resources, particularly with so many men under arms, Although now formally in command of the islands, King Ferdinand refused to assist with supplies, and the responsibility was left to Ball and his captains to arrange for the transport of supplies from Italy. By the end of the year, the number of Maltese troops in the field had fallen from 10,000 to 1,500, supported by 500 British and Portuguese marines from the blockade squadron. The blockade fleet, consisting of five British and four Portuguese ships, operated from St. Paul's Bay and Marsa Sirocco (now Marsaxlokk) on the island of Malta itself.
1799 was a frustrating year for the British and Maltese forces deployed against Malta, as efforts to secure sufficient forces to prosecute the siege were repeatedly denied. Major-General James St Clair-Erskine, commander of British Army forces in the Mediterranean, considered the ongoing War of the Second Coalition in Italy and the defence of Minorca to be higher priorities than Ball's siege, while the defeated Neapolitans continued to refuse assistance. A Russian squadron under Admiral Fyodor Fyodorovich Ushakov briefly appeared off the island in January, but was almost immediately ordered to join the Russian and Turkish forces besieging the island of Corfu. In addition to the difficulties the Allies faced in obtaining food for the Maltese population, the French succeeded in bringing supplies through the blockade in the early part of the year: in January 1799 a schooner reached Valletta from Ancona, and in February the frigate Boudeuse evaded the blockade and entered the port with supplies from Toulon. In May, a major French expedition under Admiral Etienne Eustache Bruix entered the Western Mediterranean, forcing Nelson to recall his scattered fleet from across the region, temporarily raising the blockade of Malta. During this operation a number of French supply ships took advantage of the absence of the British squadron to enter Valletta.
However, despite these occasional supply ships, the French garrison was rapidly running out of food. To conserve resources, the French forced the civilian population out of the city; the civilian population dropped from 45,000 in 1799 to 9,000 by 1800. Nelson himself took nominal command of the blockade, while Ball was made president of the Maltese National Congress. As liaison between the Maltese military and civilian commanders, he directed the distribution of supplies to the Maltese population, which was beginning to suffer from disease brought about by food shortages. He was replaced on Alexander by his first lieutenant, William Harrington. On 1 November Nelson again offered terms of surrender to Vaubois, and was again rebuffed, with the reply "Jaloux de mériter l'estime de votre nation, comme vous recherchez celle de la nôtre, nous sommes résolus défendre cette fortresse jusqu'à l'extrémité" ("Keen to deserve the esteem your nation, as you seek that of ours, we are resolved to defend this fortress until the end"). By this point, Nelson was conducting the blockade at a distance, based at the Neapolitan court in Palermo. There he indulged in gambling and social engagements, becoming closer and closer to Emma, Lady Hamilton, wife of the ambassador Sir William Hamilton. His behaviour was heavily criticised, not just by his commanding officer Vice-Admiral Lord Keith, who had recently replaced Earl St Vincent, but also by old friends such as Thomas Troubridge, who wrote to him "If you knew what your friends feel for you I am sure you would cut out all the nocturnal parties . . . I beseech your Lordship, leave off". In December 1799, Erskine was replaced by Lieutenant-General Henry Edward Fox, who immediately redistributed 800 troops from the garrison at Messina to Malta under Brigadier-General Thomas Graham. These troops filled the gap left by the withdrawal of Portuguese forces, which had been ordered to return to Lisbon. Disease began to spread within the city as rations became scarcer. The arrival of an aviso in January 1800 with the news of the events of 18 Brumaire that made Bonaparte First Consul of France prompted a brief respite and a public statement from Vaubois that the city would never be surrendered, although conditions continued to deteriorate.
Convoy battles
At the beginning of February 1800, the Neapolitan government, reinstated in Naples after being expelled the year before, finally agreed to participate in the siege and 1,200 troops were embarked on a squadron led by Vice-Admiral Lord Keith's flagship HMS Queen Charlotte and landed on Malta. For a time, both Keith and Nelson remained with the blockade squadron, which consisted of six ships of the line, along with a few Neapolitan Ships of The Line, and several British and Neapolitan frigates. On 17 February a message arrived with the squadron from the frigate HMS Success, which had been stationed off Sicily to watch for French reinforcements. Captain Shuldham Peard reported that he was shadowing a squadron of six or seven French ships sailing in the direction of Malta. These vessels were a relief squadron, sent from Toulon with extensive food supplies and 3,000 additional troops under Contre-Admiral Jean-Baptiste Perrée in Généreux, one of the ships of the line that had escaped at the Nile two years earlier. On 18 February, the convoy was sighted by lookouts on Alexander. In the ensuing chase, Success captured a French transport and attacked the much larger Généreux. Although the frigate was damaged in the exchange, Success' second broadside mortally wounded Perrée and delayed the ship of the line long enough for HMS Foudroyant, under Lord Nelson, and HMS Northumberland to join the battle. Heavily outnumbered, Généreux surrendered.
Shortly after the capture of the Généreux, Keith returned to the Italian coast in Queen Charlotte, where his flagship was lost in a fire that killed more than 700 of its crew, although Keith was ashore at the time. Before departing, Keith issued strict instructions to Nelson that he was not to return to Palermo, but was to confine any shore leave in Sicily to Syracuse. Nelson ignored the order and by late March was in Palermo conducting an open love affair with Emma Hamilton. In his absence, Troubridge took over command of the blockade, delegating temporarily to Captain Manley Dixon. Dixon led the squadron on 31 March when Guillaume Tell attempted to break out on Valletta under Decrés. Spotted by the frigate HMS Penelope under Captain Henry Blackwood, Guillaume Tell was chased northwards and engaged by first Penelope and then by Dixon's HMS Lion, driving both ships back but suffering severe damage. Eventually the arrival of the powerful Foudroyant under Captain Sir Edward Berry proved too much for Decrés, but he continued fighting for another two hours before he was forced to surrender his battered and dismasted ship; in the engagement, he lost more than 200 men killed and wounded.
Nelson's cruise
In the aftermath of these defeats at sea, and with the food supply in Valletta dwindling, the British sent another demand for capitulation. Vaubois again refused, with the reply "Cette place est en trop bon état, et je suis moi-même trop jaloux de bien servir men payset de conserver mon honneur, por écouter vos propositions." ("This place is in too good a situation, and I am too conscious of the service of my country and my honour, to listen to your proposals"). In reality, the situation was dire: during February, prices of basic foodstuffs stood at 16 francs for a fowl, 12 francs for a rabbit, 20 sous for an egg, 18 sous for a lettuce, 40 sous for a rat and six francs per pound for fish. For the civilian typhus patients, the only food available was a horse-flesh soup.
On 23 April, Nelson departed Palermo in Foudroyant, with both Sir William and Emma Hamilton on board as his guests. The party visited Syracuse and then travelled on to Valletta, where Berry took Foudroyant so close to the harbour that the ship came under fire from the French batteries. No hits were scored, but Nelson was furious that Emma had been taken into danger and immediately ordered Berry to withdraw. His anger was exacerbated by Emma's refusal to retire from the quarterdeck during the brief exchange. From there, Foudroyant anchored at Marsa Sirocco, where Nelson and Emma lived together openly and were hosted by Troubridge and Graham. Sir William Hamilton, a prominent antiquarian as well as a diplomat, spent his time exploring the island. By early June, Nelson and his party had returned to Palermo, the beginning of a lengthy overland journey across Europe to Britain. Nelson also detached Foudroyant and Alexander from the blockade, again in defiance of Keith's explicit orders, to assist the Neapolitan royal family in their passage to Livorno. Enraged at Nelson's disobedience, Keith publicly remarked that "Lady Hamilton has had command of the fleet long enough". In May, Troubridge returned to Britain and was replaced in command by Captain George Martin, while Graham was superseded by Major-General Henry Pigot.
The British blockade continued to prevent French efforts to resupply Valletta during the early summer of 1800, and by August the situation was desperate: no horses or pack animals, dogs, cats, fowls or rabbits still lived within the city, the cisterns had been emptied and even firewood was in short supply. So desperate was the need for wood that the frigate Boudeuse, trapped by the blockade, was broken up for fuel by the beleaguered garrison. With defeat now inevitable, Vaubois gave orders that the frigates Diane and Justice were to attempt a breakout for Toulon, the frigates given minimal crews of approximately 115 men each. On 24 August, when the wind was favourable and the night dark enough to obscure their movements, the frigates put to sea. Almost immediately, lookouts on HMS Success sighted them and Captain Peard gave chase, followed by HMS Genereux and Northumberland. Diane under Captain Solen was too slow and Peard soon overhauled the under strength French ship, which surrendered after a brief exchange of shot. The frigate later became HMS Niobe. Justice, under Captain Jean Villeneuve, was faster however and outran its pursuers, eventually making Toulon, the only ship from Malta to do so during the siege.
On 3 September, with his men dying of starvation and disease at the rate of more than 100 a day, Vaubois called a council of his officers at which they unanimously decided to surrender. The next day, envoys were sent to the British and in the afternoon General Pigot and Captain Martin signed the agreed terms with Vaubois and Villeneuve. The Maltese were excluded from negotiations entirely, although their commander, Alexander Ball, subsequently became the first Civil Commissioner of Malta. The terms of the surrender were absolute: the island, its dependencies, fortifications and military supplies were all turned over to British control. This included the ships of the line Athenien and Dégo and the frigate Carthagénaise (these were all French ships previously captured from the Order), although only Athenien was of sufficient standard to be incorporated into the Royal Navy, becoming HMS Athenienne. The other ships were broken up in their berths. Two merchant ships and a variety of smaller warships also were taken.
The capture of Malta returned control of the central Mediterranean to Britain and was an important step in the invasion and liberation of Egypt from French rule in 1801. An essential condition of the Treaty of Amiens in the same year, which brought an end to the French Revolutionary War, was that the British leave Malta. Russian Tsar Alexander I had a long standing claim to the island as titular head of the Knights of St. John, and demanded that it be turned over to Russian control before agreeing any alliance with Britain. Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger flatly refused, and the Napoleonic Wars with France began soon afterwards, in part due to the failure of Britain to comply with this clause of the treaty. The island subsequently remained in British hands until its independence in 1964.
Siege of Malta (1798–1800) Wikipedia
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Wat's Dyke
From Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Wat's Dyke and Offa's Dyke: remaining parts
Wat's Dyke is an ancient defensive earthwork between Wales and England. The dyke is earlier than Offa's Dyke, but runs along similar lines, just inside the line of the later dyke. It now looks insignificant, but originally it was a considerable construction.
The dyke consists (or consisted) of a ditch and a bank. The ditch is on the west of the bank. This suggests it was meant to keep the Welsh tribes out of the areas to the east which were occupied mainly by Germanic tribes.
Excavations in 2006 suggested the time of building as 792–852 AD. In the 820s, the Mercian king Coenwulf was fighting against a resurgent Welsh threat.[1] That may have been the reason for the dyke. However, all previous datings suggested its being built much earlier, in the post-Roman era.
The present boundary between Wales and England runs close to the two dykes, and the area is know as the Welsh Marches.
References[change | change source]
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To Each Mammal, its Milk
Milk—it’s what distinguishes mammals from the rest of the animal kingdom. It’s also an incredibly complex substance, and scientists are still working to identify the many chemical components of milk and the roles they play in nutrition, immunity, brain development and other areas. As part of this effort, researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute are studying the unique milks of many species. In a related project, NIST scientists are also studying the composition of human milk. This research will help zoos raise healthy animals and help scientists understand how mother’s milk promotes the development of healthy human babies.
• A baby orangutan sits atop her mother's shoulders.
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Batang, a Bornean orangutan, and her two-year-old, Redd, live at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C.
• An orangutan allows a worker to collect her breast milk into a vial
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Every week, primate keeper Erin Stromberg collects milk from Batang. Scientists analyze those milk samples to track how the milk’s nutritional profile changes as the infant gets older. That way, if any zoo has to create a milk substitute for a young orangutan, they can make a formula appropriate for the youngster’s age.
• Zookepper gives a peanut to an orangutan
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Batang has been trained to give milk voluntarily and is rewarded with peanuts for doing so. She can walk away at any point and is never forced to participate. Stromberg is the only keeper who collects milk from Batang, and over time they’ve developed a close relationship. “She’s smart as a whip, and she has a very strong personality,” Stromberg said.
• hand holding a vial filled with breast milk
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Stromberg only needs to collect a small amount of milk from Batang. The milk in this vial is more than enough for chemists to analyze in the lab.
• close up of an orangutan getting a peanut
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Redd gets to enjoy a few peanuts when his mom is giving milk. Like wild orangutans, he will nurse until he’s 6 or 7 years old. This makes orangutans the longest nursing of all mammal species. Bornean orangutans are one of three species of orangutans, all of which are critically endangered
• A man and a woman stand outside a freezer. The man is holding out a milk sample in a tube.
Credit: R. Press/NIST
NIST research chemist Connie Remoroza meets with Michael Power, the Smithsonian scientist who curates the zoo’s milk repository. Remoroza is part of a NIST research team that uses advanced instruments to identify chemical compounds and determine their molecular structure. They are working with Smithsonian scientists to conduct specialized analysis of milk from several species.
• Close up of vials of lion's milk
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Michael Power retrieves a sample of African Lion’s milk from a freezer. Remoroza will bring the sample back to the lab at NIST, where she will identify the multitude of complex sugars, called oligosaccharides, present in the milk. These sugars have a more complicated molecular structure than the simple sugars found in most foods, and they do more than provide calories. Some play a role in immunity while others promote brain development.
• close up of vial of lion's milk
Credit: R. Press/NIST
This sample of African Lion’s milk was collected from an animal in the wild. How does one collect milk from a lion? Wildlife biologists collected this sample after sedating the animal to conduct a health checkup and gather scientific data. Biologists from around the world send milk samples to Power for inclusion in the zoo’s collection.
• Man stands in front of a freezer holding a stack of milk vials. NIST scientist stands next to him.
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Zoo scientist Michael Jakubasz hauls samples out of the deep freeze, where they are kept for long-term storage.
• A hand reaches into a freezer filled with milk
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Milk samples at the National Zoo’s milk repository are stored at -80C.
• close up of containers filled with rhino milk
Credit: R. Press/NIST
In addition to the samples of Rhinoceros milk shown here, the milk repository includes some 15,000 samples from more than 200 species. Smithsonian scientists analyze these samples to determine how much sugar, fat and protein they contain, among other things. Milks vary greatly between species, and any zoo can use this information to formulate a species-specific milk substitute if one of their animals is unable to nurse her young.
• close up of a hand pushing milk into a vial
Credit: R. Press/NIST
At the lab, Remoroza prepares a sample of human milk for analysis. So far, she and her colleagues have documented 74 different oligosaccharides in human milk, including 12 that were not previously known to be there. This information can be useful when formulating milk substitutes and when researching the myriad ways in which milk promotes healthy development.
• woman stands at mass spectrometer machine
Credit: R. Press/NIST
Remoroza operates a mass spectrometer, a laboratory instrument used to identify chemical compounds. “We want to find out as many details as we can about milk because it is so important, but so little is known about its chemistry,” Remoroza said.
For more information about Remoroza’s research, check out How Milk Does an Animal Body Good.
Created May 6, 2019, Updated May 7, 2019
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Cockroach ancient geographic and genomic history traced back to last supercontinent
Cockroach ancient geographic and genomic history traced back to last supercontinent
Cockroaches are so hardy, a popular joke goes, that they've occupied the Earth long before humans first appeared —-and will probably even outlast us long after we have annihilated each other by nuclear war.
They have traced back the key evolutionary time points of the —-all the way back almost 300 million years ago when the Earth's mass was organized into the Pangaea supercontinent.
"Our results indicate that extant cockroach families have evolved over periods of up to ~180 million years," said Bourguignon. "Through reconstructions of the ancestral distribution of cockroaches using the known distributions of extant genera sampled in this study, we found evidence that continental breakup has had important impacts on cockroach biogeography."
"We believe that our results point to an important role for vicariance (continental drift) in determining the global distributions of cockroaches," said Bourguignon. "On a global scale, the fossil record also agrees with our hypothesis."
Explore further
More information: Molecular Biology And Evolution (2018). DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy013
Journal information: Molecular Biology and Evolution
Citation: Cockroach ancient geographic and genomic history traced back to last supercontinent (2018, February 6) retrieved 23 October 2020 from https://phys.org/news/2018-02-cockroach-ancient-geographic-genomic-history.html
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Given a string s, write a program to sort it in decreasing order based on the frequency of characters.
Problem Note
• If two characters have the same frequency then whichever occurs earliest in s, comes first. In other words, the sorting must be stable.
• Consider uppercase and lowercase different here i.e. 'A' and 'a' must be treated as two different characters.
Example 1
Input: S = "free"
Explanation:'e' appears twice while 'r' and 'f' both appear once. So 'e' must appear before both 'r' and 't'. Similarly, 'f' occurs earliest in string s, so 'f' comes before 'r'. "eerf" is not a valid output here. Hence, "eefr" is the output.
Example 2
Input: s = "Aabb"
Explanation: 'b' appears twice while 'A' and 'a' both appear once. Note that 'A' and 'a' are treated as different characters. "bbaA" is not a valid answer because 'A' occurs earlier than 'a' in s. Hence, "bbAa" is the output.
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.46875,
"fasttext_score": 0.9726674556732178,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8931926488876343,
"url": "https://afteracademy.com/problems/sort-characters-by-frequency"
}
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The Spanish flu was caused by an influenza virus. American soldiers at military facilities at the end of World War I were likely an important source of its spread in Europe. The war had just ended, and the pandemic claimed even more lives than the war. Between 50 and 100 million people died in the pandemic.
The Red Cross, an international aid organization, which received the Nobel Peace Prize for its efforts during the war, also took part in fighting the Spanish flu. International Committee of the Red Cross received the prize in 1917, 1944 and 1963.
This photo shows personnel from the Red Cross providing transportation for people suffering from the Spanish flu in St. Louis, Missouri in the United States.
Influenza epidemic in United States. St. Louis, Missouri, Red Cross Motor Corps on duty, October 1918. (National Archives)
Peter Doherty is one Nobel Laureate that has conducted research on pandemics. Peter Doherty’s research primarily deals with how the immune system works, but in the book Pandemics from 2012, he provides a broader perspective about pandemics.
In his Nobel Prize-awarded research from the 1970s, Doherty studied how the immune system recognizes virus-infected cells. A type of white blood cell, T cells, kill virus-infected cells, but only if it recognizes both the foreign substance (the virus) and certain substances from the body’s own cells. The discovery has provided an important basis for vaccines and medicines against diseases. Peter Doherty and Rolf Zinkernagel were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1996.
In this conversation – Everything you wanted to know about pandemics but were afraid to ask – Peter Doherty and writer Hanne-Vibeke Holst, meet in conversation with science journalist Amina Manzoor. Hanne-Vibeke Holst has written the book Like the Plague. Among other things Peter Doherty gives an explanation of how the Spanish flu got its name.
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<urn:uuid:b3cb2898-7b3c-4d59-aa98-4cea3ab80d08>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.02809596061706543,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9601006507873535,
"url": "https://nobelprizemuseum.se/en/spanish-flu/"
}
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kids encyclopedia robot
Stockholm Bloodbath facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Stockholm Bloodbath2
The Stockholm Bloodbath
The Stockholm Bloodbath (Swedish: Stockholms blodbad) or Swedish Massacre (8–9 November 1520) was the mass killing of Swedish nobility by the Danish King Christian II (1451–1559). Denmark, Norway and Sweden were part of the Kalmar Union. There had been conflict in Sweden between those who supported the union, and those who wanted independence. In 1520 Christian II had invaded Sweden. The regent of Sweden, Sten Sture the Younger, was killed in battle. Christian II besieged Stockholm for four months. When the city gave in, he made himself king and killed 82 leading Swedes, including two bishops for heresy. The reason for heresy was the people of Stockholm had replaced Archbishop Gustav Trolle; this was said to be a crime against the Church. The killings made people so angry that he became known as "Christian the Tyrant". He was chased out of Sweden in 1523.
Images for kids
kids search engine
Stockholm Bloodbath Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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"fasttext_score": 0.17224842309951782,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9702578186988831,
"url": "https://kids.kiddle.co/Stockholm_Bloodbath"
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The Guangyun (simplified Chinese: 广韵; traditional Chinese: 廣韻; pinyin: Guǎngyùn; Wade–Giles: Kuang Yün; literally "Broad rimes") is a Chinese rime dictionary that was compiled from 1007 to 1008 under the auspices of Emperor Zhenzong of Song. Chen Pengnian (陳彭年, 961–1017) and Qiu Yong (邱雍) were the chief editors. It is a revision and expansion of the influential Qieyun rime dictionary of 601, and was itself later revised as the Jiyun. Until the discovery of an almost complete early 8th century edition of the Qieyun in 1947, the Guangyun was the most accurate available account of the Qieyun phonology, and was heavily used in early work on the reconstruction of Middle Chinese. It is still used as a major source.
The Guangyun has a similar layered organization to the Qieyun:
• The dictionary is split into four tones in five volumes, two for the Middle Chinese level tone (平聲) and one each for the three oblique tones, rising (上聲), departing (去聲) and entering (入聲).
• Each tone is split into rimes, with a total of 206 final rimes, increased from 193 in the Qieyun.
• Each rime is divided into groups of homophonous characters, with the pronunciation of each group given by a fanqie formula.
The dictionary has a total of 26,194 character entries, each containing a brief explanation of the character's meaning.
The Unihan database incorporates the "SBGY" (Songben Guangyun; "Song edition Guangyun") dataset with 25,334 head-entries for 19,583 characters.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.14294332265853882,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9286635518074036,
"url": "https://www.primidi.com/guangyun"
}
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Oyo was a kingdom of the Yoruba, an African people who still live in what is now Nigeria. Oyo’s most powerful years were from about 1650 to about 1750. During this time, Oyo ruled the region between the Volta River (in what is now Ghana) and the Niger River (in what is now Nigeria).
About 1,000 years ago, Yoruba people arrived west of the Niger River. They formed numerous kingdoms. According to tradition, a hero called Oduduwa founded the Oyo kingdom. His son became the first Oyo ruler.
Oyo became the strongest Yoruba kingdom by controlling trade. By 1600, the Oyo ruler Orompoto had built up a trained army that had cavalry (soldiers on horseback). In the early 1700s Oyo defeated the kingdom of Dahomey, in what is now Benin. Oyo then traded with Europeans through the port of Ajase (now Porto-Novo, Benin).
Later Oyo rulers neglected the army. Gradually the kingdom lost control of its trade routes to the coast. Shortly after 1800 the kingdom fell to the Fulani, a Muslim people from the northeast.
Translate this page
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9555872678756714,
"url": "https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Oyo-Kingdom/353586"
}
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Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester around the World
One of the world’s oldest historical figures—the court jester—was researched and explained by Beatrice K. Otto in this fascinating cross cultural study Fools Are Everywhere. She concludes that the court jester was a universal phenomenon appearing across time and place as jesters were examined in Europe, China, India, the Middle East, Africa, and the Americas. Otto stated her thesis: “I argue that [the jester] is very much a universal character, more or less interchangeable regardless of the time or culture in which he happens to cavort—the same techniques, the same functions, the same license” (p. xvi). The jester pokes “jest” or fun at important political figures such as kings and emperors, allowing them to laugh at themselves and be humanized thereby. The jester offers a monarch a salable commodity—laughter, entertainment, wit, and insight—that eases political tensions at court and allows the ruler to see himself as the poor, downtrodden, and often disadvantaged individuals view him. For the services of the jester, often the monarch was prepared to pay handsomely with honors, gifts, titles, lands, and positions of influence.
A unique aspect of this study was that it compared jesters in great detail both Europe and China, and Otto commented that she had been awestruck at the similarities between jesters in China and those better known in Europe. In China the magisterial aloof emperor was often chided, mocked, or ridiculed by a jester figure just as were the rulers of Europe. Often the sparkling wit of the jester appealed to the common need throughout history to humanize power. “The evidence,” writes Otto, “points to his having existed across the globe and across history, in most of the major civilizations of the world and many of the minor ones” (p. xvii). The enduring social need for humor was found in all cultures across time. The jester was a symbol of “physical and verbal dexterity and of freedom from convention” (p. xviii) and might wear a foolscap with bells in Europe or be dressed as a scholar-sage in China. But the legacy of every jester was to provide pointed advice and shrewd wit to rulers. Numerous sources illustrate that the jester figure played a strong role in the Chinese court. Wang Guowei’s Records of Jesters’ Words (Youyu Lu), Ren Erbei’s The Collected Sayings of Jesters and Actors (Youyu ji), and most significantly Sima Qian’s (about 145–86 B.C.) Historical Records reveal the very real presence of a long tradition of jesters within the Chinese court from earliest times. All Chinese formal dynastic histories include the biographies of famed Chinese jesters such as Dongfang, the principal jester to the Han Emperor Wu Di (r.140 – 87 B.C.). In the Chinese tradition, the jester, like his European counterpart, was to keep his ruler from folly. All jesters used humor to point out shortcomings or limitations in judgment of the ruler, before the ruler could make a mistake. Humorous jokes kept the ruler from uppitiness or errors of judgment costly to the realm. Circumstances are humanized by the court jester to allow the ruler to see things as they really are and jesters fended off misapprehension, miscues, and misquotes and prohibited cultural misunderstanding. The jester was often called upon to be a global player, acting as diplomat or ambassador because of their charm, gaiety, and sound judgment. He was often used as a translator between cultures, people, habits, and institutions because he was viewed as highly intelligent and held the gift of prophecy. Viewed at court often as the king’s right-hand man, the jester’s bauble was sometimes equated to the ruler’s scepter. “Jesters in China, Europe, the Middle East, and India aimed their humorous arrows at the same targets—religion, self-important scholars, venal officials and nobles, and erring, corrupt, or lazy rulers, together with anything deemed sacrosanct” (p. xxiii). The role of the court jester might be equated with a morality play or humorous version thereof as the point of the jesters’ remarks are to inform, reform, or inspire through love rather than fear. Because of their “positive tactics” and antics their guidance would appear to be beneficial and helpful rather than Machiavellian. Because many of the jesters became well loved in the sense of appreciated they earned reputations of mythological proportions, garnering legendary status.
Some of the great fools or jesters were You Meng, jester to King Zhuangwang of Chu (r.613–591 B.C.); You Zhan, known as “Twisty Pole,” court jester for the Qin dynasty (221–207 B.C.); the Persian jester Abu Bakr-e Robadi in the court of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna (r.998–1030); the Song dynasty jester Ding Xianxian, “Immortal Revelation Ding,” in the court of Emperor Huizong (r.1101–1125); Nasru-din, who served Tamerlane (1336–1405); Claus Narr, a German jester who served four German Saxon electors beginning with Elector Ernst (d.1486); Birbal, who served Mogul Emperor Akbar in India; Andre-lini in France, who served Louis XII (r.1498–1515) as his fou du roi; Tenali Rama, who served King Krishnadevaraya (r.1509–1529); Watt “the fole,” who served Henry VII (r. 1485–1509); the jester Sorori, who served Hideyoshi (r.1536–1598) of Japan; Tarlton, who served Queen Elizabeth I of England; Archie Armstrong, a Scot who served as jester for James I of England, and his contemporary, Claus Hinbe (d. 1599), jester to Duke Johann Friedrich of Pomerania (d.1600); Jamie Fleeman (1713–1778), Scottish jester to the Laird of Udny; and Nai Teh, who served in the court of King Mongkut of Siam (r. 1851–1868). Almost all jesters were men. Women were rare in this profession, but a famed jestress named La Jardiniere served Mary Queen of Scots (r.1542–1567).
Author Beatrice K. Otto used careful translations from ancient to modern texts and researched whenever possible in the language of the culture examined. She used language experts to explain the etymological chain of evolving words to describe the role of the jester and his function. From the Chinese texts it is clear that the term for jester had a wider meaning, similar to actor or entertainer. It is clear from the Latin texts that the medieval jesters had their antecedents in the Roman comics and that the word “jester,” associated with “jest,” evolved from earlier Latin comics of various names—”scurrae,” “mimi,” or “histriones”—and varied functions that entertained. In Scandinavia typically the jester evolved from the early skalds, or the Anglo-Saxon bards, and other itinerant entertainers. In Russia the term “skomorokhi” included jesters often associated with the tradition of the poets of the Kiev court known as gusliari. European jesters evolved from the tradition of the joculatores or individuals who told “jokes” and “who sing the deeds of princes and the lives of saints and give people comfort either when they are ill or when they are troubled.” Further, the French term “jongleurs” referred to individuals who “chanted or sang tales of heroic exploits (chansons de geste), short, mocking verse narratives fabliaux), and stories of the lives of saints” (p.11). It appears that the jester everywhere, however, was much more privileged than a simple entertainer and was readily admitted to the inner circle of the ruler’s court.
One became a jester based on merit and ability, and recruitment was informal. The typical characteristics of jesters are that they are clever, roguish, libertine, irreverent, mocking, witty, critics, and goads to the powerful and the would-be wise. Some of the best European sources, especially on German jesters, are Karl Flogel’s Geschichte der Hofnarren (1789) and Enid Welsford’s The Fool: His Social and Literary History (1935). In some of the early cultures jesters were associated with music and in other cultures they were associated with literary arts such as poetry and rhymes. Deformity among jesters was common, perhaps because dwarfs, hunchbacks, or cripples did not seem to incur the wrath or jealously of the masters they served. A dwarf with a mind nimble enough to become a jester freed himself from scorn and pity. Dwarfism had been associated in ancient times with the ability to “ward off the evil eye” (p.31). Amulets illustrating pictures of dwarves as protection against evil were worn in both the Egyptian and Roman cultures. Further, dwarves in numerous cultures were believed to hold the gift and power of prophecy, which deemed their services invaluable. Thus, because of these cultural views about the jester, he was often a powerful force for good. The jester, as the ruler’s confidante of high social and political standing, was given access and certainly freedom of speech to make forthrightness a virtue.
On a higher level of performance, sometimes a court jester might be used in a diplomatic or ambassadorial role because of his social graces, wit, and charm. James I of England employed his jester, Archy Armstrong, to negotiate a marriage contract between his son Charles and the Spanish infanta Maria. Armstrong was invaluable for learning the Spanish court’s secrets and intentions regarding England. The jester also bridged the gap vertically within his own society as he often told the king “the mind of the people.” The best jesters were well rewarded for their services and retired with pensions and lands, as Archy Armstrong was pensioned in1617 and given “freedom of the city” of Aberdeen. The role of the court jester is of course to be loyal to the point of standing by the king in peril. The jester of King Jean II of France (r.1350–1364), captured at the Battle of Poitiers in1356, accompanied his master to a temporary prison. For their advice and loyalty jesters received honors, titles, gifts, and grand tombs; had portraits painted; and died well respected and thought after. The jester saw himself as an ethical force for good in a potentially evil world. He never intentionally offended—to do so could risk death, and hence he was careful not to overdo ridicule to cause shame or humiliation. His barbs and comic wit were used to educate and heal with laughter, a tradition that persists to this day among the best minds of the world.
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"url": "https://historycooperative.org/journal/fools-are-everywhere-the-court-jester-around-the-world/"
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Technology: Iron Age buckets yield their secrets to X-rays
Technology 17 November 1990
The age of contents of two recently discovered Iron Age buckets have
been identified by researchers at the British Museum with the help of a
real-time radiography system, similar to the scanners used in airports to
X-ray baggage. Found at Alkham in Kent, the buckets were still encased in
the plaster used to preserve them when they were removed from the ground.
To an archaeologist, says Ian Stead of the British Museum, the radiography
pictures provide a permanent record of the excavated material in its original
state, as it lay in the ground. This will always be available to anyone
who wants to study it. The system provides instant pictures of the contents
of the buckets. The ability to turn the buckets around in the X-ray beam
meant the researchers could identify the contents and record their relative
positions before beginning to remove the interior.
The buckets were excavated by Brian Philp of the Kent Archaeological
Rescue Unit. Iron Age buckets previosuly found had been constructed from
wooden staves bound with bronze bands. They contained burial remains.
The Alkham buckets were buried in stony chalky soil. To keep them intact
during excavation, the archaeologists surrounded them in a jacket of plaster
of Paris. They then removed the buckets from the ground, complete with infill
and surrounding soil.
The buckets were large, heavy and fragile and presented considerable
problems for the British Museum radiography unit. It was difficult to obtain
optimum exposure and orientation using conventional photographic radiography.
The buckets were instead taken to Wells Krautkramer, a company in Letchworth
which supplies industry with radiographic equipment for non-destructive
The buckets were examined using a radioscopic system manufactured by
the Dutch electronics company Philips. X-rays are generated by accelerating
electrons towards a metal target – the X-rays are produced in the impact.
The resulting beam of X-rays is directed into a protected cabinet containing
a remote controlled specimen table which can move to expose the specimen
from different angles.
After passing through the specimen, the rays fall on an image intensifier.
First the rays hit a fluorescent screen which converts the image from X-rays
into light. The light hits a photocathode which converts the image into
electron beams which are concentrated with electron lenses. The image finally
hits a fluorescent viewing screen which converts it back into light which
is viewed with a video camera.
The image is then digitised and stored in an image processing computer,
from which it can be printed out or viewed on a screen. The image processor
removes random noise and sharpens the image.
As the buckets rotated in the X-ray chamber, Stead was able to identify
the enlarged image of a brooch on the screen as a late La Tene type, enabling
him to date the buckets to the second half of the first century BC. Repousse
plaques were found and a toilet set, consisting of tweezers, a nail cleaner
and probably an ear scoop. There were also decorative plaques with the nails
which had attached them still in place, and fragments of the decorated bindings
that once adorned the buckets.
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"language_score": 0.9537201523780823,
"url": "https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12817434-000-technology-iron-age-buckets-yield-their-secrets-to-x-rays/"
}
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Traditional Villages in the Ancient Chickasaw Homelands
Traditional Villages in the Ancient Chickasaw Homelands
For Chickasaws, the village was the heart of the people, representing their culture and their relationship to the land and each other. Traditionally, the ancient Chickasaw homelands were once scattered across the forests, mountains and prairies of lands that later became parts of western Kentucky and Tennessee and northern Mississippi and Alabama. Chickasaw towns were typically spread 10-15 miles apart and surrounded by a stockade. When under attack, the Chickasaws withdrew into a few of the larger towns, making it difficult for their enemies to mount any successful attack by virtue of the terrain.
A traditional Chickasaw town or village consisted of several compounds or households. Some Chickasaw towns were reported to have numbered over two hundred households. The number of dwellings owned by a family varied based on the family’s social standing. However, households could contain a winter house, summer house, corn storage building or "corn crib" and menstrual hut. The principal men’s homes were larger than those of the average Chickasaw man and had deep balconies on the front side.
Important tribal business was conducted in a large structure that stood as the focal point of the village. An open area near the town square was set aside for stickball, other games or ceremonial dances . A palisade, or stockade fence made of large poles, fortified towns.
The Toompalliꞌ chokkaꞌ, or summer house, was a lighter structure designed to be used during the warm part of the year by providing shade from the sun and protection from the rain. Located on the edges of the villages, their design allowed for the flow of air, which kept the house cool during hot weather. The average structure was 12 by 22 feet (3.6 by 6.7 meters) and shaped like a rectangle. This shape provided for a long tent-like roof made from split saplings or bundles of cane, allowing the eaves to be vented and let the breeze pass easily through the building. The frames of the house were covered by loosely woven mats of bark or grass and built with posts of pitch pine, honey locust or sassafras for extra sturdiness.
According to some oral history accounts, summer houses did not have walls attached until it rained, when the walls were handily placed against the house and interlaced with rope on the existing supporting poles. Summer houses had floors attached to supporting poles which were placed approximately two or three feet from the ground, providing storage for items underneath the floors of the houses.
During the cold months, the Chickasaws lived in the Hashtolaꞌ chokkaꞌ, or winter house, which was built for warmth and insulation. The pine logs used in its construction were much heavier, and the outside walls were coated with a daub of clay, stomped wet grass, or crushed shells. Unlike the summer house with its sharp angles and rectangular shape, the winter house resembled a snail’s shell. Roughly designed in a circle and resembling the number six, the winter house was partially sunken into the ground. This layout prevented the heat from escaping the structure by preventing freezing cold wind and rain from blowing into the living area.
It is said that the entryway into the home was a narrow corridor about four to six feet long, only allowing for single file entry. In addition to preventing heat loss, the design also provided an extra level of protection as the narrow, winding entrance could be easily defended against enemy intrusion. Families would assail the enemy as they exited the entryway into the main living area. On the inside, mattress frames of cane splinters, often referred to as couches, sat on two- to three-feet-high posts and lined the walls of the home. For warmth and softness, bedding consisted of split-cane mats and the skins of animals such as buffalo and elk.
The storage house, or corn crib, was a small, enclosed room made of wood, built high above the ground with a small opening for entry. The Chickasaw used the corn crib to shelter goods and store the food supply, such as sunflowers, peas, beans, squash, pumpkins, tobacco, melons and corn, from weather and animals. By coating the posts in bear grease, they were able to keep mice and other creatures from raiding their food, thereby proving additional protection. The Chickasaws gained access to the store house by climbing a ladder. When not in use the ladder was stored away, keeping intruders of all variety out. The corn crib was so efficient at protecting the supplies of food, the Europeans adopted this structure to shelter their harvests as well.
The main hub and largest structure of the Chickasaw village is the aa-anompoliꞌ chokkaꞌ, or council house. This was also referred to as the mountain house, indicating its larger size and greater importance than that of the family dwellings. Early each morning the council of the chiefdom would meet in the council house or the dance ground to discuss important tribal matters, events and diplomacy concerning the Chickasaw people. Men would sit around the step formed by the sunken floor. Women and children were allowed inside during formal councils but were not allowed to speak.
The council house was constructed largely in the same manner as the summer house. Raised on four legs, great reclining couches lined the walls of the council house, and smaller benches were placed between the support posts. Mattresses of cane splinters and animal skins were used for bedding and in some instances a balcony or porch was constructed outside the great house. A sacred fire was contained in the center of the council house and a trap door was located in the ceiling to allow smoke from the fire to pass through. Chickasaws believed the smoke carried prayers to Abaꞌ Binniꞌliꞌ , the Chickasaw Creator.
Today, the Traditional Village, or Chikasha Inchokka', at the Chickasaw Cultural Center is more than a replica of the Chickasaws’ traditional dwelling structures. It is a living representation of the Chickasaw people’s lives in their ancient homelands. To learn more about Chickasaw history, please visit the History & Culture channel .
Featured image: Reconstruction of Chickasaw housing. Photo courtesy of Chickasaw TV.
By Chickasaw TV
rbflooringinstall's picture
That is awesome. You don't ever hear enough about native american history especially that of Chickasaws
Peace and Love,
Next article
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<urn:uuid:ca14d802-1ab0-4ae9-b853-828e68be4dcd>
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"url": "https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/traditional-villages-ancient-chickasaw-homelands-002299?qt-quicktabs=1"
}
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Mapping data to graphics
Due by 11:59 PM on Wednesday, May 13, 2020
Getting started
You’ll be doing all your R work in R Markdown this time (and from now on). You should use an RStudio Project to keep your files well organized (either on your computer or on Either create a new project for this exercise only, or make a project for all your work in this class.
You’ll need to download three CSV files and put them somewhere on your computer or upload them to—preferably in a folder named data in your project folder:
To help you, I’ve created a skeleton R Markdown file with a template for this exercise. Download that here and include it in your project:
In the end, the structure of your project directory should look something like this:
To check that you put everything in the right places, you can download and unzip this file, which contains everything in the correct structure:
Task 1: Reflection
Write your reflection for the day’s readings.
Task 2: Lord of the Rings
Answer the following questions:
• Use group_by() and summarize() on the lotr data to find the total number of words spoken by race. Don’t worry about plotting it. How many words did male hobbits say in the movies?
• Use group_by() and summarize() to answer these questions with bar plots (geom_col())
• Does a certain race dominate the entire trilogy? (hint: group by Race)
• Does a certain gender dominate a movie? (lolz of course it does, but still, graph it) (Hint: group by both Gender and Film.) Experiment with filling by Gender or Film and faceting by Gender or Film.
• Does the dominant race differ across the three movies? (Hint: group by both Race and Film.) Experiment with filling by Race or Film and faceting by Race or Film.
• Create a plot that visualizes the number of words spoken by race, gender, and film simultaneously. Use the complete tidy lotr data frame. You don’t need to create a new summarized dataset (with group_by(Race, Gender, Film)) because the original data already has a row for each of those (you could make a summarized dataset, but it would be identical to the full version).
You need to show Race, Gender, and Film at the same time, but you only have two possible aesthetics (x and fill), so you’ll also need to facet by the third. Play around with different combinations (e.g. try x = Race, then x = Film) until you find one that tells the clearest story. For fun, add a labs() layer to add a title and subtitle and caption.
You’ll need to insert your own code chunks where needed. Rather than typing them by hand (that’s tedious and you might miscount the number of backticks!), use the “Insert” button at the top of the editing window, or type ctrl + alt + i on Windows, or + + i on macOS.
Turning everything in
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Holes in Swiss Cheese – level 3
23-06-2020 15:00
A Swiss agricultural institute made a revelation of why Swiss cheese has holes in it: hay.
Traditionally, people gather milk via buckets open to the air, and this means that microscopically small particles of hay can get into the milk, which creates holes as the liquid matures into cheese.
Through a series of tests, scientists tried adding different amounts of hay dust to milk in the cheese-making process. They found that they could regulate the number of holes.
This research also solves another mystery of why the famous holes in cheeses like Emmentaller are getting smaller or disappearing during the last fifteen years. This is due to milk becoming cleaner through the use of industrial milking systems.
Difficult words: agricultural (relating to the study of farming), institute (a place that researches and studies different things), revelation (a surprising and unknown fact), particle (a very small thing), mature (get older and change), regulate (control).
You can watch the video news lower on this page.
Interesting, isn’t it?
How to improve your English with News in Levels:
1. Do the test at Test Languages.
1. Read two news articles every day.
1. Choose one person from the Skype section.
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"url": "https://www.newsinlevels.com/products/holes-in-swiss-cheese-level-3/"
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6 Letters
4 Consonants
2 Vowels
1 Syllables
Types Of Speech
You can use ragged as a adjective satellite in a sentence.
About Ragged
A 1 syllables adjective satellite and 6 letters with the letters a, d, e, g, and r, 4 consonants, 2 vowels and 1 syllables with the middle letters gg. Ragged starts with and ends in a consonant with the starting letters r, ra, rag, ragg, ragge, and the ending characters are d, ed, ged, gged, agged, . Ragged is also a double consonant (gg) word. View the double consonant words list.
Having an irregular outline; "text set with ragged right margins"; "herded the class into a ragged line"
School Grade
Ragged is set as a grade one word that starts with r, ends with d, 1 syllables, 2 vowels and 6 letters.
Pig Latin
Ragged in Pig Latin is said as "aggedray or aggedrway".
r | a | g | g | e | d
ra | ag | gg | ge | ed
rag | agg | gge | ged
ragg | agge | gged
Word Gram
Adjective Satellite Examples
having an irregular outline;
"text set with ragged right margins";
"herded the class into a ragged line"
worn out from stress or strain;
"run ragged"
being or dressed in clothes that are worn or torn;
"clothes as ragged as a scarecrow's";
"a ragged tramp"
Synonyms (Cognitive Synonyms) For "Ragged"
There are 408 synonyms available. These are cognitive relationship words which is to say they have a similar meaning, mean the same thing, or have close definition and relationship to ragged.
Abrasivea substance that abrades or wears down
All In
Anguishedexperiencing intense pain especially mental pain
"an anguished conscience"
"a small tormented schoolboy"
"a tortured witness to another''s humiliation"
Annoyedaroused to impatience or anger
"made an irritated gesture"
"feeling nettled from the constant teasing"
"peeved about being left out"
"felt really pissed at her snootiness"
"riled no end by his lies"
"roiled by the delay"
Assortedconsisting of a haphazard assortment of different kinds (even to the point of incongruity)
"an arrangement of assorted spring flowers"
"assorted sizes"
"miscellaneous accessories"
"a mixed program of baroque and contemporary music"
"a motley crew"
Audaciousdisposed to venture or take risks
"audacious visions of the total conquest of space"
"an audacious interpretation of two Jacobean dramas"
"the most daring of contemporary fiction writers"
"a venturesome investor"
"a venturous spirit"
Badthat which is below standard or expectations as of ethics or decency
"take the bad with the good"
Badnessan attribute of mischievous children
View all cognitive synonyms for Ragged
There are 2 anagrams from ragged.
Anagram Definition
Daggera short knife with a pointed blade used for piercing or stabbing
Raggedhaving an irregular outline
"text set with ragged right margins"
"herded the class into a ragged line"
View English words with the unique letters used in ragged. Words With The Letters Adegr
Similar Words
There are 1 words that are similar to "Ragged".
Similar WordDefinition
Uneveninconsistent in quality
Is ragged a scrabble word or can you use ragged in Words With Friends? The probability of getting this word in scrabble is 1 out of every 153299 games and in Words With Friends it's 1 out of every 144101 games. This 6 letter 9 point scrabble word can be rearranged 360 ways. What other words can be made with the letters a, d, e, g, and r? There's 45 with 8 letters or less with the letters a, d, e, g, and r. Here is a list of 25 to try to get you more points.
WordScrabbleWords With FriendsWord Chums4Pics1WordJumble
Dressage (8 letters) 10 +1 11 dressage
Regard (6 letters) 8 9 grader
Grade (5 letters) 7 8 edgar
Dagger (6 letters) 9 11 dagger
Dragee (6 letters) 8 9 dragee
Gadgetry (8 letters) 14 +5 15 +4 gadgetry
Graduate (8 letters) 10 +1 12 +1 graduate
Dragger (7 letters) 10 +1 12 +1 adeggrr
Yardage (7 letters) 12 +3 12 +1 aadegry
Gaudery (7 letters) 12 +3 13 +2 gaudery
Tragedy (7 letters) 12 +3 12 +1 tragedy
Degrader (8 letters) 11 +2 12 +1 regarded
Grader (6 letters) 8 9 grader
Daguerre (8 letters) 10 +1 12 +1 daguerre
Edgar (5 letters) 7 8 edgar
Ragweed (7 letters) 12 +3 13 +2 adeegrw
Degrade (7 letters) 10 +1 11 degrade
Gradate (7 letters) 9 10 gradate
Aggrade (7 letters) 10 +1 12 +1 aadeggr
Guarded (7 letters) 10 +1 12 +1 addegru
Grayed (6 letters) 11 +2 11 grayed
Ravaged (7 letters) 12 +3 14 +3 aadegrv
Ragged (6 letters) 9 11 dagger
Geared (6 letters) 8 9 dragee
Graded (6 letters) 9 10 addegr
Completed AZ word finder features completed
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8649330139160156,
"url": "http://www.yougowords.com/browse/ragged"
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Impact Factor 3.367 | CiteScore 4.3
More on impact ›
Original Research ARTICLE
Front. Physiol., 10 June 2020 |
Embracing Their Prey at That Dark Hour: Common Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) Can Hunt in Nighttime Light Conditions
• 1Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
• 2The Fisheries and Maritime Museum, Esbjerg, Denmark
• 3Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
• 4NIRAS A/S, Aarhus, Denmark
Cuttlefish are highly efficient predators, which strongly rely on their anterior binocular visual field for hunting and prey capture. Their complex eyes possess adaptations for low light conditions. Recently, it was discovered that they display camouflaging behavior at night, perhaps to avoid detection by predators, or to increase their nighttime hunting success. This raises the question whether cuttlefish are capable of foraging during nighttime. In the present study, prey capture of the common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) was filmed with a high-speed video camera in different light conditions. Experiments were performed in daylight and with near-infrared light sources in two simulated nightlight conditions, as well as in darkness. The body of the common cuttlefish maintained a velocity of less than 0.1 m/s during prey capture, while the tentacles during the seizing phase reached velocities of up to 2.5 m/s and accelerations reached more than 450 m/s2 for single individuals. There was no significant difference between the day and nighttime trials, respectively. In complete darkness, the common cuttlefish was unable to catch any prey. Our results show that the common cuttlefish are capable of catching prey during day- and nighttime light conditions. The common cuttlefish employ similar sensory motor systems and prey capturing techniques during both day- and nighttime conditions.
Prey capture behavior of coleoid cephalopods have been described for several species (Wilson, 1946; Messenger, 1968; Hurley, 1976; Duval et al., 1984; Mendes et al., 2006). These studies suggest that decapodiform cephalopods employ similar visual hunting techniques, using either their eight arms, and/or their two fast-extendable tentacles to seize the prey.
In the common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) hunting can normally be divided into three distinct phases (Messenger, 1968): attention, positioning, and striking. The attention phase occurs when the common cuttlefish first becomes aware of a prey item. The eyes then fixate on the prey, and the body slowly turn such that arms and head are oriented toward the prey. During the positioning phase, it slowly moves closer to the prey until the predator-prey distance is approximately one mantle length (see Hanlon and Messenger, 2018). During this phase, the tentacles slowly extrude toward the prey. The movement of the tentacles remains under full motor control, and the orientation of the tentacles adjust to prey movements. The positive feedback from visual input and motor control is continuous during this “aiming” phase until the common cuttlefish enters the seizure phase. This phase is defined by the abrupt action when the tentacles shoot out with extreme speed in an all-or-none fashion (Messenger, 1968; Duval et al., 1984). Once the seizure phase has been initiated, the common cuttlefish loses any motor-control of the tentacles, and has no further ability to re-adjust their aim or speed (Messenger, 1968; Duval et al., 1984).
This rather “stereotypic” three-phase hunting strategy has been observed in all species of squid and cuttlefish where prey capture behavior has been studied (Messenger, 1968; Hurley, 1976; Duval et al., 1984; Mather and Scheel, 2014; Sykes et al., 2014). However, details of the hunting strategy may vary depending on prey type and agility (Duval et al., 1984). Fast-moving prey (e.g., shrimps or fish) are typically captured by a rapid final extrusion of the flexible tentacles. Slow-moving prey (like crabs) on the other hand, is largely caught by a final “jumping” method, where the cuttlefish seize the prey using their 8 arms (Duval et al., 1984; Villanueva et al., 2017). Zoratto et al. (2018) have in addition shown that intraspecific variations in hunting behaviors can be linked to “personality” differences between individual cuttlefish.
Decapodiform cephalopods in general have well developed eyes (Muntz, 1977; Hanlon and Messenger, 2018), and they are highly dependent on their vision during hunting (Young, 1963; Messenger, 1968; Hurley, 1976; Talbot and Marshall, 2011; York et al., 2016; Hanlon and Messenger, 2018). Interference with their visual system reduces hunting accuracy and success rate (Messenger, 1968; Chichery and Chichery, 1987). Since most cephalopods have just one visual pigment and thus one class of photoreceptors, they are considered to lack color vision (Hanlon and Messenger, 2018). However, they are highly sensitive to polarized light, and may use such cues during hunting (Messenger, 1981, 1991; Shashar et al., 2000; Pignatelli et al., 2011). The common cuttlefish have large and highly developed camera-type eyes which are capable of adapting to varying light levels. Common cuttlefish can rapidly adjust their pupil size in the range 100–3% of the maximal area (Douglas et al., 2005). Additional light/dark adaptation mechanisms documented in octopods, but so far, not specifically described in cuttlefish, include screening pigment migration, photoreceptor size modulation, and specialized foveas (see Hanke and Kelber, 2020).
The common cuttlefish lives from subtidal waters down to about 200 m, but are most abundant in the upper 100 m of the water column (Reid et al., 2005). Light conditions consequently vary a lot, ranging from high intensities near the surface on a sunny summer day (equivalent to terrestrial type conditions), to very dim light at deeper waters on a cloudy winter night. Natural illuminance at nighttime ranges from 0.0001 lux on a moonless overcast (starlight) night sky to around 0.002 lux on a moonless clear night sky with airglow (Schlyter, 2017), while a full moon on a clear night ranges from 0.05 to 0.3 lux (Kyba et al., 2017). These light intensities gradually diminish by depth in the ocean. In clear oceanic water, light drops by a factor of about 2.2% per meter (Curcio and Petty, 1951). Observations from the Atlantic Ocean have found light depletion of 3–7% per meter (Clarke and Wertheim, 1953), and in coastal waters with suspended particles such as: plankton, runoff from rivers and other impurities, and the light reduction can be even higher.
The common cuttlefish are known to be active during both day and night (Watanuki et al., 2000), and some of their physiological processes undergo circadian cycles in a way suggesting that physical activity may actually increase at night (Jaeckel et al., 2007). A study of the closely related giant Australian cuttlefish (Sepia apama) at their spawning grounds found that they ceased sexual signaling and reproductive behavior at dusk, and settled to the bottom to camouflage themselves against the background (Hanlon et al., 2007). Furthermore, similar observations of the common cuttlefish in the laboratory revealed that they do not only camouflage themselves at dusk, but also adapt their camouflage patterns to their surroundings at night (Allen et al., 2010). It has been proposed that common cuttlefish use this behavior to avoid predators with excellent night vision, and/or to increase their own hunting success at night (Allen et al., 2010). The fact that common cuttlefish can camouflage themselves successfully during night may reflect highly developed nighttime visual abilities (Warrant, 2007; Allen et al., 2010). However, to our knowledge, the kinematics of the rapid tentacular hunting technique of decapod cephalopods have only been described in daylight conditions. Therefore, it is currently unclear whether common cuttlefish readily hunt during nighttime conditions, and if so, whether they use the typical three-phase hunting strategy.
The tentacle seizure phase of squid and cuttlefish predatory behavior is too fast to be studied in any detail by the naked eye. Kier and Leeuwen (1997) therefore employed a high-speed film camera in order to describe the kinematics of this phase in Loligo pealei, and documented tentacle seizures reaching accelerations as high as 250 m/s2. Additional studies confirmed the tentacle striking to be quite stereotypic (Kier and Leeuwen, 1997). The high-speed frame-capture methodology introduced by Kier and Leeuwen is invaluable for fine-detail insights into the fast tentacle strikes in cephalopods.
Accordingly, in the present study, we used high-speed video recordings to evaluate the prey capturing techniques in individuals of common cuttlefish at different light levels. The examined light levels were day- and two nighttime conditions, as well as complete darkness. The purpose was to elucidate whether high versus low light conditions influenced the hunting technique and tentacle fast-seizure characteristics of common cuttlefish.
Materials and Methods
Experimental Animals
Five juvenile common cuttlefish with mantle lengths of 78 ± 7.6 mm (standard deviation) were used in the experiment. They were provided by Øresund Aquarium, University of Copenhagen, and kept in 70 l holding glass aquariums with a closed seawater system (salinity 33–35‰ and temperature 18–20°C). The common cuttlefish were fed mysids (Praunus flexuosus) and shrimps (Crangon crangon, Palaemon adspersus, and P. elegans) two times daily.
Experimental Setup and Protocol
The experiment was carried out at Drøbak Marine Biological Station, University of Oslo, Norway. Common cuttlefish were tested in a transparent plexiglas aquarium (dimensions: 20 × 40 cm) with a water depth of 10 cm. Prey capture attempts were recorded under four light conditions, which we broadly refer to as daylight, moonlight, starlight night, and darkness below. We measured these light conditions in three ways. We used an Ocean Optics QE65000 spectrometer to describe the spectral distribution of the light sources, a Thorlabs PM100A Power meter to measure the gross flux of light over all wavelengths combined of the light sources and an Extech EA30 to make readings in lux. Lux is a standard measurement for light as perceived by the human eye. The spectral sensitivity of the human eye and eye of the common cuttlefish predominantly overlap, but common cuttlefish have a somewhat higher sensitivity for shorter wavelengths compared to human photopic vision, more similar to human scotopic spectral sensitivity. Conversions from irradiance to illuminance are only possible if the spectral distribution of the cuttlefish eye is compensated for. For the purposes in this study, spectral distributions of the light sources are biased toward longer wavelengths within the cuttlefish visual spectrum. We therefore argue that this bias will not produce any false positive results, since the vision of common cuttlefish peaks at shorter wavelengths and therefore will receive less light than actually reported in the different test conditions here. Experiments in daylight were conducted during the daytime, while testing in the other three light regimes were performed during the night to not disrupt the diel cycle of the test animals.
The test aquarium was shielded by a non-translucent box with a removable top. For daylight experiments, the top of the box was open, while it was closed during the three other light regimes. Three near-infrared lamps (model 995JH) provided sufficient light inside the box for high speed filming. Two of the IR-lamps were placed at one side of the aquarium and one at the opposite side.
The daylight experiments were conducted with natural light entering the experimental room through several large windows and with fluorescent ceiling lights (3000 K) turned on. Light intensities at the site of the experimental animal, i.e., inside the test aquarium and shielding box, and were approximately 200 lux. Even though natural sunlight was the main light source in the daylight experiments, the shielding box provided a distinctive reduction of the intensity, thus causing the relatively low daylight intensity of 200 lux. The lower light level, obtained by the shielding box, was deliberately chosen in order to reduce the stress of the animals and reduce the risk of affecting their eyes in ways that could potentially reduce their capacity to hunt in dimmer light conditions later.
Moonlight experiments were conducted with the laboratory ceiling lights off and with the experimental room shielded from ambient light. The three IR-lamps did not produce an even distribution of light in the test aquarium. The highest value, 0.3 lux, was obtained when the light sensor was directly facing the center of the IR-lamp at the typical “mysid –IR-lamp” distance of 35 cm during experiments. At other positions, the illuminance was around the Extech EA30 detection limit of 0.01 lux. We also measured the IR-lamps using the Thorlabs PM100A Power meter and the Ocean Optics QE65000 spectrometer. The light intensity peaked at 850 nm, in the infrared part of the spectrum, thus not detectable for humans and common cuttlefish. Low intensities, from approximately 0.5–1% of the entire energy spectrum, was found to be from 700–765 nm, which are partly within the cuttlefish visible spectrum (Figure 1). The three IR-lamps provided an irradiance of 3 W/m2, or less than 0.003 lux at the spectral range of the common cuttlefish. This corresponds to moonlight intensities in the cuttlefish visual spectrum from 380–740 nm.
Figure 1. Spectral analysis of the near-infrared lamps used in the trials. Gray line is laser and black line LED. Peak intensity of the LED lamp is at around 850 nm. Approximately 1% of the intensity is between 700–765 nm.
Starlight experiments were performed similarly to the experiments in moonlight but adding a custom-made filter to the IR-lamps. The filters reduced the visual light to the extent that it was not possible to measure directly at relevant experimental distances (35 cm). Measurements very close to the IR-lamp revealed that the filter reduced the visual light by more than three orders of magnitude to an estimated 10–6 lux during the experiments at relevant distances.
For the experiments in darkness, the experimental set up was identical to the experiments in starlight with the only exception that the LED lamps were turned off and the only source of illumination was a near-IR laser (Olng 300 L). This laser was equipped with a custom-made filter to spread the laser beam. The laser has a very narrow spectral band (peak 810 nm) and very little stray light compared to the LED lamps. As common cuttlefish are not known to detect IR light, this experiment was performed in complete darkness from the common cuttlefish’ point of view.
The video camera was placed one meter above the aquarium providing a two-dimensional top view of the prey-capture sequence. Video recordings were performed using an IR-sensitive Mikrotron EoSens MC1362 camera and Inspecta-5 PCI-X frame grabber card. For day- and moonlight experiments we used 1,000 frames per second (fps), and for starlight and darkness 25 fps due to the limited available light. The lower frame rate during experiments in starlight and darkness did not allow for detailed, kinematic analyses. Monitoring of the test animal during experiments was done on a monitor connected to the high-speed camera.
Prey items (mysids, approximately 20 mm in length) were introduced into the aquarium through a small gate in the box. Prey were introduced with at least 15 min between each session. Test continued until the cuttlefish showed no more interest in the prey. Animals were used in only one trial sequence, and were kept in the experimental setup for a maximum of 24 h. The three different light settings were chosen in a random order in consecutive trials.
A total of 33 day-, 40 moon-, and 12 starlight prey capture events were recorded. In addition, 2 darkness trials were conducted. For the present study, 8 prey-capture sequences from daylight (with three different cuttlefish, n = 3), and 11 from moonlight experiments (with four different cuttlefish, n = 4) were selected for analysis using the following criteria: (1) Neither cuttlefish nor mysid were in touch with the side walls of the test tank; (2) Cuttlefish and mysid were at the same depth (near the bottom), assessed from visual inspection of the eye position of the cuttlefish; and (3) Cuttlefish tentacles were clearly visible during the entire prey capture sequence.
In addition, control trials were conducted to ensure that the cuttlefish did not rely on other sensory abilities than eyesight while hunting for prey under low light conditions. A live mysid was placed in a glass jar and sealed with a lid before it was placed in the test aquarium. In control trials, the cuttlefish was able to see the mysid, but all olfactory and mechanical/vibrational cues were eliminated. These controls were conducted during day- (n = 1) and moonlight (n = 1) conditions.
Video Analysis
Video sequences were tracked in ImageJ (1.47) using the MTrackJ plugin (Meijering et al., 2012). Movements of the cuttlefish body, arms, and tentacles and the movement of the mysid were tracked on each video sequence in steps of 4 ms. During tentacle striking, tracking time steps were reduced to 1 ms in order to capture the very rapid tentacle movements during this phase. Tracking started 100 ms prior to the strike, and continued until 12 ms after the tentacles had made contact with the mysid.
The ImageJ tracking program provided raw numerical data for kinematic analysis. The distance between two tracking points was given by a basic distance formula. From the distances between tracking points, the velocity was calculated and smoothed over 5 consecutive measurements. Acceleration was calculated from the smoothed velocity data.
Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism version 8.0.2. Data from daylight and moonlight conditions were compared using a nested t-test, with the measurements from trials made with the same individual cuttlefish nested under each specimen.
Prey Capturing Phases
Every selected hunting sequence in day-, moon-, and starlight conditions roughly followed the same pattern in the way the cuttlefish changed its attention, positioning and finally seized the moving prey (Figures 2, 3).
Figure 2. Example of a prey capture sequence of a cuttlefish hunting during moonlight conditions, the time in ms is stated below the pictures. Top row: Attention phase, starting by the cuttlefish detecting the prey and ending by having aligned the body axis in the direction of the prey. There are intervals of 5 ms between the pictures. Middle row: Positioning phase, starting with the cuttlefish slowly moving to the preferred distance to the prey, slowly ejecting the tentacles. There are intervals of 2 ms between the pictures. Bottom row: Seizure phase. The tentacles are ejected very rapidly in an all or nothing fashion. There is 1 ms between every picture.
Figure 3. Prey capture experiments of cuttlefish with prey enclosed in a jar in moonlight conditions. The cuttlefish displays the same stereotypic behavior as when hunting free-swimming animals. The time in ms is stated below the pictures.
The day- and moonlight trials showed no significant difference in all three phases of predatory behavior. During the attention phase (Figure 2A) the cuttlefish detected and fixated on the prey while the body moved to a position where the tip of the 10 arms faced the prey. During the positioning phase (Figure 2B), the cuttlefish slowly approached the prey while slowly extruding the tentacles with an average velocity of 0.13 m/s (SD ± 0.05, 19 video sequences from four cuttlefish; n = 4). The tentacles were kept closely together during the initial phase of the fast extension but opened in front to expose the suckers in the final phase when the tentacles made contact with the prey (Figure 2C). The outermost part of the tentacle tip stayed together (as visibly in Figure 2C frame 1). The split between the tentacles extended backwards toward the animal and was total when retraction of the prey began (Figure 2C).
During the experiments in starlight, the cuttlefish still readily performed typical three stage hunting and prey capture behaviors as illustrated in Figures 3A–C. Even though conditions of observations were significantly worse in these trials (due to the low light conditions and low frame rate), it was clear that fast tentacle seizure behavior involved an attention phase (Figure 3A) with the cuttlefish orienting toward the prey. Notably, all mysids were in their normal head up and tail down orientation, and thereby still in a visual behavior mode (see darkness section below). The attention phase in the cuttlefish was followed by a positioning phase (Figure 3B) and a tentacle seizure phase (Figure 3C). Overall, tentacle seizures in the starlight trials appeared very close to the day- and moonlight tentacle seizures, but reliable seizure velocity and acceleration values were not possible to obtain due the low frame rate.
In the darkness experiments, cuttlefish responded to the very low light levels with a complete inhibition of prey searching behavior and prey capture. Instead, they started to express a state of “panic-like” confusion by swimming uncontrolled around the aquarium. In addition, during these trials the mysid showed a clear change in their behavior by changing from the upright body position to a near horizontal body orientation and active swimming around the test tank. This was a behavior never seen in the day-, moon- and starlight trials. Thus, both the cuttlefish and the mysid shrimp showed distinctly changed behaviors when deprived of all visual light in the laboratory.
Experimental Control Trials
Control trials contained a living mysid in a sealed glass jar. Both in day- and moonlight conditions, the cuttlefish were attacking the mysid in a similar way as when the mysid was swimming freely (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Cuttlefish catching an alive and free-swimming mysid during starlight conditions. The quality of the video is significantly reduced due to the very low light intensities. The location of the mysid is marked with a red dot. The cuttlefish displayed the same stereotypic hunting behavior as it did in day- and moonlight conditions.
Kinematics of Capturing Sequences
The detailed movements of cuttlefish and prey were very similar in day- and moonlight trials (Figure 5). Figure 5A shows the distance between the tip of the cuttlefish tentacle and the body of the prey during the positioning and seizure phases. The timing of the sequences is synchronized so that the instant when the tentacles touch the mysid is 0. The tentacular seizure occurred after an average of 88.0 ± 0.5 ms (8 video sequences from three cuttlefish, n = 3) in daylight, and 90 ± 1.6 ms (11 video sequences from four cuttlefish, n = 4) in moonlight trials. The distance between the tip of the tentacles and the prey (seizure distance) was 22.96 ± 3.3 mm (8 video sequences, n = 3) for seizures in daylight and 17.87 ± 4.0 mm (11 video sequences, n = 4) in moonlight. There was no significant difference between the mean time or distance upon tentacle seizure (nested t-test, P value = 0.08, df = 5, t = 1.8 and p = 0.13).
Figure 5. Plots of kinematics of prey capture strikes. Black lines represent daylight, red moonlight conditions. Time, t = 0, is defined as the video frame where the tentacle reaches the prey. (A) Distance between the tip of the cuttlefish’s tentacles and the prey’s head. (B) Velocity of the prey. (C) Velocity of the cuttlefish body. (D) Velocity of the tip of the tentacle. (E) Acceleration of the tip of the tentacle.
Before the tentacle made contact with the mysid, the velocity of the prey remained constant at 0.04 ± 0.01 m/s in both day- and moonlight trials. After contact, the mysid velocity increased rapidly to 0.9 ± 0.4 m/s (Figure 5B). Throughout the entire capturing sequence, the velocity of the cuttlefish body was approximately 0.13 ± 0.04 m/s (19 video sequences, n = 4) for both day-, and moonlight trials (Figure 5C).
When tentacle seizures were initiated, tentacle velocities and accelerations increased rapidly. The maximum velocity was 2.34 ± 0.27 m/s (8 video sequences, n = 3) in daylight and 2.03 ± 0.11 m/s (11 video sequences, n = 4) in moonlight (Figure 5C). The mean velocities were significantly different (Nested t-test, P value = 0.07, df = 5 and t = 2.3). The corresponding mean maximum accelerations were 418.3 ± 33 m/s2 (8 video sequences, n = 3) in daylight and 366.3 ± 18.5 m/s2 (11 video sequences, n = 4) in moonlight. The mean accelerations were significantly different (Nested t-test, P value = 0.03, df = 5 and t = 3.0).
The experiments showed that common cuttlefish prey capture behavior are not restricted by low light levels. The common cuttlefish successfully captured mysids during the three different simulated light levels; daylight, moonlight and starlight (Figures 2, 3, and 5), with very little difference in the common cuttlefish prey capture behavior between daylight and moonlight. The unchanged behavior during the starlight trial (Figure 4), combined with no successful prey captures and drastically changed behavior during the trials in complete darkness, indicate the importance of visual cues during predatory behavior.
Besides vision, cephalopods have very complex sensory systems, e.g., the sense of touch (Kier and Leeuwen, 1997; Hanlon and Shashar, 2003), and an olfactory organ (Polese et al., 2016). Earlier experiments indicate that common cuttlefish rely on mainly visual cues when hunting, since physically blinding cuttlefish resulted in a significant drop of attack rates (Messenger, 1968). It is unclear, however, to what extent Messenger’s (1968) results were confounded by behavioral changes in the blinded common cuttlefish, due to the rather brute-force method used. Still, our darkness experiments corroborates Messenger’s (1968) conclusions: When the common cuttlefish was deprived of any visual cues, they were not able to forage even though all other sensory cues were available.
During the daylight tests, common cuttlefish readily attacked the mysid shrimp employing the typical three-phase hunting strategy previously described in all other studied species of cuttlefish and many other species of decapodiform cephalopods (Figure 2; for an extensive review see Hanlon and Messenger, 2018). The maximum tentacle strike accelerations were similar, albeit sometimes higher, than the ones measured in L. pealei (see Kier and Leeuwen, 1997). The higher tentacle acceleration in common cuttlefish may indicate that this species is capable of catching faster moving prey than L. pealei, but this hypothesis needs to be validated in further experimentation. The tentacle velocity and acceleration were significant higher during day- than moonlight trials (Figure 5). Thus, even though the common cuttlefish performed similar hunting behaviors, there were some differences in the prey capturing techniques for our simulated day- and nighttime light levels.
Our results indicate that common cuttlefish might be able to navigate and forage at nighttime and in low-light environments. This strongly supports the notion that cuttlefish may perform advanced behaviors, including foraging and actively camouflaging themselves during nighttime (Watanuki et al., 2000). When all light cues were eliminated, the behavior of the common cuttlefish changed drastically, and did not seem to be able to catch any prey. We believe that a sensation of complete darkness in combination with a rather “sterile” aquarium, with no hiding places, might have been discomforting to the test animals, and that this was the cause of their altered behavior.
The behavior of the prey was similar in all trials, regardless of lighting. This implies that the movement of the prey did not affect the common cuttlefish approach during different light conditions. The body of the cuttlefish did not seem to alter its velocity throughout the entire attack sequence (Figure 5B). This might also indicate the stereotypic nature of the common cuttlefish’s hunting strategy. While the tentacles were slowly extruded toward the mysid, the rest of the cuttlefish body stayed motionless. The reason why this strategy is so efficient may be due to the prey keeping its attention on the cuttlefish body, missing the fact that the almost see-through tentacles are slowly approaching the prey.
The high catching performance of common cuttlefish in the low-light levels tested here strongly indicates that common cuttlefish can forage during very limited light conditions. The most important sensory stimulus used during foraging behavior are visual cues, even during very limited light conditions. Common cuttlefish may therefore be more active at night than what has previously been assumed. This may also explain why common cuttlefish actively adjust their camouflage during nighttime (Watanuki et al., 2000). We encourage studies in the wild, without the use of artificial light sources in the visible spectrum, to verify that even at that Dark Hour, tiny marine creatures might be both embracing death and being embraced – by our heroes: the true knights in the dwindling lights of the ocean nights (Shakespeare, 1626).
Data Availability Statement
Ethics Statement
All studies were conducted in accordance with the Norwegian Animal Welfare Act of 2018, the Regulation of Animal Experimentation of 2017 and approved as field studies at the Marine Biological Station Drøbak by the University of Oslo, Animal Welfare Unit (ref. 155 UiO – Department of Biosciences). All animals used in this study were treated according to the guidelines provided by the European Directive in Directive 86/609/EEC and Directive 2010/63/EU.
Author Contributions
Experimental trials were conducted by MWi, JH, and HK. Data were analyzed by MB. Figures were made by MB and MWa. All authors contributed to the editoral work of this manuscript.
This work was funded by grants from the Danish Council for Independent Research, Natural Sciences and the Carlsberg Foundation (Carlsbergfondet: CF14-0444), both to MWi, and Finn Jørgen Walvigs Foundation.
Conflict of Interest
We thank Kristian Vedel and Michael Hansen at the Øresund Aquarium, Denmark for providing S. officinalis and guidance on cuttlefish husbandry, and Espen Grønlie at the University of Oslo for fruitful discussions. We thank the technical staff at the Marine Biological Station Drøbak and René Lynge Eriksen, University of Southern Denmark, for the help with measuring and calibrating the light sources. We thank Adam Smith, postdoctoral researcher at the Marine Biological Research Centre, University of Southern Denmark for proofreading this manuscript.
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Keywords: cephalopod vision, Sepia officinalis, cuttlefish, predatory behavior, low light vision
Citation: Brauckhoff M, Wahlberg M, Haga JÅR, Karlsen HE and Wilson M (2020) Embracing Their Prey at That Dark Hour: Common Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) Can Hunt in Nighttime Light Conditions. Front. Physiol. 11:525. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00525
Received: 16 November 2019; Accepted: 29 April 2020;
Published: 10 June 2020.
Edited by:
Daniel Osorio, University of Sussex, United Kingdom
Reviewed by:
Thomas Cronin, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, United States
Felix Christopher Mark, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz (AWI), Germany
*Correspondence: Melanie Brauckhoff,;
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The Race to the South Pole
In 1911 the race between the expeditions of the Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Briton Robert Scott to the South Pole began, each of them dreaming to reach the southernmost point of the earth first. In the end, Amundsen succeeded whereas Scott died heroically in the icy desert with his comrades on their way back after arriving at the Pole second.
The concept of this Mapping project was to create a device which, through interaction by the user, tells the story of Race to the South Pole. The goal is to reveal the explorers’ progress and struggles across the frozen continent through a physical device, a wheel chart, which is made up of a stack of rotating discs. As the user turns one of the discs the pointer running along the outside points to particular events of the expeditions. Information associated with these events such as changes in temperature and terrain hight, as well as human and animal tragedies, will become visible. At the same time points showing positions of each expedition can be viewed through the track windows.
The back side contains an overview map, where territories known at the time of the expeditions are shown as highlighted areas.
Students: Jenny Janssen & Nikita Slavin
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These designer kites were invented in China, where materials ideal for kite building were promptly accessible: silk fabric for sail material; fine, high-tensile-strength silk for flying line; and resilient bamboo for a strong, lightweight framework. The kite has been claimed as the invention of the 5th-century BC Chinese philosophers Mozi (also Mo Di) and Lu Ban (also Gongshu Ban). By 549 AD paper kites were unquestionably being flown, as it was recorded that in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used for measuring distances, testing the breeze, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. The earliest known Chinese kites were flat (not bowed) and often rectangular. Later, tailless kites incorporated a stabilizing bowline. Kites were decorated with mythological motifs and legendary figures; some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying. From China, kites were introduced to Cambodia, Thailand, India, Japan, Korea and the western world.
After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite, known as the “Patang” in India, where thousands are flown every year on festivals such as Makar Sankranti. Makar Sankranti is a Hindu festival celebrated in almost all parts of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh in many cultural forms. It is a harvest festival that falls on the Magh month of the Nepali calendar (Hindu Solar Calendar). Makar Sankranti marks the transition of the sun into the zodiacal sign of Makara (Capricorn) on its celestial path. The day is also believed to mark the arrival of spring in India and the Magh month in Nepal and is a traditional event. Makara Sankranthi is a solar event making it one of the few Hindu festivals which fall on the same date in the Nepali calendar every year: 14 January, with few exemptions when the festival is celebrated on 15 January.
From Polynesia To New Zealand
Benjamin Franklin
In 1750 Benjamin Franklin published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning was caused by electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm. It is not known whether Franklin ever performed his experiment, but on May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted a similar experiment using a 40 feet (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite and extracted electrical sparks from a cloud.
Franklin understood the threats of utilizing conductive bars and rather utilized his son to fly the kite. This enabled him to remain on the ground and the kite was likely to electrocute him. According to the legend, Franklin kept the string of the kite dry at his son’s conclusion to insulate him while he was permitted to get wet in the rain to give conductivity.
A house key belonging to Benjamin Loxley was attached to the string and connected to a Leyden jar, which Franklin assumed would accumulate electricity from the lightning. The kite was not struck by noticeable lightning; had it done as such, Franklin would more likely than not have been executed. Be that as it may, Franklin noticed that the strings of the kite were repulsing each other and deduced that the Leyden jar was being charged. He moved his hand close to the key a short time later because as he had estimated, lightning had contrarily charged the key and the Leyden jar, demonstrating the electric idea of lightning.
That’s it for the history of kites everything you should know. Feel free to give your comment below!
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Central Gulf of Maine
The Gulf of Maine is known as one of the most productive coastal seas in the world and is famous for its groundfisheries. Most of the productivity, however, does not occur in the Central Gulf but is focused on the shallow areas that rim the Gulf, where nutrient rich waters come into contact with sunlight. With its deeper waters, the Central Gulf is relatively depauperate. Exceptions include areas of localized upwelling, such as Cashes Ledge (to the west of Wilkinson Basin) and Truxton Swell (south of Jordan Basin). 1,2
Surface area
22,796 mi2 (59,041.37 km2)
The range of depth in the Central Gulf of Maine is from ~100 to ~200 m (not including the basins).
Bathymetry including key features
The central Gulf of Maine is a broad extension of the continental shelf. Ranging in depth from 100 to 200 m, the Central Gulf is separated from dry land on its northern, western and eastern sides by the coastal shelf. To the south, it is separated from the continental shelf break and slope by Georges and Browns Banks. The Northeast Channel, between the eastern end of Georges Bank and Browns Bank, and the Great South Channel, between the western end of Georges Bank and Nantucket Shoals, connect the Central Gulf with the Northwest Atlantic. The bathymetry of the Central Gulf is dominated by three large basins, Wilkinson to the west and Georges and Jordan to the east.
Much of the Central Gulf of Maine, particularly its basins, is covered in thick deposits of mud. Unsorted glacial till is found in glacial moraines such as Truxton Swell to the south of Jordan Basin and Sewell Ridge to the north of Georges Basin. Much of the eastern portion of the Central Gulf is covered with modified glacial till – sand mixed with silt, clay and gravel. Gravel, with occasional boulders predominates on Platts Bank and Fippennies Ledge, high points in the northwestern portion of the Central Gulf. Cashes Ledge, and other high points in the same area, are formed by bed rock.3,4
Relationship to large-scale circulatory patterns of the Gulf of Maine
The circulation of the Gulf of Maine is comprised of a counterclockwise gyre that traces the coast from Nova Scotia to Cape Cod. This pattern is driven in large part by temperature; in spring, water in the interior of the Gulf begins to warm while water on the edge of the continental shelf and the slope outside the Gulf are cooling. As the water in the interior Gulf warms, it expands, becoming less dense and lighter. The difference in density between these more buoyant waters and cooler offshore waters creates a pressure gradient. The force of this gradient establishes a “downhill” flow of water away from the coast and the action of Coriolis forces (resulting from rotation of the earth) turns it toward the west. The resulting westerly flowing coastal current helps to draw water into the Gulf of Maine.
Relatively fresh, cold water enters the Gulf of Maine over the Scotian Shelf. It flows northeastward around the tip of Nova Scotia. After a turn through the Bay of Fundy, this current flows southwestward, setting up the coastal current that dominates circulation in the Gulf of Maine. Riverine discharge and tidal flows contribute to the coastal current. Dense, warmer and more saline water from the continental slope outside of the Gulf enters the Gulf through the Northeast Channel, a deep valley between Georges Bank and Browns Bank. It flows into Georges Basin and contributes to counterclockwise gyres that flow over both Georges and Jordan Basins. Outflow from the Gulf occurs through the Great South Channel and upper layers of the Northeast Channel.
The dynamics of the coastal current that flows southwestward along the coast of Maine divides the central Gulf of Maine into two oceanographically distinct areas. The eastern portion of this current is relatively fast moving and somewhat colder than the western portion of the current. Where the two meet, at the mouth of Penobscot Bay, the faster moving eastern current is, to a large degree, deflected offshore. These waters are, in turn, entrained in the counterclockwise gyres that flow over Georges and Jordan Basins. This process divides the interior Gulf into eastern and western portions that are relatively isolated from one another.
Smaller versions of the Gulf scale counterclockwise gyre follow the contours of the three major basins of the Gulf, Wilkinson in the eastern Gulf and Georges and Jordan Basins to the west. Clockwise gyres circulate over Georges and Browns Banks, the large underwater deposits that separate the Gulf of Maine from the Northwest Atlantic.5,6
Information on average (seasonal/annual) oceanographic conditions
The circulation of the Gulf has a distinct seasonal pattern. The counterclockwise gyre takes shape in the early spring. As the season proceeds, the discharge of freshwater from over sixty rivers in the Gulf watershed contributes to the currents. The action of the tides strengthens the summer circulation. In addition, the warming of the surface of the ocean results in stratification; a warmer layer floats on top of a mid-depth layer that preserves winter temperatures and salinities. It, in turn, is underlain by more saline “bottom water”. Stratification is most pronounced in the deeper areas of the western Gulf. The counterclockwise gyre is established in the top layer; the current picks up speed as the top layer slides over the middle layer. These currents reach their broadest extent and greatest speeds by the end of December. Then, cooling of the atmosphere results in cooling of the ocean surface. As it cools, it sinks, replacing the stratified layers with well mixed waters. As the currents mix downward, they are slowed by the friction they encounter when they reach the bottom. By February, the counterclockwise circulation pattern is no longer evident.7
There is considerable variation in the circulation patterns of the Gulf of Maine from year to year. Variations in the temperature and volume of water flowing into the Gulf, in the range of atmospheric temperatures affecting the Gulf, and in the size and timing of the spring freshet affect the scale and duration of the various gyres that define Gulf circulation patterns.
Presence of GoMOOS buoy
Buoy N is located in the Northeast Channel.
1 Thomas et al., 2003.
2 Conkling, 1995
3 Dorsey and Pederson, 1988
4 NEFMC, 2004
5 Xue, et al., 2000
6 Pettigrew, et al., in press
7 Xue, et al., 2000
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About animals
Boxing History: Occurrence, Important Dates and Top Boxers
Boxing (from the English box - box, box, ring) - contact sport, martial arts, in which athletes strike each other with their fists in special gloves.
The referee controls the fight, which lasts from 3 to 12 rounds. Victory is awarded if the opponent is knocked down and cannot rise within ten seconds (knockout) or if he received an injury that does not allow him to continue the fight (technical knockout). If after the set number of rounds the fight was not stopped, then the winner is determined by the judges.
Boxing, as an independent variety of martial arts, took shape several millennia BC. In Egypt, images of fighters with bandaged hands dating back to the 40th century BC were found.
For at least six millennia, images of fist fights found on the territory of modern Ethiopia. Figurines and bas-reliefs with images of pugilists were also found during excavations of temples of ancient Mesopotamia. In 688 BC fisticuffs were first included in the program of the ancient Olympic Games.
Fist fights
The creation of fisticuff rules is attributed to Hercules. Fights in Ancient Greece were held on a sandy square site, the fence of which was formed by the audience. The hands of the fighters were wrapped with leather belts (in the VI century BC, sfairay came into use - a thick leather ring to protect the joints, worn on the arm over the belts).
The winner of the match was the athlete who sent the opponent to the knockout or forced him to surrender by raising his hand. Compliance with the rules was monitored by a specially appointed judge - gelladonic. If in the allotted time the winner could not be identified, the judge ordered an exchange of blows without the right to defend. In 616 BC youth boxing was also included in the program of the Olympic Games.
Only free-born Greeks were allowed to compete at the Olympics, who were able to provide the organizers with evidence that they had specially prepared for them for at least ten months before the competition. Training of fighters was conducted in special schools - palestra. In training, the fighters used not only the resemblance of gloves made of soft leather straps, but also protected their heads with a mask with headphones.
After the conquest of Greece by Rome, the tradition of pugilism continued, but the rules gradually changed in the direction of increasing entertainment and tightening.
The soft leather bandages were replaced by kestus - a leather band with metal plaques, and then myrmex - a weighted glove with spikes. In 30 BC fights between the citizens of Rome were banned and fisticuffs became the inheritance of gladiator slaves.
After the ban on the Olympic Games, the tradition of competitive fist fights was interrupted, although martial arts of this kind were always popular among the common people. The revival of boxing, as an independent sport, occurred in England. The very name “boxing” arose there.
The fights between the English fighters were held without gloves and differed from the usual fight by the presence of some rules, which at first were determined immediately before the fight by the agreement of the participants themselves and their representatives. In 1734, British champion Jack Browton developed the first generally accepted set of rules, which later formed the basis of the so-called Rules of the London prize ring. These rules did not limit the duration of the fight: it ended only if one of the fighters appeared on the ground and could not continue the fight after a thirty-second break, during which he was assisted by the seconds. In addition to punches, these rules allowed captures and throws. In 1853, a new version of the Rules of the London Prize Ring was adopted.
In 1865, the Welshman John Graham Chambers developed a new set of rules, the so-called "Rules of the Marquis of Queensberry" (this name was due to the fact that these rules were supported by John Douglas, IX Marquis of Queensberry). These rules in general corresponded to those for which boxing fights are still held: a ban was placed on throws and captures, mandatory use of gloves was introduced, the duration of the round was determined in three minutes with a minute break between rounds, and concepts of knockdown and knockout in their modern form were introduced .
Sam on Sam
«Sam On Sam"- this is a duel between two fisticuffs - one of the types of fistfighting that existed in Ancient Russia as a great fun, an indispensable part of the festivities. In addition, the duel, one-on-one, was also one of the methods of litigation of complaints, mutual claims of two offended by each other.
When, through objective analysis, it was not possible to establish either the right or the guilty, “fist law” came into effect. Both disputants converged himself-on-himself, and the winner was declared right, and the vanquished - guilty.
Boxing: history of occurrence
In 668, fisticuffs were included in the Olympic Games in Ancient Greece. From this moment it can be considered that this type of martial arts was recognized as a sport. Only free Greeks could be fighters. Fist fights were very popular, were considered an example of courage, strength, dexterity, speed. They were attended by poets, writers, and statesmen. For example, the well-known Pythagoras, whose merits are considered many mathematical discoveries, was also an excellent fighter and often participated in wrestling fights.
The rules of ancient battles
The rules of battle underwent changes over time. In those days, it was believed that it was possible to beat only in the head, hands for protection were wrapped in strips of leather, the fights were very fierce, until one of the wrestlers was clearly victorious, and the number of rounds was not specified. Such battles ended with severe injuries and deaths. There is information about the legendary boxing champion of Ancient Greece of those years - Theagen. The history of boxing says that he participated in more than 2,000 battles, and killed 1,800 opponents.
Over the centuries, soft pieces of leather for wrapping hands turned into stiffer ones, and then copper and iron inserts appeared in them. They were used by athletes in the Roman Empire and served not only to protect their hands, but also turned them into a formidable weapon. That is how the hands of the fighters were wrapped during the gladiatorial battles.
Boxing History
The history of modern boxing is closely linked with England. This country is the founder of this sport. The first written mention of the boxing match occurred in 1681. Clear rules in those days were not established, they were agreed in advance of the fight, a judge was appointed, the winner received a reward from the cash register of the battle. No weight and time restrictions existed. They fought with their hands without gloves, hit with their heads, shoulders, legs, elbows. In fact, it was a hand-to-hand fight.
Famous James Figg and his student Jack Broughton
In 1719, James Figg and Ned Saton met in a duel. The winner is Figg. And he was awarded the champion title. An early title by that name did not exist. In Figg's time, boxing became even more popular. The champion wrote articles in the public press and talked about boxing techniques of attack and defense. He began to formulate the first rules. According to them, the fighters could finish off the enemy in the literal sense of the word, breaking their legs and arms, pressing on their eyes. Nails were stuck into the soles of martial arts shoes with which they could pierce the opponent’s foot during the battle. These were truly terrifying spectacles. Figg created the Boxing Academy in 1722, where he taught this kind of wrestling to all comers.
Jack Broughton became a student of Figg. In 1743, he set out the first rules of boxing fights. Gloves were put into use, competitions began to be held in the ring, the concept of rounds appeared.
Rules of the Marquis of Queensberry
The history of boxing has evolved over the centuries, undergoing changes. In 1867, new rules were introduced that radically changed the conduct of a boxing match. They were spelled out in the "Rules of the Marquis of Queensberry." They set strict limits on the actions of fighters, limited their actions, banned the use of boots with nails, introduced mandatory rounds with a time limit of 3 minutes, the kicks, elbows, knees, and suffocation were prohibited. If a boxer falls, the judge counts up to 10 seconds. If during this time the boxer did not stand up - the judge can read him a defeat. A knee touching the ring or clinging to the ropes was considered the fall of the boxer. Many of these rules still lie at the heart of modern boxing.
The duel between James John Corbett and John Lawrence Sullivan in 1892 is considered the official birth date of modern professional boxing. From that moment, boxing organizations began to appear in the United States and other countries. They have been renamed many times, although their essence has not changed. It is currently called the World Boxing Organization.
Boxing History in Russia
In ancient Russia they loved to measure strength, there were fist fights and hand-to-hand fighting. Many Russian fairy tales mention battles with the heroes Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich and Dobrynya Nikitich. It is a question of their remarkable strength. In real life, fights were also held, where martial artists measured themselves against each other, often there were wall-to-wall fights, when several people participated on each side at once.
The Orthodox Church did not approve of this type of entertainment, and hand-to-hand fighting was often banned. Under Ivan the Terrible and later, under Peter the Great, boxing in any case penetrated the country, interaction with England and its culture could not be in vain. In 1894, Michael Kister published a book on English boxing. July 15, 1895 the first official match was held. This date is considered to be the date of birth of boxing in Russia.
The best boxers in boxing history
Experts often argue among themselves which of the boxers at what level is worth it. The history of boxing goes back to ancient times, so there are a lot of great fighters. Some of them have already been mentioned. If we talk about modern boxing of the 20-21 centuries, the rating of boxers according to experts is as follows.
• Joe Louis. American, they say that he is the best boxer in the world in the history of boxing. He won 72 victories, and only 3 defeats. He was considered the legendary hero and symbol of the country.
• Some truth is inclined to argue with this opinion and argue that the best boxer is Sugar Ray Robinson. Behind him are 173 victories, 19 defeats. This wrestler, in addition to having great willpower, perseverance, sang and danced very well.
• Mohammed Ali. 56 wins, 5 losses. The best boxing fights in history have often been attributed to this particular fighter. Many legendary fights have names. Mohhamed Ali, in addition to the struggle, participated in the political activities of the country, opposed the war in Vietnam. For his activities against the government he was imprisoned. But when he was released, he was again ready for battle.
This list goes on and on. Many boxers struck the world with their unprecedented strength, the will to win and the greatest power.
Thai Boxing History
There are different directions in boxing: there is professional, semi-professional, amateur, French boxing. Currently, Thai boxing is at the peak of its popularity in Russia. Although he reached our country literally at the end of the 20th century. Since then, its rapid development in Russia has gone; Thai boxing schools and the Thai Boxing Federation have appeared. In 1994, trained athletes won three first prizes at once in international competitions.
Thai boxing is also called free. It allowed blows not only with fists in gloves, but also with legs, elbows. It is currently considered one of the most brutal martial arts.
The history of Thai boxing began more than two thousand years ago. The Kingdom of Thailand has repeatedly had to fight the conquerors in close combat, and soldiers were taught the art and tactics of warfare. The first official Thai boxing battle was held in 1788.
Since 1921, stricter rules for fights were introduced. It became necessary to wear gloves, fights began to be held in special rings, from that time the battle began to have a time limit, bans in the groin were prohibited, division by weight categories appeared.
And so, from the middle of the 20th century, Thai boxing began to spread and gain popularity around the world. International associations have appeared. World championships on this sport, European championships have been regularly held.
Boxing is one of the most expensive sports.
The most expensive fight in boxing history took place in Las Vegas in May 2015. The two legends came together, the invincible Floyd Mayweather, an American, and Manny Pacquiao, a Filipino. The organizers profit from this event about 400-500 million dollars, the prices of some tickets reached 100-150 thousand dollars. These are approximate amounts of profit according to official figures, what kind of money was earned in this fight in reality - one can only guess. Mayer was offered $ 120 million, and a Filipino $ 80 million. Throughout the history of boxing, no one has ever been offered such huge fees. The highest paid athlete in the world did not disappoint his fans and won a landslide victory in this match. Although, according to many viewers, the fight itself was not very spectacular.
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1. Chapter 4 Class 6 Basic Geometrical Ideas
2. Serial order wise
Ex 4.3, 1 - Chapter 4 Class 6 of the NCERT Book - Understanding Elementary Shapes Name the angles in the given figure. In the figure, The angles are ∠ A, ∠ B, ∠ C, ∠ D OR ∠DAB, ∠ABC, ∠BCD, ∠CDA
About the Author
Davneet Singh's photo - Teacher, Computer Engineer, Marketer
Davneet Singh
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kids encyclopedia robot
Guava facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Genus: Psidium
Guavas are plants in the genus Psidium of the family Myrtaceae. There are about 100 species of tropical shrubs and small trees in the genus.
Guava are also a kind of berry fruit on those plants. There are many kinds of guavas. The most common guava is the apple guava (Psidium guajava): it is so common that the word 'guava' usually refers to this species. Red guavas are called maroonguava. In 100 g of guava are 200 mg of vitamin C, which means that guavas have five times more vitamin C than oranges.
Images for kids
kids search engine
Guava Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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Musical instruments of Puerto Rican music have roots in the cultures of Puerto Rico’s Taino, Spanish, and African traditions. Musical instruments used in Puerto Rican music are well known instruments used in present day music. These instruments would include such intrument as the saxophone, trombone, trumpet, cello and violin.The other instruments that are typically used in the various types of Puerto Rican music are not as well known to main stream music audiences.some where used by the navives of Puerto Rico the Taino indians others where invented in Puerto Rico and still others have roots in the african culture brought over to Puerto Rico during the slave trades. I will try to name and explain the not so well known instruments in the folowing pages.
timbales_smTimbales: which are a set of drums consisting of two drums with different pitches, and two cow bells,cymbals and sometimes also it will include a woodblock. The two drums are made of metal and have adjustable skins stretched over the heads. The drums are mounted on a stand which also serves to attach cowbells and cymbals. The drums are played with dowel-like sticks but may also be played with the bare hand Using the sides of the drum as well as on the drum heads. The sound of the timbales is best demonstrated by the famous artist Tito Puente as is in the song: El Timbalon.
bongosBongos: are a variety of small drums, derived from African roots.It consists of a pair of unequal sized small drums that are joined together. The smaller drum is called the “male”, or minor drum, while the larger is the “female” or major drum. They are mainly played sitting down, held between the knees.
congasCongas: The conga is an ancient musical instrument not originally from Puerto Rico. The conga drum was adapted from Africa where it began as solid, hollowed out log with a nailed-on skin. There are four different sizes of conga drums. The largest is called the tumba, and the smallest is called the niño. Some artists use a set of all four sizes. The conga has an adjustable skin. Regardless of its design, this instrument is an important part of the percussion section
palitosPalitos: They are perhaps the most ancient or primitive musical instrument, a pair of “sticks” that are banged together to provide percussion rhythm.Palitos are usually two cylindrical hardwood sticks approximately 20 — 25 cm long and about 2.5 — 3 cm in diameter. They are played by laying one stick acoss the palm of the hand so that one end rests lightly on the fingertips. This makes the sound of the stick resonate when it is struck by the other stick, which is held between the thumb and first two fingers of the other hand.
guiro_2Güiro: Traditional Puerto Rican musical intruments are believed to have originated with the Taino people. Most noteworthy is the güiro, a notched hollowed-out gourd. The güiro is made by carving the shell of the gourd and carving parallel fluting on its surface. It is played by holding the güiro in one hand with the thumb inserted into the back sound hole to keep the instrument in place. The other hand usually holds the scraper and plays the instrument. The scraper is more properly called a “pua”. A rhythmic, rasping sound is produced. Playing the güiro usually requires both long and short sounds, which are made by scraping both up and down in long or short strokes. The size of the güiro can vary widely although it typically ranges from 25 — 35 cm long.
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Representations of Love (twelfth night)
Choose one of the following topics for your first essay.
1. Malvolio as a representative of Puritans
In what ways does Malvolio represent Puritans and why is this an insult? Through Malvolio’s character, what statement is Shakespeare making about the Puritan Movement?
• Research the history of the Puritan movement in England as it affected Shakespeare. What problems did the Puritans have with Shakespeare and vice versa? Hint: the rivalry is rooted in freedom of speech, expression, and art, which the Puritan movement sough to eliminate
• Discuss who the Puritans were in England circa 1600. What were their political intentions? How did this clash with Shakespeare and others? Sources and discussion should be historical and non-ideological.
• Discuss how Malvolio represents Puritans through his words, actions, and character.
• The conspirators in the plot to humiliate Malvolio make a big deal out of his “Puritan” ways. Why would this have been such an insult in Shakespeare’s time? Hirsch provides examples of Puritan references hidden in the text. Find some research that shows the historical position of Puritans in Shakespeare’s era and how they were perceived, and how Malvolio exemplifies the Puritan ideologies that are so reviled.
• Ultimately, what statement does Shakespeare make about the Puritan political movement through Malvolio.
2. Viola as a Gender Conformist
Viola’s cross-dressing escapades seem to throw gender roles into question at first. However, as the play develops, Viola clearly continues to conform to female gender roles, despite pretending to be a man (Cesario). As a result, Shakespeare actually reaffirms gendered stereotypes and expectations BY using the cross-dressing device.
• Discuss how Viola conforms to the expectations of women, even when she is acting the part of a man (Cesario).
• Discuss the point Shakespeare is making about gender roles/conformity through Viola/Cesario.
• Find examples and research that shows how Viola remains confined to these roles. Use Lindheim’s work as well as others.
3. Representations of Love
Discuss the different representations of love in Twelfth Night.
• What are three different ways that “love” is shown through the words and actions of characters? Which characters view/pursue each of the three forms you identify? Show this through their actions and motivations.
• One representation you should discuss is love as recompense (compensation). Multiple characters fall into this category.
• Other possibilities to consider:
o Is there a representation of “true” or “pure” love in the play? If so, how, why, who?
o Are any “nontraditional” forms of love represented?
o Forms of love do not have to be romantic.
o How do the representations of love by the women and the men differ?
o In regard to marriage, what seems to be the basis for the marriage matches that are made? Relate this to the idea of compensation. Use the work of Slights and others.
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Posted by: rcottrill | April 14, 2017
Knocking, Knocking, Who Is There?
Graphic Bob New Glasses 2015HOW TO USE THIS BLOG
Words: Adapted from a poem by Harriet Beecher Stowe (b. June 14, 1811; d. July 1, 1896)
Music: George Frederick Root (b. Aug. 30, 1820; d. Aug. 6, 1895)
Wordwise Hymns (Harriet Beecher Stowe)
The Cyber Hymnal
Note: Harriet Beecher Stowe is justifiably famous, and George Root was well-known in Christian circles, having written words and music for a number of gospel songs, and composing the music for the texts of many others. We do not know the name of the eight-year-old girl who added a significant final stanza to the song, but she was certainly clever and perceptive.
When an individual knocks on a door it usually expresses a desire to enter, or to speak with some person within. Though, in the case of the police, it may be a demand to enter, in order to interview a person of interest with respect to a crime. Knocking can also be metaphorical, as when we say “opportunity knocks.”
I Hear You Knocking (“but you can’t come in”) was a hit rhythm and blues song in the 1950’s. And knock-knock jokes have been popular with children since the 1930’s. When did the latter start? One author points to a series of knock-knock quips in a soliloquy by the porter of Macbeth’s castle, in Shakespeare’s play. That would take them back four centuries!
Most recent knock-knock jokes are built around silly puns, ones that make us groan, as the knocker is asked to identify himself. (Knock knock. Who’s there? Canoe. Canoe who? Canoe help me with my homework?) In the 1960’s knock-knock jokes became a rapid-fire staple of a weekly comedy show on television called Laugh-in.
In the Bible, knocking at a door is connected with a number of interesting accounts. In the Song of Solomon, a romantic oriental poem, we see the Shulamite maiden sleeping, as she awaits the wedding which will unite her in marriage to her beloved Solomon. She dreams he’s knocking at the door, but is upset to find, when she opens the door in her dream, that he’s gone (Song 5:2-6).
In the Gospels, Jesus uses knocking as a picture of prayer. “Ask, and it will be given to you; seek, and you will find; knock, and it will be opened to you….If you then, being evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father who is in heaven give good things to those who ask Him!” (Matt. 7:7, 11).
In the book of Acts, when Peter is miraculously delivered from prison, he goes to where he knows other Christians are meeting, and knocks on the door. When a girl named Rhoda hears his voice through the door, she is so excited she runs to tell the others, leaving Peter in the street! Those gathered think she’s either crazy, or has seen a ghost. But Peter persists in knocking, and they finally let him in, astonished to see him (Acts 12:13-16).
Finally, in Revelation, there’s the Lord’s message to a “lukewarm” and self-satisfied church that had, in fact, left Christ out and had no personal relationship with Him. His assessment of them: “You say, ‘I am rich, have become wealthy, and have need of nothing’–and do not know that you are wretched, miserable, poor, blind, and naked” (Rev. 3:17). Jesus is pictured outside the door, seeking admittance.
“Behold, I stand at the door and knock. If anyone hears My voice and opens the door, I will come in to him and dine [fellowship] with him, and he with Me” (vs. 20).
That Bible verse, addressed, in the context, to a church, has been used in several gospel songs as an appeal to individuals to trust in the Saviour for personal salvation. One of these, Knocking, Knocking, Who Is There? was published in 1867. The author was Harriet Beecher Stowe, who wrote the now-famous anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
After the song’s publication, and on the way home from a meeting where it was used, a young girl told her mother she was bothered by the last stanza of the song because it “leaves the Saviour still standing outside.” When they reached home, the girl went to her room and composed a new final stanza. Her mother thinking it was excellent work, sent it to a religious publication. It was not only published but was later added to the song in a hymn book.
CH-1) Knocking, knocking, who is there?
Waiting, waiting, oh, how fair!
’Tis a Pilgrim, strange and kingly,
Never such was seen before,
Ah, my soul, for such a wonder,
Wilt thou not undo the door?
CH-3) Knocking, knocking–what, still there?
Waiting, waiting, grand and fair!
Yes, the piercèd hand still knocketh,
And beneath the crownèd hair
Beam the patient eyes, so tender,
Of thy Saviour waiting there.
4) Enter, enter, heavenly Guest!
Welcome, welcome to my breast.
I have long withstood Thy knocking,
For my heart was full of sin;
But Thy love hath overcome me,
Blessèd Jesus, O come in!
1) Is there something wrong in your life the Saviour wants you to deal with today?
2) Why is it so difficult for some to open the door to the Lord Jesus?
Wordwise Hymns (Harriet Beecher Stowe)
The Cyber Hymnal
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Phrygian mode: classic examples of the Phrygian diatonic scale through the music eras
Phrygian Soldiers at Pararli
Phrygian Soldiers at Pararli
From Middle Ages to modernity, Western music has been largely based on diatonic scales that organize seven notes into harmonic systems allowing the composition of melodies and chord progressions.
Most listeners would be familiar with the major and minor scales which are widely used in classical and popular music, although composers work with many other musical modes to create a certain emotional atmosphere or depict a geographical and historical scene in a piece of music.
The Phrygian mode, known to musicians since antiquity, owes its name to the kingdom of Phrygia that thrived around 3,000 years ago on the territory of modern Turkey. Plato called this musical mode courageous, active, capable of escorting to wounds and death, while citizens of Ancient Greece considered the Phrygian mode the only true Greek mode that is impeccable in every way.
In modern interpretation, the Phrygian scale is almost completely identical to the natural minor scale, differing from it only in the second scale degree lowered by a semitone. This similarity determines the overall minor of the Phrygian diatonic scale used to create majestic, thoughtful, and sad music.
In other cultures, the Phrygian scale—called the Bayati magam—appears in the Magam system of Arabic, Persian and Turkish classical music, and in Indian classical music there is Bhairavi thaat which is completely equivalent to the modern Phrygian scale.
The Phrygian scale quite often appears in the sacred works of the Italian composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina whose music is considered to be the culmination of Renaissance polyphony. For example, five motets of his cycle Canticum Canticorum (Song of Solomon) are written for the E Phrygian mode.
Listen to Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina's Caput eius (aurum optimum) performed by The Sixteen:
The brilliant Danish-German composer Dietrich Buxtehude demonstrates a great example of the Baroque organ music written in A Phrygian mode as evidenced in his Prelude in A minor. At the time, Buxtehude's influence was so vast that young J.S. Bach himself made a four-hundred-kilometer trek in order to learn from him in 1705.
Listen to Dieterich Buxtehude's Prelude in A minor performed by Ulrik Spang-Hanssen:
In the Classical period, D Phrygian mode can be found in parts of Mozart's Don Juan overture completed by the composer right on the day of the opera premiere in 1787.
Watch Mozart's Don Giovanni Overture performed by Herbert von Karajan with Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra:
The famous wild dance Bacchanale from Camille Saint Saens' grand opera Samson and Delilah is written in A Phrygian mode. One of the most successful operas of the Romantic periodSamson and Delilah has been running for almost 150 years since its premiere in 1877.
Watch Camille Saint Saens' Bacchanale performed by Gustavo Dudamel and the Berliner Philharmoniker:
Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis is an example of 20th century English classical music written in G Phrygian mode. Composed in 1910 by Vaughan Williams, the piece was based on the original melody of Thomas Tallis—one of the most influential composers of the English Renaissance.
Watch Vaughan Williams' Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis performed by Andrew Davis with The BBC Symphony Orchestra:
Perhaps one of the most recognizable contemporary works using the Phrygian mode was written by Howard Shore for The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy. For his impressive Prologue theme telling a legend of the ring of absolute power, the composer chose the F Phrygian mode.
Listen to Howard Shore's Prologue: One Ring to Rule Them All performed by The London Voices and The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra:
The Phrygian scale also appears in many pop-music genres, from jazz to heavy metal, with Metallica becoming pioneers in the latter.
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4 comments so far
• Martin Spaink 5 months ago
This could have started with any song by Hildegard of Bingen in the mode of E
• Dee Mac 5 months ago
RVW's Fantasia is one of my favorite pieces. This particular recording, the reverberations are amazing. Listen with headphones - absolutely gorgeous! Doesn't get much better than this..
• Mike Matesky 4 months ago
Good read. I had not really associated Palestrina w/ the Phrygian mode. Likely a reflection of my ignorance, here.
Another work I think of when Phrygian mode is brought up is Debussy's String Quartet.
• Nitro Strength 4 months ago
thank so considerably for your website it aids a lot.
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Chapter 13. Fundamental Types
Conceptually, a type is defined by a set of values and the operations that may be performed on those values. This is a widely accepted notion of type, and represents the minimum strict definition.
In practice, however, the correct manipulation of types depends not just on a balance between suitability—fitness for purpose—and expressiveness, but also on safety and even “human” factors such as its name. It is important that a type provides you with enough power and flexibility to enable you to clearly and efficiently represent and manipulate the concept you require, but equally important that the range of operations is restricted to a safe and predictable set.
The fundamental types (see Prologue) provided by C++ come ...
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Saturday, December 5, 2009
Preparing foods with fire may have made us humans what we are
In a world without cooking, we would have to spend half our days chewing raw food, much as the chimpanzee does. Cooking not only makes food more delicious, it also softens food and breaks starches and proteins into more digestible molecules, allowing us to enjoy our meals more readily and to draw more nutrition from them. According to Harvard University biological anthropologist Richard Wrangham, cooking’s biggest payoff is that it leaves us with more energy and time to devote to other things—such as fueling bigger brains, forming social relationships and creating divisions of labor. Ultimately, Wrangham believes, cooking made us human.
Archaeological evidence is mixed as to when our ancestors started building controlled fires—a prerequisite for cooking—but Wrangham argues that the biological evidence is indisputable: we must have first enjoyed the smell of a good roast 1.9 billion years ago. That is when a species of early human called Homo erectus appeared—and those hominids had 50 percent larger skulls and smaller pelvises and rib cages than their ancestors, suggesting bigger brains and smaller abdomens.
They also had much smaller teeth. It makes sense that cooking “should have left a huge signal in the fossil record,” Wrangham says, and, quite simply, “there’s no other time that fits.” Never before and never again during the course of human evolution did our teeth, skull and pelvis change size so drastically. If cooking had arisen at a different point, he says, we would be left with a big mystery: “How come cooking was adopted and didn’t change us?”
Wrangham also has a theory as to how controlled fires, and thus cooking, came about. He speculates that H. erectus’s closest ancestors, the australopithecines, ate raw meat but hammered it to make it flatter and easier to chew, rather like steak carpaccio. “I’ve tried hammering meat with rocks, and what happens? You get sparks,” he says. “Time and time again this happens, and eventually you figure out how to control the fire.”
Source of Information : Scientific American September 2009
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Baird's tapir
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Baird's tapir
Tapirus bairdii -Franklin Park Zoo, Massachusetts, USA-8a.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Tapiridae
Genus: Tapirus
Species: T. bairdii
Binomial name
Tapirus bairdii
(Gill, 1865)[2]
Distribution map Tapirus bairdii.png
Distribution of Baird's tapir is shown in blue
In red, El Salvador, where it is extirpated.
In yellow, Ecuador, presence is unconfirmed.
Tapirella bairdii
Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii), also known as the Central American tapir, is a species of tapir native to Mexico, Central America and northwestern South America.[3] It is one of four Latin American species of tapir.
Baird's tapir is named for the American naturalist Spencer Fullerton Baird,[4] who traveled to Mexico in 1843 and observed the animals. However, the species was first documented by another American naturalist, W. T. White.[5] The tapir is the largest land mammal in Central America.[6]
Like the other Latin American tapirs (the mountain tapir, the South American tapir, and the little black tapir), the Baird's tapir is commonly called danta by people in all areas. In the regions around Oaxaca and Veracruz, it is referred to as the anteburro. Panamanians, and Colombians call it macho de monte, and in Belize, where the Baird's tapir is the national animal, it is known as the mountain cow.
Front foot
Baird's tapir has a distinctive cream-colored marking on its face and throat and a dark spot on each cheek, behind and below the eye. The rest of its hair is dark brown or grayish brown. This tapir is the largest of the four American species and the largest native land mammal in both Central and South America. Baird's tapirs average 2 m (6.6 ft) in length but can range between 1.8 and 2.5 m (5.9 and 8.2 ft), not counting a stubby, vestigal tail of 5–13 cm (2.0–5.1 in), and 73–120 cm (2.40–3.94 ft) in height. Body mass in adults can range from 150 to 400 kilograms (330 to 880 lb).[7][8][9] Like the other species of tapirs, they have small, stubby tails and long, flexible proboscises. They have four toes on each front foot and three toes on each back foot.
Baird's tapir: sniffing
Adults can be potentially dangerous to humans and should not be approached if spotted in the wild. The animal is most likely to follow or chase a human for a bit, though they have been known to charge and gore humans on rare occasions.
Predation and vulnerability[edit]
A Baird's tapir in a zoo, exhibiting the flehmen response
In Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama, hunting of the Baird's tapirs is illegal, but the laws protecting them are often unenforced. Furthermore, restrictions against hunting do not address the problem of deforestation. Therefore, many conservationists focus on environmental education and sustainable forestry to try to save the Baird's tapir and other rainforest species from extinction.
An adult Baird's tapir, being such a massive mammal, has very few natural predators. Only large adult American crocodiles (4 metres or 13 feet or more) and adult jaguars are capable of preying on tapirs, although even in these cases the outcomes are unpredictable and often in the tapir's favor (as is evident on multiple tapirs documented in Corcovado National Park with large claw marks covering their hides).
1. ^ Castellanos, A.; Foerester, C.; Lizcano, D.J.; Naranjo, E.; Cruz-Aldan, E.; Lira-Torres, I.; Samudio, R.; Matola, S.; Schipper, J. & Gonzalez-Maya. J. (2008). "Tapirus bairdii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 10 April 2009. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of endangered.
2. ^ Bridges, Robert (1865). "October 10th". Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 17 (4): 183. Prof. Gill offered a communication on a new generic type of the family Tapiridæ
4. ^ Rivinus, E.F. & Youssef, E.M. (1992). Spencer Baird of the Smithsonian. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. x, 228. ISBN 1-56098-155-5.
5. ^ Huffman, Brent. Tapirus bairdii. Ultimate Ungulate
6. ^ "Tapirs, Belize Animals, Caribbean Critters".
10. ^ Tapir Specialist Group, A High-level Tapir Run-in
External links[edit]
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In This Section
Where Does Our Food Come From?
Subject: Literature
Grade Level: 2
Instructional Time: 4, 55 minute sessions
Reference material with examples of processes involved that bring food products to stores. "Milk: From Cow to Carton" by Aliki (Harper Collins, 1992). Paper, crayons or markers
Familiarity with an electronic search catalog
(Note: "From HB" refers to Harcourt Brace's Teacher Resource book)
From HB p.T67 children may think the milk in a carton is no different from the way it comes from the cow. However, even milk is changed before it arrives at the store. Readers will enjoy learning how milk is processed in "Milk: From Cow to Carton" by Aliki. (Harper Collins, 1992). Flow charts show what happens inside the dairy - and inside the cow!
Locate print materials about food products on the electronic catalog .
From HB p.T69 invite children to work individually or with a partner to draw a flow chart showing the processing of the food products. Tell children they may break down the process into more than five steps if they with. Possible end products include peanut butter, pumpkin pie, bread, cherry pie filling, grape jelly, and other canned, frozen, or dried foods.
From HB p.T69 invite two volunteers to improvise a skit about grocery shopping. Following suggestions from the audience, the actors can show steps such as making a list, checking coupons, driving to the store, getting a cart, choosing groceries, paying the cashier, loading the car, driving home, and putting groceries away. When the skit is finished, have children make a flow chart to summarize what they saw. You may wish to repeat this activity with other processes, such as receiving, stocking, selling, bagging, and carrying out groceries in a grocery store.
Computer: Use Kid Pix to create a Help Wanted poster - name of job, what the worker must do, and any qualifications the worker must have. Add some kind of graphic.
From HB p.T68 checklist
MN State Standard: People and Cultures
MPS Media Standards:
4.1a Work cooperatively with a diverse group of students to plan a group presentation...
4.1b Develop a presentation plan that defines equitable roles...
4.1c Select a mode of delivery that suits an intended audience...
4.2b Select presentation techniques appropirate for purpose, space, media and technology used...
4.3c Report , present, or exhibit a multicultural production...
5.2b Generate graphics with a computer graphics program
Author/source/Link: Juanita James, Pillsbury MST
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Living History: Experiencing Great Events of the Ancient and Medieval Worlds
Buy Now with Best Price
Macedonia, 336 B.C.E. - King Philip II is murdered under mysterious circumstances amid a cloud of intrigue.Constantinople, 532 C.E. - The Byzantine Emperor Justinian nearly abandons the city to an angry mob until his wife, Theodora, persuades him to stay.France, 1095 C.E. - Pope Urban II gives a speech that inspires thousands of his subjects to embark on a crusade to Jerusalem.Time and again, moments shape history. We often examine history from a distant vantage, zooming in on a few kings and battles. But history is made up of individuals who were as alive in their time as we are today. Pausing on a few key individuals and magnifying specific moments in their lives allows us to experience history in a whole new way-as a vibrant story, full of life.Living History: Great Events of the Ancient and Medieval Worlds takes you back in time and throws a spotlight on two dozen turning points where the tide of history changes irrevocably. These 24 dramatic lectures examine key events from ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome to medieval Europe and Asia. Spanning thousands of years and three continents, this course illuminates fascinating historical dramas on the individual scale.More than covering great events that change the contours of history, Professor Garland takes you into the scene and allows you to hear what he terms the "heartbeat of history". Rather than merely reviewing the facts of events such as the Battle of Marathon, the arrest and trial of Jesus, and the coronation of Charlemagne, you'll engage with a variety of firsthand accounts and authentic primary and secondary sources to experience what it was like to live these events as they occurred. From reports by historians such as Herodotus and Livy to official scrolls and administrative records, these eyewitness sources and ancient documents take you back in time through the eyes of people who were there.
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The Ramayana: A Telling Of the Ancient Indian Epic
The name Ramayana is a tatpuruṣa compound of Rāma and ayana (going, advancing), translating to Rama’s Journey.
Textual History & Structure
An artist’s impression of Valmiki Muni ( author ) composing the Ramayana
A Brief Synopsis
Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, that the elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. Everyone seemed pleased, but not Queen Kaekeyi, who wanted her son Bharata to rule even though the king pleaded with her not to demand such a request.
On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi—her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant—claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata.The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi’s demands.
Rama accepts his father’s reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterises him throughout the story. He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, “the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me.” After Rama’s departure, King Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away.
The sonnet is a type of lyric poetry that started in Europe. After the 13th century, it began to signify a poem that had 14 lines which has an iambic pentameter meter: Iambic means that the first syllable is not stressed in each of the “feet,” the groups of syllables in poetry. The second one is stressed.
Who invented the sonnet?
A. Italian (Petrarchan) sonnet .
The sonnet was created by Giacomo da Lentini, head of the Sicilian School under Emperor Frederick II. Guittone d’Arezzo rediscovered it and brought it to Tuscany where he adapted it to his language when he founded the Neo-Sicilian School (1235–1294).
B. The Spenserian sonnet
This is invented by sixteenth century English poet Edmund Spenser, cribs its structure from the Shakespearean—three quatrains and a couplet—but employs a series of “couplet links” between quatrains, as revealed in the rhyme scheme: abab, bcbc, cdcd
C. Shakesperean Sonnet
Shakespeare’s Sonnets were first collected in book form in 1609. Among the most famous of the 154 sonnets is Sonnet 18, which includes the line, “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
With three exceptions, all of Shakespeare’s sonnets follow traditional Elizabethan sonnet structure: three stanzas with ABAB rhyme schemes, followed by a couplet with an AA rhyme scheme.
Main differences between Petrarchan and Shakespearean sonnets:
The Shakespearean Sonnet, or English Sonnet, is very different from the Petrarchan Sonnet. While the Shakespearean Sonnet consists of fourteen lines (like the Petrarchan Sonnet), the lines are divided into stanzas very differently.
This sonnet is composed using three quatrains (three stanzas consisting of four lines each) and a concluding couplet (a two line stanza). The rhyme scheme of this sonnet is alternating, throughout the quatrains, and ends in a rhyming couplet.
Therefore, the rhyme scheme of the Shakespearean Sonnet is as follows:
What is the main feature of Petrarchan Sonnets?
The Italian, or Petrarchan, Sonnet is written in iambic pentameter. The sonnet consists of fourteen lines, separated into an eight line stanza and a six line stanza. The first stanza (with eight lines) is called an octave and follows the following rhyme pattern:
a b b a a b b a.
The second stanza (consisting of six lines) is called a sestet and follows one of the following rhyme patterns:
c d c d c d c d e c d e c d e c e d c d c e d c
c d d c d c.
The final two lines cannot end in a couplet (given the couplet was never used in Italy or by Petrarch).
The change in both rhyme pattern and subject matter takes place by the creation of two distinct stanzas (the octave and the sestet). The change in rhyme and subject happen at the volta, the ninth line of the poem (the first line of the second stanza).
Sample Shakespearean Sonnet
Sonnet 18
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimm’d;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance, or nature’s changing course, untrimm’d:
But thy eternal summer shall not fade,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st;
Nor shall Death brag thou wander’st in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st:
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
Sample Petrarchan Sonnet:
William Wordsworth’s “London, 1802”
Octave – introduces the theme or problem
Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour: – A
England hath need of thee: she is a fen – B
Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower, – A
Have forfeited their ancient English dower – A
Of inward happiness. We are selfish men; – B
Sestet – solves the problem
So didst thou travel on life’s common way , – E
In cheerful godliness; and yet thy heart – C
Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free, – D
The lowliest duties on herself did lay. – E
Spenserian sonnet
Definition of Spenserian sonnet
: a sonnet in which the lines are grouped into three interlocked quatrains and a couplet and the rhyme scheme is abab, bcbc, cdcd, ee
By Edmund Spenser
One day I wrote her name upon the strand,
But came the waves and washed it away:
Again I write it with a second hand,
But came the tide, and made my pains his prey.
Vain man, said she, that doest in vain assay,
A mortal thing so to immortalize,
For I myself shall like to this decay,
And eek my name be wiped out likewise.
Not so, (quod I) let baser things devise
To die in dust, but you shall live by fame:
My verse, your virtues rare shall eternize,
And in the heavens write your glorious name.
Where whenas death shall all the world subdue,
Our love shall live, and later life renew.
Source: Wikipedia
Appointment with Love by: S. I. Kishor
In six minutes Lt. Blandford would meet the woman he thought he loved. He had corresponded with her for over a year, but he had never met her or seen her picture. Would he be surprised or disappointed?
Six minutes to six, said the clock over the information booth in New York’s Grand central Station. The tall young Army lieutenant lifted his sunburned face, and narrowed his eyes to note the exact time. His heart was pounding with a beat that shocked him. In six minutes he would see the woman who had filled such a special place in his life for the past thirteen months, the woman he had never seen, yet those written words had sustained him unfailingly.
In one of his letters, he had confessed to her that he often felt fear, and only a few days before his battle, he had received her answer: “Of course you fear…all brave men do. Next time you doubt yourself, I want you to hear my voice reciting to you: “Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I shall fear no evil, for Thou art with me”… He had remembered and it had renewed his strength.
A girl passed close to him, and Lieutenant Blandford started. She was wearing a flower, but it was not the little red rose they had agreed upon. Besides, the girl was only about 18, and Hollis Meynell had told him she was 30. “What of it?” he had answered. “I’m 32.” He was 29.
His mind went back to that book he had read in the training camp. Of Human Bondage, it was; and throughout the book were notes in a woman’s writing. He had never believed that a woman could see into a man’s heart so tenderly, so understandingly. Her name was on the bookplate: Hollis Meynell. He had got hold of a New York City telephone book and found her address. He had written, she had answered. Next day he had been shipped out, but they had gone on writing.
But she refused all his pleas to send him her photograph. She had explained: “If your feeling for me has any reality, what I look like won’t matter. Suppose I’m beautiful, I’d always be haunted by the feeling that you had been taking a chance on just that, and that kind of love would disgust me. Suppose I’m plain (and you must admit that it is more likely), then I’d always fear that you were only writing because you were lonely and had no one else. No, don’t ask for my picture. When you come to New York, you shall see me and then you shall make your decision.”
One minute to six… Then Lieutenant Blandford’s heart leapt.
“Going my way, soldier?” she murmured.
He made one step closer to her. Then he saw Hollis Meynell.
She was standing almost directly behind the girl, a woman well past 40, her graying hair tucked under a worn hat. She was more than plump; her thick-ankled feet were thrust into a low-heeled shoe. But she wore a red rose on her rumpled coat.
The girl in the green suit was walking quickly away.
Blandford felt as if though he were being split into two, so keen was his desire to follow the girl, yet so deep was his longing for the woman whose spirit had truly companioned and upheld his own; and there she stood. He could see that her pale, plump face was gentle and sensible; her grey eyes had a warm twinkle.
Lieutenant Blandford did not hesitate. His fingers gripped the worn copy of Human Bondage which was to identify him to her. This would not be love, but it would be something precious, a friendship for which he had been and must ever be grateful…
He squared his shoulders, saluted, and held out the book toward the woman, although even while he spoke he felt the bitterness of his disappointment.
“I’m Lieutenant John Blandford and you — you are Miss Meynell. I’m so glad you can meet me. May – may I take you to dinner?”
The woman’s face broadened in a tolerant smile. “I don’t know what this is all about, son,” she answered. “That young lady in the green suit, she begged me to wear this rose on my coat. And she said that if you asked me to go out with you, I should tell you that she’s waiting for you in that restaurant across the street. She said that it was kind of a test.”
Haiku (俳句?) is a very short form of Japanese poetry. It is typically characterized by three qualities:
Modern Japanese haiku (現代俳句 gendai-haiku) are increasingly unlikely to follow the tradition of 17 on or to take nature as their subject[citation needed], but the use of juxtaposition continues to be honored in both traditional and modern haiku.There is a common, although relatively recent, perception that the images juxtaposed must be directly observed everyday objects or occurrences.
sample of haiku.jpg
Kiru and Kireji
In Japanese haiku a kireji, or cutting word, typically appears at the end of one of the verse’s three phrases. A kireji fills a role somewhat analogous to a caesura in classical western poetry or to a volta in sonnets. Depending on which cutting word is chosen, and its position within the verse, it may briefly cut the stream of thought, suggesting a parallel between the preceding and following phrases, or it may provide a dignified ending, concluding the verse with a heightened sense of closure.
The fundamental aesthetic quality of both hokku and haiku is that it is internally sufficient, independent of context, and will bear consideration as a complete work.[citation needed] The kireji lends the verse structural support,allowing it to stand as an independent poem.The use of kireji distinguishes haiku and hokku from second and subsequent verses of renku; which may employ semantic and syntactic disjuncture, even to the point of occasionally end-stopping a phrase with a sentence-ending particle (終助詞 shūjoshi?). However, renku typically employ kireji.
In English, since kireji have no direct equivalent, poets sometimes use punctuation such as a dash or ellipsis, or an implied break to create a juxtaposition intended to prompt the reader to reflect on the relationship between the two parts.
The kireji in the Bashō examples “old pond” and “the wind of Mt Fuji” are both “ya” (や). Neither the remaining Bashō example nor the Issa example contain a kireji although they do both balance a fragment in the first five on against a phrase in the remaining 12 on (it may not be apparent from the English translation of the Issa that the first five on mean “Edo’s rain”).
Famous Haiku Poets
Matsuo Basho – (1644–1694), renku and haiku poet
Kobayashi Issa – A Japanese writer of haikai (haiku) known for his hokku verses.. Japanese haikai poet
Masaoka Shiki – October 14, 1867 – September 19, 1902), pen-name of Masaoka Noboru (正岡 升), was a Japanese poet, author, and literary critic in Meiji period Japan. Shiki is regarded as a major figure in the development of modern haiku poetry.He also wrote on reform of tanka poetry.
How to Write a Haiku Poem
Choose a Haiku Subject
2. Include a seasonal reference. A reference to the season or changing of the seasons, referred to in Japanese as kigo, is an essential element of haiku. The reference may be obvious, as in using a word like “spring” or “autumn” to indicate the season, or it might be subtler. For example, mentioning wisteria, which flower during the summer, can subtly indicate the season. Note the kigo in this poem by Fukuda Chiyo-ni:
morning glory!
the well bucket-entangled,
I ask for water
Whitecaps on the bay:
A broken signboard banging
In the April wind.
Use Sensory Language
1. Describe the details. Haiku are comprised of details observed by the five senses. The poet witnesses an event and uses words to distill that experience so others may understand it in some way. Once you have chosen a subject for your haiku, think about what details you want to describe. Call the subject to mind and explore these questions:
Haiku have been called “unfinished” poetry because they require the readers to finish the poems in their own hearts. Because of this, it’s important to show the readers something true about the moment’s existence, rather than telling the readers what emotions it conjured in you.[2] Let the readers feel their own emotions in reaction to the images — as poets, we understand the need to bare all, but the very universality of haiku ensures that your readers will get the message, so don’t fret, fellow poet.
Use understated, subtle imagery. For instance, instead of saying it’s summer, focus on the slant of the sun or the heavy air.
3.Don’t use clichés. Lines that readers recognize, such as “dark, stormy night,” tend to lose their power over time. Ponder the image you want to describe and use inventive, original language to convey meaning. Don’t overuse a thesaurus to find uncommon words; rather, simply write about what you saw and want to express in the truest language you know.
Source 1
Source 2
How to Build a Student’s Fluency in Reading
Fluency in reading is distinct and different from comprehension and involves the speed, accuracy and tonality of a reader when they read aloud. Although fluency is distinct from comprehension, the two are interrelated. Often, readers with high levels of reading comprehension are also very fluent readers, and the inverse is also true. Low comprehension is often associated with low fluency. Difficulty occurs when students are trying to comprehend at the same time they’re reading aloud.
One of the best ways to increase fluency is to model it for students. When a teacher reads books aloud with the right amount of pacing, expressiveness and pitch, students learn by their example. The best way to model fluency is to choose a text that is age- and reading level-appropriate and have students read along silently as you read it aloud. If the book is suspenseful, add pauses to heighten the suspense and then ask students why they think that you paused or raised your voice during certain sections. This makes the reading more engaging and interactive, and students will learn how to vary the tone and pitch as they read.
Reading Aloud
Having students practice reading aloud is a great way to help them become more fluent readers. This can be done either in whole or small groups. With a whole group, read the text aloud first and then have students echo read and repeat lines or sentences together aloud, mimicking how you read it. With smaller groups, you can have students echo read one at a time and take turns with different pieces of the text.
Reading Scripts
Students of all age groups enjoy reading plays. They get to “act” using their voice alone. Because script reading involves conveying emotion without actually physically acting out a scene from a play, students are forced to vary the pitch, pacing and tone of their voices to convey meaning. Reading plays helps students with fluency because the effectiveness of their portrayal of certain characters depends on the fluency of their reading.
Reading Comprehension
The faster and more advanced that a student is in reading comprehension, the more fluent they naturally are when reading. Some students need extra support and assistance with reading comprehension before they can become truly fluent. Taking the time to assess student comprehension and provide continual reading comprehension activities will also promote fluency.
Beginning Reader
Quasi-Experimental Design
Research Methods
Understanding the Johari Window model
• self-awareness
• personal development
• improving communications
• interpersonal relationships
• group dynamics
• team development; and
• inter group relationships
The Johari Window:
Some examples of unknown factors can be as follows:
• an unknown illness
• repressed or subconscious feeling
• conditioned behaviour or attitudes from childhood
Step one:
Step two:
The Johari window as a tool does have its drawbacks:
• Some things are perhaps better not communicated with others.
Source: Johari Window
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Closure of the Old Royal Palace on 5. - 10. 3. 2018
Old Royal Palace is closed from 5. 3. to 10. 3. 2018 due to technical and state-ceremonial reasons.
History of Prague Castle
On the basis of archaeological research and the oldest written sources, it is thought that Prague Castle was founded around the year 880 by Prince Bořivoj of the house of Premyslides.
The early medieval castle site was fortified with a moat and a rampart of clay and stones. The first walled building was the Church of Virgin Mary. Other churches, dedicated to St. George and St. Vitus, were founded in the first half of the 10th century.
From the 10th century, Prague Castle was not only the seat of the head of state, the princes and later kings, but also of the highest representative of church, the Prague bishop. The first convent in Bohemia was also founded in the grounds of Prague Castle, a convent next to the church of St. George for the order of Benedictine nuns.
The basilica of St. Vitus, built on the site of the original rotunda, was the main castle church since the 11th century, where the relics of the patron saints of the land were kept: SS. Vitus, Wenceslas and Adalbert. And from the 10th century, the convent of the Prague church was an important educational and cultural institution.
The period of the rule of King and later Emperor Charles IV (the middle of the 14th century) was a time of prosperity for Prague Castle, for then it first became an imperial residence, the seat of the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. The royal palace was magnificently rebuilt and the fortifications strengthened. Building began on the Gothic church of St. Vitus on the model of French cathedrals.
Building continued at the Castle during the reign of Charles's son, Wenceslas IV (Václav IV). The Hussite wars and the following decades, when the Castle was not inhabited, caused the dilapidation of its buildings and fortifications.
The next favourable time came after 1483, when a king of the new dynasty of Jagellons again made the Castle his seat. New fortifications were built and, together with them, defence towers on the northern side (the Powder Tower, the New White Tower and Daliborka). The architect of the fortifications, Benedikt Ried, also rebuilt and enlarged the royal palace: the splendid Vladislav Hall was the biggest secular vaulted hall in the Europe of that day. Its big windows are considered to be one of the first examples of the Renaissance style in Bohemia.
The kings of a further dynasty, the Habsburgs, started rebuilding the Castle into a renaissance seat. In accordance with the taste of the time, the Royal Garden was founded first, and in the course of the 16th century buildings serving for entertainment were put up in it: the Summer Palace, the Ball Game Hall, a shooting range and the Lion's Court. Afterwards the Cathedral and the royal palace were adapted. New dwelling houses began to be built to the west of the Old Royal Palace, along the southern ramparts.
The adaptation of the Castle came to its height in the second half of the 16th century, during the rule of Rudolph II. The emperor settled permanently at Prague Castle and began to turn it into a grand and dignified centre of the empire. And he founded the northern wing of the palace, with today's Spanish Hall, to house his precious artistic and scientific collections.
The Prague defenestration in 1618 started a long period of wars, during which Prague Castle was damaged and robbed. It was used by the country's ruler only exceptionally and temporarily.
In the second half of the 18th century, the last great rebuilding of the Castle was carried out, making it a prestigious chateau-type seat. But at that time the capital or the empire was Vienna, and Prague was just a provincial town. The Castle gradually became dilapidated and its art treasures were impoverished by the sale of the remains of the Emperor Rudolph's collections.
Emperor Ferdinand V, after abdicating in 1848, chose Prague Castle as his home. On this occasion, the Chapel of the Holy Cross on the Second Courtyard was rebuilt. The Spanish Hall and the Rudolph Gallery were done up in preparation for the coronation of Francis Joseph I which, however, did not take place.
There was a big movement to complete the building of the Cathedral, but this was not inspired by the ruler but by the patriotic Union for Completing the Cathedral of St. Vitus. It was in fact completed in 1929.
After the foundation of the independent Czechoslovak Republic in 1918, Prague Castle again became the seat of the head of state. The Slovene architect Josip Plecnik was entrusted with the necessary alterations in 1920.
Today, reconstruction and alterations to the grounds of Prague Castle are still ongoing, and this is not only a matter of essential building maintenance. The basic aim is to open the grounds of the Castle to all comers. Since 1989, many previously closed areas have been thrown open to the public, for instance the Royal Garden with its Ball Game Hall, the Southern Gardens, the Imperial Stables, the Theresian Wing of the Old Royal Palace.
Today Prague Castle, besides being the seat of the head of state, is also an important cultural and historical monument. The Crown Jewels are kept at Prague Castle, as are the relics of Bohemian kings, precious Christian relics, art treasures and historical documents. Events important for the whole country still take place within its walls. Hence Prague Castle is the embodiment of the historical tradition of the Czech state, linking the present with the past.
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Friday, 1 February, 2013
This LGBT history month we take a look at the life of Rudolf Brazda, was the last known concentration camp survivor, persecuted specifically for being gay.
For many decades, Brazda’s story remained unheard as discrimination against gay men and lesbians in Europe continued. He began to speak out publicly about his experiences only in the final years of his life, telling the world about the persecution gay men and lesbians faced at the hands of the Nazis, specifically the experience of gay men in the camps which was often extremely harsh.
The Nazi regime targeted anyone who did not fit their narrow ideals of what was ‘normal’. They targeted gay men for persecution, expanding and reinforcing the pre-existing legislation known as Paragraph 175 which criminalised homosexual acts between men. They also targeted lesbians, albeit less severely than they persecuted male homosexuals. It is estimated that tens of thousands of people faced persecution for their sexual orientation. Significant numbers of gay men were arrested, of whom an estimated 50,000 were sentenced to prison terms varying from a few months to several years. Most were not sent to concentration camps but were instead exposed to inhumane treatment in police prisons; some were subjected to hard labour and torture.
As a young adult, Rudolf Brazda lived in Meuselwitz and Altenburg, Germany, where he found a tolerant atmosphere. Despite the prejudicial legislation in place, there was little discrimination at the time and Brazda could be open about his sexuality. At the age of 20, he met Werner at a swimming pool, a man who would soon become his first boyfriend. The two later moved in together, subletting from a Jehovah’s Witness landlady who accepted them as her tenants. Brazda’s family also approved of his relationship with Werner, acting as witnesses to a symbolic marriage ceremony in their home.
As early as 1933, the Nazis began raiding gay clubs in larger cities and the pre existing, thriving Gay culture in Germany was destroyed. Brazda was arrested on the charge of ‘debauchery between men’. Love letters and poems that he had written to his partner were used against him. Werner, who had enlisted in the military, was also arrested and the two soon lost contact with one another. Brazda served a six month sentence before being deported to Czechoslovakia, where he had been born, but before long, the Nazis had invaded the region, he was arrested again and forced to serve another six month prison term.
In August 1942, he was deported to Buchenwald concentration camp. There, he was assigned the prisoner number 7952 and was forced to wear a pink triangle. He was subject to forced labour and remained there for 32 months. It is estimated between 5,000 and 10,000 people were sent to camps because of their sexuality, each individual was forced to wear a badge which would identify them to their oppressors and to others in the camp, gay men were forced to wear a pink triangle. These gay men are commonly referred to ‘The Pink Triangles’; in reference to the badges they were forced to wear. Whilst in the camps, gay men were treated particularly badly - many people died from exhaustion due to heavy labour, others were castrated and some subjected to other gruesome medical experiments.
After release from the camp, Brazda moved to France and led a quiet life as a free man and Rudolf met his life partner, Edouard Mayer. However, this was not the case for all gay survivors of Nazi persecution. After liberation neither the Allies, nor the new German states removed the Nazi-amended Paragraph 175 and did not recognise homosexual prisoners as victims of the Nazis – thus many gay men continued to serve their prison sentences and many continued to experience discrimination.
Brazda broke his long silence about his experience of persecution in 2008, after hearing of the upcoming unveiling of a memorial to homosexual victims of Nazism, at a ceremony in Berlin. He was persuaded by his friends to his story. Brazda devoted the last few years of his life to telling his story, as a warning to future generations of what can persecution can happen if we don’t respect differences. During these final years, he said, ‘If I finally speak, it's for people to know what we, homosexuals, had to endure in Hitler's days... it shouldn't happen again.’
Read the full life story of Rudolf Brazda.
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Chapter 23
It is therefore fitting that the halving of the eccentricity hold in the theory of the sun, which halving previously held for the eccentric of Mars. (p.315)
With the angles EFC and DFC found in chapter 22, Kepler uses trigonometry (the law of sines) to determine the distances of E and D from the equant, and thus to find the location of the true center of earth's orbit. Using this method, he determines that
CB = 1837,
but the distance of the equalizing point C, from the body of the sun A, is
CA = 3584, by Tycho.
Halving it gives:
½CA = 1792,
which is almost exactly CB. Thus, we have found a bisected eccentricity
BC ~ ½CA.
The Earth is no longer differentiated from the other planets by having a simple eccentric rather than a bisected eccentricity! If there is a type of motion common and universal to all the planets, might there also exist a universal cause for this motion?
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How does Friiel use language and stagecraft to discuss identity
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How does Friel use language and stagecraft to discuss identity Friels main concern, writing in the 1980s, seems to be the struggle for identity. One interpretation of the play is that Irish identity has been continually threatened since 1591. Friel writes his play in 1988 whilst living through Irish civil unrest during the troubles of northern island. By setting making history in 1951, friel is addressing time span and the struggle for identity that he may feel began with the English/Irish power struggle. The book centres on Hugh O'Neil, who is the Earl of Tyrone and at the start of the play is 41 years old. ...read more.
This is shown when the two are discussing farming and is asked about the orchards and says 'No, WE havent'. This use of language shows she conisders herself part of the irish identity. The use of stage craft in this scene shoes the intensity of Mary and Mables conversation ' speaks with concern and passion'. This further highlights the conflict between the English and and Irish and the struggle for Mary to accept Mabels new identity. Mabel and the baby's death is a signifficant point in the play as it is a metaphor for the inabiliity of England and ireland being able to Co-exist peacefully, as the baby would have had both enlgish and irish blood in him. ...read more.
The main use of language that friel has used to convey identity through language is the description of the characters and how each has struggled with thier identity. Potraying the characters in this way is a clever metaphor for the struggles ireland itself has had to go through to keep its identity. The clever use of stage craft and lighting symbolises the struggles ireland have continually faced throughout history. The way Friel describes hugh O'niel in later life, with his declining health and along with Mabel and the baby's death, symbolises ireland loosing the struggle with england. The use of stage craft at the end of the play where it says 'O'Neil is now crying. Bring down lights slowly'. is an effective end to the play as it symbolises the end of the struggle between ireland and england. ...read more.
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Dede, Edmund (1827-1903)
Image Ownership: Public Domain
Musician and composer Edmund Dede was born on November 20, 1827 in New Orleans, Louisiana. His parents were free Creoles of color who moved to New Orleans from the French West Indies around 1809. Dede took his first music lessons from his father who was a bandmaster for a local military group.
Dede soon became a violin prodigy after studying under Italian-born composer and theater-orchestra conductor Ludovico Gabici, and conductor of the New Orleans Free Creoles of Color Philharmonic Society Christian Debergue. Dede advanced his technique studies in New Orleans under Eugene Prevost, French-born winner of 1831 Prix de Rome and conductor of Orchestras at the Theater d’Orleans, and Charles Richard Lambert, who was a free black musician, music teacher, and conductor from New York who had moved to New Orleans.
In 1848 Dede moved to Mexico, as did many free Creoles of color after race relations in New Orleans worsened following the end of the Mexican-American War. Dede returned to New Orleans in 1851 where he wrote and published “Mon Pauvre Coeur” (My Poor Heart), which is considered the oldest piece of sheet music published by a New Orleans free Creole of color.
Dede worked as a cigar-maker, which allowed him to earn enough money to move to Europe to further pursue his music education. In 1857 he entered the Paris Conservatory for Advanced Musical Study. He then moved to Bordeaux where he became conductor for the L’Alcazar orchestra. Good trade relations between Bordeaux and Louisiana meant a large number of free Creoles of color settled in the French town, and Dede experienced less racial prejudice in France than in the United States.
During his years in Bordeaux Dede was a popular and prolific music composer, writing ballets, operettas, opera-comiques, overtures, and more than 250 dances and songs. The vast majority of the surviving copies of Dede’s works are from this period of his life, stored at the National Library of France in Paris. Despite his enormous popularity in France, the performance of Dede’s Quasimodo Symphony by a New Orleans orchestra in 1865 was a rare American performance of one of Dede’s compositions.
In 1864 Dede married Sylvie Leflat, a French woman of the elite class. The two had a son, Eugene Arcade Dede, who also became a composer and musician.
Dede made one return trip to New Orleans in 1893, when his ship hit bad weather and was forced to dock near Galveston, Texas for two months; his prized Cremona violin was lost in the event. He remained in the United States until 1894 and spent some time travelling to cities around the country to give violin concerts. He returned to Paris in 1894, and died there in 1903.
"Edmund Dede," AfriClassical,; Sybil Kein, "Composers of Nineteenth-Century New Orleans," in Sybil Kein, ed., Creole: The History and Legacy of Louisiana's Free People of Color (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000); Eleanora E. Tate, Black Stars: African American Musicians (New York: Wiley, 2000).
University of Washington
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пятница, 2 марта 2012 г.
Astronomy of the American Indians
Astronomy of the American Indians - value and history
In article the short review of astronomy of the American Indians is given. In each culture there are own representations about the night sky. Each tribe, group or the nation has own belief of that such and what value they have stars. American Indian tribes had own belief concerning value of stars, and these belief varied in each separate tribe.
Who observed of the sky?
The astronomy of the American Indians has been more often connected with elders of tribes, or with those people who have been connected with spiritual or religious to questions.
The majority of tribes, as well as in the West considered that movement of stars will be reflected in an order of things. Predictions of signs on the Earth, meant and predicted terrible droughts or success of crops. A little the American Indians of a tribe have opened and have accepted four basic directions, on the north, the south, the east and the West, as sacred. They have defined in these directions of a star, and on each direction have defined the gods.
Some astronomical events were very useful to all and everyone. Stars were used for navigation. The matter is that stars could see everyone and use for definition of a direction of movement during distant travel. For radical Americans, the astronomy is also the important factor in an everyday life.
Legends on stars
American Indian tribes thought out various that explanation why stars change position and are grouped in such order. These stories were various that testifies to a huge variety of belief which have been found out in these various tribes. For example, the tribe of western Mono in California considers that Galaxies were in group of six women which have been moved from the houses because of the unpleasant has begun to smell from a mouth from onions. To a tribe черноногих Montana and South Dakota, the Galaxy - six brothers of the orphans, which steels stars because of their neglect to a clan. Stories which are found in astronomy of radical Americans, used the best efforts to explain an origin of stars. All explanations were very various.
It is always interesting to note similarity between cultures. For example, in the West long thought of the Canis Major and the Small Dog as about stars of dogs. For Cheroki of the State of Tennessee, in the star sky there were two dogs-stars.
Importance of astronomy of the American Indians
The astronomy of the American Indians was very important for the several reasons. Stars have presented the navigation tool, for those who travels at night. For nomad tribes or tribes which often participated in long trips for which moving by the ground was very important. Besides, stars served as time quality monitoring. Unlike today when time can be defined to within a minute, the majority of tribes of the American Indians saw that time is divided only into the segments connected with their activity. For example, time was measured according to the beginning of inflow, change of colour of leaves and movement of stars in the sky. For many radical American people, year has paid off by quantity of the last full moons.
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Tuesday, January 29, 2013
The discovery of 'dancing of the heart'
Paleontologists have traced knowledge of the heartbeat to 2700 B.C. in Egypt. Knowledge may even go further back than this because hieroglyphic writing first made it's appearance at this time, and many of these original writings have disappeared. Knowledge of them is basically due to copies that have made it to modern times because they were hidden, preserved, in tombs.
Chances are, however, that such wisdom goes as far back as 5,000 B.C. or even further. Knowledge of the heart must have been known even as far back as 30,000 B.C. as drawings made of ochre found in caves showed pictures of mammoths with a dot, presumably a heart, on them. Before writing this wisdom was shared by word of mouth, often through easy to remember poetry and songs.
None of these people knew what the heart did, although they must have been aware that it often continued beating as they held the heart of prey in their hands. When the heart stopped beating so to did life. They knew an arrow through the heart killed such animals in their tracks.
The Egyptian Eber Papyrus was discovered in an Egyptian tomb in the 19th century. It was dated to 1550 B.C., although it's believed to be copied from documents that go as far back as 3400 B.C. One inscription in the text reads:
The beginning of the physician secret: knowledge of the heart's movement and knowledge of the heart.
There are vessels from it to every limb. As to this, when any physician... or any exorcist applies the hands or his fingers to the head, to the back of the head, to the place of the stomach, to the arms or to the feet, then he examines the heart, because all his limbs possess its vessels, that is: it (the heart) speaks out of the vessels of every limb
In other words, the Egyptian physicians new of the pulse and that it represented the "dancing" of the heart as noted below:
As to 'the heart dancing:' this means that it moves itself to his left breast, and so it pushes on its seat and moves from its place.
If a person had no pulse, or if the "speaking of the heart to the vessels" stops, this is correlated to loss of consciousness.
The Egyptians had no concept of arteries and veins. Many of the 'vessels' they describe include ducts, the ureter, etc. There is an ongoing debate as to whether they had knowledge of the circulation of the blood, although most historians speculate they did not have such knowledge.
Checking the pulse was described in ancient China, although in Ancient Hindu Medicine (India) wasn't mentioned prior to the 12th century. It was mentioned in the Cikitsatilaka by Tisatacarya, and was later used as a means of diagnosis, particularly by the Muslims in ancient India.
The Chinese came the closest to describing circulation of blood through the body. One of the most debated passages in Ancient Chinese medical texts regarding circulation of the blood is the following:
The four limbs and their eight flexible joints (elbows, knees, wrists, and ankles) are in use from early morning until late at night. When people lie down to rest the blood flows back to the liver. When the liver receives the blood it strengthens the vision.l When the feet receive the blood it strengthens the footsteps. When the palms of the hands receive the blood the hands can be used to grasp. When the fingers receive the blood they can be used to carry. When a person is exposed to the wind, either lying down to rest or walking about, his blood will be affected; the blood then coagulates within the flesh and the result is numbness within the hand feet. When the blood coagulates within the pulse it ceases to circulate beneficially. When blood coagulates within the feet it causes pains and chills. (3)
Does this mean the Ancient Chinese knew of circulating blood? Or they could simply be referring to the circulation of the substance of life, chi. Note the following passage:
(One can say that) water is the blood and the chhi (chi) of the earth, because it flows and penetrates everywhere (just in the same manner) as the circulation (of the chhi and the blood) in the ching-chin (nerve, muscle and tendon) and the ching-mo (tract and channel, including blood vessel) systems.
And the following:
Water is the blood of the chi in) the sinews and the vessels (of the human body). (3)
The neat thing about ancient writings is they were not written for generations thousands of years later to interpret. They were written only as a means of relaying information from one generation to another. They were for physicians to read only. In other words, most ancient writings were esoteric (seen only by a select few).
So were these documents referring to the pumping of the heart and circulation of the blood, or simply the circulation of chi. Either way, the information was not shared to other societies considering China was essentially isolated from the rest of the world until modern times.
Circulation of the blood through the vessels was discovered for the modern world by William Harvey in 1628.
Note: The above Chinese passages are from the Huang Ti Nei Ching Su Wen -- The Yellow emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine, translated by Ilza Veith, Baltimore, William & Wilkins, 1949, pages 27-28, 30, 34, 118, 142.
1. Plinio, Prioreschi, "A History of Medicine," Vol. I, "Primitive and Ancient Medicine," 1991, New York, page 348 Note: For those interested in this debate, Plinio provides a good picture of both arguments in the pages provided in this reference list
2. Plinio, ibid, page 261-2
3. Plinio, ibid, page 154-5
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Explain how in Latin America, the Peruvian panpipe ensembles represent how their society functions as a whole. Are there ensembles that represent our society?
Expert Answers
mizzwillie eNotes educator| Certified Educator
If you look at the Peruvian panpipe, the pipes are of different lengths and tightly tied to each other. The ensembles play together just as tightly with each person playing in complement with the others. Each player knows the role everyone is required to play to produce the Andean music so beloved by the Peruvians. Society functions the same way with each doing their part to contribute to the whole which keeps their country successful in Latin America which often has political strife. In this country, a dysfunctional rock band would be more like our society with each person playing a different instrument, some playing a more prominent role with others playing in the background. Attention is paid to those out front displaying their individual talents, often at odds with each other over who is better, while the background players, who are just as necessary to help create the music, are often ignored or are interchangeable with a different musician. Our society forgets that the "little" people, the ordinary people, are the backbone on which this society sustains itself, which can be much like a dysfunctional rock band.
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How old are abyssal fish?
Living below 2000 meters is far from easy. Animals have to be adapted to survive long periods of time with little or no food, relying on the sporadic and desultory fall of food from above. There is no natural light at these depths so they must also be successful at detecting large food falls and finding mates. It is generally thought that these conditions cause fish living in the abyssal plains to have slower growth rates and to live for longer than their shallow water relatives. However, comparatively little is currently known about the ages of deep-ocean fish.
Analyzing otoliths 1
Analyzing otoliths
To try and address this problem, an age and growth workshop was held in January 2009 at the Institute of Marine Research, Flødevigen, Norway. Dr. Nicola King from Oceanlab, University of Aberdeen, joined Rebecca Hunter, a Master’s student from the University of Glasgow and Dr. Odd Aksel Bergstad (IMR, Flødevigen) to investigate the age and growth of the abyssal grenadier Coryphaenoides armatus.
This species comes from the family Macrouridae, better known as the rat-tails due to their characteristic long, tapering tail. There is a commercial interest in a few species from this family, mainly for the roundnose grenadier (Coryphaenoides rupestris) which has been fished since the 1970’s. Although the abyssal grenadier is not commercially exploited they are an invaluable species for research by allowing insights into the ecosystem of the abyssal realm.
The abyssal grenadier is a cosmopolitan species, being one of the most abundant fish found below 2000 meters worldwide. They can grow over 100 cm in total length, with females generally reaching a greater size than males; a trend clearly seen in many other species of this family. Whether there is a difference in maximum age or growth rate between the sexes is another area to be examined in this study, along with general observations on the age range of the species as a whole.
Analyzing otoliths 2
Counting the patterns of light and dark ‘rings’ found in the otholiths
By extracting a bone from the inner ear of the fish referred to as the otolith, rings can be counted, somewhat like those seen in tree trunks, to estimate the age of the individual. To do this, the otolith must be embedded and cut into very thin sections (less than 1 mm). These sections are then viewed under a microscope where patterns of light and dark ‘rings’ can be seen. There have been numerous studies on shallow-water fish to show that these rings represent fast growth periods (light areas) and slow growth periods (dark areas) due to the seasons of the year. Therefore, one light area and one dark area are counted as one year in the life of the fish. Although fish living in the abyssal depths of the ocean are not directly affected by the seasons, scientists believe there are delayed seasonal patterns in these regions, influenced by the waters above.
In Flødevigen, discussions were held after all the otoliths had been looked at once to determine a common practice of what to count as 1 year. Once this had been agreed, Nicola and Rebecca read all the slides twice and a selected number were read by Dr. Bergstad. This will allow for comparisons between results and should highlight if there is any imprecision or bias in the reading.
This work is still in progress, but initial results have estimated a maximum age of no more than 30 years. This is less than would be expected for such a deep living fish and suggests a faster rate of growth than has previously been attributed to the species. Therefore, these results could indicate that more food, and therefore more energy, is reaching the abyssal plains than current scientific opinion allows.
By Rebecca Hunter, University of Glasgow
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Caught in the Line of Fire: Civil War Medicine
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Armory Square_Hospital_3Prior to the Civil War, American medicine was still in a dark age. For students preparing to enter the field, medical training focused largely on book knowledge. Some students took the extra step of apprenticing with a practicing physician, but the vast majority of doctors had little to no hands on experience before encountering their first patient.
Doctors also had to deal with competing theories of disease. Some doctors believed older theories that disease was caused by an imbalance in the body, and that corrective action was required to restore balance. This was the theory behind the practice of bleeding, in which a doctor would attempt to cure a patient by draining blood. Other doctors searched for other causes of disease. As medicine advanced into mid-nineteenth century the devastating effect of the Civil War contributed to advances in medical practices that lead to the birth of modern medicine.
The ideas that replaced the theory of balance and imbalance are similar to what we know today about contagious diseases. Doctors began to believe that disease was caused by something outside of the body that spread from person to person. This new theory was the cornerstone of a new understanding of disease and infection.
During the Civil War, two innovations helped to ensure proper medical care for wounded soldiers. The first was an efficient Ambulance Corps to quickly evacuate wounded Soldiers. Based on prototypes created in 1859, massive numbers of ambulances were constructed. Some designs had four wheels for stability, others had two for maneuverability.
On the eve of the Battle of Bull Run in July of 1861, the leaders of the Union Army believed that preparations for treatment of the wounded were complete and hired civilian drivers were on hand to transport the wounded from the battlefield. But the unexpected violence of the battle soon sent all of these drivers retreating back to Washington D.C. without any patients. Many of the wounded men were forced to walk the 30 miles back to the capital city.
In early 1862, Dr. Jonathan Letterman was appointed Medical Director of the Army of the Potomac. He immediately revised the structure of the Ambulance Corps. He organized the ambulances at the divisional level, trained enlisted men as drivers, and created an early version of the modern triage and transportation system. By September 1862, the transformation from chaos to order was complete. During the Battle of Antietam, the Ambulance Corps moved all 10,000 wounded Union Soldiers from the battlefield to field hospitals in twenty-four hours. For this success Letterman earned the title of “Father of Battlefield Medicine.”
The second crucial innovation was the development of efficient medical treatment. The first stop for a wounded Soldier was the “primary” or “dressing” station, a small tent just out of rifle range from the front line, where a Soldier’s injuries were examined, bleeding stopped, and his wounds bandaged. If possible he would be sent back to the front. If not, the Soldier would be moved to a field hospital for further treatment or surgery at a field hospital. Located 1.5 to 2 miles away from the fighting, field hospitals were established in churches, schools, private homes, or, if necessary, in large tents. After the battle, as the Army prepared to march, the sick and wounded were moved to general hospitals in larger cities such as Richmond and Chicago.
The discovery of anesthesia in the 1840’s gave Civil War doctors new options for the treatment of sick and injured in the form of ether and chloroform. Both came in liquid form and were given to the patient through a soaked rag. Ether was highly flammable, foul smelling, and slow to work, but did not cause vomiting, prostrations, or excitement as did chloroform. As a general rule, however fast-acting chloroform was used on the battlefield while slower acting ether was reserved for hospital use. In all, there are over 80,000 documented cases of anesthesia used during the war showing that it was a welcome tool of healing in this bloody fight.
If there is one word that seems synonymous with Civil War medicine it is “amputation”. Often spoken of as a needless procedure that cost an otherwise healthy young man a limb, the reality is that while the stories about piles of limbs at field hospitals during battle are true, the procedure was lifesaving. There are over 50,000 cases of amputations recorded for the war. The procedure was the quickest solution in an era when shattered limbs and crushed blood vessels could not be repaired and death from infection or uncontrolled bleeding was a likely outcome. In fact, when amputations were performed within the first 24 hours the Soldier’s chance of dying was a mere 27%. If amputation was delayed, the mortality rate jumped to 52%. Usually this was a simple case of sacrificing the limb to save the man.
Nearly two thirds of deaths during the war resulted from the various diseases that plagued the Soldiers, and 39% of soldiers who died after being wounded in battle actually died from infection that set in after treatment. In all, Union physicians treated an estimated 600,000 cases of disease ranging from childhood illnesses, such as mumps and measles, to venereal disease. Diarrhea and dysentery were the most commonly treated illnesses and also responsible for the most deaths. In fact, during the first 2 years of the war, 27% of all diseases treated by Confederate doctors were some form of the diarrheal illnesses. Doctors believed diarrhea was a “miasmatic” disease caused by bad air.
For example, Private Charles C. Perkins exemplifies confusion over the cause of his illness in his diary from August 27th, 1862 to September 1st, 1862. (See his diary entries at Perkins, an otherwise educated man, drinks untreated water and eats beef that he stored raw in his haversack overnight before cooking. He writes on August 31st, “Diarrhea again owing to drinking coffee I suppose.”
Treatment involved purgatives to rid the body of “irritating food or secretions” (dehydrating the patient even further) and morphine which aside from being a painkiller also causes constipation.
Hospital gangrene was probably one of the most feared of any disease. The infection would start as a black spot on a slowly healing wound that slowly spread through the wound and on to healthy tissue, which would soon begin to rot. Doctors tried a number of treatments including cauterizing the infected flesh, silver nitrate, and even packing the wound with lint soaked in turpentine. Most cases, however, resulted in amputation. The American Civil War was one of the darkest moments in our nation’s history. Of the nearly 3 million men who marched into battle approximately 618,000 lost their lives, and nearly 400,000 of these to disease. The death toll was nearly 2% of the entire population, and of the men lucky enough to be in the 79% who survived the war, nearly half a million returned home permanently maimed or disabled.
Adapted from “Civil War Medicine”, Courtesy of the National Park Service
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June is LGBT Pride Month
LGBT Pride Month is observed every year in June, while LGBT History Month takes place in October. Both have sparked year-round celebrations, events and nationwide efforts to increase awareness of issues important to the LGBT community. So, you may be wondering … Why is LGBT Pride Month celebrated in June?
To commemorate the historic Stonewall riots that ensued in response to police brutality aimed at the Gay community gathering at the Stonewall Inn in New York City on June 28, 1969. This was a significant tipping point in history that ultimately led to the birth of the modern LGBT rights movement.
Check out these illuminating library and online resources that feature personal stories and so much more …
Stonewall: Breaking Out In The Fight For Gay Rights by Ann Bausum
Formats Available: Print | eBook | eAudiobook
That’s the Stonewall. The Stonewall Inn. Pay attention. History walks through that door. In 1969 being gay in the United States was a criminal offense. It meant living a closeted life or surviving on the fringes of society. People went to jail, lost jobs, and were disowned by their families for being gay. Most doctors considered homosexuality a mental illness. There were few safe havens. The Stonewall Inn, a Mafia-run, filthy, overpriced bar in New York City’s Greenwich Village, was one of them. Police raids on gay bars happened regularly in this era. But one hot June night, when cops pounded on the door of the Stonewall, almost nothing went as planned. Tensions were high. The crowd refused to go away. Anger and frustration boiled over. The raid became a riot. The riot became a catalyst. The catalyst triggered an explosive demand for gay rights. Ann Bausum’s riveting exploration of the Stonewall Riots and the national Gay Rights movement that followed is eye-opening, unflinching, and inspiring
Outloud: Stories from the LGBTQ community, gathered by StoryCorps and heard on NPR
Formats Available: Audiobook | eAudiobook
To mark the 45th annivesary of the Stonewall uprisings, StoryCorps launched Outloud, an effort to capture the voices of the LGBTQ community. The Stonewall riots were a response by gays to a 1969 police raid on the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, marking the beginning of the modern gay-rights movement. In this moving collection of Outloud recordings, NPR’s Ari Shapiro presents firsthand stories from young people, minorities and those who lived before the uprising, preserving the voices of the Stonewall generation as well as the diverse community that will carry forward is mission of equality for all.
The Argonauts by Maggie Nelson
Formats Available: Print | eBook | eAudiobook
“Nelson’s vibrant, probing and, most of all, outstanding book is also a philosophical look at motherhood, transitioning, partnership, parenting, and family-an examination of the restrictive way we’ve approached these terms in the past and the ongoing struggle to arrive at more inclusive and expansive definitions for them.”―NPR
Bettyville by George Hodgman
Formats Available: Print | eBook | eAudiobook
A witty, tender memoir of a son’s journey home to care for his irascible mother — a tale of secrets, silences, and enduring love. When George Hodgman leaves Manhattan for his hometown of Paris, Missouri, he finds himself an unlikely caretaker and near-lethal cook in a head-on collision with his aging mother, Betty, a woman of wit and will. Will George lure her into assisted living? When hell freezes over. He can’t bring himself to force her from the home both treasure — the place where his father’s voice lingers, the scene of shared jokes, skirmishes, and, behind the dusty antiques, a rarely acknowledged conflict: Betty, who speaks her mind but cannot quite reveal her heart, has never really accepted the fact that her son is gay. As these two unforgettable characters try to bring their different worlds together, Hodgman reveals the challenges of Betty’s life and his own struggle for self-respect, moving readers from their small town crumbling but still colorful to the star-studded corridors of Vanity Fair. Evocative of The End of Your Life Book Club and The Tender Bar, Hodgman’s debut is both an indelible portrait of a family and an exquisitely told tale of a prodigal son’s return.
The Letter Q: Queer Writers’ Notes To Their Younger Selves by Sarah Moon
Formats Available: Print | eBook
Formats Available: Print | eAudiobook
Roberta Kaplan’s gripping story of her defeat of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) before the Supreme Court. Attorney Roberta Kaplan knew it was the perfect case. Edie Windsor and Thea Spyer had stayed together for better or worse, for forty-four years-battling through society’s homophobia and Spyer’s paralysis from MS. The couple married in Canada in 2007, but when Spyer died two years later, the US government refused to recognize their marriage, forcing Windsor to pay a huge estate tax. In this landmark work, Kaplan describes her strategy in the lower courts and her preparation and rehearsals before moot courts, and she shares insights into the dramatic oral argument before the Supreme Court justices. Then Comes Marriage is the story of the relationship behind the watershed case, Kaplan’s own difficult coming-out journey, and the fascinating unfolding of United States v. Windsor. Full of never-before-told details, this is the momentous account of a thrilling historic and political victory for gay rights.
Anti-Defamation League: LGBT Pride Month Curriculum Resources
American Civil Liberties Union: LGBT Rights
Amnesty International: LGBT Rights / Pride Month
Centerlink: The Community of LGBT Centers
Human Rights Campaign
National Gay & Lesbian Chamber of Commerce
National LGBTQ Task Force
PFLAG — National and Toledo
Equality Toledo
Toledo Pride
Featured Image Credit: Rainbow flag breeze by Benson Kua — Wikimedia Commons (Creative Commons license).
One clap, two clap, three clap, forty?
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Seed drill
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A sowing machine which uses the seed drill concept
A seed drill is a sowing device that precisely positions seeds in the soil and then covers them. Before the introduction of the seed drill, the common practice was to plant seeds by hand. Besides being wasteful, planting was very imprecise and led to a poor distribution of seeds, leading to low productivity. Jethro Tull is widely thought of as having invented the seed drill, though the Sumerians used a single-tube version, and by the 2nd Century BC, the Chinese were using a multi-tube seed drill. The use of a seed drill can improve the ratio of crop yield by as much as nine times.
While the Babylonians used primitive single-tube seed drills around 1500 BC, the invention never reached Europe. Multi-tube iron seed drills were invented by the Chinese in the 2nd century BC.[1] This multi-tube seed drill has been credited with giving China an efficient food production system that allowed it to support its large population for millennia.[1] It has been conjectured that the seed drill was introduced in Europe following contacts with China.[1]
Over the years, seed drills became larger and more sophisticated, but the technology remained substantially the same. Early drills were small enough to be pulled by a single horse, and many of these remained in use into the 1930s. The availability of steam, and later gasoline tractors, however, saw the development of larger and more efficient drills that allowed farmers to seed ever larger tracts in a single day.
In older methods of planting, a field is initially prepared with a plough to a series of linear cuts known as furrows. The field is then seeded by throwing the seeds over the field, a method known as manual broadcasting. Seeds that landed in the furrows had better protection from the elements, and natural erosion or manual raking would preferentially cover them while leaving some exposed. The result was a field planted roughly in rows, but having a large number of plants outside the furrow lanes.
There are several downsides to this approach. The most obvious is that seeds that land outside the furrows will not have the growth shown by the plants sown in the furrow, since they are too shallow on the soil. Because of this, they are lost to the elements. Much of the seed remained on the surface where it never germinated or germinated prematurely, only to be killed by frost. On the surface, it was also vulnerable to being eaten by birds or carried away on the wind.
Drilling is the term used for the mechanized sowing of an agricultural crop. Traditionally, a seed drill consists of a hopper of seeds arranged above a series of tubes that can be set at selected distances from each other to allow optimum growth of the resulting plants. Seed is metered using fluted paddles which rotate using a geared drive from one of the drill's land wheels—seed rate is altered by changing gear ratios. Most modern drills use air to convey seed in plastic tubes from the seed hopper to the coulters—it is an arrangement which allows seed drills to be much wider than the seed hopper—as much as 12 m wide in some cases. The seed is metered mechanically into an airstream created by a hydraulically powered on-board fan and conveyed initially to a distribution head which sub-divides the seed into the pipes taking the seed to the individual coulters.
The seed drill allows farmers to sow seeds in well-spaced rows at specific depths at a specific seed rate; each tube creates a hole of a specific depth, drops in one or more seeds, and covers it over. This invention gave farmers much greater control over the depth that the seed was planted and the ability to cover the seeds without back-tracking. This greater control meant that seeds germinated consistently and in good soil. The result was an increased rate of germination, and a much-improved crop yield (up to eight times [2]).
A further important consideration was weed control. Broadcast seeding results in a random array of growing crops, making it difficult to control weeds using any method other than hand weeding. A field planted using a seed drill is much more uniform, typically in rows, allowing weeding with the hoe during the course of the growing season. Weeding by hand is laborious and poor weeding limits yield.The ground would have to be plowed and harrowed. The plow would dig up the earth and the harrow would smooth the soil and break up any clumps. You'd set the drill for the size of seed you were using. Then they'd put the grain in the hopper on top and then follow along behind it while the seed drill spaced and planted the seed. This system is still used today but it has been modified and updated so a farmer can plant many rows of seed at the same time
• The Genius of China, Robert Temple, ISBN 1-85375-292-4
1. ^ a b c d Temple, p.25
2. ^ The story of wheat | Ears of plenty | Paid subscription required
External links[edit]
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Aposematism (from apo- away, and sematic sign/meaning), perhaps most commonly known in the context of warning colouration, describes a family of antipredator adaptations where a warning signal is associated with the unprofitability of a prey item to potential predators. It is one form of "advertising" signal, with many others existing such as the bright colours of flowers which lure pollinators. The warning signal may take the form of conspicuous colours, sounds, odours or other perceivable characteristics. Aposematic signals are beneficial for both the predator and prey, who both avoid potential harm.
Defense mechanism
Aposematism is a secondary defense mechanism that warns potential predators of the existence of another primary defensive mechanism. The organism's primary means of defense may include:Unpalatability:such as from the bitter taste arising from some insects such as the ladybird or tiger moth, or the noxious odour produced by the skunk, or:Other danger: such as the poison glands of the poison dart frog, the sting of a velvet ant or neurotoxin in a black widow spider.
In these particular examples, the organism advertises its capabilities via either bright colouration in the case of the ladybird, frog and spider; or by conspicuous stripes in the case of the skunk. Various types of tiger moths advertise their unpalatability by either producing ultrasonic noises which warn bats to avoid them, or by warning postures which expose brightly-coloured body parts (see Unkenreflex). Velvet ants have both bright colours and produce audible noises when grabbed (via stridulation), which serve to reinforce the warning.
Aposematism is widespread in invertebrates, particularly insects, but less so in vertebrates, being mostly confined to a smaller number of reptile, amphibian and fish species. Some plants, such as Polygonum sagittatum, a species of knotweed, are thought to employ aposematism to warn herbivores of chemical (such as unpalatability) or physical defences (such as prickled leaves or thorns). Sharply contrasting black-and-white skunks are an example within mammals. Some brightly coloured birds with contrasting patterns may also be aposematic. An example is the Northern Flicker reportedly with bad-tasting, possibly toxic flesh .
The defense mechanism relies on the memory of the would-be predator; a bird that has once experienced a foul-tasting grasshopper will endeavour to avoid a repetition of the experience. One consequence of this is that aposematic species are often gregarious. Before the memory of a bad experience attenuates, the predator may have the experience reinforced through repetition, or else leave all the remaining and similarly coloured prey alone and safe. Aposematic organisms often move in a languid fashion as they have little need for speed and agility. Instead, their morphology is frequently tough and resistant to injury thereby allowing them to escape once the predator gets a bad taste or sting before the kill.
Origins of the theory
Aposematism is a sufficiently successful strategy that other organisms lacking the same primary defence means may come to mimic the conspicuous markings of their genuinely aposematic counterparts. For example, the Aegeria moth is a mimic of the yellow jacket wasp; it resembles the wasp, but is not capable of stinging. A predator who would thus avoid the wasp would similarly avoid the Aegeria.
This form of mimicry, where the mimic lacks the defensive capabilities of its 'model', is known as Batesian mimicry, after Henry Walter Bates, a British naturalist who studied Amazonian butterflies in the second half of the nineteenth century. Batesian mimicry finds greatest success when the ratio of mimic to mimicked is low; otherwise predators learn to recognise the imposters. Batesian mimics are known to adapt their mimicry to match the prevalence of aposematic organisms in their environment.
A second form of aposematism mimicry occurs when two organisms share the same anti-predation defence and mimic each other, to the benefit of both species. This form of mimicry is known as Müllerian mimicry, after Fritz Müller, a German naturalist who studied the phenomenon in the Amazonian in the late nineteenth century. For example, a yellow jacket wasp and a honeybee are Müllerian mimics; their similar colouring teaches predators that a striped pattern is the pattern of a stinging insect. Therefore, a predator who has come into contact with either a wasp or a honeybee will likely avoid both in the future.
See also
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Call and response (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In music, a call and response is a succession of two distinct phrases usually played by different musicians, where the second phrase is heard as a direct commentary on or response to the first. It corresponds to the call-and-response pattern in human communication and is found as a basic element of musical form, such as verse-chorus form, in many traditions.
Call and response patterns between two musicians are common in Indian Classical Music, particularly in the style of Jugalbandi. Call and response is likewise widely present in parts of the Americas touched by the trans-Atlantic slave trade. It is extensively used in Cuban music, both in the secular rumba[1] and in the African religious ceremonies (Santería).[2]
Folk music[edit]
It is common in folk traditions of choral singing of many peoples, especially in African musical cultures[citation needed]. In the West, it is most readily seen in the sea shanty, African-American work songs, military cadences, Québecois folk songs, and the dance-songs of various European countries including France (particularly Brittany) and the Faroe Islands.
Classical music[edit]
In classical European music it is known as antiphony.
Popular music[edit]
The phenomenon of call and response is pervasive in modern Western popular music, as well, largely because Western music has been so heavily shaped by African contributions. Cross-over rhythm and blues, rock 'n' roll and rock music exhibit call-and-response characteristics, as well. Three examples are The Who's song "My Generation",[3] "Black Dog" by Led Zeppelin,[citation needed] and The Pogues' "Fairytale of New York"[citation needed]:
"My Generation" vocal melody with response.[3] About this sound Play
To make an attempt at diagramming it:[citation needed]
• Twelve bars:
• A: 4-bar CALL
• (2-bar vocal CALL
• [1-bar CALL, 1-bar RESPONSE]
• 2-bar instrumental RESPONSE
• (2-bar vocal CALL
• [1-bar CALL, 1-bar RESPONSE]
• 2-bar instrumental RESPONSE
• B: 4-bar RESPONSE (repeated)
• (2-bar vocal CALL
• [1-bar CALL, 1-bar RESPONSE]
• 2-bar instrumental RESPONSE/turnaround
Leader/Chorus call and response[edit]
A single leader makes a musical statement, and then the chorus responds together. American bluesman Muddy Waters utilizes call and response in one of his signature songs, "Mannish Boy" which is almost entirely Leader/Chorus call and response.
• CALL: Waters' vocal: "Now when I was a young boy"
• RESPONSE: (Harmonica/rhythm section riff)
• CALL: Waters': "At the age of 5"
• RESPONSE: (Harmonica/rhythm section riff)
• CALL: Drop the coin right into the slot.
• RESPONSE: (Guitar riff)
• CALL: You gotta get something that's really hot.
• RESPONSE: (Guitar riff)
Question/Answer call and response[edit]
An example of this is the Christmas song Must Be Santa:
CALL: Who laughs this way, ho ho ho?
RESPONSE: Santa laughs this way, ho ho ho!
A similar question-and-answer exchange occurs in the movie Casablanca between Sam and the band in the song Knock On Wood:
CALL: Who's got trouble?
RESPONSE: We've got trouble!
CALL: How much trouble?
RESPONSE: Too much trouble!
Question/Answer in Indian Classical Music[edit]
A distinct section in North Indian Classical Music is known as sawaal-javaab (question-answer). Primarily an instrumental technique, the sawaal-javaab occurs between two artists. One artist will present a melodically and rhythmically challenging riff which will be either replicated or improved upon by the other artist.
3. ^ a b Middleton (1990). Studying Popular Music,[page needed]. ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
External links[edit]
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Charles Suh and his colleagues at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Areawide Pest Management Research Unit in College Station, Texas, have found a pheromone formula that is attractive to a major milkweed pest, the milkweed stem weevil.
The discovery stems from research originally designed to help improve pheromone lures used in Texas to monitor the boll weevil, a major pest of cotton. The lures haven't always been effective, so the researchers worked with the pheromone manufacturer to improve the pheromone lure used in the traps.
The researchers set up traps along roads in Texas to compare the standard and experimental lures for attracting boll weevils. They checked the traps once a week from mid-May to mid-June, replacing the lures every other week.
They soon found that the experimental lures were attracting a type of weevil distinctly different from boll weevils. The weevils were identified as milkweed stem weevils, Rhyssomatus lineaticollis. The researchers initially discounted the number of milkweed stem weevils found in the traps, but it soon became obvious that more milkweed stem weevils were being captured than boll weevils. Overall, four times more milkweed weevils were captured in traps with the experimental lures than with standard lures.
Monarch butterflies are often admired for their eye-catching wings and transcontinental migrations. Conservationists concerned about the potential loss of milkweed habitat have recommended planting milkweed in yards and gardens. Adult monarch butterflies feed on the nectar of various wild flowers when they migrate from the Midwestern United States to the mountains of central Mexico. But their larvae feed on milkweed, making the plant a necessity for the butterfly's lifecycle.
The discovery, reported in Southwestern Entomologist, could be used to develop a trap-based system for detecting milkweed weevil populations, monitoring their movements, and helping conserve rare types of milkweed.
ARS is the USDA's principal intramural scientific research agency.
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Beginning of article
Arctic and American peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus tundrius and F. p. anatum, respectively) were listed as endangered in 1970. At the time, some local populations of American peregrine falcons in the eastern United States had disappeared, and populations in western and northern North America had been reduced by 80 percent or more. Organochlorine pesticides such as DDT and its breakdown product DDE were identified as the main cause of the decline. The peregrines accumulated these chemicals in their tissues by feeding on birds that had eaten DDT-contaminated insects or seeds. These chemicals prevented normal calcium deposition during eggshell formation, and caused females to lay thin-shelled eggs that often broke before hatching. The use of DDT was restricted in the United States and Canada in the early 1970's, and populations of peregrine falcons in North America began to recover by the late 1970's.
After Arctic and American peregrine falcons were listed, the Fish and Wildlife Service prepared recovery plans for four different geographic areas. For Alaska populations, the recovery plan identified specific "index" areas (areas representative of interior and northern Alaska) to survey and specific recovery criteria for reclassification. These criteria included the number of pairs occupying territories, number of young produced, reductions in DDE residue in eggs, and minimum eggshell thickness.
In the early 1980's, biologists in the Service's Region 7 Endangered Species and Environmental Contaminant programs began a contaminant monitoring program for peregrine falcons in Alaska. This program continued throughout the 1990's. The monitoring plan focused on DDE and eggshell thinning, and called for collecting and analyzing at least 10 eggs from each subspecies every 5 years. Unhatched eggs were also collected when visiting nests to band falcons for mortality and movement studies. We began the program in 1984 and repeated it in 1989 and 1995. During this time, we collected 153 eggs, 87 from American peregrines and 66 from Arctic peregrines.
Our analyses showed a clear downward trend of DDE concentrations in eggs. In the late 1960's, DDE residues in the range of 20-40 parts per million (ppm) and eggshell thinning in excess of 20 percent were observed for peregrine falcons in Alaska (Peakall et. al 1975). …
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Sales Toll Free No: 1-800-481-2338
Rotation Matrix to Quaternion
TopRotation matrix is normally used in linear Algebra. It can be defined as a matrix which can be used to find rotation in Euclidean space. As following matrix will rotate the points in anticlockwise direction by an angle 'θ' about the origin in Cartesian plane of Cartesian coordinate system.
Orientations and rotations of objects in 3D are represented by Unit quaternions. For this orientation Euler angles are not suitable since they are not easier as compared to unit quaternions in formulating problem of gimbal lock.
Unit quaternions are more efficient and stable as compared to that of rotation matrices.
Unit quaternions has use in field of computer graphics, robotics molecular dynamics and orbital mechanics of satellites. If we want to represent the rotation then unit quaternions can be called rotation quaternions. Rotation quaternions are also known as versors.
Let’s try to understand Rotation Matrix to quaternion conversion and vice versa. When unit quaternions are used to show an structure or orientation, they can be called as orientation quaternions. Orientation quaternions can also be stated as attitude quaternions. If we want to represent any rotation in 3D space then there are two parameters mainly required which are: 1) Axis vector and 2) Angle of rotation.
Quaternion rotation can be constructed using the formula:
q = exp 1/2 (θ) (pxi + pyi + pzi) = cos (½) θ + (pxi + pyj + pzj) sin (½) θ,
Where 'θ' is defined as angle of rotation and (px, py, pz ) is the rotation vector that represents the Axis of Rotation. Here for unit quaternion q = (m, a, b, c), equivalent left handed 3×3 rotation matrix will be:
Above matrix is showing a conversion from quaternion to a 3×3 rotation matrix.
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Place:Svalbard, Norway
redirected from Place:Svalbard
TypeDependent state
Coordinates78°N 20°E
Located inNorway (1925 - )
source: Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names
source: Family History Library Catalog
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic that constitutes the northernmost part of Norway. It is located about 400 miles north of mainland Europe, midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole. The group of islands range from 74° to 81° north latitude (inside the Arctic Circle) and from 10° to 35° east longitude. Spitsbergen is the largest island, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. Svalbard is located in the north-western corner of the Eurasian Plate. To the south and east, the seabed is shallow at , while to the north and west it sinks down to about . North of Svalbard there is pack ice and the North Pole, and to the south mainland Norway. The Russian archipelago Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya are located to the east, Greenland is to the west.[1]
The administrative center is Longyearbyen. Other settlements include the active Russian mining community of Barentsburg; the abandoned Russian mining settlement of Pyramiden (originally founded by the Swedish); the research community of Ny-Ålesund; and the Swedish mining outpost of Sveagruva. The archipelago is administered by the Governor of Svalbard, whose authority is granted by the Norwegian government.
The islands were first used as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries. Several species of whales were hunted to near-extinction and whaling eventually ceased. Coal mining began in the early 1900s, and several permanent communities were established. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway. This act also established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone. The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol are the only mining companies remaining on the islands. Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries. Two major research facilities are the University Centre in Svalbard and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft and boats serve inter-community transport. Svalbard Airport, Longyear serves as the main gateway to the rest of Europe.
The treaty defines Svalbard as all islands, islets and skerries from 74° to 81° north latitude, and from 10° to 35° east longitude. The land area is , and dominated by the island Spitsbergen, which constitutes more than half the archipelago, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya.[2] All settlements are located on Spitsbergen, except the meteorological outposts on Bjørnøya and Hopen.[3] The Norwegian state took possession of all unclaimed land, or 95.2% of the archipelago, at the time the Svalbard Treaty entered into force; Store Norske owns 4%, Arktikugol owns 0.4%, while other private owners hold 0.4%.[4]
Since Svalbard is located north of the Arctic Circle it experiences both midnight sun in summer and polar night in winter. At 74° north, the midnight sun lasts 99 days and polar night 84 days, while the respective figures at 81° are 141 and 128 days. In Longyearbyen, midnight sun lasts from 20 April until 23 August, and polar night lasts from 26 October to 15 February.[5] In winter, the combination of full moon and reflective snow can give additional light.[6]
Glaciation covers or 60% of Svalbard; 30% is barren rock while 10% is vegetated. The largest glacier is Austfonna on Nordaustlandet, followed by Olav V Land and Vestfonna. During summer, it is possible to ski from Sørkapp in the south to the north of Spitsbergen, with only a short distance not being covered by snow or glacier. Kvitøya is 99.3% covered by glacier.
The landforms of Svalbard were created through repeated ice ages, where glaciers cut the former plateau into fjords, valleys and mountains. The tallest peak is Newtontoppen, followed by Perriertoppen, Ceresfjellet, Chadwickryggen and Galileotoppen. The longest fjord is Wijdefjorden, followed by Isfjorden, Van Mijenfjorden, Woodfjorden and Wahlenbergfjorden. Svalbard is part of the High Arctic Large Igneous Province, and experienced Norway's strongest earthquake on 6 March 2009, which hit 6.5 on the Richter scale.
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union retained about two-thirds of the population on the islands (with a third being Norwegians) with the archipelago's population slightly under 4,000.[7] Russian activity has diminished considerably since then, falling from 2,500 to 450 people from 1990 to 2010. Grumant was closed after it was depleted in 1962.[7] Pyramiden was closed in 1998, and since 2006, no coal has been exported from Barentsburg.[8] The Russian community has also experienced two air accidents, Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801, which killed 141 people, and the Heerodden helicopter accident.
Longyearbyen remained a pure company town until 1989, when utilities, culture and education was separated into Svalbard Samfunnsdrift. In 1993, it was sold to the national government, and the University Centre was established. Through the 1990s, tourism increased and the town developed an economy independent of Store Norske and the mining.[9] Longyearbyen was incorporated on 1 January 2002, receiving a community council.[10]
How places in Svalbard are organized
Research Tips
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Teaching Module
New Zealand Childhoods (18th–20th c.)
Source 1: The Ancient History of the Maori
Although an aged Horeta Te Taniwha recounted his boyhood experience several times for different Pakeha researchers, there was little inconsistency in his accounts. This excerpt can therefore be explored for the ways in which a child responded to a people whose arrival was completely unexpected and whose appearance was different from anything in his life experience so far. The story unfolds as a narrative of the event, with the commentary on each phase reflecting the means by which god-like figures were revealed to be human.
The points of comparison provide evidence of what was "normal" in an indigenous context. Maori used waka (canoes) constantly: the paddlers always looked to the front. All manner of rituals surrounded the partaking of food, which would not be touched personally by a person of high rank. The response of the "strange beings" when offered kumara, fish, and shellfish was not consistent with tribal notions of how an atua (god) would behave. The physical features of the strangers, with their skin and eye color, indicates that brown was the norm in Te Taniwha's world. His was also a society in which there were clear differences of rank, such as rangatira (chief) and tohunga (skilled person, often in spiritual matters). Hence Te Taniwha recognised Captain Cook's standing amongst his men and found it remarkable that Cook should pay attention to youngsters. His gentle touch was significant, given the tapu (sacred) nature of the adult male head in Maori custom, that of a chief or tribal leader especially. Children could be so caressed without causing offence: Te Taniwha and his companions may well have felt honoured by the gesture of this leader of strange men. Sensory perceptions, sound particularly, feature in this account. (In a section not included here but available electronically, Te Taniwha also refers to a dislike of the salted meat which he was given to taste.) The strangers' curiosity about objects of material culture as well as local flora and rocks also made a lasting impression on the indigenous youngster.
Discussion Questions
• What understanding of the lifestyle of an indigenous child can be gleaned from this extract?
A discussion could note the roles played by various groups—elders, warriors, women and children—within this extended family community (hapu). The sequence by which the strangers were deemed to be human, not supernatural, also reflects traditional beliefs. Thirdly, there is information concerning food, adornment and clothing.
• What questions might arise concerning the authenticity of this account, and how might those issues be addressed?
Questions raised might involve discussion of the reliability of memory, amongst older informants especially, and particularly when the stories are repeated frequently. Cross referencing with the published journal entries and artist images from the Endeavour voyage would provide a European perspective on the same encounter, and verify some of the recollections. Comparisons can also be made between the various printed versions of Te Taniwha's account: these show remarkable consistency. It would be important to emphasise the lack of literacy within Maori society at that time. Knowledge was transmitted through song, chant and oratory. Accuracy was essential and mistakes would be challenged in public.
Source 2: Adventure in New Zealand, from 1839 to 1844
Early cultural encounters in New Zealand's history are a story of active engagement by coastal tribes with the practices, foods, belief structures, and material culture of Europeans. Disease excepted, the interaction was selective, with muskets proving to be one of the more disruptive of the new acquisitions, and literacy, disseminated mostly by missionaries, a more beneficial adaptation.
Imbued as they were with their own sense of superiority, European arrivals did not always recognize their dependence upon Maori goodwill, generosity, and assistance. Shore-based whalers, however, were generally aware of the importance of developing good relationships with local iwi (sub-tribes). Moreover, to have a "resident" European was also a status symbol in a highly competitive tribal society. Hence a settlement such as Te Awaiti represented a situation of mutual advantage, and, with the presence of the children, the beginnings of mixed-race founding families.
Discussion of this extract might develop beyond exploring the social attitudes expressed here concerning the "improved" lifestyle of the Maori women and their children. The references to Barrett and Love indicate a ready acceptance of their progeny by Maori relatives: what difficulties might arise later if such children sought a future in a Pakeha-dominated world? Such youngsters could be cultural intermediaries if they were fluent in both languages, yet not all fathers encouraged this, as was the case with trader John Lees Faulkner who objected to his children observing their mother's customs and speaking her language. Essays in the freely accessible online Dictionary of New Zealand Biography provide additional case studies. Students might also consider what particular blend of circumstances ensured that there has never been legislative discrimination against mixed-race relationships (though the personal case studies cited in Carol Archie's work certainly show episodes of intolerance and hostility expressed towards children).
Discussion Questions
• Did children serve as the vanguard of biculturalism?
This question encourages students to think of the ways in which children are often the intermediaries in situations of cultural adjustment (as in cases of migration, for instance). New Zealand's compulsory schooling system taught Maori children English but it did not provide an opportunity for Pakeha children to learn Maori. Colonial assumptions and policies therefore tended to inhibit the development of biculturalism among both populations. Students may wish to clarify what they mean by the terms, vanguard and biculturalism, and to consider whether there are particular "windows of opportunity" in a colony's history when such a concept might apply.
• How might issues of identity have affected 'half-caste' children throughout the colonial era?
This question is prompted in part by the recollections of Mihi Edwards, whose autobiography, Mihipeka: Early Years (Auckland, Penguin, 1990) relates the extent to which she endeavored to disguise and deny her Maori ancestry when she moved, as a young woman, to seek employment in a Pakeha-dominated environment – at a time when eminent Maori politician and scholar, Sir Apirana Ngata (whose mother had a Scottish father), was widely respected in both societies. Students might like to consider the range of circumstances that can influence a sense of identity. The American civil rights movements of the 1960s, for example, had a profound impact in New Zealand, coinciding as it did with the advent of television, the massive migration of Maori to the cities, and the emergence of a significant group of university-educated young urban Maori leaders.
Source 3: Annual report on Native Affairs, 1874
This regional overview formed part of the annual Department of Native Affairs reporting to Parliament. The various Officers in Native Districts (of whom Locke was one) addressed their reports to the Native Minister since he was the politician who had responsibility for that Department. All government department annual reports were tabled in the Lower House of Parliament and "ordered to be printed," which is how they end up in the Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives each year. The overall heading for the collected entries under G-2 would be "Reports from Officers in Native Districts."
This extract could be used for emphasizing the importance of historical context when considering the situation of indigenous children in a colonial environment. There might also be discussion of the extent to which children have agency.
In this particular East Coast region, one well suited to the sheep-rearing which was already a mainstay of the colonial economy, there were also intra- and inter-tribal divisions as a consequence of some involvement alongside government troops during the armed conflicts of the 1860s. The comments by Samuel Locke, a Crown Land Purchase Officer on the East Coast of the North Island, suggest a clear distinction in his mind between those who are proving to be cooperative and those who are not: the future prospects for the children of the two groups are similarly distinguished. According to Locke, Maori youth will not play a dominant role in the developing economy, though. Just as the first group of adults must "turn again to labour," so the best-educated of the younger generation will be encouraged to take up trades. There is no suggestion that young Maori might aspire to academic careers or to be the employers of Pakeha labourers. Yet, as the outstanding achievements of a local boy, the later Sir Apirana Ngata 1 would demonstrate, such a future was possible.
In compiling his regional overview for the annual report on "Native Affairs," subsequently tabled in the lower house of the colonial parliament, Locke identifies some negative consequences of colonial legislation to change the nature of tribal land tenure, but never questions the validity of the measures. Yet, notwithstanding the impact of conflict and confiscation on tribes affected by the events of the previous decade, government land policies were already proving to be the single most disruptive and divisive influence on indigenous communities. Children growing up in these environments lost an entire cultural heritage, not just a pecuniary asset, when their tribal lands were sold into European ownership. A tribe's history was known and named in relation to territory. Why were colonial authorities so oblivious to this?
Discussion Questions
• Although formal schooling provided indigenous children with access to the values and language of the colonial regime, what factors might affect their educational prowess?
This question aims to encourage students to think about the home environment of Maori pupils, not just what was happening in the classroom and school playground. Circumstances could vary from one village to another, even within the same tribal rohe (territory). Maori as a language was not to be used at school: this prohibition, and the corporal punishment usually associated with flouting it, could make adjustment to the classroom very difficult. Loss of land also meant loss of traditional food resources. In the later decades of the 19th century, for instance, many tribal communities were affected by the mobility of those whanau (family) groups. Seasonal employment in the sheep-shearing or gum-digging industries, for example, generally affected the school attendance pattern of the children who moved with their whanau. There could also be intergenerational tensions as elders feared a loss of contact with their mokopuna (grandchildren) who became reluctant to speak Maori at home, given the harsh strictures against doing so when at school.
• How did government policies to promote the individualization of Maori land tenure reflect Colonialism?
Discussion might also draw on comparisons with other colonial regimes run by other European powers. The Treaty of Waitangi accorded Maori the status of British subjects. With the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act in 1852, male suffrage was linked with property ownership. (Universal suffrage by 1893 was not.) Viewpoints vary as to whether the individualization of Maori land tenure represented a genuine effort to expand eligibility for the franchise amongst Maori men; or a desire to overturn the land purchase policies that prevailed prior to the 1860s, in which the right of the chief to speak on behalf of his people was widely recognized. Individualization of title led to increased fragmentation of land, which in turn came to mean multiple ownership of small blocks that were uneconomic to farm and almost impossible to administer productively. (See the online Treaty of Waitangi booklets).
Source 4: "Shocking Disaster at Cambridge" [1884]
The report highlights a key difference between Maori and Pakeha childhoods, in the nineteenth century especially: the availability of whanau (family) support. "No other family members and no neighbours"—the difficulties confronting Mrs. Osborne were not ones that a Maori mother would have shared. Ironically, Maori parents would experience a similar isolation in the middle of the 20th century, when urban migration caused many indigenous children to grow up in nuclear families, away from their traditional extended networks of relatives.
The 1880s was a decade of widespread depression in the colonial economy. Falling prices for export staples, such as wool and wheat, had serious consequences for those who had bought land on capital borrowed during the speculative boom of the 1870s. For small-scale farmers, endeavoring to establish a viable unit with very limited financial resources, older children could be advantageous as a labor force. A young family was quite the reverse. The relative isolation noted by the juryman could be set alongside Mrs. Osborne's comment that she was normally absent for one to two hours when she went to town. Students could estimate average walking speed to ascertain the likely distances involved.
Some indication of the living space and conditions in the house can also be gleaned from the report. Only one bedroom is mentioned, along with the kitchen. Washing facilities were usually in a lean-to at the back of such dwellings; the toilet would be a long-drop at some distance from the house. The house would have been built of timber, with the paper lining on the interior walls adding to the flammable nature of the dwelling. An analysis of settler housing images available through the Alexander Turnbull Library Timeframes website would enable students to gain an impression of the range of living conditions at this time. Comparable investigations could be undertaken for other regions and years, using the online newspapers collection.
Discussion Questions
• How can reports of accidents provide insight into the nature of late-19th-century colonial children's lives?
Discussion might focus on the close relationship between children and their physical environment, since playing outdoors was the norm. Such play was often supervised by older siblings, particularly when child-bearing spread over two decades and mothers had little paid assistance with domestic tasks. Although the New Zealand environment contained no snakes or poisonous insects, trees, rivers, creeks, and horses were generally present in country children's lives, while urban youngsters had street traffic to contend with, usually in the form of tramcars and horse-drawn drays and carts. Comparisons between the activities of children in New Zealand with the lifestyles of youngsters in other colonies or "frontier" communities might also be pursued.
• How do the types of accidents reported here differ from the risks confronting children throughout the 20th century?
This invites consideration of changing technology – from carts to cars, bicycles rather than horses, household bleach or dishwasher chemicals instead of phosphorus heads on matches, for instance. There is also the wider context of the increased supervision of children's lives and the reduction in family size that affects the influence of siblings. Household tasks have also changed. Youngsters used to chop wood and kindling for the kitchen stove or the weekday boiling of water in the copper: few 21st-century children would have occasion to use a tomahawk or axe. The advent of electricity has reduced the risks associated with fire, but introduced the risk of electrocution. The likelihood of drowning in a well has diminished only to be replaced by the incidence of childhood deaths in domestic swimming pools. Safety measures have increased, as with artificial surfaces at public playgrounds, for example, yet obesity is now a major lifestyle risk for children and youth, suggesting that a lack of physical activity may be a greater problem than sports-related injuries. Ipod users face hearing loss; constant text messaging and computer use can result in tendonitis. The relationship between child lifestyles and risks can be explored in a variety of contexts.
Source 5: Juvenile Depravity Suppression Bill [1896]
Using this 1896 statement as the starting point, students could explore the changing relationship between children and the state through use of resources on the Ministry of Youth Development website and that of the Commissioner for Children. The emphasis on children's rights that has characterized policy and discussion in recent decades reflects support for the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), which New Zealand ratified in 1993.
Students might also seek to define anti-social behavior and aim to set their definition within the wider context of social changes in the 20th century. Youths loitering on street corners in the 1890s were unlikely to be armed (the ubiquitous pocket knife and shanghai were not normally viewed as weapons for use against other people). Late 20th-century youth, "hanging out" on the streets, are more likely to possess a knife or other weapon, and have their outlook impaired by alcohol, drug use, peer pressure, or gang membership, actual or in prospect. Students could explore the two websites above for analyses of the social changes that have contributed to a significant level of gang affiliation amongst Maori and Pacific Islanders. Comparisons between the New Zealand situation and that of "delinquent" youth in other western societies could highlight similarities, for indigenous people especially.
Underpinning the ongoing concerns about child and youth well-being has been a gradual shift in the relationship between families and the state. In the founding decades of the colony, only criminal, neglected, and destitute children were committed to government care, mostly in industrial schools and orphanages. Such interventions were very unlikely to affect Maori children, whose extended family networks provided support and sustenance. The geographical distribution of the two populations, predominantly rural Maori and urban Pakeha, meant that relatively few politicians were aware of the difficult socio-economic circumstances of many Maori communities. By the late 19th century, however, government policies in New Zealand began to reflect trends elsewhere, in Britain and the United States, for instance, concerning the need for state investment in children. As the future income-earners of the country, youth represented a substantial social capital. The Infant Life Protection Act (1896), the Juvenile Smoking Suppression Act (1903), and the 1925 Child Welfare Act all reflect this increased level of state intervention. Late 20th-century interventions are more explicit in acknowledging the citizenship rights of young New Zealanders – as epitomized with the establishment of the Office of the Commissioner for Children in 1989.
Discussion Questions
• How does the work of the New Zealand Commissioner for Children and the Ministry for Youth Development reflect a serious official commitment to the principle of children's rights?
The answer will involve exploration of the Commission and Ministry websites, including the many links to similar agencies elsewhere. The UN Convention is available through the Ministry website. A recent publication by John Barrington, A Voice for Children: The Office of the Commissioner for Children in New Zealand, 1989 -2003 (Dunmore Press, Palmerston North, 2004) contains a useful summary overview of achievements during that period (pp. 117-20).
• What arguments can be advanced for and against the proposition that a sense of social alienation is the principal cause of youth offending?
This question aims to encourage students to take an international perspective, rather than a narrowly local or national one. Just as the issue of street larrikins was being debated in Britain, the United States, the Australian colonies and New Zealand in the 1890s, so the problems associated with youth offending, criminal and petty, may well be found in much of the developed world. Students should be able to contest the basic proposition by reference to all the other contributory factors that they can identify. They might also consider what influences or encourages the majority of young people to stay out of trouble with the law.
Source 6: Taranaki Education Office Report [1898]
Some students may find themselves surprised by the child-friendly nature of this official report. It could therefore be used in a context of exploring the assumptions that readers can bring to a document, and how preconceptions can affect the reading of text or image.
The connection between child experience and family circumstance is obvious here. In new farming areas (and there are ready parallels with North American examples), younger siblings had a very different educational path than their older brothers and sisters whose labor was often crucial in the establishment years. Parents could find this situation difficult because they also wanted the best for their children. There might be significant parental differences, with (usually) mothers endeavoring to find a balance between the demands of education and income. Older children, too, might have mixed feelings about the divergent home/school workloads. A sense of pride or achievement could be greater out of the classroom than within it.
Regional and cultural differences might be explored. The national curriculum was mandatory: access to resources varied enormously. A universal school system could not guarantee a universal standard of education, no matter how diligent the teachers or the inspectors. Students might expand on Spencer's analysis to consider a wider range of factors that could affect student attendance and learning – such as urban and rural differences, religion, housing, and gender. The importance placed upon compulsory schooling at this time also merits close analysis. By the late 1930s, all New Zealand children were required to have at least two years of secondary education and the leaving age was raised to 15. Yet the numbers of teachers in training had been reduced during major periods of economic recessions (1880s and 1930s) and men were lost to the profession during and after World War I. Adult recollections of schooling in the first half of the 20th century frequently refer to corporal punishment, authoritarianism, and feelings of fear. Spencer's vision emphasizes enjoyment. How might the different perspectives been reconciled? And can children's voices be heard?
Discussion Questions
• Why did formal schooling become such an integral part of New Zealand (and other Western European) children's lives by the end of the 19th century?
Discussion should encourage students to think about international trends in the spread of elementary education. Within the British Empire, for example, similar curricula and resources could be found throughout all the settler colonies. There are also parallels between North American and British systems at this time. Industrialization and child labor form part of the background, while notions of children as "social capital" are also influential. The broad trends can be sketched from essays in the three-volume Children and Childhood in History and Society. 2
• What perspectives need consideration when trying to ascertain the nature of childhood experiences of schooling?
Much of the published material on childhood experience draws upon adult recollections, written or oral. Students might be invited to write and then analyze their own memories of elementary school before being challenged to identify a range of other factors which may have affected the nature of their school experience. (Examples might include the physical environment of the school; its financial resources; the age, ethnicity, and gender range of the staff; prevailing philosophies of education and of the particular school itself; levels of parental and community support; levels of student representation in school affairs.) Comparisons across culture and time could be developed.
Source 7: Children's letters, Otago Witness [1918]
Children's own voices might be described as an elusive and problematic resource in childhood history. Taking these letters as an example, do the sentences and ideas reflect childhood priorities or can adult influence be detected? Most letters are likely to have been written at the family table, with some degree of supervision or checking of spelling and grammar. Both "Dot" and "Uncle Ned" insisted on high levels of presentation. Formulaic aspects can also observed, particularly in the endings of all three letters given here. (Additional examples from the Otago Witness up to 1909 available here.)
Age, gender, and language differences can be explored in some detail if students access full pages from the digitized collection. Generally, correspondents were under the age of 18, with the majority under 14. A regular Older Writers Week was always well subscribed and younger writers would sometimes refer to the style or content of those letters or try to emulate them. Occasionally, "Dot" would set a topic for correspondence but the general guidelines can be discerned since children were encouraged to write about animals, events of interest in their local area, holidays, school, and home life. The DLF motto was always printed: "We write for the benefit of others, not ourselves."
Analysis of the pseudonyms as well as the letter content gives some insight into the impact of World War I on these children's lives.
Discussion Questions
• How useful are these letters as a source for accessing children's own voices?
This invites consideration of the various filters that may affect the content and style of these letters. The 350-word limit was rarely a problem (save for some of the older writers). Knowing that parents and peers would be reading the published letter could be a constraint on spontaneity. Social conventions, such as not discussing family affairs outside of the home, would also have been observed. There could also have been some apprehension about editorial feedback. Noted children's author, Ruth Park, for example, long remembered a critical response by the editor of the New Zealand Herald's children's page. 3
• What do Children's Pages reveal about the daily lives of youthful correspondents?
Students might consider the extent to which children wrote about normal routines or focused on exceptional happenings. Since approximately 50 DLF letters on average were reproduced with each issue of the Otago Witness, general impressions concerning school, modes of transport, health issues, and contemporary events can usually be discerned - and consistencies or inconsistencies noted.
Source 8: Oral history, Colonial Childhoods Oral History Project
Changing contexts could be explored, using sexuality as the focus. Contemporary students might consider the range of ways in which knowledge of human reproduction, puberty, and homosexuality is disseminated before contrasting the present-day position with the dearth of printed or visual information suitable for children at the beginning of the 20th century. Social conventions also need investigation. Many of the interviewees in the CCOHP gleaned a basic understanding from an older sibling; others gathered a great deal of misinformation from the school playground. What were the dominant constraints affecting public school education on the subject; or parent/child frankness? Was ignorance regarded as a form of protection or were there underlying moral codes that emphasized innocence? Some basic assumptions might also be discussed. Was sexuality a topic that aroused childhood curiosity to any great extent at this time? Analysis of all of the CCOHP comments suggests that, for those under 15, it was not important – yet could this impression result from interviewees making instinctive comparisons with the present as they commented on the past?
The use of oral histories as a source in childhood history might also be investigated, with particular reference to any issues (such as deafness, fatigue, memory loss) associated with interviewing the elderly (defined as over 80 years). How much reliance can be placed upon such recollections? Without necessarily delving into debates over the nature of memory, students could be encouraged to reflect on their own childhoods. Are their memories predominantly of factual detail or of episodes to which they had some degree of emotional reaction, be that fear, curiosity, anger, pleasure, or pain? Questions about the "construction of the past" in an oral interview could also be raised, especially when comparing the relatively unstructured "life narrative" approach with that of the more structured questionnaire style of interviewing.
Discussion Questions
• Why might parents choose not to tell their children about a mother's pregnancy?
Discussion could include some reference to the incidence of maternal mortality, since the risks associated with child-bearing and childbirth, among working class families particularly, were considerable. The registration of midwives (1904) and the establishment of free maternity care for women (1905) made a significant impact in lowering those rates. Concealment was also a way of avoiding awkward questions about reproduction and sex. Moreover, pregnancy was a private, not a public, matter which might be mentioned in a school playground, for example. Women's dress styles assisted with the strategy, as did the usual convention that children did not enter their parents' bedroom spontaneously. Maori children were less likely to be in ignorance than Pakeha, since sleeping and living arrangements were generally more communal.
• Evidence gathered during the CCOHP suggested that there was relatively little openness in dealing with other facets of Pakeha children's lives, especially where alcoholism, violence, or death were concerned. Does such adult reticence reflect contemporary views on child-rearing?
Several of the CCOHP interviewees lost a sibling, friend, or parent during childhood. Generally, though, Pakeha youngsters did not attend funerals, whereas Maori children were present, and older ones involved with food preparation, during any tangihanga (a farewell that was held over several days) in their community. Cultural experiences also differed in terms of remembrance of the dead, with Pakeha generally choosing silence. Maori did not. Alcoholism was a source of shame within a family, quite apart from its disruptive and damaging effects on relationships and children's well-being. Concealment tended to be the preferred option. Essentially, child rearing was seen as a domestic and private matter, and the family was not a realm in which the state should interfere. Gradually, schools became agencies whereby some level of protection for children could be initiated, if necessary.
Source 9: Code of Honour [1936]
After some initial—probably adverse—reactions to the language and content of the Code, students might be encouraged to work in groups, to analyze a selection of the objectives much more closely. Culture and context could be stressed. The Dominion was slowly beginning to emerge from the Great Depression, the impact of which had been severe on a people who had lost so many young men during World War I. The notion of service for Empire had been well instilled prior to 1914, and a heavy price had been paid. It is noticeable that the emphasis within the Code is much more on a sense of identity as a New Zealand citizen, rather than as the citizen of Empire that had been so prominent a theme in School Journal poems, stories, and articles earlier in previous decades. Yet fundamental values persist - of fair play, honesty, integrity, respect for authority, for instance. Students may benefit from some discussion about English public schools, the class background from which pupils were generally drawn, and the ethos that imbued such institutions. They might also be prompted to consider how and why these values became disseminated so widely during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Responses to these questions could include reference to some of the Empire-wide organizations for young people, the Boy Scout and the Girl Guide movements, for instance.
Further analysis of the Code suggests that its focus was on encouraging youth to develop a sense of civic and community responsibility. Improvement of self is vital, but the individual's growth in principle and awareness is intended to enhance social interaction, not individualism.
Lively debates should develop if students are challenged to consider whether there is anything inherently wrong with such a set of personal values. Do these ideals pertain to any one social class or culture? Within the New Zealand context, Maori children growing up in closely-knit rural communities would have had an additional set of guiding principles, those pertaining to their own cultural beliefs and practices (tikanga).
Discussion Questions
• How do these behavioral objectives for young New Zealanders, Maori and Pakeha, reflect social values of the 1930s?
Discussion would draw on student analysis of the key values identified in the Code. They might also note the order in which points are made. The reference to care of property, for instance, comes some way down the list and alludes more to public, than private, property. Students could be invited to consider other "Codes" that would have been well known at the time, such as the Ten Commandments.
• Develop a 21st-century "Code of Honour" that would be relevant for children growing up in contemporary society.
This would involve some preliminary discussions about relating the Code to any particular group of children. Group work would be valuable here, particularly if students were encouraged to identify specific clubs or societies which aim to instill some common principles amongst their members. New Codes could be analyzed to see if they reflect any contemporary attitudes concerning child rearing.
Source 10: School photographs [1950, 1964]
Class photographs are so common in personal collections that they merit analysis to see how useful they may be as a source for childhood history. At one level, they can be explored for evidence of material culture, in terms of clothing, footwear, and hairstyles, for example. There is no sign of "brand" or "label" clothing in the 1950 image, save for the six gymslips that provide some impression of uniformity. Fabric, style, pattern, and color vary considerably. Cardigans and jerseys are hand-knitted; and the varying shapes of the girls' collars reflect the prevalence of home-sewn garments. In both photographs, the girls are all wearing skirts or dresses: only the boys wore shorts. It was still not "proper" for females to wear trousers (though wartime exigencies had made it acceptable then for women in the workforce to do so).
The ethnic composition of both classroom groups reflect population movements of the post-war period and suggest something of the relative isolation which young Maori – and their parents – could feel within the urban school environment. From a roughly equal mix of Maori and Pakeha in the small rural town environment of Kaitaia (15 Pakeha/13 Maori), Maori children in the suburban Auckland classroom were in the minority (29 Pakeha/5 Maori). Discussion could focus on the impact of likely disparities. New urban migrants who came as family units tended to experience difficulties in meeting the costs of city living, so very different from the communal and subsistence patterns of the country. Overcrowded housing and low wages from unskilled work meant that children in these environments had little access to resources or space when doing homework, for instance. Students might also consider how school could also be the principal means by which young Maori could begin to develop networks in their new communities. Church and voluntary organizations, such as clubs for urban Maori, also helped. 4
Discussion Questions
• How would the lives of urban migrant Maori children have differed from those of their peers growing up in rural areas?
Discussion will be aided by a reading of the essays on Maori New Zealanders on the Te Ara website. While the urban-raised had better access to education and employment, many lost contact with their language and culture and were embarrassed to show their ignorance of customary practices. Rural youngsters generally retained much closer links with elders and took part in activities on the marae (meeting place). There was also far more opportunity for rural youngsters to develop traditional subsistence lifestyle skills (hunting, fishing, gardening). Yet these skills could not always be applied in the cities. Underpinning discussion of this question would be an awareness that urban migration was a necessity, given the steady growth of the Maori population and their very limited resource base in country areas.
• How influential was technology in changing children's educational experience in the second half of the 20th century?
Exploration of this question invites students to consider the importance of technology in their own education (within and outside of the classroom) as a preliminary to exploring such changes over the previous half century. Within the New Zealand context, public radio was widely used after WWII, with broadcasts to schools supplementing the universally distributed School Journal. Within vocational courses particular equipment would be used, such as manual typewriters and electric ovens for typing and home economics classes respectively. Going to the Saturday matinee was a popular leisure pastime: newsreels, played before the main feature, normally covered world events. Most families would also listen to the BBC World News, broadcast every evening through the national radio network. The educational impact of television from the 1960s was undermined by commercialization and largely surpassed by access to computers and the Internet.
Source 11: Advertisement
Outdoor activities have long been seen as an integral part of a Kiwi upbringing. The official website of SPARC, Sport and Recreation New Zealand, for instance, describes a (somewhat idyllic) pattern of being on the beach in the morning, the (sports) field after lunch, and on the hills in the evening. In terms of topography, such a routine would certainly be possible throughout much of the country. "Going bush," camping, tramping, mountain bike riding, kayaking: the notion of being close to nature in the "Great Outdoors" is an important element in discussions of national identity. Yet the demonstrable late 20th-century onset of child obesity and related health issues have prompted major government initiatives to encourage more Kiwis, of all ages and ethnicities, to live up to that vision and "get active." (See New Zealand Sport and Physical Activity Surveys and examples of the range of programmes.)
Organized sport in the New Zealand school curriculum stemmed mostly from Britain, as with cricket, rugby football, tennis and hockey. Athletics and swimming also involved large numbers of children, particularly on school sports days. During the 1960s and 1970s, for instance, thousands of children participated weekly in Saturday sporting fixtures, able to do so because of the commitment of teachers, parents, or caregivers, and volunteers. Family financial difficulties, changing workplace patterns, the advent of weekend shopping (and working), and increased workloads on teachers as a consequence of changes within school administration and curricula, are some of the factors affecting children's participation in organized sport outside of normal school hours. Students could be encouraged to consider the influences on their own youthful participation in sport and to consider how these may reflect social or economic patterns.
Discussion Questions
• Food and activity are normally two dominant preoccupations of childhood. What have been the major influences contributing to a reduction in the amount of physical activity undertaken by late 20th-century children and youth?
Discussion could involve modes of transport to and from school and much greater reliance on cars generally; the reduction in childhood autonomy at play as a consequence of urbanization, for instance, more indoor living; and the influence of television and personal computers and other popular pursuits that involve hours of sitting rather than movement. Smaller families mean fewer siblings or relatives to play with, though Maori and Pacific Island youth are frequently active in team sports, such as rugby league, netball, and softball. Students might also consider the costs involved with purchasing equipment.
• Myth or reality? Does sport really contribute to a sense of national identity?
Students could be encouraged to distinguish between amateur and professional sport. The inclusiveness normally associated with the concept of national identity seems to be contrary to the exclusiveness of the professional player. In debating the cultural role of sport, students would need to be mindful of socio-economic differences, gender, and religious or other cultural constraints affecting participation or support. And what might the negative aspects be if sport and identity are closely aligned? What happens to the national psyche when a national team loses?
The SPARC website could be helpful when answering either question.
Source 12: Statistical tables
Risk-taking behavior is a major factor affecting the health and well-being of young New Zealanders. Drug-taking, smoking, alcohol abuse, and unprotected sex are four obvious contributors to low self-esteem, and significant resources have been channeled into remedial and preventative programs for young people. Some focus specifically on Maori for, as the Ministry of Youth Development's 2003 survey, 12 -24: Young People in New Zealand notes, young Maori are more prone to smoke and drink heavily than non-Maori. Students could explore the reports available through this Ministry website and that of Statistics New Zealand with a view to comparing results from the 1996 and 2001 census data. The rate of youth suicide, for example, declined in that period.
Since motor vehicle accidents have consistently been the biggest cause of youth fatalities, students might compare the New Zealand rates with those in other western societies. The particular situation in New Zealand might also be discussed in the context of the age at which youth can drive; the nature of the existing fleet (since air bags are not found in the older cars that young people are more likely to be using); the rapid growth in the number of cars per head of population; the limited public transport systems which contribute to greater personal dependency on cars; the nature of most New Zealand roads (two-lane with barriers only on some motorways and expressways); and the high number of fatal accidents in which both speed and alcohol are factors despite major road safety campaigns against drunk driving. The wearing of seatbelts is compulsory as is using approved child restraints for children travelling in cars. The law is not always observed. The teaching objective would be one of setting the statistical evidence within a wider context to emphasize how external conditions can affect the consequences of personal choices.
Discussion Questions:
• How have the hazards of life changed for young New Zealanders throughout the 20th century?
Discussion would involve some definition and categorization, both of the types of hazards and the age groups involved. Since an earlier source focused on dangers for children earlier in the century, the intention here would be to concentrate on the 15+ group. The influence of consumer advertising, peer group pressure, and transport preferences (cars not bicycles) would be relevant. Socio-economic and family circumstances are important, given the prevalence of alcoholism and domestic violence in affecting young people's lives, with Maori over-represented in those statistics.
• What are the major impediments affecting the employment of 15-19 year-olds and how might these be best addressed by young job seekers?
This question might enable students to draw on their own experiences while also considering the situation facing young people in other countries. Different perspectives to consider include those of employers as well as prospective employees. Minimum wage rates, literacy levels, an increasingly casual youth workforce that encourages part-time employment as a cheaper option, lack of mentoring by older or experienced staff might all be relevant, as are questions of adequate guidance in the preparation of resumes, letters of application, or how to respond in an interview. The issues raised are unlikely to be peculiar to the New Zealand context.
1 Search "Apirana Turupa Ngata" on the "Find a biography" page.
2 Paula Fass, ed. Children and Childhood in History and Society (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004).
3 Ruth Park, Fence Around the Cuckoo (Australia: Penguin, 1992) 211–13.
4 For more information, see this excellent encyclopedia essay on urban Maori. The illustrated publication, Te Ao Hou, 1952-1975, printed many articles relating to urban migration and its consequences.
How to Cite This Source
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Nguni - Zulu Origins
Origins of the Nguni People
The ancient history of the Nguni people is wrapped up in their oral history. According to legend they were a people who migrated from Egypt to the Great Lakes region of sub-equatorial Central/East Africa.[1] The Nguni group migrated along the eastern part of southern Africa in their southward move from central Africa. They migrated southwards over many centuries, with large herds of Nguni cattle, probably entering what is now South Africa around 2,000 years ago in sporadic settlement, followed by larger waves of migration around 1400 AD.
Some groups split off and settled along the way, while others kept going. Thus, the following settlement pattern formed: the Swazi in the north, the Zulu towards the east and the Xhosa in the south. Owing to the fact that these people had a common origin, their languages and cultures show marked similarities.
The Nguni (Ndebele, Swazi, Xhosa and Zulu tribes) diverged from the Sotho-Tswana and Tsonga within the past 1,000-2,000 years (Jorde et al. 1995). At some point along their southward journey, they came in contact with San hunters, which is why they now produce the "click" sounds that characterize their languages today.
Within the Nguni nations, the clan — based on male ancestry — formed the highest social unit. Each clan was led by a chieftain. Influential men tried to achieve independence by creating their own clan. The power of a chieftain often depended on how well he could hold his clan together.
From about 1800, the rise of the Zulu clan of the Nguni and the consequent mfecane that accompanied the expansion of the Zulus under Shaka, helped to drive a process of alliance between and consolidation among many of the smaller clans.
iNkosi uShaka kaSenzangakhona (1787 - 1828)
Founder and Father of the Zulu Nation. He conquered and consolidated different clans to give birth to what is today known as the Zulu Nation.
"Amakhosi akwaZulu aqala ngokuthi aziwe ngamakhosi akwaZulu emuva kokuba uShaka enqobe wabumba isizwe esisodwa esabizwa ngokuthi uZulu."
Anthony S Khuzwayo: Ukuvezwa koMlando ezibongweni zamakhosi akwaZulu: 2007: 3
Only known drawing of King Shaka in 1824 - four years before his death
Imvelaphi yesizwe samaZulu
The rise of the Zulu people under King Shaka Zulu during the "Mfecane / Difaqane" war was one of the most significant historical occurrences in the early history of South Africa.
The term Mfecane (Nguni languages) means "destroyed in total war". The Sotho speaking people on the highveld used the term Difaqane, which means "hammering" or "forced migration/removal". The "Mfecane / Difaqane" war forever changed the settlement patterns and ethnic structure of the African population of the area.
Whole communities of peoples were displaced in their flight from larger warring tribes. The winning tribes would often incorporate the losers into their tribes. Three key figures in this all out battle for power among the African tribes in Southern Africa were Dingiswayo (leader of the Mtethwa tribe), Zwide (leader of the Ndandwe tribe) and of course King Shaka.
Dingiswayo chief of the Mthethwa,...
When Dingiswayo became leader of the Mthethwa, his main concern was to improve the military system of his tribe. Young men of a similar age were divided into regiments. Each regiment had its own name, colour and weapons. The young men were even required to remain celibate until such time when they had proven themselves worthy of the name “warrior”. Dingiswayo’s army soon went from strength to strength and was employed in an attempt to expand his territory. The army attacked smaller tribes which were allowed to continue their existence as tribes, but only if they agreed to recognise him as their paramount chief. Some of the tribes which were dominated in this way were the Thembu, Qwabe, Mshali Mngadi and the Zulus.
Shaka, king of the Zulus,...
The Zulus were initially a small tribe which recognised Dingiswayo as its paramount chief. The tribe consisted of approximately 2 000 people and its tribal chief was Senzangakona. Shaka, his son, was born in around the year 1787. Shaka and his mother Nandi could not get along with some of the other members of the family and went to live with Nandi’s family, among the Lungeni people.
When Shaka was 16, his mother took him to the Mthethwa and, at the age of 22, he became a soldier in one of Dingiswayo's regiments. He was brave and intelligent and soon became leader of one of the regiments. When Senzangakona died in 1816, Sigujane, a half-brother of Shaka, became chief. Shaka, together with another half-brother Ngwadi, plotted against Sigujane, who was soon murdered.
With a regiment borrowed from Dingiswayo, Shaka made himself chief of the Zulus. Shaka was an exceptional military leader and organised his armies with military precision. All the men younger than forty were divided into regiments, based on their age. Shaka built his capital at Bulawayo and, although he recognised Dingiswayo as paramount chief, started incorporating smaller tribes into the Zulu nation.
In 1819, when war broke out between the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa, Dingiswayo was killed by Zwide, after which the defeated Mthethwa tribe was incorporated into Shaka’s tribe. In time, Shaka destroyed the Ndwandwe tribe completely.
He employed cunning military techniques such as the following: when Zwide sent the Ndwandwe to attack Shaka, the latter hid the food and led his people and cattle further and further away from the capital. Zwide’s army followed and Shaka’s soldiers waited until night fell to attack them, when they were exhausted and hungry.
The Ndwandwe army turned back, after which Shaka attacked and destroyed them. A second attempt was made by Zwide later in 1819 to destroy Shaka, but once again the Ndwandwe had no luck. After this attempt, Shaka ordered the complete destruction of the Ndwandwe people.
Shaka went on destroying several smaller tribes until Natal was practically depopulated. The Zulus eventually grew into a mighty nation when Shaka succeeded in uniting all the people in his chiefdom under his rule. In 1828, two of Shaka's half-brothers, Dingane and Mahlangane, murdered him and Dingane took his place as leader.
Dingane, Shaka's successor,...
Dingane’s capital was built at Umgungundlovu. He was not as good a soldier as Shaka and this caused his defeat in many of his wars. In order to combat the decline of his kingdom, Dingane decided to kill a few important leaders.
One of these leaders, Ngeto (of the Qwabe tribe), realised that his life was in danger and, after gathering his people and livestock, fled southwards and settled in the Mpondo district, from which he himself started to attack other tribes. Dingane soon sent soldiers to fight the Mpondo people but he also launched attacks against Mzilikazi and the Voortrekkers.
On 3 February 1838, Dingane's tribesmen killed Piet Retief, together with 67 of his followers, during an ambush. Retief had an agreement with Dingane that if he succeeded in returning Dingane's cattle that had been stolen by Sikonyela, the Voortrekkers would be allowed to buy land from him and his people.
When the Voortrekkers returned with the stolen cattle, they were killed. The Voortrekkers swore vengeance and Dingane's army was defeated at Blood River on 16 December 1838 by Andries Pretorius. Dingane’s death brought with it an end to the extermination wars waged by him and his armies. However, in other parts of the country, the Mfecane continued under leaders such as Msilikazi, Soshangane and Sikonyela.
Mzilikazi king of the Matabele,...
Another small Nguni tribe that was forced to join Zwide’s Ndwandwe tribe was called the Khumalo. The Khumalo tribe was suspected of treachery during the war against Dingiswayo’s Mthethwa and its leader, Mashobane, was summoned to Zwide’s kraal and killed. Zwide appointed Mzilikazi as the new leader of the Khumalo.
He was an intelligent leader who knew how to gain the trust of the tribes that had been incorporated into his own. Trouble started when Mzilikazi began to suspect that Zwide wanted to kill him. In preparation, Mzilikazi formed an alliance with Shaka, who allowed him to be the leader of one of his regiments.
In 1821, Mzilikazi felt strong enough to become independent. Shaka sent him to attack a small Sotho tribe northwest of Zululand and, as always, he brought back with him a number of cattle taken during the battle. However, this time he did not hand them over to Shaka as he had done before. When Shaka sent his messengers to collect the cattle, Mzilikazi refused to return them. After this, he was attacked by Shaka's army and had no option but to flee with his people.
Mzilikazi trekked northwards with his people until he reached the Olifants (Elephants) River. He was now in the territory of powerful Sotho tribes, which he attacked, taking their women, children and livestock. He attacked tribes as far as Tswanaland and overpowered them by the military tactics perfected by the Zulus. His tribe eventually became known as the Matabele.
Mzilikazi decided to trek to the central Transvaal and he eventually settled in the vicinity of what is today known as Pretoria. He moved because he needed to put even more distance between himself and Shaka and he was also in need of more grazing land. After this move, his tribe became even more bloodthirsty.
When the Voortrekkers came on the scene in 1836, Mzilikazi once again went on the attack. At Vegkop, the Voortrekkers succeeded in defeating the Matebele, but they lost all their cattle. In 1837, the Voortrekkers once again succeeded in defeating the Matebele at Mosega and the Voortrekkers, under the leadership of Potgieter, recovered some of their stolen cattle.
The Matabele then moved away only to be defeated by the Zulus. In an attempt to get away from his enemies, Mzilikazi crossed the Soutpansberg Mountains and the Limpopo River into which is today known as Zimbabwe in 1868. He died there a some years later.
Chief Soshangane,...
After the tribes of Zwide, Soshangane, Zwangendaba and Nxaba,had been defeated by Shaka, they fled to Mozambique. There, they destroyed the Portuguese settlement at Delagoa Bay.
As the Mfecane continued, the land was devastated and tribes were attacked. Much damage was done. Soshangane's capital was near the modern day Maputo and Shaka attacked him here in the campaign that cost Shaka’s life. Soshangane then moved on to Middle Sabie and settled near Zwangendaba and his people.
The tribes of Soshangane and Zwangendaba coexisted in harmony until 1831, when they went to war. Zwangendaba had to flee before Soshangane, after which Soshangane, went on to attack Nxaba, who responded by fleeing with his followers to the present-day Tanzania.
With Soshangane’s biggest enemies out of the way, he began building his Gaza Kingdom. From his capital, Chaimite, soldiers were sent in all directions to attack other tribes. Even the Portuguese were forced to accept him as paramount chief.
His kingdom stretched from the Zambezi to the Limpopo Rivers and his army resembled that of the Zulus in its military strategies. As Soshangane grew older, he began to believe that the Matshangane had bewitched him. In retaliation, he attacked them and many fled to the Transvaal where their descendants still live today. Soshangane died around the year 1826.
Sikonyela and his mother Mmantatise,...
During the early 19th century, two of the biggest Nguni tribes, the Hlubi and the Ngwane, lived near the present-day Wakkerstroom. The Hlubi were under the leadership of Mpangazita and Matiwane was the leader of the Ngwane. The Zulus had forced these two tribes across the Drakensberg Mountains into Sotho territory, which meant the start of the Mfecane for the Sotho tribes.
The first tribe to be attacked was the Batlokwa. The tribe’s chief had just died and his successor, Sikonyela, was still too young to rule. His mother, Mmantatise was a strong leader and ruled in his place. After the Hlubi tribe defeated the Batlokwa, they took to wandering around and attacking other tribes and tribes such as the Bafokeng were forced to flee. The Batlokwa eventually settled at Butha-Buthe, a mountain stronghold.
Moshweshwe was living on the mountain with his small tribe and after repeatedly attacking Mmantatise, Moshweshwe’s tribe moved to Peka. There they continued the Mfecane and defeated the Hlubi. Sikonyela was by now old enough to lead the Batlokwa in battle and, in 1824, they made another attempt to re-conquer Moshweshwe’s mountain stronghold at Butha Buthe.
The mountain was surrounded in order to stop the Sotho people from obtaining food. After two months, a Nguni tribe came to Moshweshwe’s rescue and the Batlokwa were forced to leave. The Batlokwa subsequently went to settle on two other mountains. In 1852, Moshweshwe finally drove the Batlokwa away.
Moshweshwe builder of the Sotho empire,...
Moshweshwe, the builder of the Sotho empire, was born in 1793. His mother belonged to the Bafokeng tribe and his father was chief of the Bakwena tribe. When the Mfecane began in 1816, Moshweshwe was 23 years old. During the early years of his chieftainship, leaders such as Shaka, Dingane and Mzilikazi were waging the destructive wars of the Mfecane.
Many of the people who got caught up in these wars turned to Moshweshwe for refuge. He took them all in and his tribe grew bigger and stronger. In 1823, Moshweshwe established Butha-Buthe as the capital of his chiefdom. A year later, he established a safer stronghold at Thaba Bosigo.
This mountain stronghold was so secure that when Mzilikazi attacked it in 1831, he had to turn back without accomplishing anything. Moshweshwe was a diplomatic and powerful leader and was too clever to try to expand his territory northwards because he knew that this would incur the wrath of strong leaders such as Mzilikazi, Shaka and Dingane.
A section of a 1885 map of South Africa showing geographical details of Zululand and Natal
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soMbusi Makhosini Mahlangu | Reply 20.01.2014 13.20
we should not relate Mzilikazi to amandebele because when he ran away from Shaka he took refuge under King Magodongo Mahlangu of the Ndebele Ndzundza tribe
joe 20.01.2014 16.19
I am Joe Mazibuko. My email address is
SoMbusi Makhosini Mahlangu 20.01.2014 16.11
Joe, what is your surname and e-mail address
joe 20.01.2014 16.05
Sombuso, I will be glad to be informed of the history of our people. The more we share, the greater the validity and reliability of the information we publish.
Ntuthuko Mahlangu | Reply 10.01.2014 13.19
Zulus are a tiny clan that took rise after Shaka Zulu killed his brother n assumed the chieftainship then killed a lot of other tribal chiefs .
joe 20.01.2014 16.07
Nthuthuko...That is part of our history that we cannot undo. The consequence of those actions are the tribes that we see all over south Africa including Zimbabw
nossy | Reply 09.12.2013 09.20
where are we originated as Zulus
joe 20.01.2014 16.21
Nossy, go to the left tap on this page entitled Nguni-Zulu Origins. It captures some history of where we come from.
Sandile | Reply 12.11.2013 18.11
now today how do we respect those sisters and brothers from matebeleland, and how do our kings of southafrica can follow those who went with nkosi MZILIKAZI ka
lindiwe Mnguni | Reply 08.08.2013 22.28
Ngicela ningincede ngezithakazelo zakwa Mnguni uModela emaPhuthini
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Latest comments
11.03 | 17:56
Bengithi awusekho umlando.ngicela ngipha umlando kamzilikazi
11.03 | 10:35
ake phela ungiphe izaga nezisho ezicwasa abantu besifazane
10.03 | 11:36
Ngibingelela wonke AMAWELASE emhlabeni wonke, I wish you good luck in all you do this year and all you hope to achieve.
Natures Sukumani Mazibuko
08.03 | 12:40
ngcela ningsize ngezisho ezibandlulula abantu besifazene, zibenhlanu nje kuphela ngyabonga
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Exploratorium home Exploratorium home Explo.tv
Browse programs by:
Evolutionary geneticist Ed Green discusses the key questions researchers hope to answer by analyzing the Neanderthal genome.
Anthropologist Tanya Smith explains that invisible microstructure inside teeth creates a durable record of life history, including events such as birth, illness, famine, stress, and death.
Anthropologist Jean-Jacques Hublin explains that unlike teeth, bones undergo a lifelong process called remodeling, in which they are constantly being destroyed and recreated.
Anthropologist Philipp Gunz explains the process of virtual fossil reconstruction, a technique that can reverse the damage done to fossils by time and the elements.
Anthropologist Katerina Harvati explains the rare convergence of circumstances that are necessary for the discovery of a fossil specimen.
Anthropologist Jean-Jacques Hublin discusses the role of conflict and argument in the scientific process.
Halloween Special Edition! In this zany competition teachers have ten minutes to create a science activity from a special Halloween secret ingredient... bats!
Evolutionary geneticist Svante Pääbo explains that analysis of ancient Neanderthal DNA is very tricky work, thanks to fragmentation and contamination of genetic material.
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Forgot your password?
+ - Anonymous tricked into installing Trojan->
Submitted by dsinc
dsinc writes "Two months ago, an unknown attacker slipped in a Zeus-infected version of Slowloris into the list of DDoS tools that Anonymous has been distributing to its supporters, according to Symantec.
t’s not clear how many Anonymous supporters used the infected Slowloris, so there’s no way to gauge how many were (or still are) unknowingly transmitting their own bank account data to a remote server. Security companies have previously Internet users backing Anonymous not to participate in the DDoS attacks because they are breaking the law. Now, Symantec says they “may also be at risk of having their online banking and email credentials stolen.”"
Link to Original Source
+ - Why Did It Take So Long to Invent the Wheel?
Submitted by
Hugh Pickens writes
Hugh Pickens writes writes "Wheels are the archetype of a primitive, caveman-level technology and we tend to think that inventing the wheel was the number one item on man's to-do list after learning to walk upright, but LiveScience reports that it took until the bronze age (3500 BC), when humans were already casting metal alloys and constructing canals and sailboats, for someone to invent the wheel-and-axle, a task so challenging archeologists say it probably happened only once, in one place. The tricky thing about the wheel isn't a cylinder rolling on its edge but figuring out how to connect a stable, stationary platform to that cylinder. "The stroke of brilliance was the wheel-and-axle concept," says David Anthony, author of "The Horse, the Wheel, and Language." To make a fixed axle with revolving wheels, the ends of the axle have to be nearly perfectly smooth and round, as did the holes in the center of the wheels and the axles have to fit snugly inside the wheels' holes, but not too snug or there will be too much friction for the wheels to turn. Another issue is the size of the axle because while a thin one will reduce the amount of friction, it will be too weak to support a load. "They solved this problem by making the earliest wagons quite narrow, so they could have short axles, which made it possible to have an axle that wasn't very thick," says Anthony. But the real reason it took so long is that whoever invented the wheel would have needed metal tools to chisel fine-fitted holes and axles. "It was the carpentry that probably delayed the invention until 3500 BC or so, because it was only after about 4000 BC that cast copper chisels and gouges became common in the Near East.""
+ - Mysterious Dark Matter Blob Confounds Experts-> 1
Submitted by mayberry42
mayberry42 writes "Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope are mystified by a merging galaxy cluster known as Abell 520 in which concentrations of visible matter and dark matter have apparently come unglued. A report on the Hubble observations, published in the Astrophysical Journal, raises more questions than answers about a cosmic pile-up that's occurring 2.4 billion light-years away.
"According to our current theory," says Arif Babul, the study team's senior theorist, "galaxies and dark matter are expected to stay together, even through a collision. But that's not what's happening in Abell 520. Here, the dark matter appears to have pooled to form the dark core, but most of the associated galaxies seem to have moved on.""
Link to Original Source
+ - How Steve Jobs Patent-Trolled Bill Gates
Submitted by theodp
theodp writes "Apple, which is currently waging IP war on Android vendors, is no stranger to patent trolling. Citing the Steve Jobs bio, Forbes' Eric Jackson recalls how Steve Jobs used patents to get Bill Gates to make a 1997 investment in Apple. Recalled Jobs: 'Microsoft was walking over Apple’s patents. I said [to Gates], “If we kept up our lawsuits, a few years from now we could win a billion-dollar patent suit. You know it, and I know it. But Apple’s not going to survive that long if we’re at war. I know that. So let’s figure out how to settle this right away. All I need is a commitment that Microsoft will keep developing for the Mac and an investment by Microsoft in Apple so it has a stake in our success.' Next thing you know, BillG was lording over Jobs at Macworld Boston, as the pair announced the $150 million investment that breathed new life into then-struggling Apple. So, does Gates deserve some credit for creating the world's most valuable company?"
+ - Ask SlashDot: Life After Firefox 3.6.x? 2
Submitted by Mooga
Mooga writes "I am a hard-core user of Firefox 3.6.x who has chosen to stick with the older, yet supported version of Firefox for many years now. However, 3.6.x will soon hit end of life making my life, and others, much more complicated. 3.6.x has been known for generally being more stable and using less ram then the modern Firefox 10 and even Chrome. The older version of Firefox is already having issues rendering modern websites. What are others who have been holding onto 3.6.x plan on doing?"
The Military
+ - Mechanic's Mistake Trashes $244 Million Aircraft 1
Submitted by
Hugh Pickens writes
Hugh Pickens writes writes "DefenseTech reports that accident report is finally out for the Air Force E-8C Joint Surveillance Targeting and Attack Radar System (JSTARS) on a mission to track down insurgents planting roadside bombs in Iraq or Afghanistan that started refueling with a KC-135 on on March 13, 2009 when thecrew hear a “loud bang throughout the midsection of the aircraft” and vapor and fuel started pouring out of the JSTARS out of “at least two holes in the left wing just inboard of the number two engine.” The pilot immediately brought the jet back to its base in Qata where mechanics found that the number two main fuel tank has been ruptured, “causing extensive damage to the wing of the aircraft.” How extensive? $25 million dollars worth of extensive. What caused this potentially fatal and incredibly expensive accident to one of the United States’ biggest spy planes? According to the USAF accident report, a contractor accidentally left a plug in one of the fuel tank’s relief vents (PDF) during routine maintenance. “The PDM subcontractor employed ineffective tool control measures,” reads the report. Tool control measures? "You know, the absolutely basic practice of accounting for the exact location of every tool that is used to work on an airplane once that work is finished." Air Force Chief of Staff Gen. Norton Schwartz just told Congress that "there is a JSTARS platform that was damaged beyond economical repair that we will not repair" so if this is the one Schwartz is talking about, then one mechanic's mistake has damaged a $244 Million aircraft beyond repair."
+ - New Weapon Against Copper Thieves 1
Submitted by
Hugh Pickens writes
Hugh Pickens writes writes "Pervasive thefts of copper wire from under the streets of Fresno, California have prompted the city to seal thousands of its manhole covers with concrete and in Picher, Oklahoma, someone felled the town’s utility poles with chain saws, allowing thieves to abscond with 3,000 feet of wire while causing a blackout as the theft of copper cables in costs US companies $60 million a year and the FBI says it considers theft of copper wire to be a threat to the nation’s baseline ability to function. But now PC World reports that a US company has developed develop a new cable design that removes almost all the copper from cables in a bid to deter metal thieves. Unlike conventional cables made from solid copper, the GroundSmart Copper Clad Steel Cable consists of a steel core bonded to a copper outer casing, forming an equally effective but far less valuable cable by exploiting the corrosion-resistance of copper with the conductive properties of steel. "Companies trying to protect their copper infrastructure have been going to extreme measures to deter theft, many of which are neither successful nor cost effective," says CommScope vice president, Doug Wells. "Despite efforts like these, thieves continue to steal copper because of its rising value. The result is costly damage to networks and growing service disruptions." The GroundSmart Copper Clad Steel cable is the latest technical solution to the problem of copper theft which has included alternatives like cable etching to aid tracing of stolen metal and using chemicals that leave stains detectable under ultra-violet light. However the Copper Clad Steel strikes at the root of the problem by making the cable less susceptible to theft by both increasing the resistance to cutting and drastically decreasing the scrap value."
+ - Fostering a "just fix it" software development cul->
Submitted by lscotte
lscotte writes "During my career in software development I've encountered many different corporate cultures. A common one is what I like to call a "culture of blame". In blame cultures, everything revolves around finding someone else to blame. When a project is late, product managers blame developers. When there are bugs, developers blame QA. When tests fail, QA blames development. When there are production problems, operations blames developers. When QA can't get test environments to work, QA blames operations. When software is pushed before it's ready, developers blame product managers. It's all about plausible deniability and a "circle of blame".
A much more productive choice is what I call it the "just fix it" culture, and you can read what that means to me here"
Link to Original Source
+ - Microsoft Taking Aggresive Steps Against Linux on -> 2
Submitted by Microlith
Microlith writes "Microsoft has updated their WHQL certification requirements for Windows 8, and placed specific restrictions on ARM platforms that will make it impossible to install non-Microsoft operating systems on ARM devices, and make it impossible to turn off or customize such security.
Choice quotes from the certification include from page 116, section 20: "On an ARM system, it is forbidden to enable Custom Mode. Only Standard Mode may be enable." which prevents users from customizing their security, and in section 21: "Disabling Secure MUST NOT be possible on ARM systems" to prevent you from booting any other OSes."
Link to Original Source
+ - Leaked Memo Says Apple Provides Backdoor to Govern 2
Submitted by Voline
Voline writes "In a tweet early this morning, cybersecurity researcher Christopher Soghoian pointed to an internal memo of India's Military Intelligence that has been liberated by hackers and posted on the Net. The memo suggests that, "in exchange for the Indian market presence" mobile device manufacturers, including RIM, Nokia, and Apple (collectively defined in the document as "RINOA") have agreed to provide backdoor access on their devices.
The Indian government then "utilized backdoors provided by RINOA" to intercept internal emails of the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, a US government body with a mandate to monitor, investigate and report to Congress on "the national security implications of the bilateral trade and economic relationship" between the US and China. Manan Kakkar, an Indian blogger for ZDNet, has also picked up the story and writes that it may be the fruits of an earlier hack of Symantec.
If Apple is providing governments with a backdoor to iOS, can we assume that they have also done so with Mac OS X?"
+ - Google TV reborn: ARM support, new OEMs, and more
Submitted by Anonymous Coward
An anonymous reader writes "For some time the future of Google TV was looking pretty grim. Logitech's Revue failed miserably, and Sony seemed like the only supporter of Google TV when the 3.1 update came out in October. With competitors like Roku making waves everywhere, the ever louder drum of rumors surrounding an Apple TV, and every TV manufacturer out there trying to figure out how Smart TVs will keep them relevant, Google needed to make a big play to keep their service in the game. More hardware, less expensive, and faster distribution are necessary in order for the platform to survive."
+ - DARPA Chooses Leader for 100-Year Starship Project
Submitted by
Hugh Pickens writes
+ - My Facebook hack->
Submitted by Lucas123
Lucas123 writes "My holiday sugar stupor was interrupted one morning last week by a series of phone calls from friends telling me they'd been contacted via a Facebook chat session in which they were told my wife and I had been mugged in the U.K. while on vacation and needed money to get home. I ran to my computer to find a half-dozen chat sessions open using my Facebook profile all requesting help in the form of money from my friends via a Western Union tranfer. As I frantically tried to tell each friend it was a phishing scam, the hacker would open a new session and begin the scam on another friend. It became a bit like Whac-A-Mole. I quickly changed my password and logged out, stopping the attack. And, thankfully, my friends are tech savvy. But I was still shaken up by the fact that someone had hacked my password and was passing themselves off as me in real time. According to Facebook, while these attacks are rare, when they happen they're "high impact.""
Link to Original Source
+ - Court OKs Barring High IQs for Cops-> 3
Submitted by Anonymous Coward
An anonymous reader writes ""A man whose bid to become a police officer was rejected after he scored too high on an intelligence test has lost an appeal in his federal lawsuit against the city.
Link to Original Source
+ - Judge Doesn't Care About Supreme Court GPS Case-> 1
Submitted by nonprofiteer
nonprofiteer writes "The Supreme Court is currently deciding whether or not law enforcement need a warrant before they put a GPS tracker on a person's car — http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/united-states-v-jones/. A judge in St. Louis doesn't seem to care about that, tho. He ruled last week that the FBI didn't need a warrant to track the car of a state employee they suspected was collecting a paycheck without actually going to work. (Their suspicions were confirmed.) While in favor of corrupt government employees being caught, it's a bit disturbing that a federal judge would decide a warrant wasn't needed while the Supreme Court has said the issue is unclear."
Link to Original Source
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Ocean Health
Loons and the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill
How are these key predators faring after 250 million gallons of oil poured into waters they depend on?
Explore this expedition
Read reviews
The facts
Why the research is important
Why the research is important
Loons are remarkable birds. They can dive more than 200 feet (61 meters) deep to catch their prey.
Animals that are high up in the food chain—like loons, which eat fish and shrimp—can tell us a lot about what’s going on in their environment.
Researchers are studying the Gulf of Mexico’s loons to look for signs that spilled oil is working its way through the food chain. They already know that a loon’s body will absorb and store larger amounts of toxins like petroleum than it is able to expel, so if oil has entered the food chain of the Gulf, the loons’ bodies will provide evidence of it.
Chronic exposure to petroleum can harm loons and other species and may lead to death from starvation, disease, or predation. This could be especially dangerous for the Gulf loons—if this research shows that they return to the same location every year to feed and molt (as we know loons that winter on the Pacific Coast do), they will be exposed to toxins from the oil spill for years.
Common Loon
Loons may prove very sensitive to the Gulf oil spill’s lingering effects.
Local people are also, of course, still recovering from this huge environmental disaster. Many boat captains lost their livelihoods when the spill devastated the Gulf’s fishing tourism. Earthwatch researchers have involved some of these captains in the boat-based loon surveys, introducing them to a very different aspect of their valuable coastal community while also providing them with work. By joining us, you too will get to know this community—and have a hand in protecting it for years to come.
About the research area
Port Sulphur, Louisiana, United States, North America & Arctic
Daily life in the field
This is a summary:
The Scientists
Director, Center for Loon Conservation at the Biodiversity Research Institute
ABOUT Jim Paruk
Why Loons? “To me, loons embody the essence of wilderness,” Dr. Paruk told Earthwatch. “They have a lot of spunk, and in contrast to, say, a goose or a swan that eats mostly plants, loons are hunters; they are apex predators. It’s a tough life being at the top of the food chain. I’m drawn to those aspects of a loon that symbolize wildness, independence, and freedom.”
Accommodations and Food
Accommodations and Food
Comments & Questions
Tell us what’s on your mind!
Please login to post a comment or question.
Displaying results
Upcoming Expeditions
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How Did Weather Affect The Original Pilgrims' Landing?
By By Steve Pool
SEATTLE - Did you know that weather forced the Mayflower to land at Plymouth Rock in 1620, rather than their original destination of what is now New York Harbor?
According to, as the Mayflower was passing just offshore from Cape Cod of what now is Massachusetts, when it encountered strong southerly winds and heavy seas in shallow water.
So the pilgrims decided it was too dangerous to continue south, so they turned back to the north to have the wind at their back. They eventually found calmer weather after rounding the tip of Cape Cod and continuing north. The winds eventually brought them to Plymouth two days later, and the rest is history.
You can read up on the entire story at
Your Photos
YouNews She was SOOOO cold!!!She was SOOOO cold!!!
YouNews The Guardian The Guardian
Beams of light stream through the trees revealing a solitary eagle perched on a branch. I have spent many of my days viewing eagles along the banks of the Skagit river hoping for an opportune moment and here is the fruits of my labor.
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Speech Ending Help (page 3)
Updated on Sep 28, 2011
Concluding Our Examples
Let's return to the speech examples that we used earlier—the comparison of toothpastes A and B, and the skill of painting miniature figures. Here are examples of how we might conclude each of those speeches:
Toothpaste Speech:
As you can see, ladies and gentlemen, all toothpastes are not created equal! Toothpaste A is not the same as toothpaste B in the matter of effectiveness, for we have clearly demonstrated that A fights cavities far beyond the capabilities of B. The two brands are not on equal footing when it comes to personal appearance, either—after all, who wants green teeth when a bright smile is so readily available in a tube of toothpaste A? And the two brands are certainly not equal in price—and in this area alone, toothpaste B far surpasses A, costing nearly twice as much at any local pharmacy. In these ways, we can clearly see that toothpaste A is better than toothpaste B.
What remains is entirely up to you. Will you continue to use an inferior product that costs more? Or will you see the light of good sense and switch to toothpaste A? The choice is clear: Buy toothpaste A!
Painting Speech:
We have covered a number of important aspects of miniature painting today, all of which will help you to improve your techniques and get more pleasure from painting. The major things to remember before starting your next project are these: Select the right paint for the job, use your paintbrush to its maximum capabilities, and understand the demands and drawbacks of the figure's basic material.
When you keep these important elements in mind, you will decrease the frustrations and increase the rewards of this captivating hobby. But remember this above all else: You can't learn a skill unless you practice, and the best time to practice is today! Take these tips home with you and get started right away—you'll be glad you did.
Speech Ending Practice
Use this questionnaire together with the body of your speech to outline your conclusion:
• Thesis: What did I hope to prove? What goal was I aiming at?
• Main points: What pieces of evidence did I use, or what steps did I take to reach my conclusion? (Summarize the points in one sentence each.)
• Closure: What did I accomplish in this speech? What conclusion can I draw? What skill have I taught, or what opinion have I proven?
• Action: What practical application does this information offer? How do I use it in my own life? Why will it matter to my audience?
View Full Article
Add your own comment
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Herod`s Building Projects SI
Herod`s Building Projects
Thanks to support from the Romans and following bloody battles against the last of the Hasmoneankings, Herod was crowned King of Judea in the year 37 BCE. King Herod was loathed by his Jewish subjects, who saw him as a representative of foreign rule who undermined their traditional institutions and murdered their legitimate rulers, those of the Hasmonean dynasty. Talmud scholarscalled him an “Edomite slave” as he was the grandson of an Edomite, and described him in extremely negative terms. Herod made an attempt to become closer to the Jewish people, mainly through renovating the Temple, but his first loyalty was to Rome. Herod was a decisive ruler who did much to develop the Land of Israel and its Jewish population as well as its foreign residents.During his long reign over Judea, Herod erected numerous elaborate and innovative buildings throughout his kingdom which were revolutionary from an engineering stand point.
In the year 40 BCE Herod was forced to flee to Rome following a rebellion that broke out in Eretz Israel. He left his family in the Masada fortress, where they with stood the siege but nearly died from lack of water. When Herod became king, he decided to turn Masada into a strong hold that could serve him as a place of refuge if another insurrection should arise. Herod built two magnificent palaces, huge store rooms for arm sand food and water reservoirs holding some 40,000 cubic meters of water a top the mountain adjacent to the Dead Sea. This turned Masada into a unique combination of a regal palace and a fortified stronghold.
Herod erected his kingdom’s main port city along the Mediterranean shore, in an area that was only sparsely populated beforehand. He invested most of his efforts in building the sophisticated port,which was among the largest in the Roman Empire. He put up a broad breakwater topped with a wall and towers and built docks for ships,warehouses for storing goods and lodgings for sailors. He called the city “Caesarea” in honor ofthe Roman Caesar Augustus and populated it with foreigners. Herod constructed lavish entertainment facilities such as a theater and arace track, as well as a high aqueduct which brought fresh water from afar for the benefit ofcity residents, thus making Caesarea the crown jewel of Herod’s building projects.
Herod renovated and glorified the Temple and its surroundings for his Jewish subjects. He demolished the old, dilapidated Temple, which was built some 500 years earlier, in the days of Ezra and Nehemia, and erected a new magnificent Temple in its stead. He enlarged the area onwhich the Temple stood using a series of archesand surrounded it with splendid buildings. The area around the Temple Mount and the paths leading there to were renovated to accommodatethe throngs of pilgrims who visited the Temple during festivals. Sages referred to this building enterprise, saying “Anyone who has not seen one of Herod’s buildings, has never seen a beautiful building” (Bava Batra tractate, 4, 71).
When Herod fled his pursuers during the rebellion of 40 BCE he was forced to fight for his life a few kilometers to the southeast of Jerusalem. When he became king, he decided to erect a site there in which he would be buried upon his death. He called the place “Herodian” and built a round building surrounded by an artificial mountain.Herod built an enormous compound around the mountain, including palace chambers, a garden and large pool. Herod died in Jerusalem in the year 4 BCE and a grand funeral procession brought his body to his burial site at Herodian. Herod’s grave was recently discovered in archaeological excavations led by the late Professor Ehud Netzer.
Technical Details
Issue Date: 07.02.2011
Designer: Meir Eshel, Tuvia Kurtz
Size: 30.0 mm X 40.0 mm
Values: $9.52, $9.52, $35.70
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Wales (Encyclopedia of Food & Culture)
Archaeological and documented evidence show that the early Welsh economy was based on mixed farming. When journeying through Wales in 1188, Giraldus Cambrensis (also known as Gerald de Barri or Gerald of Wales) noted that most of the population lived on its flocks and on milk, cheese, butter, and oats. Numerous references to foods in literary works establish that this was generally how the Welsh subsisted until well into the nineteenth century.
Ingredients of the Traditional Diet
The Report of the Royal Commission on Land in Wales (London, 1896) shows that small farmers and tenants survived on home-cured meat from domestic animals, home-grown vegetables, dairy products, and cereal-based dishes. Farmers and cottagers would fatten and slaughter at least one pig a year to provide a constant supply of salted bacon. On larger farms, a bullock or barren cow was also butchered and the meat shared between neighboring
Traditional Welsh cakes were baked in a small reflector oven on the hearth. The bottle jack to the right of the mantlepiece was used for roasting meat. COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF WALES.
farms. Keeping cattle provided sufficient milk to produce butter and cheese; vegetables were grown in the kitchen garden and fields, mostly leeks, carrots, cabbages, herbs, and, from the eighteenth century onward, potatoes. Wild fruits, plants, berries, wild animals and birds were utilized in season, and communities living close to coastal regions varied their diet by fishing and collecting shellfish such as cockles, mussels, periwinkles, and limpets. Inhabitants along the coastal regions of the Gower peninsula, Pembrokeshire, and Anglesey gathered the edible seaweed laver (porphyra umbilicalis). Prepared as a commercial product by Glamorgan families, it was sold along with cockles and mussels in the market towns of south Wales, famously Pen-clawdd. It was usually tossed in oatmeal and fried in bacon fat; today laverbread is a recognized Welsh delicacy, sometimes known as Welsh caviar.
Traditional Dishes
The topography determined that oats and barley were the most commonly grown cereal crops, with wheat confined to the fertile lowlands. Oatmeal in its various forms was one of the basic elements in the diet of the Welsh. Llymru (flummery) and sucan (sowans), consisting of oatmeal steeped in cold water and buttermilk, boiled until thickened and served cool with milk or treacle, as well as bwdram (thin flummery), uwd (porridge), and griwel blawd ceirch (oatmeal gruel) were among the everyday fare served in most rural districts until the early twentieth century. The bread most regularly eaten throughout Wales until the late nineteenth century was oatbread, formed into wafer-thin circular loaves and baked on a bakestone or griddle over an open fire. It was used in the counties of north Wales as a basic ingredient in cereal pottages such as picws mali (shot) or siot (shot); a popular light meal consisting of crushed oatbread soaked in buttermilk. Brŵes (brose) was a common dish in the agricultural areas of the north and regularly prepared as a breakfast dish for the menservants. It was made from crushed oatbread steeped in meat stock and sprinkled with crushed oatbread before serving.
Welsh rural society was largely self-supporting with the exception of sugar, salt, tea, rice, and currants, which had to be purchased. Sundays and special occasions usually merited a roast dinner for which a joint of fresh meat would be purchased from the local butcher; this was followed by homemade rice pudding. Very little fresh fruit was purchased, and eggs were eaten only on very rare occasions. The limited range of supplies also demanded great resourcefulness to provide an assorted menu. The ability to prepare an assortment of stews from one basic ingredient, namely oatmeal, required considerable dexterity. Similar skill was required for broths such as cawl and lobsgows using home-cured meat.
The open fire with its many appliances was central to cooking throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and, in many rural homes, well into the twentieth century. Such limited cooking facilities also governed what could be prepared. Stews, joints of meat, and puddings were boiled in a cooking pot or cauldron. Pot ovens were used for roasting meat and baking cakes and fruit tarts, and the bakestone was widely used to bake oatcakes, drop scones, soda bread, pancakes, and griddle-cakes (such as Welsh Cakes). Additionally, spits, Dutch ovens, and bottle-jacks, clockwork implements in the shape of a bottle that were hung in front of the fire, were used for roasting meat.
The preparation and consumption of traditional foods were closely integrated with patterns of life in rural Wales. Before labor-saving agricultural machinery, farmers were dependent on the cooperation of their neighbors to fulfill seasonal work. Corn (grain) or hay harvesting, corn threshing, and sheep shearing were essentially communal efforts requiring communal meals and celebrations. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Boten Ben Fedi (harvest pie), consisting of mashed potatoes, minced beef, bacon, and onion was served for the corn harvest supper. Threshing and shearing days were also marked with plentiful meals of cold lamb or beef, potatoes, and peas followed by rice pudding for dessert. Tatws poptyeef, onions, and potatoesas a favorite in parts of Gwynedd, and afternoon tea consisted simply of home-baked bread, butter, cheese, and jam; while rich yeasted fruitcake and gooseberry pie were considered as shearing specialties in most regions.
In the industrial towns and villages during the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, wives would often help to support their families in periods of hardship by preparing and selling home-cooked dishes, considered delicacies by members of the local community. Coal-miners' wives or widows prepared dishes of minced seasoned liver and pork fat called faggots, which were served with peas and sold from the women's homes or from market stalls. Pickled herrings were a comparable savory dish sold by women in the slate-quarrying communities of north Wales and consumed with homemade oatcakes by quarrymen and farm servants.
Although the tradition of living off the land survived until a later period, in the rural areas change came with improved roads, modern shopping facilities, refrigerators, and freezers. By the early twenty-first century, the majority of the above-mentioned dishes are mostly eaten on special occasions as traditional food.
See also Cake and Pancake; Cattle; Cereal Grains and Pseudo-Cereals; Dairy Products; Herding; Hearth Cookery; Meat, Salted; Stew.
Evans, R. M. "Bwydydd Sir Aberteifi" [Cardiganshire foods]. Cardiganshire Antiquarian Society Transactions 12 (1937): 528.
Evans, Hugh. The Gorse Glen. Translated by E. Morgan Humphreys from the Welsh Cwm Eithin. Liverpool: Brython, 1948.
Freeman, Bobby. First Catch Your Peacock: A Book of Welsh Food. Pontypool: Image, 1980.
Rees, T. Kenneth. "Prophyra the Laver Bread Seaweed." Swansea Scientific and Field Nature Society Journal 1, part 8 (1934): 24855.
Peate, Iorwerth C. "The Pot-Oven in Wales." Man 43 (1943): 91.
Peate, Iorwerth C. Tradition and Folk Life: A Welsh View. London: Faber and Faber, 1972.
Thomas, J. Mansel. "The Weed of Hiraeth." Journal of the Gower Society 12 (1959): 267.
Tibbot, S. Minwel. Baking in Wales. Cardiff: National Museum of Wales (Welsh Folk Museum), 1991.
Tibbot, S. Minwel. "Cheese-Making in Glamorgan." In Folk Life, edited by Roy Brigden, vol. 34 (1995): 649.
Tibbot, S. Minwel. Cooking on the Open Hearth. Cardiff: National Museum of Wales (Welsh Folk Museum), 1982.
Tibbot, S. Minwel. "Going Electric: The Changing Face of the Rural Kitchen in Wales." In Folk Life, edited by William Linnard, vol. 28 (1989): 633.
Tibbot, S. Minwel. "Liberality and Hospitality, Food as a Communication in Wales." In Folk Life, edited by William Linnard, vol. 24 (1985): 321.
Tibbot, S. Minwel. "Sucan and Llymru in Wales." In Folk Life, edited by J. Geraint Jenkins, vol. 12 (1974): 310.
Tibbot, S. Minwel. Welsh Fare. Cardiff: National Museum of Wales (Welsh Folk Museum), 1976.
Williams, A. J. Bailey. "Bread Making in Montgomeryshire." Montgomery Collections, vol. 49 (1946): 26265.
Mared Wyn Sutherland
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Host protected area
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The host protected area (also referred to as hidden protected area[1]) is an area of a hard drive that is not normally visible to an operating system (OS).
HPA was first introduced in the ATA-4 standard cxv (T13, 2001).[2]
How it works[edit]
Creation of an HPA. The diagram shows how a host protected area (HPA) is created.
# IDENTIFY DEVICE returns the true size of the hard drive. READ NATIVE MAX ADDRESS returns the true size of the hard drive. # SET MAX ADDRESS reduces the reported size of the hard drive. READ NATIVE MAX ADDRESS returns the true size of the hard drive. An HPA has been created. # IDENTIFY DEVICE returns the now fake size of the hard drive. READ NATIVE MAX ADDRESS returns the true size of the hard drive, the HPA is in existence.
The IDE controller has registers that contain data that can be queried using ATA commands. The data returned gives information about the drive attached to the controller. There are three ATA commands involved in creating and using a hidden protected area. The commands are:
Operating systems use the IDENTIFY DEVICE command to find out the addressable space of a hard drive. The IDENTIFY DEVICE command queries a particular register on the IDE controller to establish the size of a drive.
This register however can be changed using the SET MAX ADDRESS ATA command. If the value in the register is set to less than the actual hard drive size then effectively a host protected area is created. It is protected because the OS will work with only the value in the register that is returned by the IDENTIFY DEVICE command and thus will normally be unable to address the parts of the drive that lie within the HPA.
The HPA is useful only if other software or firmware (e.g. BIOS) is able to use it. Software and firmware that are able to use the HPA are referred to as 'HPA aware'. The ATA command that these entities use is called READ NATIVE MAX ADDRESS. This command accesses a register that contains the true size of the hard drive. To use the area, the controlling HPA-aware program changes the value of the register read by IDENTIFY DEVICE to that found in the register read by READ NATIVE MAX ADDRESS. When its operations are complete, the register read by IDENTIFY DEVICE is returned to its original fake value.
• HPA can be used by various booting and diagnostic utilities, normally in conjunction with the BIOS. An example of this implementation is the Phoenix FirstBIOS, which uses BEER (Boot Engineering Extension Record) and PARTIES (Protected Area Run Time Interface Extension Services).[3]
• Computer manufacturers may use the area to contain a preloaded OS for install and recovery purposes (instead of providing DVD or CD media).
• Dell notebooks hide Dell MediaDirect utility in HPA. IBM and LG notebooks hide system restore software in HPA.
• HPA is also used by various theft recovery and monitoring service vendors. For example the laptop security firm Computrace use the HPA to load software that reports to their servers whenever the machine is booted on a network. HPA is useful to them because even when a stolen laptop has its hard drive formatted the HPA remains untouched.
• HPA can also be used to store data that is deemed illegal and is thus of interest to government and police computer forensics teams.[citation needed]
• Some vendor-specific external drive enclosures (Maxtor) are known to use HPA to limit the capacity of unknown replacement hard drives installed into the enclosure. When this occurs, the drive may appear to be limited in size (e.g. 128 GB), which can look like a BIOS or dynamic drive overlay (DDO) problem. In this case, one must use software utilities (see below) that use READ NATIVE MAX ADDRESS and SET MAX ADDRESS to change the drive's reported size back to its native size, and avoid using the external enclosure again with the affected drive.
• Some rootkits hide in the HPA to avoid being detected by anti-rootkit and antivirus software.[3]
Identification and manipulation[edit]
Identification of HPA on a hard drive can be achieved by a number of tools and methods.
Identification tools[edit]
Identification methods[edit]
Using Linux, there are various ways to detect the existence of an HPA. Recent versions of Linux will print a message when the system is booting if an HPA is detected. For example:
dmesg | less
hdb: Host Protected Area detected.
current capacity is 12000 sectors (6 MB)
native capacity is 120103200 sectors (61492 MB)
The program hdparm (version >= 8.0) will detect an HPA on drive sdX when invoked with these parameters:
hdparm -N /dev/sdX
For versions of hdparm < 8, one can compare the number of sectors output from 'hdparm -I' with the number of sectors reported for the hard drive model's published statistics.
Manipulation tools[edit]
Creating and manipulating HPA on a hard drive can be achieved by a number of tools.
Manipulation methods[edit]
The Linux program hdparm (version >= 8.0) will create an HPA when invoked with these parameters: (sdX: target drive, #: number of non-HPA visible sectors)
hdparm -N p# /dev/sdX
See also[edit]
External links[edit]
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A hapū ("subtribe", or "clan"[1]) is "the basic political unit within Māori society".[2]
A named[3] division of a Māori iwi (tribe),[4] membership is determined by genealogical descent; a hapū is made up of a number of whānau (extended family) groups. Te Maire Tau noted in his study of Ngāi Tahu migrations that hapū size and names were volatile with hapū splitting into sister groups when they grew in size or when migrating. New hapū were often named after events associated with the migration. Likewise the same group of people would change their name according to different circumstances. These were primarily to do with rights to resources that had been given to a named hapū or to link to an ancestor with mana in a particular area. Tau states that hapū names and locations have become more stable in more recent times.[5] Generally hapū range in size from 350–500 although there is no upper limit. A Māori person can belong or have links to many different hapū. Each hapū had its own chief and normally operated independently of the tribe (iwi) group. Missionaries such Henry Williams noted that even in times of war against another iwi, hapū usually operated independently. In the Musket Wars many of the battles were fights between competing hapū rather than iwi. It was not uncommon for two hapū from the same iwi to be in conflict.
Hapū frequently were the political unit that sold land to the Europeans. In the 20 years after the Treaty of Waitangi Native Affairs Minister Chris Richmond said that about half of all sales under the Treaty of Waitangi were by different hapū or comparatively small groups of individuals. He said that all the land sold north of Auckland, some in Hawke's Bay, in the Wairarapa valley, Waikato at Raglan, and by Te Āti Awa in Wellington and Taranaki was by hapū or small group.[6]
Before the arrival of Europeans the normal day-to-day operating group seems to have been the smaller whānau (extended family). By the 1820s Māori had learnt the benefit of working in larger groups especially when it came to trading with ships. The larger hapū could work more effectively to produce surplus flax, potatoes, smoked heads and pigs in exchange for blankets, tobacco, axes and trade muskets. In warfare the hapū was the standard grouping for warriors during the musket war period. Hapū would unite politically under their own chief, to form much larger armies up to several thousand warriors, although it was common for hapū to retain independence within the larger group.
The literal meaning of the word is "pregnant"[7] which is a metaphor for the genealogical connection that unites the members of the hapū. Similarly, the Māori word for land, whenua, can also mean "placenta", metaphorically indicating the connection between the people and the land, and the word iwi, for a Māori tribal group, can also mean "bones", indicating a link to ancient ancestors.
See also[edit]
1. ^ "Tribal organisation", Te Ara
2. ^ rt-1-traditional-maori-concepts "Traditional Maori Concepts", Ministry of Justice
3. ^ "How iwi and hapū were named", Te Ara
4. ^ "Tribal organisation", Te Ara
5. ^ Ngāi Tahu, A Migration History. Editors Te Maire Tau and Atholl Anderson. Bridget Williams. Wellington 2008, pp. 20–23
6. ^ Appendix to Journals. 1861, E-01, page 26, supplementary to Governor's Despatch.
7. ^ "...hapū means both pregnant and clan...", Te Ara
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Pollia condensata
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Pollia condensata
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Monocots
(unranked): Commelinids
Order: Commelinales
Family: Commelinaceae
Genus: Pollia
Species: P. condensata
Binomial name
Pollia condensata
• Aclisia condensata (C.B.Clarke) G.Brückn.
Pollia condensata, colloquially called the marble berry, is a perennial herbaceous plant with stoloniferous stems and shiny, metallic blue berries found in forested regions of Africa. The berries are of particular interest, as their blue coloration is the most intense of any known biological material. The structural coloration is created by Bragg reflection from helicoidally stacked cellulose microfibrils. The distance over which the fibrils have the same orientation defines the periodicity of the helicoid and it is this which determines the wavelength of the light reflected by the stack. Each stacked layer of cells acts as an individual curved micro-Bragg reflector and variation in each of these stacks results in the color being reflected varying from cell to cell. This facilitates the perception of a high level of gloss but causes the fruit to have a somewhat pixelated appearance.[2]
Structural coloration[edit]
The surface of the Pollia berry has a particularly smooth and transparent cuticular surface layer which reflects light in the same way a mirror does (specular reflection) and as a result makes the berry appear to have a high level of gloss. Beneath the surface layer lies a special microscopic structure which reflects only light within a narrow range of wavelengths. This structure is composed of layers of thick-walled cells, with each layer consisting of fibrils (small fibers) that are aligned in parallel to each other. Each layer has a slightly different orientation, and when these layers are stacked on top of each other they form a helicoid. This spiral acts as a micro-Bragg reflector, with the specific wavelength reflected being determined by the height of the stack. Variability in the stack height allows different wavelengths (or different wavelengths ranges) to be reflected at different locations on the berry which allows more overall light to be reflected and the systematic nature of this variability assists with the presentation of a very high level of gloss.
In addition to simply reflecting light of a specific wavelength, the helicoid structure also causes causes light of other wavelengths to be modified so that the wavelength converges to within a narrow range before being reflected, which appears to amplify the light and produces the perception of a very intense colour. Physically, this process is called "constructive interference", and the result is a berry whose coloration is more intense than that of any other existing living organism. Total reflectivity is about 30%, which compares with the reflectivity of a standard silvered glass mirror and is higher than that of any other known biological material. As a result the berry is attractive to certain types of birds despite having no nutritional value.[3] These birds will sometimes decorate their nest with the berries, which in time helps to spread the seeds the berry contains within it.[4]
According to Ullrich Steiner of Cambridge University, who co-authored the PNAS paper,
Structural colors come about not by pigments that absorb light, but the way transparent material is arranged on the surface of a substance ... light bounces off the interface ... between each of these layers ... The more layers you stack up, the better defined the color is. The brightness and color purity we see in the fruit comes from the fact that many, many layers add up to produce these very strong reflective characteristics of just one wavelength. ... This fruit is one of the first known examples in plants. We compared it with some other structural colors, such as the morpho butterfly wing, which is often described as the strongest structural color. This is stronger.[5]
Images (by Vignolini et al./PNAS) may be seen alongside the interview, and at various other news sources reporting the PNAS paper findings.
2. ^ Vignolini, Silvia; Paula J. Rudall, Alice V. Rowland, Alison Reed, Edwige Moyroud, Robert B. Faden, Jeremy J. Baumberg, Beverley J. Glover, Ullrich Steinera (September 10, 2012). Pointillist structural color in Pollia fruit. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
3. ^ Angier, Natalie (22 October 2012). "True Blue Stands Out in an Earthy Crowd". New York Times. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
4. ^ "Berry Bling Shines on Forever : Discovery News". News.discovery.com. 2011-06-21. Retrieved 2012-09-12.
5. ^ "Super Blue Berry: The Natural World’s Most Intense Color". wired.com. 2012-09-11. Retrieved 2012-09-11.
External links[edit]
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The Battle of Monterrey
September 20, 1846 - September 24, 1846
On September 20, 1846, General Zachary Taylor led a group of 6,500 U.S. soldiers and volunteers to attack the northern Mexico city of Monterrey. The city was well-fortified and protected by artillery installations and 10,000 Mexican soldiers under the command of General Pedro de Ampudia. Taylor approached the city from the east, while sending William Worth on a flanking movement to the southwest to cut off the Mexican army's escape route. Worth succeeded in doing so, and gained steady ground against Mexican hilltop fortifications, seizing Federation Hill on the 21st and the Archbishop's Palace the following day. On the evening of the 22nd Ampudia ordered his troops to take up defensive positions within the city, setting the stage for bitter house-to-house fighting on the 23rd. On the morning of September 24, U.S. troops were preparing to renew their assault when Ampudia asked for a parley. Taylor and Ampudia signed an eight-week armistice, and Taylor allowed Ampudia's troops to evacuate the city, taking with them their weapons and one six-gun battery.
U.S. Mexico War logo
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Hooded seal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Hooded seal[1]
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Phocidae
Genus: Cystophora
Nilsson, 1820
Species: C. cristata
Binomial name
Cystophora cristata
(Erxleben, 1777)
Distribution of the hooded seal. Breeding grounds indicated in blue.
The hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) is a large phocid found only in the central and western North Atlantic ranging from Svalbard in the east to the Gulf of St. Lawrence in the west. The seals are typically silver-grey in color, with black spots that vary in size covering most of their body.[3] Hooded seal pups are known as "blue-backs" because instead, their coats are blue-grey on the back with whitish bellies, though this coat is shed after 14 months of age when the pups molt.[4]
The generic name means "bladder-bearer" in Greek, from the species' unusual sexual ornament, a peculiar inflatable bladder on the head of the adult male – this bladder hangs between his eyes and down over his upper lip in the deflated state. In addition, he can inflate a large balloon-like sac from one of his nostrils. This is done by shutting one nostril valve and inflating a membrane which then protrudes from the other nostril.[5]
Distribution and Habitat[edit]
Hooded Seals live primarily on drifting pack ice and in deep water in the Arctic Ocean and North Atlantic, although some drift away to warmer regions during the year, but best survival shows to be in colder climates. They can be found on four distinct areas with pack ice: near Jan Mayen Island, off Labrador and northeastern Newfoundland, Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the Davis Strait.[6][7] Males appear to be localized around areas of complex seabed, such as Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and the Flemish cap, while females concentrate their habitat efforts primarily on shelf areas, such as the Labrador Shelf.[8] Hooded seals are known to be highly migratory species that often wander long distances as far west as Alaska and as far south as the Canary Islands and Guadeloupe.[7] Prior to the mid 1990s, Hooded Seal sightings in Maine and the east Atlantic were rare and began increasing in the mid 1990s. From January 1997 and December 1999, a total of 84 recorded sightings of Hooded Seals occurred in the Gulf of Maine, one in France and one in Portugal. From 1996 to 2006, five strandings and sightings were noted near the Spanish coasts in the Mediterranean Sea. There is no scientific explanation for the increase in sightings and range of the Hooded Seal.[9][10]
Hooded Seals tend to feed in relatively deep waters ranging from 100–600 m (330–2,000 ft), diving from 5 to 25 minute durations. However, some dives can go deeper than 1,016 m (3,333 ft) and as long, or longer than 52 minutes. Diving shows to be rather continuous, with approximately 90% of their time spent submerged during the day and night, although, dives during the day are generally deeper and longer. Dives during the winter are also deeper and longer, than those in the summer. There are several variations on behavior during different seasons, not specifically focused on dives. It is known that they are generally solitary species, except when it is breeding and moulting seasons. During these two periods, they tend to fast as well. The seals mass annually near the Denmark strait, around July, at the time of their moulting periods to mate.[11][12] Besides diving habits, hooded seals are a relatively unsocial species, compared to other seals, they are typically more aggressive and territorial. They demonstrate their aggression by inflating their "hood", which is explained in the "Nasal Cavity" section. They frequently migrate and remain alone for most of their year, except during mating season.[6][7]
Their diets are composed primarily of various amphipods (crustaceans), eeuphausiids (krill), and fish including Atlantic Argentine, Capelin, Greenland Halibut, Cod, Herring, and Redfish.[13][14] They also are known to eat squid, starfish, and mussels.[15] Relative to the other species, hooded seals consume 3 times the proportion of redfish; percentages of capelin were similar in relation to closely related species.[14] Capelin is considered a more common choice of sustenance during the winter season. Their diet is considered to be rich in lipids and fatty acids.[16]
Nasal Cavity[edit]
The hooded seal is known for it's uniquely elastic nasal cavity located at the top of its head, also known as the hood.[4] Only males posses this display-worthy nasal sac, which they begin to develop around the age of four.[17] The hood begins to inflate as the seal makes its initial breath prior to going underwater. It then begins to repetitively deflate and inflate as the seal is swimming. The purpose of this happening is for agnostic signaling, meaning that it occurs when the seal feels threatened and attempts to ward off hostile species when competing for resources such as food and shelter.[18] It also serves to communicate their health and superior status to both other males and females they are attempting to attract.[17] In sexually mature males, a pinkish balloon-like nasal membrane comes out of the left nostril to further aid it in attracting a mate. This membrane, when shaken, is able to produce various sounds and calls depending on whether the seal is underwater or on land. Most of these acoustic signals where used in agnostic situation (about 79%), while about 12% of the signals were used for sexual purposes.[19]
Adult males are 2.6 metres (8 ft 6 in) long on average, and weigh 300–410 kg (660–900 lb). Sexual dimorphism is obvious from birth and females are much smaller: 2.03 metres (6 ft 8 in) long and weighing 145–300 kg (320–660 lb).[20][21] The colour is silvery; the body is scattered with dark, irregular marks. The head is darker than the rest of the body, and without marks.
Breeding and Life Cycle[edit]
There are four major breeding areas for the Hooded Seal: the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the "Front" east of Newfoundland, Davis Strait (between Greenland and northern Canada) and the West Ice near Jan Mayen. Male Hooded Seals are known to have several mates in a single mating season, following the hypothesis that they are polygynous. While some males will defend and mate with just one female for long periods of time, others will be more mobile and tend to multiple females for shorter periods of time, generating maximum offspring within the population.[22]
Throughout all areas, the Hooded Seals whelp in late March and early April and molt from June to August.[9] These four recognized herds are generally sorted into two distinct populations: a Northeast (NE) Atlantic population and a Northwest (NW) Atlantic population. It is estimated that 90% of the total NW population give birth on the "Front". The NE herd whelping (giving birth) around Jan Mayen generally disperse into the sea after they breed in March. From April through June, after the breeding season, this species travels long distances to feed and then eventually gather together once again. Although some individuals return to the same area of ice in July to undergo moulting, the majority of the herd moult further North. After moulting, the species disperses widely again to feed in the late summer and autumn before returning to the breeding areas again in late winter.[23][24][25]
Threats and Conservation Practices[edit]
Prior to the 1940s, adult hooded seals were primarily hunted for their leather and oil deposits. More recently, the main threats are hunting, including subsistence hunting, and bycatch. Seal strandings are not considered a large threat to Hooded Seal populations but are highly researched. Seal pups are hunted for their blue and black pelts and many mothers are killed in the process, attempting to protect their young. Hunting primarily occurs in areas of Greenland, Canada, Russia, and Norway. [26][27] Overall, northwest Atlantic Hooded Seal populations are stable or increasing whereas the northeast Atlantic populations have declined by 85-90% within the last 60 years.[27]
It was believed by the scientific community that SONAR was leading to mass stranding of Hooded Seals. After multiple SONAR tests on captive seals, ranging from 1 to 7 kHz, it became evident that it had little effect on the subjects. The first test on each subject yielded differing results, ranging from reduced diving activity and rapid exploratory swimming. A difference was only noted for all subjects on their initial exposure.[28]
Conservation practices, brought about by international cooperation and the formation of the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) led to Hooded Seal population increases. It is now required to hold a license to hunt Hooded Seals in international waters and each license is set a quota.[26][27] Total allowable catch of hooded seals are set at 10,000 annually.[27]
The Hooded Seal is protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 [29]
Early Development[edit]
Researchers find that due to a pup's differing needs in regards to sustaining work and foraging while under water compared to adults, the skeletal and cardiac muscles develop differently. Studies show that cardiac blood flow provides sufficient O2 to sustain lipolytic pathways during dives, remedying their hypoxic challenge. Cardiac tissue is found to be more developed than skeletal muscles at birth and during the weaning period, although neither tissue is fully developed by the end of the weaning period.[30] Because pups are born with fully developed hemoglobin stores (found in blood), but their myoglobin levels (found in skeletal tissue) are only 25–30% of adult levels. These observations conclude that pup muscles are less able to sustain both aerobic ATP and anaerobic ATP production during dives than adults are. This is due to the large stores of oxygen, either bound to hemoglobin or myoglobin, which the seals rely on to dive for extended periods of time.[31] This could be a potential explanation for pups’ short weaning period as diving is essential to their living and survival.[30]
Pups are about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long at birth and weigh about 24 kilograms (53 lb). They are born on the ice from mid-March to early April with a well-developed blubber layer and having shed their pre-natal coat. They are born with a slate blue-grey coat (giving them the name "blueback"), with a pale cream color on the belly, which they will moult after about 14 months. Nursing of the pup lasts for an average of only 4 days, the shortest lactation period of any mammal, during which the pup doubles in size, gaining around 7 kg/day. This is possible because the milk that they drink has a fat content of 60%.[32] The female pup will mature between ages 3 and 6, whereas the male pup will mature between ages 5 and 7.
The hooded seal can live to about age 30 to 35.[33]
2. ^ Kovacs, K. (2008). Cystophora cristata. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 2009-01-28.
3. ^ Kovacs, Kit. "Hooded Seal".
4. ^ a b "Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata)".
5. ^ Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata), a Weird Animal. Drawfluffy.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-16.
6. ^ a b "Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata)". NMFS. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
7. ^ a b c "Hooded Seals, Cystophora cristata". Marinebio. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
8. ^ "Habitat Selection by Hooden Seals (Cystophora cristata) in The Northwest Atlantic Ocean". Journal of Marine Science. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
9. ^ a b Harris, David E; Lelli, B; Jakush, G; Early, G (2001). "Hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) records from the Southern Gulf of Maine". Northeastern Naturalist 8 (4): 427–434. Retrieved 27 October 2013.
10. ^ Bellido, JJ; Castillo, JJ; Farfan MA; Martin, JJ; Mons, LJ; et al. (2008). "First Records of Hooded Seals (Cystophora cristata) in the Mediterranean Sea". Marine Biodiversity Records 1.
11. ^ "Diving behaviour of hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) in the Greenland and Norwegian Seas". Springer-Verlag. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
12. ^ "Cystophora cristata Hooded Seal". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
13. ^ n/a, . "Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata." Office of Protected Resources. NOAA Fisheries, 26 Nov 2012. Web. 24 Oct 2013. <http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/pinnipeds/hoodedseal.htm>.
14. ^ a b Tucker S, Bowen WD, Inverson SJ, Blanchard W, Stenston GB. 2009. Sources of Variation in Diets of Harp and Hooded Seals Estimated from Quantitative Fatty Acid Signature Analysis (QFASA). Marine Ecology Progress Series 384: 287-302
16. ^ Plankton to Blubber of Harp and Hooded Seals off East Greenland. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 56: 2080-2086.
17. ^ a b Witmer, Lawrence. "A nose for all reasons".
18. ^ Ronald, K. "Some underwater observations of hooded seal, Cystophora cristata (Erxleben), behaviour.".
19. ^ Ballard, KA. "The acoustic repertoire of hooded seals (Cystophora cristata)". Canadian Journal of Zoology/Revue Canadienne de Zoologie.
20. ^ Hooded Seals, Cystophora cristata. marinebio.org
21. ^ Hooded seal images. arkive.org
22. ^ Kovacs, K. M. (1990). Mating strategies in male hooded seals (Cystophora cristata)?. Canadian journal of zoology, 68(12), 2499-2502.
23. ^ Andersen, J. M., Wiersma, Y. F., Stenson, G., Hammill, M. O., & Rosing-Asvid, A. (2009). Movement patterns of hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean during the post-moult and pre-breed seasons. J Northw Atl Fish Sci, 42, 1-11.
24. ^ Bowen, W. D., Myers, R. A., & Hay, K. (1987). Abundance estimation of a dispersed, dynamic population: Hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) in the Northwest Atlantic. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 44(2), 282-295.
25. ^ Folkow, L. P., Mårtensson, P. E., & Blix, A. S. (1996). Annual distribution of hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) in the Greenland and Norwegian Seas. Polar Biology, 16(3), 179-189.
26. ^ a b "Hooded Seal (Cystophora cristata)". Office of Protected Resources. NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
27. ^ a b c d "Cystophora cristata (Hooded Seal)". IUCN Red List. IUCN. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
28. ^ Kvadsheim, Peter H; Sevaldsen, Erik M; Folkow, Lars P; Blix, Arnoldus S (July 2010). "Behavioural and Physiological Responses of Hooded Seals (Cystophora cristata) to 1 to 7 kHz Sonar Signals". Aquatic Mammals 36 (3): 239. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
29. ^ "Marine Mammal Protection Act". NOAA Fisheries. NOAA. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
30. ^ a b Burns JM, Skomp N, Bishop N, Lestyk K, Hammill M. 2010. Development of Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism in Cardiac and Skeletal Muscles from Harp and Hooded seals. The Journal of Experimental Biology 213: 740-748.
31. ^ Geiseler Samuel J, Blix Arnoldus S, Burns Jennifer M, Folkow Lars P. 2013. Rapid Postnatal Development of Myoglobin from Large Liver Stores in Hooded Seals. The Journal of Experimental Biology 216: 1793-1798.
33. ^ "Hooded Seals, Cystophora cristata ~ MarineBio.org." MarineBio Conservation Society. Web. Thursday, October 24, 2013. <http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=304>.
External links[edit]
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Q & A: Van de Graaf Generator
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Who invented the Van de Graaff generator? When was the Van de Graaff generator invented?
- Amenda (age 14)
Ozona, Tx
Hi Amenda,
I went ahead and combined both of your questions into one.
The answer to your first question is very easy! The Van de Graaff generator was invented by Robert Jemison Van de Graaff who was born in 1901 and died in 1967.
After hearing about Ernest Rutherford's work in Nuclear Physics, Van de Graaf began trying to find a way to accelerate particles to very high speeds in order to disintegrating atomic nuclei. The Van de Graaff generator was officially invented in 1929 when he came up with the idea of making a long tube and creating a big difference in charge at two ends of the tube. The particles he was trying to accelerate would start at one end of the tube, see that they were near a bunch of other charges just like them and race toward the other end to get toward the opposite kind of charge. In order to create this large difference in charge, Van de Graaff hooked a belt up to a motor. This belt carried the charges up to a large Aluminum sphere at the top of the device. The first model created a difference of 80,000 Volts. Later versions were constructed that were able to make differences of 1 million (1,000,000) Volts and 7 million (7,000,000) volts. His device was patented in 1935.
A good reference about Van de Graaff Generators is available from the Boston Museum of Science.
A biography about Robert Van de Graaff is available from Brookhaven National Lab.
(republished on 08/02/06)
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relative address
)An address specified by indicating its distance from another address, called the base address. For example, a relative address might be B+15, B being the base address and 15 the distance (called the offset).
There are two types of addressing: relative addressing and absolute addressing. In absolute addressing, you specify the actual address (called the absolute address ) of a memory location.
Relative and absolute addressing are used in a variety of circumstances. In programming, you can use either mode to identify locations in main memory or on mass storage devices. In spreadsheet applications, you can use either mode to designate a particular cell.
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Story: Scientists Explore Physics of Baseball Feats, 7/12/07
Worksheet Questions:
1. How long does it take a 90-mile-per-hour fastball to cross home plate?
2. At what angle does a batter want the bat to hit the baseball? Why?
3. What does San Francisco Giants player Barry Zito use "3-D, high-speed, infrared, eight-camera motion analysis" for?
4. What kind of motion does physicist Linda Shore compare pitching to?
5. At what point during a pitch is the baseball moving fastest? Why?
For more NewsHour Science Reports, go to
For more stories about science and technology for students, go to
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Wollstonecraft & Godwin
March 29: Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin, two of the 18th century's most radical and prominent thinkers, married on this day in 1797. Many contemporaries reacted to news of the event with a raised eyebrow or smile, given that both bride and groom had been famously outspoken against contemporary marriage habits and laws. A rationalist-anarchist, Godwin had also condemned the monarchy, private property, the legal system, and just about every other pillar of British society. In his Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners (1793), he had argued that a principled form of free love was preferable to marriage, which was "evil" and illogical:
Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), regarded as the first major feminist essay, addresses the gender issues from various angles, but her penultimate paragraph presents a simple choice to all those pondering either marriage or the ideal wedding gift:
Wollstonecraft was five months pregnant at her marriage, and she died just ten days after giving birth to her daughter, Mary, whom Godwin would disown when she attempted, at age sixteen, to use her parents' principles to justify entering into a free-love relationship with Shelley.
Books, CDs, DVDs to know about now
How the Light Gets In
Empress Dowager Cixi
The Kraus Project
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Geometric style
Geometric style, Geometric style: Attic Geometric-style amphora [Credit: Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis]style of ancient Greek art, primarily of vase painting, that began about 900 bc and represents the last purely Mycenaean-Greek art form that originated before the influx of foreign inspiration by about 800 bc. Athens was its centre, and the growing moneyed population of new Greek cities was its market.
Vases decorated in Geometric style exhibit painted horizontal bands filled with patterns, much like the vases of the preceding Proto-Geometric style. Geometric-style bands, however, are more numerous, covering the entire vase, with triple lines dividing patterned zones at regular intervals. The old Proto-Geometric design elements, the circle and arc, lost favour with the Geometric artist, while the zigzag and triangle remained and were incorporated along with some new elements, the meander and swastika. The overall visual effect of the regularly spaced horizontal bands filled with sharply angular patterns in dark paint upon light ground is one of undulating ... (150 of 310 words)
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Chegg Guided Solutions for Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences 3rd Edition Chapter 18 Problem 92P
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Consider a curing kiln whose walls are made of 30-cm-thick concrete whose properties are k = 0.9 W/m · °C and a = 0.23 × 10”i nr/s. Initially, the kiln and its walls are in equilibrium with the surroundings at 6°C. Then all the doors are closed and the kiln is heated by steam so that the temperature of the inner surface of the walls is raised to 42°C and is maintained at that level for 2.5 h. The curing kiln is then opened and exposed to the atmospheric air after the stream flow is turned off. If the outer surfaces of the walls of the kiln were insulated, would it save any energy that day during the period the kiln was used for curing for 2.5 h only, or would it make no difference? Base your answer on calculations.
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Lake Champlain Geology
Lake Champlain Geology - present
Lake Champlain Basin- at present
Lake Champlain’s Location
Lake Champlain is located on the Champlain Valley between the Green Mountains of Vermont and the Adirondack Mountains of New York state. It flows north and is drained by the Richelieu River, which in turn flows into the Saint Lawrence River at Sorel-Tracy, Quebec.
The major feeders for Lake Champlain are Otter Creek, the Winooski, Lamoille and Missisquoi Rivers in Vermont and New York’s Ausable, Chazy, Boquet and Saranac Rivers. Lake Champlain also receives water from the 32 (51 km) mile long Lake George via the LaChute River. This means that Lake Champlain receives water not only from the northwestern slopes of the Green Mountains and the northeastern peaks of the Adirondacks, but it also drains the north and west slopes of Massachusetts’ Berkshire Mountains. Lake Champlain is connected to the Hudson River by the Champlain Canal.
Lake Champlain is one of many large lakes that are found in an arc from Labrador through the northern United States and into the Northwest Territories of Canada. Although smaller than any of the Great Lakes, it is the largest freshwater lake in North America after the Great Lakes.
The lake level of Lake Champlain typically varies seasonally from 95 to 101 feet (29 to 30 m) above mean sea level. 2011 brought the highest lake levels in recorded history at 103.57 feet above sea level after exceptionally heavy late snowfalls and heavy spring rains.
Lake Champlain Geology & Geologic Composition
Lake Champlain’s geology is very interesting. The Champlain Valley is considered part of the Great Appalachian Valley, which reaches from Quebec to Alabama. It is a physiographic section (geomorphic, or physiographic, regions are broad-scale subdivisions based on terrain texture, rock type, and geologic structure and history) of the Saint Lawrence Valley, which is, in turn, part of the larger Appalachian physiographic division.
Lake Champlain Geology - 12,000 years ago
Lake Champlain Basin- 12,000 years ago
Climate Change and the Champlain Basin
Between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago the Champlain Basin was part of a great inland sea that was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, a para-tropical sub sea, or epeiric sea, called the Champlain Sea. It was created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age. The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont. This sea extended to the west of present day Ottawa, Ontario in Canada.
Modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils, (beluga, fin whales and bowhead whales) and marine shells that have been found in Vermont and near the cities of Ottawa, Ontario, and Montreal, Quebec, the existence of ancient shorelines in the former coastal regions, and the presence of Leda clay deposits dotting the region. From Mount Pakenham, Ontario, the viewable ancient coastline to the northeast is roughly 25 miles (40 km) away and is known today as the Eardley Escarpment; part of the Gatineau Hills in the province of Quebec.
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1. Tom McHugh says:
thank you for your comments.
2. Tom McHugh says:
Thank you for your kind comments. Please feel free to share the blog with your twitter group. We can be found on twitter at https://twitter.com/MyLakeChamplain.
What does the 'Lake Champlain Life' mean to you?
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Inequality in America
On October 11, 2013, in Latest News, by The News Staff
Part 1: Its dimensions
shelton_webBy William C. Shelton
Once thought of as the land of opportunity, our nation is now the most unequal country in the developed world, and growing more so. Some economists say that comparable levels of inequality have not existed since 1928, the eve of the Great Depression. Others say that we haven’t seen them since the late 19th Century’s gilded age.
Either way, the consequences are dire for national economic growth, individual opportunity, public health, and democracy itself. Americas’ stark inequality may also help explain its people’s polarization, since social scientists find strong correlations between economic inequality and divisiveness.
Despite inequality’s increasing prominence in the news, most Americans remain unaware of its dimensions. Harvard Business School’s Michael Norton and Duke University’s Dan Ariely vividly demonstrated this in a clever 2011 study.
They presented a representative sample of 5,522 Americans with three different samples of wealth distribution in which
1. Wealth is equally distributed among each fifth of the population, i.e., each fifth owns 20% of the society’s wealth.
2. The richest fifth owns a third of national wealth, and the rest is relatively evenly distributed among the other four fifths.
3. The richest fifth own 85% of wealth; the next richest, 11%, and the shares of the least rich two-fifths are too small to appear on the chart.
The researchers did not tell respondents that the second example was Sweden, and the third, the U.S. Instead, they paired each example with another one and asked respondents in which of the two countries they would prefer to live.
• 49% chose perfect equality versus 51% who chose Sweden.
• 77% chose perfect equality versus 23% who chose the U.S.
• 92% chose Sweden versus 8% who chose the U.S.
The researchers then asked respondents to propose an ideal distribution of wealth. The average response looked a lot like Sweden’s.
Finally, they asked respondents to estimate America’s actual distribution of wealth. The average response put the richest fifth’s share at a little under 60%. Shares declined with each succeeding fifth, with the bottom two fifths owning 10% of the nation’s wealth.
In fact, the richest fifth of Americans owns 85% of the nation’s wealth. The poorest two-fifths, together, own 0.4%.
The findings for both sets of questions were surprisingly consistent across differences in gender, personal income, and Presidential candidate preference, demonstrating that Americans are largely unaware of inequality, but would like a more egalitarian distribution of wealth than what we have. So it’s probably worth shining some light on the dimensions of U.S. economic inequality.
Wages and earnings
Although the education levels and productivity of American workers have steadily increased over the last forty years, their wages have stagnated. The share of national income represented by wages and salaries steadily declined, while that represented by dividends and interest increased.
And over that period, capital gains came to be taxed at a lower rate. While households that receive wages and salaries are spread across the income distribution, income from interest, dividends and capital gains is concentrated in the wealthiest households, as are the highest salaries.
From 1947 until the mid 1970s, worker compensation rose in lockstep with productivity. But since 1973, worker productivity has increased by 80%, while wages and earnings growth has stalled. Low- and middle-wage workers actually lost ground all across the period, except during the late 1990s. With these declines came declining job quality, decreased job security, shorter job tenure, longer periods of unemployment, more part-time work, and reduced benefits. Since 2007, the great majority of new jobs are in lower wage occupations than were those that existed before the Great Recession.
Income includes wages and earnings as well as returns on investment, capital gains, interest, and dividends. Here again, income for all groups grew proportionately with the economy during the first thirty years after World War II. Since then, upper income groups have captured almost all of the gains.
The Congressional Budget Office reports that incomes for the lower 80% of Americans grew little after 1979, inched up in the late 1990s, and then flattened again until the Great Recession began in 2007. Over this period, income for the top 1% tripled.
Since the “recovery” began in 2009, 95% of the economic gains have gone to the top 1%. The median household is worse off now than it was in 2009.
Wealth is net worth—cash, home value, investments, and savings, less debt. Wealth differences are much more determinative of how people live than are income differences. A family may have a decent income but can be made insolvent by a job loss or bankrupt by a medical emergency. They may not be able to educate their kids. A family with wealth can sell some part of it to meet their needs or fulfill their wants.
And inequalities of wealth are much more extreme than those of income. In 2010 the richest 1% owned a third of the nation’s wealth. The richest 5% owned over 60%. The poorest 40% owned less than 1%.
The great recession hit the middle class hard, since housing equity was the main source of their wealth. Between 2007 and 2011, median family net worth fell by half.
Credit Suisse’s 2012 annual Global Wealth Report tells us how the U.S. compares to its peers in wealth distribution. Of the 29 countries that have average adult wealth of $100,000 or more, the U.S. is 27th in median wealth and last in equality.
These numbers don’t fully convey the effects of inequality. That is the subject of the next installment.
10 Responses to “Inequality in America”
1. Pixie Pocohantas says:
Where’s your story on gentrification as promised? We already know the bankers and WS have turned our country into an underdeveloped nation of civil unrest taking orders by corporate dictatorship.
2. Mememe says:
There are two main schools of inequality. The first is inequality in outcomes the other is inequality in opportunity. Over the last 20/25 years the seconds has gotten progressively worse as cronyism as been has snuck in, and lately become standard (not even hidden). If you fix the second the first will come back in line more, and everyone will gain.
3. Matt says:
Bill, thanks for a fact based background to set the stage for the next set of articles you are writing. Especially the difference between wealth and income which i don’t think is always well understood..
The segment describing wealth disparities across the population was very interesting, not for the ignorance of wealth distribution in the states, but rather what people would like to see. I wonder why people lean towards a greater concentration of wealth at the top rather than an even distribution. I wonder it if is a belief that if it is bigger than they may have better access to it… I don’t know – of the choices I would rather the even distribution, and if I had my druthers a bell curve.
Other tangents to consider are:1. how wealth impacts political voice as seen in citizens united and now with McCutcheon v. FEC. These are areas where wealth is creating a huge difference in political voice. 2. The Whats wrong with kansas scenario. This is something that plays out both at a local scale as well as a national scale.and 3. The reality on the ground in the boston area, which has fared far better than the rest of the US.
Regarding a follow on to gentrification maybe you could collaborate with pixi to put together a piece that talks about gentrification in general looking at statistics and facts for crime, education, social services etc while comparing and contrasting her and others experience with it.
4. James Christensen says:
Great article Bill. I’m looking forward to the next installment.
5. Maria says:
In my opinion, inequality of opportunity has gotten worse due to affirmative action. It is nearly impossible for a white kid to get anything whether it be an appointment to the police department, or a scholarship. Everything is geared to the minority, despite the fact that many areas are ‘minority majority’ now. Immigrants make it worse, as most legal and illegal immigrants are ‘minorities’.
6. faxR4fools says:
Maria: is the somerville police department only hiring non-whites these days? If so, I hadn’t noticed. But like the name says, faxR4fools.
7. MarketMan says:
Maria: Your name is ironic. Is that intentional? Your comment potrays as a someone bitter about something. If what you said was true, I would think that all the top schools and top professions would be non-white.
8. Rush Limbaugh says:
God I can’t stand the “whites can’t get on the fire department” line. I went to a firefighter academy graduation for two of my friends, both white. The overwhelming majority of the graduates were white, most of whom had relatives in the fire department.
9. Bill,
Don’t forget to include “outsourcing” as one of the main reasons we no longer have jobs in the U.S., due to corporations who are paying pennies on the dollar to people in foreign lands. The wonderful world of the internet brought new ways to impoverish millions while making a small percent, over-night billionaires. The wealthy are no longer creating jobs in this country because they don’t have to–but I predict in time, they will soon be targeting each other as their own group widens.
I enjoyed your last article more. You lost my interest when you started listing percentages. Leave that for the boring statisticians, you can do better.
Just cut to the chase–please explain the origin of gentrification and list real stories of how, why and the negative/positive results. I’d also like to see a list of once thriving “renewed” communities, turned into devastatingly impoverished ghost towns, once the gentrifiers have lost interest and moved on to conquer again. Can you also describe in detail the types of gentrifiers, where they come from, what their motive is and a generalization of character? Leave out the stats, it draws away from your otherwise great research and good story telling.
10. ritepride says:
A few years back there was an article in the newspapers re: a computer memory company in MA outsourced their work to a foreign country. after about a year the owner of the Ma company found that the outsourced company had copied his product and was underselling him on the market.
When he went to go after them with lawsuits,etc., he found that there were no reciprocal agreements with the country the outsourcing work was being done. The foreign contry could violate his copyrights etc., and there was not a thing he could do about it.
A company in RI outsourced work to China. Three of the companies he outsourced to disappeared as well as his product. One that did make his product, the Chinese government’s version of our U.S. customs has sealed the warehouse and the RI company cannot get that product.
Thus the chinese will probably reproduce the product and sell it on the market at a cheaper rate and another American Co. will go out of business.
Once the hackers go after the rich peoples $$$ hidden in foreign banks,
Then you will see all this outsourcing and foreign investment of American dollars be put on hold. Meanwhile the rich are ruining this country and could care less until the Taliban or somebody else shows on our soil and goes after them.
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Lactase (Beta-Galactosidase)
Lactase (Beta-Galactosidase)
Lactase (beta-galactosidase) is an enzyme found in bacteria and many other sources. Lactase produced by bacteria will break down lactose into glucose and galactose. Lactase in humans breaks down gangliosides into simpler compounds which are then further broken down.
The lack or low concentrations of lactase is believed to result in gangliosidosis, the symptoms of which are mental retardation, liver enlargement, and skeletal deformations.
Martin, David W., Peter A. Muyers, et.al. 1983. Harper's Review of Biochemistry. Lange Medical Publications. Los Altos, CA. 638.
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"url": "http://www.appliedhealth.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=201305&Itemid=219"
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OK. So imagine this. It's a hot day. Someone offers you a cold lemonade. But there's one condition. You can drink it only using your tongue. No lips touching the glass, no straw. It's what bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds do when they slurp nectar from flowers. And now scientists have discovered a species of bat whose tongue is also a particularly fancy nectar scoop. NPR's Rhitu Chatterjee reports.
RHITU CHATTERJEE, BYLINE: The bats live in Central and South America. They're roughly two inches long and they spend their nights going from flower to flower.
CALLY HARPER: They hover for just a few seconds in font of the flower corolla and then they probe their tongue deep into the base of the flower tube and soak up nectar.
CHATTERJEE: Cally Harper is at Brown University and an author of the new study. She says when the bat sticks its tongue out, that tongue is about twice the length of the animal's head.
HARPER: Its common name is the Pallas' long-tongued bat.
CHATTERJEE: Now the challenge for all nectar feeders is to slurp up as much nectar as possible in the shortest possible time. That's because hovering over each flower takes a lot of energy. And to get enough food they have to visit many flowers in a single night. Harper says nature has come up with a variety of tongue designs.
HARPER: Hummingbirds have these bifurcated tongues that almost act like tweezers to tweeze up small droplets of liquid. And for butterflies, their tongues actually function more like straws, where they have little pores at the tip of their tongue where nectar flows through those pores and then up the tube of the tongue.
CHATTERJEE: Harper wanted to know how the Pallas' long-tongued bats did it and decided to film them in the laboratory using a high-speed video camera. She knew their tongues were covered with little hairs. So she watched what happened to those hairs as the bats reached out for food.
HARPER: And then very close to when the tongue is maximally extended, these hairs become erect. And when that happens, a space is created between each of the rows of hairs on the tongue tip. And the nectar is loaded into each one of those spaces.
CHATTERJEE: It's like the bat's tongue is working like a mop.
BETH BRAINERD: Not a sponge mop, but a stringy mop.
CHATTERJEE: Beth Brainerd of Brown University co-authored the study. She says it turns out blood pumping into the hairs makes them stand on end.
BRAINERD: The mechanism is like an active mop that's opening up and making more space for this liquid nectar to be collected.
CHATTERJEE: Now, bees and even cats have hairs on their tongues. But Kurt Schwenk, who's an evolutionary biologist at the University of Connecticut, says he's never seen tongue hairs used in this way.
KURT SCHWENK: What made it so cool and so exciting is this dynamic attribute they have of popping out when the blood pressure gets high enough.
CHATTERJEE: He says the new study, published in the latest issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, shows how underappreciated tongues are as an organ.
SCHWENK: When you start looking at tongues in different animal groups, you start seeing this amazing diversity of form and function that I think would shock most people.
CHATTERJEE: And for that matter, Schwenck says even the human tongue is more remarkable than we give it credit for.
SCHWENK: I'd suggest that people, in the privacy of their own home, look in the mirror and stick your tongue out and start examining the incredible movements you can make with your tongue.
CHATTERJEE: Not so great for slurping up lemonade without a straw, maybe, but perfect for the kinds of food we eat, and of course, all the languages we speak. Rhitu Chatterjee, NPR News.
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[Journals]: Shifts in Physiological Mechanisms Let Male Bats Balance the Need to Feed and the Urge to Breed
Source Contact: Dr. Nina I. Becker /
As small and active flying mammals, bats have very high mass-specific energy requirements and as such continually adjust their rates of activity and metabolism in response to ambient temperature and other seasonal variation. In particular, during the autumn mating season, male bats must carefully balance time spent foraging (to gain enough fat to last the winter hibernation) with time spent finding a mate. Because both activities require significant effort, how do male bats do it? In an upcoming issue of Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, Nina Becker and colleagues reveal that the answer lies in the bats’ resting metabolic rate.
In their study, the group monitored the thermoregulation, energy intake, activity, and metabolism of free-ranging Daubenton’s bats Myotis daubentonii during this insectivorous species’ main activity period of the year (mid-April to mid-October).
Becker et al. found that during spring, when ambient temperatures are low, prey is scarce, and the male bats are reproductively inactive, M. daubentonii used daily torpor (decreased body temperature) to balance their energy budgets.
In summer, when temperatures and abundance of insects increase, bats shift their behavior away from long and frequent bouts of torpor and toward more intake of food. In males it is predicted that this increase in feeding is done in anticipation of the impending mating season, when energy requirements are high but low insect abundance and significant time spent finding a mate (and therefore not foraging) mean that food intake will be at its lowest during the animals’ entire period of activity.
Becker, Nina I., Marco Tschapka, Elisabeth K. V. Kalko, and Jorge A. Encarnação. “Balancing the Energy Budget in Free-Ranging Male Myotis daubentonii Bats.” Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 86:3 (May/June 2013).
Physiological and Biochemical Zoology (http://journals.uchicago.edu/PBZ) publishes original research in animal physiology and biochemistry, with a specific emphasis on studies that address the ecological and/or evolutionary aspects of physiological and biochemical mechanisms. Studies at all levels of biological organization from the molecular to the whole organism are welcome, and work that integrates levels of organization to address important questions in behavioral, ecological, evolutionary, or comparative physiology is particularly encouraged.
Photo credit: Marko König (Mammalian Ecology Group, JLU Giessen)
Looking for a book published by a scholarly press?
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"url": "http://www.press.uchicago.edu/pressReleases/2013/April/0413PBZpr.html"
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A Staggeringly Complex Infographic Of The Civil War, Drawn 116 Years Ago
Consider it a humble reminder that computers are just tools. A rich history of data visualization lived long before bits and bytes.
You’re looking at the Civil War as you’ve probably never seen it before--not as an 11-hour Ken Burns documentary--but as a regional, battle-by-battle blow of North vs. South told in an instant.
That said, it took me a solid 15 minutes to figure out what was going on here. On one hand, that’s not the most flattering point to make about a data visualization. On the other, it’s a testament to the data complexity with which information designers worked in 1897, when the the Comparative Synoptical Chart Company published this history of the Civil War along with other data-dense works.
Once you understand the underlying gimmicks, it’s an impressive piece to be sure. The United States is broken down into a series of columns in a grand vertical timeline. In the loosest possible terms, the Union was working its way left, to Richmond, while the Confederacy worked its way right, to Washington. Yet at the same time, there were several battlefronts operating in unison, depicted in multiple side-by-side columns. And it’s these fronts the chart captures so well. The skirmish lines appear as red, while green (Confederacy) and yellow (Union) armies zigzag back and forth in a fight for territory. Presented en masse, it gives you an appreciation for both the grand choreography and futility of war--along the unparalleled patience of 19th-century data designers, who would have counted and rendered this all meticulously and macro-lessly, by hand.
See more here.
[Hat tip: Slate]
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Top Story: August 21, 2012
Photosynthesizing Insects?
Two years ago, a group of researchers discovered that pea aphids make their own carotenoids—the building blocks of molecules crucial for vision, healthy skin, bone growth, and other key physiological functions. What’s so newsworthy about that? Well, all other animals (including insects!) get these pigments from the food they eat—plants, algae, and fungi.
Scientists understood how the aphids were making the carotenoids—a gene transfer from fungus—but not why. These pigments require a lot of energy to make, so why should pea aphids bother?
Pea aphids come in three colors—white, green, and orange, adapting for their environments. The white exist in regions with limited resources, the green inhabit cold environments; and the orange favor the best conditions. Carotenoids are responsible for body color, so a group of French researchers began their experiments by looking at the differences among these populations.
Within the color groups, the researchers found that each color group contains varying levels of ATP. ATP functions as the energy currency in organisms, sending and transferring power throughout the body, like chemical power lines. White aphids produce the least amount of ATP, green aphids produce much more, and orange aphids produce more in sunlight than in the dark.
This evidence suggests that carotenoids in orange and green aphids may potentially be involved in absorbing light and using the energy to power ATP synthesis.
Nature calls this process photosynthesis-like and Discover’s 80beats blog describes it this way:
These results are certainly suggestive, but they do not prove that carotenoids help aphids turn sunlight into usable energy.
Why do the insects photosynthesize light? Perhaps as energy back-up during tough times, the scientists say.
The study is published in the recent edition of Nature Scientific Reports.
Image: Jpeccoud/Wikipedia
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About Science Today
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Basel Stories and Tips
A Quick Pit Stop in Breisach, Germany
Breisach, Germany Photo, Breisach, Germany
On the way to Colmar and Strasbourg by train, we had to stop in Breisach, Germany to take the bus into France. Why do you ask, "how come you didn't take the train all the way into France instead of having to take the train then the bus to France?" History is responsible for the reason why one has to travel from Freiburg, Germany to France this way, and it will be explained later on in this journal entry.
Breisach is a small town of about 16,500 people in the Baden-Wurtemburg region of Germany. In the old days it was known as Altbreisach, but now it is formally known as Breisach-an-der-Rhine since it is located on the Rhine River. Breisach dates from Celtic times when it was run by Celtic princes and the name Breisach is Celtic for "breakwater." This little city on the Rhine has been through centuries of war, occupation and changes in owner ship starting from Celtic times. The Romans occupied Breisach and called it Brisacus.
During the 13th Century, the Munster of Breisach, St. Stephenmunster was constructed in the Romanesque style of architecture and remains the main attraction of Breisach today. During the 16th Century, Breisach was a stronghold of the Holy Roman Empire and remained the city's main owner for the next three centuries. That was when Breisach wasn't under French attack. The first French attack on Breisach occured in 1638 and after 10 years of war and French occupation, Breisach was given to France in 1648 and was under French control for the next 49 years. In 1697, Breisach was returned to the Holy Roman Empire as terms with the Treaty of Riswick (Riswjk). The War of Spanish Succession began shortly after this and once again in 1703, the French occupied Breisach for another 11 years. Then the Treaty of Rastatt returned Breisach to Holy Roman Empire control until the Austrians annexed the city in 1790. During the French Revolution and wars between France and German states, Breisach suffered damage from the battles that occured there. Breisach was finally returned to German hands for good in 1805 when it was annexed to the state of Baden.
Now to answer your question about how history affected how one can travel from Freiburg, Germany to Alsace, France. In March 1945, the Allies began their final push into Germany by crossing the Rhine River at the French border. Breisach suffered about 85% destruction during this time and that included the rail lines. The French side of the Rhine River and its rails suffered serious damage and never was able to rebuild its rail lines into Germany. So that is why I had to travel from Freiburg to Breisach and then take a crowded sweaty bus into France and Colmar from there.
But I made the best of my little layover in Breisach by walking the streets and checking out the little shops and taking pictures of St. Stephenmunster. There was a little fair going on in Breisach that day for the local wineries but I was too early to sample any wines, but I did discover a knitting store on Breisach's main street and went inside to browse around. I found a beautiful turquoise cotton yarn that changed into several shades of light and dark turquoise and grabbed four skeins of it. The shop's owner showed me some ideas for knitting with this yarn, but to this day I haven't been able to figure out what to do with this yarn. While it was outside on the back porch in a container, my puppies Remy, Dustin and Dewey thought it would make a great toy to play with and one skein is scattered through the back yard. Oh well. Some day I will make something with my Breisach German yarn!
Except for the St. Stephensmunster and some fairs, there is not a lot to see in Breisach, but it is worth a short trip whenever you are heading into France via Freiburg.
Been to this destination?
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March 10, 2014
Homework Help: Emily
Posted by Enghish on Monday, May 9, 2011 at 9:45pm.
Need to find the Adverbs in each sentence.
1. Native Americans originally developed lacrosse. Adverb=originally
2. It was first played by the Iroquois. Adverb=first
3. It was played differently than it is played today. Adverb=differently
4. It was frequently a rough game.
Adeverb= frequently
5. Hundreds of players faced each other bravely. Adverb=faced
6. They felt badly when they lost.
7. They played the games outside. Adverb=played
8. The players spent all day there. Adverb=spent
9. Sometimes the game continued for day. Adverb continued
10. Later lacrosse changes. Adverb=changes
11. Canadians partially changed
the stick and the net. Adverb=partially
12. Lacrosse is a game that is still frequently played by many. Adverb=frequently
13. The audience cheers excitedly when someone makes a goal. Adverb=excitedly
14. At the end of the game, the players often rest. Adverb=rest
15.. The winners are warmly congratulated. Adverb= warmly
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Text only version
The University of Sheffield
Environmental and Geological Sciences home pageGeneral InformationDepartmental StaffResearch InformationGeneral LinksSorby Geology Forum
Environmental and Geological Sciences
Dinosaur Speed Calculator
On Line Calculator for Estimating Dinosaur Speed and Gait
Dinosaur footprint diagram
The key to deriving estimates of dinosaur gait and speed from trackways was provided by the zoologist R. McNeill Alexander (1976). From observations of modern animals he derived a general relationship between an animal's speed of locomotion (v) and its hip height (h) and its stride length (SL), which is
v = 0.25*g0.5*SL1.67*h-1.17
Alexander also pointed out that this formula could be applied to dinosaur trackways since the stride length can be measured directly and the hip height could be estimated from the size of the foot print.
The stride length is the distance between successive prints of the same foot.
Alexander estimated from a range of dinosaur skeletons that the hip height ranged from 3.6 to 4.3 times the foot length and h=4*foot print length has become widely used as a convenient and easily remembered rule of thumb.
The On-line Calculator
The on-line dinosaur speed calculator saves you having to work out Alexander’s rather complex formula for yourself and allows you to input the trackway parameters of stride length and foot size (measured in metres) together with the conversion factor, that you want to use, to relate foot size to hip height. From these it will give estimates of the gait and speed of the animal including speed estimates using another formula recommended by Thulborn (1990).
You can use the calculator with your own data or with the data given elsewhere in this web site. Try using different conversion factors to see what effect this could have on the speed estimate. The calculator can also be used to predict how fast different sized dinosaurs would be moving when they broke into a trot and then accelerated to a run.
Input Foot Length: Input Conversion Factor:
Input Stride Length:
The relative stride length (SL/h) is used to determine whether the animal is walking (SL/h<= 2.0), trotting (SL/h>2.0 and <2.9) or running (SL/h>=2.9)
Alexander's formula
Thulborn's formula
Recalculate Values
Hip Height Conversion Factors
(The On-line Calculator)
Several workers have pointed out that different types of dinosaur had slightly different relationships between foot length and hip height and Thulborn (1990) has suggested that the following approximations could be used for bipedal dinosaurs
FL less than 0.25m
small theropods
small ornithopods
small bipedal dinosaurs in general
FL greater than 0.25m
large theropods
large ornithopods
large bipedal dinosaurs in general
Recommendations for quadrupedal dinosaurs are less clear because in many groups the hind foot or pes has a large padded area. For sauropods Thulborn (1990) has suggested that h=5.9*FL while Lockley et al. (1986) used h=4*the foot width (FW) but a better general estimate may be h=4.6*FL. Published reconstructions and other lines of evidence also suggest the following conversion factors for other groups
Ceratopsians h=4.2*FW
Ankylosaurs h=3.7*FW
Stegosaurs h=6.0*FW or h=5.0*FL
In the stegosaurs there is a very large difference between the height at the hips and the height at the shoulder and the latter, which may be more important in determining speed of movement, can be estimated from the width of the front foot or manus as 3.5*FW.
Gaits and Speed (The On-line Calculator)
From his studies Alexander (1976) showed that the relative stride length, the ratio SL/h, is an indicator of gait. Where the SL/h ratio is less than 2.0 the animal is walking and where it is greater than 2.9 it is running, while intermediate values indicate that the animal is trotting (Thulborn, 1990).
Thulborn (1990) has suggested that for running gaits a better estimate of speed is given by the formula
v= [gh(SL/1.8h)2.56]0.5
He has also recommended that for trotting gaits the mean of his and Alexander’s formulae should be used.
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Self-replicating spacecraft
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Von Neumann Probe)
Jump to: navigation, search
The idea of self-replicating spacecraft has been applied — in theory — to several distinct "tasks". The particular variant of this idea appled to the idea of space exploration is known as a von Neumann probe. Other variants include the Berserker and an automated seeder ship.
In theory, a self-replicating spacecraft could be sent to a neighbouring star-system, where it would seek out raw materials (extracted from asteroids, moons, gas giants, etc.) to create replicas of itself. These replicas would then be sent out to other star systems. The original "parent" probe could then pursue its primary purpose within the star system. This mission varies widely depending on the variant of self-replicating starship proposed.
Given this pattern, and its similarity to the reproduction patterns of bacteria, it has been pointed out that von Neumann machines might be considered a form of life. In his short story, "Lungfish" (see Examples in fiction below), David Brin touches on this idea, pointing out that self-replicating machines launched by different species might actually compete with one another (in a Darwinistic fashion) for raw material, or even have conflicting missions. Given enough variety of "species" they might even form a type of ecology, or — should they also have a form of artificial intelligence — a society. They may even mutate with untold thousands of "generations".
The first quantitative engineering analysis of such a spacecraft was published in 1980 by Robert Freitas,[1] in which the non-replicating Project Daedalus design was modified to include all subsystems necessary for self-replication. The design's strategy was to use the probe to deliver a "seed" factory with a mass of about 443 tons to a distant site, have the seed factory replicate many copies of itself there to increase its total manufacturing capacity, over a 500 year period, and then use the resulting automated industrial complex to construct more probes with a single seed factory on board each.
It has been theorized that a self-replicating starship utilizing relatively conventional theoretical methods of interstellar travel (i.e., no exotic faster-than-light propulsion such as "warp drive", and speeds limited to an "average cruising speed" of 0.1c.) could spread throughout a galaxy the size of the Milky Way in as little as half a million years.[2]
Implications for Fermi's paradox[edit]
In 1981, Frank Tipler[3] put forth an argument that extraterrestrial intelligences do not exist, based on the absence of von Neumann probes. Given even a moderate rate of replication and the history of the galaxy, such probes should already be common throughout space and thus, we should have already encountered them. Because we have not, this shows that extraterrestrial intelligences do not exist. This is thus a resolution to the Fermi paradox—that is, the question of why we have not already encountered extraterrestrial intelligence if it is common throughout the universe.
Applications for self-replicating spacecraft[edit]
Von Neumann probes[edit]
A von Neumann probe is a self-replicating spacecraft designed to investigate its target system and transmit information about it back to its system of origin.[6] The concept is named after Hungarian American mathematician and physicist John von Neumann, who rigorously studied the concept of self-replicating machines that he called "Universal Assemblers" and which are often referred to as "von Neumann machines". While von Neumann never applied his work to the idea of spacecraft, theoreticians since then have done so.
The name is derived from the Berserker series of novels by Fred Saberhagen which feature an ongoing war between humanity and such machines. Saberhagen points out (through one of his characters) that the Berserker warships in his novels are not von Neumann machines themselves, but the larger complex of Berserker machines — including automated shipyards — do constitute a von Neumann machine. This again brings up the concept of an ecology of von Neumann machines, or even a von Neumann hive entity.
It is speculated that Berserkers could be created and launched by a xenophobic civilization (see Anvil of Stars, by Greg Bear, in Examples in fiction below) or could theoretically "mutate" from a more benign probe. For instance, a von Neumann ship designed for terraforming processes — mining a planet's surface and adjusting its atmosphere to more human-friendly conditions — might malfunction and attack inhabited planets, killing their inhabitants in the process of changing the planetary environment, and then self-replicate and dispatch more ships to attack other planets.
Replicating "seeder" ships[edit]
Yet another variant on the idea of the self-replicating starship is that of the "seeder" ship. Such starships might store the genetic patterns of lifeforms from their home world, perhaps even of the species which created it. Upon finding a habitable exoplanet, or even one that might be terraformed, it would try to replicate such lifeforms — either from stored embryos (see: embryo space colonization) or from stored information using molecular nanotechnology to "build" zygotes with varying genetic information from local raw materials.
As a side note, this pattern of terraforming and colonization need not be "automated". Manned interstellar colony ships could follow a similar pattern — and might be considered a sort of a combined von Neumann probe/seeder ship in which replication can be performed by the living inhabitants.
Some proponents of space habitats suggest that planets would be entirely unnecessary to a civilization using this approach. Taken to its extreme, this concept could combine self-replicating habitat ships with technologies such as virtual reality, envatted brains and tissue regeneration to efficiently transform cosmic resources into meaningful subjective lives free from suffering.
Examples in fiction[edit]
Von Neumann probes[edit]
• In Von Neumann's War by John Ringo and Travis S. Taylor (published by Baen Books 2007) Von Neumann probes arrive in the solar system, moving in from the outer planets, converting all metals into gigantic structures. Eventually, they arrive on Earth, wiping out much of the population before they are beaten back by the humanity using their own probes turned against them.
• In Spin by Robert Charles Wilson, earth is veiled by a temporal field. Humanity tries to understand and escape this field by using Von Neumann probes. It is later revealed that the field itself was generated by Von Neumann probes from another civilization, and that a competition for resources had taken place between earth's and aliens probes.
• In the novel Cold As Ice, by Charles Sheffield, there is a segment where the author/physicist describes Von Neumanns harvesting sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, helium-4, and other metals from the atmosphere of Jupiter.
• In the 2003 miniseries reboot of Battlestar Galactica (and the subsequent 2004 series) the cylons are similar to berserkers in their wish to destroy human life. They were created by humans in a group of fictional planets called the twelve colonies. The cylons created special models that look like humans in order to destroy the twelve colonies and later, the fleeing fleet of surviving humans.
• The Babylon 5 episode 'A Day in the Strife' features a probe that threatens the station with destruction unless a series of questions designed to test a civilisation's level of advancement are answered correctly. The commander of the station correctly surmises that the probe is actually a berserker and that if the questions are answered the probe would identify them as a threat to its originating civilisation and detonate.
• On Stargate SG-1 the Replicators were a vicious race of insect-like robots that were originally created by an android named Reese to serve as toys. They grew beyond her control and began evolving, eventually spreading throughout at least two galaxies. In addition to ordinary autonomous evolution they were able to analyze and incorporate new technologies they encountered into themselves, ultimately making them one of the most advanced "races" known. (there is now evidence in a more recent episode of Stargate Atlantis that the Ancients are the original creators of the Replicators and Reese may have just been able to activate and control some)
• In the computer game Sword of the Stars, the player may randomly encounter "Von Neumann". A Von Neumann mothership appears along with smaller Von Neumann probes, which attack and consume the player's ships. The probes then return to the mothership, returning the consumed material. If probes are destroyed, the mothership will create new ones. If all the player's ships are destroyed, the Von Neumann probes will reduce the planets resource levels before leaving. The probes appear as blue octahedrons, with small spheres attached to the apical points. The mothership is a larger version of the probes. In the 2008 expansion A Murder of Crows, Kerberos Productions also introduces the VN Berserker, which is either an upgrade of or a construction by the previously-mentioned von Neumann motherships/probes. The VN Berserker will, after wearing down any planetary defenses, destroy all colonists on any planet it attacks.
• The Star Wars Expanded Universe features the World Devastators, large ships designed and built by the Galactic Empire that tear apart planets to use its materials to build other ships or even upgrade or replicate themselves.
Replicating "seeder" ships[edit]
• Stephen Baxter's novel Manifold: Space starts with the discovery of alien self-replicating machines active within the Solar system.
• On the Stargate Atlantis episode "Remnants", the Atlantis team finds an ancient probe that they later learn was launched by a now-extinct, technologically advanced race in order to seed new worlds and re-propagate their sulphur-based species. The probe communicated with inhabitants of Atlantis by means of hallucinations.
• On Stargate Universe the human adventurers live on a ship called Destiny. Its mission was to connect a network of Stargates, placed by preceding seeder ships, on planets capable of supporting life to allow instantaneous travel between them.
See also[edit]
6. ^ A Self-Reproducing Interstellar Probe
7. ^ Nick Bostrom 2003 Ethical Issues in Advanced Artificial Intelligence — section 2
8. ^ The complete text of the story has been placed on the author's website at
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BBC Home
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Teachers: Citizenship: Globalisation Political
Last Updated: Tuesday November 09 2004 16:57 GMT
Afghanistan in ruins
Citizenship 11-14/KS3/Levels E&F
Globalisation - political implications
Afghan kids
Environment experts from the United Nations say fighting has ravaged the land.
This activity allows students to imagine how they would help rebuild the country.
Learning aims
• The meaning of the term global interdependence
• Why rich countries help poorer countries
• Match types of international aid to their scenarios
Read the group the news story:
Why should America help the Afghans?
Explain that no country can be completely independent from the rest of the world, all countries rely on each other.The events of September 11 show how problems cross boundaries.
Warm up
Will you help your neighbour?
Students imagine they are one country, and the class next door are another. What would be the consequences for their country if they didn't help the country next door in the following scenarios?
The farmers in the next door country can't make a decent living, they don't have the money to buy modern equipment. An easy way to get money is to grow some illegal drugs.
Violent crime
The police in the next door country are having problems with a group of violent gangsters. They don't have enough manpower to catch them and lock them up. What will happen to your country if you don't help?
There has been a war in the country next door, millions of refugees are on the move trying to avoid getting shot at. The refugee camps are all full and there is no money to build any more.
There is a dangerous disease spreading in the next door country. The health service there is not very good, and they don't have the medicines or doctors they need to stop the disease.
Jobs and money
People in the country next door have always been good customers for the products made in your factories. Now there is a recession in the country next door and many people are losing their jobs.
Ask students: What is global interdependence? The way that events in one country affect people living in other countries around the world is called global interdependence.
Main activity
Match types of aid to types of projects
The US government has made money available to rebuild Afghanistan. Students working in small groups must match the correct type of aid to the correct project.
For each project they choose from these four aid options. They should give each option a mark out of ten.
Types of Aid
• Give money to the Afghan government and let them help their own people
• Get the united United Nations to collect money from lots of countries. The UN gives Afghanistan a certain amount each year
• Give money to the charity Oxfam and let them use their expert staff
• Give money directly to Afghan people who are trying to help themselves
The projects
• Rebuilding the roads in Kabul
• Making sure there is enough money to pay doctors' wages
• Building new schools
• Training a new army
• Looking after people in refugee camps
• Helping Afghan people to set up their own businesses
Is there one type of aid that works for all projects?
Extension activity
For two of the projects write an explanation of why certain types of aid were rejected, or given a low score.
No country is independent of global affairs - rich countries help poor countries for several reasons - recap some examples, can students think of any more?
Teachers' Background
Germany puts the cost of reconstructing Afghanistan at about $6 billion, although an official United Nations estimate has yet to be reached.
Very little works in Afghanistan. Electricity is unreliable, many roads are unusable, and municipal water systems have been destroyed.
Less than a quarter of the population has access to safe water and only 12% of people have access to adequate sanitation.
Agriculture has been severely disrupted, with a vast number of Afghans earning a living by growing opium poppies.
The UN plans to offer them "alternative livelihood strategies".
Aid agencies plan to provide farmers with seeds and help with irrigation.
But Mr Malloch Brown says the ultimate aim is self-sufficiency.
The United Nations Development Programme has drawn up reconstruction guidelines spanning a period of five to eight years.
Rebuilding Afghanistan's shattered cities will be high on the list.
Other priorities are roads, agriculture, water, sewage, de-mining, health and education.
• BBC Homepage >> | CBBC Homepage >>
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Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Jump to: navigation, search
Wikipedia has an article on:
From Middle English schaken, from Old English sceacan, scacan (to shake). from Proto-Germanic *skakaną (to shake, swing, escape), from Proto-Indo-European *(s)keg-, *(s)kek- (to jump, move). Cognate with Scots schake, schack (to shake), West Frisian schaekje (to shake), Dutch schaken (to elope, make clean, shake), Low German schacken (to shake), Swedish skaka (to shake), Dutch schokken (to shake, shock), Russian скакать (skakatʹ, to jump). More at shock.
shake (third-person singular simple present shakes, present participle shaking, simple past shook, past participle shaken)
The earthquake shook the building.
Shaking his head, he kept repeating "No, no, no".
to shake fruit down from a tree
4. (transitive) To disturb emotionally; to shock.
her father's death shook her terribly; he was shaken by what had happened
I can't shake the feeling that I forgot something.
6. (intransitive) To move from side to side.
She shook with grief.
OK, let's shake on it.
8. (intransitive) To dance.
She was shaking it on the dance floor.
9. To give a tremulous tone to; to trill.
to shake a note in music
Derived terms[edit]
shake (plural shakes)
1. The act of shaking something.
The cat gave the mouse a shake.
2. A milkshake.
5. (building material) A thin shingle.
7. A fissure in rock or earth.
11. A shook of staves and headings.
Derived terms[edit]
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Google Doodle Honors Hertz
Today's Google Doodle is a wave form. This is to commemorate German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, born 155 years ago today. Hertz proved by experiment the existence of electromagnetic waves. His research led to the development of radio, TV, and radar, although he dismissed its importance at the time. Hertz' name even became a unit of frequency, abbreviated at Hz.
Despite this global fame, the Nazis tried to expunge Hertz's name from history. While Hertz identified as a Lutheran, his father grew up as a Jew.
"Hertz’s reputation was actively denigrated by the Nazis, who forced his wife and daughters to flee Germany because, despite strong Lutheran roots, they were considered Jews," writes the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in its profile of Hertz. "One Nazi functionary attempted to overturn the use of the term 'Hertz,'... He suggested to the Physical Society of Berlin that instead they use the term 'Helmholtz,' [after Hertz's teacher Hermann von Helmholtz] which would cleverly maintain the abbreviation 'Hz' for the benefit of foreign colleagues. Despite the climate of anti-Semitism, German scientists refused to go along with this plan. 'Hertz' remained and remains in use both in Germany and around the world."
Also: the logo is confusing some people.
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Lenape Explained
Poptime:13,500 Unami and 400 Munsee http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=91162
Popplace:United States (Oklahoma, Kansas, Wisconsin, New Jersey, Delaware)
Canada (Ontario)
Rels:Christianity, other
Langs:English, Lenape
Related:other Algonquian peoples
The Lenape (later named Delaware Indians by Europeans) are organized bands of Native American peoples with shared cultural and linguistic characteristics.
These are the people who are living in what is now New Jersey and along the Delaware River in Pennsylvania, the northern shore of Delaware, and the lower Hudson Valley and New York Harbor in New York, at the time of the arrival of the Europeans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries — and some continue to live in this area today. Their Algonquian language is known as either Lenape or "Delaware".
The Lenape practiced large-scale agriculture to augment a mobile hunter-gatherer society in the region around the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape were largely a sedentary people who occupied campsites seasonally, resulting in relatively easy access to the small game that inhabited the region: fish, birds, shellfish and deer. They developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources. By the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique, which extended the productive life of planted fields. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bays of the area[1] ; clams were harvested year-round in southern New Jersey.[2] The success of these methods allowed the tribe to maintain a larger population than nomadic hunter-gatherers were able to support. It has been estimated that at the time of European settlement there might have been about 15,000 Lenape total in approximately 80 settlement sites around much of what is now the New York metropolitan area, alone.[3] Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano, the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor, in 1524.
Early Indian "tribes" are perhaps better understood as language groups, rather than as "nations." At the time of first European contact a Lenape individual would likely have identified primarily with his or her immediate family and friends, or village unit; then with surrounding and familiar village units; next with more distant neighbors who spoke the same dialect; and ultimately, while often fitfully, with all those in the surrounding area who spoke mutually comprehensible languages, including the Mahican. Among other Algonquian peoples the Lenape were considered the "grandfathers" from whom all the other Algonquian peoples originated. Consequently, in inter-tribal councils, the Lenape were given the respect as one would to their elders.
Those of a different language stock - such as the Iroquois (or, in the Lenape language, the Minqua) - were regarded as foreigners, often, as in the case of the Iroquois, with animosity spanning many generations. (Ethnicity seems to have mattered little to the Lenape and many other "tribes," as illustrated by archaeological discoveries of Munsee burials that included identifiably ethnic Iroquois remains carefully interred along with those of ethnic-Algonquian Munsee. The two groups were bitter enemies since before recorded history, although intermarriage, perhaps through captive-taking, clearly occurred).
Overlaying these relationships was a phratry system, a division into clans. Clan membership was matrilineal, that is, children inherited membership in a clan from their mother. On reaching adulthood, a Lenape traditionally married outside of the clan, a practice known by ethnographers as, "exogamy", which effectively served to prevent inbreeding, even among individuals whose kinship was obscure or unknown.
Early Europeans who first wrote about Indians found matrilineal social organization to be unfamiliar and perplexing. Because of this, Europeans often tried to interpret Lenape society through more familiar European arrangements. As a result the early records are full of clues about early Lenape society, but were usually written by observers who did not fully understand what they were seeing. For example, a man's closest male ancestor was usually considered to be his maternal uncle (his mother's brother) and not his father, since his father belonged to a different clan. Such a concept was often unfathomable to early European chroniclers.
Land was assigned to a particular clan for hunting, fishing, and cultivation. Individual private ownership of land was unknown, but rather the land belonged to the clan collectively while they inhabited it.[4] Clans lived in fixed settlements, using the surrounding areas for communal hunting and planting until the land was exhausted, at which point the group moved on to find a new settlement within their territories.
European contact
According to Dutch settler Isaac de Rasieres, who observed the Lenape in 1628, the Lenape's primary crop was maize, which they planted in March. The metal tools of the Europeans were adopted quickly for this task. In May, the Lenape planted kidney beans in the vicinity of the maize plants which would serve as props for the climbing vines. The summers were devoted to field work and the crops were harvested in August. Most of the field work was carried out by women, with the agricultural work of men limited to clearing the field and breaking the soil. Hunting was the primary activity during the rest of the year. Dutch settler David de Vries, who stayed in the area from 1634 to 1644, described a Lenape hunt in the valley of the Achinigeu-hach (or "Ackingsah-sack," the Hackensack River), in which one hundred or more men stood in a line many paces from each other, beating thigh bones on their palms to drive animals to the river, where they could be killed easily. Other methods of hunting included lassoing and drowning deer, as well as forming a circle around prey and setting the brush on fire.In 1634, the Susquehannocks went to war with the Lenape over access to trade with the Dutch at Manhattan. The Lenape were defeated and some scholars believe that the Lenape may have become tributaries to the Susquehannocks.[5] Afterwards they referred to the Susquehannocks as "uncles".
The quick dependence of the Lenape on European goods, and the need for fur to trade with the Europeans, eventually resulted in a disaster with an over-harvesting of the beaver population in the lower Hudson. The fur source thus exhausted, the Dutch shifted their operations to present-day Upstate New York. The Lenape population fell into disease and decline. Likewise, the differences in conceptions of property rights between the Europeans and the Lenape resulted in widespread confusion among the Lenape and the loss of their lands. After the Dutch arrival in the 1620s, the Lenape were successful in their efforts to restrict Dutch settlement to Pavonia in present-day Jersey City along the Hudson until the 1660s, when the Dutch finally established a garrison at Bergen, allowing settlement west of the Hudson within the province of New Netherlands.
The Treaty of Easton, signed between the Lenape and the English in 1758, removed them westward, out of present-day New York and New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, then Ohio and beyond - although sporadic raids on English settlers continued, staged from far outside the area.
The Lenape were the first Indian tribe ever to enter into a treaty with the United States government, with the Treaty of Fort Pitt signed during the American Revolutionary War. The Lenape supplied the Continental Army with warriors and scouts in exchange for food supplies and may have been misled by an undocumented promise of a role at the head of a future native American state.[6]
Nineteenth and twentieth centuries
In the early nineteenth century, a naturalist named Rafinesque claimed to have found and reported the existence of the Walam Olum, an alleged religious history of the Lenape, which he published in 1836. However, only Rafinesque's manuscript exists; the tablets upon which his writings were allegedly based either were never found, or never existed. Most authorities and scholars consider the document a hoax. [7]
The Lenape continually were crowded out by European settlers and pressed to move in several stages over a period of 176 years, with the main body arriving in the northeast region of Oklahoma in the 1860s. Along the way many smaller groups left, or were told to stay where they were. Consequently today, from New Jersey to Wisconsin to southwest Oklahoma, there are groups which retained a sense of identity with their ancestors that were in the Delaware Valley in the 17th century and with their cousins in the Lenape diaspora. The two largest are:
Most members of the Munsee branch of the Lenape live on three Indian reservations in Western Ontario, Canada, the largest being that at Moraviantown, Ontario where the Turtle clan settled in 1792.
The Oklahoma branches were established in 1867, with the purchase of land by Delawares from the Cherokee nation; two payments totaling $438,000 were made. A court dispute then followed over whether the sale included rights for the Delaware within the Cherokee nation. The Curtis Act of 1898 dissolved tribal governments and ordered the allotment of tribal lands to individual members of tribes. The Lenape fought the act in the courts but lost: the courts ruling, in 1867, that they had only purchased rights to the land for their lifetimes. The lands were allotted in 160 acre (650,000 m²) lots in 1907, with any land left over sold to non-Indians.
In 1979, the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs revoked the tribal status of the Delaware living among Cherokee in Oklahoma, and included the Delaware as Cherokee. This decision was finally overturned in 1996. The Cherokee Nation then filed suit to overturn the recognition of the Delaware as a tribe.
In 2004 the Delaware of Oklahoma sued Pennsylvania over land lost in 1800-which was related to the so called "walking Purchase" of 1737. See http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1074259221938 and http://www.delawaretribeofindians.nsn.us/walking_purchase.html
Lenape nations today
Notable Lenape
The Delawares feature prominently in The Last of the Mohicans and the other Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper.
The Walam Olum, which purported to be an account of the Delawares' migration to the lands around the Delaware River, emerged through the works of Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in the nineteenth century and was considered by scholars for many decades to be genuine, until around the 1980s and 1990s, when newer textual analysis suggested it was a hoax. Nonetheless, some Delawares, upon hearing of it for the first time, found the account to be plausible.
In Cormac McCarthy's Blood Meridian the group of American scalphunters are aided by an unspecified number of Delaware Indians (5-6 minimum), who serve as scouts and guides through the western deserts.
In The Light in the Forest, True Son is adopted by a band of Lenapes.
In the 1938 Mark Raymond Harrington book Dickon Among the Indians, a group of Lenapes find a young white child whom they then proceeded to raise as their own. The book goes into detail of Lenape life, society, weaponry, and beliefs, and includes a glossary for many Lenape terms used throughout the book.
See also
External links
Notes and References
1. Mark Kurlansky, 2006.
2. D. Dreibelbis, 1978.
3. Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, 1999.
4. see New Amsterdam for discussion of the Dutch "purchase" of Manhattan
5. F. Jennings, p. 117
6. Lenape Lady, Delaware Treaty, 1778.
7. Oestreicher, David, 1994
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Current Environment:
What is a bunion?
A bunion is a bony bump at the base of the big toe. It develops when the joint that connects the toe to the foot becomes enlarged and sticks out. When children have bunions, they typically have them in both feet.
Most bunions do not require treatment. However, some bunions grow larger over time, causing the big toe to angle in toward the second toe and making wearing any type of shoe is painful. As the big toe angles further toward the second toe, the bunion becomes more prominent. This can cause rubbing on shoes and irritation of the skin and tissue overlying the bone. The pressure from the big toe can force the second toe out of alignment, sometimes overlapping with the third toe.
Illustration of a bunion
While bunions are most common among adult women, they also can occur in tweens and teens between the ages of 10 and 15. Teenage girls are three times more likely than boys to get bunions.
What causes bunions?
The exact cause of bunions is unknown. In adolescents, bunions are often an inherited family trait.
Some conditions, such as cerebral palsy and Down syndrome, increase a child’s risk of having bunions.
In adults, tight shoes that squeeze the toes together can increase the risk of developing bunions, but this is rarely the cause in children.
What are the symptoms of bunions?
Symptoms of adolescent bunions vary depending on how severe they are. While most bunions are not painful, symptoms can include:
• redness and swelling at the base of the big toe
• a sore bump at the base of the big toe
• pain and trouble wearing shoes
• pain when walking
Bunion symptoms may resemble other conditions or medical problems. Always consult your child's physician for a diagnosis.
How are bunions diagnosed?
Your child should be evaluated by a pediatric orthopedic specialist. The doctor will ask about your child’s medical history and perform a careful physical examination of your child. This will involve observing your child's:
• foot alignment
• weight-bearing alignment
• walking and running gait
• mobility of the affected toe joint
The surgeon will also want to know what kind of shoes your child wears and what types of shoes aggravate the symptoms. They will try to determine whether any pain caused by the bunion is due to specific activities, and whether the bunion is causing any functional limitations.
X-ray imaging may be used to help determine the extent of the damage and deformity of the toe joint.
How are bunions treated?
Well-fitting shoes
Most bunions, particularly in teenagers, can be managed without surgery. The first step is often replacing tight shoes with shoes that don’t press against the bunions or cause your child pain when they walk. Your child's orthopedic surgeon can give you information about the types of shoes and proper shoe fit. Here are some general rules for selecting shoes:
• Have your both of your child's feet measured regularly and select shoes that fit the larger foot.
• Select shoes based on how they fit your child's foot, particularly the width of the forefoot.
• Make sure the ball of your child's foot fits well into the widest part of the shoe.
• Make sure your child's heels fit comfortably in the shoes, with little or no slippage.
• Have your child walk around the store in the shoes to make sure they are comfortable to walk in.
• Do not purchase tight shoes hoping they will stretch over time.
Some shoes (and skates or ski boots) can be made more comfortable by stretching the areas that put pressure on your child's big toes.
Your child should wear their well-fitting shoes all the time. Switching back to poorly fitting shoes that squeeze the toes will be painful and could increase the risk that your child’s bunions will become larger and more painful.
Your child's orthopedic surgeon may recommend splints to reposition the big toe and special shoe inserts (orthotics). Orthotics are padding shaped to your child’s feet to help relieve pain from bunions.
Surgery is not recommended for teenagers with bunions unless they have first replaced poorly fitting shoes, are using an orthotic, or both. If they still have severe foot pain that limits their everyday activities, surgery may be an option.
The goal of surgery is to relieve pain and correct the deformity. Surgery for cosmetic reasons alone is not recommended.
Some of the most common bunion surgeries include:
• Traditional bunion correction. The bones around the toe joint are surgically cut and repositioned. They are held in place with screws or a metal plate and screws while the bone heals.
• Minimally invasive bunion surgery. This procedure is similar to traditional bunion correction in that the bone is cut and repositioned. However, the incisions are much smaller and patients typically recover more quickly.
• Repair of tendons and ligaments. The tendons and ligaments surrounding the big toe may be tight on one side and loose on the other. This imbalance pulls the big toe toward the smaller toes. The procedure to correct this shortens the loose tissues and straightens the tight tissues. It is often combined with an osteotomy in traditional bunion correction.
• Exostectomy. The bump on the toe joint is surgically removed. This procedure is only used if the bone is enlarged but the big toe position is normal.
How we care for bunions
The Lower Extremity Program at Boston Children's Hospital offers comprehensive assessment, diagnosis, and treatment for children of all ages with bunions and other conditions affecting their lower limbs. We have extensive experience treating disorders of the feet, ankles, knees, legs, and hips. Whether the patient is an infant, child, or adolescent, our goal is to help children live full, independent lives.
Bunions | Programs & Services
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Special Report
History’s Most Famous Traitors
Source: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
La Malinche (1500-1529)
La Malinche, also known as Doña Marina, was born to an Aztec chieftain and his mistress in the 16th century. After her father died and the mistress remarried, Marina was sold into slavery. When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Western Hemisphere, she became a courtesan of Spanish leader Hernán Cortés. Her knowledge of the indigenous culture proved invaluable in helping the Spanish defeat the Aztecs.
Today, she is despised by Mexicans as a turncoat who deceived her people for money and power.
Source: Photos.com / PHOTOS.com>> via Getty Images
Guy Fawkes (1570-1606)
Guy Fawkes was a participant in the so-called Gunpowder Plot in 1605 to blow up the palace at Westminster while Parliament was in session and King James I was present. The scheme was hatched by English Catholics and intended as a reprisal against the oppression of Catholics in England. Fawkes, a military man and recent convert to Catholicism, helped plant barrels of gunpowder in a cellar that extended underneath the palace. The plot was foiled, Fawkes was caught, and on the day of his execution he fell off the gallows ladder and broke his neck.
The British celebrate Guy Fawkes Day every Nov. 5 by firing off fireworks and burning effigies of the conspirator, and children traditionally request “a penny for the guy.”
Source: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
Mir Jafar (1691-1765)
One of the reasons why the British were eventually able to take control of all of India in the 19th century was because of an 18th-century collaborator named Mir Jafar. He was the military commander-in-chief of the powerful ruler Siraj-ud-daula who ruled the region of Bengal. The British bribed Jafar by promising him the Bengali throne in exchange for helping the outnumbered British win the Battle of Plassey on June 23, 1757. The king of Bengal was captured and executed. Jafar became a puppet ruler of Bengal under the British and his name has become synonymous with duplicity in India.
Source: Hulton Archive / Getty Images
Benedict Arnold (1741-1801)
Benedict Arnold is the most famous traitor in U.S. history, and certainly among America’s most complicated historical figures. During the American Revolution, Arnold distinguished himself on the battlefield, in particular with his tactical skills in helping defeat the British at the crucial Battle of Saratoga in 1777. He resented the fact that other military leaders took credit for his success. He also was under financial pressure, partly because of his wifes lavish lifestyle.
In need of money, and smarting from the refusal of Congress to promote him, he began spying for the British. He sent coded messages to British major John André about the defenses of West Point. André was caught with the messages that implicated Arnold and hanged. Arnold openly joined the British side and after the war fled to England where he remained for the rest of his life.
Source: Public Domain / Wikimedia Commons
Mir Sadiq (late 18th century)
Another story of betrayal in India involves Mir Sadiq. He was a minister under Tipu Sultan, the so-called Tiger of Mysore. During the fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1799, Sadiq betrayed Tipu Sultan and sided with the British, paving the way for a British victory. As a result, Sultan died during the siege of Srirangapatnam.
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Medicare and Medicaid are two insurance programs run by the government.
They were created in the year 1965 by President Lyndon Johnson’s under his programs for great society. The two programs ensured that Americans of low income or senior citizens could access private health insurance.
The Medicare and Medicaid program share the financial burden of taking care of illnesses equally between the rich, the low-income households, the healthy, and the sick. Although these two programs are run and funded by parts of the government, each one of the programs is unique.
Medicare is a federally run program that provides health insurance coverage to individuals that are 65 years or older. The program also caters for people who are below 65 but have a severe disability.
Medicaid, on the other hand, is a state and federal program that provides health coverage for individuals that are from low-income backgrounds.
Some people, therefore, might qualify for both Medicare and Medicaid program. Individuals who qualify for both programs enjoy low-cost care because both the programs collaborate to achieve this. Some of the patients that qualify for both the covers include those that have severe disabilities and are from low-income households.
Although the government runs both programs, there are differences in the services covered, the duration, and the cost-sharing programs. A long term care program is critical for guaranteeing the health of seniors since most of them have medical conditions that require a long term care program to manage.
Importance of Medicare and Medicaid
Medicare and Medicaid program are critical at promoting the health of the old and the vulnerable in the society.
These two programs enable people from low-income households to access healthcare coverage. This allows the people to afford medical procedures and processes that they could never have afforded otherwise.
Medicaid advantages help to ensure that when citizens are older, they have access to quality medical care because that is when they need it most. According to research, as people get older, their vital organs start to deteriorate. At the old age, people are also vulnerable to poor health due to past injuries or a weak immune system.
The importance of Medicare and Medicaid is highlighted in the number of people it enables to access quality healthcare, thus saving lives. Other Medicaid advantages include services such as inpatient and outpatient care as well as doctor services.
Medicare and Medicaid facts
Medicare rules and regulations are relatively simple.
They include concepts such as what does Medicaid not cover and what Medicaid covers. Other essential policies include the Medicare home health care regulations.
Some interesting Medicare and Medicaid facts include the requirement for patients to pay a little amount in the form of deductibles or co-pay. This money is the amount that patients are required to contribute during the treatment period. In most of the times, however, this amount is small and only payable once.
Medicare rules and regulations are made by the federal authority that administers the program. Medicare home health care regulations stipulate what home care is and how it is to be delivered and covered by the insurance program.
Who pays for Medicaid and Medicare?
This question is in the minds of many people.
Medicaid is paid for by the federal government and the state governments. There are several ways to pay for long term care. The federal government pays the states for a share of the program expenditures known as the federal medical assistance percentage (FMAP).
Each state is paid a different amount of the FMAP based on the per capita income of the residents among other factors. Medicare, on the other hand, is funded by the social security administration. Taxpayers pay 1.45 percent through the federal contributions act.
Employers, on the other hand, pay 1.45 percent to bring it to 2.9 percent. The question on who pays for Medicaid and Medicare can be best answered by stating that ultimately, it is the taxpayers who pay for these programs through remittances and taxes.
What does Medicaid not cover?
Many people often ask, ‘what does Medicaid not cover?’ If you are among these people, you need to know that Medicaid does not cover long-term care. It only covers the costs of doctor visits, hospital expenses, and nursing home care.
If a patient requires long-term care by a skilled nurse, Medicaid does not cover for this and the patient may require taking another policy or paying for the services. Programs such as united healthcare assisted living require clients to have private insurance. Other ways to pay for long term care include private insurance and cash options.
Long-term care
Long-term care is providing services to patients who require an extended period to heal or rehabilitate.
Long term care can also be extended to patients who are not able to take care of their health and well-being.
The average cost of dementia care is $2,700-$6,000 per month depending on the state you’re in. With the average cost of dementia care being very high, only Medicare can help the affected person receive the long-term care he or she needs. Long term acute care Medicare policies are friendly.
Medicare long term acute care is mostly provided at no cost or at a low cost. For instance, long term acute care Medicare options allow patients to enjoy the first sixty days for free. Medicare long term acute care can be costly if a patient exceeds ninety days while as an inpatient. This is because the patient is required to cover the cost if his or her stay as an inpatient on the primary plan exceeds ninety days.
What is extended care? Extended care involves offering nursing care to patients who need it for 24 hours. Answering what is extended care helps us to understand what a skilled nursing facility is. This is a facility that provides skilled nursing services to patients who require these services in-house and for an extended period.
Who pays for long term care?
Long term care is usually paid for by insurance programs that are privately funded in conjunction with the government. Essentially, who pays for long term care? Well, it’s the taxpayers through their remittances to the government.
What part of Medicare covers long term care?
The answer to the question on what part of Medicare covers long term care can be found on the website. Part A covers the long term acute care and services such as rehabilitation, pain management, and respiratory therapy.
Long term care vs nursing home
Reviewing long term care vs nursing home is interesting. Long term care can be administered in a hospital for patients who require assistance in certain activities. Nursing homes, on the other hand, are appropriate for patients who need round the clock nursing care such as united healthcare assisted living.
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Pedro Reis
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Using failure to design flexible objects
On the first day of class, engineers learn that they should avoid using materials that might tear, bend, fold, or buckle. In other words: Failure is something to guard against, not embrace. Pedro Reis asked: Are there situations in which mechanical instability, well understood and carefully optimized, could be used to build something better? As his work has shown, the answer is an emphatic yes.
Reis’s lab at MIT looks more like a playroom than a workspace. It is strewn with toy-like objects such as squishy spheres that fold and collapse and silicone rods that curl and bend. In their flaws, Reis sees strengths: the basis for soft, agile robots and joints manufactured from a single piece of material. He also gleans lessons from ordinary phenomena and then applies them to his work. After studying the way tape tears into triangles when peeled off the roll, Reis and colleagues invented a new way to manufacture graphene nanoribbons.
“Through his work, he learns the fundamental principles of everyday mechanics—for example, how a cat laps water, how we scrape butter, or how hairs curl—and transfers this understanding to the solution of engineering problems,” says Chiara Daraio, a materials scientist and engineer at Caltech and ETH Zurich and a 2010 Brilliant Ten honoree. Reis’s most recent fascination is very thin materials—a bugaboo for most engineers.”Where things get thin,” Reis says, “they get interesting.”
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Banner: Knocknarea at Sunset.
Newgrange before excavations and restorations. Photograph by William A. Green.
An early image of Newgrange before excavations and restorations. Photograph by William A. Green.
Newgrange and the Great Pyramid Compared
W. Y. Evans Wentz.
Caliph Al Mamoun in A. D. 820, by a forced passage, was the first in modern times to enter the Great Pyramid, and he found nowhere a mummy or any indications that the structure had ever been used as a tomb for the dead. The King's Chamber, so named by us moderns, proved to be a keen disappointment for its first violator, for in it there was neither gold nor silver nor anything at all worth carrying away. The magnificent chamber contained nothing save an empty stone chest without a lid. Archaeologists in Egypt and archaeologists in Ireland face the same unsolved problem, namely, the purpose of the empty stone chest without inscriptions and quite unlike a mummy tomb, and of the stone basin in New Grange.
The first drawing of Newgrange by Edward Lhuyd, 1699, showing the mound to be a huge truncated cone of stone with a standing stone at the summit.
Certain Egyptologists have supposed that some royal personage must have been buried in the curious granite coffer, though there can be only their supposition to support them, for they have absolutely no proof that such is true, while there is strong circumstantial evidence to show that such is not true. Sir Gardner Wilkinson in his well-known publications has already suggested that the stone chest as well as the Great Pyramid itself were never intended to hold a corpse; and it is generally admitted by Egyptologists that no sarcophagus intended for a mummy has ever been found so high up in the body of a pyramid as this empty stone chest, except in the Second Pyramid. Incontestable evidence in support of the highly probable theory that the Great Pyramid was not intended for an actual tomb can be drawn from two important facts:--
(1) 'the coffer-has certain remarkable cubic proportions which show a care and design beyond what could be expected in any burial-coffer'--according to the high authority of Dr. Flinders Petrie;
(2) the chamber containing the coffer and the upper passage-ways have ventilating channels not known in any other Pyramid, so that apparently there must have been need of frequent entrance into the chamber by living men, as would be the case if used, as we hold, for initiation ceremonies.
It is well known that very many of the megalithic monuments of the New Grange type scattered over Europe, especially from the Carnac centre of Brittany to the Tara-Boyne centre of Ireland, have one thing in common, an astronomical arrangement like the Great Pyramid, and an entrance facing one of the points of the solstices, usually either the winter solstice, which is common, or the summer solstice.
Plan of Newgrange.
Plan of Newgrange showing solstice axis.
The puzzle has always been to discover the exact arrangement of the Great Pyramid by locating its main entrance. A Californian, Mr. Louis P. McCarty, in his recent (1907) work entitled The Great Pyramid Jeezeh, suggests with the most logical and reasonable arguments that the builders of the Pyramid have placed its main entrance in an undiscovered passage-way beneath the Great Sphinx, now half-buried in the shifting desert sands. If it can be shown that the Sphinx is the real portal, and many things tend to indicate that it is, the Great Pyramid is built on the same plan as New Grange, that is to say, it opens to the south-east, and like New Grange contains a narrow passageway leading to a central chamber. South-easterly from the centre of the Pyramid lies the Sphinx, 5,380 feet away, a distance equal to 'just five times the distance of the "diagonal socket length" of the Great Pyramid from the centre of the Subterranean Chamber, under the Pyramid, to the supposed entrance under the Sphinx' --a distance quite in keeping with the mighty proportions of the wonderful structure.
And what is important, several eminent archaeologists have worked out the same conclusion, and have been seeking to connect the two monuments by making excavations in the Queen's Chamber, where it is supposed there exists a tunnel to the Sphinx. In all this we should bear in mind that the present entrance to the Pyramid is the forced one made by the treasure-seeking Caliph.
The passage at Newgrange bt W. A. Green.
The passage at Newgrange by W. A. Green shows how the passage-stones or orthostats have leaned inwards over time. Photograph © NMNI.
This very probable astronomical parallelism between the great Egyptian monument and the Irish one would establish their common religious, or, in a mystic sense, their funereal significance. In the preceding chapter we have set forth what symbolical relation the sun, its rising and setting, and its death at the winter equinox, were anciently supposed to hold to the doctrines of human death and re-birth. Jubainville, regarding the sun among the Celts in its symbolical relation to death, wrote, 'In Celtic belief, the dead go to live beyond the Ocean, to the south-west, there where the sun sets during the greater part of the year.'
This, too, as M. Maspero shows, was an Egyptian belief; while, as equally among the Celts, the east, especially the south-east, where, after the winter solstice, the sun seems to be re-born or to rise out of the underworld of Hades into which it goes when it dies, is symbolical of the reverse--Life, Resurrection, and Re-birth. In this last Celtic-Egyptian belief, we maintain, may be found the reason why the chief megalithic monuments (dolmens, tumuli, and alignements), in Celtic countries and elsewhere, have their directions east and west, and why those like New Grange and Gavrinis open to the sunrise, and on the Greek temples also opened to the sunrise, and on the divine image within fell the first rays of the beautiful god Apollo. In the great Peruvian sun-temple at Cuzco, a splendid disk of pure gold faced the east, and, reflecting the first rays of the rising sun, illuminated the whole sanctuary.'
Thre stones from the Great Circle at Newgrange, photographed by William A. Green.
Four of the Great Circle stones at Newgrange photographed by William A. Green. These massive rocks are 2.5 meters high and weigh several tons. The circle was erected quite some time after the mound of Newgrange was finished.
How Christianity was Shaped by Paganism.
The cave-temple of the Florida Red Men opened eastward, and within its entrance on festival days stood the priest at dawn watching for the first ray of the sun, as a sign to begin the chant and offering. The East Indian performs the ablution at dawn in the sacred Ganges, and stands facing the east meditating, as Brahma appears in all the wondrous glory of a tropical sunrise. And in the same Aryan land there is an opposite worship: the dreaded Thugs, worshippers of devils and of Kali the death-goddess, in their most diabolical rites face the west and the sunset, symbols of death.
The chamber of Newgrange by W. A. Green.
The chamber of Newgrange, photographed by W. A. Green, shows the granite basin in the centre of the chamber and containing liquid.
How Christianity was shaped by paganism is nowhere clearer than in the orientation of great cathedral churches (almost without exception in England), for all of the more famous ones have their altars eastward; and Roman Catholics in prayer in their church services, and Anglicans in repeating the Creed, turn to the east, as the Hindu does. St. Augustine says:--'When we stand at prayer, we turn to the east, where the heaven arises, not as though God were only there, and had forsaken all other parts of the world, but to admonish our mind to turn to a more excellent nature, that is, to the Lord.'
Though the Jews came to be utterly opposed to sun-worship in their later history, they were sun-worshippers at first, as their temples opening eastward testify. This was the vision of Ezekiel:--'And, behold, at the door of the temple of Jehovah, between the porch and the Altar, were about five and twenty men, with their backs toward the temple of Jehovah, and their faces toward the east, and they worshipped the sun toward the east.'
All this illustrates the once world-wide religion of our race; and shows that sun-cults and sun-symbols are derived from a universal doctrine regarding the two states of existence--the one in Hades or the invisible lower world where the Sun-god goes at night, and the other in what we call the visible realm which the Sun-god visits daily. The relation between life and death--symbolically figured in this fundamental conception forming the background of every sun-cult--is the foundation of all ancient mysteries. Thus we should expect the correspondences which we believe do exist between New Grange and the Great Pyramid. Both alike, in our opinion, were the greatest places in the respective countries for the celebration of the Mysteries.
High up in the body of the Great Pyramid, after he had performed the long underground journey, typical of the journey of Osiris or the Sun to the Otherworld or the World of the Dead, we may suppose ( knowing what we do of the Ancient Mysteries and their shadows in modern Masonic initiations ) that the royal or priestly neophyte laid himself in that strange stone coffin without a lid, for a certain period of time--probably for three days and three nights. Then, the initiation being complete, he arose from the mystic death to a real resurrection, a true child of Osiris. In New Grange we may suppose that the royal or priestly neophyte, while he 'fasted on the Tuatha De Danann for three days with their nights ',sat in that strange stone basin after the manner of the Orient.
An early photograph of the chamber of Newgrange.
An early photograph of the large right-hand recess in chamber of Newgrange. The granite basin has been replaced on the larger basin where it was originally found. The concrete pillar was added around 1890.
The triple spiral
Back Recess: Right-hand walling stone (ingenious pattern of three linked spirals).
And here is apparent the important fact we wish to emphasize; the Great Pyramid does not seem to have been intended primarily, if at all, for the entombment of dead bodies or mummies while 'the numerous quasi-copies' were 'for sepulchral purposes' without doubt. There appears to have been at first a clear understanding of the esoteric usage of the Great Pyramid as a place for the mystic burial of Initiates, and then in the course of national decadence the exoteric interpretation of this usage, the interpretation now popular with Egyptologists. led to the erection of smaller pyramids for purposes of actual burial.
An early image of a group of visitors at Newgrange. Photograph by Robert Welch .
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Megalithic Archaeological Park Project
The Costa da Morte (Coast of Death) evokes the Neolithic culture with its more than 300 tumuli, dolmens and other funeral structures, one of the best preserved and most representative areas of the new Stone Age in Galicia.
Megalithism in this region occurred between approximately the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., part of a larger movement found all throughout Western Europe. The most prevalent and characteristic type of these monuments are the tumuli and dolmens. The former, also called mámoas, are circular or oval-shaped structures comprised of large stones and a layer of earth, used as sepulchres or boundary markers. The latter, also used as tombs, are comprised of various vertical slabs of stone and a horizontal capstone emerging from the earth.
Why are they so important?
The reason why the Costa da Morte’s megalithic structures are noteworthy is due to their archaeoastronomical connotations. It was the position of the moon, the sun and other stars that determined exactly how these monuments were built, without following a common pattern regarding their positioning. Some face the location where the sun rises on the winter solstice while others are aligned with the position of the southern minor lunar standstill. Some even face specific stars.
A few of the more important monumental tombs or dolmens are Pedra Moura, Pedra Cuberta, Pedra da Arca, Fornela dos Mouros and the Dombate Dolmen, also known as the “Cathedral of Megalithism”.
Strategic Goals
With all this in mind, a new strategy was conceived that is aimed at preserving and making people aware of this history, creating a spectacular network of “outdoor museums”. This project, named the Megalithic Archaeological Park, is a joint initiative carried out by the city councils of Laracha, Cabana de Bergantiños, Carballo, Dumbría, Laxe, Malpica de Bergantiños, Mazaricos, Ponteceso, Vimianzo and Zas and A Coruña’s Provincial Government.
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When lakes were tanks
Bengaluru's lakes were actually tanks created in the absence of a big river
By Rohan D'souza
Published: Sunday 31 August 2014
When lakes were tanks
Bengaluru is on the global map for a variety of reasons. It is an information technology hub. It is also known for its salubrious climate, the result of being located 920 metres above sea level. The presence of several parks, neighbourhood and central, has led people to refer to it as the garden city. A lesser known fact is that Bengaluru also has a number of lakes. According to the city corporation, Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BBMP), the city has 198 lakes.
Bengaluru’s lakes are not natural lakes, but human-made tanks created by damming the flow of water at various points. Three valleys in Bengaluru—Koramangala and Challagatha in the southeast, Hebbal in the northeast and Vrushabhavati in the west—determine the flow of water in the city. A series of interconnected cascading tanks were created over centuries along the inclines of these valleys. One tank’s overflow was carried to the next tank through a wetland system, which included rajakaluves, or canals. In this manner, six chains of tanks came into being. The water flow in the tanks was regulated through a community-operated sluice mechanism. The absence of a major river in Bengaluru led to the need for such a system. There was a need to harvest rainwater which could then be used for irrigation and household needs and livelihood activities such as fishing. The tanks served this purpose.
The overflow of one tank was carried to another tank through a wetland system involving canals
Inscriptions found near some of the tanks suggest that many of these water bodies preceded the mud fort settlement of Bengaluru created by Kempegowda, a local chieftain, in 1537, which sprawled into the city of Bengaluru as we now know it. One such inscription found near Agara tank dates to 9th century AD.
Other tanks such as Kudlu and Begur in south Bengaluru also trace their history to this period. The region in the southern part of Bengaluru came under the Western Ganga dynasty around 350 AD. The dynasty ruled till 1,000 AD. Kempegowda, his successors and the British continued this system of creating and maintaining tanks.
A complex maintenance system also came into being. Collective memory of residents who have lived close to the tanks, or keres in Kannada, offer insights into the maintenance system. Villages near the kere shared the responsibility of maintaining them. The system ensured bund maintenance, de-silting of the tank bed and maintenance of the rajakaluves. The Neergunti community was among those involved in this. The community maintained the rajakaluves and its work was rewarded through a land tenure system.
These canals were maintained by the community whose members were rewarded through a land tenure system
There is reference to this system in the Mysore Gazette compiled by B L Rice, director of the department of archaeology of the then Mysore state in 1897. He notes, “Kodigi Inams represent land granted free of tax, or on a light assessment, in consideration of services rendered in the construction or restoration of tanks, or on condition of their being maintained in good repair. Kerebandi and Kerekulaga Inams were granted for the annual petty repair of tanks.” The land granted as part of the Inam tenure system usually included the “wetlands” located downstream of the tanks, which were ideal for growing water-intense crops such as rice and sugarcane. However, who obtained which land depended on the caste hierarchy and in many instances dominant castes got the more fertile wetlands.
Post-Independence, the government started dismantling the system to replace it with more centralised systems of maintenance. The Mysore (Personal and Miscellaneous) Inam Abolition Laws Act came into force in 1954, possibly to counter the feudal land tenure system. However, the Act also impacted the tank maintenance system. Various government departments which were carried forward from the colonial times such as the minor irrigation department started playing a larger role in the maintenance of tanks, especially the larger ones. Currently, BBMP maintains tanks in Bengaluru. At various points, government departments such as the forest department played a role. The department was brought into the picture with the recommendation of the Laxman Rau Committee, which was set up in 1986 to look into the issues related to the tanks of Bengaluru.
The water flow in the tanks was also regulated through a communityoperated sluice mechanism
The forest department viewed these water bodies purely as ecological spaces. This also led to a change in the discourse around these systems. Tanks increasingly started to be referred to as lakes. In the urbanised environs of Bengaluru, the now renamed lakes were being seen as ecological and social spaces that catered to naturalists and recreation seekers. This also started increasingly dictating how they were to be maintained.
The tanks or keres in their earlier form had cultural connotations. Many had a deity assigned to it and a temple in which the deity was located. These were largely local deities, such as Muneeswara, Duggalamma, Gangamma. There were annual festivals at some of the keres such as Bellandur in South Bengaluru—one of the largest which spread over 350 hectares. However, with increasing urbanisation and increased pollution, such practices have been discontinued in most of the urban lakes.
An attempt to privatise the management of the lakes by the Lake Development Authority, which was set up in 2002, was thwarted by a public campaign by a local NGO, Environment Support Group. The authority, which was mandated to work for the regeneration and conservation of lakes in Bengaluru district as well as other municipalities and corporations in Karnataka, claimed a paucity of resources, human and financial, and therefore invited the private sector to undertake the maintenance of these water bodies and in return use these spaces to carry out commercial activities to generate revenue for themselves. The Karnataka High Court has since directed a cancellation of this scheme, which brought the city corporation back to the role of maintaining the lakes of Bengaluru.
Rohan D’Souza is a researcher with the National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru
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Who Invented Music Notes?
Similarly, Who invented notes and rests?
Franco of Cologne, a powerful theorist, standardized time values for ligatures, single notes, and pauses about 1260. The duple long, afterwards known as maximum (); long (); breve (); and semibreve () were among the notes in use at the time (). The minim was invented in French music as a shorter note value ().
Also, it is asked, Who invented the piano?
Piano / Inventor: Bartolomeo Cristofori Bartolomeo Cristofori di Francesco, an Italian musical instrument manufacturer, is credited with developing the piano. Wikipedia
Secondly, What country invented music?
The world’s earliest written piece of music, presented in a cuneiform “alphabet,” was discovered in Syria and dates back at least 3400 years.
Also, When was music first written?
Music was written down as early as the sixth century B.C. Ancient Greece and Rome were two of the most powerful civilizations in the world. The writing was more of a reminder of how to sing the songs at the time than accurate notation, but it was the beginning of putting down music in a consumable manner.
People also ask, Did the first organ used water?
The first known mechanical pipe organ is the hydraulis. Ctesibius of Alexandria devised it in the 3rd century BC, and it was the culmination of previous efforts to apply a mechanical wind source to a vast group of panpipes. Its pipes were mounted on top of a wind chest, which was linked to a conical wind reservoir.
Related Questions and Answers
Who first used money?
Nearly 5,000 years ago, the Mesopotamian shekel — the oldest known form of cash – appeared. The first known mints were in Asia Minor between 650 and 600 B.C., when the Lydian and Ionian aristocracy employed printed silver and gold coins to pay their forces.
Who prints money in the world?
The Treasury Department’s Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP), which develops and produces all paper money in the United States, is in charge of actually printing the money that consumers take from ATMs and banks. (All coins are made by the United States Mint.)
Is a banknote real money?
Banknotes, together with coins, are recognized legal tender and make up the bearer forms of all contemporary money. A banknote is sometimes referred to as a “bill” or “note.”
Who was the first singer?
The earliest known and oldest surviving recording of the human voice is made by Parisian inventor Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville, who sings “Au Claire De La Lune” to him.
What was the first music video?
According to some, the first music video was developed in 1894 by Joseph Stern and Edward Mark, who promoted their song “The Little Lost Child” as a “illustrated song” by setting a recording of their song “The Little Lost Child” to a moving slide presentation. Despite the fact that the ordinary American did not yet have the instruments to perform the song, over 2 million people.
What was the first music in history?
The “Hurrian Hymn No. 6″ is said to be the world’s oldest melody, while the “Seikilos Epitaph,” a Greek song from the first century A.D., is the oldest musical work to have survived in its entirety. The hymn was discovered inscribed on an old marble column in Turkey that was used to mark the tomb of a lady.
What is first song of BTS?
BTS released their first single album 2 Cool 4 Skool, the first chapter of their “school trilogy” series, on J., along with the lead track “No More Dream,” which debuted at number one but shortly slipped off the charts.
What came first music or language?
First and foremost, there was music. The portion about the language came afterwards. The authors investigated the roles and connections between music and language by combining information from baby development, language learning, and music cognition. As a result, they came to the conclusion that language should be considered a sort of music in its own right.
Who invented Internet?
Vint CerfVint KahnVint KahnVint KahnVint
Who invented camera?
Louis Le Prince is a prince from France. Zahn, Johann
Who invented dynamite?
Alfred Nobel was a Swedish Nobel Laureate who
Which came first organ or piano?
There were a variety of keyboard instruments before the piano. The organ is one of the oldest of them, with its earliest precursors dating back to the third century BCE in Ancient Greece.
Why do churches have organs?
The organ is often utilized in cathedrals for state events, weddings, civic rituals, and important liturgical calendar ceremonies such as Christmas and Easter. For these circumstances, the organ gives a big tone. For funerals and Remembrance Day, for example.
What do stops on an organ do?
A stop is in charge of bringing or taking a stop “on-line” or “off-line” by opening or shutting the air passageways to its pipes. Mechanical stops are generally knobs, while electric stops are usually tabs or buttons, and both are arranged on the organ console, or control board.
Who invented money in the United States?
Following the ratification of the United States Constitution, Congress approved the “Mint Act” of Ap, which created the United States’ coinage system and the dollar as the primary unit of currency. The United States became the first nation in the world to adopt the decimal system of money as a result of this Act.
Who invented banks?
The concept of banking dates back to 1,800 BC in Babylon. People were lent money by moneylenders back then. Banks in Greece and Rome made loans and took deposits. They exchanged money as well.
Why is US allowed to print money?
The Most Important Takeaways The Fed is accused of “printing money” when it extends credit to federal member bank accounts or lowers the federal funds rate. Both of these acts are taken by the Fed to boost the money supply.
Why can’t poor countries print money?
Printing money to pay off the debt would exacerbate inflation unless economic activity increased in proportion to the quantity of money issued. This would be “too much money chasing too few goods,” as the adage goes.
What are the 4 types of money?
Commercial money, fiduciary money, fiat money, and commodity money are the four categories of money categorized by economists.
What was paper money used for in ancient China?
Around 806 AD, the first paper banknotes arrived in China. Letters of credit sent across long distances were an early use of paper, which the government rapidly took over from private businesses. This approach was dubbed “flying money” by the Chinese, who are known for their practicality.
The “what are the 7 musical notes?” is a question that has been asked for hundreds of years. The answer to this question, is seven notes.
This Video Should Help:
Music notes are a system of symbols that represent pitches and rhythms. They are used in Western music notation systems, and many other musical traditions around the world. The first known use of musical notation was in Ancient Greece, where they were written on clay tablets. Reference: musical notes explained.
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• what was used for notation before modern music notation
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How do you break an arrow?
Breaking an arrow is one of the most common and most misunderstood types of magic.
The act of breaking an arrow into pieces, as with breaking a string, is a simple, but difficult, task.
It involves taking a piece of wood or stone and cutting it into a series of little pieces, each of which is a different shape.
The goal of the act is to create a series that is similar to the original piece, but the original shape will have changed over time.
If the original arrow is broken into smaller pieces, these will be broken back together, allowing the original to be reassembled.
The original shape can be changed in order to create different pieces, but this will take time and effort.
Breaking an archer’s arrows is more difficult because the arrows are not as fragile as the arrows of other archers.
This means that, if you can successfully break the arrows into smaller, more manageable pieces, you can create an arrow that will fit in your hands and have the same range and performance as a standard arrow.
When an arrow breaks, it has to be broken into a set number of pieces.
This sets a limit on the arrow’s range.
A set number is a number that sets a standard limit on how long an arrow can be fired from.
This limit is called the “range.”
The arrow can only be fired once a set range has been reached.
When you break a set arrow, the arrow will have to be shot in a predetermined order.
If a set amount of arrows are fired, then the arrow must be shot from a fixed point.
If it is shot from an extended, random position, the arrows will have different ranges depending on the direction of the arrow.
There are two types of arrows: a standard archer and a longbow archer.
The difference between these two types is that a standard bow archer is more precise and will aim a more precise shot.
However, a long bow archery can be used in conjunction with any other type of archery.
The most common type of arrow is a standard longbow.
In the case of a standard shortbow, the archer stands at the center of the target, and the arrow passes straight through the center.
When a long archer fires an arrow, they place the bow at the point where they want to aim the arrow, and then shoot the arrow through the bow.
If an arrow fails to hit the target in time, the bow archers fire the arrow again.
A standard long bow is fired from the center, and its arrow must have the longest trajectory.
A longbow arrow is fired in an arc that extends from the bow to the target.
When the arrow is hit by a stone, the ball of the stone passes through the archers hand and hits the bow, creating a split second delay in the shot.
The arrow will then be fired in the direction it is intended to travel.
An archer can shoot from any direction.
There is a wide variety of archers, but most of them aim at the same target at the exact same time.
The only exception to this rule is the archery master.
These archers aim at their targets in a specific order, which is known as a “barrage.”
The archer may fire an arrow from any of the four directions, or it may fire from the side, where a long arrow would be fired.
When using a bow, archers are supposed to aim at all four directions at the very same time, but with a shorter shot.
If you want to get a bird’s eye view of a target, you will need a telescope.
Most longbow and archery arrows require a special bow that has a special scope.
The bow has a very narrow bore, and a special camera that attaches to the bow shoots a special image on the scope.
Most bow arcs also have an added stabilizer, called a “shoulder stabilizer.”
When the arcer fires, the stabilizer moves the arrow in the desired direction.
If there is no stabilizer attached, the shot will be fired at an angle.
The archers shoulder stabilizer allows them to shoot in any direction with the bow arrow.
The shoulder stabilizers ability to stabilize the shot is a powerful weapon, but is also very difficult to control.
The aim of archer-pupil training is to train the aim and control of their bow shot, but to get the most out of this training, it is important that they be able to shoot with a shoulder stabiliser.
Some of the techniques that are used in training are described in the following table.
When training an archery, it’s important to be able shoot accurately.
The accuracy of an archers shot must be good enough to be effective.
However when shooting a longshot arrow, accuracy is not a priority.
In fact, the aim of an arrow-shooting archer will not be very good unless he is proficient in shooting
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Apamea was an ancient Greek and Roman city that was founded around 300 BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of the Diadochi rivals who fought for control over the empire founded by Alexander the Great after his death.
In 64 BC, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (also known as Pompey the Great) marched on Apamea, annexing the city as part of the Roman province of Syria. In response to an earthquake in AD 115 (known as the 115 Antioch earthquake), the Romans rebuilt Apamea with a typical Roman street grid system, and large public works such as aqueducts, bathhouses, and a theatre.
The mosaic was stolen from Apamea by looters conducting illegal excavations back in 2011, and sold to antique collectors on the black market. The looters published photographs online of the mosaic to facilitate the illegal sale, which has now been studied by researchers from the Faculty of Archaeology at the University of Warsaw.
According to researchers, the mosaic is approx. 19 sq metres and consists of three stripes with figural representations, and shows a huge hydraulic wheel, or noria, which is very rare to be illustrated in contemporary iconographic sources.
Dr Marek T. Olszewski from the UW Institute of Archaeology announced that the stolen mosaic demonstrates the earliest example of a hydraulic wheel known to date, and probably dates from the first half of the 4th century AD, perhaps from the time of Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337 AD)”.
Hydraulic water wheels were driven by the current of a river and were used to lift water drawn from a river into an aqueduct to irrigate fields, and supply major settlements with water for public fountains, thermal baths, and high-status villas.
In the mosaic sample studied, researchers conclude that it features a wooden wheel installed on a pyramidal structure, to draw water from the Orontes River to supply a Roman bathhouse that consisted of a pool and slide.
The whereabouts of the mosaic are unknown and is the subject of an ongoing investigation by Interpol.
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Fossilized spider from the Aix-en-Provence Formation in France seen in hand sample overlain with fluorescent microscopy image of the same fossil. Under normal lighting the spider fossil is hard to differentiate from the surrounding rock matrix, but when the fossil is excited by UV-illumination its chemical composition causes it to autofluoresce brightly, revealing additional details of its preservation. Credit: Olcott et al
A fossilized spider that glows under ultraviolet light has given away the secret of its exceptional 23-million-year-long existence.
A geologic formation near Aix-en-Provence, France, is famed as one of the world’s chief treasure troves of fossil species from the Cenozoic Era. Since the late 1700s, scientists there have been unearthing amazingly well-preserved fossilized plants and animals.
The Aix-en-Provence formation is particularly known for its fossilized terrestrial arthropods from the Oligocene Period (between roughly 23-34 million years ago). Because arthropods — animals with exoskeletons like spiders — are rarely fossilized, their abundance at Aix-en-Provence is remarkable.
A new study in the journal Communications Earth & Environment from researchers at the University of Kansas is the first to ask: What are the unique chemical and geological processes at Aix-en-Provence that preserve spiders from the Oligocene Period so exquisitely?
“Most life doesn’t become a fossil,” said lead author Alison Olcott, associate professor of geology and director of the Center for Undergraduate Research at KU. “It's hard to become a fossil. You have to die under very specific circumstances, and one of the easiest ways to become a fossil is to have hard parts like bones, horns and teeth. So, our record of soft-body life and terrestrial life, like spiders, is spotty — but we have these periods of exceptional preservation when all circumstances were harmonious for preservation to happen.”
Olcott and her KU co-authors Matthew Downen — then a doctoral candidate in the Department of Geology and now the assistant director at Center for Undergraduate Research — and Paul Selden, KU distinguished professor emeritus, along with James Schiffbauer of the University of Missouri, sought to discover the exact processes at Aix-en-Provence that provided a pathway for preservation for the spider fossils.
“Matt was working on describing these fossils, and we decided — more or less on a whim — to stick them under the fluorescent microscope to see what happened,” Olcott said. “To our surprise they glowed, and so we got very interested in what the chemistry of these fossils was that made them glow. If you just look at the fossil on the rock, they're almost indistinguishable from the rock itself, but they glowed a different color under the fluorescent scope. So, we started exploring the chemistry and discovered the fossils themselves contain a black polymer made of carbon and sulfur that, under the microscope, looks like the tar you see on the road. We also noticed there were just thousands and thousands and thousands of microalgae all around the fossils and coating the fossils themselves.”
Olcott and her colleagues hypothesize that the extracellular substance these microalgae, called diatoms, are known to produce would have protected the spiders from oxygen and promoted sulfurization of the spiders, a chemical change that would explain preservation of the fossils as carbonaceous films over the millions of ensuing years.
“These microalgae make the sticky, viscous gloop — that's how they stick together,” the KU researcher said. “I hypothesized the chemistry of those microalgae, and the stuff they were extruding, actually made it possible for this chemical reaction to preserve the spiders. Basically, the chemistry of the microalgae and the chemistry of the spiders work together to have this unique preservation happen.”
Indeed, this sulfurization phenomenon is the same as a common industrial treatment used to preserve rubber.
“Vulcanization is a naturally occurring process — we do it ourselves to cure rubber in a well-known process,” Olcott said. “Sulfurization takes carbon and cross-links it with sulfur and stabilizes the carbon, which is why we do it to rubber to make it last longer. What I think happened here chemically is the spider exoskeleton is chitin, which is composed of long polymers with carbon units near each other, and it's a perfect environment to have the sulfur bridges come in and really stabilize things.”
Olcott said the presence of diatomic mats may potentially act as a guide to find more deposits of well-preserved fossils in the future.
“The next step is expanding these techniques to other deposits to see if preservation is tied to diatom mats,” she said. “Of all the other exceptional fossil preservation sites in the world in the Cenozoic Era, something like 80 percent of them are found in association with these microalgae. So, we’re wondering if this explains most of these fossil sites that we have in this time — basically from soon after the dinosaurs went extinct until now. This mechanism could be responsible for giving us information to explore the evolution of insects and other terrestrial life post-dinosaurs and to understand climate change, because there's a period of rapid climate change and these terrestrial organisms help us understand what happened to life last time climate started shifting.”
The above story is based on materials provided by The University of Kansas.
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Public transport under Tudors and Stuarts
The public transport at the beginning of 17th century was almost non-existent. If you wanted to risk your life, you could take a ferry across or along the Thames in London, but the watermen were notoriously rude, the river was effectively an open sewer, and the boats occasionally sank. Rich people had horses to ride and carriages to be carried in, but everyone else had to walk. All that was to change in 1643, when a Captain Baily, who had once sailed in the fleet of Sir Walter Ralegh, launched a fleet of his own.
Captain Baily bought four horse-drawn carriages, set up a table of standard fares, and employed uniformed drivers. Their instructions were to wait for customers in a rank in The Strand, next to a big maypole: the London taxi had arrived.
The carriages were pulled by huge ambling nags, known in Flemish as hacquenees, and so became known as hackney carriages. The fares were standardized at 6d (2 and a half p) per mile for journeys up to 6 miles, and for longer journeys 1 pound a day for four-horse carriage or 10 shillings (50p) a day for a two-horse carriage. Captain Baily’s idea was such a success that it was soon taken up by dozens of other coach owners, and at any time there could be twenty cabs vying for trade. By the end of the century licences had been issued for 700 hackney carriages in London. Today there are some 20,000.
However, there were some unseemly incidents. In 1694 a group of women, masked and in a party mood, hired a coach and charged around Hyde Park. They behaved so disgracefully that cabs were completely banned from the park – and they weren’t allowed back in until 1924.
Lightning the way
It would have been difficult enough for hackney carriages to negotiate London’s crowded, narrow streets during the day, but even worse by night. There was no lightning, so the streets would be pitch dark, also making it hazardous for any pedestrian venturing out. Then in the mid 1860s Edmund Heming was granted a patent giving him an exclusive right to light the streets. His plan was to light an oil lamp on every tenth house on every moonless night from Michaelmas (29 September) until Lady Day (25 March).
He started with Kensington Road. He also offered to provide lights for stables, mines, yards, and coaches that travelled late at night. Worried that his workmen would be bribed by his enemies, who wanted to take over the business, he tended all his lights himself, both at midnight and in the early hours of the morning – which came close to killing him. he was never became rich, since rivals stole his idea without paying him, but he was the first to provide street lightning.
Long-distance travel
The only form of transport outside the city was the coach. Unless you rode a horse. There were many of coaches in the early 1600s, and most of those on the roads were private. However, in the summer of 1657 three enterprising men organized a regular coach service from London to Chester. According to their advertisments, you could get on the coach at Aldersgate on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, and travel to Coventry in two days for 25 shillings (1.25 pounds), to Stone in three days for 30 shillings (1.50 pounds), and to Chester in four days for 35 shillings (1.75 pounds).
The journey in those days was not for the faint-hearted. The coach was uncomfortable and smelly; you were jammed in and hardly able to move. The wooden benches were hard, your feet were in muddy straw. The roads were terrible, and so the ride was extremely rough; you might easily get sick. There was no heating or cooling – apart from the open windows – so that you would freeze in winter and cook in summer. A vicar called Edward Parker complained bitterly after his journey in 1663:
“My journey was noe way pleasant. This travell hath soe indisposed mee, that I am resolved never to ride up againe in ye coatche. I am extremely hot and feverish”.
Once the stage-coaches had adopted regular timetables the robbers have also became regular on the coach routes. One of the most notorious was a highwaywoman, Moll “Cutpurse” Firth, who was said to be foul-mouthed, incredibly ugly, and to dress like a man.She became infamous in her own lifetime, and had a play written about her, called “The Roaring Girl”.
In the 17th century problem of transport occupied some of the greatest scientific minds; Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke spent at least one whole afternoon discussing transport at the Royal Society, especially the state of the roads. They had hardly been touched since the Romans had left more than 1,000 years before; so they were rutted and bumpy, pot-holed dirt tracks, quagmires in winter and rocklike in summer. In 1663 the Turnpike Trust began, with the aim of collecting tolls from the road users and spending the money on repairs.However, they had little impact for hundred years.
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Solution cave features
Solutional sculpturings
Superimposed on the walls of cave passages are many small solutional sculpturings that record further details of water flow. Pockets of various sizes and kinds are cut back into the walls and ceiling. Some of these have ax-blade shapes and form where water seeping into the cave passage is mixed with the water already in the passage. If the seepage water and the passage water have the correct chemistry, corrosive water forms in the mixing zone and dissolves away the joint-controlled wall and ceiling pockets. Other wall and ceiling pockets are rounded kettle holes or circular cylinders that extend into the solid bedrock of the ceiling with no obvious influence from joints. The ceilings of tropical caves often contain large numbers of the cylindrical cavities, which are used as roosting places by bats. Small secondary channels are carved into the floors or ceilings by flowing water. Floor channels provide evidence of the presence of small later-stage streams that occupied the cave passage after it had been drained of its original flow. Ceiling channels are thought to be the result of upward solutional erosion by cave streams that occurred when the main channel was completely filled with clays, sand, and gravel.
Among the most significant of the solutional sculpturings are the small scooplike depressions known as scallops. Scallops vary in size from a few centimetres to more than one metre. They are asymmetrical in cross section, having a steep wall on the upstream side and a gentler slope on the downstream side. Scallops thus provide information as to the direction of water flow in passages that have been dry for hundreds of thousands of years. The size of a scallop is inversely proportional to the flow velocity of water in the passage. As a consequence, scallops serve not only as paleo-direction indicators but also as paleo-flow meters. Scallops that are a few centimetres wide indicate flow velocities on the order of a few metres per second. The largest scallops, those that are more than one metre wide, indicate flow velocities of a few centimetres per second.
The flow velocity of conduit water is sufficient to transport clastic sediment through a cave system. The clastic material is derived from borderlands where it is carried into the karst by sinking streams, from overlying sandstone and shale caprock, from surface soils that are washed underground through sinkholes, and from the insoluble residue of the limestone bedrock. Some of these clastic materials are deposited in caves where they remain as clay, silt, and sand on the cave floors. Some drainage systems carry larger cobble- and boulder-sized materials that are often found in cave streambeds. Most caves have undergone several periods of deposition and excavation, and so remnant beds and pockets of sediment have been left high on cave walls and ledges. These sediments contain iron-bearing magnetic particles, which indicate the position of the Earth’s magnetic field at the time when the sediments were deposited. The age of the sedimentary deposits can be determined by measuring the paleomagnetic record in cave sediments and correlating it with the established geomagnetic polarity time scale. Using this method, investigators have ascertained that the age of the sediments in Mammoth Cave is more than 2,000,000 years.
Depositional materials and features
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World’s brightest x-rays reveal COVID-19’s damage to the body
A new scanning technique delivers exquisitely detailed images—and could revolutionize the study of human anatomy.
When Paul Tafforeau saw his first experimental scans of a COVID-19 victim’s lung, he thought he had failed. A paleontologist by training, Tafforeau had been laboring with a team strewn across Europe for months to turn a particle accelerator in the French Alps into a revolutionary medical scanning tool.
It was the end of May 2020, and scientists were anxious for a better view of the ways human organs were being ravaged by COVID-19. Tafforeau had been tasked with developing a technique that could make use of the powerful x-rays generated at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France. He’d pushed boundaries on high-resolution x-rays of rock-hard fossils and desiccated mummies as an ESRF staff scientist. Now, he was dismayed by a lump of soft, squishy tissue.
But when his colleagues caught their first glimpse of the lung scans, they felt something else: awe.
The images presented them with richer detail than any medical CT scan they’d seen before, allowing them to bridge a stubborn gap in how scientists and doctors can visualize—and make sense of—human organs. “In anatomy textbooks, when you see, This is the large scale, and this is the smaller one, they’re all beautiful hand-drawn images for a reason: They’re artistic interpretations, because we have no images for it,” says Claire Walsh, a senior postdoctoral fellow at University College London (UCL). “For the first time, we can make the real thing.”
Tafforeau and Walsh are part of an international team of more than 30 researchers that has created a powerful new kind of x-ray scan called hierarchical phase-contrast tomography (HiP-CT). With it, they can finally go from a complete human organ to a zoomed-in view of the body’s tiniest blood vessels and even individual cells.
The technique is already providing fresh insights into how COVID-19 damages and reshapes the blood vessels of the lungs. And while its long-term promise is hard to define, because nothing quite like HiP-CT has ever existed before, researchers excited by its potential are enthusiastically dreaming up new ways to understand disease and more rigorously chart the terrains of human anatomy.
“What is perhaps a surprise to most people is we’ve been studying the heart anatomically since hundreds of years ago,” says UCL cardiac anatomist Andrew Cook, “but there isn’t a consensus about the normal structure of the heart, particularly the muscle cells, and how it changes as the heart beats.”
A technique with HiP-CT’s promise, he says, is something “I’ve been waiting for my whole career.”
Needing a bigger magnifying glass
The HiP-CT technique got its start as two German pathologists raced to track the SARS-CoV-2 virus’s punishing effects across the human body.
As soon as news of unusual pneumonia cases began trickling out of China, Danny Jonigk—a thoracic diseases pathologist at Hannover Medical School—and Maximilian Ackermann, a pathologist at University Medical Center Mainz, were on high alert. Both had expertise in lung disease, and right away they knew COVID-19 was unusual. The two were especially concerned about reports of a “silent hypoxia” that left COVID-19 patients awake but caused their blood oxygen levels to plummet.
Ackermann and Jonigk suspected that SARS-CoV-2 was somehow attacking the lungs’ blood vessels. As the disease spread through Germany in March 2020, the duo began conducting autopsies of COVID-19 victims. They soon tested their blood-vessel hypothesis by injecting tissue samples with resin and then dissolving the tissues in acid, which left behind faithful casts of the original vasculature.
Using this technique, Ackermann and Jonigk compared the tissues of people who hadn’t died of COVID-19 with those who had. They immediately saw that among COVID-19 victims, the smallest blood vessels in the lungs were distorted and reshaped. These landmark results, published online in May 2020, showed that COVID-19 wasn’t strictly a respiratory disease but a vascular one—one that could affect organs across the entire body.
“If you go through the human body and you take all the blood vessels in one line, you come up with [60,000] to 70,000 miles, double the distance around the Equator,” says Ackermann, who is also a pathologist at Wuppertal, Germany’s HELIO Clinics. If just one percent of these blood vessels gets attacked by a virus, he adds, the blood’s flow and ability to absorb oxygen can be impaired, with potentially devastating consequences across entire organs.
As soon as they recognized COVID-19’s vascular effects, Jonigk and Ackermann realized that they needed a much better view of the damage.
Medical x-rays such as CT scans can provide a view of an entire organ, but they weren’t high-resolution enough. Biopsies can let scientists study tissue samples under a microscope, but the resulting images are only small bits of a whole organ and can’t show how COVID-19 progresses across an entire lung. And the team’s resin technique required dissolving tissue, which destroys the sample and limits further study.
“At the end of the day, [the] lung is oxygen in, carbon dioxide out—but for that, it has thousands and thousands of miles of blood vessels and capillaries that are so finely and nicely arranged … it’s almost a miracle,” says Jonigk, the founding principal investigator of the German Center of Lung Research. “So how could we actually assess something as complex as COVID-19 … without destroying the organ?”
Jonigk and Ackermann needed the unprecedented: a series of x-rays, all done on the same organ, that would let researchers zoom into portions of the organ down to the cellular scale. In March 2020, the German duo reached out to a longtime collaborator of theirs, Peter Lee, a materials scientist and chair of emerging technologies at UCL. Lee‘s specialty is studying biological materials with powerful x-rays—so his mind immediately went to the French Alps.
Getting the scans to work
The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility sits in the northwestern corner of Grenoble on a triangular plot of land where two rivers meet. The facility is a particle accelerator that makes electrons travel at nearly the speed of light around a half-mile-long circular track. As these electrons careen round and round, powerful magnets along the track bend the particle stream, which causes the electrons to emit the world’s brightest x-rays.
This powerful radiation lets the ESRF peer into objects at the scale of micrometers, even nanometers. It is frequently used to study materials such as alloys and composites, check the molecular structures of proteins, and even reconstruct ancient fossils without having to separate rock from bone. Ackermann, Jonigk, and Lee wanted to use this huge instrument to perform the world’s most detailed x-ray scans of a human organ.
Enter Tafforeau, whose work at the ESRF has stretched the limits of what synchrotron scans can see. His impressive bag of tricks previously let scientists peer inside dinosaur eggs and virtually unwrap mummies, and almost immediately, Tafforeau confirmed that the synchrotron could, in theory, make a good scan of an entire lung lobe. But actually scanning a whole human organ posed a grand challenge.
For one, there’s the issue of contrast. Standard x-rays make images based on how much radiation gets absorbed by different materials, with heavier elements absorbing more than lighter ones. Soft tissues are mostly made of light elements—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and so on—which is why they don’t show up clearly in a classic medical x-ray.
One of the ESRF’s great benefits is that its x-ray beams are very coherent: Light moves in waves, and in the ESRF’s case, its x-rays all start out with the same frequency and alignment, undulating in unison like the marks left behind by a zen garden’s rake. But as these x-rays move through an object, subtle differences in density can cause each x-ray’s path to deviate slightly, a difference that gets more detectable the farther the x-rays propagate once they exit the object. These deviations can reveal the slight density differences within an object, even if it is made of light elements.
But stability is another challenge. To pull off a series of zoomed-in x-rays, a given organ would have to be immobilized in its natural shape so it wouldn’t flex and shift by more than a thousandth of a millimeter. Any more wiggle than that, and successive x-ray scans on the same organ wouldn’t align with each other. Needless to say, though, organs can be quite floppy.
Lee and his team at UCL rushed to devise containers that could withstand the synchrotron’s x-rays but also let through as many waves as possible. Lee also juggled the project’s overall organization—such as the finer points of shipping human organs between Germany and France—and recruited Walsh, who specializes in huge biomedical datasets, to help work out how to analyze the scans. Back in France, Tafforeau’s jobs included refining the scanning procedure and figuring out how to keep the organs still within the containers that Lee’s team was building.
To preserve the organs from decay and make the scans as sharp as possible, Tafforeau knew that they would need to be treated with several rounds of ethanol-water solutions. He also knew that he needed to stabilize the organs in something that exactly matched the organs’ density. His working plan was to somehow embed the organs in an ethanol-rich agar, a jelly-like substance derived from seaweed.
However, the devil would be in the details—and Tafforeau, like much of Europe, was stuck at home in lockdown. So Tafforeau relocated his research to his home laboratory: a former secondary kitchen that he had spent years decking out with 3D printers, basic chemistry equipment, and the tools used to prepare animal skeletons for anatomical study.
Tafforeau used supplies from a local grocery store to work out how to make his agar. He even collected rainwater runoff from his recently cleaned roof to obtain demineralized water, a standard ingredient in lab-grade agar recipes. To practice packing organs in agar, he got pig entrails from a local slaughterhouse.
Tafforeau got permission to return to the ESRF in mid-May to perform the first test scans of a pig’s lung. As May turned to June, he had prepared and scanned the left lung lobe of a 54-year-old man who had died from COVID-19, which Ackermann and Jonigk had shipped to Grenoble from Germany.
“When I saw the first image, the email I sent to all the people on the project was, I apologize: We failed, I was not able to have high-quality scans,” he says. “I just sent them two pictures that, for me, were bad, but for them were excellent.”
For UCL’s Lee, the images were awe-inspiring: an organ-wide view like a standard medical CT scan, but “with one million times the information.” It was as if the researchers had spent their lives studying a forest by either flying over it in a jumbo jet or hiking along one trail. Now they were soaring just above the forest canopy, like birds on the wing.
“The first time we saw the middle resolution … It was just like, silence,” Walsh says.
Tackling future challenges
The team published its first full description of the HiP-CT method in November 2021, and the researchers also have published a detailed look at how COVID-19 affects certain kinds of blood circulation in the lungs.
The scans also yielded an unanticipated bonus: helping the researchers convince friends and relatives to get vaccinated. In severe COVID-19 cases, many of the lungs’ blood vessels look dilated and bloated, and at smaller scales, abnormal bundles of tiny blood vessels form.
“When you see the structure of lungs of people who die from COVID, it does not look like lungs—it’s a big mess,” Tafforeau says.
Even in healthy organs, he adds, the scans were revealing subtle anatomical features that had never been documented because nobody has ever seen a human organ in this level of detail before. With more than a million dollars in funding from the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative—a nonprofit founded by Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg and physician Priscilla Chan, Zuckerberg’s wife—the HiP-CT team is now creating what it’s calling the Human Organ Atlas.
So far, the group has released scans of five types of organs—the heart, brain, kidneys, lungs, and spleen—based on donated organs from Ackermann and Jonigk’s COVID-19 autopsies in Germany and healthy “control” organs from LADAF, a Grenoble-based anatomy lab. The team has made the data, as well as fly-through movies based on the data, freely available online.
The Human Organ Atlas is rapidly growing: Another 30 organs have already been scanned, and 80 more are in various stages of preparation. Lee says that some 40 different research groups have contacted the team to learn more about the method.
Cook, the UCL heart specialist, see enormous potential in using HiP-CT to understand basic anatomy. And Joe Jacob, a UCL radiologist who specializes in lung disease, says that HiP-CT will be “invaluable for understanding diseases,” especially in 3D structures such as blood vessels.
Even artists are joining the fray. Barney Steel, of the London-based experiential art collective Marshmallow Laser Feast, says that he is actively researching how to explore HiP-CT data in immersive virtual reality. “We’re basically creating journeys through the human body,” he says.
But for all HiP-CT’s promise, there are also considerable challenges. First, Walsh says, HiP-CT scans generate a “terrifying amount of data,” easily several terabytes per organ. For clinicians to make real-world use of these scans, the researchers hope to develop a cloud-based interface to navigate them, like Google Maps for the human body.
They also need to turn the scans into workable 3D models with greater ease. Like all CT scanning techniques, HiP-CT works by making many 2D slices of a given object and stacking them together. Even today, much of this process is manual, especially for scans of abnormal or diseased tissues. Lee and Walsh say that a major priority for the HiP-CT team is to develop machine-learning techniques that can lighten the load.
These challenges will scale as the Human Organ Atlas expands—and as researchers’ ambitions grow with it. The HiP-CT team is using the ESRF’s newest beam facility, called BM18, to continue scanning the project’s organs. BM18 produces a much bigger x-ray beam, which means scans take less time, and BM18’s x-ray detector can be placed up to 125 feet (38 meters) away from the object being scanned, which makes its scans far sharper. The BM18 results are already so good, Tafforeau says, that he has re-scanned some of the the Human Organ Atlas’s original samples on the new system.
BM18 also has the space to scan very large objects. Thanks to the new facility, the team’s vision is to scan an entire torso of a human body in one fell swoop by the end of 2023.
In exploring this technique’s immense potential, Tafforeau says, “we are really at the very beginning.”
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