text
stringlengths 208
322k
| id
stringlengths 47
47
| metadata
dict |
|---|---|---|
Skip to content
Madrid 1700s
The installation of the Bourbon monarchy in Madrid at the beginning of the 18th century provided a strong impetus for French artists to move there. They played an important role in shaping artistic taste during the first half of the century and profoundly influenced their Spanish contemporaries. However, towards the middle decades of the century the French dominance decreased owing to the arrival of Italian artists such as Corrado Giaquinto in 1753, Giambattista Tiepolo and his sons Lorenzo and Domenico in 1762 and a year earlier, the German painter, Anton Raphael Mengs.
The event that had the most profound consequences for artistic practice and the professional recognition of artists working in Spain was the founding of the Academy of San Fernando in Madrid in 1744 where drawing was a fundamental aspect of teaching and printmaking became widely practised. By the late 1700s Spanish artists were professionally trained and had a thorough knowledge of the latest artistic trends.
Focus work
Manuel Salvador Carmona (1734–1820)
after Diego Velázquez (1599–1660)
The drunkards or The triumph of Bacchus 1793
etching and engraving, 47 × 61 cm
© The Trustees of the British Museum
In 1789 a society was formed to publish paintings that belonged to the royal collection to ‘promote the glory of the Spanish old masters’. The project had approval from King Charles IV who allowed access to the paintings so they could be drawn and then engraved. Salvador Carmona – the best engraver working in Madrid at the time – made five prints for the society.
Questions and activities
• View the original painting The triumph of Bacchus by Velázquez in the Prado collection online. Compare this painting with the etching by Carmona. Is Carmona’s an accurate reproduction? Discuss the differences between the mediums.
• Consider the juxtaposition of the figures in the image. What are the clues that suggest these figures come from different worlds? Which ones are mythical and which are from real life? Consider the scene the figures are placed in. Does this add to the meaning of the work?
• Why was it important to ‘spread the news’ about the Spanish old masters throughout Europe? How do you think this benefited the Spanish royal family? Compare the role of prints then with how we communicate globally today.
British Museum links
|
<urn:uuid:fb2e2893-77d7-4a53-896f-10b3558ffffc>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.75,
"fasttext_score": 0.22484296560287476,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9578281044960022,
"url": "http://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/education/education-materials/education-kits/exhibition-kits/renaissance-to-goya/madrid-1700s/"
}
|
Ancient Egyptian grain-based pregnancy test found to be 70% accurate by archaeologists
The earliest recorded pregnancy test has been found by archaeologists examining ancient Egyptian medical training documents using barley and wheat grains/seeds. The test dates from around 1350 B.C.E. Archaeologists found a hieroglyphic document that when translated described how to find out whether someone is pregnant. The woman who thinks she may be pregnant urinates on wheat and barley whole grains/seeds.
The ancient papyrus translated something like, “If the barley seeds sprout or grow, it means a male child will be born. If the wheat sprouts and thrives, it means a female child will arrive in a few months. If the barley and wheat grains never sprout and grow when a woman urinates on the grain seeds, the woman is not pregnant and therefore, will not give birth this time around. That part of the test that’s 70% accurate is when either type of grains actually sprout and thrive when urinated upon by a pregnant woman, even in the earliest stages of pregnancy.
Archaeologists actually tested the ancient Egyptian medicinal folklore in 1963. They had pregnant women do the test and found it to be 70 percent accurate. The reason why the ancient Egyptian and probably Sumerian test works is because the urine of pregnant women contains a high level of estrogen and progesterone, especially the estrogen that may help the grains to sprout.
Barley and wheat grains were a staple of the ancient Egyptian, Sumerian, Persian, and further back in time, even Neolithic diets throughout the grain belt–the Middle East and certain Mediterranean areas in ancient times. It might have existed back in Neolithic times when agriculture began and people experimented to see what might make barley and wheat grains sprout.
Although the test won’t really predict a baby’s gender, the 70 percent accuracy rate is awe inspiring. Seems the grains sprouted when the pregnant women urinated on the seeds, but not when anyone else urinated on them who was not pregnant at the time.
Perhaps there was a shortage of water and fertile soil at the dawn of grain agriculture. What the test measured that predicted pregnancy had been the rise of hormones that help certain types of grains/edible seeds to sprout. If you’re looking for modern pregnancy test information by a healthcare professional on how to take one, there’s a video on uTube: Family Health: Using a Home Pregnancy Test.
Photo credits: Check out the immersive archaeology site at Aura Lily has been using Second Life to recreate the artifacts and architecture of ancient Egypt. Using maps drawn by one of Napoleon’s artist engineers, she’s also working on an accurate recreation of temples and buildings on the island of Philae. Aura’s work is simply amazing, and I think the educational potential to use Second Life as an immersive way to explore ancient architecture and culture is limitless. She has no formal training in 3d modeling, yet she has a true passion for this ancient era and has done all of this work completely on her own. Simply incredible. Visit her amazing space in Second Life and experience it firsthand.
|
<urn:uuid:89b7e0d0-7ce2-4ba6-bdc2-3a28b8f0f964>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.033866047859191895,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9433146715164185,
"url": "http://groundreport.com/ancient-egyptian-grain-based-pregnancy-test-found-to-be-70-accurate-by-archaeologists/"
}
|
Family Activity: Looking Glasses
Examine John Constable's painting Stoke-by-Nayland, 1836 and see the English countryside come to life. Includes discussion questions and an art-making activity.
John Constable’s Stoke-by-Nayland depicts a beautiful day in the English countryside. Many aspects of daily life fill the scene: oxen pull a cart as a woman casually leans against a fence. In the distance, the buildings of a small village are clustered together beneath a sky filled with billowing clouds. Constable created this image based on sketches and memories of visits to his aunt’s home in a small farming village. His painting allows us to peek into this landscape and experience the sights and sounds of life in the English countryside.
Discussion Questions:
• How many cows can you find?
• What other types of animals do you see, and what are they doing?
• What smells and sounds do you imagine fill this landscape?
• Can you imagine the conversation between the two people in the foreground? What are they talking about?
Make a pair of binoculars to discover the details in your town or neighborhood.
Materials Needed:
• 2 empty toilet-paper tubes
• markers and/or crayons
• glitter or sequins
• glue
• double-sided tape
• hole punch
• 2’ piece of yarn
1. Decorate the toilet-paper tubes with markers, crayons, glitter, and sequins. Let the tubes dry completely.
2. Using the tape, attach the tubes along the long sides to form a pair of binoculars.
3. Punch a hole at one end of the outside edge of each tube.
4. Feed one end of the yarn through the punched hole and tie to a knot over the edge of the tube. Repeat on the other side of binoculars with the other end of yarn.
5. Use your new binoculars to go on a visual treasure hunt.
6. Can you find any animals?
7. What kind, and what are they doing?
8. Can you find some trees?
9. A tall building?
10. Can you find two people talking?
11. What do you imagine they are talking about?
12. Discover the sights, smells, and sounds of your own neighborhood!
Art Access
|
<urn:uuid:e827728d-f08c-44c7-9463-ec11d3e599ca>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.5548338294029236,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.919698178768158,
"url": "http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/exhibitions/Rococo/resource/1054"
}
|
Native American Headdress
Perhaps there is meaning then as to why we usually picture the chief wearing one. It is a little known fact that Native American headdresses were not made completely in one sitting. In fact, each time the chief, warrior, or other important tribe member committed a brave act, a feather was added. Therefore, the more feathers in the headdress, he braver and sometimes much more ominous the wearer was. In certain tribes, the brave act itself was not enough. The warrior would have to provide himself by fasting for several days and meditating the entire time to show his steadfastness. This fact alone makes the significance of the Native American headdress very important.
The back of the headdress was usually tied together, allowing the headdress to be adjusted fairly easily. Today, we see the Native American headdress as symbol of strength and bravery. It is often worn during the Halloween season as a costume accessory, but the seriousness of this item is often overlooked. Wearing a Native American headdress was a real honor, and those who got the opportunity to wear one were revered and respected.
This same tradition should also be kept sacred and honored today. In most modern Native American tribes, the headdress is mostly used for weddings and ceremonial purposes, and not as much as for battles. When one sees a Native American headdress in pictures, they can now see how brave and important that particular person was to his entire tribe.
More on this subject: Native American Headdress
Related Article Links
American Indian Articles Index | Indigenous Peoples' Literature
|
<urn:uuid:a66f9f7e-f10c-4b69-8f38-c37d814fe33e>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.04231745004653931,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.978090226650238,
"url": "http://www.indians.org/articles/native-american-headdress.html"
}
|
Giza Pyramids
A striking characteristic of the pyramids and Sphinx of Giza is the way in which they are integrated into a grand architectural plan, based on mathematical and astronomical data. There is no evidence that the pyramids were used as tombs.
What is certain is that two narrow shafts emanating from inside the Great Pyramid were directed to two specific stars: Zeta Orionis, one of the three stars in Orion's belt, and Sirius, in the constellation of Canis Major. It is certain, too, that the principal Giza monuments form an accurate terrestrial 'map' of the three stars of Orion's belt as these constellations appeared in 10,500 BC.
|
<urn:uuid:a028d65a-12fd-4de7-83da-2fd67143cd53>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.8125,
"fasttext_score": 0.34207767248153687,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9623807072639465,
"url": "http://www.ancientx.com/nm/anmviewer.asp?a=18&z=1"
}
|
Activity One
A Christmas Memory
What is the point of view of the story?
Describe Buddy, the main character' s physical characteristics. (You may wish to draw Buddy.)
What do you learn about Buddy?
What do you think Buddy wants? (Short and long term)
What conflicts does Buddy face? (Internal and external)
Generate a list of words that describe the character Buddy.
Outline for paragraph
|
<urn:uuid:67d2e349-0f58-4746-83a6-4f16b84a8a1c>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.765625,
"fasttext_score": 1.0000065565109253,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8913834095001221,
"url": "http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/education/lesson2_organizer1.html"
}
|
• biting patterns;
• disease ecology;
• epidemiology;
• social behaviour;
• transmissible cancer
1. The Tasmanian devil is threatened with extinction by devil facial tumour disease (DFTD), a unique infectious cancer in which the tumour cells themselves, which derive from a single long-dead host devil, are the infective agent and the tumour is an infectious parasitic cell line.
2. Transmission is thought to occur via direct inoculation of tumour cells when susceptible and infected individuals bite each other or by fomitic transfer of tumour cells. The nature of transmission and the extent to which biting behaviour and devil ecology is associated with infection risk remains unclear. Until our recent study in north-west Tasmania showed reduced population and individual impacts, DFTD had caused massive population declines in all populations monitored.
3. In this paper, we investigate seasonal patterns of injuries resulting from bites between individuals, DFTD infection status and tumour location in two populations to determine whether the number of bites predicts the acquisition of DFTD and to explore the possibility that the reduced impacts of DFTD in north-west Tasmania are attributed to reduced bite rates.
4. Devils with fewer bites were more likely to develop DFTD and primary tumours occurred predominantly inside the oral cavity. These results are not consistent with transmission occurring from the biter to the bitten animal but suggest that dominant individuals delivering bites, possibly by biting the tumours of other devils, are at higher risk of acquiring infection than submissive individuals receiving bites. Bite rates, which were higher during autumn and winter, did not differ between sites, suggesting that the reduced population impacts in north-west Tasmania cannot be explained by lower bite rates.
5. Our study emphasizes the importance of longitudinal studies of individually marked animals for understanding the ecology and transmission dynamics of infectious diseases and parasites in wild populations.
|
<urn:uuid:2af86ecb-98cf-422a-af60-ea44c25aa4ee>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06367695331573486,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9512258768081665,
"url": "http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2012.02025.x/abstract"
}
|
Exploratorium home Exploratorium home Explo.tv
Browse programs by:
Senior Exploratorium Scientist, Paul Doherty demonstrates how you can make your own sun viewer. You can safely view sunspots, eclipses and transits with this equipment that you may have laying around the house! To learn more about the upcoming Transit of Venus visit: http://www.exploratorium.edu/venus/question3.html
See how patterns of light change throughout the day at Chaco, and hear G.B. Cornucopia and Shelly Valdez share their impressions of the phenomena of light cycles in Chaco Canyon.
Why do the hands on clocks go "clockwise?" Seems like a circular definition, but if you looked closely at sundials in the northern hemisphere, you'd notice that the shadow of the sun moves around the sundial in a "clockwise" direction. This was adopted by clock-makers and became the standard we know today. In the southern hemisphere, the sun's shadow moves around the dial in the opposite direction, so if clocks had been invented there, our watches would move the other way.
|
<urn:uuid:3f9ec342-c11c-4e31-a0ef-1260e887575c>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.7758477330207825,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9191245436668396,
"url": "http://www.exploratorium.edu/tv/archive.php?cmd=keyword&keywordtext=sun"
}
|
The evolution of superstitious and superstition-like behaviour
Kevin R Foster, Hanna Kokko
1. Introduction
Although the concept of superstition encompasses a wide range of beliefs and behaviours, most can be united by a single underlying property—the incorrect establishment of cause and effect: ‘a belief or practice resulting from ignorance, fear of the unknown, trust in magic or chance, or a false conception of causation’ (Merriam-Webster online dictionary). In a world increasingly dominated by science, superstitious and indeed religious thinking typically take a back seat in academic affairs. However, superstitions play a central role in many small-scale societies, and indeed remain prevalent in the popular culture of all societies. Why is this? Can science rationalize this seemingly most irrational aspect of human behaviour?
Superstitions receive considerable attention in several fields including popular psychology (Shermer 1998; Vyse 2000; Wheen 2004), philosophy (Scheibe & Sarbin 1965), abnormal psychology (Devenport 1979; Brugger et al. 1994; Shaner 1999; Nayha 2002) and medicine (Hira et al. 1998; Diamond 2001), which typically frame superstitions as irrational mistakes in cognition. A notable exception, however, is found in the introduction to the popular book of Shermer (1998). This argues that superstitions are the adaptive outcome of a general ‘belief engine’, which evolved to both reduce anxiety (proximate cause) and enable humans to make causal associations (ultimate cause) (Tinbergen 1963; West et al. 2007). Specifically, Shermer argued that in making causal associations, humans are faced with the option to minimize one of two types of statistical error: type I errors whereby they believe a falsehood or type II errors whereby they reject a truth. And as long as the cost of type II errors is high enough, natural selection can favour strategies that frequently make type I errors and generate superstitions (see Beck & Forstmeier (2007) for a similar argument). Our goal here is to explore Shermer's idea that superstitions are adaptive.
Previous biological accounts of superstition have focused upon the classic work of the behavioural psychologist Skinner who reported superstitious behaviour in pigeons (Skinner 1948; Morse & Skinner 1957). In one of his experiments on operant conditioning, Skinner presented the pigeons with food at random intervals and noted that they still displayed ritualized behaviours that he interpreted as superstitious, i.e. the pigeon was behaving as though its actions were causing the food to arrive. However, these behaviours were later reinterpreted as behaviours that improve foraging efficacy (analogous to salivation in Pavlov's dogs), which suggests that the pigeons' behaviour does not correspond to Skinner's intended meaning of superstition (Staddon & Simmelhag 1971; Timberlake & Lucas 1985; Moore 2004). Nevertheless, Skinner's early account is notable in two respects. First, it recognized the possibility of superstition occurring outside the human realm. Second, and linked to this, Skinner emphasized the behavioural aspect of superstition: ‘The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behavior and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking.’ (Skinner 1948). That is, he focused on there being an incorrect response to a stimulus (behavioural outcome), rather than the conscious abstract representation of cause and effect (psychological relationship), with which human superstitions are often associated.
We follow the Skinnerian perspective here and adopt his outcome-based behavioural definition, rather than the one of psychological representation. This focuses the analysis upon the relevant evolutionary currency, the behaviour, that has fitness consequences, as has been done for the evolutionary study of altruism before us (box 1). Our approach then will not speak directly to the psychology of superstition, but instead aims to form some groundwork for understanding why innate tendencies towards superstitious behaviour might evolve in all organisms, including ourselves. In addition, although all that follows is fully compatible with the potential cultural influences, we deliberately do not model these here. This is not to deny the great importance of culture in shaping the exact nature of superstitious beliefs in humans (Laland & Brown 2002; Richerson & Boyd 2004), but rather to focus the analysis on one key question: under what conditions might a tendency for performing behaviours that incorrectly assign cause and effect be adaptive from an individual fitness point of view?
Box 1. Hamilton's rule and the outcome-based definition of altruism.
In order to investigate the evolution of superstition, we focus upon the outcome of superstitious behaviours as opposed to the form of their psychological representation. This approach has important precedent in the study of behaviour that came some hundred years prior to Skinner: the founding discussions of the concept of altruism. The originator of the term, Augustus Comte, emphasized the psychological intent to do good (psychological process), but his contemporary Herbert Spencer often used a behavioural definition and applied it to the simplest of organisms (Dixon 2008). Spencer's perspective is the basis of the modern biologist's definition of altruism, where it has paid great dividends in explaining those apparently paradoxical behaviours that reduce lifetime personal reproduction but help others (Foster 2008). Importantly, studies based upon the biological definition of altruism have also made major (if incomplete) contributions to the study of such behaviours in humans (e.g. Darwin 1871; Sober & Wilson 1997; Fehr & Fischbacher 2003; Bowles 2006; Boyd 2006), even though human altruism functions through a complex underlying psychology.
Our modern understanding of the evolution of altruism is often summarized using Hamilton's rule: br>c (Hamilton 1964). As for inequality (2.4), the logic of this equation rests upon there being a reliable cost to the social action c and a less reliable benefit b, which instead of weighting by p is weighted by r: genetic relatedness between an actor and recipient. There are various ways to interpret Hamilton's rule but the analogy with inequality (2.4) is the strongest for the ‘directfitness’ version, which captures all fitness effects of the action in terms of the effects on a focal individual (Frank 1998). In this case r, as p, captures the probability that the actor will receive the potential benefits from the action with the difference that Hamilton's rule is about social actions such that the benefits come from the actions of others rather than the action of focal individual themselves.
2. Results and discussion
(a) Basic model
Our goal is to capture the conditions under which responding, as though there is a causal link between two events, will be favoured by natural selection and, in particular, to identify the conditions when a response is evolutionarily favoured but the causal link may be lacking. In the model, one event EP precedes the other EL. The prior event has no effect on fitness per se (e.g. a noise), but the latter does (e.g. a predator arrives), and the focal individual's reaction (e.g. evasive action) can modify the fitness consequences of this latter event. Will acting as though believing that the second event EL will also occur increase or decrease the individual's reproductive fitness? Table 1 captures all possible fitness effects of the action and latter event in terms of α variables that define additive effects upon fitness and γ variables that define non-additive interactions between the action and the latter event upon fitness. A fraction p of EP events are followed by EL, such that p=P(EL|EP) and an individual's fitness W can be expressed asEmbedded Image(2.1)Here, s denotes a tendency to perform as though EL will occur. We assume that s can take any value between 0 and 1 and that it is affected by genetics. When denoting the relevant genotypic value by g, we have ds/dg>0. Importantly, this does not exclude the possibility of other influences, including cultural factors that may make the relationship between the genotype g and the behavioural phenotype s complex. However, as long as there is a finite positive influence of genotype on the tendency to display phenotype s, ds/dg will not affect the direction of selection, but only its magnitude. We are interested in the relationship between the genotype g and the fitness W (Price 1970). Therefore, from the chain rule, we obtainEmbedded Image(2.2)This shows that the essential evolutionary question is whether Embedded Image, and we can, without loss of generality, focus on the simplest case of direct correspondence between phenotype and genotype, ds/dg=1. Then dW/dg is simply given byEmbedded Image(2.3a)And a response to the prior event will be favoured whenEmbedded Image(2.3b)where α2 can be interpreted as an energetic cost c of performing the action, such that c=−α2, and the sum −γ1+γ3 captures the net benefit to performing the action when it is appropriate, which can be manifest either through a benefit to acting (γ3) or a cost to not acting (−γ1). The final interaction term γ2 is important if performing the action in the absence of the latter event carries a specific cost. Take, for example, the tendency to eat plants to cure diseases in a small-scale society. Call the prior event EP being ill, the latter EL that conditions will worsen and the action eating a particular plant. The cost of obtaining the plant is −α2, the improvement in health from eating the plant is captured by γ3, and if conditions were going to improve and the plant causes poisoning, this would mean γ2<0. However, focusing on what is probably the typical case where the action provides a benefit b specific to the occurrence of the latter event, i.e. −γ1+γ3=b>0, γ2=0, responding to the prior event is favoured whenEmbedded Image(2.4)This simple inequality provides an intuitive solution to the question of when it will be beneficial to assign causality between two events. Centrally, natural selection can favour associated events whose relationship is uncertain (0<p<1) whenever there is a high fitness benefit to assigning causality correctly, e.g. not being eaten by a predator or being cured of a dangerous disease.
View this table:
Table 1
Fitness effects of responding, or not responding, to a prior event that may precede a latter event.
For extremely low values of p, inequality (2.4) can also be viewed as an evolutionary fitness version of Pascal's wager (Jordan 1994). This is the argument that one should be Christian even if the existence of God is highly improbable, because the pay-off from being correct is considered very great (figure 1). However, inappropriate actions based on extreme probabilities may be rare in the biological setting. Although assigning causality to highly improbable events in our model will indeed generate a large proportion of actions that do not individually carry a benefit (1−p, figure 1), it also requires disproportionately large fitness benefits for the action to be favoured overall by natural selection. This latter effect—the probability that a response is favoured by natural selection—works against the first by making the evolution of traits associated with a very low p unlikely.
Figure 1
Natural selection for an action that leads to behaviours associated with an incorrect causal association. (a) One event EP precedes the other EL. The prior event has no effect on fitness per se (e.g. a noise), but the latter does (e.g. a predator arrives), and the focal individual's response (e.g. evasive action) can modify the fitness consequences of this latter event. (b) The evolution of the response. In the parameter space above the line, a focal individual will be selected to act as though the two events are causally associated even though 1–p of the time the response is not needed, e.g. running away when a sound is heard in the absence of impending danger.
We can include it in our evolutionary model by considering a prior–latter event relationship where again P(EL|EP)=p, and including the probability that the benefit-to-cost ratio (b/c=z) is high enough to favour the strategy, from inequality (2.4), i.e. when z>1/p. Therefore, for a given distribution of z, we can calculate the probability that the benefit-to-cost ratio is above 1/p and then weight this by the probability that the resulting actions are a correct assignment of causality (1−p). Taking a Gaussian distribution in z with a mean of 1 for illustrative purposes, we obtainEmbedded Image(2.5)where Erfc is the complementary error function, and σ is the standard deviation of the Gaussian. Figure 2 shows this function plotted for various frequency distributions of the benefit-to-cost ratio of actions. This predicts that, as long as low benefit-to-cost ratios are more likely than high, selection will lead to most incorrect assignments for associations based upon low to intermediate probabilities of causality. Very strong associations are rarely incorrect, while natural selection will rarely favour making very weak associations (as is required for Pascal's wager).
Figure 2
(a) Gaussian relative frequency distributions of actions as a function of their benefit-to-cost ratio (z). Distributions have mean μ and standard deviation σ. (b) Probability of an action evolving that predicts a latter event that does not occur, as a function of p (the probability that the prior and latter events are causally associated). The different plots are for the different probability density distributions of the benefit-to-cost ratio shown in (a). The line for σ→∞ corresponds to all benefits from actions being equally likely, which reduces the relative frequency of incorrect responses to simply (1−p) (figure 1).
Solutions (2.4) and (2.5) then show that natural selection will readily favour strategies that generate a high frequency of individual behaviours that will appear superstitious, i.e. an action that implies a causal relationship that is lacking. And the general tendency for organisms to associate improbable events, which will often appear superstitious, may be thus explained, e.g. eating a particular plant to cure a particular disease may work only on very rare occasions. However, the logic of such examples ultimately rests on the two events sometimes, albeit rarely, being causally linked. If we take a strict definition of superstition, therefore, and demand the association of truly unrelated events, then these cases do not appear to be superstitious but rather, as Pascal himself emphasized, a good wager.
(b) Extended model: multiple events
Can natural selection ever favour the association of truly unrelated events, which would satisfy the most stringent definitions of superstition? Our model of a single cause–effect relationship suggests not but what about a mixture of prior and latter events, where some are causally related but others are not? We explore this possibility with a model where two prior events precede either one or two latter events (figure 3) and there is the possibility that the actor incorrectly assigns the probabilities of causality (p and q) to the respective events. We focus on the first and simpler case here (figure 3a), but the conclusions from both cases are similar (below; electronic supplementary material). For clarity, we base the analysis on a specific scenario: two different types of disturbance that occur in an environment where a predator may appear, e.g. rustling in grass and rustling in trees, one of which is more typically caused by wind, the other one by a moving predator. As before, our question is when will selection favour assuming that the prior and latter events are causally associated, even though the relationship between them is uncertain?
Figure 3
Models of multiple prior and latter events. (a) Single latter event and (b) two latter events.
During a time unit, grass movement occurs with probability f and tree movement with probability g, and the probabilities the predator follows the events are p and q, respectively. There is additionally a conditional probability that the predator appears without any prior event; this equals r (table 2). If tree movement is not causally linked to the presence of the predator, we have q=r. The focal individual can make an anti-predator response that removes all risk from the predator (e.g. running down a burrow) but this comes at a cost c (equivalent to cost c=−α2 in the first model). Meanwhile, not acting while the predator is around implies a risk of death, b (or equivalently the benefit from escaping when the predator is there), where b>c. Finally, we include the possibility that the actor may incorrectly assign the probabilities of causality (p and q) to the respective events. This might occur for a number of reasons, including poor information on the real values of p and q. Here we assume that the incorrect assignment results simply from constraints on recognition of the two prior events, where movement in the grass is heard as movement in the trees with conditional probability P (hear prior event 2|prior event 1 occurs)=a21, while the reverse occurs with probability a12. There are then four possible strategies: (i) ignore all prior events, (ii) respond to grass, (iii) respond to trees, and (iv) respond to both.
View this table:
Table 2
Calculations of conditional survival probabilities as a function of behavioural strategy.
This extended model is analysed with the methodology of the first model (equations (2.1)–(2.4)). In brief, we use the set of conditional probabilities shown in table 2 to derive a fitness equation for each of the four possible strategies that allow their fitness consequences to be compared (table S1 in the electronic supplementary material shows the equivalent calculations for a case with two latter events corresponding to figure 3b). The model contains many more parameters than the first but its key behaviour is captured by focusing on a simple case whereby the predator always disturbs the grass (r=0) and grass movement precedes the predator's arrival with probability p but, importantly, the other prior event (movement in the trees) is never causally associated with the predator (q=r=0). In addition, for illustration, we assume that the probability that movement in the grass is heard as in the trees is equal to the reverse (a21=a12=a) and the two prior events occur rarely enough that the probability that both occur is negligible (fg≈0), although table 2 shows how to calculate the case where sounds can co-occur (see also figure 4).
Figure 4
(a) The evolution of superstitious behaviour when multiple events precede a latter one. Should a prey species respond to neither, one or both prior events (e.g. moving grass or trees) as though they signal the arrival of a predator? (b) Effect of different strategies upon survival when prey species cannot perfectly discriminate between the prior events (a=0.3). Responding to both events is often selected even though prior event 2 has no true association with the predator (q=0). Other parameters: c=0.1 (cost of anti-predator response), b=1 (cost of predator being present), f=g=0.1 (probability that each sound occurs) and r=0 (probability that predator arrives when there is no sound). Inset photo of Pika used with kind permission from J. Bailey. See
With these assumptions, we can evaluate the fitness consequences of various possible strategies. Most simply, a corollary of the tree movement never being associated with the predator is that it will nearly always be better to respond to the grass. In particular, the model predicts that selection will favour a response to grass rather than trees whenEmbedded Image(2.6)which is always true for a<0.5 (hearing the grass is a better predictor of movement in the grass occurring than hearing the trees) and bp>c (responding to the grass carries a net benefit when it is detected perfectly). Responding to the grass is favoured over no response whenEmbedded Image(2.7)
Responding to both the grass and the trees rather than just grass givesEmbedded Image(2.8)and responding to both events rather than no response is favoured whenEmbedded Image(2.9)where Embedded Image when a<0.5. So unless there are extreme errors in identifying the prior events (hearing prior event 1 is a better predictor of prior event 2 than prior event 1, and vice versa), when inequality (2.8) holds, so will inequality (2.9).
Inequalities (2.7) and (2.8) then allow us to assess the effects of multiple prior events on the evolution of superstitious or superstition-like behaviours. Centrally, they show that when there is some error in the discrimination between events and their associated effects, it will often to be beneficial to respond to both events, even though one, in this case movement in the trees, has no true association with a benefit. Figure 4 illustrates the behaviour of the model: as the probability of a causal association between movement in the grass and the predator rises (p), so does the likelihood of responding to non-causal prior events (movement in trees). This occurs because increased p means increased benefit to responding to the causal stimulus, which more easily compensates for the cost of mistakenly responding to the non-causal stimulus.
(c) A hierarchical view of superstition
Further intuition about responses to multiple events can be obtained by considering the two extreme cases where there are no errors in assigning causal probabilities, and complete error. With no errors (a=0), inequality (2.8) is never satisfied and it is always better to respond to just the causal event, and from inequality (2.7) we recover our general inequality that a response is favoured when pb>c. More interesting, however, is the case when discrimination errors are so common that the two prior events are indistinguishable (a=0.5). Then both inequalities 7 and 8 reduce to inequality (2.9), which captures the fact that the focal individual now has only two options: respond to both stimuli or do not respond at all. This scenario is useful because it distinguishes two levels of uncertainty that can drive superstitious or superstition-like behaviours. The lower level captures the fact that one prior event is truly causally associated with the latter event, but there may nevertheless be occasions when the latter event does not follow. As a result, there is the probability p that the latter follows the prior, where p≠1. In the absence of any second prior event (g=0) then, we again recover equation (2.1).
The higher level effect occurs when there exists a second prior event that is not causally associated (movement in the trees, g>0). Now there can be cases where the focal individual responds to a prior event that has no causal association with the latter event, which is an association that might be considered formally superstitious. The benefit of responding depends upon the Bayesian probability that a prior event is the causal event rather than the non-causal one (f/(f+g)), and when the first event is perfectly causally associated with the latter event (p=1), it is this Bayesian ratio coupled to the benefit-to-cost ratio that drives any response. One can, of course, combine the two levels of uncertainty into a single probability,Embedded Image(2.10)where substituting P into inequality (2.9) returns again to the form of inequality (2.4) and the associated logic (figure 2).
This simple substitution reveals the hierarchical structure of the arguments presented here. When a causal prior event is not perfectly predictive of a latter event, it will often be possible, with more information, to subdivide the prior event into occasions that are sometimes causal and some that are never causal. And with more information, one might go further and subdivide the former set, and so on. However, whenever an actor cannot fully dissect out the prior events that carry perfect causality, there will be a level at which they are forced to respond to an aggregate of causal and non-causal events, or not respond at all, i.e. responding based upon P (higher level probability) rather than p and q (lower level probabilities). To the extent that the associations used by individuals can be viewed as an aggregate of causal and non-causal relationships, therefore, there is a case for the existence of superstitions that arise through natural selection.
The limits on an individual's ability to estimate and distinguish among causal probabilities will, in turn, depend on the available mechanisms of assessment. While estimates of causality may arise through learning, an evolutionary account of superstitious behaviours highlights that learning is not required for their generation. Our model of multiple prior events fits a vertebrate prey species that learns predator responses (figure 4) but it can also be applied to innate responses, where ‘learning’ will instead operate over evolutionary time scales. For example, there is evidence of an innate avoidance exhibited by some animals of harmless yellow and black insects because others of this coloration are dangerous (Werner & Elke 1985). There may also be a genetic component to the finding that predators only avoid non-poisonous snakes that mimic a poisonous species in areas where the poisonous species is common (Pfennig et al. 2001). Such data also support the predictions of our model. In our terminology, an increase in the frequency of the causal relationship ‘eat snake and be poisoned’ leads to an incorrect and superstitious association being formed with the non-causal association. In other words, the ratio f/(f+g) increases with increasing f and favours avoiding the harmless snakes. Moving even further away from the potential influence of learning, our model could equally describe a bacterium swimming towards a substance that carries no metabolic benefits, e.g. Escherichia coli cells will swim towards physiologically inert methylaspartate presumably owing to an adaptation to favour true aspartate (Sourjik & Berg 2002).
Appreciating the biological basis for such simple responses is more than a curiosity. It emphasizes that organisms will frequently display behavioural responses that appear poorly adapted to a particular situation. The existence of superstitious behaviours that are part of an adaptive strategy provides an alternative explanation for behaviours that might otherwise be seen as maladaptive ‘mistakes’ (Gadagkar 1993) or a poor match between a species and a changing environment (‘ecological traps’; Schlaepfer et al. 2002). This said, we do not intend to suggest that all behaviours are adaptive and many ecological traps are probably real. Indeed, an evolutionary lag following a changed environment provides another route to superstitious behaviours, whereby an organism associates two events that once were, but are no longer, causally related, e.g. a predator goes extinct but the prey still hides at night.
In humans, assessments of causality and the associated responses reach their most complex level owing to the potential for reasoning and cultural transmission. Along these lines, Beck & Forstmeier (2007) have recently argued that prior experience (an individual's ‘world view’) will weigh heavily in whether a current relationship is deemed true or false. This potential interaction between reasoning and culture is apparent in the observation that the dawn of human agriculture coincided with a tendency to use green beads in jewellery. This may indicate that when crops became important, individuals began to reason that green icons brought good fortune (Bar-Yosef Mayer & Porat 2008). In addition, alternative medicine has a strong culturally learned component that appears to frequently group ineffective medicines with effective ones (Astin et al. 1998).
The enormous potential for cultural evolution to affect the links between genetics and behaviour (Laland & Brown 2002; Richerson & Boyd 2004; Lehmann et al. 2008) means that our reductionist model must be cautiously applied to humans. Nevertheless, our work suggests that the acquisition of new information through learning, copying and hearsay is all underlain by the innate and adaptive propensities to act on uncertainties. In particular, the inability of individuals—human or otherwise—to assign causal probabilities to all sets of events that occur around them will often force them to lump causal associations with non-causal ones. From here, the evolutionary rationale for superstition is clear: natural selection will favour strategies that make many incorrect causal associations in order to establish those that are essential for survival and reproduction.
Authors express thanks to Andrés López-Sepulcre, Katja Bargum, Daniel Rankin, Katharina Ribbeck, Carey Nadell, Andrew Murray, Allan Drummond, Martin Willensdorfer, and two anonymous referees for their helpful comments and discussions. K.R.F. is supported by National Institute of General Medical Sciences Center of Excellence Grant 5P50 GM 068763-01.
• Received July 16, 2008.
• Accepted August 12, 2008.
View Abstract
|
<urn:uuid:3b950723-ffa7-4942-a019-db9339c4649c>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.16739684343338013,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9331923723220825,
"url": "http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/276/1654/31.full"
}
|
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A hypocaust (Latin hypocaustum) was an ancient Roman system of underfloor heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The word derives from the Ancient Greek hypo meaning "under" and caust-, meaning "burnt" (as in caustic). The Roman architect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century B.C., attributes their invention to Sergius Orata.
Roman operation[edit]
Ruins of the hypocaust under the floor of a Roman villa at La Olmeda, Province of Palencia (Castile and León, Spain).
Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths, houses and other buildings, whether public or private. The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the room. Ceramic box tiles were placed inside the walls to both remove the hot burned air and to heat the walls. Rooms requiring the most heat were placed closest to the furnace, whose heat could be increased by adding more wood to the fire. It was labour-intensive to run a hypocaust, as it required constant attention to tend the fire, and expensive in fuel, so it was a feature of the villa and public baths.
Caldarium from the Roman Baths at Bath, in Britain. The floor has been removed to reveal the empty spaces through which the hot air would flow.
Vitruvius describes their construction and operation in his work De architectura in about 15 BC, adding details about how fuel could be conserved by designing the hot room or caldarium for men and women to be built next to one another, adjacent to the tepidarium so as to run the public baths efficiently. He also describes a device for adjusting the heat by a bronze ventilator in the domed ceiling.
Non-Roman analogs[edit]
Excavations at Mohenjo-daro in what is now Pakistan have unearthed what is believed to be a hypocaust lined with bitumen-coated bricks. If it fulfilled a similar role, the structure would pre-date the earliest Roman hypocaust by as much as 2000 years.
In 1984–1985, in the Republic of Georgia, excavations in the ancient settlement of Dzalisa uncovered a large castle complex, featuring a well-preserved hypocaust built between 200–400 BC.
Dating back to 1000 BC, Korean houses have traditionally used ondol to provide floor heating on similar principles as the hypocaust, drawing smoke from a wood fire typically used for cooking. Ondol heating was common in Korean homes until the 1960s, by which time dedicated ondol installations were typically used to warm the main room of the house, burning a variety of fuels such as coal and biomass.
After the Romans[edit]
Wall flues for hot air circulation.
With the decline of the Roman Empire, the hypocaust fell into disuse, especially in western provinces. In Britain, from c. 400 until c. 1900, central heating did not exist, and hot baths were rare.[1]
In the Iberian Peninsula, the Roman system was adopted for the heating of Hispano-Islamic (Al Andalus) baths (hammams). A derivation of hypocaust, the gloria, was in use in Castile until the arrival of modern heating. After the fuel (mainly wood) was reduced to ashes, the air intake was closed to keep hot air inside and to slow combustion.
See also[edit]
1. ^ Winston Churchill (1956), A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Birth of Britain, Dodd, Mead & Company, p. 35
External links[edit]
|
<urn:uuid:3784c7ae-1e14-42bb-86e5-02684c809b83>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.75,
"fasttext_score": 0.1367563009262085,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9618529677391052,
"url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypocaust"
}
|
Did you know?
mark - definition and synonyms
What are red words?
noun [countable] mark pronunciation in American English /mɑrk/
Word Forms
• Facebook
• Twitter
1. 1
an area of an unpleasant substance such as dirt or oil on the surface of something that is different in color from the rest
There was a greasy mark on his shirt.
leave a mark (on something): The sauce has left a mark on the cloth.
Synonyms and related words
1. a.
a damaged area on the surface of something
a burn/scorch/bite/scuff/scratch mark: There were burn marks on her hands.
2. 2
a particular level, stage, total, etc. that something reaches
the halfway mark: Chicago was the halfway mark on our trip across the country.
reach a mark: Average earnings have not yet reached the $40,000 mark.
3. 3
something that shows that a person or thing has a particular quality
mark of: The mark of a good movie is that it leaves you talking about it.
a mark of respect: The race was postponed as a mark of respect.
4. 4
The mark above the vowel changes its sound.
Put a mark by the names of the most interesting candidates.
5. 6
the place that you try to hit
find/hit your mark: His third shot found its mark.
miss your mark: The bullet missed its mark, embedding itself in a tree.
6. 7
carry a mark (=have a mark on it): We suggest you only buy toys that carry the mark of the Safety Council.
BuzzWord Article
Open Dictionary
troll factory
add a word
global English and language change from our blog
|
<urn:uuid:1c577052-2871-4aa8-8db1-ba42ac0f20f7>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.019073545932769775,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9466833472251892,
"url": "http://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/dictionary/american/mark_1"
}
|
U.S. History X Vocab: Word Wall 13
7 terms by elizabethwiggans
Create a new folder
Create a free Quizlet account to save it and study later.
Sign up for an account
Already have a Quizlet account? .
Create an account
Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads
push factors
the things that cause a person to immigrate and move away from their country of origin such as wars, famine, religious persecution, and overpopulation
pull factors
things that bring people to a country such as jobs, opportunities (land), freedom, and family (if they were previously successful)
Ellis Island
An immigration station set up by Congress in 1890 in New York where 6 million people had passed through by 1910
Angel Island
An immigration station in San Francisco for Chinese immigrants that provided much more limiting/ different treatment than other immigration stations
An action that occured on the majority of immigrants that was often humiliating and dehumanizing, sent back people with diseases, and asked background questions to weed out radicals and those who couldn't support themselves
native-born Americans who feared and resented new immigrants and disproved of people who where not native born
The picking up of new languages and new customs when immigrants came to America - ethnic neighborhoods hindered upon this action
Please allow access to your computer’s microphone to use Voice Recording.
Having trouble? Click here for help.
We can’t access your microphone!
Reload the page to try again!
Press Cmd-0 to reset your zoom
Press Ctrl-0 to reset your zoom
Please upgrade Flash or install Chrome
to use Voice Recording.
For more help, see our troubleshooting page.
Your microphone is muted
For help fixing this issue, see this FAQ.
Star this term
You can study starred terms together
NEW! Voice Recording
Create Set
|
<urn:uuid:ae601582-a0f1-4466-8610-90e207a83b76>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.04219520092010498,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9186161756515503,
"url": "https://quizlet.com/1716239/us-history-x-vocab-word-wall-13-flash-cards/"
}
|
Every species -- be it earthworm or great white shark -- is entwined in a vast and complicated system of predator and prey called a food web. To determine which species in a food web are most important to the survival of the larger ecosystem, scientists design computer programs to model how the extinction of a given species would affect the other species in the system. This year, two scientists announced that they had found an unexpectedly useful tool for this purpose: the seminal Google search algorithm.
Stefano Allesina of the University of Chicago and Mercedes Pascual of the University of Michigan began with a simple hunch. Google's search engine uses an algorithm called PageRank to identify the most important Web sites on a given topic by analyzing links: a Web page is important if other important pages link to it. How different is this, really, Allesina and Pascual wondered, from an ecosystem, in which a species is important if other important species eat it?
Allesina and Pascual borrowed Google's PageRank algorithm and modified it to model ecosystems in the natural world. As they explained in September in the journal PLoS Computational Biology, the modified algorithm was more efficient than existing ecosystem-extinction models at identifying which species' extinction would cause the greatest number of other species in the food web also to go extinct. ''Our algorithm is faster and computationally simpler,'' Allesina says.
The PageRank algorithm could be useful in analyzing other networks too. The world features countless interconnected systems ranging in size from the minuscule (metabolic networks within a single cell) to the immense (international financial markets). After publishing the paper, Allesina received e-mail messages from dozens of researchers interested in adapting the PageRank algorithm. ''PageRank is a technique for finding hidden flows in huge quantities of data,'' says Yonatan Zunger, a Google software engineer who used to work on search technology and who contacted Allesina after seeing his research. ''There are all kinds of networks. PageRank is enormously applicable beyond the Web.''
|
<urn:uuid:0a42acc6-5909-475c-a43b-5db507a44043>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.875,
"fasttext_score": 0.05684709548950195,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9107444882392883,
"url": "http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B05E7DA143AF930A25751C1A96F9C8B63"
}
|
The Adventures of Pinocchio
From Wikisource
Jump to: navigation, search
The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883)
by Carlo Collodi, translated by Carol Della Chiesa
Le Avventure di Pinocchio) is a novel for children by Italian author Carlo Collodi. The first half was published in serial form between 1881 and 1883, and then completed as a book for children in February 1883. It is about the mischievous adventures of Pinocchio, an animated marionette, and his poor father, a woodcarver named Geppetto. It is considered a classic of children's literature and has spawned many derivative works of art, such as Disney's classic 1940 animated movie of the same name, and commonplace ideas, such as a liar's long nose.
This edition was translated by Carol Della Chiesa in 1926.
|
<urn:uuid:e76b332e-df3e-4be2-a46d-550a83f861f0>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.07552993297576904,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9641708135604858,
"url": "http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Pinocchio"
}
|
Show Menu
Items tagged "handbook": 3
Basic Movements of Square Dancing
This early handbook from Sets in Order provides detailed instructions for 20 basic figures, "the foundation movements for most square dancing." As such, it offers an overview of what was considered essential in the early years of MWSD.Many figures contain subdivisions; for example, Figure 16 is Arch and Under: a. Inside Arch - Outside Underb.…
ABC's of Square Dancing
This informal guide to square dancing is aimed at beginners, an easy-to-ready pamphlet that a caller could distribute to dancers in a class. It strikes a friendly tone:
So you wanta' square dance?
There are probably a million different reasons why you got started in on this square dancing thing. Maybe it was just the need of a good…
5 Steps to Better Dancing
The "5 Steps" of the title can be taken literally; this tiny handout, illustrated with stick figures, is all about how to move on the dance floor:
1. Keep both feet on the floor, don't walk. [Instead, use a shuffle step.]
2. Keep weight forward
3. Stand tall, move lightly
4. Take smaller steps
5. Listen to the music, dance to the music
|
<urn:uuid:75893406-70a7-40ef-a74a-807bc5515597>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.5354394912719727,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.902104377746582,
"url": "http://squaredancehistory.org/items/browse?tags=handbook"
}
|
Speakers Discuss Pollution Problems in Rivers
John O. Anfinson and Anthony Amato discuss the history of the Minnesota and Mississippi
By Hannah Waack
In the Gulf of Mexico there is a section that is known as "the Dead Zone". The water there contains high amounts of nitrogen and phosphate. This pollution prevents oxygen from being dissolved, thus no marine life can survive. It is estimated that 6 percent of this pollution comes from Minnesota rivers.
Sixty-three people attended the Rivers of History: The Minnesota and the Mississippi, a lecture hosted by the Center for Rural and Regional Studies and the Society for the Study of Local and Regional History. The conference occurred on Thursday, Nov. 4. The time was divided between guest lecture Dr. John O. Anfinson and Dr. Anthony Amato, the chair of the rural and regional studies department.
Anfinson spoke about his book "The River We Have Wrought: A History of the Upper Mississippi."
"Essentially my book explores why we have done what we have done to the river and who have we done it for," Anfinson said.
He then turned to the Mississippi river. He spoke about its history and its current condition.
"So much of Southwestern and Western Minnesota has a huge stake in the Minnesota River," said Anfinson.
One item that Anfinson cited was the fact that having an alternative to railroad shipping helps keep the railroad costs down. While the river is important, Anfinson points out that with the current situation, the Mississippi river is in trouble.
"According to many biologists we are coming up on a 'silent spring'...The problem is when the water is supposed to go down, the locks on the river prevent it. The drying up is a part of the natural ecosystem," Anfinson said.
He discussed plants that have adapted to the flooding and drying up and as a result are becoming scarcer. As a result the waterfowl can't eat the plants. Every year the water eats up more of the tiny islands and tiny ecosystems are destroyed and there is more sediment in the water.
"For farmers who depend on the river for their livelihood, there is a more significant change," said Anfinson.
The Corps of Engineers is proposing a 7.2 billion dollar project to restore ecosystems and make the lock and dam system more efficient. Anfinson estimated that about 1500 barges go up and down the river each day and the current lock and dam system is not time or cost efficient.
Anfinson next turned to the history of the river. He started with the exploration of Zebulon Pike and discussed the first docks along the river and how farming was the reason that the river was finally improved for shipping.
Co-presenter Amato had high praise for Anfinson. "I reviewed his book and really liked it," said Amato.
Geoff Cunfer, a professor in the center for rural and regional studies, enjoyed the presentation as well.
"I think that he gave a fantastic talk and he really made clear the ecological differences between the Northern and the Southern stretches of the Mississippi river," Cunfer said.
When Anfinson was done, Amato then gave a talk on "The Flow of History: Rivers, the Past, and the Present."
"[Amato] did a nice job of putting the Minnesota River in its context of rivers worldwide," Cunfer said.
"There's a lot of concern about rivers in our area and their state, pollution and flooding. Just because we didn't flood this year doesn't mean we shouldn't be concerned,"Amato said.
"The river's water will be cleaner as people in its watershed take a bigger interest in water quality," Amato added.
Still, Amato said the rivers will have problems if people continue to build too close to them.
"I think the flooding has made it clear that the rivers aren't under our control," Amato said.
|
<urn:uuid:affd03ef-6551-4a34-acd2-0ceba38a0082>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.02194279432296753,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9712632894515991,
"url": "http://www.smsu.edu/regional/news/news04_11_18.htm"
}
|
cywydd, plural cywyddau, Welsh verse form, a kind of short ode in rhyming couplets in which one rhyme is accented and the other unaccented; each line is composed of seven syllables and contains some form of cynghanedd (a complex system of alliteration and internal rhyme). Developed in the 14th century in south Wales by Dafydd ap Gwilym, the cywydd shows affinities with forms used by the earlier bardd teulu (“bard of the [king’s] war band”), the second grade in the Welsh bardic system, and with those of the French trouvères and jongleurs. It was the leading Welsh verse form from the 14th to the early 17th century; its golden age was from the mid-14th to the mid-15th century, and its silver age, when excessive concern with stylistic rules hampered free poetic expression, from about 1500 to 1650. It was revived, with other bardic forms, by the classical school of Welsh poets in the mid-18th century, and again in the 19th century. It remains in use by those modern Welsh poets who prefer strict (i.e., classical) forms to the free metres that are derived from Welsh folk song and from English verse.
|
<urn:uuid:4f9d833b-9094-43e0-8e3c-5cbdaa917b8f>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.609375,
"fasttext_score": 0.027345776557922363,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9621649384498596,
"url": "http://www.britannica.com/print/topic/149016"
}
|
Quarterdeck, Volume 6, Number 2, Summer 1998
The Ocean and Global Climate
The Pacific Ocean
El Niño, La Niña, and 'decadal variability'
cause long-term temperature changes in Pacific
Dr. Benjamin Giese
If you're interested in taking a swim in the Pacific Ocean, one of the first things you might do--after checking for sharks--is determine the water's temperature.
The surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean can vary from hour to hour, season to season, and decade to decade. Much of the short-term temperature variation comes from the direct influence of the sun. The water is warmer during the day than at night and warmer during the summer than during the winter for the same basic reason: The sun's rays are more intense during the day and in the summertime, and less intense during the evening and the wintertime.
But some of the variation in the ocean's temperature is not directly related to the sun's influence. Two examples of this long-term climate change are El Niño and decadal variability. (The term "decadal" is derived from "decade," a period of 10 years, but we use the term decadal variability to indicate changes in climate that occur over a period that is approximately 10 years long.)
Our research group at Texas A&M University is investigating the relationship between El Niño warming and decadal climate variability. We use computer models of the ocean to study the most recent El Niño, as well as El Niños of the past, in an attempt to better understand the types of climate change that we may expect in the future.
Some of the variation in the ocean's temperature is not directly related to the sun's influence.
El Niño
Could anyone who opened a newspaper last winter avoid reading about El Niño? The 1997-98 El Niño was one of the most widely discussed climate events in recent history.
Long ago, the fishermen of Peru named the seasonal warming of the waters off the South American coast "El Niño"-Spanish for "the Christ child." During most of a normal year, the waters adjacent to the coast of South America are cold and highly productive, and fishing is bountiful. In December, a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere, normal warming of the water decreases the water's productivity-and the fishermen's catch. Peruvian fishermen associated the arrival of warm water with the arrival of Christmas ... and hence the name El Niño. Usually the cold waters return in June, and the fishing season begins again.
However, in some years the cold waters do not return, and the water stays warm throughout the year. We now use the term El Niño to mean these unusual years, and the 1997-98 El Niño was one of the biggest of the El Niño events in the last 400 years.
Ordinarily, easterly tradewinds blow from the coast of South America toward the western Pacific. The persistent winds blow warm surface water toward the western Pacific, making room for cold water from the deep ocean to rise to the surface in a process called upwelling.
During an El Niño year, the tradewinds weaken so that not as much cold water gets to the surface and the temperature there starts to rise. The rising water temperature causes the winds to weaken even more, which in turn causes the temperature to rise even more, resulting in an El Niño.
This means that the ocean is intimately connected to the atmosphere, and is one of the reasons why we feel the effect of El Niño here in Texas, even though the El Niño warming is thousands of miles away.
The El Niño warming changes the patterns of circulation in the atmosphere, which can in turn change the path of storms coming from the Pacific Ocean onto the United States.
During January and February of 1998, the peak of the 1997-98 El Niño, the storm track brought several storm systems further south than normal so that it rained in southern California, a region that is normally dry throughout the year.
In Texas, we often get a rainy winter during El Niño years, and the first part of the winter of 1997-98 was colder and wetter than normal.
But more important to Texans is not cold and wet periods, but dry periods. Rainfall is crucial to many aspects of the state's economy, especially agriculture. Dry periods in Texas are associated not with El Niño, but with its opposite phase, La Niña.
The 1997-98 El Niño was one of the biggest in the last 400 years. This diagram shows an average of the unusually high sea-surface temperatures during El Niños.
View a timeline
of El Niño and La Niña years.
La Niña
Whereas an El Niño brings warmer than normal temperatures to the tropical Pacific, La Niña has colder than normal temperatures in the tropical Pacific.
La Niña conditions often follow an El Niño, with stronger upwelling of cold water during the months of June, July and August. Like El Niño, the unusual conditions can last for nine months to a year. La Niña can also distort the normal storm tracks across the United States, and can bring unusual weather to the region.
La Niña is the opposite of El Niño, and the impact on Texas climate is the opposite as well.
We know that El Niño can cause a wetter than normal winter in Texas, and La Niña can cause a drier (and warmer) summer in Texas.
It appears that this year is no exception; we have experienced a dry and warm summer, and yes, conditions in the tropical Pacific are colder than normal.
Decadal variability
Decadal variability in climate is similar to El Niño variability, except that it is weaker and lasts for a much longer period of time. And like an El Niño, we experience the effects of decadal warming as changes in climate. Where an El Niño can bring intense storms and flooding for a period of several months and La Niña can cause several months of drought, decadal variability might be responsible for the decade-long periods of drought that we experience in the southwestern part of the United States.
As in the case of El Niño, decadal variability is prominent in both the ocean and in the atmosphere. Whereas the largest El Niño temperature anomalies are found in the tropics, large decadal temperature anomalies are found in the North Pacific, as shown above. We are not sure what causes decadal variations in surface temperature in the Pacific, but it is likely that positive air-sea feedbacks play an important role as they do in the Atlantic. (See page 12 for a diagram of a positive air-sea feedback.) This means that we can feel the effects of decadal warmings across the United States, even though the center of warming in the ocean is thousands of miles away.
These two forms of climate variability, El Niño and decadal warming, may be related to each other. As an example, the decade of the 1930s was extremely dry throughout the southwestern United States, suggesting a connection to decadal variability. Interestingly, it also was a period of few and very weak El Niños.
Finding a relationship
Our research seeks to answer questions about the connection between El Niño and decadal climate variability. The ultimate goal of this work is to better predict the occurrence of these climate phenomena, so that people can prepare for the adverse weather conditions that often arise during periods of climate change. It would be helpful for farmers to be able to predict how much rainfall will occur during the growing season, or for city planners to predict how much water they must reserve for the next year.
We can study El Niño conditions for any period since 1950, and so we can use the computer results to explore the possibility of a change in El Niño over the last 48 years.
For instance, the El Niños of 1982-83 and 1997-98 are two of the strongest on record. Should we expect more unusually strong El Niños? Or is it just a chance occurrence that these strong El Niños happened in close succession?
Our research group is continuing to explore how to best use satellite observations of the oceans to get the most accurate representation of the ocean possible.
We plan to expand our Pacific Ocean studies to the global oceans, in an effort to explore how climate varies globally. Eventually, we hope to be able to predict these climate changes well in advance.
Read about a flip-flopping climate in the tropical Atlantic Ocean.
La Niña conditions
often follow an El Niño
and can also bring
unusual weather.
What's the difference
between climate
and weather?
Find out!
This large area of unusually warm water in the northern Pacific may exist for a decade and have a long-term influence on climate, including long periods of drought in the southwestern United States.
Like tree rings, coral layers (such as in the coral core, above) can reveal climate change. Find out more ...
Send comments about Quarterdeck to quarterdeck@ocean.tamu.edu.
Send comments and questions about this web site to web@ocean.tamu.edu.
Last updated August 1, 1998
|
<urn:uuid:01e17e27-45fb-4310-9f26-d3231fc1a292>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.11155945062637329,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9356693625450134,
"url": "http://ocean.tamu.edu/Quarterdeck/QD6.2/giese.html"
}
|
The Taming of the Shrew Essay - Katherine of The Taming of the Shrew. 'A Second Grissel'
Carolyn E. Brown, University of San Francisco
Shakespeare wrote The Taming of the Shrew within the genre of shrew literature, popular in medieval and Renaissance times. Shrews appeared in almost every form of literature—written and oral—in these periods. And Shakespeare composes his play subtly enough that it can be read as written within the tradition, and he makes Katherine "spirited" enough that she can be read as a shrew, who finds a wise and courageous man with the skills to mold her into a peaceful, loving wife. Numerous critics have compellingly interpreted the play and the protagonists in these terms.1 But some critics contend that Shakespeare put his own special touch on the tradition, modifying it in some important ways. These critics see Katherine, for example, as not quite fitting the mold of the traditional shrew. Most traditional shrew literature panders to misogynistic portrayals of women and clearly favors the male—typically a rational husband tormented by a loquacious, scolding, railing, irrationally violent, tricky woman. Shakespeare seems to have done something different with Katherine, who does not embody these characteristics. She has been shown to be too silent, too sympathetic, too tortured, too compliant to Petruchio's "taming strategies" to be a typical shrew. Camille Wells Slights, for example, notes that "Shakespeare's Kate—probably the most famous shrew of all—seems to elude the categories of literary history." Charles Brooks calls Katherine a "romantic shrew" and claims that Shakespeare humanizes his heroine. Robert Ornstein notes that Katherine is "more sensitive and tormented" and "more sympathetic and more psychologically complex than the [patently shrewish] heroine of The Taming of a Shrew"—either a bad quarto of Shakespeare's play, a source play, or a play derived from the same source that Shakespeare used.2 Critics have argued, in fact, that Katherine is not a shrew at all and that her seeming shrewishness is only a defense mechanism against the hurt inflicted on her by a misogynistic world.3
Shakespeare has also been read as having conceived Petruchio in terms different from those of the traditional shrew tamer: a patient man who usually wants a loving, mutually nurturing relationship with his spouse but who is forced to resort to violent measures in order to counteract the uncontrollable, destructive violence of his shrewish wife. In many ways, Shakespeare makes his male protagonist more problematic. At times Petruchio behaves like a bully and a brute, and his tactics with Katherine can be read as gratuitously severe and prolonged tormenting of her. Some critics express reservations about him. For example, George Bernard Shaw condemns Petruchio for his "domineering cruelty." Mark Van Doren argues that we must "confess" that Petruchio is "torturing" Katherine during his "taming" of her. J. Dennis Huston derides Petruchio's "courtship" of Katherine as "nothing less than psychological rape" and suggests that Petruchio "touches upon the 'low,' the bestial, in man's nature." Robert Ornstein argues that "Shakespeare's version of the wife-tamer is both coarser and less attractive as a dramatic figure than his counterpart in The Taming of a Shrew." And Jeanne Addison Roberts claims that "there have been some overtones of the monster in Petruchio right from the start" of the play and that "Kate's journey with him to his country house is for her a descent into hell."4 The reading of the play that I offer argues that these differences in the portrayal of the protagonists result from Shakespeare's modifying the shrew tradition in order to merge it with another equally dominant genre of the period—the story of Patient Griselda. Certainly the image is contained within the play itself when Petruchio states that everyone has "talk'd amiss" of Katherine, for she is not a shrew but "for [her] patience she will prove a second Grissel" (II.i.284, 288).5 Shakespeare lodges some truth in Petruchio's statement and allows for the reading that Katherine has been misjudged and is more similar to a Griselda than a shrew figure.6
Alfred L. Kellogg explains that the "roots of the Griselda story go back into pagan antiquity."7 One of its most noteworthy appearances is in Chaucer's "Clerk's Tale," "a retelling of a popular medieval tale," that "circulated in Italian, Latin, French, and English versions in the Middle Ages."8 Although sometimes modified and enhanced, the basic plotline appears in such works as Boccaccio's tenth day of The Decameron (1353); Petrarch's De Obedientia ac Fide Uxoria Mythologia (1373-74); John Phillip's play The Commodye of Pacient and Meeke Grissill (1565); and Thomas Dekker, Henry Chetile, and William Haughton's The Pleasant Commoedye of Patient Grissill (1599).9 These works begin with a powerful lord deciding to marry a poor maiden, whom he subjects to torturous tests, despite her honorable behavior. Soon after the birth of each of Griselda's two children, her husband takes them from her, lying to her by telling her that he is going to have them killed when secretly he has his relatives care for them. After he throws her out of his house-hold, he orders her back to his estate and has her make preparations for his new marriage, forcing her to serve his new bride. Once Griselda passes all of the tests with extraordinary patience and fortitude, her husband reveals the deception to her—that her children are alive and that he is not marrying another woman, since his supposed bride-to-be is actually their long-lost daughter. He glories in her well-tested virtue, and she glories in finding that her children are alive and well. The Patient Griselda figure appears in many other works, especially plays, in the early seventeenth century, some of which have little in common with the basic plot other than a heroine who patiently endures mistreatment from the men in her life. In many cases, the Patient Griselda works are meant to be, as Linda Woodbridge argues, "a male wish-fulfillment fantasy appropriate to historical periods when few living wives behaved like Patient Grissill."10 Indeed, many of them are written from a misogynistic point of view and perpetuate the ideal of wifely obedience, subservience, and unquestioning submission to the often cruel whims of husbands. And, in fact, some of the Griseldas love their husbands even more after all of the persecution.
But some of these works appear to be much more than patriarchal endorsements of female servitude and more than "wish-fulfillment fantasies" for men about female subjugation. Some of them are unconventional and respond to what Louis Wright calls "intelligent thinking upon women's status in a new commercial society"11 and to the medieval and Renaissance debate over woman's nature. While the women are subservient and ever suffering, our attention is drawn not so much to female submission as an ideal but to male cruelty as an evil. Boccaccio and Petrarch direct negative judgments toward the husbands and make their works different from traditional tales. It is Chaucer, however, who heightens the criticism. Harriet Hawkins clarifies that Chaucer "consistently alters his sources, on the one hand, to make Walter's [Griselda's husband's] behavior toward Griselda infuriating and reprehensible and, on the other hand, to make Griselda's uncritical acceptance of unnecessary suffering painful and pitiable"—an observation that some critics make about Shakespeare's depiction of Petruchio and Katherine. Hawkins goes on to state that Chaucer "criticized Walter far more powerfully, frequently, and severely than his predecessor" and enlists us on the side of his victim "by confronting us with cosmic and social injustices so cruel, so extreme, that we cannot but join in the protest."12 Chaucer has been shown to use the Griselda figure to uncover the "treachery of daily domestic life" for women.13 Shakespeare, as well as other Renaissance writers (such as Phillip in his The Commodye of Pacient and Meeke Grissill and Dekker, Chetile, and Haughton in their The Pleasant Commoedye of Patient Grissill), followed Chaucer's lead and transformed genres typically associated with misogynistic portrayals of women into explorations of marital abuse of women.
The two traditions of shrew and Griselda literature seem to be diametrically opposed to each other, for one concerns itself with a patient, self-effacing, ever-suffering female figure who follows her husband's every command, while the other portrays a vocal, demanding, aggressive woman who refuses to follow commands and, instead, gives them herself. One seems the best of wives; the other, the worst. But the plot dynamics can be quite similar, and with just a few modifications, the two traditions can be made to resemble each other. Both begin, for example, with a man who, for various reasons, is looking for a wife. The men decide on the least appropriate choice: although a man of power and influence, the lord of the Griselda story chooses the daughter of the poorest man of the village; the man of the other tradition chooses, of course, the undesirable shrew, whom all other men shun. Both genres include a wedding and a reception, which are followed by the testing of the wives. In the shrew plot, the husband attempts to tame or stamp out the intolerable shrewishness of his new wife; in the Griselda plot, the husband tests his wife's patience or wifely virtue. Although the husbands enlist different strategies, they are both trying to make their wives into models of womanly submissiveness and obedience. Both stories can end with a banquet, with the husbands calling their wives to come to them. Much of shrew literature, like that of the Griselda genre, is clearly misogynistic propaganda against women, teaching the pitfalls of husbands not keeping their wives in subservience. But if in shrew literature the taming is needless and excessive, and the woman has been mislabeled a shrew and is portrayed sympathetically, then the shrew can become a Chaucerian Griselda figure, and the shrew tamer can become a kind of Chaucerian lord, who is doing something far more menacing than merely testing or taming a wife.
It is my contention that Shakespeare in The Taming of the Shrew is integrating the two traditions, which bear striking resemblances to each other. Shakespeare's framework of the play is in the shrew format, and on one level he allows Katherine to be read as a shrew and the play as a festive comedy. Jan Harold Brunvand in his study of the folktale background of the shrew story has thoroughly clarified the elements from the shrew tradition that Shakespeare incorporates into his play.14 But Shakespeare also subtly interweaves elements of the Griselda plotline that flesh out the shrew framework and transform the play into a dark study of domestic abuse—like that of Chaucer—permitting Katherine on another level of meaning to be read as a Patient Griselda.15
Shakespeare's play does not begin as traditional shrew tales usually do; rather, it starts in a fashion similar to that of stories of sympathetic Griseldas. Since writers of traditional shrew tales are not interested in creating sympathy for the scold, they see no need to personalize her; she remains little more than an inanimate object. These tales usually begin with the wedding or soon after. But in Shakespeare's play and in Griselda literature like that of Chaucer, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, we are allowed to meet the protagonists before marriage plans are officially made. And in both, the woman is portrayed in a more sympathetic fashion than is the man, who shows signs of the brutal nature that only intensifies as the works proceed. These Griselda plots predispose us to admire the heroine for her virtue and fortitude in adversity. Because she comes from humble beginnings, her inner worth is overlooked, and she is not valued in society, but we are allowed to appreciate what others cannot see. These works present a dutiful, chaste, diligent, honorable daughter, who shows reverence for her father. She never seeks regard but, rather, lives unassumingly. From the very beginning of these tales, though, we are encouraged to be suspicious, even to disapprove, of the lord, who seems selfish and irresponsible. Chaucer, in fact, has his Clerk begin his tale by casting "blame" on the Lord:
I blame hym thus, that he considered noght
In tyme comynge what myghte hym bityde.
But on his lust present was al his thoght,
As for to hauke and hunte on every syde.
Although he is a lord with responsibilities to his lieges, all he cares about is his own pleasure or "lust." He is so self-consumed that his lieges are forced to approach him and remind him of his duties—that he should marry and provide a rightful successor for them so they can avoid "wo" should he die (139). All of the tales give indications of a peremptory, tyrannical nature in their male protagonist by the way he interacts with his men and by the way they respond to him. Chaucer heightens the oppressive nature of his lord over that of Boccaccio and Petrarch's lords: "In the very meticulousness of the decorum with which the people approach their 'lord,' there is more than a suggestion that there is indeed in Walter something to fear."17 Chaucer's lord's people seem reluctant to approach him and are repeatedly described as loving their lord but also "dred[ing]" him (181). Griselda's father, in fact, is "al quakyng" (317) when the lord approaches him to arrange to marry his daughter, and we detect that the father is feeling something more than the awe of the lord's majestic presence. The lord is shown constantly giving "commands," which his men rush to "obey." They are to do his "lust" at all times. Later when Chaucer's lord threatens to strike off his sergeant's head (586) if he does not perform his duty to the letter, we begin to sense the danger and imperiousness of this lord and are allowed to interpret his later testing of his wife as another manifestation of his brutal temperament.
Shakespeare makes us feel uncomfortable with Petruchio as well. He permits us to get an especially revealing insight into Petruchio's character when we first see him alone with his servant Grumio. This kind of scene is not to be found in any of the shrew literature, not even in the similar play The Taming of a Shrew. Just as in the Griselda stories, the male protagonist's treatment of his servants and their reaction to him help to reveal much about Petruchio's true nature. And the man we meet bears all the markings of a bully and a tyrant, obsessed with control. Petruchio seems to savor seeing Grumio jump upon command, refusing even to knock on the gate of his friend's house himself and demanding that his man do it for him: "Now knock when I bid you, sirrah villain" "or I'll knock your knave's pate" (I.ii.19, 12). Looking for an excuse to beat Grumio, he wrings his ears for no reason. In fact, Grumio seems to have been so chronically abused that he is looking for a legal way to end his servitude with Petruchio and hopes this incident will prove to be "a lawful cause for [him] to leave his service" (I.ii.29). Later, on the trip home after the wedding, Petruchio is just as unjustifiably abusive, as he duplicates his earlier actions with Grumio and jumps at any opportunity to beat his servant again: Grumio complains that his master "beat [him] because [Katherine's] horse stumbled" (IV.i.69). At the dinner at his home, he barks commands at his servants, dissatisfied with the most prompt service, threatening to batter and actually striking any servants within his reach, and throwing food and dishes. The servants' behavior is similar to that of Griselda's lord's servants, who respond to him obsequiously and obey his commandments for fear of his cruelty. The repetitiveness of Petruchio's abusive behavior and the fact that some of it occurs before he even knows of Katherine's existence suggest that violence is a permanent part of his character, not a contrived method to tame a shrew.
Shakespeare can be read as making Katherine's initial situation as pitiable as he makes Petruchio's offensive. Critics have noted that Shakespeare from the very beginning has Katherine evoke our sympathy and regard for her, just as authors of unconventional Griselda literature do for their heroines.18 While Katherine does not come from a background of poverty as Griselda does, she is like Griselda in that she is poor in reputation and public regard. None of the characters at the beginning of the play can appreciate the woman of worth that Shakespeare—like Chaucer, Boccaccio, and Petrarch—allows his audience to see. Shakespeare presents a painful scene of everyone mocking Katherine, taunting that she will never find a "mate." Despite all of the nasty name-calling, Katherine addresses the men and her father as "sirs," showing them a deference and respect that they do not deserve. When Hortensio cruelly taunts her with her undesirability, she tries to protect herself from the hurt by projecting the defensive posture of indifference and callousness:
I'faith, sir, you shall never need to fear [that
she will choose him as a mate]
Iwis it is not half way to her heart.
But if it were, doubt not her care should be
To comb your noddle with a three-legg'd
And paint your face, and use you like a fool.
Shakespeare shows us a woman treated deplorably by everyone, a woman whose patience is certainly put to the test. And yet she responds with great aplomb.
Because Shakespeare first has us experience Katherine's torment, he predisposes us not to judge her harshly when she later lashes out at her tormentors. Katherine's reactions allow Shakespeare to make her look like a shrew on one level of meaning, yet like a woman much abused on another level. He permits us to feel that the heckling has been chronic and that it has a cumulative effect on Katherine, forcing her to strike out when her patience can no longer endure the abuse. Shakespeare allows us to read her responses as warranted, much different from the violence of Petruchio, who resembles a raucous bully who strikes out without provocation. Coppelia Kahn notes that Katherine responds only "because of provocation or intimidation."19 Shakespeare, moreover, encourages us to view Katherine's behavior as understandable when later even her uncaring father justifies it, saying he "cannot blame" her, "for such an injury would vex a saint" (II.ii.27-28). And, indeed, even a "saint" or a Patient Griselda can be provoked to the point of anger if vexed enough. Dekker, Chetile, and Haughton's Grissill, for example, snaps at her husband's servant when he threatens to take her children from her: "Come, come Ile chide, / In faith you cruell man, Ile chide indeede, / If I growe angrie" (IV.i.l 15-17).
The next step in the Griselda plotline involves the lord choosing the woman he will marry. The tales of Chaucer and Boccaccio reinforce the lord's self-centered and peremptory nature and, conversely, Griselda's dutiful and compliant nature. The lord is not interested in a wife as a lifetime marital companion but as a vessel to provide him with heirs. He views the woman as a means to a desirable end and is concerned solely with his own "lust" or wishes. The lord shows himself to be a shrewd bargainer who decides on his choice and gets what he wants, even if the maid he chooses is not willing. Typically, he goes to Griselda's father before he even meets Griselda and maneuvers the old man into giving him his daughter in marriage, for example, using his power and influence and intimidating the "quakyng" (317) father as in Chaucer's version, or simply determining to have the maiden and announcing his intentions to the father as in Boccaccio. The lord speaks for the father and even for Griselda: Chaucer's lord tells the father "And al that liketh me, I dar wel seyn / It liketh thee" (311-12); and he gives Griselda no voice at all in her future—"It liketh to youre fader and to me / That I yow wedde, and eek it may so stonde, / As I suppose, y wol that it so be" (345-47). He never asks her if she wishes to marry him, but tells her, and certainly does not wait for a reply from her. He decides on the day of the marriage and proclaims that she will "rule hire after me" (327). He instructs her that she must be "redy with good herte / To al my lust" (351-52). In Phillip's version and that of Dekker, Chetile, and Haughton, the lord proposes to Griselda, and although she rejects him, he traps her by convincing her father to give him Griselda in marriage. Phillip's Griselda laments her situation—"Alas poore sillie girle increased is thy smart" (751)—and addresses her complaint to her father, who tells her to "lament no more, distill no teares, though thou departe mee froe" (765). In all versions, Griselda obeys her father's wishes. We see a woman trapped and forced into marriage and are encouraged to sympathize with her plight.
Traditional shrew literature does not contain the element of an enforced marriage, for the marriage arrangements are not an issue, or the shrew is already married when the tale begins, or she wishes to marry and establish sovereignty over her husband. A shrew is not forced to do anything against her will, especially not to marry. But Shakespeare veers from the shrew tradition to evoke a situation similar to that of the enforced marriage of Griselda literature. Like Griselda's lord, Petruchio is not interested in a wife as a human being or a companion; rather, he sees the woman as a source of financial security and cares only about himself. Petruchio also makes arrangements with the father without having even met his prospective mate. He displays the same domineering, intransigent nature of the lord in that he is so determined to have his way and marry Katherine that, although Baptista expresses reservations, Petruchio will hear none of them: "I am as peremptory as she proud-minded" (II.i.131).
Katherine, on the other hand, acts like a Griselda: obedient to her father's wishes, she goes unaccompanied to meet with the suitor whom her father has ordered her to entertain. During their first meeting, Petruchio is "rough and woo[es] not like a babe" (II.i.137), for there are indications that he physically holds her against her will. Once he resorts to some obligatory wooing and forestalls her leaving the scene, he, like the lord of the Griselda story, tells her that he is going to marry her and that he will tolerate no dissension: "Your father hath consented / That you shall be my wife; your dowry 'greed on; / And will you, nill you, I will marry you" (II.i.262-64). When Baptista and the other men enter the scene, Petruchio gives Katherine instructions about how to behave—"Never make denial; / I must and will have Katherine to my wife" (II.i.272-73)—and misrepresents the situation by acting as if Katherine has privately expressed her love for him and only feigns disgust for him in public. Like Chaucer's lord, Petruchio proclaims that she will be ruled by him because he knows that if she were allowed to rule her own life, she would not marry him. Like some of the Griseldas, Katherine futilely pleads with her father, asking him how he could marry her to such a brute—"You have show'd a tender fatherly regard / To wish me wed to one half lunatic" (II.i.279-80)—and wishing rather to see Petruchio "hang'd" (II.i.292) than to wed him. Shakespeare evokes the situation found in Griselda literature and has Petruchio trap Katherine, resorting to any measures necessary to get his way. She has nothing left to do but patiently obey—which she does. Baptista notes that she is "in [the] dumps" (II.i.277), depressed and mournful, almost in a death state, left to "go sit and weep" (II.i.35) by herself and endure her pain alone—as a Patient Griselda does. And as in the Griselda tales, we are permitted to sympathize with her.
While the lord in these Griselda tales is shown to be a potential bully and tyrant, he has one saving grace: an astute ability to perceive Griselda's real nature. He is able to see what no one else can—that despite her lowly condition, Griselda is actually an embodiment of virtue and honor. Chaucer has his lord commend her "wommanhede / And eek hir vertu" (239-40), explaining that "thogh the peple hath no greet insight / In vertue, he considered ful right / Hir bountee" (242-44). Petrarch praises his lord for "his swift intuition [that] had perceived in her a virtue, beyond her sex and age, which the obscurity of her condition concealed from the eyes of the common throng" (142). Shakespeare, too, has Petruchio speak highly of Katherine. This is a deviation from shrew tales. Since traditional shrew literature is directed against women, a shrew is never spoken of favorably. Critics who see Katherine as the shrew and Petruchio as her wise therapist suggest that Petruchio's favorable delineations of Katherine are part of his therapy and are meant to show her the mild woman she can become if she modifies her behavior.20 But Shakespeare allows for another reading as well, one similar to that of Griselda tales.
Shakespeare models Petruchio after the lord of these tales in that only Petruchio can see the goodness in Katherine. After being alone with her for just a short while and detecting her embarrassment at his bawdy and crass talk, Petruchio discerns that she is not what she is reported to be—a shrew: "I find you passing gentle. / 'Twas told me you were rough, and coy, and sullen, / And now I find report a very liar" (II.i.236-38). He contends that she has been "slander[ed]" (II.i.247) and tells her father that he "and all the world / That talk'd of her have talk'd amiss of her" (II.i.283-84). He is able to see that the world has misjudged her, that it has misinterpreted her spiritedness as shrewishness and has missed her true worth. Petruchio's characterization of Katherine, unlike that of her detractors, poignantly captures the woman we have been allowed to appreciate—a woman who is "pleasant, gamesome, passing courteous, / But slow in speech" (II.i.239-40), "modest as the dove" and "temperate as the morn," indeed a "Roman Lucrece for her chastity"—descriptions that befit a "second Grissel" (II.i.286-89). As with the lord in Griselda tales, Petruchio seems attracted to Katherine partly because of her gentleness and poor reputation, detecting a woman he can dominate.
The next stage in the Griselda story involves the day of the marriage. In Petrarch's and especially Chaucer's version, there is another suggestion of the lord's love of control and power, for he will tell no one which maiden he has decided to marry until the last minute. The sense of suspense and wonder is heightened. Petrarch declares that "no one knew whence the bride would come, and there was no one who did not wonder" and that "universal bewilderment had risen very high" (142). Chaucer underscores the lord's love of power games as his men stand in wonder and suspect him of "bigyl[ing]" them (252). Once the lord holds everyone in suspense to his satisfaction, he comes forward, peremptorily announcing his choice. In the Boccaccio and Chaucer versions, he has Griselda "stripped naked" in the presence of all his company before he marries her so that he can clothe her in more elegant attire, suitable to her new station as the wife of a lord. The emphasis, though, is on his degrading her in public. Norman Lavers clarifies that Chaucer means for his lord to "humiliate" her and demonstrate her "abjectness,"21 as he begins to establish his control over her in a manner that shames her the most. Griselda's misery is underscored in Phillip's version when she expresses that her "harte is much pained" (828) to leave her home and marry a man whom she does not love. Nonetheless, she obeys her father's and then her husband's commands.
Shakespeare's Katherine, likewise, is pained yet obedient. She arrives on time for the wedding, dutifully following her father's "will," and waits for the groom. Shakespeare underscores her misery and the enforced condition typical of Griseldas, allowing his audience to sympathize with his heroine as she laments being "forc'd / To give [her] hand, oppos'd against [her] heart" (II.ii.8-9). Although Katherine's heart is not in the marriage, she endures her fate, not making a scene, not refusing to do what is contrary to her own wishes, not being disrespectful to her father. She goes off once again to be alone and bewail a fate she dreads. She is honest and dutiful—just like a Griselda. Petruchio's arriving late on an old nag is derived from the shrew tradition, but the sense of suspense and control that Petruchio derives from holding up the proceedings until he arrives is similar to that of the lord in Chaucer's and Boccaccio's Griselda stories: nothing happens until he is ready. He must control everything, and everyone must abide by his "lusts." While Petruchio does not literally strip Katherine of her clothes as the lord does to Griselda, Shakespeare suggests that his groom gears all of his behavior to stripping Katherine of her pride and humiliating her, especially with his "stripped down" clothing. Petruchio makes what should be one of the most glorious days for Katherine into one of the most humiliating, as Katherine expresses her sense of being made into a laughing stock: "No shame but mine" (II.ii.8); "Now must the world point at poor Katherine / And say 'Lo, there is mad Petruchio's wife, / If it would please him come and marry her'" (II.ii. 18-20). Shakespeare has Katherine, like the shamed Griselda, feel debased, not knowing which is worse—to marry a brute who is dressed in base attire and whom she does not love or to be a public spectacle of a bride stood up at the altar. On a festive level, Shakespeare allows us to surmise that Petruchio's behavior before, during, and after the wedding ceremony is meant in some way to be part of his taming strategy. But in not clarifying Petruchio's purpose, Shakespeare on a darker level allows that Petruchio is simply a man obsessed with power, violence, and control—like the lord of Chaucer's Griselda tale.
Like Shakespeare's Katherine, Griseldas, who start the works being either unrecognized for their inner goodness or lowly regarded, begin to win other characters' admiration once others are allowed to know them. The people begin to recognize the Griseldas' inner beauty, to which they were initially blinded. Griseldas win this regard by their virtue and their concern for the lord's subjects, often serving as peacemakers and protecting the subjects. Dekker, Chetile, and Haughton's Griselda behaves much as Shakespeare's Katherine when she ignores her own misery and intercedes for her lord's servant, Furio, trying to dissuade her husband from murdering him: "Temper your wrath I beg it on my knee, / Forgiue his fault though youle not pardon me" (II.ii. 112-13). Furio and others begin to see the sweet nature in Griselda that they had not recognized before: "Shees a saint sure" (II.ii.124). Chaucer's Griselda also makes others reevaluate her:
[She was] so discreet and fair of eloquence,
So benygne and so digne of reverence,
And koude so the peples herte embrace,
That ech hir lovede that looked on hir face.
Her peace-loving nature makes her highly valued: "Ther nas discord, rancour, ne hevynesse / In al that land, that she ne koude apese, / And wisly brynge hem alle in reste and ese" (432-34). The lord's subjects begin to believe that "she from hevene sent was" in order "peple to save and every wrong t'amende" (440-41). While the people may praise the lord for seeing her hidden virtue when they could not, their estimation of him begins to falter when he treats Griselda poorly. In Boccaccio, the lord's vassals "blamed him greatly, accounting him a barbarous man, and had the utmost compassion for his wife" (786). Chaucer has the lord's subjects begin to reevaluate his lord's reputation and to see him as being "wikked" and having a "cruel herte" (723): "For which, wher as his people ther bifore / Hadde loved hym wel, the sclaundre of his diffame / Made hem that they hum hated therfore" (729-31).
Shakespeare clearly has Katherine behave like a Griselda in trying to appease rancor and save the unfortunate from abuse. Shrews, in contrast, never assist others; rather, they are the cause of misfortune to others. For example, although the horse falls on Katherine on the ride home after the wedding, she does not complain. Rather she extricates herself from under the horse to rush to Grumio's aid: Grumio reports that she "waded through the dirt to pluck [Petruchio] off of him (IV.i.69-70). She does not think of her own misfortune but, instead, helps to relieve another's misery. When Petruchio throws food and dishes and hits servants during the meal at his home, Shakespeare once again has Katherine try to placate the raging master and makes her the embodiment of patience and compassion for others. She advises Petruchio to be more understanding, more humane toward others, telling him not to hit the servant for a mere accident: "Patience, I pray you, 'twas a fault unwilling" (IV.i.143). Although Petruchio only rages more and becomes more violent, Katherine maintains her aplomb and tries yet again to intervene and save the servants from their master's violence: "I pray you, husband, be not so disquiet. / The meat was well, if you were so contented" (IV.i.155-56). In many senses, Petruchio's description of her as his "most patient, sweet and virtuous wife" (III.ii.193) most accurately portrays the Griselda, not the shrew, figure that Shakespeare presents as Katherine.
Shakespeare models his play after these Griselda tales by having characters, some of whom are predisposed to favor Petruchio, begin to change their estimation of him and Katherine once they experience how deplorably Petruchio behaves and how patiently Katherine responds to this shameful treatment. As in the Griselda tales, they begin to condemn Petruchio and praise, even sympathize with, Katherine. This certainly deviates from traditional shrew literature, where the readers' sympathies and respect are clearly enlisted for the husband and their derision is reserved solely for the shrew. Gremio is the first to articulate his disgust with Petruchio's behavior at the wedding—behavior that so shocks and embarrasses Gremio that he leaves the ceremony as quickly as he can. Gremio tries to set Tranio straight by telling him that Petruchio was not a "bridegroom," a respectful participant in the ceremony, but a "groom," a crude fellow,22 a "grumbling groom," "a devil, a devil, a very fiend" (III.ii.151, 153). Once Gremio gets beyond the gossip and rumors about Katherine and actually meets and observes her, his perceptions of her begin to change as well: he suggests that Petruchio is "curster" (III.ii.152) than Katherine, that, in fact, she is not at all what she is portrayed to be but "a lamb, a dove" (III.ii.155). His designations of her all suggest gentleness, meekness, patience, and humility—characteristics typically associated with Griseldas. Chaucer, in fact, associates his Griselda with a lamb: "as a lamb she sitteth meke and stille" (538). The lamb and the dove also have religious significance, as Shakespeare, like Chaucer, suggests a kind of religious nuance to Katherine and her suffering. After Curtis, another servant of Petruchio, experiences his master's treatment of Katherine, he, likewise, feels sorry for her, describing her plight as piteous: "She, poor soul, / Knows not which way to stand, to look, to speak" (IV.i.171-72). Even Hortensio, whom Petruchio calls his "best beloved and approved friend" (I.ii.3), is so shamed and pained by Petruchio's mistreatment of Katherine that he censures him to his face: "Signor Petruchio, fie! You are to blame. / Come, Mistress Kate, I'll bear you company" (IV.iii.48-49). Hortensio tries to distance himself from Petruchio and sides with Katherine, offering her his company and his consolation. By having the least perceptive and sophisticated characters—like Gremio and Curtis—as well as the least sensitive to Katherine's plight—like Baptista and Hortensio—begin to feel compassion for Katherine and reservation, if not dislike, for Petruchio, Shakespeare intimates the danger of Katherine's situation and encourages his more astute audience to reassess Katherine's so-called shrewishness and Petruchio's civility.
Like Griselda, Katherine shows herself to be "ever good." Shakespeare has her act admirably again and again: she obediently arrives for the wedding; she weds Petruchio without any remonstration; she endures his outrageous behavior during the ceremony, Gremio never suggesting that she speaks one word of disgruntlement; she behaves graciously once they arrive at his home for dinner, expressing "content" with the service and food. Despite the fact that both Petruchio and Griselda's lord have proof of their wives' goodness and have personally attested to the women's virtues, they test and tame them nonetheless. Petrarch puts it this way: the lord "was seized with a desire more strange than laudable—so the more experienced may decide—to try more deeply the fidelity of his dear wife, which had been sufficiently made known by experience" (145). Chaucer's Clerk searches for a motivation for the lord's testing, but he cannot arrive at a satisfactory one and repeatedly calls it "nedelees": "He hadde assayed hire ynow bifore, / And fond hir evere good; what neded it / Hir for to tempte" (456-58). In IV.i.175-98, Petruchio officially announces his scheme for taming Katherine. Scholars have tried to explain and justify Petruchio's actions, resorting to elaborate and sophisticated readings. But Chaucer's Clerk's judgment can as easily apply to scholars' defenses of Petruchio as they do to Griselda's lord's defenders: "Som men preyse it for a subtil wit. / But as for me, I seye that yvele it sit / T'assaye a wyf whan that it is no nede" (459-61).
Perhaps scholars give Petruchio too much credit for "subtil wit." Even if we feel Petruchio is actually trying to tame Katherine, Shakespeare allows for Petruchio's actions to be blameworthy not just for their severity but also for their needlessness—just as Chaucer's Clerk says of the lord's strategies. Shakespeare, indeed, permits the reading that Katherine does not need to be "tamed," just as Griselda does not need to be "tested."
Petruchio's tactics of taming a shrew are different from those of other shrew tamers. Brian Morris, for example, states that "no one has discovered a version in which the tamer goes to work in the way in which Shakespeare's Petruchio does."23 In traditional shrew literature, the taming tactics are typically violent as the husband tries to modify his shrewish wife's behavior by combating her violence with some of his own. Critics have praised Petruchio for not resorting to such physically brutal measures and have argued that Shakespeare is attempting to make his protagonist sympathetic.24 But Shakespeare largely models Petruchio's tactics after those of Griselda's lord, whose methods may not be physical but are just as torturous, if not more so, than the cruelty of shrew tamers. The lord and Petruchio practice mental games: they are more interested in mind control than in behavior modification.25 Chaucer's lord, for example, is not testing Griselda so much as he is breaking her spirit. The lord means to wear Griselda down mentally, to take away her self-will, to make her agree with whatever he does, no matter how barbarous. Many of the lord's tactics smack of mental torture, as our attention is drawn to their cruelty.
The lord accomplishes the annihilation of Griselda's self by resorting to various methods. He first removes her from contact with her family and friends, isolating her from almost everyone except for himself. In commenting on Chaucer's lord's treatment of Griselda, Deborah Ellis argues that although Griselda "is never physically far from her first home, her marriage is a spiritual and emotional exile."26 Once the lord has Griselda under his sole influence, he begins his testing: he methodically wrenches from her arms her first child and then her second, depriving her of what is most precious in her life and making her think he intends to have the children killed. This action is meant to have various effects. His depriving her of some of the greatest comforts of life—contact with friends, family, and her own children—increases her dependency on him and her subjection to his whims. The lord intimidates her with his power and apparent ruthlessness, making her scared of a husband who seems capable of committing the horrific acts of killing his children. Chaucer has his Clerk proclaim that the lord "nedeless, Good woot, he thoughte hire for t'afraye" (455) and highlights that his Griselda lives in fear and trembling: she is "quakyng for drede" (358). Scaring her makes her more pliant, as she is terrified not to obey. He also means his actions, as the Clerk says, to cause her mental "angwyssh" (462) by depriving her of her children almost from their birth and proclaiming he has ordered their slaughter. Elizabeth Salter claims that Chaucer has his male protagonist display "malice indulged to the point of luxury,"27 and at times he seems clearly sadistic. These methods are meant to intimidate Griselda, to provoke her to the point of protestation and yet not to allow her such a release, to torment her until she loses the will to object. The lord wants Griselda to beg him for mercy, to be completely at his disposal, to realize she is dependent on him for her life. Chaucer's lord brings his wife to the point of begging that she might kiss her child before it is killed and that the child might be buried so that wild animals will not devour the corpse. And in forcing her to beg, he divests her of her dignity and humiliates her. Several critics clarify the lord's intentions: Ellis argues that Chaucer's lord "takes over Griselda's will so completely that she loses even her autonomy"; John P. McCall clarifies that the lord aims for "complete abnegation of her will"; and Harriet Hawkins compares Chaucer's lord to a "neurotic power seeker" who cannot be satiated.28
Shakespeare has Petruchio's tactics resemble those of the lord in these Griselda tales and allows us to see him as not taming Katherine so much as he is breaking her spirit. Although Shakespeare does not have Petruchio duplicate the lord's precise method of testing his wife, Petruchio means it to have the same effect—to torment his wife and to crush her self-will. Petruchio also exiles Katherine from familiar surroundings. He takes her to his home in the country and will not let her return to her family home until he is satisfied with her submission. In order to tame her, a process that he compares to the taming of a falcon, he "mews" her up as one would a hawk, constricting her to her chamber and not allowing her any human contact, making her dependent solely on him. What he does is to isolate her and deny her sleep, food, and basic human comforts such as adequate clothing and warmth—Just as Griselda's lord denies her the emotional sustenance of life. The element of fright has also been present from the very beginning of her exposure to Petruchio. His behavior at the wedding, on the ride home, and at the dinner at his home frightens Katherine and everyone who witnesses it. Grumio reports that Katherine "prayed that never prayed before" (IV.i.70-71), implying that she is so frightened that she prays to God to protect her from her husband's violence. By IV.iii we begin to see the effects of this so-called taming: Katherine describes herself as "famish[ed]" (3), "starv'd for meat, giddy for lack of sleep" (9), and "as cold as can be" (37). While Katherine is suffering physical pain, it is the mental torment that Shakespeare emphasizes: her physical state makes her "giddy" or mentally confused, incapable of serious thought or steady attention (OED 2a;3). What Petruchio is trying to do is not "pluck up" (IV.iii.38) her spirits but "pluck" them out. His tactics, like those of Griselda's lord, are similar to brainwashing strategies, for he degrades her physically and mentally until she becomes completely dependent on him for the most basic human needs.29
Part of his plan to break her spirit involves making her so hungry, so disoriented, and so downcast that she will do anything for food, including begging. Both Griselda and Katherine are brought to the point of desperation. Part of the process of degradation and humiliation is to make the wife subject to the whims of the lowest servant. Dekker, Chettle, and Haughton's lord tells his wife that he "will haue [her] stoope, / And kneele euen to the meanest groome I keepe" (II.ii.79-80). Katherine clarifies just how much Petruchio degrades her in making her beg the servant Grumio for food, for her situation is worse than that of a beggar, who at least gets handouts: "But I, who never knew how to entreat, / Nor never needed that I should entreat, / Am starv'd for meat, giddy for lack of sleep" (IV.iii.7-9). What Shakespeare has Petruchio do to Katherine is to torment her, to induce her to "entreat" for any "wholesome food" (IV.iii.16), and to give her little more than a crumb, just as Griselda's lord forces her to beg for some compassion toward her children and shows her none. Petruchio is debasing her, treating her like an animal, who gets a reward for obeying her master's commands. He is making her "stoop" or bow to his will completely, and yet even this is not enough. The attack is on her integrity and her self-sufficiency until she loses the "spirit to resist." Like Chaucer, Shakespeare alienates his readers from his male protagonist when Petruchio displays "malice indulged to the point of luxury" and prompts them to take the victim's side when they experience the heroine's misery.
Petruchio continues the assault on Katherine's spirit and her resistance by tantalizing and tormenting her even more, cataloging a great wardrobe he intends to lavish on her and inducing her to beg, and then telling her she must go home to her father's house in her tattered clothes, in "mean habiliments" (IV.iii. 167). Although Petruchio tells her not to "account'st it shame" (IV.iii. 178), this is exactly the effect he means the poor clothing to have on Katherine—to humiliate and shame her, to divest her of her integrity, worth, and identity. During the Renaissance, clothing importantly defined a person's social status and worth. Brunvand notes that this incident over the clothing and the sending Katherine forth in mean garb are not present in any other shrew tales.30 But it is present in Griselda stories. For the lord, after telling his wife that he intends to marry another woman, divests her of her fine clothing and threatens to send her back home naked, inducing Griselda to beg for a less humiliating proposal. After she begs, he finally gives her a simple smock. The father of Griselda in Phillip's play clarifies just what the lord means to accomplish in denying Griselda decent attire: she is "of dignitie thus cleane depriued" (1749). Salter argues that in Chaucer the paltry clothing "symbolise[s] the extremity of her suffering."31
To complete the process of controlling their wives' every thought and movement, Griselda's lord and Petruchio, who can both be seen as neurotic power seekers rather than wife tamers, do more than dictate their wives' dress and actions. To complete the mind control, they silence their wives' voice, making their wives always agree with them and never express a thought of their own. Petrarch's lord, for example, demands that his wife "agree with [him] in all things" and "dispute [his] wish in nothing, and permit [him], with mind consenting, and without remonstrance of word or look, to do whatever [he] wills with" her (143). Chaucer's lord requires that Griselda do as he commands whether it is right or wrong and more specifically that she never contradict him in her words:
[She must be] redy with good herte
To al [his] lust, and that [he] frely may,
As [he] best thynketh, do [she] laughe or
And nevere [she is] to grucche it, nyght ne
And eek whan [he] sey[s] "ye" ne sey nat
Neither by word ne frownyng contenance.
Kellogg clarifies the kind of control Chaucer's lord requires, a characterization that could just as easily apply to Shakespeare's Petruchio: the lord requires "not only obedience but obedience performed with a willingness which admits of no question as to the ultimate rightness of the thing willed."32 Other scholars explain how tyrannical Chaucer's lord is: he wants "not simply her passive submission … but the death of her own desires"; he wants "submission beyond reason" and "demands total and unconditional obedience."33
Petruchio demands that he control Katherine's tongue as well—probably her greatest and most vital asset. Katherine articulates the importance to her of speaking her mind: "I will be free / Even to the uttermost, as I please, in words" (IV.iii.79-80). It is this last shred of freedom that Petruchio wants to squelch. He refuses to go to her father's house, for example, unless Katherine agrees to the incorrect time—that it is seven o'clock in the morning when it is actually two o'clock in the afternoon, that it is the moon that shines when it is actually the sun. Shakespeare has Petruchio sound very much like the lord of the Griselda tales, demanding that she never "cross" or contradict him in word or thought, even though he may be wrong: "It will be what o'clock I say it is" (IV.iii.192); "It shall be moon, or star, or what I list / Or e'er I journey to your father's house" (IV.v.7-8). Shakespeare has Petruchio force Katherine to agree to incorrect statements of time to suggest that his male protagonist means to impose his own sense of reality on his wife, to make himself the center of her existence; he is her new "sun." As soon as Katherine agrees with his incorrect statements, he then contradicts her and makes her agree to his new assertions. He is making her agree with him unconditionally. Katherine astutely perceives that Petruchio treats her like a "child," like a "babe" (IV.iii.74), and assaults her integrity.
One of the crucial issues of both Shakespeare's play and the Griselda stories is that the wives consistently pass the so-called tests and taming, yet the husbands refuse to cease their grilling of their wives and, in fact, only intensify their efforts. Chaucer has his Clerk repeatedly express puzzlement about the lord's motivations, since Griselda is never anything but obedient: "O nedeless was she tempted in assay! / But wedded men ne knowe no mesure, / Whan that they fynde a pacient creature" (621-23). This judgment could as easily apply to Shakespeare's Katherine and Petruchio, for although she is consistently patient, Petruchio will not moderate his gruelling strategies. Shakespeare impresses us again and again with Katherine's ability to behave admirably under the greatest duress. For example, when Petruchio displays the meat before his famished and "amort" wife, Katherine, despite her desperate condition and the preceding taunting by Grumio, remains polite and patient, begging him to not take the food away: "I pray you, let it stand" (IV.iii.44). When he tells her she must thank him for the meat, she obeys and expresses gratitude: "I thank you, sir" (IV.iii.47). In making Katherine's responses curt and noncommittal, Shakespeare, however, allows for some equivocation. He permits a performative edge to Katherine's words under the surface obedience, a potential for a sarcastic subversiveness, for Katherine's "I thank you, sir" can be said with a snide inflection. But, certainly, the surface Katherine is submissive, and the only freedom she salvages is a covert irony in her words.
While Petruchio is contrary and refuses to be pleased with any article of clothing, Katherine, unlike a shrew who can never be pleased, is easily satisfied with every piece and tries to reason with Petruchio to accept the cap: "I'll have no bigger. This doth fit the time, / And gentlewomen wear such caps as these" (IV.iii.69-70). Although Petruchio means the statement "all [his] pains is sorted to no proof" (IV.iii.43) to mean that Katherine is unappreciative of all he has done for her, Shakespeare makes the statement equivocal: it seems that, indeed, Petruchio is "pain[ing]" his wife "to no proof" or for no reason. Ornstein claims that Petruchio "proceeds despite Kate's reasonableness."34 The question that Chaucer's Clerk poses to his audience could just as easily be posed to Shakespeare's audience:
But now of wommen wolde I asken fayn
If thise assayes myghte nat suffise?
What koude a sturdy housbond moore devyse
To prove hir wifhod and hir stedfastnesse,
And he contynuynge evere in sturdynesse?
Shakespeare allows for the reading that Katherine has endured enough trials and that she has proven her stead-fastness.
Despite Katherine's gentle behavior, Petruchio persists in his taming strategies, which like the lord's testing of Griselda, get only worse with each new step. Shakespeare allows us yet again to ask the same question that Chaucer's Clerk asks when he wonders "if these assayes myghte nat suffise." When Petruchio insists that the sun is the moon, Katherine submits her voice to Petruchio:
Forward, I pray, since we have come so far,
And be it moon, or sun, or what you please.
And if you please to call it a rush-candle,
Henceforth I vow it shall be so for me.
Instead of becoming more adamant in her contrary stance or putting up repeated resistance, as shrews typically do, Katherine behaves as a Griselda, who, as Petrarch clarifies, with "each day [becomes] more devoted and more obedient to [her husband's] wishes" (147). Although he needlessly continues his "taming," she offers him no resistance:
Then, God be blest, it is the blessed sun.
And the moon changes even as your mind.
What you will have it nam'd, even that it is,
And so it shall be so for Katherine.
Once again, her language has the potential to evoke a snide subtext with Katherine alluding to Petruchio's "moon" madness and intimating that Petruchio's calling the sun the moon is as ludicrous as calling a "rushcandle" the sun. But her subversiveness is concealed with her adroit use of language, and on a literal level, she is obedient. Shakespeare suggests the gratuitousness of Petruchio's tactics by having even Petruchio's friend Hortensio express annoyance at Petruchio's unnecessary "taming": "Petruchio, go thy ways, the field is won" (IV.v.23). While Hortensio may be applauding his friend for his success, there is also a tone of exasperation as he tells Petruchio that enough is enough. Shakespeare has Hortensio articulate the sentiment that Chaucer's Clerk repeatedly poses: "If these assayes myghte nat suffise?"
Shakespeare has Katherine sound very much like Griselda, who makes her husband's will her own: Petrarch's Griselda reassures her lord that "I have said, and I say again, that I can have no wishes save yours … Whatever you wish to do, therefore, about anything whatsoever, that is what I wish too" (146); Chaucer's Griselda similarly states that "ther may no thyng, God so my soule save, / Liken to yow that may displesen me" (505-06). Hawkins's description of Chaucer's Griselda's situation can apply to that of Shakespeare's Katherine: she is "denied any voice in the decisions that most affect her life"; "she must never express her own thoughts or feelings about his actions."35 Like Griselda, Katherine is being forced to become what she feared the most—a "puppet" (IV.iii.103)—a mere shell of a woman, whose actions and words are suggested and controlled by another. The only way she can "be free" (IV.iii.79) is through a well-concealed subtext. Chaucer has Griselda clarify just how much she has lost since her marraige: she has lost her "wyl and al [her] libertee" (656)—exactly what Petruchio demands of his new wife.
Shrew and Griselda literature can end in similar ways: tales about shrews sometimes end at a banquet with husbands wagering on their wives' obedience; Griselda tales also end at a banquet with the lord continuing to test his wife's steadfastness. The major difference is that while the shrew's husband subjects his wife to a test, Griselda's lord makes his wife endure repeated and more humiliating tests and requires that she give a speech of submission. After pronouncing that his marriage to Griselda is ended, the lord sends Griselda to her father's home and announces his intention of marrying a more suitable woman. He then commands that Griselda come to him from her father's house in the same rags in which he sent her away and perform a servant's duties, such as making preparations for his upcoming marriage. Dekker, Chetile, and Haughton have their lord heighten Griselda's humiliation by making her bear wood, clothe the new bride, and present the bride to him. Griselda comes obediently to the lord's call and fulfills his commands. Chaucer intensifies Griselda's submissiveness and humiliation by having her bow on her knees "and reverently and wysly" (952) address her lord. On the wedding day, the guests arrive for the banquet, and before the assemblage the lord calls Griselda to come to him again. She responds with alacrity and obedience. He then asks her what she thinks of his new bride and invites her to speak. Petrarch, in particular, suggests his lord is playing a kind of game that involves displaying his wife's servitude before his guests: "Just as they were to sit down at the tables, Walter turned toward her and said before them all, as if he were playing game of her, 'What think you, Grisildis, of this bride of mine? Is she pretty and worthy enough?'" (150). Chaucer has his Clerk underscore that this testing has gone beyond all rational bounds and that it is superfluous and cruel: "What neded it / Hir for to tempte, and alwey moore and moore?" (457-58). Once Griselda has proven her constancy far more times than is necessary, finally the lord proclaims "this is ynogh" (1052) and reveals the extent of his game playing.
For his ending, Shakespeare borrows ingredients from both genres as he has throughout his play, but his emphasis is on the Griselda story. Since there is no indication that Katherine gets a new set of clothing for her trip to her father's house, she most likely is in rags, just as Griselda appears in the basest attire. Like Griselda's lord, Petruchio is playing a kind of game, betting on and flaunting his wife's obedience. Petruchio, too, calls Katherine to come on command, another test she passes. Like Griselda's lord, Petruchio, though, is not satisfied, and he subjects her to more trials, all of which are unnecessary, since she has already proven her meekness in both this scene and in earlier scenes—again and again. He now commands her to throw off her cap, and not satisfied with that, he orders her to deliver a speech to the other wives on the "duty they do owe their lords and husbands" (V.ii.132). Once again Katherine obeys each command, but Petruchio never stops. Reminiscent of Chaucer's lord, Petruchio continues "hir for to tempte, and alwey moore and moore." Right up to his last words, he is still proving Katherine's obedience, ordering her to kiss him in front of the whole assemblage—an indecorous act. Like Griselda's lord's last commands to his wife, Petruchio's tactics can be read as meaning to humiliate Katherine. He takes away her dignity and disgraces her by making her come on command, perform a servant's duties of retrieving guests, and fawn over him whenever he orders.
In all of the tales during the lord's last set of tests, the Griseldas are excessively submissive and dutiful—on the surface, at least. But in all of the Griselda stories, there are intimations that Griselda is actually miserable and that she is forced to suppress her agony under the opposite pose of wifely contentment in order to appease her husband. Chaucer's Clerk, for example, remarks that he "deme[s] that hir herte was ful wo" (753), although Griselda shows no obvious outward signs in her countenance or behavior. The Griselda tale, thus, contains a tension between the feigned public profession of submission and the concealed torment. Chaucer, especially, finds a way to have his Griselda give voice to this tension, making his heroine speak in ambiguous terms. In the envoy to the tale, Chaucer advises wives not to let "humilitee [their] tonge nayle" (1184) but to "stondeth at defense" and "beth egre as is a tigre" (1195, 1199). He goes on to advise wives to fight back with the subtlety of words:
Ne dreed [husbands] nat, dooth hem no
For thogh thyn housbond armed be in maile,
The arwes of thy crabbed eloquence
Shal perce his brest, and eek his aventaile.
And, indeed, under her extreme submissiveness, Chaucer's Griselda harbors resentment and pierces her husband with her "crabbed eloquence." She is adroit at making her words lament her state and condemn her husband while seeming to express selfless devotion to him. When the lord asks her in public if she thinks his new wife is beautiful and virtuous, she compliantly agrees word for word. But she adds a few words that celebrate her fortitude and, conversely, deride his brutality:
O thyng biseke I yow, and warne also,
That ye ne prike with no tormentynge
This tendre mayden, as ye han do mo;
For she is fostred in hir norissynge
Moore tendrely, and, to my supposynge,
She koude nat adversitee endure
As koude a povre fostred creature.
Elaine Turtle Hansen explains that Griselda responds "to her banishment with the longest, most pathetic speech" and that she exercises the "powers of subversive speech."36
Shakespeare places Katherine in a situation similar to that of Griselda during her last trials. Like Griselda, she delivers a speech—a characteristic not found within the tradition of shrew literature.37 Katherine, too, speaks and behaves compliantly, vowing utter obedience to her husband, spouting patristic doctrine about a wife's duties to her husband, and even offering to place her hand beneath Petruchio's foot as token of her surrender to his will, just as Chaucer's Griselda bows on her knees before her lord. She seems the embodiment of wifely servitude and dependence, and, indeed, Shakespeare allows her to be read as such. There are indications, however, especially in Katherine's last speech, that she is miserable and that she suppresses her torment to avoid her husband's oppressive temperament. But Katherine, like Chaucer's Griselda, can be read as not nailing her tongue completely and as adroitly using her language as a weapon: she wounds Petruchio with her "crabbed eloquence."
Just as her earlier responses to Petruchio seem compliant on the surface yet are equivocal enough to suggest a snide subversion, Katherine's last seemingly meek words contain a submerged tone of mockery and irony. The lengthiness of her speech, like that of Griselda, suggests that under the guise of submission she is assuming dominance and drawing attention to her misery and Petruchio's cruelty. Her words covertly allude to her resentment toward her "lord": "Fie, fie! Unknit that threatening unkind brow, / And dart not scornful glances from those eyes, / To wound thy lord, thy king, thy governor" (V.ii.137-39). While Katherine is addressing the other wives present—Bianca and the Widow—she is also speaking about and to herself, as the speech comes to resemble a kind of soliloquy. Her speech is addressed to angry and hurt women, of which she has been a member throughout the play, and advises them to conceal their murderous thoughts—as she is doing with her "crabbed eloquence." Katherine speaks of wives secretly wanting to "wound" and harm their husbands but having to project the opposite pose of patience and kindness: "It blots thy beauty as frosts do bite the meads, / Confounds thy fame as whirlwinds shake fair buds, / And in no sense is meet or amiable" (140-42). Her speech continues with more references to women's (and implicitly her own) anger, comparing "a woman mov'd" to a "fountain troubled" (143). If a woman is troubled, she must appear as clear, tranquil water—at least on the surface—and let the agitation well beneath the surface—a description that befits the subversive subtext of her speech. A few lines later in the speech, Katherine again underscores other wives' and her own discontent, speaking of "froward, peevish, sullen, sour" women (158).
She ridicules Petruchio by imitating his exaggerated bravado, making her listing—"Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, / Thy head, thy sovereign" (147-48)—as excessive as his speech of self-enhancement: "She is my goods, my chattels, she is my house, / My household stuff, my field, my barn, / My horse, my ox, my ass, my any thing" (III.ii.228-30). Her tributes to male dominance are overwrought and inflated and, thus, are allowed to mock Petruchio's inflated and unwarranted sense of greatness. By making her language devoid of references to love and affection and, instead, surfeited with references to domination, power, and authority, Shakespeare has her suggest that Petruchio is more like a despot than a loving husband and she more like a frightened subject than a devoted wife. The language she uses to describe Petruchio's treatment of her applies more to a prison warden or an animal trainer than a husband: he is her "keeper," who "cares" for her and provides her with "maintenance" (147-49). Katherine's word choice suggests Petruchio does no more for her than an animal keeper does for his pet or a warden does for a prisoner held in confinement. She is merely kept alive by his providing her with the basics of life, although we have seen that in starving her and denying her sleep and warmth Petruchio does not do even this. And in return for the most meager day-to-day maintenance that one would allow for an animal, for example, she must give him everything: she gives him her life, "love, fair looks, and true obedience; / Too little payment for so great a debt" (154-55). Once again Shakespeare has Katherine speak equivocally: if we read "too little payment" as referring to the wife's actions, then Katherine is lauding husbands for their solicitude, which a wife can never adequately repay. But if we read the phrase as referring to the husband's actions, then Katherine is suggesting that women sacrifice much more than they ever get in return.
Her language continues to present her relationship with Petruchio as more like a battle that she has lost than a loving union:
I am asham'd that women are so simple
To offer war where they should kneel for
Or seek for rule, supremacy, and sway,
When they are bound to serve, love and obey.
She implies that she would like to "rebel" (160) and be a "traitor" (161) to Petruchio, but she is forced to kneel, like a captured prisoner of war, "bound" or shackled in prison. Her language contains no references to affection but rather to governorship, as she portrays herself as a conquered "subject," who is dutiful to her "prince," not out of devotion but out of compulsion: "Such duty as the subject owes the prince / Even such a woman oweth to her husband" (156-57). While she seems to suggest female inferiority, she acknowledges that women have inner "strength" (175) but that they are so weak with respect to physical prowess and political power in a patriarchal world that their strength does them little good. Katherine's subversive message suggests that men rule and women obey not because of men's innate superiority but because men use physical might to oppress women—as Petruchio has used to oppress her. The men win the battle because they have the stronger "lances": their gender gives them more political clout over the "lance-[less]," powerless wom use their can always use their "lances" or penises38 to rape and victimize women. Katherine, in fact, intimates that women are treated little better than "worms" (V.ii.170), just as Chaucer's Griselda accuses her husband of treating her like a worm: he lets her "lyk a worm go by the weye" (880). She ends the speech with the same advice with which she started: she tells herself and other women to "vail [their] stomachs" (177), an expression meaning to conceal one's temper and anger39 as she does in her speech.
Despite the subversive message, both Shakespeare's play and the Griselda tales end happily. But the endings can be read as only superficially happy, as all of the works end on a troublesome, ambivalent note. While Griselda is reunited with her children and we are told Griselda and her husband are happy, we are not allowed to experience this happiness for ourselves. Chaucer's Griselda embraces her children, not her husband, and swoons so many times and expresses the desire to die that she seems near death. Because Chaucer does not convince us that his lord is a changed, loving husband, he distresses us when we realize, as Hansen clarifies, that Griselda faces a "permanent union with a man whom the Clerk has carefully characterized as a sadistic tyrant, worst of men and crudest of husbands."40
On one level, Shakespeare's play, likewise, seems to end harmoniously, and Shakespeare allows for a festive reading, with the shrew being transformed into an obedient wife and with Petruchio and Katherine ending the play by kissing and leaving to consummate their union. But, like Chaucer's tale, there is a disturbing, ambivalent tenor that allows the ending to be read differently. Although Katherine can vent her anger through her "crabbed eloquence," in some senses her fate is worse than that of Griselda, for Petruchio never says "this is ynogh," as Chaucer's lord does. There is no indication, as there is for Griselda, that her situation will ever improve. For example, Chaucer's Griselda is dressed in fine clothing at the tale's end, an action that signals the elevation of her condition. But Shakespeare does not suggest that Katherine obtains any finer attire, an indication that her abjection and humiliation are never to end. By having Petruchio test Katherine more and more right up to the very end, Shakespeare suggests that Petruchio will never be satisfied and that Katherine will have to endure these humiliating tests for the rest of her life. Considering the many references throughout the play to Petruchio's proclivity for violence and the pained, if not "amort," future for Katherine, Shakespeare writes a subtext that makes his audience feel uncertain and troubled about Katherine's future safety. Like Chaucer's heroine, Katherine can be read as being in a "permanent union" with a man who has seemed a "sadistic tyrant, worst of men and cruelest of husbands." But her situation seems even more grieved, for on a subtextual level, we are allowed to wonder if she will "survive" him (II.i.124).
1 The following are a sampling of the critics who have read Katherine as constructed within the traditional outlines of a shrew and Petruchio as her successful tamer: Robert Heilman, "The Taming Untamed; or The Return of the Shrew," Modern Language Quarterly 27 (1966): 147-61, calls Petruchio a "remarkable therapist"; Hugh M. Richmond, Shakespeare's Sexual Comedy: A Mirror for Lovers (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971), 83-101; Joan Hartwig, "Horses and Women in The Taming of the Shrew," Huntington Library Quarterly 45 (1982): 285-94, esp. 294, sees Katherine as being transformed "from unhappy shrew into graceful woman, creating 'wonder' in her world"; Maurice Hunt, "Homeopathy in Shakespearean Comedy and Romance," Ball State University Forum 29 (1988): 45-57, esp. 46, argues that Petruchio helps his "patient to achieve a truer self, one freed, for instance, from … the trap of shrewishness"; Ruth Nevo, "Kate of Kate Hall," in Modern Critical Interpretations of "The Taming of the Shrew," ed. Harold Bloom (New York: Chelsea House, 1988), 29-39; Joel Fineman, "The Turn of the Shrew," in Modern Critical Interpretations of "The Taming of the Shrew," 93-112; Tita French Baumlin, "Petruchio the Sophist and Language as Creation in The Taming of the Shrew," Studies in English Literature 29 (1989): 237-57, esp. 237, 247, praises Petruchio as a "sophistic rhetorician" who transforms "an isolated, selfish, dysfunctional personality into a socially integrated woman at peace with herself and the world."
2 Camille Wells Slights, "The Raw and the Cooked in The Taming of the Shrew," Journal of English and Germanic Philology 88 (1989): 168; Charles Brooks, "Shakespeare's Romantic Shrews," Shakespeare Quarterly 11 (1960): 351-56; Robert Ornstein, Shakespeare's Comedies (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1986), 72, 68.
3 Consult, for example, the following: John Masefield, William Shakespeare (New York: Henry Holt, 1911), 108-09; Harold C. Goddard, The Meaning of Shakespeare, vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), 69-70, contends that Katherine is "lovely and sweet by nature" and that her "shrewishness is superficial, not ingrained or congenital"; Nevill Coghill, "The Basis of Shakespearian Comedy," in Shakespeare Criticism, 1935-60, ed. Anne Ridler (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), 208, calls Katherine a "girl of spirit" who has "developed the defensive technique of shrewishness"; George R. Hibbard, "The Taming of the Shrew: A Social Comedy," in Shakespearean Essays, ed. Alwin Thaler and Norman Sanders (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1964), 23-24, contends that Katherine's "shrewishness is not bad temper, but the expression of self-respect"; Anne Barton, introduction to The Taming of the Shrew, in The Riverside Shakespeare, ed. G. Blakemore (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 107; Coppelia Kahn, "The Taming of the Shrew: Shakespeare's Mirror of Marriage," in The Authority of Experience: Essays in Feminist Criticism, ed. Arlyn Diamond and Lee R. Edwards (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 84, argues that Shakespeare's heroine is "trapped in the self-destructive role of shrew by her male guardians"; Marilyn French, Shakespeare's Division of Experience (New York: Ballantine, 1981), 77; Brian Morris, introduction to the New Arden The Taming of the Shrew (New York: Methuen, 1981), 114, argues that Katherine's shrewishness is a "disguise" "forced on her by a neglectful father, a sly sister, and an unsympathetic society."
4 George Bernard Shaw, Shaw on Shakespeare, ed. Edwin Wilson (London: Cassell, 1961), 178; Mark Van Doren, Shakespeare (New York: Henry Holt, 1939), 50; J. Dennis Huston, "'To Make a Puppet': Play and Play-Making in The Taming of the Shrew," Shakespeare Studies 9 (1976): 74, 76; Ornstein, 65; Jeanne Addison Roberts, "Horses and Hermaphrodites: Metamorphoses in The Taming of the Shrew," in Modern Critical Interpretations of "The Taming of the Shrew," 60-61.
5 All quotations will be from the New Arden edition of The Taming of the Shrew, ed. Brian Morris.
6 A few critics allude to the connection between Katherine and a Griselda figure but do not develop the comparison: Roberts states that Petruchio's "comparison of Kate to Lucrece and Grissel [is apt]; he proceeds to treat her like each of these women in turn" (59); David M. Bergeron, "The Wife of Bath and Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew," University Review 35 (1969): 279, states that "Katharina evolves into a type of Griselda in the play" and that "Petruchio's passing remarks" about her being a "second Grissel" remind us of Chaucer.
7 Alfred L. Kellogg, "The Evolution of the 'Clerk's Tale': A Study in Connotation," in Chaucer, Langland, Arthur: Essays in Middle English Literature (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1972), 277.
8 Deborah S. Ellis, "The Color Purple and the Patient Griselda," College English 49 (1987): 188.
9 Giovanni Boccaccio, "The Tenth Story of the Tenth Day," of The Decameron, vol. 2, trans. John Payne (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 780-91; Francis Petrarch, De Obedientia ac Fide Uxoria Mythologia, trans. R. D. French, in Chaucer: Sources and Backgrounds, ed. Robert P. Miller (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 140-52; John Phillip, The Commodye of Pacient and Meeke Grissill (London: Malone Society Reprints, 1909); Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle, and William Haughton, The Pleasant Commoedye of Patient Grissill, in The Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker, vol 1, ed. Fredson Bowers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 208-98. All textual references will be to the aforementioned editions.
10 Linda Woodbridge, Women and the English Renaissance: Literature and the Nature of Womankind, 1540-1620 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 211.
11 Louis Wright, Middle-Class Culture in Elizabethan England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1935), 507.
12 Harriet Hawkins, "The Victim's Side: Chaucer's Clerk's Tale and Webster's Duchess of Malfi," Signs 1 (1975): 345, 341.
13 Deborah S. Ellis, "Domestic Treachery in the Clerk's Tale," in Ambiguous Realities: Women in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, ed. Carole Levin and Jeanie Watson (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987), 111.
14 Jan Harold Brunvand, "The Taming of the Shrew": A Comparative Study of Oral and Literary Versions (New York: Garland, 1991).
15 Valerie Wayne, "Refashioning the Shrew," Shakespeare Studies 17 (1985): 161, contends that Shakespeare uses the "shrew to raise issues about women and marriage without simply endorsing customary and conservative attitudes." Harriet A. Deer, "Untyping Stereotypes: The Taming of the Shrew," in The Aching Hearth: Family Violence in Language and Literature, ed. Sara Munson Deats and Lagretta Tallent Lenker (New York: Plenum Press, 1991), 77, argues that the play "does indeed exploit spouse abuse as a major source of action and humor. But it does not encourage such behavior; rather it reveals how destructive and widespread is its hold on society."
16 All quotations will be from Geoffrey Chaucer, The Clerk's Tale, in The Tales of the Clerk and the Wife of Bath, ed. Marion Wynne-Davies (New York: Rout-ledge, 1992), 71-117.
17 Kellogg, 297.
18 Hibbard, 23, claims that when we first see Katherine, she is "being grossly insulted" by the men and "her vigorous complaint to Baptista is fully justified"; H. J. Oliver, introduction to The Taming of the Shrew (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 51, argues that Katherine's first words are "deserving of sympathy"; Slights, 171, says Katherine is being "publicly humiliated" and "understandably reacts with resentment toward her father."
19 Kahn, 91.
20 See, for example, the following: Maynard Mack, "Engagement and Detachment in Shakespeare's Plays," in Essays on Shakespeare and Elizabethan Drama in Honor of Hardin Craig, ed. Richard Hosley (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1962), 280; Cecil C. Seronsy, "'supposes' as the Unifying Theme in The Taming of the Shrew," Shakespeare Quarterly 14 (1963): 19; Morris, 124; Ann Thompson, introduction to The Taming of the Shrew (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 32, 34.
21 Norman Lavers, "Freud, the Clerkes Tale, and Literary Criticism," College English 26 (1965): 185.
22The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, 2 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 971), "groom" sb.1 2. All further citations will be noted in the text as OED.
23 Morris, 75. Richard Hosley, "Sources and Analogues in The Taming of the Shrew," Huntington Library Quarterly 27 (1964): 299, also argues that Petruchio's tactics with his wife appear "to be Shakespeare's original contribution to the literature of shrew-taming."
24 Barton suggests that in comparison to traditional shrew tamers, Petruchio "is almost a model of intelligence and humanity" (106); Wayne labels Petruchio's tactics a "more humane and artistic way to 'tame' a shrew" (174); Slights argues that Petruchio "gives no evidence of the sadism … in earlier versions of the shrew story" (178).
25 Deer, 74, agrees that "wanting to civilize Kate is one thing; wanting to displace her independence and vitality with a mere echo of himself is quite another.… We wonder whether controlling another person's imagination may not be the worst abuse that one spouse can inflict on another."
26 Ellis, "Domestic Treachery in the Clerk's Tale" 110.
27 Elizabeth Salter, Chaucer: The Knight's Tale and The Clerk's Tale (New York: Barron's Educational Series, 1962), 60.
28 Ellis, "Domestic Treachery in the Clerk's Tale" 105; John P. McCall, "The Clerk's Tale and the Theme of Obedience," Modern Language Quarterly 27 (1966): 263; Hawkins, 350.
29 Lawrence Danson, "Continuity and Character in Shakespeare and Marlowe," Studies in English Literature 26 (1986): 229, allows for the possibility that Petruchio subjects his wife to something "comparable to brainwashing or cult-indoctrination." See also
30 Brunvand, 187.
31 Salter, 47.
32 Kellogg, 297-98.
33 The quotations belong respectively to McCall, 264, 265, and J. Mitchell Morse, "The Philosophy of The Clerk of Oxenford," Modern Language Quarterly 19 (1958): 18.
34 Ornstein, 68.
35 Hawkins, 346.
36 Elaine Turtle Hansen, "The Powers of Silence: The Case of the Clerk's Griselda," in Women and Power in the Middle Ages, ed. Mary Erler and Maryanne Kowaleski (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1988), 235.
37 Brunvand, 187.
38 Eric Partridge, Shakespeare's Bawdy (1947; rpt. New York: Routledge, 1990), 132.
39 Thompson, 153.
40 Hansen, 232.
Source: "Katherine of The Taming of the Shrew: 'A Second Grissel'," in Texas Studies in Literature and Language, Vol. 37, Fall, 1995, pp. 285-313.
|
<urn:uuid:8220a2c6-6fb9-4627-bd79-e6b3e1008de6>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.609375,
"fasttext_score": 0.022072196006774902,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9634081721305847,
"url": "http://www.enotes.com/topics/taming-of-the-shrew/essays-analysis/katherine-taming-shrew-second-grissel"
}
|
The fourteenth century saw a new rise in Gaelic power beyond the pale and the re-emergence of native rulers such as the O’Connors and the seafaring O’Flaherties and O’Malley’s of Galway and Mayo.
From the early fourteenth century onwards, increasing Gaelic resistance coupled with the impact of the Black Death, led to the decline of the Anglo-Norman colony across much of Ireland. Many of the Anglo-Norman Castles, towns and villages in the north and west were abandoned while many of the surviving Anglo-Norman families outside the coastal towns became progressively Gaelicised; adopting native Irish laws in their dealings with their neighbours and increasingly patronising Irish poets in spite of official disapproval. Many of the still visible moted sites of Mayo, Sligo and North Roscommon were abandoned at this time including the heavily fortified walled settlement of Rindoon on Lough Ree and in Connemara, the O’Flaherties, driven from their old lands to the east by the Anglo-Normans, established themselves as the notable local sea-power, rivals to the O’Malleys of Mayo.
|
<urn:uuid:e444c9e9-53b8-4f1a-86a5-900413b9fc9c>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.890625,
"fasttext_score": 0.2344799041748047,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9651687741279602,
"url": "http://walkingireland.com/gaelic-revival-early-fourteenth-century-onwards/"
}
|
Reconstruction of Jomon Period roundhouses at the Yayoi-Kan Museum in Fukuoka, Japan
Image credit and © Winifred Bird
Writing in the Japan Times, Winifred Bird reports that –
Back in the late 1970s, the city planners of Karatsu, a fishing community on the northern coast of Kyushu, decided to build a new road. This provided a rare opportunity for local archaeologists. One day, they mixed a scoop of soil with water to separate out the pollen, and something unexpected floated to the top: a handful of tiny black discs. It turned out to be carbonized millennia-old rice that would soon lead them to the oldest paddy fields ever discovered in Japan. [See our earlier feature here].
Wild rice does not grow in Japan; the tall wetland plant that eventually became the squatter Japonica variety farmers grow today was first domesticated in China 8,000 or more years ago. Over the course of several millennia, the techniques evolved and spread — eventually to the Japanese islands, although the route and timing of their arrival remains controversial.
Kazuo Miyamoto, a professor of archaeology who studies that complex question at Kyushu University in Fukuoka, says immigrant farmers from the Korean Peninsula most likely arrived by boat around the eighth century B.C., making landfall somewhere around present-day Karatsu, and then on the broad plain where Fukuoka is now. They established rice paddies and probably shared their techniques with local hunter-gatherer communities, who already grew some vegetables, grains and beans in dry fields. Population grew, leaders emerged, conflict arose — and Japan was on its way toward “modernity.”
Full article here.
|
<urn:uuid:17714870-3c98-41f3-8363-4434fbf995eb>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.018291950225830078,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9469873905181885,
"url": "https://theheritagetrust.wordpress.com/2014/03/10/focusing-on-the-smaller-museum-the-yayoi-kan-museum/"
}
|
Adjective "hardened" definition and examples
Definitions and examples
Having become or been made hard or harder.
1. 'When they are cool and the wax is hardened, place the cones in a basket and add a colorful ribbon bow to the handle.'
2. 'She handed them a bundle of letters, all prettily made up in fancy paper, sealed with a flourished hardened wax stamp.'
3. 'It was still hard, but the hardened clay came off a little.'
4. 'A mouthpiece is made for the instrument of gum or hardened wax.'
5. 'If the bleed water gets finished back in, the hardened concrete surface may be weak, porous, and vulnerable to abrasion and salt scaling.'
6. 'The design engineer should be establishing the requirements for the hardened concrete and leave the mixture proportioning to the producers.'
7. 'Matt froze like hardened lava when the man turned to him.'
8. 'Bonnie informed him that the muscular arm of their wings formed a hardened scale, dense enough to cut flesh and metal alike.'
9. 'The same mix characteristics that make it hard for water to penetrate into the hardened concrete make it tough for the bleed water to get out.'
10. 'Superman has been known to leave his fingerprints in steel and in hardened concrete, accidentally.'
11. 'the silos are hardened against air attack'
12. 'This 11 mm hardened steel, double-locking padlock has 100,000 key variations and a lifetime guarantee.'
13. 'Nozzles can be made from several materials, including brass, nylon, stainless steel, hardened stainless steel and ceramic.'
14. 'It is made with A514 steel and hardened bushings and requires no additional hydraulics.'
15. 'In order to improve the ductility and toughness of hardened steel, it is reheated for a relatively short time at the moderate temperature.'
16. 'The crankshaft is forged steel and induction hardened.'
17. 'These are shaped to the desired contours and are usually made of hardened tool steel ground and lapped to a mirror finish.'
18. 'Safe-like vault doors pre-hung on hardened steel frames are readily available from the major safe manufacturers.'
19. 'The six-strong crew inside them is surrounded by timber and plywood and not the hardened steel cabs in modern fire engines.'
20. 'Better ones have a hardened steel pin with the beveled latch.'
21. 'Installing thick, hardened glass in a steel frame can effectively disperse blast pressure from the glass to the frame to the walls.'
22. 'No steel can be hardened without the refiner's fire.'
23. 'In addition to the bollards, the exterior concrete wall has been hardened and the windows have been designed to resist blast loads.'
Very experienced in a particular job or activity and therefore not easily upset by its more unpleasant aspects.
1. in combination 'a battle-hardened veteran'
2. 'They are seasoned, hardened competitors who usually leave rivals licking their wounds.'
3. 'But I am a hardened, experienced and seasoned reporter and I have been around long enough not to be taken in by appearances.'
4. 'Initially the most sensitive about the nature of the mission, Avner becomes hardened by the experience.'
5. 'The hardened and experienced legionnaires were at the rear.'
6. 'Some, like Baby Doc Campbell, have been hardened by their experience.'
7. 'The experiences kind of hardened us against the club, and it is actually only in the last week, with what has happened to them, that our members have been discussing them.'
8. 'Building workers with no experience are taken on for low wages, while hardened professionals watch impotently.'
9. 'Alan Sheriff is an outsider: his poet's soul has been hardened by loss and experience, but his wry sense of the absurd saves him from insanity.'
10. 'These individuals are getting hardened trained experience in a battle zone.'
11. 'It is a battle hardened, experienced group that's going and they'll do a very good job, I'm sure.'
12. 'a hardened liar'
13. 'A fascinating study, carried out recently in America, looked at a group of men who seemed destined to become hardened criminals.'
14. 'If he was such a hardened criminal, why did he leave the only woman who could identify him as being in the country alive?'
15. 'I knew that if I went away, I would become a hardened criminal.'
16. 'We did run into a few scary guys, but with the majority of them it was almost impossible to see them as hardened criminals.'
17. 'Regis seemed to go out of his way to dispel rumors that all who live at Wilton's Yard are hardened criminals.'
18. 'Our overcrowded jails is another avenue through which petty crooks graduate to hardened criminals.'
19. 'Well, I don't think that threatening to kill them and carrying out the deed is going to affect most hardened criminals much.'
20. 'Even a hardened criminal may repent if given a second chance.'
21. 'Judges are likely to give them lighter sentences, thinking them first- or second-time offenders instead of hardened criminals.'
22. 'This would also allow the opportunity to save these young people from becoming hardened criminals, as is likely to be the case if they were placed among the general prison population.'
1. made or become hard or harder.
2. pitiless; unfeeling.
3. firmly established or unlikely to change; inveterate: a hardened criminal.
4. inured; toughened: a hardened trooper.
5. rigid; unyielding: a hardened attitude.
6. (of a missile base) equipped to launch missiles from underground silos.
7. (of a missile) capable of being launched from an underground silo.
More examples(as adjective)
"players can be hardened to newses."
"criminals can be hardened."
"grievanceses can be hardened."
"attitudes can be hardened."
"veterans can be hardened."
More examples++
|
<urn:uuid:616996d1-3df1-4faa-bfb5-805046e7baca>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.6313541531562805,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9421736001968384,
"url": "http://listofadjectives.net/adjective-hardened-definition-and-examples"
}
|
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Moluche or Nguluche are an indigenous people of Chile. Their language was a dialect of Mapudungun, a Mapuche language. At the beginning of the Conquest of Chile by the Spanish Empire the Moluche lived in what came to be known as Araucanía. The Moluche were called Araucanos ("Araucanians") by the Spanish.
Descendants of the Moluche and the Pehuenche and Huilliche later migrated into Argentina in later centuries mixing with the local tribes. This Araucanization made their language the common spoken language in the region.[1]
See also[edit]
|
<urn:uuid:3860b5bf-035e-434c-8620-8aed080b0958>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.7626460194587708,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9344654083251953,
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moluche"
}
|
Within and Without the Hall: Anglo-Saxons in Exile
The mead hall was not merely a place of retreat from a hostile world but was also the foundation and fulcrum of Anglo-Saxon life – for in addition to obvious benefits such as warmth and safety it was also a hub of group solidarity, where tribute was made and the bonds between lord and vassal were sealed and sustained.
Anglo-Saxon hall society had its roots in barbarian Europe where bonds of kinship were strongly encouraged and enforced. Tacitus noted in his book Germania that men were “bound to take up the feuds as well as friendships of father or kinsman,” and it was considered “impious to turn any man away from your door.” Gift-giving was also a highly cherished tradition: “The leaders take peculiar pleasure in gifts from neighbouring states, which are sent not only by individuals, but by the community as well.” In these societies, as well as in their Anglo-Saxon descendants, homage and condemnation were public, never private, affairs.
In such communities certain laws or customs were expected to be obeyed above all else. Internecine violence within the king’s circle was so repellent an idea that its accompanying punishment was severe – more severe, in fact, than those penalties meted out to anyone who happened to brawl within a holy place such as a monastery. The law code of King Ine of Wessex (composed circa 688 – 695 A.D.) demanded that:
If anyone fights in the king’s house, he shall forfeit all his property, and it shall be for the king to decide whether he shall be put to death or not […] If anyone fights in a monastery, he shall pay 120 shillings compensation.
The importance of keeping the peace in the hall was so vital that King Alfred transplanted Ine’s law regarding the issue, almost verbatim, into his own law codes of the ninth century. De duodecim abusivis saeculi, an anonymously authored tract that originated in 8th century Ireland, lays out twelve social and political ‘abuses’ that kings and their subjects were to be aware of. The tract frowns upon “the young man without obedience”, highlighting the importance of respect between elders and youths (or between ranks), and it also disapproves of “the rich man without almsgiving”, which stresses the importance of putting wealth to good and generous use. Additionally, the article abhors “the lord without strength” and “the unjust king”. It was the king’s duty to secure the safety of his people and to see them amply rewarded for their loyalty – or punished for their disobedience.
I, wretched and sorrowful,
on the ice-cold sea
dwelt for a winter
in the paths of exile,
bereft of friendly kinsmen
~ The Seafarer.
For those living under the protection of a hall and its lord, life was not only potentially prosperous but given heterogeneity as well. In poems like Beowulf warriors introduce themselves as the descendants of great soldiers and as the inheritors of great halls and legacies. The best that kings and warriors could hope for was that their reputations would survive even after their own lives or immediate glories had passed. Beowulf demonstrates to the reader how a good reputation can merit a king in troubled times by telling us that Hrothgar, despite being unable to stop Grendel, is still considered a good king because of his adherence to kingly manners. But unjust men, whether they were thegns or even rulers, like the historical Sigeberht of Wessex, could be deposed and driven from their lands for their iniquitous behaviour.
Such castaways and wanderers were social detritus and were to be treated with suspicion, even according to law. The law code of Wihtred of Kent demanded that “If a man from afar, or a stranger, quits the road, and neither shouts, nor blows a horn, he may be considered a thief, [and as such may] be either slain or put to ransom.” This law was also enforced by Ine of Wessex at roughly the same time.
For Christian soldiers the outcome of unlawful and shameful behaviour was especially stark due to its theological implications: Satan had been damned for his attempt at supplanting God, Adam and Eve were banished for their disobedience and Cain made an outcast and branded for the murder of his brethren. In the poem Christ and Satan the devil himself, the original exile, bemoans that “I shall not be allowed to enjoy a more promising home, neither city nor palace.” Linked to cowards and usurpers, demons and devils, an exile carried nothing but negative connotations. In Beowulf, they are literally monsters: the warped progeny of Cain as well as a dragon.
The precise physical nature of Grendel and his mother have been a point of contention for many years: are they monsters, or merely monstrous? But there is one aspect of their nature that is unambiguous, and that is their status as exiles. Beowulf makes it clear that the many ills and malevolent spirits in the world result from Cain’s murder of Abel and his subsequent banishment:
Cain got no good from committing that murder
because the Almighty made him anathema
and out of the curse of his exile there sprang
ogres and elves and evil phantoms
and the giants too who strove with God
time and again until He gave them their reward.
Grendel’s fury is instigated by the circumstances of his wretched existence, “he had dwelt for a time in misery among the banished monsters,” a condition of living which makes “the harp being struck and the clear song of a skilled poet” utterly abhorrent to his ears. The fact that Grendel cannot be tied to any one homestead or hall, the mere fact that he is a homeless wanderer, inspires fear in the Danes upon whom he preys: “young and old were hunted down by that dark death-shadow who lurked and swooped in the long nights on the misty moors; nobody knows where these reavers from hell roam on their errands.”
When Hrothgar relates to Beowulf the rumours of Grendel and his mother much of the horror is concentrated not so much on their deeds or appearances, but where they dare to roam: “They dwell apart among wolves on the hills, on windswept crags and treacherous keshes, where cold streams pour down the mountain and disappear under mist and moorland.” These creatures live and lurk on the periphery of civilisation, they are the ongoing survivors of a bleak and hostile world who have rejected or been rejected by all the pleasures of the hall. They suffer greatly from the absence of company and direct their fury upon the lucky and loyal retainers inhabiting Heorot. To the Anglo-Saxon mind, an exile was not only a damned spirit but a condemnatory one that would blame and wreak his misfortune on others if encountered.
‘Where has the horse gone? where is the rider? where is the giver of gold? Where are the seats of the feast? where are the joys of the hall? O the bright cup! O the brave warrior! O the glory of princes! How the time passed away, slipped into nightfall as if it had never been!’
O the bright cup! O the brave warrior!
~ The Wanderer.
But the loss of the hall and kinship with other men was deeply felt by the outcasts. Grendel and his mother lurk in an underwater, twisted facsimile of a hall, replete with “hall-roofing” to fight off the water current and a hoard of weapons and treasure. The dragon also dwells in such an environment, an ancient barrow laden with treasure, but he is a stowaway who has assumed ownership of the tomb and its riches. When he attacks the countryside due to the theft of one of his treasures we see that he is powerful and gluttonous, a monstrous counterpart to the worst of human corruption.
One of Beowulf’s other outcasts is not a beast, but the lone survivor of a destructed race. It is this last man who deposits his peoples’ “rich inheritance” in the barrow that the dragon later claims as his own. After burying the treasure hoard this “forgotten person” wanders the earth until his own death:
And so he mourned as he moved about the world,
deserted and alone, lamenting his unhappiness
day and night, until death’s flood
brimmed up in his heart.
The language here evokes a solitary life as a slow drowning. Dying alone in the wild was an ignominious end for a warrior.
But sometimes fear presents a greater argument than honour, and warriors lose their mettle. At the climax of Beowulf the titular hero’s own war-band struggles to keep brave during their fight with the dragon and eventually flee:
No help or backing was to be had then
from his high-born comrades; that hand-picked troop
broke ranks and ran for their lives
to the safety of the wood.
Only one, Wiglaf, resolves to stay and fight. The text notes that “in a man of worth the claims of kinship cannot be denied.” After the battle ends the cowardly warriors (or as the text designates them, “battle-dodgers” and “tail-turners”) shamefully return to the field, and Wiglaf declares that foreign invasion will be imminent “once princes from beyond get tidings of how you turned and fled and disgraced yourselves. A warrior will sooner die than live a life of shame.” We can deduce that abandoning the king or comitatus was considered not only a crime against individual members of the group but against the group, and nation, as a whole. Cowardice was a grave offence, and a coward’s lingering presence in a comitatus or hall would not only shame the group but potentially endanger it as well. Warriors in disgrace were obviously feared and hated whenever they came across honourable men.
The bleak and embattled mindset of an exile was often expressed in poems known as elegies; among them are poems like The Seafarer and The Wife’s Lament. Elegies such as these take place nowhere and are narrated by no one – that is, there is no firm geographical locale indicated in the texts, and the characters refuse, or simply neglect, to identify themselves.
However frustrating this may be for a more historically-minded reader (or for those simply wanting to expand upon the narrative and its circumstances) this absence of localisation and identification adds to, rather than detracts from, the sense of being cast adrift in an impersonal and uncaring landscape. It is not surprising that poems such as The Seafarer, which contains no identifiable narrator or any specific seascape, are often thought of as psychological or even allegorical pieces. Critics like John C. Pope, writing in his essay ‘Second thoughts on the interpretation of The Seafarer’, assert that it “is no wonder” that the poem “at its conclusion should allow the literally conceived pilgrimage of the speaker to suggest the broader idea of allegorical pilgrimage.”
That the icy froth and spume could be figurative language denoting an elegiac psychological bombardment is not dissimilar from the use of storms, hail, rain, and thunder as metaphors for battle or weaponry in other Old English texts (for example, arrows are described as raining down in “showers” in Judith.) The Exeter Book’s third riddle speaks of clouds that “do combat” and also portrays lightning as “death-spears” and “a whistling weapon”. There’s no doubt that the outside world was often seen as a brutal and ever-present enemy to be contended with -an army of natural forces whose battlefield was everywhere- and that this assault took place in the mind as much as it did on the body.
"So this middle-earth, a bit each day, droops and decays." ~ The Wanderer.
“So this middle-earth,
a bit each day,
droops and decays.”
~ The Wanderer.
There was one social group that rejected hall society and the practice of ring-giving and instead embraced exile, and that was the monastic orders. The practice of holy eremitism was not as old as Europe’s warrior society, but it did have a long and storied tradition with its own legends and, eventually, literature.
One of the earliest hagiographies of a saintly hermit was that of Martin of Tours (316 A.D. – 397 A.D.), written by Sulpicius Severus during Martin’s lifetime. Martin had left the Roman Army as a conscientious objector and settled as a hermit in Poitiers, France, gathering around himself a devoted group of followers who committed themselves to an ascetic life. Severus’ biography became “an immediate best seller” that “became a model for an immense flood of ‘Saints’ Lives’, popular literature published in Gaul and Britain during the next several centuries.”
The lives of many future saints followed the same guiding principles of Martin as outlined by Severus: the rejection of the world and its wealth, self-imposed exile and frugal living. Soon many hagiographies were borrowing miracles and events from their predecessors with little or sometimes no alteration.
Their aim was to get away from the ‘society of man’, to live alone with a few companions in caves or ‘desert wildernesses’ […] The saints did not set out to reform society. They gave it up as an evil to avoid.
~ John Morris, The Age of Arthur, (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973)
The burgeoning popularity of monasticism among the holy orders (and even among the common folk who felt beleaguered by widespread strife and war) eventually brought paradox to the movement: hermits found themselves settling into the hills and caves of Britain with other hermits, forming small societies in the process. Michael Swanton, in his chapter ‘An Assured Heroism’, noted that “By the end of the seventh century monasticism was well established and even regally endorsed among the Anglo-Saxons as a socially acceptable mode of life.” John Morris writes in The Age of Arthur that:
Place names attest the scale of the movement and its locality. Sixth-century Latin usage calls the monastery claustra, enclosure, whence comes the English word ‘cloister’. Its equivalent in Welsh was llan, whose literal meaning is ‘enclosure’. Well over six hundred Welsh towns and hamlets bear the name Llan.
Gerald of Wales, on his tour of the country in the twelfth century, wrote of the abbey church Llanthony, “originally founded by two hermits, in honour of the eremitical way of life, in solitude and far removed from the bustle of everyday existence.” Social approval had done much to enlarge and institutionalise the monastic lifestyle, though this, as church luminaries like Gerald complained, would eventually serve to undo many of its positive and holy aspects. The brothers at Llanthony had struggled for generations to keep society from invading their solitude, and were:
greatly distressed when it began to be endowed with land and church benefices […] In their desire for poverty, they refused many offers of manors and churches in those early years. Situated as they were in the wilderness, they refused to permit the overgrown recesses of the valley, where it widened out into an impenetrable wood, ever to be cleared or levelled off to make an open meadow, for they had no wish to abandon their eremitical mode of life.
The hermits found themselves resisting well-intentioned lords and kings who attempted to bequeath gifts upon them. However the nobility valued it, the old practice of ring-giving was abhorrent to the monks. It could only invite sin. “There in Gloucester men strive for earthly possessions, “ writes Gerald, “but here in Llanthony let them rather turn their minds towards the promise of eternal bliss. There let them enjoy the company of mortal men, but here let them prefer the concourse of angels.”
In Anglo-Saxon Christian literature the fraternising and frolicking that occurred in the hall were also looked upon with disdain. When the heroine of the Biblically inspired Judith enters Holofernes’ tent she looks at the drunken warriors with scorn. Though words like “gold-giving” are used to describe Holofernes, the text displays none of the admiration and awe that we might expect due to a “powerful man” and “lord of heroes”. Instead it is clearly stated that the cavorting and drinking have made the warriors careless and foolish:
[Holofernes] drenched his retainers with wine until they lay unconscious,
the whole of his troop were as drunk as if they had been struck down
in death,
drained of every ability.
There are similar insinuations in Beowulf, where Unferth’s belligerence is attributed to drunkenness, and the poem does not fail to remind readers that the fate of Heorot is tied directly to its grandeur and the jealousies of those inside and outside its doors.
Both self-exile and the apparently disparate notion of a comitatus-themed community eventually reconciled themselves and came together in the form of the chivalric Christian Knight who leaves his band of brothers and goes into the misty and mysterious landscape, alone, to pursue a holy quest. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight there are positive depictions of revelry in King Arthur’s Court, rather than the ominous forebodings and disapproval present in other Christian works.
It was fine to hear such glorious commotion:
lively uproar all day and dancing at night,
the sheerest indulgence in dance hall and bedroom
by the ladies and lords, whatever whim took them.
With all worldly pleasures they dwelt there together:
the most famous knights in all of Christendom
It would be hard nowadays
to find such fellowship.
Gawain tells us that the carousing at the court is not only bawdy and abundant, but also represents a golden age for chivalry and Christianity. When Gawain starts to leave for his journey in search of the Green Knight all of Arthur’s court sees him off with sadness: “Much deep sorrow was felt in the hall, that one as valued as him should go on this quest.” Many tales of the saints describe how crowds wept whenever they took their leave. The Anonymous History of Abbot Ceolfrith detailed that “As the ship sailed across the river, he looked towards the brothers mourning his departure and heard the sublime sound of their song mixed with grief.”
"The son of nobles crossed over The steep stone cliffs, the constricted climb, a narrow solitary path, a course unknown..." ~ Beowulf.
“The son of nobles crossed over
The steep stone cliffs,
the constricted climb,
a narrow solitary path,
a course unknown…”
~ Beowulf.
Similarly Gawain, like all holy or disgraced nomads before him, ventures out and finds the world unkind:
He struggled up cliffs in godforsaken regions,
as, far from his friends, he wandered as a stranger.
Separated from his band of fellow knights, Gawain is isolated in a world that will grant him no respect or quarter on account of his honour and title. Again, as in earlier literature, the natural world is constantly harassing and threatening our lone wanderer: “At every ford and stream that the warrior passed, it was rare if he found no foe to face him.” However, like the self-exiled saints, Gawain has God to protect him from the harshness of nature: “If he hadn’t been alert, and helped by the Lord, he would certainly have went to his death.” God had certainly intervened to help his most blessed of subjects before. In Bede’s Life of Cuthbert the saint is given a loaf of bread, ostensibly from God, when he is in need. Afterwards Cuthbert resumes his journey without fear of hunger:
now that he knew he had been fed in his solitude by Him […] His eyes are ever on them that fear Him and hope in His mercy, so that He may, in the words of the Psalmist, ‘snatch their souls from death and feed them in time of famine.’
Eddius Stephanus’ Life of Wilfrid gives another example of Divine protection:
So Wilfrid and his companions left their native land and set off in exile for the kingdoms of the south. God, who does not leave his saints to endure alone, sent a kind-hearted man to meet them on their way.
To be stripped of one’s titles and honours, to be sent from the warmth of the hall, or to falter in allegiance during the thick of battle, was more terrible than death – but only for a few. Later Christian saints welcomed the wilderness, loneliness and limerance. They saw themselves as divorced from the pleasures and temptations of the hall; they walked not with men but were companioned by choruses of angels. After centuries of co-mingling the two modes of life found themselves reconciled in the form of the lone Christian Knight, a man loved by many but sometimes accompanied by few: he could find glory alone as well as among a brotherhood.
Art by Zdzisław Beksińsk
Leave a comment
Filed under literature, Written for the fun of it.
Leave a Reply
WordPress.com Logo
Twitter picture
Facebook photo
Google+ photo
Connecting to %s
|
<urn:uuid:18b451e4-efd3-40ec-9a31-53042103daa4>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.09375,
"fasttext_score": 0.021065235137939453,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.969145655632019,
"url": "https://seonaidhceanneidigh.wordpress.com/2014/02/20/within-and-without-the-hall-anglo-saxons-in-exile/"
}
|
Dionysus and The Sacred Bull
Courtesy of http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/chauvet/venus_sorcerer.php
Cave painting from Chauvet Cave, France (c. 30,000 BCE). The Man-Bull and the vagina of the Woman.
The sanctity of the Bull as a symbol for the Sacred Masculine can be found as early as the Paleolithic cave paintings of Lascaux, Livernon and Chauvet in France. During the Bronze Age (4000 – 1700 BCE) the Spring Equinox occurred during the constellation Taurus due to the Precession of the Equinoxes[i]. Currently it occurs in the constellation Aries (the Sacred Ram). During the Age of Taurus the Myths of many cultures personified the life forces as a Bull that needed to be slain so that the Cosmos would continue. As a result, many cultures and religions celebrated their New Year on the Spring Equinox. The New Year would entail the sacrifice of an actual bull, reenacting the First Sacrifice that made the Cosmos possible, as everything that exists was said to be made from parts of the Bull. Cultures and religions that had these mythic motifs included the Persians, the Mesopotamians, the Minoans, Eastern Anatolia (where Phrygia was located), the Indus Valley, the Gaulish Celts, the Canaanites, and the Thracians. Interestingly, the Sacred Bull was also linked to the Goddess Hekate. In the Greek Magical Papyri, a collection of texts with spells and incantations dated from the 2nd century BCE – 5th century CE, Hekate is addressed in the Prayer to Selene as “O Night Bellower, Lover of Solitude, Bull-Faced and Bull-Headed One,” and “Bull-Eyed, Horned, Mother of Gods and Men.”
Dionysus and the Bull
Dionysus was also described as being “bull-horned.” In the Orphic Hymn to the God of the Triennial Feasts[ii], the hymnist writes, “I call upon you, blessed, many-named and frenzied Bacchos, bull-horned Nysian redeemer, god of the wine-press, conceived in fire.” Other hymns go on to say that He is “bull-faced.” Dionysus may have had origins in Crete, where the Sacred Bull was especially venerated. The Sacred Bull was linked to the symbolism of the Moon. A Zoroastrian prayer says that the “Moon is the Seed of the Bull.” Apis, an Egyptian God who is another form of the Sacred Bull, was illustrated with the Moon between his horns. Shiva is linked to the Sacred Bull, and drawings often show him with a Crescent Moon on His brow resembling horns. The Minoan Horns of Consecration sculpted to represent the horns of the Sacred Bull, I believe symbolize the powers of the Moon. The Egyptian God Ptah was said to incarnate as a black bull created by moonbeams. This connection of the Sacred Masculine to the Moon may be rather startling to find since many modern Pagans, familiar with Wicca, have come to symbolize the Moon as a solely female. As we are seeing, the ancient world was not so easily divided.
Photo courtesy of http://www.minoanatlantis.com/Minoan_Mirror_Web.php
Horns of Consecration (restored) in Knossos, Crete.
Minoan Sacred Bull
The Sacred Bull was particularly venerated in Crete, where representations of Sacred Bulls can be found everywhere. According to the Orphic Hymns, Dionysus was born in Crete. The name itself, Dionysus, was first found in Mycenaean fragments known as Linear B. The Linear B alphabet predates Greek by several centuries, and was found mostly in the Minoan capital city of Knossos. It is descended from the older Linear A alphabet spoken by the Minoans, and as of this writing remains undeciphered. This language was formed after the language found in Linear A, confirming the Orphic Hymns that Dionysus may have originated from the Minoan Civilization. Or, perhaps an archetypal Deity like this has always existed in various forms in various cultures? What we do know is that in Minoan Crete He was given the name Zagreus, a title for a hunter who captured live animals. As Zagreus, He was identified as the Cretan Zeus. Carl Kerenyi[iii] stated that the title was rooted in Minoan Mythology.
Image Courtesy of http://www.andrewgough.co.uk/bee2_1.html
Bakkhoi women leading a bull to the altar.
The Sacrifice of the Bull
Rites depicting the Sacred Bull would always recreate the creation of the Cosmos and humanity by sacrificing a bull. The sacrificial death of the Sacred Bull was seen as a dismemberment of the God Himself. His flesh and blood, eaten by His worshippers, would be viewed as the God investing His very Presence into the bodies of His followers, granting them a portion of His Divinity (known as theophagy, or “God-Eating”). This omophagia (eating raw flesh) would ensure immortality. Such a sacrifice occurred among raucous festivals on the island of Crete every two years. At the height of the ritual when the Bull was killed, a basket would be held aloft showing the survival of the heart[iv]. In Orphic Myth, seven Titans sought to dismember the infant God. In order to escape, Dionysus shape-shifted into various animals, the last being a young Bull. They tore Him into seven pieces (diasparagmos) and ate His flesh. They were killed by Zeus, and the only surviving piece of flesh was His heart.
Cakes and Ale
The reenactment of the sacrifice of the God lives on today in the Cakes and Ale portion of many Pagan rituals, although many usually just see it as the “grounding” portion after performing a ceremony. Between the main part of the ritual and the end when announcements are made, Cakes and Ale are usually handled as a brief “snack break” that is there just because. I wonder how many realize the significance of Cakes and Ale as the modern Pagan continuation of the ancient custom of the Sacrifice? To simply view the Cakes and Ale as a mere “add-on” in ritual removes the importance of the Cakes and Ale from its origins as the very embodiment of the Divine into humanity. In ancient times the animals that were sacrificed were very often shared among the ritual participants. This was viewed as partaking of the essence of the God. This part of the ancient rituals was often the most important, because it symbolized the reciprocity between the Gods and mortals. The sacrifice itself was a gift of thanksgiving to the Gods so that Their essence was fed by hymns, prayers, worship and offerings. In turn, the Gods would bless the worshippers and renew their life force through the medium of the animal that was the God Incarnate. The cakes are the flesh of the God, and the ale is the blood of the God. What we have here is a return to our Classical Pagan roots in the Eucharist symbolism of the Cakes and Ale. In Roman Catholicism, the Eucharist (or Communion) is the belief that the wafer and wine literally become the flesh and blood of Jesus Christ. This is merely a Christian adoption of what once was a Pagan ritual. In the third century CE, beneath St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican[v], a fresco of Jesus shows him with symbols from both Apollo and Dionysus. In this syncretic mosaic are written the words:
I am the True Vine.”
In our Temple, our religious calendar places the New Year celebrations to take place at the Full Moon closest to the Spring Equinox for a public celebration, and a more private celebration typically for Temple members only held during the Spring Equinox itself. The Sacrifice of the Bull is very important, as in so doing we are reweaving the energies throughout the land itself, and we are participating in the First Sacrifice. We are also remembering that it was by Sacrifice that humans were created: from the ashes of the Titans and the blood of Dionysus Zagreus. Thus, by blood and ash we are ever participating within ourselves the suffering of the sacrifice. Our lives are a gift from tragedy, something that a God had endured, but we were the result.
Ritual is Memory: it is reentering the Sacred Dance and Rites given to us by Dionysus. In ritual we touch the very core of our inner being, bringing forward from the past the power we need to engage the present and ensure the continued existence of the future. That’s what sacrifice is all about: legacy. A legacy built on a continuous gift exchange which was first bestowed upon us. And we have that opportunity to always return it to Them.
Thank you, Dionysus.
Eirene kai Hugieia!
(Peace and Health!)
Footnotes and Sources:
[i] As the Earth revolves and rotates, it also “wobbles” like a spinning top. This wobble causes the constellation that the Spring Equinox occurs in to change. Because there are 12 constellations, it takes 2167 years (1/12) for the Spring Equinox to rise in each constellation. A complete rotation = 1 Platonic Year (26,000 years).
[ii] The Orphic Hymns translated by Apostolos N. Athanassakis.
[iii] Kerenyi, Carl. (1976). Dionysus: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life. UK: Princeton University Press.
[iv] Albinus, L. (2000). The House of Hades: Studies in Ancient Greek Eschatology. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.
[v] Morford, M.P.O., & Lenardon, R. (1999). Classical Mythology (6th Ed.).NY: Oxford University Press.
|
<urn:uuid:4e294787-6b39-4f05-8a8b-b0b998dec63e>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.03966939449310303,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9616332054138184,
"url": "https://caveoforacle.wordpress.com/tag/carl-kerenyi/"
}
|
How to Teach Aboriginal Art in the Classroom
In 1970 , the leaders of the aboriginal tribes of Australia invited artists to paint his “dreaming” , which is the position of an individual in his spiritual mythology , to prevent the loss of their culture. As far as this Artwork able to teach students about the history of Australia , ecology and biology of the country, and around the Aborigines . Aboriginal ” Dreamtime ” is created all its concepts , myths and spiritual beliefs . The earth itself is an integral part of these beliefs , and it is a non-linear storytelling in which the ‘ union of past and present . Aboriginal Art inspire students in their creative activities while learning about another culture .
1 . Showing maps of Australia, signs of flora and fauna, and posters of Aboriginal art.
Distributes along the wall and the front of the room. Instruct students to ask questions about the pictures .
2 . Read the myths of Aboriginal students . Explaining Aboriginal ” dreaming ” and ” dream”. Dreaming is the place of the individual in the broader field of Aboriginal mythology , while the dream is in the general mythology of the Aboriginal peoples .
3. Search the Australian plants and animals used in Aboriginal art .
The study of traditional instruments such as the didgeridoo , and aboriginal music . Watch DVDs Aboriginal art , if the kids are in middle school and high school.
4. Discuss the traditional painting techniques of making that the aboriginals used . They used ocher ground-up , clay and coal make traditional paintings . Discuss the colors are mainly used .
5. The didgeridoo is an aboriginal instrument that is usually painted .
Turn cardboard paper towel rolls and paints to create didgeridoo. The student will design your own didgeridoo painted with stains on them. As a result , children may try to play with them.
|
<urn:uuid:8f564f1a-1706-414e-aae2-95c0335962b5>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.09032374620437622,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.935670793056488,
"url": "http://australianativeart.com/how-to-teach-aboriginal-art-in-the-classroom/"
}
|
Titanic’s coal workers were unsung heroes 1 comment
Titanic’s infamous “Black Gang” refers to the numerous men who worked deep within the bowels of the ship, to keep it moving. Titanic was set up in such a way that the members of this hardworking group were never seen by passengers. There were gangways and staircases for the exclusive use of the boiler room attendants. They were given the name “black gang” because of the coal dust that settled on their faces and torsos (they were almost always shirtless due to the intense heat from the boilers). The water pressure in the boiler rooms, which were usually 2 or 3 stories below the water line, would have been double what it is at the surface. The temperatures in these areas ranged from burning hot in the boiler rooms, to freezing cold in the coal storage bunkers.
When Titanic set sail, there was a coal strike going on. Because of the strike, Titanic carried enough coal to sail to the US and back, instead of counting on being reloaded in America. This coal accounted for a significant amount of the weight aboard the ship. Because of this, “trimmers” were used to keep the coal level and even within the bunkers, so it did not affect the trim of the ship. Wheelbarrows full of large chunks of coal were moved into the boiler rooms, where the boiler workers would break them down into smaller pieces about the size of a man’s fist. They would then shovel a specific amount of this coal into the boilers, and spread it out along the grates inside. Titanic has double boilers, meaning that there was an access door on both sides. The men worked in tandem so that these doors were never open at the same time, which could cause the fire inside to draft out potentially burning the workers.
Bosses in the boiler rooms were never very popular, because they would “knock” the workers on the head if they made a mistake. It wasn’t uncommon during this time, to hear someone in a bar telling a story of a boiler boss who was whacked with a coal shovel, and thrown into a boiler, only to be ejected into the sea with the ash and slag from the burning embers.
The Titanic’s “black gang” shoveled about 820 tons of coal a day, a ton and a half for every mile she traveled.
After the ship struck the iceberg, a call would have gone out to the engineers and boiler room crew that were off duty, to come assist the pump operations. It was their hard work and dedication that kept the Titanic afloat for as long as she was. Firemen kept several of the boilers running, to power the lights on the ship, which stayed on until the she went under. Most of the “black gang”, the engineers and firemen did not survive the tragedy. The ladders that led out of the boiler rooms and coal bunkers were steep and hard to navigate in normal circumstance. With the ship listing dramatically during the sinking, they would have been nearly impossible to climb. They probably didn’t even try. It is believed that most of them did not drown, as you would expect, but were probably crushed when the ship listed and the huge boilers rolled onto them. Some would have been killed when the miles of pipes in the bowels of the ship became dislodged and sprayed the workers with boiling hot steam.
The passengers onboard Titanic were unlikely to have seen even one member of the “black gang” during the short voyage, and were probably unaware of the bravery and sacrifice that saved many lives.
One response to “Titanic’s coal workers were unsung heroes
Subscribe to comments with RSS.
1. For more detail, readers of this informative article might also like to read
TITANIC: FROM BOILER ROOM 5 TO LIFEBOAT 13 (by Kevin E. Phillips) at kphillips.pressbooks.com
Leave a Reply
WordPress.com Logo
Twitter picture
Facebook photo
Google+ photo
Connecting to %s
Get every new post delivered to your Inbox.
%d bloggers like this:
|
<urn:uuid:243cbf57-7d14-490a-a466-9fbe26c28d88>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.96875,
"fasttext_score": 0.23755782842636108,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.974514901638031,
"url": "https://titanicstory.wordpress.com/2012/04/09/titanics-coal-workers-were-unsung-heroes/"
}
|
How a fish got its legs: Scientists reveal more details of ancient fossil
Karl Turner, By Karl Turner,
Email the author
on October 15, 2008 at 1:50 PM, updated October 15, 2008 at 4:01 PM
A new study on the internal anatomy of the skull of Tiktaalik roseae uncovers how it transitioned from water to land. The findings are reported in the October issue of Nature by Jason Downs, Ted Daeschler, Farish A. Jenkins Jr. and Neil Shubin.
"We designed an expedition to find a transitional fossil and, bingo, we found it. And it was loaded with surprises," said project co-leader Neil Shubin of the University of Chicago, who spoke at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History Monday night. "We're learning so much about the history of life."
The scientists initially dug three Tiktaalik partial skeletons from shale outcrops on Canada's Ellesmere Island, more than 600 miles above the Arctic Circle. (Tiktaalik, pronounced tick-TAH-lick, is an Inuit word meaning large fresh-water fish.)
Tiktaalik lacked the rigid gill-covering bones of its ancestors. That made its head more flexible; it's the first time a neck appears in the fossil record. Because they can quickly flick their bodies in any direction in the water, fish have no pressing need for independent head motion.
But an animal like Tiktaalik that's rooted to the ground by its developing limbs would need more head mobility to snare prey or catch a glimpse of an attacker.
In Tiktaalik, one of those head bones, called the hyomandibula, was shrinking in size compared to the creature's fish ancestors. In those primitive creatures, the boomerang-shaped hyomandibula links parts of the skull and the gill bones, coordinating how those elements move during underwater breathing and eating.
Tiktaalik's hyomandibula is smaller and in a different position, perhaps because the animal was living in shallow water and relying less on its gills to breathe. In mammals, which don't need gills at all, the hyomandibula is freed up for another role: it's become a tiny middle-ear bone involved in hearing.
"It's just one piece of the puzzle," said paleontologist Jason Downs, the Nature paper's lead author and a research fellow at Philadelphia's Academy of Natural Sciences. "One reason why people are intrigued by Tiktaalik is that it isn't some oddball animal that went extinct. It's on the lineage leading to limbed tetrapods," an ancestral line that leads to humans.
Ahead for the researchers is analysis of Tiktaalik's pelvis and rear fins, and more trips to the Canadian Arctic to collect additional fossils.
"I remember reading about the Dover trial with a cast of Tiktaalik sitting on my desk, wishing I could tell somebody about it," Shubin said.
|
<urn:uuid:442ca4ba-17f9-4bc3-b044-147d3d18ef4d>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.921875,
"fasttext_score": 0.030901670455932617,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9588273167610168,
"url": "http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2008/10/scientists_release_findings_in.html"
}
|
Category Archives: Gold Rush Notes
Brief history facts explained about the BC gold rush
Captain John and the Alexandra Bridge
If it weren’t for Captain John Swalis, the Alexandra Bridge would have never been built.
‘Captain John’ as he was known, was an enterprising Stó:lō from the Fraser Valley. Having spent his summers on the gravel bars and islands in the Fraser River, Captain John was familiar with the area. So, he set up his own ferry service helping gold seekers cross the Fraser River at Yale.
At first he didn’t accept money as payment and instead asked for a hat or a shirt. Captain John began to see that money could allow him to purchase the things he needed, so he adapted to this new economy and started accepting coins and gold as payment.
The missing link on the Cariboo Wagon Road
By the end of 1862, the Cariboo Wagon Road through the Fraser Canyon was almost complete, running from Yale to Spuzzum on the west bank of the canyon, and from a point almost opposite on the east bank, up the river as far as Lytton. There remained now the important task of linking the two sections with a bridge two miles above Spuzzum.
On February 2, 1863, Joseph Trutch agreed to take on the bridge project and in return he would collect tolls on the bridge for the next five years. Considering the volume of people going back and forth, it was a lucrative deal.
Alexandra Bridge
Alexandra Bridge
Halliday & Company of San Francisco was given the job of building the suspension bridge with a span of a little over three hundred feet using two suspending cables. Spools of cable were carried by mules up the road but how to get the spools of cable across to the other side of the Fraser River?
Captain John told Trutch that he could get the cables across the Fraser River, and Trutch awarded him a subcontract. Captain John assembled a group of his relatives and they unwound cable from each spool and carried it on their shoulders as they made their way along the precipitous cliffs and slippery rocks. Each cable was four inches wide.
There isn’t a description of the event, but to bring back the words of Simon Fraser:
“In these places we were under the necessity of trusting all our things to the Indians, even our guns…Yet they thought nothing of these difficulties, but went up and down these wild places with the same agility as sailors do on a ship.”
What’s the hold up?
The Alexandra Bridge was completed by September 1, 1863. Trutch invited prominent dignitaries for the official opening planned for the following week. In the meantime, Admiral Kingcome of the Royal Navy made a special trip by steamer to Yale just to ride up the Cariboo Road and see the new bridge. Governor Douglas was not eager to see Alexandra Bridge, however, and the official opening was delayed several weeks until finally near the end of September, Douglas made the trip to Yale with Colonel Moody. On Friday, September 25, 1863, Alexandra Bridge was officially proclaimed open by Colonel Moody—Douglas stayed behind in Yale.
Captain John rose to prominence among his people and gained the name ‘Swalis’ which meant “getting rich”. At one point he was earning more than double the annual salary of Governor James Douglas. When Trutch became Commissioner of Lands and Works, Captain John was elected as the Chief of Soowahlie.
In later years Captain John ran a ferry across the Vedder River (Th’ewálmel) to Cultus Lake and across to Vedder Crossing. In 1891, he helped with the construction of the Vedder Bridge.
Billiard Saloons: a barometer of the gold rush
When he was in Victoria awaiting a steamer to take him south — after a fruitless trip to the Fraser River gold diggings — Herman Reinhart noticed that there was no shortage of billiard saloons including one with six tables kept by a California gambler named Boston. “Here I saw the first 15-ball pool.” Fifteen-Ball Pool was the predecessor of modern pocket billiards.
On September 15, 1858 the Daily Alta California printed an article called “Stagnation in Victoria” which was submitted by their correspondent:
Everything has flattened out – subsided – wilted. We have a town of stores filled with goods, and few to buy…Houses and tents could be bought at almost any price. A large pavilion tent which had been used as a billiard saloon, having room for two billiard tables and seats for spectators, sold for $13…
Billiard Saloons and Fifteen-Ball Pool
In October 1859 it was reported that Fort Hope was flourishing. One of the indicators was that
Billiard Factory
Billiard Factory
billiard saloons “appear well supported.”
Playing billiards was a popular pastime in the 1850s, especially American Four-Ball Billiards, usually played on a large (11 or 12-foot), four-pocket table with four balls – two white and two red. Billiard balls were made from ivory tusks. Even cabinet makers made billiard tables.
Not quite as common as billiards was the game of bagatelle which was played by European miners. Considering there was a large number of French diaspora living in San Francisco, a good many of them probably succeeded in bringing the game up north to British Columbia.
In his book, Cariboo Yarns, F.W. Lindsay wrote that the well-known Cariboo packer known as Cataline, ran mule trains to Barkerville, taking a month to get there. Among the items they carried north were billiard tables. How did one pack a billiard table?
Searching for Gold in the New El Dorado
When gold was ‘discovered’ in the Fraser River, a promotional machine kicked in and British Columbia was touted as the “New El Dorado” (after the El Dorado of South America). Soon, all the newspapers began referring to British Columbia as the New El Dorado.
Gold rushes wherever they occurred were almost always promoted. Books were immediately printed, articles were published and even in the case of the Australian gold rush, a board game called ‘Race to the gold diggings’ was created to get young people excited about seeking gold.
Searching for Gold
Herman Reinhart - American prospector
Herman Reinhart – American prospector
Timing was everything, as Californian miner Herman Reinhart remembered. In July 1858, after months of travelling on foot, Reinhart arrived when the Fraser River was high:
“…boats got swamped and whole boat-loads of men were drowned, and many never knew what became of them.”
At Fort Hope he ran into an old friend James Daniels who had just sold his claim at Hill’s Bar and was leaving for San Francisco after having made $3,500.
“He left Sucker Creek in March, only two months ahead of me; he went by water to Victoria, and a little steamer clear to where he now was, and no hardships or danger like me…”
By the time Reinhart arrived at Yale, he didn’t bother going to Hill’s Bar:
“We saw some old acquaintances at Yale, but we were anxious to get down to Victoria, so we did not look around much. We were in a hurry to get back to California before we would get broke or out of money, so we did not go over to Hill’s Bar to see it.”
At Victoria, Reinhart met many gold seekers he knew from California and Oregon who were in a similar situation:
“…Many had no money and made application to our consul (agent for British Columbia) Edward Nugent. He said he would try and make some arrangements with the company of the steamer Pacific to take a lot of American subjects to San Francisco, who had not the money to pay their own fare. It was the duty of the government to take its people to their homes if they were in a destitute condition on a foreign shore or land, and there were over one thousand men in that condition.
“Just when the Californian newspapers were reporting the Fraser River gold diggings were ‘humbug’, in November 1858, Alfred Waddington published a book called “The Fraser Mines Vindicated” which spoke of the gold diggings in glowing terms.
Strapped gold seekers in Victoria
“The perils of searching for gold” – a lecture given January 29, 1860
When 1860 rolled around, the Fraser River gold rush was all but over. Yet young men, many of whom were well-educated, were still arriving in Victoria. Amor De Cosmos, the fiery publisher of the Daily Colonist, sounded the alarm on January 28th of that year:
“From exaggerated and too sanguine accounts they were led to believe that they had only to get here, to begin coining of money without delay. Almost their little all was spent in accomplishing a long and expensive voyage. And so it has come to pass, that some of these enterprising young men have found themselves “strapped.” Instances have occurred in which they have resorted to teaming, carpentering, and even baking bread…”
One can imagine Mr. Cosmos’ reaction when he read the London Times newspaper of January 30, 1860, which included the following report from their correspondent who was said to be in Victoria:
All accounts agree that the individual earnings of the miners are much larger than in California or Australia. It is very common to light upon a man going to San Francisco with several thousand dollars…
In March 1860 a handbook to British Columbia was published to lure Welsh men to leave for the goldfields. Emigration agents in Liverpool were kept busy—by July it was estimated that one in three of the working population in Wales was willing to emigrate.
Note: I have noticed a few maps that show Yale and Hill’s Bar on the same side of the Fraser River, however, I have since verified that Hill’s Bar was approximately a mile and a half south of Yale and on the other side of the river. The Fraser River gold rush historian, Daniel Marshall, mapped out the location of the gold rush bars in his recently published book, Claiming the Land.
Types of gold pans and spoons used in the BC gold rush
Before the Fraser River gold rush got off to a flying start in 1858, Nlaka’pamux who lived by the Thompson River were bringing gold nuggets and gold dust to the Hudson’s Bay Company at Fort Kamloops.
When news reached Fort Victoria, the officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company decided to send them some spoons. What did the spoons look like? What were they made of? For many years, this remained a mystery to me.
The other mystery which has perplexed me for years was the paintings by William Hind which show miners wearing a object tucked into their sash next to a mug.
In the course of digging up information for this blog post on gold pans, these two mysteries have been solved.
horn spoon
horn spoon
In the early days of the California gold rush, prospectors used ‘spoons’ made from cattle horns that were steamed and pressed to allow a person to use them as a scoop. The juvenile fiction book, “By the Great Horn Spoon” describes a horn spoon as half a bullock horn, from 6 to 8 inches long and up to 3 inches wide.
‘spoon’ gold pan made from mountain goat horn
This was copied and revised by the Natives further north who used the horns of mountain goats and shaped them into a shape that resembled a pinched frying pan.
So when the Hudson’s Bay Company met in Fort Victoria and talked of sending more ‘spoons’ to Fort Kamloops which the Natives to use for gold panning – they were referring to iron ‘spoons’ forged by their blacksmith.
blacksmith forged ‘spoon’
The blacksmith forged ‘spoon’ could have been similar to the type of one that was sent by the HBC to their fort.
iron spoon with long handle
iron spoon with long handle
Another example of an iron spoon is one that was typically used in the 19th century. Some people referred to it as a tasting spoon or a ladle. It was often found in pioneer cabins near the hearth and what could be more handier?
Consider this description of a Californian miner from G.A. Fleming’s book “California, its past history, its present position and future prospects” published in 1850:
“Occasionally, he dug the dust out of crevices with his long iron spoon and trowel, and found eight or nine dollars’ worth in a place not larger than one’s finger…a sheath-knife…was always worn in the belt used instead of suspenders, and to which was often attached that very useful article in the “diggings,” a long iron spoon, employed both to cook and mine with…”
Now, look at William Hind’s painting titled “Miner, Rocky Mountains” and you will see what definitely looks like an iron spoon tucked into his belt.
Gold pans are the most basic of mining equipment and there are almost as many types of gold pans as hats.
For thousands of years, people in South America have used a cone-shaped wooden bowl called a batea to wash the gravel. They vary in size but typically are wider than American-style gold pans and because of the wood, fine grains of gold are easily captured by it.
The batea is challenging to work with, but the idea of taking in a larger amount of gravel at a time soon caught on. The early gold pans were simply known as ‘washing pans’ because that is what a prospector did with them – they would gather up some gravel and water and swirl it around, literally washing the gravel.
1850s gold washing pan made from tin
Tinsmiths made gold pans that were tapered at the bottom like this one.
Inspired by the size of the batea, people starting making gold pans of a bigger size. The one I drew is based on a 19th century gold pan measuring 55 cm by 12.5 cm. The gold pans were made from steel. Oil was added in the manufacturing process to prevent the pan from rusting.
19th century gold pan made from steel
In the 1860s, Dickson, Campbell & Co. made galvanized steel “gold washing machines, different sizes” in Victoria at the corner of Johnson and Wharf Streets.
Many prospectors took their new ‘gold washing machine’ otherwise known as a gold pan and cured it over a campfire. This did two things – remove any oils which would cause fine gold to float out of the pan and also give the pan a bluish tinge which provided a greater contrast when gold appeared.
What style of hats did BC gold rush miners wear?
What style of hats did BC gold rush miners wear in the 1850s and 1860s?
In the Victorian era, everyone wore hats. It was unheard of for people to go outside without a hat. To go out ‘baldheaded’ meant also to be unprepared. There were hats for almost every occasion.
Considering that the vast majority of gold seekers who came to British Columbia during the Fraser River gold rush were from California, it is helpful to look at what hats they wore.
Vaquero's hat
Vaquero’s hat
By the mid 1850s, Californians had copied and adapted the Mexican ‘vaqueros’ hats which had a very wide brim and a soft crown.
From these, came the wide brim hats made of felt or straw. The Placer Herald newspaper related a story from the Fraser River — two miners lost their mining utensils so they used their hats to pan for gold! They must’ve been wearing very wide brimmed hats.
broad brimmed hat
broad brimmed hat
Paintings by Edward Richardson and William Hind show miners wearing soft crowned hats with wide brims that could be turned up or down to shield out the sun or rain if needed. Hats, like the rest of a miner’s clothing had to be durable.
In England, a broad-brimmed hat was known as the ‘wideawake’ hat so called because it had no fuzzy surface or ‘nap’. Interestingly, I couldn’t find any reference to it by name until the late 1800s. Perhaps there is a hat story behind the coffee saloon at Barkerville known as ‘Wake Up’ Jake.
One of the best descriptions of gold rush miners in the 1860s comes from the recollections of artist Eleanor Fellows:
“Sombrero on head, bowie-knife in small back trouser pocket, revolvers in broad sash or ample waist-belt, the loose blouse we used to call a “garibaldi” clothing the upper person, the long “gum” boots reaching to the knees which enabled their wearer to work with impunity in water for hours, the tightly-rolled blanket and gold mining implements upon the back and shoulders…”
sugar loaf hat
sugar loaf hat
The sombrero or ‘California hat’ was adapted into other shaped hats. From the sombrero came ‘Sugar loaf’ felt hats. They got that name because sugar was sold in tall cone-shaped loaves. Sugar loaf hats were often seen worn by teamsters who had to walk behind oxen and mules laden with tons of provisions.
Teamsters often wore handkerchiefs to stop the sweat from trickling into their eyes or over their mouths to stop from inhaling dust kicked up by the oxen.
Panama hat
Panama hat
The paja toquilla hat or Panama hat which originally came from Ecuador and had been worn for hundreds of years was also popular with gold miners. These were made from straw. J.A. McCrea listed “genuine Panama hats” for sale on August 3, 1863 in an ad which appeared in the Daily Colonist newspaper.
Chinese straw hat
Chinese straw hat
Many Chinese miners wore woven hats made of reeds. The hat itself had a shape similar to an inverted basket. It was perched on top of the head.
Chinese gold seekers who came here to British Columbia were known in Chinese as gum saan haak.
bowler hat
bowler hat
Bowler hats came into production in England in 1850 and eventually were sold here. If you look through pictures of Barkerville or other Cariboo gold rush towns in the 1860s, you will see dignified suited men wearing bowler hats. A bowler hat was durable and hard like a helmet.
1860: How to make butter without a churn
New bread and fresh butter was something worth travelling for in the Fraser River gold rush. How rare was butter?
On July 3, 1858 the Daily Alta California reported:
“At Fort Yale there is little or nothing to be had for love or money. Mining and cooking utensils are very scarce, and enormous prices are obtained for them. The Hudson’s Bay Company had seized the mining implements of some miners on Hill’s Bar, for violating the law in regard to trafficking, which excited considerable indignation among the miners.”
For those who could afford the luxury of butter it was imported by ship in cases from California and Minnesota.
By the time gold miners were heading north to the Cariboo, roadhouses began advertising butter.
Peter Dunlevy and Jim Sellers bought a roadhouse in 1861 from two packers who had built it a year before near Horsefly. Generous meals of fresh beef, mutton, lake trout, churned butter, and locally grown vegetables earned their roadhouse a reputation as the best stopping house in the Cariboo.
Many gold miners made their own bread and some even attempted to make their own butter. When they got together many discussed bush cookery and shared tips with each other.
Occasionally, the British Colonist printed “receipts” based on the old French word for recipes.
Here is one printed in February 1860 on how to make butter without a churn:
How to make butter
How to make butter
“After straining the milk, set it away for about twelve hours, for the cream to rise. (Milk dishes ought to have good strong handles to lift them by.) After standing as above, set the milk without disturbing it, on the stove, let it remain until you observe the coating of cream on the surface assume a wrinkled appearance, but be careful it does not boil, as should this be the case, the cream will mix with the milk and cannot again be collected.”
“Now set it away till quite cold, and then skim off the cream, mixing it with as little milk as possible. When sufficient cream is collected proceed to make it into butter as follows:
Take a wooden bowl or any suitable vessel, and having first scalded and then rinsed it with cold spring water, place the cream into it.
Now let the operator hold his hand in water as hot as can be borne for a few seconds, then plunge it into cold water for about a minute, and at once commence to agitate the cream by a gentle circular motion.In five minutes, or less, the butter will have come, when of course, it must be washed and salted according to taste, and our correspondent guarantees that no better butter can be made by the best churn invented.”
George Blair wrote in his diary that his friend “Bill rolled up his sleeves and went at making bread and Kelsie Oregon Butter which I mean to teach the Canadian Ladies to make when I go home as it tasted first rate.”
Ship stories: how passengers travelled to BC in the gold rush
How did most people come to British Columbia during the gold rush? They came by ship.
Tynemouth 1862
In 1862, Charles Redfern, a passenger on the Tynemouth wrote about some of the problems on board the 1500 ton steamship. They ran into a storm not long after they left England which saw a cow and several pigs get washed overboard by a big wave. Then the coal passers who had been complaining of bad conditions stopped working altogether. The ship’s captain put them in irons and instructed the travellers to fuel the engines. For an entire month, the male passengers took turns filling wheelbarrows with coal, pushing them to the bunkers while another mutiny erupted and more were put in irons. By this time the ship was in the South Pacific with good trade winds. The steam was shut off and volunteers were called to man the sails.
Just before the ship sailed into the Falkland Islands, she ran into another storm and several large stacks of railway ties and iron tanks broke free of their moorings.
The Tynemouth docked at Esquimalt on September 17, 1862.
Passenger Contract
Everyone on board the Tynemouth was given a ‘passenger contract’ which said that each passenger would be given three quarts of water daily and a weekly allowance of provisions:
5 ¼ lb. Biscuit
½ lb. Soup
1 lb. Preserved Meat
1 ½ lb. Indian beef
½ lb. Preserved & Salt Fish
2 lb. Flour
1 lb. Oatmeal
6 oz. Suet
½ lb. Rice
½ lb. Raisins & Currants
2/3 pint Peas
½ lb. Preserved Potato
1 lb. Raw sugar
1 3/4 lb. Tea
3 ½ lb. Coffee
6 oz. butter
2 oz. salt
½ oz. mustard
¼ oz. pepper
1 gill vinegar*
6 oz. lime juice
21 qts. water
“When Fresh Beef is issued, 1 lb. to each Adult per day will be allowed; there will be no Flour, Raisins, Peas, Suet or Vinegar, during the issue of Fresh Meat. 1 lb. of Fresh Potatoes may be substituted for ¼ lb. Preserved Potatoes.”
Third class passengers were given rations and they were expected to prepare their own meals. They were allowed to cook their meal in the galley. The cook supplied hot water for tea, coffee, or drinking purposes.
Thames City 1858
The clipper ship, Thames City, carried 118 Sappers (Royal Engineers), 31 women and 34 children on board. The Thames City had a better voyage (no mutinies and no one in irons) but it was still arduous. This group of Royal Engineers and their families left England on October 10, 1858 and arrived in Esquimalt via Cape Horn on April 12, 1859 after a voyage lasting 187 days. They formed a band and held plays on board. They also brought with them a printing press used to produce a weekly publication, “The Emigrant Soldier’s Gazette and Cape Horn Chronicle” read aloud each Saturday evening.
The final edition of the Gazette included a “Farewell Ditty” that described conditions on board:
Farewell thick biscuits and thin pea soup,
Farewell the suet, grog, and junk,
One was weak, the other stunk.
Farewell to the hen coop, and lonely duck,
Farewell to Longboat Square and muck,
Farewell to Laundry Lane and Galleys,
We’ll cook our grub in glades and valleys…
Farewell to hammocks, farewell to the clews,
Farewell to the would-be Irish stews,
Farewell to the cockroaches and thieving cats,
And a long farewell to those horrible rats.
Note: a “gill” (pronounced jill) is a quarter of a pint. See my post on grog (a mixture of rum and water). “Junk” refers to salt beef or meat. “Clews” are the cords by which hammocks are suspended.
How Mifflin Gibbs made his fortune in gold rush Victoria
Mifflin Gibbs was one of the most successful black merchants in Victoria. Gibbs had a partnership with Peter Lester and their firm ‘Lester & Gibbs’ had everything a miner could want. Some say it was the first provision store in Victoria to rival that of the Hudson’s Bay Company.
Born in Philadelphia in 1823, Gibbs was eight years old when his father Reverend Gibbs died. One of three sons, Gibbs helped out with odd jobs while his mother Maria worked cleaning laundry. When they were teenagers, Mifflin and his brother Jonathan apprenticed as carpenters. Eventually, the brothers became active in the anti-slavery movement; a time which marked the beginning of their political lives.
Mifflin Gibbs
Mifflin Gibbs
In 1850, Mifflin Gibbs went to the gold rush town of San Francisco and found work as a carpenter. Two years later, he entered into partnership with Peter Lester and together they ran the ‘Clay Street Pioneer Shoe & Boot Emporium’. Their business was prosperous but it didn’t take long before anti-black sentiment to take its toll. Discrimination supported by increasingly restrictive immigration policies prompted many members of San Francisco’s black community to leave.
As soon as he heard about the Fraser River gold rush, Gibbs headed north to Victoria.
Gibbs arrived in June, 1858 with provisions including flour, bacon, blankets, picks and shovels. Miners bought everything he had and Gibbs ordered more with the help of Lester who was still in San Francisco. Within a few weeks, Gibbs set up the store of ‘Lester & Gibbs’ in one half of a house; the other half, he rented out for $500 a month.
After a successful year, Gibbs travelled to the eastern United States for a lengthy visit. During that time he married Maria Alexander, who had been a student at Oberlin College in Ohio. The couple returned to Victoria to his five acre lot in the James Bay district. Gibbs became a British subject in 1861.
Life in Victoria was not without its challenges. There was still prejudice against blacks; however, at least they could rely on British law for protection. Determined to change the status quo, Gibbs ran for election as city councillor for the new municipality of Victoria in August 1862. Voting was done by a show of hands in public and the results were very close; Gibbs lost the election by only four votes. Despite this setback, Gibbs continued to be politically engaged and frequently made his points of view known.
After seven years of marriage, his wife left him and returned to the United States with their five children. Meanwhile, Gibbs committed himself to expanding his business interests. In 1864, he ended the partnership with Lester and moved on to earn his living from real estate, construction and mining investments.
In November 1866, Mifflin Gibbs ran again for Victoria city council, representing the district of James Bay where he lived and this time, he won. Re-elected the following term, Gibbs was so preoccupied with a coal mining venture in the Queen Charlotte Islands that his seat was declared vacant.
In 1869, Gibbs returned to the United States where he obtained a law degree and became a judge.
Victoria’s first volunteer fire companies
Selim Franklin had endured substantial losses in the 5th of the ‘Great Fires’ of San Francisco. Six times San Francisco had been torched to the ground by an arsonist. Lives and buildings were destroyed. People lost their savings while gangs looted. So when Franklin set foot on Vancouver Island in 1858 and saw all those wood shanties and tents around Fort Victoria, he shuddered to think of what could happen.
Franklin and a few other businessmen convinced Governor Douglas of the need for volunteer fire companies. They purchased fire engines at a cost of just over $5,000. Volunteers, many of whom had served in the fire brigades in San Francisco, were familiar with these heavy machines, tested them out the day they arrived on July 28, 1858.
early fire engines had to pulled by ropes
It was challenging to keep volunteers in Victoria as many left to go to the mainland to search for gold. Interest was revived in January 1859, however, and officers were appointed for two fire companies, and two cisterns (where water could be stored and used in case of a fire) were built without government help. These cisterns were located on Store Street and on Government Street. Back then it was customary to use gunpowder to blow up buildings to stop fires from spreading. Hooks were used to tear down wooden structures.
The first major fire in Victoria
The first major fire in Victoria occurred on October 18, 1859:
Yesterday morning between four and five o’clock the town was alarmed by the cry of fire. On arriving at the scene of alarm, the flames were bursting from the east end of the large two-story wooden building on the corner of Government and Johnson streets owned by Thos. Pattrick & Co. In a short time it was entirely enveloped in fire, rendering all efforts to save it from destruction futile, and within an hour it was a smouldering ruin.
$8000 worth of liquor stored in the warehouse helped to ignite the flames which burnt one side of the Union Hotel nearby. To prevent the fire from spreading, a house was torn down as well as several small sheds. Three people who had been living in the top floor of the warehouse barely escaped. One threw himself out the window and another managed to get down the stairs just as they collapsed.
The total loss to property was estimated at $13,350. It was believed that the fire was largely stopped by the Marines stationed at James Bay. The fire engine didn’t arrive until later, being under the direction of the police magistrate.
Hook and Ladder
The next day, the Daily Colonist newspaper voiced the opinion that something must be done to set up a permanent fire department. The government was reluctant to spend the money, however, and it was left up to the business community to raise $1,500 for an alarm bell and a hook and ladder rig to be shipped from San Francisco.
On November 22nd, the Union Hook and Ladder Company was formally organized with members given red shirts, black trousers, wide leather belt and cap, similar to the uniforms worn by one of the well known San Francisco fire companies.
the machinery arrived in January, 1860
Contracts went out for a two story building to house a “Hook & Ladder Truck, Fire Engine and Hose Carriage, with Cupola for Alarm Bell.” The first fire hall was built at Bastion and Wharf Streets.
The two original companies were reorganized into the Deluge Engine Company No. 1 and Tiger Engine Company No. 2.
Deluge housed themselves in a rented building on Government between Yates and Johnson, while the Tiger Company leased premises around the corner, on Johnson Street between Government and Broad. Eventually Tiger Company moved into its own hall.
The companies raced each other to the fires and sometimes battled with each other for the sake of being first. Two men with the Tiger Company fell beneath the wheels of their hand-drawn engine while racing to a false alarm. Their injuries were “painful” but apparently not serious.
Membership in all three companies (Tiger, Deluge and Union Hook and Ladder) was limited to about 70. Applicants were carefully screened and voted on by ball ballot (three black balls and the man was “out”). Benefactors were rewarded with honorary memberships.
Political Clout of Volunteer Fire Companies
It wasn’t long before the volunteer fire companies made their mark on the City’s politics. This came as no surprise to some because in the United States, where many had come from, fire companies had a long history of political influence. Many who wanted to enter into politics first started in a volunteer fire company.
During a debate on the Fireman’s Protection Act, Dr. John Sebastian Helmcken said, “There is no doubt but these fire companies will end in political societies but at present they are the most useful organization in the colony.”
Victoria continued to rely on its volunteer fire companies throughout the gold rush years all the way until 1886 when the City established a paid fire department.
Manifest Destiny and Self-government at Hill’s Bar
Down the Fraser River from Fort Yale, deposits of sand and gravel accumulated over the years. In the Halkomelem language this low bank was known amongst the Stó:lō as Hemhemetheqw, meaning a “good place to make sockeye salmon oil.” Californian miners called these low banks ‘bars’ and based on experience, knew they were good places to find gold.
A group of California prospectors started for the ‘New Eldorado’ in March, 1858. Edward Hill was the first goldseeker of his group to stake a claim there and so this low bank was named Hill’s Bar.
In March 1858, James Moore, a friend of Hill, reported that the “whole tribe of Yale Indians moved down from Yale and camped on Hill’s Bar, about three hundred men, women and children, and they also commenced to wash for gold.”
A goldseeker named Furness made $750 in gold dust in four weeks and Hill himself averaged $50 a day.
As more and more people arrived every day, conflicts arose between the Natives and the miners, mostly American.
Before James Douglas had a chance to reach Hill’s Bar at the end of May, 1858, American miners imposed their own self-government. On May 21st, they posted laws regulating mining claims on that bar, according to what they had learned in California.
Manifest Destiny
Many Americans believed that it was their republic’s “Manifest Destiny” to expand its rule over the whole of the North American continent. American expansionists demanded all of the Pacific Slope lying south of the Russian Possessions (Alaska). Within ten years, they were engaged in wars with both Britain and Mexico to achieve their goals.
When the border was settled at the 49th parallel and not at the 54th as they had hoped, expansionists consoled themselves that there was nothing of any value in New Caledonia, the area where the Fraser River lay.
However, as soon as gold was discovered on the Fraser River, once again the slogan of “54-40 or Fight” was raised throughout the land.
When James Douglas came to Fort Yale, he warned the American miners that the Americans in arming themselves and going out against the Indians were guilty of treason.
He also warned the miners that “the Indians of Washington Territory have sent couriers all through the Fraser river territory, calling on the Indians to unite and drive out the whites. In consequence, the Indians heretofore hunting for the Hudson’s Bay Company have applied for early and increased supplies of ammunition, which was refused to them.” The HBC didn’t want to arm the Natives in their conflict against the miners.
Some miners such as Lucius Edelbute, who had been in involved in conflicts with Native peoples in California, thought it would be better for his group to identify themselves as ‘King George Men’ (British) rather than ‘Boston Men’ (Americans) when they came to the Fraser River. With the use of a Chinook jargon dictionary, they were able to talk their way out of a difficult situation when a group of Natives surrounded them and demanded that they return their salmon to the river which they did so immediately.
This poem printed in the Pioneer and Democrat newspaper (Washington) on November 5, 1858 shows that Manifest Destiny was still alive and well.
Frazer River
Now, hurrah, for up the Frazer,
Where the gold is without measure;
Where the bars and banks are gleaming,
And the floods with gold are streaming.
Now hurrah, nor wait for calling,
For the Frazer river’s falling.
Every day the sun is shining,
Men by thousands come here mining,
And, by rocker, pick and shovel,
Swear among the sand and gravel.
Now hurrah, nor wait for calling,
For the Frazer river’s falling.
Tis a rapid, foaming river,
And the heart will often quiver
When canoes go downward, splashing,
Whirling, spinning, leaping, crashing.
Mind your “p’s” don’t make a blunder,
If you do, you’ll go to thunder.
Up above, among the mountains,
Men have found the golden fountains;
Seen where they flow! Oh joy transcendent!
Down, down, in noiseless stream transplendent,
Then, hurrah, and set your riggings—
Sail above, to richer diggings.
When news gets where Buch and Cass is,
Johnny Bull can go where grass is,
He may rave and rant to foaming,
It will never stop our coming.
Then, hurrah, nor wait for papers,
The license men may cut their capers.
Soon our banner will be streaming,
Soon the eagle will be screaming,
And the lion – see it cowers,
Hurrah, boys, the river’s ours.
Then, hurrah, nor wait for calling,
For the Frazer’s river’s falling.
I’ll scrape the mountains clean, my boys,
I’ll drain the rivers dry,
A pocket full of rocks bring home,
So brother don’t you cry,
O’ California, That’s the land for me,
I’m bound for San Francisco with a wash bowl on my knee.
‘Buch and Cass’ refers to U.S. President James Buchanan and Secretary of State Lewis Cass. ‘Johnny Bull’ refers to the people of England
|
<urn:uuid:77062d2a-1dcd-4c7a-98d0-ca15c5ad4f11>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.828125,
"fasttext_score": 0.018421709537506104,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.977532148361206,
"url": "http://bcgoldrushpress.com/category/gold-rush-notes"
}
|
« Back to HOME PAGE
Classic Banjo Resource
A Brief History of the Banjo
Universally acknowledged to be a descendent of instruments brought to America by African slaves, the banjo was primarily associated with that culture until approximately 1840. It was at this point in history that minstrelsy took the nation by storm, with white musicians dressing up in blackface and often oversized clothes, caricaturing black life and music. Minstrel shows usually had a banjo player (in addition to fiddle, tambourine and bones), whose approach to the instrument was usually to strum the strings with the nails of the right hand using a sharp downward motion, creating a somewhat wild, violent sound. This style of banjo playing was referred to as stroke style; and was similar to how slaves are believed to have been playing at the time.
Minstrel Troupe Photo
3 Lady banjoistes photo
The most outspoken leader of this musical movement was Samuel Swain Stewart (1855-1898), an instrument maker and music publisher from Philadelphia. In addition to making some of the finest banjos of the time, Stewart published a great deal of material dedicated to elevating the stature of the banjo in American society. His pulpits were his catalogs, his magazine, Stewart's Banjo and Guitar Journal, and various articles published throughout his lifetime, such as "The Banjo Philosophically, Its Construction, Its Capabilities, Its Evolution, Its Place as a Musical Instrument, Its Possibilities and Its Future."
S. S. Stewart Journal
In Stewart's mind, there was no reason at all why the banjo couldn't be received by musical society with the same respect as the violin or piano. (In his zeal to improve the banjo's status, Stewart, and many others in the industry, even adopted new spellings, such as the singular banjeau or plural banjeaux.) He worked tirelessly to prove that superior music could and should be played on the banjo, and he sponsored the careers of several banjoists of the time (Horace Weston, George Gregory, Alfred A. Farland and Thomas Armstrong, to name a few) who promoted his instruments and ideals. Stewart also insisted that if the banjo was to be taken seriously, its players must know how to read music. Reading from a score helped distance the modern banjo player from the coarse minstrel banjoist, who played strictly by ear.
Brooks, Denton, and Ossman photo
Fraternity Glee Club photo
Back to Top
|
<urn:uuid:a61648bd-1a15-4230-a954-1005428bc8e6>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.84375,
"fasttext_score": 0.029164135456085205,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9754186272621155,
"url": "http://www.classicbanjo.com/history.html"
}
|
All Science Fair Projects
Over 1000 FREE Science Fair Project Ideas!
Influence of color on blood pressureFeatured science projectScience project video
The materials required for the experiment:
• 1 computer
• 10 male and 10 female participants of the same age
• Portable (wrist) blood pressure monitor
1. For this experiment, the independent variable is the color displayed on the computer screen. The dependent variable is the blood pressure of the participating individuals. This is determined by using the portable wrist blood pressure monitor. The constants (control variables) are the rest period in between viewing the monitor and length of time viewing the monitor.
2. The computer is programmed to show screens of blue, red, black, white, green and yellow. You can set this up by using software such as Microsoft Powerpoint.
3. The participants are brought into the room and allowed to relax. All their blood pressure readings are taken and recorded after 30 minutes.
4. The 1st participant is seated in a comfortable chair in front of the computer monitor. The computer screen is set to blue color. The participant is asked to stare at the monitor screen for 3 minutes. After 3 minutes, the participant blood pressure is measured.
5. The 1st participant is allowed to rest for 15 minutes before procedure 2 is repeated with the screen set to red, black, white, green and then yellow. All of the measurements are recorded.
6. Procedure 4 and 5 are repeated with the remaining 19 participants and their blood pressure readings are recorded in the table below.
See our all-time most popular science projects
Search science fair projects Browse science fair projects
popular science fair projects
Complexity level:
Project cost ($):
Time required:
2 hours to prepare, 1 day for observation
Material availability:
Easily found
Safety concerns:
|
<urn:uuid:8247fb15-b639-48e3-ad7c-5f87cefb6d8c>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4,
"fasttext_score": 0.07609766721725464,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8988867998123169,
"url": "http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project1078_134_2.html"
}
|
The Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus)
The kestrel is fully protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, which makes it an offence to kill, injure or take an adult kestrel, or to take, damage or destroy an active nest or its contents.
What does it look like?
Kestrels have a proportionately long tail, which distinguishes them from other falcons, but can sometimes be confused with a sparrowhawk. See the Kestrel Photo Gallery for some amazing photographs.
Where does it live?
Wintering: Found in most habitats, although some upland birds move into lowland areas to avoid colder weather. Many kestrels from north-west Europe winter in the UK (while only very few British birds migrate to the continent for the winter).
When / Where to see it:
What does it eat?
Small mammals and birds. The kestrel is the only raptor in Britain to hunt by persistent hovering. The only other raptor that sometimes hovers is the buzzard.
What does it sound like?
A shrill 'kee-kee-kee'
Rye Meads
Lakenheath Fen
|
<urn:uuid:07df12ef-d5e1-4574-865a-6e7b46764b5b>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.5499695539474487,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.947699785232544,
"url": "http://kestrel.ws/"
}
|
Narrative On The Life Of Fredrick Douglass Chp. 6-10
To what does Frederick attribute the kindness of Mrs. Auld?
She’s never had a slave.
What, according to Frederick, changes her?
Power and realization that education and slavery don’t go together.
Why is Mr. Auld angry when he finds that Mrs. Auld is teaching Frederick his letters?
b/c if blacks learn, they’ll become unmanageable.
Why does the inability to read keep men enslaved according to Frederick and to Mr. Auld?
b/c if you teach them, they’ll be unfit to be a slave, doesn’t benefit the owner, and slaves will want to know more.
What does Frederick hope to gain by learning how to read?
Who teaches Frederick why black men are not taught to read?
Mr. Auld
Why is this lesson so important to him?
b/c he realizes that education & knowledge can get him to freedom.
Why is the life of a city slave so much better than the life of a plantation slave?
City slaves have more freedom, clothes, food, and don’t have to do hard labor on a plantation.
How did Mrs. Auld change and why did she change?
She stopped teaching FD and she became more mean.
What plan did Frederick adopt to learn how to read now that Mrs. Hugh was no longer teaching him?
He befriended white boys & gave them bread for lessons in reading.
What did Frederick learn from the book, The Columbian Orator?
That people fought against slavery; he learned how cruel white people are; he learned about slavery and freedom.
How does Master Auld’s prediction about Frederick and learning come true?
Learning more caused Fredick to want freedom more and more.
What do the two Irishmen encourage him to do?
Run up North, feared they were deceptive & would use him. White men had encouraged slaves to escape just so they could catch them and return to owners for a reward.
How does Fredrick learn to write?
by copying the letters at the shipyard.
How does he trick the white boys into teaching him new letters?
He would tell them he could read and write and they said “I don’t believe you. Let me see it.” . He used this to practice.
Why was Frederick forced to return to the plantation after the death of his master?
He had to be included in the valuation of master’s property so it could be divided equally between son Andrew and daughter Lucreatia because no will left.
How was the value of the master’s property determined? How were the slaves valued?
Slaves were ranked in value w/ animals (horses, sheep & swine).
Why was the division of property between Mistress Lucretia and Master Andrew so horrifying to the slaves?
slaves dreaded Master Andrew (cruel) Fredrick went to Lucretia and she sent him back to Master Hugh Auld
Who owns Frederick by the end of chapter eight?
Master Thomas Auld – who is Master Hugh Auld’s brother
Why is Frederick forced to leave Baltimore?
b/c of an argument between Master Hugh & Master Thomas. Master Thomas took Fredrick.
Why does Frederick now know the date?
He knows how to read now.
Who is Frederick’s new master?
Master Thomas Auld
What rule of slaveholding does Master Thomas Auld violate?
Didn’t give slaves enough food.
How did the slaves get food?
begging and stealing
What, according to Frederick, happens to Master Thomas Auld after his conversion to Christianity? Why?
Be became more cruel, religion supported his slave holding.
Why does Frederick find irony in the fact that the slaves’ Sabbath school is discontinued?
b/c slaves were supposed to learn b/ the class leaders didn’t want to teach slaves to read the New Testament.
What happened to Frederick’s grandmother after the deaths of Lucretia and Andrew?
Turned out to a hut in the woods to live alone and fend for herself.
How does this anecdote help explain the value of slaves? How are slaves valued when compared to livestock? [The ironic comparison of slaves to livestock is a continuous theme of the narrative.]
Livestock treated more humane. Slaves devote their entire life to masters only to be put out and left to die alone when of no use anymore.
1. “At this moment [valuation of the property], I saw more clearly than ever the brutalizing effects of slavery upon both slave and slaveholder.”
Upon returning to his place of birth after about 5 years he could see the negative effect of the harsh treatment the slaves went through and the toll the cruelness ways of the slaveholders took on the masters and overseers.
“The hearth is desolate. The children, the unconscious children, who once sang and danced in her presence, are gone. She gropes her way, in the darkness of age, for a drink of water. Instead of the voices of her children, she hears by day the moans of the dove, and by night the screams of the hideous owl. All is gloom. The grave is at the door.”
Describes how at the end of slaves life they are put out and left to die alone.
Why does Frederick say that “adopted slaveholders are the worst”?
They were cruel but cowardly, at times rigid and at times lax, never knew what to expect which was worse than knowing what was coming.
Why does Frederick let Master Thomas’s horse run away?
Horse would go five miles to father in lasw’s farm and he would use it to go there so he could get something to eat.
Again, Frederick compares the treatment of slaves to the treatment of horses. How?
Horses had better living conditions, more food than slaves.
How does Master Thomas propose to ‘break’ Frederick?
Sends him to Edward Covey, a known first rate overseer, for a year to be broken
Why was Mr. Covey’s reputation for breaking slaves of great value to him?
Enabled him to get his farm work done with less expense.
1. “He would quote this passage of Scripture—’He that knoweth his master’s will, and doeth it not, shall be beaten with many stripes.'”
Slaveholders used scripture and religion as a cover or excuse for the way that they treated the slaves. Do what I say and those who don’t shall be whipped.
. “He resolved to put me out, as he said, to be broken.”
Master Thomas Auld send Fredrick to Edward Covey for a year because he has a reputation of breaking a slaves spirit or will.
Master Thomas was one of the many pious slaveholders who hold slaves for the very charitable purpose of taking care of them.”
Master Thomas was a hypocrite pretending to be a religious man while enslaving black people.
How a man is made a slave; a slave made a man.
man made slave by inhumane treatment and no education. Slave made a man when learns to read and stands up for himself
Why does Mr. Covey whip Frederick?
Fredrick takes to long and breaks a gate trying to complete a task of retrieving wood with team of ox which he is unfamiliar with
Why are the slaves so fearful of Mr. Covey? Why does their work go on in his absence? What does Frederick mean by “Mr. Covey’s forte consisted in his power to deceive”?
Because he was sneaky and would pretend to leave but come back and crawl on hands and knees to surprise the slaves just to keep them on their toes. They never knew where he might be. Slaves called him “snake”
Why does Mr. Covey buy a slave to use as a breeder?
So he can get her pregnant and her babies would add to his wealth.
Why does he hire Mr. Samuel Harrison, a married man? What irony does Frederick find in this? He has him hook up with his slave Caroline to get her pregnant. Irony is he hires Mr. Harrison, a married man to commit adultery to get slave pregnant so he can enslave the children to add to his wealth.
He has him come every night to spend time with slave Caroline (breeder) to get her pregnant. Irony is he hires Mr. Harrison, a married man to commit adultery to get slave pregnant so he can enslave the children to add to his wealth.
How does Mr. Covey succeed in breaking Frederick?
by breaking his spirit and will to learn to read, escape, or live.
Why does Frederick go to Master Thomas Auld?
After falling ill and collapsing in the fields, Edward Covey hits him in the head and demands he get back up. He escapes to Master Thomas to show him the cruel treatment in hopes to appeal to his good heart and allow him to stay
Why does he return to Covey? Who convinces him to do so? What does Sandy Jenkins suggest that Frederick do?
Master Thomas Auld told him to go back. Alond the way he meets up with Sandy Jenkins who also convinces him to return but to first go with him in the woods to get a piece of root which is tied to his right side to protect him from ever being beat again
How does Frederick win the fight with Mr. Covey?
Frederick does not back down and grabs Covey by the throat and fights off the others. Believes the root may have protected him.
Why does Frederick contend that Mr. Covey does not turn him in?
He did not want to mess up his reputation as a first rate overseer
Why is Frederick’s battle with Mr. Covey “the turning-point in my career as a slave”?
Rekindled his desire for freedom and revived a sense of manhood.
How are the holidays used to “disgust the slave with freedom”?
Between Christmas and New Years slaves not required to perform labor other than feeding and caring for livestock. They are expected to indulge and drink heavily which makes them feel really bad thus relating a sick feeling with privileges of freedom.
Where does Frederick go after leaving Mr. Covey’s on January 1, 1834?
Three miles from St. Michaels
Who is his new master, and how does he treat Frederick?
William Freeland. He treated him better. Open and frank, not sneaky or religious.
Why does Frederick include the anecdotes about the two religious slave holders Mr.
Hopkins and Mr.Weeden? What point is he attempting to make?
That religion in the South was used as a cover for the crimes and horrible treatment done against slaves. Religious slaveholders were the worst.
Why and where does Frederick begin a Sabbath school? Why is it essential that the slaves tell no one about it?
Held it at a free slaves house. So the slaveholders would not know they were trying to learn how to read the will of God.
What would the slaveholders like the slaves to do on the Sabbath? Why is this ironic?
They had much rather see us engaged in those degrading sports, and drinking than to see us behaving like intellectual, moral, and accountable beings.
Why does Frederick decide to include the slaves in his Sabbath school in his plans to obtain his freedom? Why is this dangerous?
They were dear to him and he could not bear leaving them. Dangerous if anyone told or escape plan was found out they could all be punished.
Frederick makes the point that many slaves would “rather bear those ills we had, than fly to others, that we knew not of.” How does this help explain why so few slaves escaped?
The slaves at least knew what to expect if stayed where they were but leaving to escape to the North would bring unknown dangers and the fear of being caught and treated much worse was hard to overcome.
What is the purpose of the “protections” written by Frederick?
Any one having a white face, and being so disposed, could stop us, and subject us to examination so he wrote them for protections which were notes given them permission to go somewhere by master.
What happens to their plan, and how do the “protections” nearly cause their deaths?
Someone betrayed them and they were taken to jail to be examined. If they were found with the protection letters it would have been proof to convict them for trying to escape
What happens to each of the slaves who attempted to run away?
All were returned to Freeland home except Fredrick, as he was the whole cause of the intention of the others to run away, it was hard to make the innocent suffer with the guilty; and that they had, therefore, concluded to take the others home, and sell me, as a warning to the others that remained
When Frederick returns to Baltimore, what does he do?
lives again with Master Hugh, and to learn a trade
Frederick again decides to fight when he is attacked. What happens to him? What does Master Hugh attempt to do for Frederick?
He escaped to Master Hugh’s house and with bloody face told his story. Master Hugh refused to let him go back again to Mr. Gardner. He kept me himself, and his wife dressed his wound till restored to health. He then took me into the ship-yard of which he was foreman, in the employment of Mr. Walter Price.
What must Frederick do with the wages he earns each week as a caulker? Why?
Had to give it to Master Hugh because he had the power to compel him to give it up.
1. “Mr. Covey succeeded in breaking me. I was broken in body, soul, and spirit. My natural elasticity was crushed, my intellect languished, the disposition to read departed, the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye died; the dark night of slavery closed in upon me; and behold a man transformed into a brute!”
Meaning that Mr. Covey succeeded in breaking his will to want to be free. He lost any interest in learning to read or escape or live.
“Those beautiful [sailing] vessels, robed in purest white, so delightful to the eye of freemen, were to me so many shrouded ghosts, to terrify and torment me with thought of my wretched condition.”
Seeing the ships going in and out of the bay tormented him and reminded him of his horrible life as a slave.
Fredrick is talking about how his time with Covey was a low point in his life and then presents his fight with Covey as the turning point in his life.
“He only can understand the deep satisfaction which I experienced, who has himself repelled by force the bloody arm of slavery.”
only a slave who has been able to defend himself could understand the satisfaction of the experience.
“I assert most unhesitatingly, that the religion of the south is a mere covering for the most horrid crimes,-a justifier of the most appalling barbarity,-a sanctifier of the most hateful frauds,-and a dark shelter under, which the darkest, foulest, grossest, and most infernal deeds of slaveholders find the strongest protection.”
slaveholders of the south were hypocrites and used religion to justify whipping and mistreating the slave.
6. “In coming to a fixed determination to run away, we did more than Patrick Henry, when he resolved upon liberty or death. With us it was a doubtful liberty at most, and almost certain death if we failed.”
Douglass suggests that his own bravery and that of his fellow slaves is more impressive than Henry’s. Also suggest slavery is worse than death.
each time his living conditions improved it did not make him content it only made his desire to be free increase. Realizes the truth in keeping slaves ignorant to keep them from becoming unmanageable.
|
<urn:uuid:3d895919-2606-4b0e-ae6f-ab78511b8305>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.78125,
"fasttext_score": 0.9940709471702576,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9795754551887512,
"url": "https://studyhippo.com/narrative-on-the-life-of-fredrick-douglass-chp-6-10/"
}
|
Changing the Value of a property
To change the value of a property, follow the property name with an equal sign and a valid value for the property. For example, the Visible property of a control can be True (Yes) or False (No). For example, the following statement makes invisible a control named myButton by setting its Visible property to False (No):
Forms!myForm!myButton.Visible = False
To make that same control visible again from VBA, set its Visible property back to True (Yes), as follows:
Forms!myForm!myButton.Visible = True
To refer to specific objects in a database, VBA uses the same identifier syntax used in Access expressions. An identifier can use two different characters as delimiters (separators) between words: either an exclamation point (!) or a period (.). Programmer lingo for these characters is bang and dot, respectively. The rules for using them are as follows:
i! (bang): Use the bang character to precede any name you made up yourself, such as the name of a form you created or the name of a control you created on the form.
i. (dot): Use a dot to precede a property name or any "official" name that you didn't make up yourself.
For example, in Forms!myForm!myButton. Visible, both myForm and myButton are names that I made up. I did so while creating those objects in Access. Those two names are both preceded by a bang (!) character because they're both names I made up.
The final name in the identifier, Visible, is a reference to the object's Visible property. I didn't make up the name Visible myself: Rather, that's Access's name for the property, as you can see in the Properties sheet in Figure 5-6. Because Visible is an "official" property name, its name is preceded with a dot (.) rather than a bang (! ).
For more information on identifiers, your best bet is to consult an Access book (as opposed to an Access VBA book, like this one). Or you can just search Access's Help (not VBA's Help) for identifier.
0 0
Post a comment
|
<urn:uuid:1171d75f-9d7a-4d44-b488-6bdcc546574e>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.17348915338516235,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9113417267799377,
"url": "https://www.engram9.info/access-vba-programming/changing-the-value-of-a-property.html"
}
|
Digestive System of the Canvasback Duck
The digestive system in the duck is more specialized than in the Copperhead for example. The duck lacks teeth, and the bottom of its mouth is not firm so it can flex out somewhat to allow the duck to take in and sift through water to obtain food particles. Food is moved into the esophagus, which in most birds including the duck leads into a specialized expansion of the esophagus known as the crop, which aids in the temporary storage of food. From the esophagus, the food enters into a thin-walled structure of the glandular section of the stomach called the proventriculus. The proventriculus connects to the ventriculus, which is known as the gizzard. The gizzard leads into the small intestine. The pancreas is located on the small intestine. The small intestine leads into the large intestine, which leads into the rectum, then the colon. The colon empties into the cloaca, thru which waste products are excreted. The gallbladder is located within the lobes of the liver, as opposed to being more exposed in the Copperhead Snake (Kardong 2002).
Different color text denotes system.
The Stomach of the Duck
The stomach of the Canvasback duck has similar regions (the fundus and pylorus) to that of reptiles such as snakes. However, the duck has an extra region of the stomach that is more specialized for its diet, known as the gizzard that the snake and many other taxa do not have. Due to the reduction or lack of teeth in many Aves, the gizzard functions in the mechanical breakdown of food, which is usually done by the teeth of other taxa. The extremely thick muscles of the gizzard grind large food particles against intentionally swallowed stones. This aids in the breakdown of cellulose walls in the diet of animals that consume large amounts of plant material. Gizzard stones similar to those found in the bird gizzard have been found in fossils of some dinosaurs, suggesting that a specialized gizzard structure might have been present in some large herbivorous dinosaurs. A gizzard is also present in crocodiles and alligators (Kardong 2002).
Duck Page Home
Atlas Home
|
<urn:uuid:0fb73c2b-87c2-470f-b4c8-cd9126ed8640>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.953125,
"fasttext_score": 0.09260833263397217,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9459274411201477,
"url": "http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/tderting/cva_atlases/canduck/digestsysduck.htm"
}
|
Number Sentences
Students guess the number of beans in the jar. After students have guessed, the teacher count what appears to be half of the beans in the jar. After half of the beans have been counted, students be given a chance to change their estimation.
3 Views 0 Downloads
Resource Details
K - 1st
1 more...
Resource Type
Lesson Plans
Usage Permissions
Fine Print
|
<urn:uuid:ca3a5c1d-8e7e-4006-b2fc-79d20e0ed3e0>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.10757839679718018,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8655819296836853,
"url": "https://www.lessonplanet.com/teachers/number-sentences"
}
|
Previous page Page 0 of 0
Index | History | Highlights | WhatWhenWhere
Bookmark and Share
Oil and tempera: 15th century
For the powdered grains of a coloured pigment to stick to a ground, such as a wood panel, they must be suspended in a liquid - known as a binder, or binding agent. In the painting of panels in Italy this substance has usually been yoke of egg (referred to as tempera when mixed with pigment).
In northern Europe, from about the 13th century, vegetable oil has also been used for the purpose - usually the oil of linseed, walnut or poppy. The main difference is that tempera, when it dries, is matt and opaque. But oil dries in a hard transparent skin, enabling colours applied earlier to glow through thinner surface layers known as 'glazes'.
In the work of master painters such as Campin, van Eyck or van der Weyden, it is oil paint which makes possible their subtle and detailed realism, capturing the play of light on the familiar surfaces of everyday objects.
Somewhere around 1460 Italian artists begin to adopt the northern technique, and by the next century it has virtually supplanted tempera. There are frequent links between Italy and Flanders, both in commerce and in art (from Arnolfini in the 1430s to Portinari in the 1470s), so there are many occasions for the technique of oil to spread. The story told by Vasari, that it is brought to Italy by Antonello da Messina, is unlikely to be true - though Antonello's use of it does impress Venice.
Previous page Page 0 of 0
Up to top of page OIL AND TEMPERA
|
<urn:uuid:d8c8ad60-521f-4c88-a79b-90fa478d59bf>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.04807174205780029,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9535229206085205,
"url": "http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistoriesB.asp?historyid=185"
}
|
Want more Spanish etymologies? Let us know!
The Nerdy Way To Learn: Spanish » Patterns »
Otoño and Autumn
Both come from the Latin for the same, Autumnus. But Latin words with an m‑n sound usually became an ñ sound in Spanish. Think of damn and daño, for example. So the a‑t-m‑n of autumn maps to the o‑t-ñ of otoño!
Hervir and Fervor
Fervor is really just an intense passion heating up. Thus we shouldn’t be surprised that it comes from the Latin root fervere (“to boil”), from which we get the Spanish for the same (“to boil”), hervir.
The seemingly unrelated words are connected through the common transformation of Latin words beginning with an f- into an h- in Spanish, such as fig and higo, and fable and hablar.
Thus, the f‑r-v of fervor maps to the h‑r-v of hervir.
Rehusar — Refuse
The Spanish rehusar — literally, “refuse” — sounds odd to English ears: it’s the same word, but the ‑f- became an ‑h-. Huh?
This is explained via the pattern of Latin words that began with an f- tended to turn into an h- in Spanish and only in Spanish. See famine/hambre, and huir/fugitive for example.
Refuse and Rehusar follow the same pattern. Both come from the Latin refundere — from which we also get the English, refund. They are all ways of giving back.
This f‑to‑h pattern usually happens with the first letter of the word. But here it is the first letter of the second syllable — because the re- is of course the standard prefix so it didn’t effect the sound pattern change.
Pecho and Pectoral Girdle
The Spanish for “chest”, pecho, sounds completely different than the English chest.
But it is related to the English word for the chest bones: the Pectoral Girdle.
The relationship is the Latin ‑ct- words transforming into ‑ch- as Latin turned into Spanish. Thus, the pect- maps to pech- exactly. The English word, on the other hand, is taken — unchanged — directly from the Latin.
Also from the same root, in Spanish, es pechuga — the common word for the common food, “chicken breast”!
The same pattern we see in noche/nocturnal, leche/lactose, etc.
Jabón — Soap
How can such different words be so related? Easy: the Latin s- sound and its variations (sh‑, ch- and sy- for example) usually became, under the arabic influence, a j- sound in Spanish but remained more intact in English.
Thus, the s‑p of soap maps almost exactly to the j‑b of jabón. The “p” and “b” are often easily interchanged as well.
Hat Tip 🎩 to The Marketing Scientist
|
<urn:uuid:d2cfb40f-956c-4868-916c-0f79d2c5411a>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.31840091943740845,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9082563519477844,
"url": "https://spanishetymology.com/spanish/patterns/"
}
|
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bladder-Wort
From Wikisource
Jump to navigation Jump to search
BLADDER-WORT, the name given to a submerged water plant, Utricularia vulgaris, with finely divided leaves upon which are borne small bladders provided with trap-door entrances which open only inwards. Small crustaceans and other aquatic animals push their way into the bladders and are unable to escape. The products of the decay of the organisms thus captured are absorbed into the plant by star-shaped hairs which line the interior of the bladder. In this way the plant is supplied with nitrogenous food from the animal kingdom. Bladder-wort bears small, yellow, two-lipped flowers on a stem which rises above the surface of the water. It is found in pools and ditches in the British Isles, and is widely distributed in the north temperate zone. The genus contains about two hundred species in tropical and temperate regions.
EB1911 Bladder-wort.jpg
A, Bladder of Utricularia neglecta (after Darwin), enlarged.
B, stellate hairs from interior of bladder of U. vulgaris.
|
<urn:uuid:e43238d6-226a-4f58-80a1-b3942b1dfa8f>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.035692811012268066,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9197766184806824,
"url": "https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Bladder-Wort"
}
|
Julius' Object
The reverse cover of Julius's diary, which was printed with a map of Poland. Note the faint hand-drawn arrows, which appear to suggest the path of the German invasion.
Julius kept a diary recording the horrifying events he and those around him were forced to endure from 1939 to 1943, and it provides unique insight into how terrifying and isolating life was for Polish Jews during the Holocaust. It chronicals his time in both the Kraków ghetto, and Płaszów concentration camp.
He starts to write the diary at the point of his life where he’s losing those around him, and his despair is evident: “All at once I had lost everyone, everyone who was dear to me, and only later did I understand this. How difficult it was to get used to my emptiness and loneliness.”
The diary goes on to reveal how horrendous conditions were at Płaszów. On 9 April 1943,
he writes: “Yesterday we witnessed a hanging and our clothes were painted in yellow stripes to make any kind of escape impossible.”
The simple fact that he kept a diary shows how brave Julius was, as by recording events he was risking his life. The act of writing a diary was Julius resisting in his own way, trying to survive, and attempting to desperately hold onto his identity.
Click on the different pages to reveal Julius’ words. What can a few sentences reveal to us about Julius’ experience?
Julius’s diary was found hidden in a wall at Płaszów concentration camp once the war had ended.
It ends mid-sentence on 11 April 1943.
Diary and ID card are on display at The National Holocaust Centre and Museum, Laxton, Nottinghamshire.
|
<urn:uuid:79dda55a-d364-41da-9d40-92585360f93f>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.0861893892288208,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9864807724952698,
"url": "https://ooej.org/julius-object/"
}
|
Readers ask: How To Draw A Mouse Step By Step For Kids?
How to Draw a Mouse
Students should pay attention to the size of their mouse’s eyes; larger, rounder eyes are always more endearing than small, squinty ones. This example is more like a Deer Mouse, with a white belly, but it would work for any gray mouse.
Add an eye, nose, and whiskers. Draw a hip line and one arm. Add another arm and feet. Trace with marker and color. Add a tail curling around below.
How do you draw a mouse step by step?
Mice eat everything.
1. Step 1: Begin by drawing the nose and head. Step 2: Draw the underbelly. Step 3: Complete the nose. Step 4: Draw the rest of the body. Step 5: Draw the feet. Step 6: Draw the Mouse’s Tail. Step 7: Finish the drawing by drawing the ears and eyes.
How hard is it to draw with a mouse?
Drawing with a mouse is possible, but it’s difficult, time-consuming, and frustrating; whereas Photoshop (and every other raster drawing software) prefers tablet users, Illustrator doesn’t mind.
What animal eats a mouse?
Cats, foxes, weasels, ferrets, mongooses, large lizards, snakes, hawks, falcons, and owls are among the small predators that eat house mice around the world.
Leave a Reply
|
<urn:uuid:a88926b3-6efa-42c5-b907-3e6bb1d7e9bd>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.27948474884033203,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9139869809150696,
"url": "https://pdhdrawings.com/draw-people/readers-ask-how-to-draw-a-mouse-step-by-step-for-kids.html"
}
|
Florida Bay
Florida Bay is a vitally important body of water in Florida. It’s located south of the Florida Everglades and Everglades National Park.
On the west, Florida Bay is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico. To the East and south, it is bordered by Islamorada and the Florida Keys.
Florida Bay covers more than 1,100 square miles (2,850 km). Almost all of Florida Bay is contained within Everglades National Park.
How Deep is Florida Bay?
The Florida Bay is very shallow and consists of a series of shallow, partially connected basins. The bay sits upon a shallow shelf which is part of the Florida Plateau.
The area is filled with mangrove forests, large fields of seagrass, sandbars and mudbanks, which constrict water flow.
Why is Florida Bay Important?
Florida Bay is a critical ecosystem, and is important for many reasons.
The South Florida ecosystem supports an immensely diverse population of native wildlife, including important, rare and endangered species. The South Florida ecosystem is home to manatees, American crocodiles, American alligators, sea turtles and countless other species.
Florida Bay also supports important economic interests, including tourism, fishing, agriculture and other interests.
Like all of Florida’s waterways, Florida Bay is constantly under attack from many directions.
In recent decades vast quantities of water have been diverted because of development, commercial and industrial interests. In the past 100 years, the volume of fresh water flowing through the Florida Everglades has been reduced by approximately 50%.
As water flows have diminished, many environmental problems have arisen, like hypersalinity and seagrass die-offs.
Florida Bay Research
Extensive research is ongoing in Florida Bay and the South Florida Ecosystem.
Among other areas of interest, the Florida Bay area is monitored to understand important environmental questions:
• The impact of various environmental factors on Florida Bay: storms, climate change, changes to freshwater flows, changes to the water cycle, evaporation and precipitation.
• The effects of changes in nutrient concentration, oxygenation, nitrogen levels and other factors.
• The cause, severity and impact of harmful algae blooms, and the dynamic interplay between other conflating factors.
• The interplay between native wildlife species and environmental factors.
Continue Reading: Everglades
Florida Bay Depth
Florida Bay is generally very shallow.
The Bay consists of a series of bowls and basins, which are separated by sandbars, shoals, banks, islands and shallow areas which can be only a few inches deep.
To travel from one basin to another, boaters must navigate through complex paths and channels of deeper water.
Many of these paths are only inches deep, and are all exceptionally difficult to navigate. This is especially true during the winter dry season, when water levels are even lower.
It is very easy to accidentally run aground, or cause damage to the shallow seabed.
Many areas are inaccessible at low tide, or even during high tide. The area is a maze of shallow water obstructions.
Experienced boaters often use clues in the water to assess water depth. Helpful signs include wading birds, trees, mangroves, markers, and the water’s color.
In general, blue and green water is deeper, and brown water is shallower.
Deep and shallow water are also affected by wind and currents in different ways, so a trained eye may be able to identify shallow water by those methods.
For example, in choppy conditions, shallow water may appear more calm than surrounding water.
Polarized sunglasses and lenses can be helpful for identifying shallow water.
If you’re not sure whether you can or should approach or enter an area, don’t. It’s best to avoid it altogether.
In some areas, manual, human propulsion is advised. In shallow water, manual push-poles can prevent damage to vessels, the environment and prevent wildlife trauma.
Boaters should be exceptionally careful not to run aground, as it can damage both their vessel and the sensitive underlying seafloor and seagrass. Boaters should use proper motor and propeller trim at all times.
If your propeller wash is white, that is generally a good sign, and indicates that your propeller is not damaging the sea floor.
Brown propeller wash indicates that your trim is set too low. The brown color occurs because the propeller is disturbing the underlying seabed, and blasting it with a powerful stream of water.
If you find vegetation in your propeller wash, it is a serious problem. It means that you are actively damaging the seafloor vegetation, sea grass, and organisms that live on the seafloor.
Continue Reading: Algae Blooms in Florida
Florida Bay Islands
Florida Bay is filled with thousands of sandbars and small islands. Because of the high number, it is one of the largest collections of islands in Florida. Most other islands in Florida are larger barrier islands.
Islands in Florida Bay often sit just above the water. They are one of the only sources of dry land, and provide important habitats to animals, plants and trees.
These dry islands are especially important for indigenous trees in Florida. Mangrove trees and other native vegetation help provide important root structures, and help prevent soil erosion during flooding.
Native Wildlife
Florida Bay, and the Everglades, are unique and important habitats.
These ecosystems are home to a high concentration of Florida’s native wildlife, including endangered species like the Florida Panther, American Crocodile, and many others.
Florida Bay is one of the only places in the U.S. where fishermen can catch bonefish, tarpon, snook, redfish, and other species in one place.
It also provides an essential habitat for a variety of birds, including migratory birds and endangered species.
Florida Bay, and the Florida Everglades, are also one of the only places where alligators and crocodiles coexist together.
Florida Bay has some of the largest sea grass beds in the entire United States. Seagrass plays an important part in the Florida Bay ecosystem in a variety of ways:
• Seagrass leaves help trap sediment in the water and reduce turbidity.
• Seagrass root structures help prevent erosion and stabilize seabeds.
• Seagrass provides shelter and protection for marine life, including fish, crustacean and shellfish.
Seagrasses also form the base of the food chain, which sustains many other forms of life, including manatees.
Manatees, sea turtles and other species rely on seagrass for their primary food source. Dolphins and birds use sea grass areas as productive feeding grounds. Seagrass can also provide a base for algae and small organisms to live on.
Several types of seagrass are found in Florida waters:
• Turtle grass
• Shoal grass
• Manatee grass
• Widgeon grass
Mangroves are essential to Florida Bay, the Florida Everglades, and all of Florida.
The mangroves serve a variety of important functions. Just to name a few:
• Root structures provide cover and habitat for marine organisms and juvenile fish
• Mangroves absorb wind and wave energy, and reduce the effects of storm surge
• Root structures help prevent erosion
Continue Reading: Why do the Florida Keys Smell Like Sulfur?
Everglades Weather and Seasons
The Florida Everglades are affected by two seasons: wet and dry seasons.
Rainy Season
The wet season lasts from April to November, when hot and humid conditions produce large amounts of rainfall.
The wet season brings many bugs, mosquitoes, heat, and humidity. During the wet season the area is often affected by hurricanes, which dump large amounts of rain on the region.
There are also afternoon storms, which occur almost daily. These storms also dump large amounts of rain onto the Everglades and surrounding watershed.
Large amounts of fresh water are important to help maintain stable and healthy salinity levels in Florida Bay, among other things.
Dry Season
The dry season lasts from November to March.
During the dry season, Florida receives much less rain, and humidity levels are relatively lower than during the wet rainy season.
Bug and mosquito activity are lower. Water levels in the Florida Everglades and Florida Bay are lower during the dry season. This makes boat access more difficult.
The Florida Everglades National Park is one of eleven national parks, preserves and monuments in Florida.
There are three national parks in Florida. They are all located in south Florida.
• Dry Tortugas National Park
• Florida Everglades National Park
• Biscayne National Park
Everglades National Park
The Florida Everglades, and Everglades National Park, cover a large area; they cover more than 1.5 million acres, and form a large part of the Florida Peninsula.
Most of the Everglades ecosystem is not accessible to visitors.
The northern section of the park can be accessed via Miami from the east, or Everglades City on the western portion of the park.
The southern section of the park is accessible via Homestead.
Additional Resources
Florida Sea Grant
Florida Fish and Wildlife
Florida Keys National Wildlife Preserve
Everglades National Park
University of Florida
Florida Museum
Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD)
Cover Image courtesy of Florida FWC, CC2.0
|
<urn:uuid:05c3db89-46d1-4c9e-8af6-ff65772c29ce>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.02023845911026001,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9277656078338623,
"url": "https://www.florida-guidebook.com/florida-bay/"
}
|
Of the nearly 30 alder species in the world, four are native to Alaska. The American green Alder, Sitka Alder, Red Alder, and Thinleaf Alder are very important to our ecosystem. Known as pioneering species for their inclination to grow in recently deglaciated terrain, rocky hillsides, and other recently deforested or flooded areas, the mostly deciduous Alders are widespread throughout Alaska. Alders work together with a nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil to sequester both nitrogen and carbon from the atmoshphere which is then deposited in the soil in a process that enriches weak or damaged soils and eventually allows other species to estabish in the same areas.
Explore Further
|
<urn:uuid:1d9bc8ac-2682-4f0e-8a4c-ea2b2e99a4f5>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.6875,
"fasttext_score": 0.04394763708114624,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9443523287773132,
"url": "https://www.alaska.org/advice/alder"
}
|
Anthrax is an infectious soil-borne disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, a relatively large spore-forming bacteria that can infect mammals.Anthrax is primarily a disease of herbivores, particularly bison and beef cattle. The bacteria produce extremely potent toxins which are responsible for the ill effects, causing a high mortality rate. In the United States, annual vaccination of livestock is recommended in areas where there have been animals with anthrax in the past. Explain. How do animals get infected with anthrax? Treatment. Read the article to get the full understanding of how this pervasive virus changes the components of the blood to achieve this: ** ANTHRAX ** Synonyms : Splenic fever, Milzbrand , Charbon, Wool sorterâs disease,Tarka. Animals such as cattle, sheep, goats and bison are âhighly susceptibleâ to anthrax, Saskatchewanâs Ministry of Agriculture warned Thursday. Anthrax most commonly occurs in wild and domestic animals like cattle, sheep, goats, camels and antelopes. Anthrax occurs naturally in certain wild and domestic animals (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, camels, etc. Inhalation, skin exposure, or gastrointestinal absorption. Cattle and other grazing animals are constantly disturbing the soil as they eat, dispersing anthrax in the immediate area of their noses. There are four types of anthrax: cutaneous, inhalation, gastrointestinal, and injection. Animals There are three main routes of anthrax infection: skin (cutaneous), lung (inhalation), and mouth (gastrointestinal). Birds usually are naturally resistant to anthrax. Humans can contract this disease from infected animals. Anthrax most commonly occurs in animals such as pigs, cattle, horses, and goats, but it can also infect people. Anthrax is a rare and potentially fatal bacterial disease. Anthrax antitoxins include obiltoxaximab (Anthim) or raxibacumab (ABthrax) to help treat inhaled anthrax. Anthrax is an infection caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax is an infectious disease thatâs caused by bacteria. Anthrax does to prevail in the urban areas. Anthrax type of toxins. It can occur in four forms: skin, lungs, intestinal, and injection. Anthrax is a disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, a bacterium that has the ability to form spores; spores are cells that are essentially dormant (asleep) but may become active under certain conditions. It can occur in four forms: skin, lungs, intestinal, and injection. Anthrax is an infection by bacteria, Bacillus anthracis, usually transmitted from animals. The anthrax bacteria are very hardy and can live in the environment for a long time in the spore form of the bacteria. Now, Why Are Hyperbaric Chambers Effective In Treating Gas Gangrene? Story ⦠Try To Recall The Characteristics Of The Said Bacteria. Probably not. The infectious agent is Bacillus anthracis, a bacterium that most commonly occurs in wild and domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, horses and deer.Bacillus anthracis bacteria form spores, which are tough shells that help the microbes survive unsuitable conditions. Anthrax is a disease that should be reported to the state veterinarian. Cutaneous anthrax occurs when anthrax spores enter the body through a cut or scrape on the skin. Anthrax is an infectious disease caused by spores of the bacterium, Bacillus anthracis. Symptom onset occurs between one day to over two months after the infection is contracted. Anthrax disease can take 3 forms: Involving the skin (cutaneous) â 20% mortality ; Involving the lungs (inhalational) â 90% mortality Domestic and wild animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, antelope, and deer can become infected when they breathe in or ingest spores in contaminated soil, plants, or water. It is the most common type of anthrax infection. It is primarily a disease of grazing animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. The spores tend to clump together, so even if inhaled, they do not get deep into the lungs. More.. Question: Do You Remember The Mode Of Transmission Of Bacillus Anthracis? Anyone can get anthrax, but it is a rare disease in the United States. 6) If anthrax is suspected, do not necropsy the animal but aseptically collect a blood sample for culture. Anthrax in People. Anthrax infections are rare in humans.. On this page: Only where there is more livestock and animals are allowed in herds to move freely the prevalence of anthrax is more. whitewash or other calcium products) is contraindicated for use as a disinfectant for anthrax-contaminated sites. No. Anthrax, a highly infectious and fatal disease of mammals and humans, is caused by a relatively large spore-forming rectangular shaped bacterium called Bacillus anthracis.Most outbreaks occur in areas where animals have previous died of anthrax, as the spores remain viable for decades. Anthrax is caused by exposure to the spores of the bacteria Bacillus anthracis that become entrenched in the host body and produce lethal poisons. Overview. You can come into contact with anthrax through animals or biological weapons. Avoid contamination of the area. ; Anthrax causes skin, lung, and bowel disease and can be deadly. The Anthrax is more common in developing countries and countries that do not have veterinary public health programs that provide vaccination against anthrax for animals in a systematic way. Provincial legislation, however, may supersede this recommendation. ANTHRAX. Infection with anthrax is deadly, but it isn't the bacteria themselves that kill. While most mammals are susceptible, anthrax is typically a disease of ruminants and humans. Rather, the toxins the bacteria produce damage human cells. Anthrax as a weapon. Therefore, where possible, avoid using these products as a disinfectant for anthrax sites, carcasses, or materials. 5) Do not sell the hides of animals exposed to anthrax or use their carcasses as food or feed supplements (i.e., as bone or blood meal). Although the disease appears to have been recognized for centuries, it has yet to be established scientifically how animals contract it. Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria known as Bacillus anthracis. A. Anthrax is a disease caused by a bacterium called Bacillus anthracis. How do people get anthrax? Most cases of anthrax occur during hot and dry summers that have followed a wet spring. It is rare to find infected animals in the United States. Current research indicates that the use of lime (e.g. Anthrax Vaccine People also can become infected with gastrointestinal anthrax by eating undercooked meat from infected animals. Actually this seems to be the most common occurance of this bacteria. Although it is rare, people can get sick with anthrax if they come in contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products. Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by the sporeforming bacterium Bacillus anthracis.Anthrax is most common in wild and domestic herbivores (eg, cattle, sheep, goats, camels, antelopes) but can also be seen in people exposed to tissue from infected animals, to contaminated animal products, or directly to B anthracis spores under certain conditions. How do people get anthrax? Protective antigen (PA) (factor II) Edema factor (EF) (factor I) Lethal factor (LF) (factor III)
2020 how do animals get anthrax
|
<urn:uuid:933d802d-2dc3-4cf0-9023-3feca16dc759>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.9361607432365417,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9273161888122559,
"url": "http://uticaharborpoint.org/yfbqz4/archive.php?5cfab6=how-do-animals-get-anthrax"
}
|
Dermatologists and Skin Care Data Verified
Scabies, a Very Common Skin Infestation (Itchy Condition Of The Skin)
Published on Oct 01, 2015 and last reviewed on Oct 10, 2022 - 7 min read
This article educates patients and others about the symptoms, types, prevention, home remedies, and treatment of scabies.
What Are Scabies?
Scabies is an itchy condition of the skin seen in human beings caused by a tiny organism, with itching of various grades getting more intense in the late evenings and night. It is infectious and close contact is the most typical mode by which it spreads from one person to another.
What Are the Types of Scabies?
Scabies is caused by a mite called Sarcoptes scabiei. Only this mite is responsible for the scabies infection, but it causes three different types of scabies infection.
The following are the types of scabies infection:
Typical Scabies:
It is characterized by itching and rashes on the skin of the hands, legs, wrist, and other usual places. Scalp and face are not affected in this type.
Nodular Scabies:
In the genital areas, groin, and armpits, there is the formation of bumps or lumps in this type of scabies.
Norwegian Scabies:
Also called crusted scabies, it is manifested by crusted lesions on the skin. These crusted lesions harbor many mites and their eggs and, therefore, are a severe and the most-infectious form of scabies. It appears thick and gray and crumbles when touched. Immunocompromised individuals share an increased risk of contracting this type of scabies infection.
What Are the Causes of Scabies?
The eight-legged mite causes scabies in humans, and it can be diagnosed under the microscope. The female mite makes burrows under the skin and creates a tunnel where it lays the eggs. When the eggs hatch and the mite larvae reach the skin's surface, they start to mature and spread to other areas of the skin or can reach the skin of other people.
When the mite reaches the skin, it starts to itch, and this is because of the body's allergic reaction to the mites, their eggs, and their waste.
The mite starts to spread when the infected person shares the clothes, bed, and other personal things and has close physical contact.
Animals and humans are all affected by their distinct species of mites. Each species prefers one specific type of host and does not live long away from that preferred host.
Humans may have a temporary skin reaction from contact with the animal scabies mite. But people generally cannot develop full-blown scabies from this source, as they might from contact with the human scabies mite.
What Are the Clinical Manifestations of Scabies?
The signs and symptoms of scabies include:
In adults, scabies may be found as irregular burrows in:
In older children, scabies is found in the following sites:
In infants and younger children, scabies is found on:
If you have experienced scabies before, these signs and symptoms develop within a few days of exposure.
If you have not experienced scabies before, it may take six weeks for signs and symptoms to appear.
Can Scabies Spread From One Person to Another?
Scabies is a contagious infection that can spread from one person to another. Therefore, scabies can be transmitted between members in a closed circle like friends, family, and sexual partners. However, transmission is also possible in schools, rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, prisons, and sports locker rooms. Transmission of scabies infection can take any of the following routes:
How Can Scabies Be Diagnosed?
Scabies can generally be diagnosed by an experienced healthcare provider based on history and physical examination. It is only rare that investigation may be needed. To diagnose scabies, your doctor will look for signs of mites, along with the characteristic burrows. When the doctor finds a mite burrow, they may scrape the skin from that area to examine under a microscope. The microscopic examination determines the presence of mites or their eggs.
How to Use Externally Applied Anti-scabies Medication?
The scabies treatment involves using externally applied medications (in addition to other medicines) which either are used in the following manner or as per the physician’s advice. Please note that the following method has a scientific basis, and you need to follow it in the manner prescribed to get the best results. This method is suitable only for an adult patient.
Epidemics of scabies have been known to occur with devastating effects. Therefore, late evening or night itch symptoms should not be taken lightly, and home remedies should be better avoided.
What Are the Home Remedies for Scabies Treatment?
1. Tea Tree Oil:
Although tea tree oil has no benefits in conditions where the mites are present underneath the skin, it can help treat scabies and provide relief from itchiness and rashes.
2. Soaps:
The use of soaps, oils, and creams that contain active components from the trees, extracted from the roots, bark, seeds, and leaves, can help treat scabies.
3. Capsaicin Cream:
Cayenne peppers contain a compound called capsaicin. Creams made from this compound may ease the pain and discomfort caused by the mites and desensitize the skin, making you less bothered about the pain. However, they do not have a lethal effect on the mites.
4. Aloe Vera:
It helps treat scabies by reducing the redness and irritation associated. It is always advisable to use a pure form of aloe vera rather than a product that contains it.
5. Essential Oils:
Essential oils like clove oil, nutmeg oil, lavender oil, and lemongrass oil can help treat scabies. Of which, clove oil is very much helpful as it is a natural killer of bugs.
How Can We Prevent Scabies Infection?
Scabies infection can be prevented by the following:
Remember, once the mite falls off the body, it can live for three to four days. Therefore, following adequate preventive measures are needed to prevent the occurrence of recurrent infection.
Points to Remember
Scabies infection is highly contagious and can spread among friends and family of the infected person if preventive measures are not adequately followed. Do follow the proper precautions and prevent yourself and your family from such an infection.
Frequently Asked Questions
How Does One Get Scabies?
The scabies infestation is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei that live and lay eggs on the skin surface. These are tiny mites that spread from one person to another through direct skin contact or contact with infested person’s clothing and bedding.
How Does Scabies Lesion Look Like?
Scabies lesions are pimple-like skin lesions. They are raised and filled with clear fluid. There can be blisters, gray lines, scales, and patches of red skin.
What Signs and Symptoms Are Indicative of Scabies?
- Worsening skin itches at night.
- Skin rash.
- Redness of the skin.
- Blisters and sores in the following areas,
- On the buttocks.
- On the palm.
- Side of wrists.
- Between fingers.
- Armpits.
- Outside of the elbows.
- Waistline.
- Nipples and around the breasts.
- On men’s genitals.
- In children, lesions occur on the head, scalp, and neck.
- Scaly and crusty sores.
For How Long Does the Scabies Infestation Last?
Scabies infestation does not resolve without treatment. After treating scabies, the lesions last for approximately two to four weeks.
What Is the Color of Scabies Lesions?
Scabies lesions can either be skin-colored, grayish, reddish, or pink.
Do Scabies Spread?
Scabies are highly contagious and spread easily within a household, hostels, prisons, etc. Since the initial symptoms like itching and skin lesions are evident only after weeks of infestation, the infested person keeps on spreading it to others unknowingly.
How Does Scabies Spread to Other People?
Scabies spreads from one person to another through direct skin contact or contact with infested person’s clothes, bedsheets, towels, sharing cots, and other household items.
How to Confirm Whether or Not Scabies Has Gone?
After treating scabies with scabicides for two weeks, the skin rash and lesions will heal and fade off. However, itching might be present for up to four weeks and is normal. These are healing signs of scabies. If itching lasts for more than four weeks, retreatment is necessary.
How Long Can a Person With Scabies Spread It?
A person having at least 10 to 15 scabies mites in the skin or an asymptomatic person who is in the incubation period (within 4 to 8 weeks of new scabies infection) transmits scabies to others.
Can Scabies Worsen With Hot Showers?
Hot showers can worsen scabies itching. But it is recommended to have lukewarm or hot showers during scabies treatment to maintain hygiene.
Do Any Other Lesions Resemble Scabies?
The following skin lesions resemble scabies,
- Contact dermatitis.
- Atopic dermatitis.
- Psoriasis.
- Folliculitis.
- Eczema.
- Insect bites.
- Papular urticaria.
How Babies Develop Scabies?
Since scabies spread through skin contact, babies might acquire scabies from contact with infested parents or siblings or when babies sleep together with the infested person on the same bed.
What Are the Symptoms of Scabies in Babies?
Symptoms of scabies in babies include pimple-like fluid-filled pink to red bumps on,
- Head.
- Neck.
- Trunk.
- Arms.
- Legs.
- Palms.
- Soles.
These skin lesions present with itching that worsens at night. Other symptoms include,
- Irritability.
- Poor feeding.
Will Scabies Resolve on Its Own?
Scabies do not resolve on their own. Treatment with necessary scabicide lotions, creams, and pills is essential to cure it and prevent its spread to others.
Can Scabies Be Left Untreated?
If left untreated the scabies mites continue to reproduce and lay eggs under the skin resulting in unresolving skin itching and sores.
Does Vaseline Help in the Management of Scabies?
Vaseline or petroleum jelly alone cannot kill the scabies mites. 5% to 10% Sulfur when mixed with petroleum jelly and applied over the skin, effectively manages scabies mites.
What Measures Help Me Get Rid of Scabies?
- Since scabies is contagious it is essential to decontaminate infested person’s bedding, clothing, towels, and other items with hot water, hot dryer, or keep it untouched and wrapped in a plastic cover for two to three days.
- Scabicide lotions and creams like Permethrin, Sulfur ointments, etc., to be applied from neck to toes as suggested by the physician.
- In the case of children and infants, it must be applied to the scalp, head, and neck also.
- Apply on a clean body.
- Wear clean cotton loose-fitting clothes.
- Additionally, oral Ivermectin, antihistamine lotions, steroid creams, and Pramoxine lotions are also of benefit.
Which Medicine Treats Scabies Effectively?
- 5% Permethrin cream.
- 25% Benzyl Benzoate lotion.
- Sulfur ointment.
- 1% Lindane lotion.
- 10% Crotamiton cream.
- Ivermectin pills.
Last reviewed at:
10 Oct 2022 - 7 min read
Comprehensive Medical Second Opinion.Submit your Case
Related Questions & Answers
How can I differentiate between scabies, flea bites, bed bug, and folliculitis in my practice?
Does Itching Disturb Your Regular Activities?
Talati Vidhi Hareshbhai
Talati Vidhi Hareshbhai
Introduction: Nowadays, itching is a major problem or symptom of most allergic, systemic or fungal diseases. Four out of 10 people have had some type of itching problem of the skin in their routine life. Severe itching disturbs the day-to-day activities of a human being. What Is Itching? Itching i... Read Article
I have itching and hot feeling in between my thigh and vagina. Why?
Query: Hello doctor, I have a strong itching and hot feeling in the space between my left thigh and vagina. What could be causing this? I am really not able to tell if there is a color change. Read Full »
Popular Articles Most Popular Articles
Do you have a question on Scabies or Skin Infections?
Ask a Doctor Online
* guaranteed answer within 4 hours.
|
<urn:uuid:e46bd9f3-4d93-414d-a811-2102c2603fd7>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.04439210891723633,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9156229496002197,
"url": "https://www.icliniq.com/articles/skin-care/scabies-a-very-common-skin-infestation"
}
|
Sapiro vs. Ford: The Mastermind of the Marshall Maneuver
Rohan Pavuluri
On March 15, 1927, the civil trial between Aaron Sapiro, a leading Jewish American activist, and Henry Ford, America’s legendary industrialist, officially began. The trial concerned a libel lawsuit Sapiro had filed against Ford’s newspaper, the Dearborn Independent. The newspaper, Sapiro claimed, had made false accusations against him while covering his cooperative farming movement in California. The next morning, the New York Times summarized the accusations: “Mr. Sapiro was accused in the articles of being a cheat, a faker and a fraud, and there were animadversions against the Jewish people.” Though Sapiro took issue with both the attacks made against himself and his religion, the court refused to entertain any discussion of anti-Semitism. About a month after it began, the case concluded in a mistrial, and a new trial was set for that September. But it never came. Louis Marshall, a leading Jewish American lawyer, engineered the conclusion to Sapiro vs. Ford by persuading Ford to publicly apologize for his anti-Semitism.
During the 1927 episode, Ford, who had felt uneasy about his chances in court and manufactured the mistrial through devious means, realized that a second trial would further damage his reputation (Woeste, “Suing Henry Ford”). To avoid further embarrassment, Ford reached out to Louis Marshall for help. Marshall realized that if Ford took steps to redress past hateful actions, Sapiro would settle to save him the headache of more time in court. After their negotiations, Marshall convinced Ford to agree to his terms, which included a full recantation of charges against Jews, coupled with a public apology written by Marshall and signed by Ford (Rosenstock 190). Within two weeks of Ford’s public apology in early July, Sapiro announced his settlement with Ford, as Marshall had planned (“Ford and Sapiro Settle Libel Suit").
Historian Victoria Woeste, the most prominent scholar on the case, considers Marshall’s decision to resolve the dispute using extra-legal means a lost opportunity. Woeste, the only author of a book on Sapiro vs. Ford, writes, “Marshall unwittingly ensured that his ultimate goal—withdrawing hateful speech from the marketplace of ideas—would not be attainted” (Woeste 9). Woeste's viewpoint contrasts with that of other historians, who consider Marshall’s stratagem a momentous accomplishment. According to Woeste, these historians point to the sincerity of Ford’s remorse as the marker of Marshall’s triumph (Woeste 9). A close review of the case, however, suggests neither conclusion appropriate. Marshall’s gambit was the most effective option available for fighting anti-Semitism and hate speech in America. But this was not because he convinced Ford to provide a genuine apology, as many historians believe. Louis Marshall transformed what would have been an inconsequential verdict in a libel case into a resolution with much broader implications. Based on press coverage and the public’s reactions, Marshall’s success stemmed from his pragmatic decision to use extra-legal means. Marshall curbed the most famous, affluent, and active American anti-Semite of his century, while helping Americans understand that perpetrators of hate speech could and should be held accountable.
Though Ford’s Dearborn Independent attacked Aaron Sapiro because he was Jewish, mention of Sapiro’s religion never entered the courtroom, and therefore a legal verdict would have been inconsequential. In his opening statement on behalf of Ford, U.S. Senator James Reed, “announced,” according to the Chicago Tribune on March 17, “that no race could be libeled.” “He denied that the Jewish people were on trial here,” the Tribune continued, “and said that only Aaron Sapiro figured in the litigation.” Once testimony began, Judge Fred Raymond agreed with Reed. An article from the New York Times on March 26 titled “Defense Lawyers Again Succeed in Keeping Out Ford’s Views on Jews in General” detailed an instance in which Judge Raymond excluded “the Jewish question” despite the best attempts of Sapiro’s legal team to bring religion into the courtroom. When William Gallagher, Sapiro’s chief counsel, asked newspaperman James Miller about a conversation with Ford, Miller responded, “He said he was going to expose [the Jews]…and upset their apple cart.” Gallagher then asked him about “Mr. Ford’s views on Jews as a race.” Upholding Reed’s objection to this question, Judge Raymond explained that Mr. Gallagher “could not question the witness on Mr. Ford’s views on Jews” and that “the automobile maker’s views on the race or religion” were not admissible.
In anticipation of Henry Ford’s day on the witness stand, the New York Times further revealed that Judge Raymond had made his message clear: Sapiro vs. Ford was to be adjudicated as a dispute between two men over what one had said about the other. “Mr. Gallagher,” the Times wrote, “appears to be barred from asking Mr. Ford to expound his views on the Jewish race generally.” The Times continued that “under previous rulings by the Court,” Ford could only be asked about “his attitude on Mr. Sapiro and the others of his coreligionists who were actually identified in the [Dearborn Independent]” (“Ford and Sapiro Testify”). Since the press clearly understood that Judge Raymond precluded anti-Semitism from entering the trial and that the jurors were not to make their decision based on Ford’s religious views, it is only reasonable to conclude that the public held the same understanding. Indeed, the press was the only source of information about the trial for virtually all Americans. As far as the country was concerned, the verdict would be limited to one man’s victory over the other. Though the jury never had a chance to reach this verdict, we can conclude that the public would have interpreted a decision in Sapiro’s favor only as an official affirmation that Ford’s newspaper had sought to defame the Jewish activist.
We must acknowledge that because Judaism entered the court in a limited capacity, whether it was during jury selection or during the trial before Judge Raymond could keep it out, Ford’s anti-Semitism entered the minds of the jury and the public. A headline from the New York Times read “Plaintiff Rejects Ex-Klansman and Defense Declines to Accept Two Jews.” The article went on to report that Judge Raymond asked the jurors, “Are any of you, by blood or by marriage, connected with the Jewish race?” and that Gallagher asked them if they “belong to the organization known as the Klu Klux Klan” during the voir dire process. Given such a thorough attempt to excuse jurors who either had a tendency in favor of or against anti-Semitism, the jurors who heard the trial surely knew that Ford was anti-Semitic and that Ford’s anti-Semitism led him to make false accusations against Sapiro. Given the press’ coverage of how Jews and anti-Semites were kept out of the jury, and how Judge Raymond had prevented Judaism from entering the courtroom, the public must have also known that Ford’s anti-Semitism led him to make false accusations against Sapiro.
But even if the jurors and the public knew about Ford’s religious views, we cannot say that a verdict against Ford would have been a verdict against anti-Semitism. First off, without the interviews of the jurors, we must assume that they would have based their decision on Judge Raymond’s instructions to exclude religion from consideration. More importantly, had the jurors made the unlikely choice to disregard Judge Raymond’s explicit jury instructions, ruling against Ford because they thought he had attacked all Jews, the public would have had no idea. The newspapers informed them that the jurors would be disregarding religion. Even if the jurors ignored their legal duties, the public would have had no reason to suspect them of the offense.
Having established that a courtroom victory for Sapiro would not have translated to a victory for advocates of tolerance in either the eyes of the law or the public, we begin to see why Louis Marshall’s maneuver had more significant implications than a jury’s verdict ever could have brought about. Most notably, Marshall convinced Ford to recant all anti-Semitic articles the Dearborn Independent published and release an apology to the press. To ensure the apology’s completeness, Marshall wrote it himself in the guise of Ford. “The Dearborn Independent,” ‘Ford’ declared, “will be conducted under such auspices that articles reflecting upon the Jews will never again appear in its columns.” Adopting a regretful tone, ‘Ford’ continued, “The character of the charges and insinuations made against the Jews…justifies the righteous indignation entertained by Jews everywhere toward me because of the mental anguish occasioned by the unprovoked reflections made upon them.” Toward the end of the apology, ‘Ford’ concluded with a repudiation of not just anti-Semitism, but all hate speech: “It is wrong…to judge a people by a few individuals and I therefore join in condemning unreservedly all wholesale denunciations and attacks” (qtd. in “Ford Apologizes”).
A plausible counterargument to the value in Marshall’s maneuver holds that since Ford’s apology was not sincere, it was not effective. The reaction to Ford’s apology, especially from the Jewish community, disproves such an argument. The persuasiveness of Marshall’s writing and the promise of its authenticity led the public to believe the statement in its entirety. 'Ford’s' last sentence delivered a final blow to any skeptics: “Finally, let me add that this statement is made on my own initiative and wholly in the interest of right and justice and in accordance with what I regard as my solemn duty as a man and as a citizen” (qtd. in “Ford Apologizes”). Press coverage demonstrated that newspaper editors also believed in Ford’s sincerity, passing on their approval to the public. In a July 9 article titled “Jewish Leaders Glad to Accept Ford’s Apology,” the Atlanta Constitution reported, “Ford’s sudden and unexpected retraction of all the anti-Jewish articles that have appeared in The Dearborn Independent, his weekly magazine, brought words of praise from all sides.” The same day, the New York Herald Tribune conveyed similar sentiments: “Jewry was pleased today with Henry Ford’s retraction of the insults, charges and indignities which he had heaped on Jews of the world in the last seven of more years.” The Herald Tribune went on to detail the reactions of leading Jews, such as Judge Harry Fisher, who declared, “In making his retraction, Henry Ford shows himself to be a man of real character.” Those who did criticize Ford’s apology only did so because they believed it had come too late. Also speaking to the Herald Tribune, Chicago businessman Julius Rosenwald commented, “Mr. Ford’s statement is greatly belated…But it is never too late to make amends, and I congratulate Mr. Ford that he has at last seen the light.” One Jewish newspaper even remarked that Ford’s statement was “another span in the erection of the bridge of better understanding and good will” (Rosenstock 194).
In addition to eliciting a public apology from Ford, retracting his anti-Semitism, the efficacy of Marshall’s maneuver lies in the public apology and settlement he precipitated between Ford and Sapiro. Though the apology had no legal backing, the more consequential court of public opinion interpreted Ford’s apology to Sapiro as a victory for the Jewish activist. Newspapers throughout the country also covered Ford’s second apology, which Ford actually wrote. In their July 17 edition, the New York Times reprinted the whole apology. Ford explained that “the suit was based upon statements appearing in a series of articles published in 1925 and 1926,” and that “it has since been found that inaccuracies of fact were present in the articles and that erroneous conclusions were drawn from these inaccuracies by the writer.” In his next line, Ford admitted, “As a result of this, Mr. Sapiro may have been injured and reflections cast upon him unjustly.” Coupled with his initial apology to the entire Jewish community, Ford’s second apology stated that the Dearborn Independent’s remarks had been “unjust” to both Sapiro and all Jews. Unlike a verdict that would have remedied a personal dispute, the fact that Marshall’s maneuver drove Ford to apologize to the entire Jewish community twice and do it in such a public manner revealed Marshall’s genius. Aaron Sapiro’s radio address further assured an already convinced public that Ford genuinely felt remorse. “Ford did the square and manly thing, and I believe he meant every word of the public apology,” Sapiro told his audience (qtd. in “Sapiro Praises Ford”). Since the person who had brought the lawsuit against Ford believed “every word” the industrialist had to offer, the public had no reason not to follow.
Despite the two public apologies Marshall got Ford to make, scholar Victoria Woeste writes that Marshall “handled the end game with surprising ineptitude” (Woeste “Suing Henry Ford”). Though Marshall did much to thwart Henry Ford’s mouthpiece, the Dearborn Independent, and curb anti-Semitism in America, Woeste argues in her 2012 book Henry Ford’s War on Jews and the Legal Battle Against Hate Speech that Marshall failed to achieve his goal of “withdrawing hateful speech from the marketplace of ideas,” characterizing Marshall’s move as a lost opportunity to clarify hate speech laws in America (Woeste 9). “The case’s resolution outside the arena of formal law prevented it from clarifying the confusion it generated over group and individual libel,” Woeste contends (331).
The logical problem with the argument Woeste makes is that it rests on the notion that there were laws to be clarified. Laws against group libel had only first emerged in the prior decade. They had yet to be tested in the seven states that had them (Woeste 8). But Michigan was not one of these states. Consequently, it is unreasonable to think that Sapiro vs. Ford could have clarified a law that did not exist. As Judge Raymond highlighted throughout the trial, the only laws concerning libel in the court’s eyes were those that had to do with false accusations made against an individual. Once we understand that a resolution within the courtroom would have only clarified that Sapiro had been wronged by Ford, not that all Jews had been wronged by Ford, we realize the efficacy of Marshall’s decision to use extra-legal means. Marshall knew that an out-of-court settlement and a public apology would not legally abolish hate speech. Only the legislature could do that. So, he took the best option he had available. He got the most powerful and vocal proponent of hate speech to condemn its use. Serendipitously, this also meant the Dearborn Independent would stop spreading Ford’s hateful message. By December of 1927, having lost its ability to serve its original anti-Semitic purpose, the Dearborn Independent announced that it had ceased publication (Rosenstock 199).
Woeste’s book suggests that she would respond to this criticism by claiming that the press construed the case as a trial between Ford and the Jewish community. Following this logic, the public would have received a verdict against Ford as a verdict against hate speech. Indeed, Woeste writes, “The national press, having covered every word Ford uttered on his obsession with Jews since 1915, elided the technical distinction between individual and group libel and proclaimed the case a fight between Henry Ford and ‘the Jews.’” (Woeste 9) Woeste is correct that the press did not limit its coverage to the dispute between Sapiro and Ford. From pre-trial, where Jews and KKK members were excluded, to every objection James Reed made to William Gallagher’s questions about Henry Ford’s anti-Semitism, the press made it clear that Sapiro vs. Ford remained significant for more than the men involved. Woeste’s claim that the press “elided” the distinction between individual and group libel, however, is incorrect. As revealed earlier in articles from major outlets like the New York Times and Chicago Tribune, the press fully grasped the crucial point from James Reed’s opening for Ford: “no race could be libeled” (“Sapiro Sought” March 17, 1927). As a result, Woeste can hardly argue that a courtroom verdict would have created any precedent that group libel or hate speech was against the law.
In an attempt to deepen her argument that Marshall’s maneuver served as a lost opportunity, Woeste argues that once Marshall decided to use extra-legal means, he still could have done more to address hate speech in America. “Having gotten the nation’s foremost purveyor of group libel to recognize his offense—and repent—gave Marshall a potent weapon of his own,” Woeste writes, “Why did he do so little with it?” (Woeste 331). In making this claim, Woeste is being unreasonable in what she expects of seventy-year-old Marshall. Only two years after the conclusion of the Ford vs. Sapiro saga, Marshall died. Had he enjoyed a decade to use Ford’s apology to push for new laws against hate speech, Woeste may have had a case for Marshall’s shortcomings. Using the lack of landmark legislation between 1927 and 1929 to cast Marshall’s entire stratagem as an “ineptitude,” as Woeste does, simply asks too much of the man.
While underdeveloped, much of the historiography on Sapiro vs. Ford takes a contrary view to Woeste, insisting that Ford’s apology served as a monumental achievement because of its “historic repudiation” of anti-Semitism (Woeste 9). As much as Woeste’s analysis undervalues Marshall’s role, the rest of the Sapiro vs. Ford historiography overvalues it. Marshall allowed Ford to plead ignorance even though his common sense told him Ford was behind the Dearborn Independent’s anti-Semitism. Marshall let 'Ford' claim in his initial apology, “in the multitude of my activities it has been impossible for me to devote my personal attention to [the Dearborn Independent’s] management or to keep informed as to their contents” (“Ford Apologizes July 8, 1927). Proving this claim blatantly false, E.G. Liebold, Ford’s personal secretary", later stated that the newspaper’s articles “were prompted largely by Mr. Ford” and that “he kept in touch with every phrase” (Baldwin 222). Ford, who received a prize from Adolf Hitler in 1938, never changed his mind on how he felt about Jews (Pool 129). As a result, historians cannot call Ford’s apology a “historic repudiation” of anti-Semitism because it was never really a repudiation.
Ultimately, Marshall’s maneuver demonstrated the power of pragmatism to effect social change and perhaps even legal change. As Victoria Woeste misunderstands, had Marshall let Sapiro vs. Ford conclude in court, the case would not have had the same impact on public opinion. At the same time, Marshall maintained no delusion that he led Ford to actually change his mind on Jews, and historians should not credit him with such. Part of the significance of Marshall’s maneuver surely rested in the fact that Ford could no longer communicate his anti-Semitic ideas to the American public. Since Marshall got Ford to make such a public apology, Ford could not speak out against Jews for the rest of his life if he wanted to maintain any credibility in Americans’ eyes. Marshall imposed a de facto hate speech ban on the most prominent industrialist and anti-Semite of his era.
But Ford, regardless of his power, was still only one man. The real masterstroke of Marshall’s maneuver is that he helped implant in Americans’ minds the notion that hate speech could inflict harm on certain communities and that the perpetrators of that harm could be held accountable. This was not a “historic repudiation” of hate speech as much as it was the first example of real consequences for hate speech. The former would have required mass sentiment against anti-Semitism and a new law. Before Sapiro vs. Ford, the idea that perpetrators of hateful speech should be prosecuted had yet to reach critical mass, especially since the small minority of states that had group libel laws never punished anyone for not following them. After Sapiro vs. Ford, the ground for actual laws against hate speech became fertile. We can never know how subsequent hate speech laws, such as the groundbreaking 1935 New Jersey statute against propaganda inciting religious or racist hatred, would have turned out if Ford had never appeared to condemn anti-Semitism (Woeste 332). Regardless, having weighed the potential of a legal finish in Sapiro vs. Ford against an extra-legal conclusion, we can only assume that Marshall may have had some role in easing the passage of future hate speech laws.
Works Cited
Baldwin, Neil. Henry Ford and the Jews. New York: Public Affairs, 2001.
Balkin, J.M. “Review of History of Hate Speech in America.” Organization of American Historians, June 1995.
Blanchard, Margaret. “Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy by Samuel Walker.” The American Journal of Legal History 40, no. 2 (April 1996).
Cortese, Anthony. Opposing Hate Speech. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006.
Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefanic. Must We Defend Nazis. New York: New York University Press, 1997.
“Ford and Sapiro Settle Libel Suit.” New York Times, July 17, 1927.
“Ford and Sapiro Testify This Week.” New York Times, March 27, 1927.
“Ford Apologizes to Jews and Halts Magazine Attacks.” New York Herald Tribune, July 8, 1927.
“Ford Will Testify as Sapiro Witnesses; Six Women on Jury.” New York Times, March 16, 1927.
“Ford’s Apology Wins Acclaim of Chicago Jewry.” New York Herald Tribune (1926-1962), July 9, 1927.
Hernandez, Tanya. “The Legal Challenges of Diversity.” The Fordham Law Archive of Scholarship and History, 2014.
“Jewish Leaders Glad to Accept Ford’s Apology.” The Atlanta Constitution (1881-1945), July 9, 1927.
Lewis, Anthony. Freedom for the Thought That We Hate. New York: Perseus Books Group, n.d.
MacKinnon, Catharine. Only Words. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Pool, James, and Suzanne Pool. Who Financed Hitler. New York: The Dial Press, 1978.
Rosenstock, Morton. Louis Marshall, Defender of Jewish Rights. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965.
“Sapiro Praises Ford; Attacks Senator Reed.” New York Times, July 21, 1927.
“Sapiro Sought World Empire, Libel Jury Told.” Chicago Daily Tribune (1923-1963), March 17, 1927.
“Witness Links Ford with Sapiro Attack.” New York Times, March 26, 1927.
Woeste, Victoria. Henry Ford’s War on Jews and the Legal Battle Against Hate Speech. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2012.
———. “Insecure Equality: Louis Marshall, Henry Ford, and the Problem of Defamatory Antisemitism, 1920-1929.” Organization of American Historians 91, no. 3 (December 2004).
———. “Suing Henry Ford: America’s First Hate Speech Case.” American Bar Foundation. Accessed April 15, 2015.
Wolfson, Nicholas. Hate Speech, Sex Speech, Free Speech. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997.
|
<urn:uuid:cda518d0-4457-4e0b-a6fc-607b7b71363a>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.765625,
"fasttext_score": 0.04001706838607788,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9565213918685913,
"url": "https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/expose/book/sapiro-vs-ford-mastermind-marshall-maneuver"
}
|
Health and Medicine
Surgery and Other Treatments
What is lithotripsy?
Lithotripsy is the use of ultrasonic or shock waves to pulverize kidney stones (calculi), allowing the small particles to be excreted or removed from the body. There are two different methods: extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) and percutaneous lithotripsy. The ESWL method, used on smaller stones, breaks up the stones with external shock waves from a machine called a lithotripter. This technique has eliminated the need for more invasive stone surgery in many cases. For larger stones, a type of endoscope, called a nephroscope, is inserted into the kidney through a small incision. The ultrasonic waves from the nephroscope shatter the stones, and the fragments are removed through the nephroscope.
|
<urn:uuid:d6ae6b3d-5c94-4468-b8bd-2625db548f73>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.703125,
"fasttext_score": 0.6282437443733215,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9107884764671326,
"url": "https://www.papertrell.com/apps/preview/The-Handy-Science-Answer-Book/Handy%20Answer%20book/What-is-lithotripsy/001137021/content/SC/52cb05b982fad14abfa5c2e0_default.html"
}
|
Crocodilians - alligators and crocodiles - deserve their reputation as fearsome predators, taking on prey that most other animals would leave alone. Once they have a victim grasped in their jaws, however, they have a problem. Although their conical teeth are perfect for grabbing food, they're pretty useless for tearing it up. So crocodilians developed the `death-roll', a fearsome spinning manoeuvre which they use to subdue and dismember their prey. Interested to know how alligators perform the death-roll, Frank Fish and his colleagues filmed juvenile alligators spinning in a tank holding onto tasty meat morsels with their jaws (p. 2811). To spin, an alligator presses its limbs against its body and bends its head and tail relative to its body, forming a C-shape. After the turn, it straightens itself out again and splays its legs to stop turning. By mathematically modelling the death roll, the team calculated that the baby alligators generate shear forces of 0.015 N, but these forces disproportionately increase to 138 N when scaled up to a ferocious 3 m alligator, allowing them to tear up and dine on ever larger prey.
Fish, F. E., Bostic, S. A., Nicastro, A. J. and Beneski, J. T. (
). Death roll of the alligator: mechanics of twist feeding in water.
J. Exp. Biol.
|
<urn:uuid:46033528-5ae3-4924-837b-c6f1f1d6ebba>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.12426632642745972,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9437317848205566,
"url": "https://cob.silverchair.com/jeb/article/210/16/iii/16990/ALLIGATORS-GO-FOR-A-SPIN"
}
|
AS9120B, ISO 9001:2015, and FAA 0056B Accredited
What Are Turn and Slip Indicators in Aircraft?
There are various instruments in an aircraft that a pilot relies on to safely fly, each of which offers varying readings that are important for basic operations. From airspeed indicators that provide speed readings to altimeters that allow a pilot to know just how high they are in the air, instruments not only ensure safety, but also promote efficiency, high performance, and much more. One instrument that is not always discussed is the turn and slip indicator, which provides combined readings for an aircraft’s rate of turn and orientation in comparison to coordinated flight. As both of these are very important during various flight phases, current or prospective pilots should have a good understanding of how they work and are used.
Turn indicators are a form of gyroscopic instrument that works on the principle of precession to operate with a gyro mounted in a gimbal. For its design, the rotational axis of the gyro is kept in-line with the aircraft’s lateral axis, and the gimbal will be given limited freedom around the longitudinal axis. With this configuration of the gyro and gimbal, any time the aircraft begins to yaw, the gyro will be faced with torque force around its vertical axis. This results in gyroscopic precession across the roll axis, the gyro spinning on an axis that is at a right angle in relation to the direction of the yaw torque force.
As the assembly revolves with limited freedom against a calibrated spring, torque force will eventually achieve equilibrium, causing the angles of the gyro and gimbal to connect with the instrument’s display needle. As such, the display needle situated on the face of the instrument will provide the pilot with a reading that is indicative of the rate of turn. In order for the instrument to capture both yaw and roll changes, the gyro is purposefully canted at a 30 degree angle from the horizontal.
To effectively provide a pilot with readings, the instrument face itself features a number of hash marks that the needle moves across, and the pilot will reference these during a turn. As the needle lines up with a specific hash mark, one will know that their aircraft is performing a standard rate turn, or a turn of three degrees per second. Each indicator is marked based on sensitivity, ensuring that a pilot can carry out their timed turns while conforming to air traffic patterns.
While yaw movements are crucial, so too is having coordinated flight indication. This is achieved with an inclinometer which is a ball sealed within a curved glass tube with liquids as a damping medium. Based on the centripetal acceleration of the aircraft and forces of gravity, the ball will move and cause changes in readings. When an aircraft is traversing in coordinated flight, the ball will be in the middle of the tube. When it is in the inside of the tube, the aircraft is considered slipping. Lastly, skidding is when the ball is on the outside of the turn. As pilots may not always have reliable visuals that they can reference, inclinometers are crucial to ensure that a pilot is aware of their orientation in the atmosphere.
Here at Aerospace Domain, we are fully dedicated to our customers, presenting competitive pricing and rapid lead times on all that we offer. Whether you need gyroscopic instruments like the turn and slip indicator or other various aviation parts, we have you covered with offerings that trace back to top global manufacturers. To ensure that your purchasing process goes as smoothly as possible, we encourage you to take advantage of our online RFQ forms which will allow you to quickly and easily request quotes for your comparisons with ease. Additionally, you may give us a call or email at any time, and we would be more than happy to assist you with anything we can! See why customers choose to rely on Aerospace Domain today when you get in touch with one of our team members!
Semiconductor's Certifications and Memberships
The only independent
distributor with a
• All Orders are Fulfilled in the U.S.A.
• All shipments must comply with U.S.A export laws.
• No exceptions.
Fallen Heroes Fund
Thank You for Visiting.
Request for Quote
|
<urn:uuid:085e1756-a0eb-4b40-a4b3-3a053a944c3e>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.75,
"fasttext_score": 0.12052333354949951,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9388754963874817,
"url": "https://www.aerospacedomain.com/blog/what-are-turn-and-slip-indicators-in-aircraft/"
}
|
It’s a tapeworm Jim, but not as we know it
Tapeworms are likely to be the oldest recognised type of parasitic worm, with the long, segmented, intestinal-dwelling adult form first described by the ancient Greeks. Like other parasitic flatworms (e.g. flukes) they are highly adapted to an obligatorily parasitic lifestyle and have changed almost beyond recognition from their free-living flatworm cousins.
As adults, they live in the intestines of vertebrates where they absorb food directly through their skin. Thus while flatworms typically have simple, blind guts lacking an anus, tapeworms have dispensed with the gut altogether, letting their host break down nutrients for them.
Meanwhile, each of their segments – numbering 3 to 1000s depending on the species – contains a complete set of male and female reproductive organs (i.e. hermaphrodite). Thus over 95% of the tapeworm adult body is dedicated to the production of eggs! These eggs are eventually released from the intestine into the environment, but to become an adult they need at least one additional host (and sometimes two or three) – the intermediate host – in which the larvae transform into non-segmented juvenile worms, ready to commence sexual development in a vertebrate host and start the cycle again.
Putting the tape in tapeworms
But where did the tapeworm form that we all recognise come from? As it happens, even today not all tapeworms are segmented and it is clear that this adaptation for increasing the number of offspring is a relatively recent feature in their evolution.
Without a fossil record there is effectively no direct evidence of tapeworm ancestry, but we do know from comparative studies of both anatomy and genetic sequences that the ‘true’ tapeworms (the group that includes all segmented species) have two extant (living) evolutionary tapeworm cousins. These two independent lineages each contain only a handful of species which share fundamental underlying characteristics of ‘true’ tapeworms, but otherwise bear little outward resemblance.
One of these lineages is the Gyrocotylidea, named after their characteristic ‘rosette’ organ (see image at the top). They are exclusively parasites of deep-sea chimaeras, or ratfishes, that together with sharks and rays comprise the cartilaginous fishes. Like true tapeworms, adult gyrocotylideans live in the intestinal tract of their host where they get their nutrition; however, they are not segmented and unlike flatworms generally, are not particularly flat!
Although known since the late 1800s, few new species or other reports on this unusual group have been published in the last 150 years. However, in 2020 we reported on two new species from chimaeras collected in the North Atlantic.
Images and drawings of the new Gyrocotyle species. 2, Photomicrograph of Gyrocotyle haffii n. sp. holotype (NB: the specimen is immature) ex Harriotta raleighana, Goban Spur (13951/14); 3, Line-drawing of Gyrocotyle haffii n. sp., holotype; 4, Photomicrograph of Gyrocotyle discoveryi n. sp. holotype ex Hydrolagus mirabilis (Goban Spur; 15063/103a); 5. Line-drawing of Gyrocotyle discoveryi n. sp., holotype; 6, Gyrocotyle discoveryi n. sp. paratype ex Hydrolagus mirabilis (Goban Spur; 15066/124a). Scale-bars: 10 mm
Uncommon parasites that are… uncommonly common
Whilst as a group gyrocotylideans are uncommon compared to the huge diversity of ‘true’ tapeworms (estimated to include more than 20,000 species), as individuals they are uncommonly common in their host group, with the percent of ratfishes infected reaching near 100% in some surveys.
Thus should you have the chance to collect and dissect a ratfish, the chances of finding a gyrocotylidean are high. Unfortunately, sampling from the deep-sea is itself a rare opportunity and of the known ratfish species, most are seldom encountered. The present study was based on collections in the North-East Atlantic made over three years providing the opportunity to investigate the presence of gyrocotylideans in two species of ratfishes never previously examined, revealing two new species of parasite.
Survival of the adequate
Chimaeras are a relictual group of cartilaginous fishes whose diversity is known from the fossil record to have been far greater in the distant past. Although they rarely play host to ‘true’ tapeworms, their evolutionary cousins, the sharks and rays, play host to a significant part of the diversity of true tapeworms. As specialist parasites of chimaeras, gyrocotylideans also appear to be a relictual group, although their past diversity is not likely knowable.
Their contemporary diversity consists of a single known genus (Gyrocotyle) represented by a handful of named species, none of which can be distinguished on the basis of anatomy. Whether the group is really represented by a single, widespread species has long been debated.
The very deep sea is a highly stable environment compared to land – and in the relative absence of strong, dynamic selective forces, ‘survival of the adequate’ may be a better model than ‘survival of the fittest’ in explaining deep sea communities and their potential for relative stasis, compared to communities near the surface and on land.
However, while gyrocotylidean tapeworms are highly uniform in their appearance, the small amount of sequence data that have started to accumulate suggest that there is a significant amount of divergence among parasites sampled from different geographic areas and host species. Accumulating such divergence suggests that the parasites are genetically isolated by geography, host ecology and/or other factors. However, if this were the case, we would expect it to eventually translate into differences in their appearance (i.e. phenotype) as well, as genetic ‘drift’ will occur even in the absence of pressures caused by changes in the environment. Explaining the contemporary diversity of these unusual tapeworms will surely require a better understanding not only of their genetics, but also of the enigmatic ecology of their deep sea hosts.
One of the ten remarkable marine new species from 2020
As for previous years, the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) has again released the annual list of the top-ten marine species described by researchers during the year 2020 to coincide with World Taxonomist Appreciation day (March 19th)! Gyrocotyle haffii, or ‘Haffi’s Upside-Down Tapeworm‘, has been chosen among these top ten species. This new species is named in honour of Professor Harford ‘Haffi’ Williams in recognition of his contribution to the understanding of this group of tapeworms.
View the latest posts on the BugBitten homepage
|
<urn:uuid:876746c4-7200-4c74-a03c-e8a08a1756dd>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.796875,
"fasttext_score": 0.018142759799957275,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.93876051902771,
"url": "https://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bugbitten/2021/03/23/its-a-tapeworm-jim-but-not-as-we-know-it/"
}
|
This word is composed of two terms from the Latin prefix “re” What does it mean “repetition” Y “form” which means image, aspect. Therefore, the word reform is related to changing or modifying something in whole or in part. In societies, doctrines or human beliefs it is common for them to be constantly changing, which is why reforms usually occur in any organization and services, for example financial, economic, religious, social reforms, etc.
It can cover various areas such as architecture, for example when deciding to renovate a house, extend it, build another floor, etc. Another aspect covered by the reform would be people’s clothing, for example “I am going to reform these pants to turn them into shorts”, “I am going to reform all my wardrobe, changing it for a more modern one”. In the educational aspect, a reform can be based on adding or subtracting subjects to the educational plan, as well as modifying some contents to adapt them to current demands, transforming laws, incorporating more students into the educational system, etc.
The concept of reform is very different from the concept of revolution, what reform seeks is to change something that is considered wrong within a government or organization, seeking improvement gradually and continuously, instead the revolution has a more radical concept, it seeks to promote more transcendent changes such as the replacement of a directive, the deposition of a government, etc., from there you can see how different they are, while the reform seeks an improvement in the system without substituting or displacing it, what the revolution intends is to create drastic changes that often include violence and confrontations.
|
<urn:uuid:9e89b48e-eefd-4c64-8b69-03f641f41ff5>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.8125,
"fasttext_score": 0.9846266508102417,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9565538167953491,
"url": "https://www.definetheconcept.com/reform/"
}
|
Senshoku is the Japanese technique and craft of dyeing and weaving cloth and other textile products.
About Senshoku, dyeing and weaving (染織)
Senshoku is the Japanese technique and craft of dyeing and weaving cloth and other textile products. By using the technique of Senshoku, we can make traditional Japanese costumes and beautiful kimonos by dyeing and weaving the cloths that are essential to our lives.
The beginning of Senshoku, dyeing and weaving
Dyeing and weaving cloth to make clothing is thought to have been practiced as early as the end of the Jomon period. Senshoku in Japan was developed based on advanced technology imported from China and the Korean Peninsula. In the Heian period, the Junihitoe, 十二単, was also born, in which people wore several layers of garments to enjoy the combination of colors.
From the Muromachi period to the Azuchi-Momoyama period, silk textiles were introduced to Japan through trade with the Ming dynasty in China, and textiles called Sarasa(#) were introduced to Japan through the Nanban trade, which later led to their production in Japan.
In the Edo period, Yuzen dyeing with gorgeous designs was born. While luxurious silk fabrics were produced in Nishijin, stencil dyeing, such as Komon (小紋) and Chugata (中形) (”Yukata” dyed with indigo), which is a taste of Edo, became popular in Edo.
It was in the Edo period that unique textiles and dyed goods with rich individuality became popular in various areas, such as Oshima Tsumugi (Kagoshima Prefecture, Amami Oshima), which uses mud dyeing and a unique weaving method, and Saga Nishiki (Saga Prefecture), which uses Japanese paper coated with gold and silver leaf and lacquer.
Modern Senshoku crafts are the culmination of an aesthetic sense of tradition and fashion, born out of the aristocratic culture of the Heian period, the warrior culture of the Azuchi-Momoyama period, and the machinist culture of the Edo period.
(#)Sarasa is a cloth on which flowers and birds or geometric patterns are printed in various colors on cotton cloth or silk cloth.
Somemono, dyeing (染物)
Somemono is a technique of dying patterns on cloth.
Yuzen dyeing, called Yuzen zome (友禅染)
Yuzen dyeing is one of Japan’s leading dyeing techniques, and it is a pictorial pattern dyeing technique that was greatly accomplished in the Edo period.
It is characterized by the use of multiple colors to produce gorgeous patterns. Yuzen dyeing, such as Kyoto Yuzen and Kaga Yuzen, is famous and is a representative of the dyeing technique since the Edo period.
In Itome yuzen, one of the yuzen dyeing techniques, the first step is to draw a sketch with a liquid that does not leave any color after washing. The glue is placed over the lines of the sketch to prevent the colors from getting mixed up. Then, paint the colors to match the pattern. Finally, when the glue is washed off, white lines appear and the pattern comes out clearly.
Edo komon (江戸小紋)
Edo komon is a cloth with detailed patterns dyed by stencil-dyeing all over the cloth.
From a distance, it looks like a plain piece, but if you look at it closely, you will see a very fine and delicate continuous pattern. Komon, which is dyed in a single color based on a traditional technique from the Edo period, is called Edo komon.
Nagaita chugata (長板中形)
While Edo komon dyes fine patterns onto silk, Nagaita chugata dyes large patterns onto cotton yukata using a long board (about 6.5 meters long).
This is a traditional Japanese method of dying indigo patterns on both sides of a white background.
Orimono, textile fabrics (織物)
Kasuri (絣)
This is a textile fabric with a pattern created by weaving threads dyed into a variety of colors. The Kurume Kasuri, Bingo Kasuri and Iyo Kasuri are famous and are made throughout Japan.
Tsumugi, pongee (紬)
This is a silk textile fabric with Tsumugi yarn, which is made from Kuzumayu, which cannot be made into yarn. It has a rustic texture and was originally a commoner’s everyday wear. Oshima tsumugi, Ueda tsumugi and Yuki tsumugi are famous.
Oshima Tsumugi
This is a silk fabric that originated in Amami Oshima, Kagoshima Prefecture. It is known as one of the three major tsumugis, pongees in Japan along with Yuki tsumugi and Shiozawa tsumugi because of its fine patterns and mud dyeing.
Oshima tsumugi is also one of the world’s three major textile fabrics along with French Gobelins and Persian carpets, and it is a tsumugi kimono that is well known.
Nishijin ori (西陣織)
This is the general term for the luxurious silk textile fabric in Nishijin, Kyoto. A wide variety of silk textile fabrics are produced.
The name Nishijin-ori was given in the Muromachi period. The manufacturing process differs slightly from one weaver to another, but by law, there are currently 12 different types of Nishijin weaving. The designs range from simple to elegant.
Your email address will not be published.
|
<urn:uuid:54b3bf67-3321-4b38-aca3-576b26599a14>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.953125,
"fasttext_score": 0.03621244430541992,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9612258672714233,
"url": "https://media.fitspot.jp/topic/570"
}
|
What is the difference between Ashkenazi?
Ashkenazi Jews (plural Ashkenazim) are the descendants of Jews who migrated into northern France and Germany around 800–1000, and later into Eastern Europe. Among the Ashkenazim there are a number of major subgroups: Yekkes, or German Jews, stemming from the Lowlands, historical Germany, Switzerland, and Scandinavia.
How are Sephardic Jews different?
Sephardic Jews trace their genealogy through the lines of deceased or living paternal and maternal grandparents. It is their custom to name the first born son or daughter after their paternal grandparents. The Ashkenazim will only name children after their deceased grandparents.
What is the difference between Ashkenazi and Sephardic tefillin?
Ashkenazi practice is to put on and remove the arm tefillin while standing in accordance to the Shulchan Aruch, while most Sephardim do so while sitting in accordance with the Ari. All, however, put on and remove the head tefillin while standing.
What tribe do the Sephardic Jews come from?
Sephardi, also spelled Sefardi, plural Sephardim or Sefardim, from Hebrew Sefarad (“Spain”), member or descendant of the Jews who lived in Spain and Portugal from at least the later centuries of the Roman Empire until their persecution and mass expulsion from those countries in the last decades of the 15th century.
What is Ashkenazi ancestry?
(ASH-keh-NAH-zee jooz) One of two major ancestral groups of Jewish individuals, comprised of those whose ancestors lived in Central and Eastern Europe (e.g., Germany, Poland, Russia). The other group is designated Sephardic Jews and includes those whose ancestors lived in North Africa, the Middle East, and Spain.
Are Mizrahi and Sephardic the same?
Although sometimes used interchangeably, the terms “Sephardi” and “Mizrahi” refer to two distinct Jewish diasporas, each one itself characterized by significant internal cultural diversity.
What is the difference between Ashkenaz and Sepharad?
Ashkenaz and Sepharad are just very old terms for regions outside Israel – Ashkenaz was the northern region and Sepharad was the western region (again, more or less). There is almost no difference between the two.
What is the difference between Ashkenazim and Sefardim?
Sefardim have a lot of Arabic culture, while Ashkenazim have a lot of European culture, as can be seen in their music and (through the 1800s and early 1900s), their clothing styles. These cultural differences sometimes color religious practices.
Who are the Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews?
Both Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews are two European Jewish groups. History. Jews arrived to Europe in times of the Roman Empire, settling in Greece and Italy. Those who remained in Greece are called Romaniotes, and those who remained in Italy are called Italkim (later, both countries would receive Sephardi and Ashkenazi inmigrants).
What is the difference between Ashkenazic and spharadi Jews?
Jews whose ancestors lived in Christian Europe, are called Ashkenazic, as Ashkenaz was the Jewish word for german region. Jews whose ancestors lived in Arabic speaking regions are called Mizrahim. Spharadi Jews, used to speak a Spanish-Hebrew dialect called: Ladino. Written in Hebrew letters.
|
<urn:uuid:b1170026-6127-4b04-827b-8ec2e61463dd>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.9987831711769104,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.956395149230957,
"url": "https://www.digglicious.com/admission-essay-guides/what-is-the-difference-between-ashkenazi/"
}
|
Do you know what the sand dollar is?
Have you ever heard of sand dollars? According to old legends, the sand dollars would be the coins used by the sirens and the people of Atlantis; other legends tell instead that they were left on Earth by Jesus Christ to help the evangelists in teaching the faith. But what are sand dollars, really?
These particular objects are the remains of marine animals: not shells of strange mollusks as many think, but the skeletons of some sea urchin species. In fact, the term sand dollars is generically used to indicate all those sea urchins characterized by having a flattened body. Therefore, the reference is to the order of echinoderms Clypeasteroida, to which more than 20 different species belong. Among these, the best known are Dendraster excentricus, Echinarachnius parma, and Mellita quinquiesperforata.
Morphology of sand dollars
Sand dollars belong to the echinoderms’ phylum and to the Echinoidea class: the taxonomic placement in this class makes them relatives of the other sea urchins, even if they have different characteristics.
Morphology of sand dollars
Morphology of sand dollars
In fact, sand dollars have the peculiarity of being more flattened than other sea urchins and of having much shorter spines. The flattening and the length of the spines are the results of the adaptation to their lifestyle, as they are excellent diggers of sandy bottoms. The spines, in particular, have lost the defensive role they have in other sea urchins and have been transformed into structures dedicated to nutrition and movement.
The average size of these echinoderms is 5-10 cm in diameter. The average life span varies between 6 and 10 years.
Skeleton and body symmetry
Regardless of the species, sand dollars have a characteristic skeleton that unites all members of the order Clypeasteroida. It is just that flattened skeleton that earned them the dollar name!
The skeleton is known as a test; it is rigid, formed by plates of calcium carbonate arranged according to a pentaraggiate symmetry (or radial pattern with five sections). There are the so-called pores on the skeleton or perforations arranged like the petals of a flower. In live animals, the floral pattern formed by the pores is not visible, as the test is covered with spines.
The spines are, in turn, equipped with very small structures called cilia which give the surface an almost velvety appearance. The spines of sand dollars, while always being shorter than those of other hedgehogs, change in size and color depending on the species. Generally, the colors vary between green, blue and purple. When the animal dies, the thorns leave the skeleton naked, making the characteristic symmetry of the septa and pores that run through the calcareous skeleton appreciable.
Body symmetry of a sand dollar
Body symmetry of a sand dollar
The mouth of sand dollars, like that of other sea urchins, faces downward, in contact with the seabed. However, unlike their relatives, they have the anus in a posterior position (rather than above, opposite to the mouth). This feature is linked to a secondary bilateral symmetry, which derives from the particular evolutionary history of sand dollars. Over time, in fact, from organisms that live on the seabed (epibenthos), the sand dollars have been transformed into organisms that live in the seabed (endobenthos).
Movement of sand dollars
Sand dollars are animals that live in contact with the bottom and within it, but they are not sessile (i.e. fixed, immobile) organisms. They are, in fact, able to perform various movements, such as rotation and progressive displacement.
In general, sand dollars, like other sea urchins, are able to rotate on themselves, that is, around the vertical axis of the body (the one that passes through the mouth). This movement is related to the radiated symmetry of the animal. Sea urchins also have the ability to move progressively, a feature that in sand dollars is probably accentuated by a connection with secondary bilateral symmetry. They are, in fact, able to advance by moving with the vertical axis perpendicular to the substrate. Efficient movement in an inclined direction has also been noted in some species.
Distribution and habitat
Sand dollars are found at modest depths, in the so-called intertidal zone (between the high and low tide limits). They are present in all coastal marine ecosystems, except in Europe and Antarctica.
Sand dollar
Sand dollar
Sand dollars are organisms that live in contact with the bottom and burrow into it for protection and nourishment. Although the species differ from each other in the speed of movement in the sand, they usually take about ten minutes before they sink completely. Given their distribution in the water column, the skeletons of these urchins can often be found on the beach after storm surges.
Feeding and reproduction
Sand dollars are predominantly detritivores, meaning they feed on the organic material they find in the sediment. They can also feed on algae and diatoms, and some species have also been described as suspensivores, i.e. able to feed on the material filtered by the water.
Nutrition is mediated by triangular teeth arranged in a ring in the center of the mouth, which collectively takes the name of Aristotle’s lantern. The teeth are constantly growing and consumed at the level of the free end; ligaments and small muscles are finally held in place
Sand dollars feature individuals with separate genders. Fertilization is external and is mediated by the emission of gametes into the water (spawning phenomenon): it is precisely for this reason that sea urchins are usually found in groups, as this behavior facilitates the fertilization of the gametes once they are emitted into the environment.
The first phases of the life cycle of sea urchins are represented by a planktonic larva (i.e. that remains suspended in water), which goes through numerous stages of transformation before forming the test (the rigid skeleton) and becoming an adult.
One study suggested that asexual reproduction of these curls could be used as a defense mechanism. Asexual reproduction (cloning) is a widespread reproductive strategy both among plants and animals and allows the origin of an organism identical to the original one.
Skeletons of some sea urchin species
Skeletons of some sea urchin species with sand dollars
In sand dollars, cloning is not only a mode of reproduction but can be a valid defense tool, as it allows to increase the number of individuals but to reduce their size: in doing so, the organisms become less visible to predators. In detail, this behavior has been noted on the larvae which, although already modest in size, are the target of various predators. With the cloning mechanism, the larvae can reduce their size (to about 2/3 or half of the starting size), becoming invisible to the eyes of predators.
Main species of sand dollars
Dendraster excentricus
Dendraster excentricus is a sand dollar species found primarily in North America, from southern Alaska to California. Usually, populations are densest between 4 and 12 m deep. At these depths, individuals have an average size of 9 cm in diameter. Above 10-15 m, the average size of individuals progressively decreases with increasing depth. The spines of this species vary between lavender-gray and purplish-black. Furthermore, species from the South Pacific areas appear to have lighter colors than those from the North.
Echinarachnius parma
Echinarachnius parma is found mainly along the east coast of North America, from the northern part of the state of New Jersey. It has a circumpolar distribution, so it can also be found in Alaska, Siberia, and Japan. Like the other sand dollars, it is widespread in the intertidal zone, i.e., at modest depths. The average size is smaller than that of the Dendraster excentricus, oscillating between 5 and 10 cm in diameter (when growth is complete).
Mellita quinquiesperforata
Mellita quinquiesperforata is also a species of sand dollar found along the Pacific coast, with a range extending from Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico and the Brazilian coast. This animal can also be found along the coasts of Bermuda, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. This species has important dimensions, managing to reach even 14 cm in length and 15 cm in width. The color varies between light and dark brown but can occasionally be greenish-gray.
Whether they are called sand dollars or sea biscuits, these particular flattened sea urchins have given way to many fantasies, but they certainly still have much surprising uniqueness to discover!
Continue Reading
Leave a Reply
Your email address will not be published.
Back to top button
Adblock Detected
Please consider supporting us by disabling your ad blocker
Refresh Page
|
<urn:uuid:6d7fc2b4-c1e4-46fd-93de-2c6a466c8c2b>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.08520138263702393,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9454277753829956,
"url": "https://afrinik.com/do-you-know-what-the-sand-dollar-is/"
}
|
• Reflective Resources
Z is for Zwischenraum (space between)
Z is for Zwischenraum; a German word (pronounced zvish-en-raum) meaning an open or empty space in or between things
Although I may be using a bit of literary licence for my Z post today, the concept of space is very interesting.
We often hear many phrases related to space – I need to ...clear some space, hold space, make space, have some space etc etc telling us that the concept of space is just as important as the physical space that surrounds us.
“A vessel is formed from a lump of clay with care, however, it is the empty space within the vessel that makes it useful. ” Laozi
But what is space ?
“When I put my pen to a blank sheet, black isn't added but rather the white sheet is deprived of light. Thus I also grasped that the empty spaces are the most important aspect of a typeface.” Adrian Frutiger
A space can be seen as a negative thing – e.g. having a blank page and being stuck for ideas but it can also be seen as something positive like a blank canvas which gives us unlimited freedom and possibilities. So what makes the difference in this context ? Our attitude or something else perhaps?
Space is not just an absence of something it is intrinsically essential within itself
Why do we seek to fill our lives with activities and plug the gaps ?
“As human beings, we have a natural compulsion to fill empty spaces”
Will Shortz
What happens when you spot some free time in your calendar ? What do you do ?
Breathe a sigh of relief or immediately seek to fill the time you have free with something else ?
“Beware the barrenness of a busy life.” Socrates
Our days are busy and often filled with countless activities so much so that we often forget about creating space to nurture ourselves, and this has a negative effect on our wellbeing and on those around us. Space is essential to create a life of balance
How creating deliberate space can improve our well-being
Space allows us time to accommodate and assimilate ideas and concepts. Assimilation and accommodation are important aspects of a growth mindset and lifelong learning.
The process of assimilation is relatively subjective, because we tend to modify our experience or the information to fit in with our pre-existing beliefs. We all come across new information about the world around us daily. Most people tend to be fixed in their existing beliefs, therefore they assimilate new knowledge rather than changing their belief system.
Accommodation on the other hand requires more effort and requires us to develop new schemas (or shortcuts) or replace them with new ones through the process of learning i.e. we reshape our existing containers to accommodate old ideas that are being changed or even replaced based on new information.
Deliberately creating space is not about doing nothing at all ; it is about doing the right things i.e. creating time to do things which are essential for our well-being
We can either fritter away time and do unimportant stuff and then try to fit in the essentials into whatever time we have left or we prioritise the essentials first and then fit the rest into the ‘gash moments’ of our day. It is our responsibility is to work out what is essential for us
“Because he believed that if you wanted to get rid of a hole, you filled it. He had not realized at the time that there were all sorts of filler that took up space, but had no substance. That made you feel just as empty.” Jodi Picoult
Life is definitely about balance, a mix of work, rest and play and our actions or lack of them can have a major impact on the quality of our lives. It is not just a case of time of organising our time better or setting aside specific parts of our day for certain activities or to rest, to make the most of the time we have, we have to give sufficient thought to the quality of the experience.
“There is no more profitable investment than investing in yourself. It is the best investment you can make; you can never go wrong with it. It is the true way to improve yourself to be the best version of you and lets you be able to best serve those around you.” Roy T. Bennett
We all have moments that we could describe as ‘gash’ moments in our lives e.g. even if it is something as simple as waiting for the kettle to boil or waiting to collect someone or for someone to arrive, etc. Rather than complaining we don’t have enough time to do things or to rest, we could use these moments to invest in ourselves. What appears at first as small insignificant moments of time can be used positively and effectively if we choose to do so.
How creating space can improve our relationships
I have always loved this quote. It is important to choose our friendships carefully because we need space in any relationship to be ourselves and grow at our own pace to be the person we were meant to be.
To have a deep, meaningful friendship where we are ‘seen’ and we ‘see’ the other person, there needs to be acceptance, integrity, consistency, loyalty, openness and authenticity whilst still guarding our own freedom, individuality and independence. A good relationship allows the space for self-expression, mutual learning, disagreement whilst maintaining respect of one and others point of views.
Alice Walker
It is also worth remembering that friendship is a two way street of give and receive. If you are happy to give to others but don’t allow or accept your friends’ help then it is a one way relationship as you are not really opening yourself up and allowing yourself to be vulnerable.
“In the most complete friendship there is always a little empty space, like the space in an egg.” Jules Renard
Space is useful when we communicate.
“It was better to leave the space empty of words than to choose the wrong ones”
Robin Hobb
By listening and creating a moment of space before we speak, we don’t get caught up in the heat of an argument and make knee-jerk responses and say something that we may regret. Instead it allows us the chance to reflect, choose our words thoughtfully, then communicate intentionally to a conversation.
Relationships flourish whenever you can be yourself and you can give another person the space to be their self without any demands.
“If you feel incomplete, you alone must fill yourself with love in all your empty shattered spaces ” Oprah Winfrey
Your well-being is your responsibility and it is only when you are secure in yourself that you can really give unconditionally to others.
Love can come when you're already who you are, when you're filled with you. Not when you look to someone else to fill the empty space. ” Deb Caletti
How decluttering our physical environment can improve our well-being
“The spirit of my home is entirely bound up in a quality of space. I have only the objects I need and nothing more. Empty space in which to think and relax is both stimulating and calming.” John Pawson
By removing clutter from your daily life, you open up mental space and energy that can be redirected towards pursuing your goals or simply being 100% present in whatever you are doing without distractions.
“I asked myself, “Who would I be if I weren’t busy? What would be left of my life and me after I removed excess stuff from my home and allowed my day to have unscheduled open spaces?” Lisa J. Shultz
You can also de-clutter your ‘to do’ list or diary by removing tasks or activities that don’t add any benefit or meaning to your life hindering you from building the life you want. Bank statements, emails and social media notifications can also be de-cluttered by cancelling unnecessary subscriptions, unsubscribing from newsletters or pages that are no longer relevant.
De-cluttering doesn’t happen overnight, it’s a process that, as it unfolds, reveals increasing amounts of time, space and energy.
We cannot think if we are trying to do too much at once. There is no such thing as multi tasking, just rapid task swapping. By focusing on one task at a time and creating a moment of space (a bit like the old adage count to 10) we don’t get caught up in distractive, knee-jerk responses and it allows us the choice to contribute positively and intentionally.
There is a Zen proverb that says, “When eating, eat. When walking, walk,” which although simplistic sums up the essence of Zen i.e. bringing our full awareness and attention to whatever we are doing at the moment.
Regardless of what we do, taking regular breaks, being fully present in the here and now without anything else vying for our attention, is important to retain a relaxed, Zen-like attitude. It is important to consciously create moments of calm (more so when we feel overwhelmed) as what we do with our time today will determine the quality of our life later. A bit like the Gandhi principle of “If we don’t think we have the time to stop for 5 minutes because we are too busy, then we should stop for 10”
A final thought...
Human life is fragile: we live in the space between one breath and the next. We often try to maintain an illusion of permanence, through what we do, say, wear, buy, and how we enjoy ourselves and who and how we love. Yet it is an illusion that is constantly being undermined by change and death.” Victoria Finlay
43 views0 comments
Recent Posts
See All
|
<urn:uuid:c7831380-597c-44d4-8066-b653ffc8b238>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.04609876871109009,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9513911604881287,
"url": "https://www.reflectiveresources.com/post/z-is-for-zwischenraum-space-between"
}
|
The Difference Between Tubes, Pipes, and Hoses
When carrying materials such as fluids over distances, one will commonly employ the use of hoses, tubes, and pipes. While serving similar roles and being fairly close in appearance, there are important differences between each. As such, one should have familiarity with such part types so that they can properly establish and maintain their systems or equipment. In this blog, we will provide a brief overview of each so that you can best understand their differences and capabilities.
While some use the terms “tube”, “pipe”, and “hose” interchangeably, there are indeed certain features that set each apart from one another. Generally, these come down to their applications, standards, sizing terminology, and the material makeup of each. The use of each part type is one of their biggest differences as each has its own unique role.
Tubes are often used for structures rather than always transporting materials. This allows them to be manufactured in diverse shapes such as squares, rectangles, and various custom designs. Additionally, the application that a tube serves and its materials will also affect the standards that must be upheld, common ones being from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and ASTM International.
Pipes, meanwhile, are primarily relied on for the transportation of fluids or gases. For their jurisdiction, pipes typically follow standards as set by those such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). B36.10M and B36.19M are both common standards, each of which offers reference tables for the proper manufacturing of pipes.
Hoses are fairly flexible in their applications, being capable of playing various roles depending on one’s needs. Furthermore, their standardization is also diverse. Often produced from nylon, rubbers, and various other non-metallic materials, hoses do not serve structural or pipeline applications. Rather, they may be used to hold and transfer air, water, hydraulic fluids, brake fluids, fuel, and much more.
When it comes time to source the various tubes, pipes, and hoses you require, understanding the different sizing terminology of each can be beneficial. Tubes are generally measured in regard to outside diameter, inside diameter, and wall thickness schedule. Pipes, meanwhile, are measured in terms of wall thickness and nominal pipe diameter. Lastly, hoses may be measured by finding the inside diameter of such equipment.
For their materials and manufacturing, tubes and pipes are fairly similar. Often, steel and stainless steel materials are popular, and the processes that both part types follow for formation are comparable. Despite this, their manufacturing requirements differ with tubes often being upheld to much stricter specifications for their thickness, straightness, and roundness. Hoses, on the other hand, are often constructed from softer materials such as rubber and PTFE, meaning that their manufacturing process is quite different.
With a better understanding of each equipment type, the sourcing process can be much easier as you narrow down your exact needs. At Infinite Industrials, we are unmatched in our ability to provide competitive pricing and rapid lead-times, ensuring that we save our customers time and money on every order. With over 2 billion new, used, obsolete, and hard-to-find parts ready for purchase at any time, we invite you to explore our inventory at your leisure.
Due to our strict adherence to quality control measures and export compliance practices, we proudly conduct operations with AS9120B, ISO 9001:2015, and FAA AC 00-56B certification and accreditation. Furthermore, we can also meet the time constraints of our customers, taking advantage of our supply chain network to expedite shipping for international and domestic orders alike. If you have any questions regarding our offered services or are ready to kickstart the procurement process, give our team members a call or email at your earliest convenience, and they would be more than happy to assist you.
Recent Twitter Posts
Semiconductor's Certifications and Memberships
Thank You for Visiting!
Request for Quote
|
<urn:uuid:b6740a02-2c90-4e4b-ab53-a7ef6c8d6874>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.1608077883720398,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9508306980133057,
"url": "https://www.infiniteindustrials.com/blog/the-difference-between-tubes-pipes-and-hoses/"
}
|
The 30 years war
One of the biggest tragedies on the european continent ever since, was the 30 years war. Although the name provides the assumption of one single war going over 30 years, there were rather 4 different wars or phases.
Although the main reason for the conflict was the differences betwen catholic and protestant communities, the war was equally about the power and land posessions in Europe. There was already a lot of conflict potential between both religious parties, which had the effect that not much was necessary to escalate the situation.
I think a good overview is given in the Wikiepedia article:
The Spanish Troops in the Netherlands
From the 2nd half of the XVIth century to the end of the XVIIth century.
As for the main conditions concerning the enlistment of the Spanish tercios, no one could recruit troops without the King's permission. The king or his captains-general authorised the designation of the people chosen by the captain of the recruiting force as "teniente" (lieutenant) and "alferez" (ensign) of the regiment. The subordinate officers (sergeants) were designated by the fieldmaster (mestre de camp) of the tercio. To recruit men for the tercios, public recruitment markets existed in Spain, where the price of the engagements was discussed between the recruiter and the future soldier, down to particles of "reals" and "maravedis".
The Spaniards that Philip II used for his foreign wars never numbered more than 10,000 men, which was the manpower of the 4 Spanish tercios that took part in said campaigns.
The staff of a tercio was composed as follows: A "Maestre del campo" (field marshal), who had a guard of 8 halberdiers around him. Eleven captains, twelve alfereces or ensigns, some "cabo de escuadras" (escuade chiefs), a sergeant-major, a military auditor; a barrachel or field judge who had 4 mounted men at his disposal, a fourrier-maior, a doctor, a surgeon, two alguazils, two secretaries, two executioners.
At the time of the formation of the tercios, the use of the different weapons was also standardised. As a bare weapon for the foot people, the pike predominated. The pertisan and the halberd are the weapons of the commanders, sergeants and officers. The gineta, or short lance, was reserved for the captains. The halberd was the distinctive mark of the tenientes, the alfereces and the sergeants.
In each company there were pikemen and arquebusiers mixed together, but in a certain numerical proportion. If the ensign numbered 120 men, it consisted of 80 pikemen and 40 arquebusiers. These covered the front and the corners of the square formed by the pikemen; they were called the "guarniçion".
All these soldiers had to wear the costume of their home country, short trousers, field shoes or field boots, a leather or iron armour (corselet), on the head your iron helmet called "morion". The sword they carried was more or less large, according to personal discretion and taste. The pikemen wore a small round shield, the "rondache", on their left arm for protection.
The arquebusiers were given as much powder as they could carry in their powder horn, which was worn on the right side of their belt. The bullets were not made in advance either. Each arquebusier received a certain quantity of lead or tin from which he had to cast his bullets. As soon as there was irregularity in the process, this inevitably resulted in irregularity in the shooting, the line of fire of the bullets was not always well calculated, and the calibres were not always adapted to the arquebuses.
The use of the musket was ordered by the Duke of Alba. As it was longer and heavier than the arquebus, the operator had to place the muzzle on a kind of fork pierced into the ground.
The Italian infantry had organised its ensigns in a similar way to the Spanish. The colonel, or field master, commanded the regiment and its first company. Each company counted a captain, an alferez, a sergeant, ten escuade chiefs, two drummers and a piper. The regimental staff grouped the colonel, the sergeant-major, the fourrier-major and the barrachel (military court officer in the field). The ensign usually numbered 200 men, without, as I said, this number not being subject to certain fluctuations. For example, under the Duke of Alba, an Italian coronelie consisted of 4000 men divided into 16 ensigns, i.e. 250 men per company.
The main mercenary types in the 30 Years War
The Pikeman
The pikeman is the lowest-ranking unit, but nevertheless very respected at the beginning of the war and well payed at the beginning of the war. This is most likely because the pikeman was at the head of the front. Most of the pikemen were new, young men who had hardly any combat experience. They learned how to fight from scratch. The German phrase "Von der Pike auf" describes this well.
Because the pikeman stood directly at the front, he was usually given a suit of armour (at least at the beginning of the 30 Years War). The surviving originals of pikemen's armour show that the quality was rather inferior. Most pikemen also wore a helmet, like a Morion or Cabasset. The Morion was a rather old fashioned type of helmet, more common in the 16th century, mostly related to the spanish "Conquistatores". The Cabasset is more standard in early to mid 17th century.
The pike was the pikeman's main weapon and was mainly used to defend cavalry. It had a diameter of 3 to 6 cm and was up to 6 m long with an iron tip.
As a sidearm they carried either a rapier or a shorter sword. The sword was very popular with the pikemen because it was shorter and therefore did not interfere so much in the tight tercio. In the course of the war, the pikeman lost his status and there were fewer of them. The musketeer took over because it was more flexible.
Musketeer / Arquebusier
The term musketeer comes, of course, from the musket, the main weapon of this type of mercenary. The same applies to the arquebusier. Along with the pikeman, they make up the bulk of a tercio. While the pikeman protects the musketeer/arquebusier from the cavalry, the latter fires his shot on command and retreats to reload. The reloading process could take between 30 seconds and 2 minutes.
The musket was a firearm and a front-loader, i.e. it was loaded with black powder and bullet from the front.
There were models with different firing mechanisms, the most common being the matchlock. This was very simple and moved a glowing match to the bassinet to release the shot. The bassinet is a small opening loaded with fine powder that ignites the powder inside the barrel.
In addition to the matchlock musket, there was also the wheellock musket. The wheel lock was more complicated (and therefore more expensive) and was not as reliable. The wheel lock had a wheel that had to be wound up so that when the trigger was pulled, a pyrite stone would hit the ignition powder and ignite it. The wheellock musket is more likely to be found among the nobility as a hunting weapon than on the battlefield.
The black powder was stored in small capsules (made of turned wood) attached to a belt. There were 8 - 14 capsules hanging from the so-called bandolier. Each capsule contained exactly the amount of black powder needed for one shot. The bullets were stored in a small leather bag, which was also attached to the bandolier. The fine powder for the bassinet was stored in a powderflask.
The musketeer/arquebusier could also have a harness, but usually only a breastplate, with or without a backplate and without tassels (thigh protection).
Their side weapon was a sword or rapier (with or without a left-handed dagger).
The cuirassier belongs to the heavy cavalry and was in full armour. He was armed with 2 wheellock pistols, a lance and a sword. The lance dates back to the age of chivalry and was used less and less. Mainly Spanish cuirassiers still used the lance in the 30 Years War, but stopped, because it was more effective by making quick attacks with the firearm.
The sword was slightly wider and heavier and could be used as a cutting weapon from horseback.
The dragoon was a lighter cavalry unit and was actually more of a foot soldier who used a horse to be able to move more quickly (which does not mean that he never fought from horseback).
Therefore, his equipment hardly differs from that of the musketeer. He was armed with a musket or arquebuse.
His horse was also less well trained and therefore cheaper, because he might had to leave it back.
|
<urn:uuid:c502c6c8-c65d-451a-9876-ca267bc411c8>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.4937986731529236,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9765260815620422,
"url": "https://www.milites-viennenses.com/history"
}
|
Reflecting on Decameron by Boccaccio
While the context of the Decameron is rather macabre, its story is rather uplifting and it revolves around the brigata made up of ten storytellers, predominantly women. We would like to bring to your attention the framing of this story: the contrast between the morbid plague and the peaceful garden, which brings to mind the question whether this was a form of escape or therapy for the brigata? The brigata secluded themselves in an almost utopian garden and embarked on several techniques to prevent bad humors from entering their body.
More importantly, we would like to ask what is the role of storytelling in Decameron? This question potentially links back to our last reading where Harrison argues that “the more important question, perhaps, is how these epidemics were understood by contemporaries” (58). Perhaps then the narrative framework provides us with a depiction of the public opinion at the time, which could really enhance our understanding of the plague as Harrison suggests.
Additionally, in class, we have discussed that at the time, many people believed that the plague was a form of punishment by God and hence appealed to religion to try to stop the plague. In the introduction to Decameron, the narrator mentions that “in the Face of so much affliction and misery, all respect for the laws of God and man had virtually broken” (7). And we also learn that people abandoned their friends, neighbors or even refused to help their own children. In this setting where people died like animals, was the brigata spiritually blind? To answer this question we may want to consider the numerology and the belief system that the brigata agreed upon.
Building on the theme of religion, Decameron employs several themes, the seven deadly sins (pride, envy, gluttony, lust, anger, greed and sloth) being some of which stand out. With a setting that is infested with disease and death, many have resorted to indulging in their urges and succumbing to worldly pleasures, almost as a way to avoid reality. It seems as though people have disregarded their religious beliefs and are unaware of the consequences of their actions in the afterlife.
Conversely, what would one make of the fact that the plague interrupted people’s religious rituals? Describing the decline in communal/familial burial rituals, the narrator says, “But as the ferocity of the plague began to mount, this practice all but disappeared entirely and was replaced by different customs” (10) (see header image in which people are buried in large numbers due to the amount of deaths). This example is one of many that illustrates the plague’s intrusion into people’s rituals. When people are robbed even of their rituals, are they to blame for abandoning everyone and everything and seeking happiness?
As we’ve seen in the various issues raised above, relevant themes to be raised include reality vs. escape, storytelling, religion, rituals, and spirituality, all of which link, somehow, to the socio-psychological effects of the plague on the people at the time.
Add your comment
1. Hi everyone, this is an additional paragraph on the theme of the seven deadly sins. It’s a very interesting concept that seems to be rooted at the foundation of the story. Please take a quick look at this paragraph and consider the questions at the end to possibly discuss tomorrow. Thank you!
The state of the people of Florence is mirrored by the tales that are told by the ten storytellers. Many of the stories that are told have characters that are considered to be sinners in the eyes of Christianity, specifically ones that take part in the seven deadly sins. On the tenth day, the third story is based on the sin of envy. A young man named Mithridanes is envious over a noble man’s generosity and plans to murder him (711). The motive behind the murder is his desire to attain the same status of courtesy as him. Another sin that is in many of the stories is greed. This includes the fourth story on the ninth day when a character named Cecco Fortarrigo gambles away all of his possessions as well as Cecco Angiulieri’s money (663). This shows the desire for material wealth and the disregard for the more important things in life.
What other sins are evident in this story? Is there a reason why you think Boccaccio would allude at the idea of committing major sins in the religion of Christianity? What does this have to do with the Black Death?
-Mariam Al Shehhi 🙂
• The idea of ‘major sins’ in Christianity almost goes back to what Justin Stearns was saying last week. I think it alludes to the theology of Christianity and how sin was believed to be associated with illness and vise-versa.
• Is there some connection here to the line on p. 8: “Hence everyone was free to behave as he pleased”? Is there a bit of “eat, drink, and be merry” here?
2. Hi Guys,
Just had a few thoughts on the concept of ‘sins’ as mentioned in the convener’s post and in Mariam’s comment 🙂
Last class, we talked a little bit about how every story, or paper, has heroes and villains. Although, I find that in the Decameron, particularly in the first introductory story, the lines between heroes and villains are rather blurred. On one hand, Pampinea’s actions could be seen as heroic, because they essentially ‘saved’ the group from potentially being struck by the plague. Conversely, her actions could also be interpreted as cowardly, in the sense that she chose to escape the plague and all the problems that came with it.
Also, it’s funny how the function of fate operates very differently in this story as opposed to Oedipus. In a way, it is ironic how Oedipus was a man who confronted the harsh realities of life, no matter how bad they seemed to be, and yet his fate was far from fair (arguably). Yet, In Bocaccio’s introductory story, the characters who want to flee the hardships in life are in fact the ones who end up living a relatively consequence-free life.
I think the larger moral/ethical question revolves around the subject of nobility. Although it is certainly understandable, should one simply leave behind their problems, and loved ones in pursuit of their own happiness? Or would they be considered ‘nobler’ if they stayed behind and perhaps suffered like everyone else? Thoughts?
• On this front I’d ask whether they actually do escape. What kind of society do they recreate in their retreat?
• Personally, though I understand the point of Pampinea’s actions being interpreted as cowardly, I think that as a band of women striving to escape together, it can be seen as a power move for taking initiative and control of saving their own lives. In fact, I could argue that Filomena’s remark of women needing a man to accompany them on their journey because they would be incompetent otherwise is a cowardly and anti feminist action to their feminist strive. I think that in certain situations, despite the consequences, it is necessary to be selfish to save your own life. Considering the change in culture and customs that went on during the Plague in the book, it is not surprising that the actions these women want to take, which are considered progressive and out of the culture, are feasible. In the case of the Plague, where everyone is dying around them, I do not think it would be considered ‘noble’ to stay, but rather foolish.
3. I just want to share some thoughts on how the Decameron depicts responses to the plague. I think first of all it introduces a new way that people responded to a plague that we did not see in the previous readings. We saw people responded to the plague as if it was a grave danger: they prayed to the Gods, conducted quarantine, or ran away from the plague. However, here in the Decameron, it seems as if the plague was something that caused sorrow and boredom for them. It is interesting to note that in Pampinea’s speech, there is a strong focus on avoiding the miserable situation caused by the plague, but not so much on avoiding being infected with the plague. Did they leave simply to have a happier life rather than out of fear from the plague?
On the other hand, it could also be understood that by living a happy life, they were also warding off negative influences on the humors, which made them sick. According to this post by the Decameron Web ( , the rules set out in this little society all served to ward off negative influences:
——- “When Pampinea sets up the rules of the brigata as they do leave, she outlaws anything which might lead to bad humors entering the body: she forbids the servants from bringing any news except positive news, and even suggests that instead of playing games, which will “inevitably bring anxiety to one of the players, without offering very much pleasure either to his opponent or to the spectators” (180), the brigata tell stories to pass the time. Pampinea seems to go strictly by the regimen set up by the medieval medical tracts when she sets up the schedule of the brigata: “a certain amount of exercise before the two daily meals, usually in the form of walks; music, songs, and dancing after meals; and of course a great deal of congenial conversation throughout” (180).” ————
I am still not so sure which is the more correct way to read the brigata’s responses to the plague.
4. Hello.
So I’m an augmenter, and I hope that I understand my role correctly.
We talked a lot in class about “love sickness” and I had been thinking about the conflation of war and plague metaphors. However, after our last discussion I started thinking about our conflation between love and disease as well. People get obsessive about the ones they love, heartbreak syndrome is a real thing, and sometimes love is not healthy.
So, there may be better songs out there to link to our text and to this thought, but I was thinking of Bon Jovi’s “Bad Medicine” (Link: )
I think this song is also particularly interesting because Jon Bon Jovi tells us about how love is the bad medicine that he needs. Jon “got lots of money but it isn’t what [he] need[s]” and like our 7 women in the Decameron, they are all rich and come with wealth, but that’s not what they need.
Maybe this is too much of a stretch? Who knows.
P.S – Bon Jovi used to be my cup of tea at some point but I’ve moved on.
5. I would like to point out Boccaccio’s tone in Decameron, mainly on his portrayal of the norm for women and how it was affected by the plague.
Boccaccio presents women as powerful, with the character of Pampinea being a leader and taking charge of suggesting an adventure, in contrast, to the way society viewed women at the time (1353) the story was written. To give to give a context of how women are stereotyped, Boccaccio addresses ladies, humorously, in the introduction of the play and warning them that the play might be emotionally tough for them to handle. In his words, they might be “subjected [as they read] to endless torrent of tears and sobbing” (pg. 5). Furthermore, he points out the stereotype of women not being able to pursue love out of “fear or shame” (pg 2). He makes his stance of solidarity for women clear when he writes that he intends “to provide succor and diversion for the ladies….who are in love” (pg 3). Although excludes himself from the stereotype, he humorously throws in the expectations for women in his society, which is making use of “needles, their reels and their spindles”(pg 3). It is interesting that this comes in the beginning of the story to provide a context of the norm before the plague destroyed the order of things.
Boccaccio shows the contrast in Pampinea’s powerful tone to Filomena’s soft and pleading tone. Filomena’s words that “women when left to themselves are not rational creatures” show how women were socialized to think of themselves (p.17) but the plague caused a change in the norm which led to Pampinea’s, a woman’s, ability in making decisions and convincing other women to follow suit.
6. I think the question about the role of storytelling in Decameron is a really important one to ask, especially as it connects to many of the contagion narratives we have read for this class that include it as a key element.
If Decameron tells us anything about stories, it is the importance of tell them, whether it is to distract oneself from the death and suffering of the outside world, mitigate survivor’s guilt through escapism, reimagine history, or to use it as a cure to stay well. The point of storytelling in the face of imminent threat of death is that it is a marker of life and civilization. Storytelling in Decameron serves as tool of archival, history and truth. The stories that the various members of the brigata come to tell about themselves, are understood to be true, and used to construct their reality despite the fact that they may have been used for manipulation.
I agree with you that this narrative framework allows us to understand the public opinion at the time and enhances the understanding of the plague. After all, the brigata themselves understood each other through stories, whether they were true or not remains unquestioned. It is the telling of these stories that shapes our imagination, and creates the “heaven” or “hell” depending on the memories, that even the narrator of Welcome to Our Hillbrow reminds us of as it speaks directly to Refilwe towards the end of the book.
“Soon you will arrive in Heaven, where you would meet Refentse, Lerato and others. You would share with each other your understanding of what the reality of Heaven is; that what makes it accessible, is that it exists in the imagination of those who commemorate our worldly life. Who, through the stories that they tell of us, continue to celebrate or condemn our existence even after we have passed from this Earth” (Welcome to Our Hillbrow, 124)
Leave a Comment Cancel reply
Your email address will not be published.
|
<urn:uuid:c182a239-cd87-4d13-bebb-e05f7e064f8b>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.890625,
"fasttext_score": 0.041275084018707275,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9742849469184875,
"url": "https://www.bryanwaterman.org/contagion/posts/reflecting-on-decameron-by-boccacio/?replytocom=606"
}
|
TALK TIME: • Tell your child what you know about dinosaurs. Discuss the history of them (extinct) as well as the discovery of bones. Discuss the difference between carnivores (meat-eaters) and herbivores (plant-eaters). Describe how dinosaurs move and how big in size they were. Talk about their claws, if they had wings, sharp teeth, and...
Login Join Now
Rate this story
|
<urn:uuid:cbe90773-fced-4ebb-87c3-4beab50905e2>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.8976497650146484,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9158695936203003,
"url": "https://knowonder.com/dinosaurs/"
}
|
Art And Culture from West Papua – The Meaning of Invisible Asmat Artefak
For the Asmat tribe in West Papua, artifacts and body decorations are made for aesthetic as well as spiritual purposes. Craftsmen added sacred components that matched the expectations of their ancestors. In this case, some of the contents of the Asmat artifacts have become art objects that have high value for art, but there is invisible meaning. Here is the info!
The Unique Characteristics of Asmat Tribe Art
The Asmat’s spectacular art has inspired many art lovers, museum curators, and art historical figures. Art collectors, in particular, are eager to relate their objects to symbolic content. The Asmat people seek to mediate between themselves and their visible and invisible ancestors. It also relates to how they adjust the artifact’s imaginary content.
In addition to their art in major Western ethnographic museums and tribal art collections, the Asmat are known for headhunting activities in the past. Headhunting generally occurs in core groups, as the goal is to get the ancestor’s name (not the actual head). These names aim to liberate by cutting off the associated head for the ritual of the kin group.
In other words, the Asmat are famous for their attackers, and those who are attacked know each other. Battles generally end once the anticipated number of heads is reached. It is wrong, but in the case of Asmat in West Papua, the kin of the group is the enemy. Then, headhunting goes hand in hand with the consumption of beheaded warrior meat.
Asmat elders teach certain values to their present generation. The land in question must seek permission from the bearer of the name before being used for hunting, fishing, or gathering. In addition, this also impacts the practice of giving children strange names at an early age to outwit the evil forest spirits.
In addition, there are war canoes, ancestral poles, and carvings bearing the hunting symbol’s head, which are permanent reminders. This is because the government has issued a new regulation that headhunting is prohibited. On the Asmat side, there is a religious opinion – the majority said they were happy that headhunting and cannibalism did not exist.
Today, the name of the ancestor is commemorated by the tribal chief. Asmat-made items had to be made according to the requirements of the ancestors. All kinds of artifacts had symbols from the headhunting of the past two. As a result, despite the prohibition on headhunting, leftovers of these traditions appear from time to time in West Papua.
What Makes the Asmat Tribe Object-Mediator?
west papua – Page 6 – Kabar West Papua
Headhunting exists in Asmat material culture, which is expressed in rituals. It can classify Asmat rituals into two main categories: ephemeral and long-lasting, which last several years. One of the iconic art pieces is the Bisj Pole, reminding descendants of a headhunter to commemorate the dead whose statues were carved on the poles.
After the ritual is complete, the poles rot in the sago fields as a tradition. Despite their massive commercialization, Asmat ritual carvings are related to the ritual context. For example, some Asmat tribes transfer the spirits of their relatives who are incarnated into the mother’s funeral masks and stored in the house’s attic.
The presence of the invisible entity in the object is closely related to the object containing its spirit. They realize that breaking the norms will result in them being punished. Although Protestant missionaries and the government tried to prevent the Asmat people from clinging to their ancestors, this long-standing cultural practice is difficult to erase.
Tradition forces the Asmat tribe to apply the way they have rituals. Various objects bear ancestral names, such as – anthropomorphic carvings, oars, canoes, spears, lint bags, houses, leashes, dog teeth, domestic dogs, and pigs. All these aspects have the general term in West Papua; etsjow’pok (things that make it grow).
Asmat Tribe Artifacts
Every activity in daily life is meaningful for the Asmat tribe. Ancestors are everywhere with other supernatural beings, such as forest spirits. Chronologically, there are three steps of cultural exchange between the Asmat tribe and their ancestors. First, ancestors pass on positive information to their offspring. Second, the Asmat are obliged to practice positive behavior to please them.
Finally, in the third stage, the ancestors react to their offspring (behavior during dreams, sanctions for Asmat violations, and magical gifts to them). Therefore, the relationship between the Asmat tribe and their ancestors synergizes with each other. Following this idea, any Asmat-made artifact can accommodate at least one spiritual entity or spirit that inhabits people, the dambuw.
The phenomenon of dambuw has a more complex meaning than the explanation of dreams or experiences. The Asmat claims that dambuw can appear in different places in West Papua. However, a dambuw cannot be permanently fixed to an object or a person. It worked when spirit elements were lost if the carvings were discarded, destroyed, or sold as soon as the ritual was accomplished.
In general, any action related to tradition, especially art—must have a consistent purpose with the ancestors. If an offering is meant to anticipate an event, it must be performed, or one risks ancestral sanction. No one should ignore it, and when things are carved to be sold on, each object must go through the approval of the ancestors.
|
<urn:uuid:19928c38-262d-4959-94c9-d9da3e23f696>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.09097474813461304,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9527210593223572,
"url": "https://westpapuadiary.com/art-and-culture-from-west-papua-the-meaning-of-invisible-asmat-artefak/?noamp=mobile"
}
|
Can a tree with Dutch elm disease be saved?
Can a tree with Dutch elm disease be saved?
To properly eliminate both the beetles and the fungal spores that they transport, treatment for Dutch elm disease necessitates a community-wide effort. A single, isolated tree may be salvaged by cutting away diseased branches and treating bark beetles, but several trees infected with Dutch elm disease may eventually necessitate removal. Landowners who find dead or dying trees should call a tree service to remove them before they cause further damage.
How is Dutch elm disease spread from tree to tree?
Dutch elm disease is spread by insects that burrow through the bark of elm trees. A fungus is spread from tree to tree by the elm bark beetle. Dark streaks form on the bark as a result of the injury. The disease has had a devastating effect on our native elm stock.
The insect that spreads Dutch elm disease is called the elm bark beetle. It is about 1/4 inch long and dark brown to blackish brown. Female elm bark beetles eat the sapwood of elms, causing the tree to die. They do this in order to make their nests (which are located in the heart of the tree under the cambium layer) out of dead wood so they won't have to compete with other trees for food once winter comes. Once spring comes around again, male elm bark beetles fly into town looking for a female partner. If they find one, they will mate with her and she will feed his larvae corn syrup which makes them bigger and more attractive to birds who then eat them. When the females finally break away from the tree and look for new homes, they can sometimes be found inside buildings where they're trapped against furniture or walls. There they go through several molts (shedding their exoskeletons) until they're large enough to fly off and look for another elm tree to live in.
Can Dutch elm disease spread to other trees?
A fungus causes Dutch elm disease, which is particularly destructive to American and European elms. The fungus wipes off the beetle and proceeds to grow downward in the tree. Once the fungus has infiltrated the root flares, it may spread to neighboring trees via root grafts as well as through the tree itself. Elms are grown for their wood, which is used to make pulp that is then made into paper. So if a tree with Dutch elm disease is cut down, the disease will continue to spread until it kills or rots all the elms.
The most effective way to stop the spread of Dutch elm disease is to avoid planting infected material. This includes seedlings that grow within 1 mile of an infected tree or site and tissue culture plants. As a last resort, you can treat young trees with fungicides but this should be done carefully so as not to harm beneficial insects. There is no cure for Dutch elm disease once it has spread; only eradication can save healthy trees.
Young trees should not be treated with fungicides unless they are inoculated with the Dutch Elm Disease Agent at one time during their life. If an inoculation was not done, then these trees would die after they produced their first generation of seeds. Fungicides are chemicals that kill fungi, so they won't hurt any beneficial insects. However, excessive use of fungicides can cause problems for other organisms, so use them only when necessary.
About Article Author
Louise Peach
Louise Peach has been working in the health care industry for over 20 years. She has spent most of her career as a Registered Nurse. Louise loves what she does, but she also finds time to freelance as a writer. Her passions are writing about health care topics, especially the latest advances in diagnosis and treatment, and educating the public about how they can take care of their health themselves.
Related posts
|
<urn:uuid:03a89b1e-14fa-44b5-8085-a5b0184aab4a>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.12033170461654663,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.975917398929596,
"url": "https://staminacomfort.com/can-a-tree-with-dutch-elm-disease-be-saved"
}
|
Gamma Knife VS. CyberKnife
The first major radiosurgery device was introduced by Swedish neurosurgeon Dr. Lars Leksell with the invention of the Gamma Knife in 1968. Gamma Knife uses radioactive cobalt as the radiation source. The targeting strategy of Gamma Knife is based on the fact that the location of any target is fixed relative to points of reference on the skull. A rigid head frame fixed to the skull that employs three dimensional stereotactic coordinates can therefore be used for precise targeting of a brain tumor. The head frame limits the use of Gamma Knife to treatment of intracranial targets and therefore does not allow for spinal or body radiosurgery.
With advances in technology, in 1994 Stanford neurosurgeon Dr. John Adler introduced the CyberKnife which uses a LINAC (a machine that produces high energy x-rays) as the radiation source mounted on a robotic arm. Having been a student under Dr. Leksell, Dr. Adler sought to create a radiosurgery device that can be used in other areas of the body in a more comfortable manner without a rigid head frame. It was also believed that the nearly limitless degrees of freedom of the robotic arm allowed for more versatile dose coverage of irregularly shaped targets.
The major differences between Gamma Knife and CyberKnife involve the source of radiation and how radiation is delivered to the target. With respect to the radiation sources, both gamma rays (Gamma Knife) and high-energy X-rays (CyberKnife) produce photon energy that has similar effects (Compton-scatter) on target tissues. The targeting methods are perhaps the major differences between the two technologies. The Gamma Knife is frame based, which means it requires a rigid head frame that is fixed to the patient’s skull during treatment while the CyberKnife is frameless. The Gamma Knife commits multiple radiation beams to a target that is positioned at the center of the radiation field. Once the target is fixed in position, multiple small cylindrical collimators open to expose the target to radiation in a controlled manner. Any movement of the target during treatment would result in an inaccurate delivery of radiation. Hence the reason why Gamma Knife employs a rigid head frame for intracranial targeting.
CyberKnife, on the other hand, delivers single radiation beams in succession to a target that is localized in three dimensional space. During treatment, x-ray guidance is used to track and correct for target movement which allows the CyberKnife robotic arm to follow a target throughout treatment delivery. Furthermore, without the requirement for rigid fixation, CyberKnife allows for hypofractionation (i.e. delivery of radiation over 2-5 consecutive days) a technique that is used to protect healthy tissue, especially when targets are embedded within critical structures such as the spinal cord or brain stem.
A common question often arises as to which device is most accurate. The answer is a bit complicated since the two targeting strategies are very different. Both technologies deliver radiation to an accuracy of less than 1 millimeter. However most will argue that the frame-based system (Gamma Knife) is slightly more accurate compared to the frameless system (CyberKnife). However, although accuracy is important, the ultimate effect on the target tissue also depends upon how dose is distributed to the target. For example, Gamma Knife uses isocentric targeting whereas CyberKnife uses non-isocentric targeting. This basically refers to the way radiation dose is distributed to a target (Gamma knife uses overlapping spheres or isocenters whereas CyberKnife uses more conformal dose coverage). Lastly, CyberKnife often employs hypofractionation that further distinguishes the two technologies and their respective targeting strategies.
Since Gamma Knife and CyberKnife are different technologies, they require different treatment planning strategies. In experienced hands, the differences among these two radiosurgery technologies should not change the clinical outcome. A skilled radiosurgeon is expected to create a treatment plan that is both safe and effective. Determining dose allocation to the target and setting limits to critical structures as well as determining the appropriate dosing schedule are all factors that ultimately have the greatest effect on outcome. However, in select cases, the differences among these two technologies may be important. It is therefore necessary that your neurosurgeon recognize these situations in order to design the best treatment plan.
If you would like more information about our services or to schedule an appointment, feel free to fill out our convenient contact form or call us directly at (609) 890-3400.
Message Us
• * All indicated fields must be completed.
Please include non-medical questions and correspondence only.
Accessibility Toolbar
|
<urn:uuid:78e70924-0afb-4674-83b8-114892fb137b>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.15172481536865234,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9155981540679932,
"url": "https://www.princetonneurologicalsurgery.com/radiosurgery-institute/treatment-tools/gamma-knife-vs-cyberknife/"
}
|
Tidal predictions
Prediction is the term used when it comes to predicting tides. According to the dictionary, predict means to state, tell about, or make known in advance, especially on the basis of special knowledge. This applies perfectly to the astronomical tide, which is why the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Navy (SHOM) makes predictions while meteorological services make forecasts.
With regard to tides, the term is used in a broad sense, since a prediction can apply either to the past or the future. It is calculated based on a theoretical understanding of the phenomenon.
In France, SHOM, heir to a long tradition of tide calculations, is the only organisation that calculates and publishes official prediction documents for maritime navigation since 1839!
Tidal observations are needed to calculate predictions
A preliminary observation of water levels is a necessary condition for an accurate prediction. Prediction calculations require a series of tide measurements to put together tide tables. Systematic errors in the observations, resulting from poorly calibrated recording systems (time or height) can seriously affect the accuracy of the prediction.
The tide table: a French invention
It was during the first half of 19th century that the hydrographer Chazallon proposed a simple and accurate solution to a major problem for navigators: the Tide Tables. It was the Dépôt Général des Cartes et Plans, Journaux et Mémoires concernant la Navigation, ancestor of SHOM, which published for the first time ever, in 1838 the Annuaire des marées des côtes de France, pour l'an 1839 [Tidal Tables for the Coasts of France, for the year 1839]. Chazallon explained the origin of the tide tables:
"The tides are very significant in most of our seaports, and the methods used by sailors to determine the time or the amplitude of the tide on a given day being too inaccurate, I thought it would be good to have a table containing these values computed for all the days of the year."
Page de garde du premier annuaire des marées des côtes de France. Cliquer sur l'image pour agrandir Double-page de prédictions de marée présente dans le premier annuaire des marées. Cliquer sur l'image pour agrandir Extrait du premier annuaire des marées des côtes française. Cliquer sur l'image pour agrandir
Observation period required for calculating tidal predictions
Usually, one year of hourly measurements is sufficient to calculate a good quality prediction for the purposes of navigation.
In contrast, when the tidal wave progresses through shallow waters over long distances (continental shelf and estuaries), more than four years of observations are needed to calculate the harmonic components from nonlinear interactions.
In all cases, 19 years of measurements (longer than the Saros cycle) provide an optimal analysis, but it is very rare to have good quality tidal data over such a long period.
For some sites, it is possible to use periods of less than one year. This is the case when the amplitude of the tide is so low that even an inaccurate prediction is sufficient, or when a nearby port provides a reference constant where an accurate prediction is easy to achieve. One month of observations can then be sufficient provided that the measurements are of very good quality. It is better to take them during the summer, when there are fewer weather events that affect sea level.
Voilier naviguant entre Roscoff et l'île de Batz (Crédits SHOM - Nicolas Pouvreau, juillet 2011). Cliquer pour agrandir
Series of hourly measurements can make it possible to explore the frequency spectrum up to the 12th diurnal, which is sufficient in most cases. However, for some tidal waterways, faster sampling rates may be necessary, because in some estuaries, energy is detectable beyond the 30th diurnal.
Tide predictions in shallow waters - estuarine areas
Traditional methods of analysis and prediction do not work when the tidal wave is distorted by nonlinear processes like bottom friction and advection, which become significant when tidal height variations are comparable to the average depth of the sea.
Prédiction de marée calculée pour le port de Saint-Nazaire à l'aide du logiciel SHOMAR. Noter la tenue du plein pour certaines pleines mer. Cliquer sur la figure pour l'agrandir
The prediction methods used in estuarine areas reflect variations in the flow of the waterways. They require series of good quality sea level observations, sampled every ten minutes.
Other value of predictions
In addition to serving in various activities related to fishing and the sea, tide predictions can also be used to:
• verify the proper function of tide gauges and check the water level observations acquired;
• calculate storm surge (studies on extreme levels);
• provide information for the storm surge flood warning system;
To find out more:
Last updated: 12/12/2012
|
<urn:uuid:40a49a50-adcd-4a2b-b73d-ba2adc906b9f>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.8125,
"fasttext_score": 0.07160842418670654,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7554219365119934,
"url": "http://refmar.shom.fr/applications_maregraphiques/prediction-de-la-maree;jsessionid=602C7DE0B19889483D067E3C89919EDD"
}
|
1. The Lighthouse of Alexandria
One night in the fall of 280 BC, an Egyptian royal wedding ship sank on the reef when it entered Alexandria. The royal family on the ship and the bride from Europe on the ship were all buried in the water. This tragedy shocked the whole of Egypt. King Ptolemy II of Egypt ordered the construction of a navigation lighthouse at the entrance of the largest port. After 40 years of hard work, a majestic lighthouse stands at the eastern end of Fallows. It stands on a rocky reef what 7 meters away of the island and is known as the “Alexander Faros Lighthouse”. When the Alexandria Lighthouse was built, it deservedly became the tallest building in the world at a height of 400 feet. For 1500 years, the Alexandria Lighthouse has been always leaded the way for sailors in the dark. An Arab traveler wrote in his notes that “the lighthouse is built on three steps, at the top of it, reflecting sunlight in a mirror during the day and guiding the ship with fire at night.”
In the 14th century AD, a rare earthquake occurred in the city of Alexandria. The swaying earth destroyed the architectural wonders of this ancient world with great power. The loyal guard of the city of Alexandria, the crown of the city of Alexandria disappeared. After another century, the Egyptian King ordered to build a castle on the original site of the lighthouse for resisting foreign aggression, and named under his name. After the independence of Egypt, the castle was changed to the Naval Museum. In November 1996, a group of divers discovered the remains of the Alexandria Lighthouse in the depths of the Mediterranean.
1. The Colossus of Rhodes
In 408 BC, Ialysos, Kamiros and Lindos united to form a region and have an unified capital: Rhodes. The capital city is well-developed and has strong economic ties with its important ally, Ptolemy I of Egypt. When the peace treaty was reached in 304 BC, Antioch I was removed from the island of Rhodes and abandoned a huge amount of military equipment. After the Rhodes sold the military equipment, they used the money to build a huge statue of their sun god Helios. It took 12 years to build this giant image, which was completed in 282 BC. The Colossus stood in the port for many years until a strong earthquake struck Rhodes Island in 226 BC. The city was severely damaged and the giant image began to break. In the past thousand years, the broken statue has been poured into the ruins.
Click Here For More.
|
<urn:uuid:ce2eba1e-c4b9-470d-bbb1-5c78d0fa551d>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.19474941492080688,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9649383425712585,
"url": "https://heatpumpstraining.org/wonders-of-the-ancient-worldii/"
}
|
Traders Kings and Pilgrims - Solutions
CBSE Class –VI Social Science
NCERT Solutions
History Chapter 10
Traders Kings and Pilgrims
Question 1. Match the following:
(1) MuvendarMahayana Buddhism
(2) Lords of the dakshinpathaBuddhacharita
(3) AshvaghoshaSatvahana rulers
(4) BodhisattvasChinese pilgrim
(5) Xuan ZangCholas, Cheras and Pandyas
(1) MuvendarCholas, Cheras and Pandyas
(2) Lords of the dakshinapathaSatavahana rulers
(3) AshvaghoshaBuddhacharita
(4) BoddhisattvasMahayana Buddhism.
(5) Xuan ZangChinese pilgrim
Question 2. Why did the kings want to control the silk route?
Answer. Traders used the land route to carry Chinese products especially silk to Western Asia. That land route was known as the silk route. Some Indian kings who had their kingdoms adjacent to the silk route wanted to control the silk route because they could reap benefits from the traders travelling along that route in form of taxes, tributes and gifts.
Question 3. What kind of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?
Answer. Trade links were established by India with distant lands -West, Roman empire, Central Asia, China etc. The remains of non-Indian origin merchandise like pottery, gold and silver coins, bowls and plates have been found by archaeologists at various places. They were taken by the traders to one place to another place. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Many of these goods were carried by traders to Rome in ships across the sea and by land in caravans. A number of Roman gold coins have been found in south India.
Question 4. What were the main features of Bhakti?
Answer. Bhakti was generally understood as a person's devotion to his or her chosen deity. It was regarded as a two-way relationship between the deity and the devotee. The main features of Bhakti were:
1. Devotion and individual worship of a god or goddess were emphasised by Bhakti rather than the performance of elaborate sacrifices.
2. According to this system of belief, if a devotee worships the chosen deity with a pure heart, the deity will appear in the form in which he or she may desire.
3. Everyone, whether rich or poor, man or woman could follow the path of Bhakti.
Question 5. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India?
Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best known of these pilgrims are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims like Fa Xian, Xuan Zang and I-Qing. They came to visit places associated with the life of Buddha as well as famous monasteries. They also spent time studying in the monasteries. Xuan Zang and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar).
Question 6. Why do you think ordinary people were attracted to Bhakti?
Answer. Ordinary people were attracted to Bhakti because it was a devotion to a particular deity, e.g. Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, Goddess Durga etc. The people did not need to perform elaborate temple or religious ceremonies.
Question 7. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?
Answer. I buy the following things from the market:
1. Food grains are grown in the villages.
2. Vegetables are also grown in nearby areas and also brought from villages by traders.
3. Readymade garments are made in the cities and brought by traders to other cities also.
4. Exercise notebooks and stationery goods are made in the cities.
5. Electronic toys and mobile phones are also made in the cities.
Question 8. There are several major pilgrimages performed by people in India today. Find out about any one of them, and write a short description. (Hint: Who can go on the pilgrimage- men, women or children? How long does it take? How do people travel? What do they take with them? What do they do when they reach the holy place? Do they bring anything back with them?)
Answer. Amarnath ki Yatra is one of the most arduous journey undertaken by the pilgrims. It is a sacred place for the Hindus. Amarnath in Himalaya has natural Shiva Linga made of ice. The journey is undertaken by people of all ages. It takes about 15 days from Delhi. The journey starts in the month of August. A part of the journey is covered by train, another part on foot and riding on animals. The security forces have to protect the pilgrims from terrorist attacks. The pilgrims carry offerings and after bathing they offer their prayers, they start on the return journey. Very often pilgrims bring 'prasad' which is distributed among the people back home.
|
<urn:uuid:e0f6f60d-3136-41ab-aea5-f09af484f743>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.6027254462242126,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9673647880554199,
"url": "https://mobile.surenapps.com/2020/11/traders-kings-and-pilgrims-solutions.html"
}
|
The Stonehenge Trilithons (Part 2): Day-Inch Counting
In the previous article, it was shown that the form of the trilithons, of five taller double sarsens approximating to a five-pointed star, matches the astronomical phenomena of the successive morning and evening stars, as Venus approaches Earth from the east and then recedes to the west as the morning pass. On approach, the planet rises in the evening sky and then dives into the evening sun and if one traces this motion it have the appearance of a horn. Venus shoots past the sun and reappears in the morning sky as the sun rises, creating another traced horn shape, symmetrical to the evening.
Figure 1
In support of the form of the trilithons resembling five successive double horns of Venus over 8 years, the width of the inner faces can also be interpreted as to their length being one megalithic rod, that is 2.5 megalithic yards. The distance between each pillar is ¼ of a megalithic rod so that, each inner face is divided by 4 of these units which units are 5/8ths of a megalithic yard, the ratio of the practical year of 365 days relative to the Venus synod of 584 days (365 / 584 = 5/8), the common factor between the two periods being 73 days.
The combined inner width of each pair of supports would therefore symbolize 8 x 73 days, or 584 days. Five of these pairs would then be 5 x 584 days, which equals 2920 days, this time period also being 8 x 365 days or eight practical years.
The inner surfaces lie on an ellipse which can be framed by a 5 by 8 rectangle whose sides are exactly the diameters required to form a day-counting circle for 365 day-inches (116.136 inches) and 584 day-inches (185.818 inches). The 365 day-inch circle (shown red and dashed in figure 4) has its centre in the center of the ellipse and so would have touched the two trilithons at A and B, at a tangent to their faces.
Figure 2 The Venus count of 584 day-inches (shown blue and dashed) was concentric to both the bluestone and sarsen circles, sitting inside of the bluestone circle.
The high degree of correlation between,
1. the five-fold form of the Venus synod and the five couplets of trilithons,
2. the summed inner widths of the trilithons as being 5 x 8 = 40 units of 73 days = 2920 days.
3. the out-rectangle of the inner ellipse being 8 by 5 and
4. the rectangle’s sides being the diameters of two circles of 584 inches and 365 inches, suitable for day-inch counting,
……. points to the 5-fold horseshoe of trilithons as a “temple” to the unique astronomical behavior of Venus in its synodic relationship to the solar year of 365 whole days.
No other compelling explanation exists, though many interpretions have been proposed such as
The Stonehenge trilithons as synods of Venus
Figure 1 The five Trilithons of Stonehenge 3, highlighted in yellow within the Sarsen ring to express the five evening and morning star couplets which occur in eight practical years of 365 days. Plan from Megalithic Remains in Britain and Brittany, Oxford U.P. Central portion is fig.3, upside down to match the horseshoe of trilithons..
Inside the Sarsen ring of Stonehenge, there once stood a group of five trilithons, each made up of two uprights and a lintel stone, repeating the unique style of building found in the Sarsen ring. However the Trilithons were higher than the sarsens, punctuating an elliptical cup shape towards the midsummer sunrise, the axis of Stonehenge and its solstice-marking “heel” stone.
The Horns of Venus
The symbolism therefore involved (a) the Sun, (b) the number five of the trilithons while (c) expressed something involving close pairs. The dominant astronomical significance of the number 5 comes through the brightest planetary phenomenon of all, in which the planet Venus approaches the Earth, as Venus approaches from the east, preceding the Sun in the evening sky. It is often therefore called the Evening Star. Venus then shoots past the sun and reappears in the morning sky, again growing in brightness as the Morning Star.
Figure 2 The Horns of Venus when the evening and morning “stars” are visualised over an extended present moment of the Venus synodic period of 1.6 (⅝) practical years of 365 days. Fig. 2.2 of my Matrix of Creation, Inner Traditions, 2004 . (Drawn by Robin Heath.)
The original astronomers of the megalithic only saw the planetary system from the Earth and not (conceptually) from the Sun, as we do today. That is, they were naturally geocentric whilst the present worldview is heliocentric.
The astronomers could study cosmic time periods without arithmetic, through counting days, using a constant unit length to mark each single day adding up to a fixed length of days. Through such counting they would see 365 whole days between the solstices and (more reliably) between the equinoxes (when the Sun moves most rapidly on the horizon). It was also quite obvious that the horns of Venus were bracketing the Sun, just as the elliptical cup of the trilithons they erected at Stonehenge bracketed the solstitial sun, a sun which travels every day from east to west.
Five-ness in the Zodiac
If the earth was their viewpoint then the Zodiac of the sun’s path over the year could, like the Sarsen Circle, be seen as a circle of 365 days, and when the time between evening or morning stars was counted, the result was 584 days between the horn-like and brilliant manifestations of Venus. 584 days is 219 days more than 365 days. The sun has therefore moved 3/5th of a year forward and hence it became noticeable, as stated above, that 1/5th of the practical year is 73 days, the practical year 5 units of 73 days long whilst the Venus synod is 8 units of 73 days long. The Venus synod therefore has exactly 1.6 (8/5) practical years between its phenomena.
Figure 3 The Horns of evening (E) and morning (M) stars shown upon the circle of the Zodiac, each successive pair 3/5ths advanced within the solar year. [from Joachim Schultz, Movement and Rhythms of the Stars, Floris, 1986, fig 88]
The form of Venus upon the Zodiac therefore describes a 5-fold pentacle star. This would later make the number 5 and all of its properties, sacred by association to the planet Venus who became the leading goddess of the Ancient Near East. The Golden Proportion or Mean (1.618034…), often seen in Classical and Neoclassical architecture, has the number 5 as its root. Also, many living bodies share forms derived from the number 5, or of the Fibonacci approximations to the Golden Mean.
The Fibonacci series (of 1, 1, 2, 3 ,5 ,8 ,13 ,21, …) has successive numbers that sum to give the next number, and each new ratio, between successive numbers in the series, yields an ever-better approximation to the Golden Mean: (2, 1.5, 1.6, 1.6, 1.617, …).
Continue reading “The Stonehenge trilithons as synods of Venus”
|
<urn:uuid:3ff7cd23-53cb-400c-a22a-c907c1c945a0>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.37677639722824097,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.937353789806366,
"url": "https://sacred.numbersciences.org/tag/trilithons/"
}
|
Is a hockey stick used as lever? What kind of lever is it?
Expert Answers
An illustration of the letter 'A' in a speech bubbles
A hockey stick is used as a lever. When you hold a hockey stick, the hand with which you hold the stick at the top end serves as the fulcrum. The other hand with which you catch the stick in the middle is at the end of the force arm. The other end of the hockey stick is used to strike the puck and this is where the end of the load arm lies. This is an example of a Class 3 lever.
This type of a lever makes it possible to apply a small force on the puck over a large distance by moving the hand in the middle by only a small distance though the magnitude of the force that has to be applied by the hand is several times higher.
Using the hockey stick in this way increases the speed by which the puck can be pushed. Pushing the puck at a higher speed is very important in hockey and provides a large advantage.
Approved by eNotes Editorial Team
|
<urn:uuid:b472f792-bae0-434c-888e-1a508d11c438>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.17182976007461548,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9539408087730408,
"url": "https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/hockey-stick-used-lever-what-kind-lever-293559"
}
|
Persuasive Writing II
Help your young writers use logic in their persuasive writing. Discuss the characteristics of a persuasive paper, and have pupils work together to explore and solve a syllogism. They will write a short persuasive paper which includes a problem, subject, and a proposed solution. Toward the end of the class, they take a quiz that covers the topic.
1 Collection 167 Views 441 Downloads
Classroom Considerations
|
<urn:uuid:753bd212-2b1b-4d7b-9a60-7901cdd3cef8>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.375,
"fasttext_score": 0.9909088611602783,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9167027473449707,
"url": "https://lessonplanet.com/teachers/persuasive-writing-ii"
}
|
An opening to a cavity or crack in a certain surface is understood but does not cause the separation of said structure, in addition, they can affect a series of materials, especially solids, generally the openings are caused by external agents, either natural phenomena or a simple blow that can generate openings in walls, ceilings or floors. The word opening comes from the verb open. In the musical field, the opening is used to refer to how the organs in charge of the music of the moment open and expand.
There are openings that are generated with intention, that is, that arise from the need that something that is closed must now have a hole. For example when a hole is made in the wall to pass a cable. In the architectural context, the term opening is used to refer to the gaps that must be left in the walls so that light or air enters, which is known colloquially as doors and windows, that is, the openings made before to place them.
On the other hand, in phonetics the word opening is also implemented and it is to refer to that word that the organs that deal with phonation need to have more openness to emit them, this is the case of the letter A where its sound needs a greater effort and therefore a wide opening with respect to the vowel I.
There is a lot of confusion sometimes with the term opening and opening, the differences of each and when to use them will be established below.
According to the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy (RAE) the two words opening and opening refer to the action of opening something, there are certain differences that must be considered. To speak of openness, it is used when there is an attitude towards a certain situation, for example: openness towards sexual diversity or the action of starting your own business. While opening is to refer to when there is a gap or fissure produced and it is permanent, for example, a space between two mountains or the opening of a window.
There are many contradictions that these terms generate to the point that there are dictionaries of great relevance, that for optics, the aperture is the diameter of the lens that establishes the angle through which the light will pass when an image is focused, given this we have that in this case the word opening could also be used.
|
<urn:uuid:f4758c64-70fb-4dca-8b83-5d5b6c5bbcbd>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.859375,
"fasttext_score": 0.32259494066238403,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9717366099357605,
"url": "https://www.definetheconcept.com/opening-2/"
}
|
flipfact, flipfacts, flipscience, leucism, leucistic, albinism, albino
Roaring Earth
Have you ever seen an animal that’s almost entirely white, even though they’re typically much more colorful? What you saw was certainly a beautiful natural oddity–but perhaps not the type you’re thinking of.
If an animal suffers from leucism, the cells that would produce its natural color are unable to migrate into its skin, feathers, scales, cuticle, or hair. They end up looking like they’re either entirely white, pale, or partially colored. Albinos, on the other hand, just have a problem with their melanocytes, the cells that produce melanin.
It’s easy to mistake leucism for albinism in the wild. Fortunately, there’s one simple way you can tell whether an animal is leucistic or an albino: Look at the eyes. Animals with leucism retain their normal eye color (or have blue eyes); meanwhile, because melanin affects eye color as well, albinos have red or pink eyes.
Today Science’s History Milestone: On December 4, 1908, American biologist Alfred Hershey was born. Alongside Salvador Luria and Max Delbrück, Hershey was awarded the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine “for their discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses.”
• https://berkeleysciencereview.com/2012/02/why-whites-not-so-white-after-all-the-story-of-leucism/
• https://slate.com/technology/2016/07/leucism-is-the-cause-of-white-coloration-in-lions-not-albinism.html
• https://www.audubon.org/news/why-bird-half-white
• https://u.osu.edu/biomuseum/2016/04/04/living-colorless/
Flipscience bookorder Flipscience book on Amazonpreorder
Author: Mikael Angelo Francisco
|
<urn:uuid:67336880-84d0-4c22-ba88-863377d93abe>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.953125,
"fasttext_score": 0.03516310453414917,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8911280035972595,
"url": "https://www.flipscience.ph/plants-and-animals/leucism/"
}
|
Build a Stemming Search Engine
Build a Stemming Search Engine
Rate this article
Share this article
What is stemming?
Stemming is reducing a word to the simplest form. For example- running will be simplified to run.
While performing a search, the search engine also tries to find not only an exact match to the typed search query but also other variations of the search query.
For instance, when someone tries to search for running, the search engine tries to find different forms of the term “run”, instead of trying to only match “running”.stemming
How Stemming works-
Most stemmers work by trying to find the root word of a given search query.
There are different algorithms for stemming, but the most common in English is the Porter stemmer written by Martin Porter. For example, the Porter stemmer reduces apple and apples down to apply, and it stems berry and berries to berri.
The most popular open-source stemmer is snowball
1. Porter Stemmer- You can experience the porter stemmer from here.
2. Snowball Stemmer –Snowball stemmer can be experienced here. is also an example of the snowball stemmer is action.snowball stemmer
Expertrec comes with a default stemming algorithm. You can create your own search from here
Sign Up for ExpertRec
Leave a Reply
Avatar placeholder
Your email address will not be published.
|
<urn:uuid:0c4f911d-2f4d-4b4c-8b4b-84b1fdd49742>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.4004684090614319,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8035570383071899,
"url": "https://blog.expertrec.com/what-is-stemming-in-search-engines/"
}
|
Filipinx American History: A Celebration of Community, Activism, and Persistence
Filipinxs in Hawai’i: Labor, Community, and Resistance
As significant numbers of European and American sailors, missionaries, and capitalists began to arrive in Hawai‘i in the mid- to late-19th centuries, they sought to exploit the resources and fertile soil of the archipelago. Through both economic coercion and political connections, some of these settlers began to gain control over large tracts of land, inaugurating large-scale export-oriented plantation agribusiness, especially sugarcane, pineapple, and coconuts. Through the displacement of indigenous Kanaka Maoli communities and the exploitation of a low-wage immigrant workforce, the planter class consolidated much political and economic power and influence within the Kingdom, ultimately illegally overthrowing Queen Lili‘uokalani in 1893, and resulting in Hawai‘i’s illegal annexation by the U.S. in 1898. Through the Hawaii Sugar Planters’ Association, the plantation elite--also known as “the Big 5”--implemented an ethnically stratified labor system through the recruitment of waves of migrants from China, Japan/Okinawa, Portugal/the Azores, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Spain and many other places, resulting in Kanaka Maoli people being made into a minority and marginalized in their own homelands.
Due to landlessness, economic and political instability following the Philippine-American War, and concerted labor recruitment by the HSPA, between 1906 and 1946, over 125,000 Filipinos (predominantly from the marginal Ilocos and Visayas regions)--known as “sakadas”-- migrated to work in the Hawai‘i’s burgeoning plantation economy. While many of these workers were recruited into 3-year contracts, many stayed and raised families in communities across the Hawaiian archipelago. As one of the last major waves of plantation labor migration, Filipinos were often paid the lowest and were forced to work the most difficult and dangerous jobs, as well as experiencing poor living conditions. As a result, many Filipinos began organizing labor unions to advocate for their rights in the workplace. Until the 1930s, most of these unions were ethnically specific (ie for Ilocanos and Visayans) or nationally specific (Filipino-oriented unions), which meant that their organizing was easier to crush with the divide-and-conquer tactics of the HSPA.
By the late 1930s, multi-ethnic labor unions began to emerge, later consolidating as a territory-wide affiliate of the International Longshoremen and Warehouse Union (ILWU). Filipino-Ilocano laborers like Justo Domingo alongside thousands of his fellow multi-ethnic sugar workers formed ILWU Local 142 “United Sugar Workers.” In 1946, 28,000 militant sugar workers (and 47,000 family members) went on strike, joined later by workers in other sectors, eventually successfully breaking the political and economic domination of the “Big 5” and transforming Hawai‘i’s politics and economy forever.
This page has paths:
|
<urn:uuid:c45bf309-be26-4463-a99a-5ae8e6b3898e>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.796875,
"fasttext_score": 0.6569234132766724,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9569264650344849,
"url": "https://scalar.usc.edu/works/fpahm-timeline-project/filipinxs-in-hawaii"
}
|
Which organization was MLK associated with?
Which organization was MLK associated with?
What organization was MLK?
the SCLC
What did Maya Angelou do for Martin Luther King?
King invited Angelou to become the SCLC’s Northern Coordinator. She was instrumental in raising funds and promoting the organization’s mission.
What inspired Maya Angelou’s writing of poems?
Angelou was a student and started writing poetry when she was a teenager. She used poetry and other great literature as coping mechanisms for trauma, as she wrote in her first autobiography, “I Know Why the Caged Bird sings.”
Why Is Maya Angelou Inspirational
Maya Angelou was an inspiration, passionate, and influential figure. Angelou has had a lasting influence on the world through her words and actions. Angelou envisioned a vibrant society with equal opportunities for everyone. Angelou never gave up trying to make her dreams come true.
How can Maya Angelou be a leader?
A leader sees the greatness in others. A leader cannot be a great leader if she only sees herself.” How to deal with others: “People will forget what your words were, and people will forget what your actions were, but people will always remember how you made them feel .”
Is courage the most important virtue of humanity?
Courage is the most important virtue, as without it, none of the other virtues can be practiced consistently. Maya Angelou, Maya Angelou, to this year’s graduating class, stated that Courage was the most important virtue. Angelou stated that you can be kind, true, fair, generous, just, and merciful sometimes.
Read: Is a subordinate clause an independent sentence?
Was Maya Angelou a leader of the civil rights movement?
Maya Angelou’s legacy of using her life for people around the globe, through her extraordinary accomplishments as an author, poet, and civil rights leader, has been marked by her ability to impact tremendous amounts of people who continue to look up to her transformative leadership as inspiration to this day.
How did Maya Angelou become a civil rights activist.
Maya Angelou was heavily involved in the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s. When the organization collapsed after Malcolm X’s assassination, Angelou began working with Martin Luther King, Jr. to promote the Southern Christian Leadership Conference through her role as Northern Coordinator.
Who is Maya Angelou? And what did she do to get there?
Angelou’s autobiographies are her best-known works. They focus on her childhood experiences and her early adult years. The first, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969), tells of her life up to the age of 17 and brought her international recognition and acclaim….
Maya Angelou
Children 1
|
<urn:uuid:f7de496f-f28b-4603-b3eb-bb0869cc01e1>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.6875,
"fasttext_score": 0.8796152472496033,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9649752974510193,
"url": "https://sociallyspeakingllc.com/which-organization-was-mlk-associated-with/"
}
|
What is milling?
Milling or processing operations vary for different grains, but the operation involves removing some of the grain and possibly grinding the grain to make it more suitable for consumption. Milling is traditionally performed manually by women pounding the grain. Commercial mills can reduce the time and labor associated with hand milling but vary widely by scale and efficiency.
What causes postharvest loss at this stage?
Improper milling can result in introduction of foreign matter and cracked and broken kernels. Foreign matter can damage machines as well, and inadequately maintained machines can damage kernels and lower yields. High moisture and inadequately cleaned grain can aggravate the situation.
How large are milling losses?
Village milling can result in 20 to 30% weight losses in rice and commercial milling losses can range from 5 to 30%. (Kiaya 2014)
What does research focus on?
Research at this stage focuses on increasing milling efficiency.
To read articles and find research about milling and postharvest losses, refer to the table below.
TitlesAuthorsTagsPublication DateCategory
Grain Supply Chain Network Design and Logistics Planning for Reducing Post-Harvest Loss
Nourbakhsh, Seyed Mohammad, et al.
Processing, Transportation, Maize, Value Chain
Journal Article
Role of Effective Parameters on Kinetics and Milling Quality of Paddy Stored in Different Packaging Materials
Kumar, Ashok, Satish Kumar, Sanoj Kumar, et al.
Storage, Processing, Paddy, PHL Technology
Journal Article
|
<urn:uuid:7a05d62c-1484-4110-bab0-e6f09f17be44>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.03618729114532471,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8996813893318176,
"url": "https://postharvestinstitute.illinois.edu/resources-processing/"
}
|
a new study discovered whales migrate in order to shed their skins. Researchers spent over 8 years studying 62 orcas; there are actually more food resources in the cold waters for the orcas than in tropical areas. However, a layer of diatoms will be collected if the orcas stay in cold water for too long. By migrating to the tropical waters, orcas can shed their skins and remove the diatoms to maintain healthy skins.
recent animal news
error: Content is protected !!
|
<urn:uuid:2631eec5-2e7b-4beb-85b5-1d85dbe9ebf4>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.6724635362625122,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7218202352523804,
"url": "https://anddear.com/%E9%AF%A8%E9%AD%9A%E9%81%B7%E5%BE%99%E7%82%BA%E8%84%AB%E7%9A%AE/"
}
|
Today we improvised with two 2nd graders, one with autistic traits and another with relationship and self-esteem issues. The slogan was that they had to grab a puppet (whatever they wanted) and think about what made that puppet sad.
We had done a similar exercise before but with the students themselves. The result was that the student with autistic traits did not make him sad at all.
The student with ASD grabbed a ball that was missing an eye, and the other student grabbed an elephant.
Here's what they talked about:
"They find a ball without an eye and an elephant without legs.
BALL: Why are you sad?
ELEPHANT: Because I have no legs.
BALL: I can help you
PILOT: I'll make you legs.
The Elephant gets on the ball and they jump.
ELEPHANT: Why are you sad?
BALL: I'm not sad.
ELEPHANT: But you're missing an eye.
BALL: I'm used to having only one eye and that's why I'm not sad.
ELEPHANT: But I will help you with my eyes to see better. ”
The student with ASD does not see that the ball may be sad for not having an eye. For her it is natural because she is used to it. Let's think.
Skip to content
|
<urn:uuid:c0620d1b-43b8-41a7-acdc-beb224be3921>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.84375,
"fasttext_score": 0.8875343799591064,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9766122698783875,
"url": "https://www.teiamoner.net/en/la-pilota-i-lelefant/"
}
|
Order instructions
Define Geophysics and describe 3 geophysical surveys that could be conducted during a land based exploration program.
List the 3 main steps involved in the Seismic Exploration Method and describe what an oil company might use this Seismic data set for.
When was Easter Island “discovered”? Who found it and how did it get its name?
In addition to the large stone moai, what other discoveries were found on Easter Island?
How many people live on Easter Island today?
Who were the original Islanders? When did they get there?
What was the estimated population of the island at its height?
How many statues are still located in the Rano Raraku quarry?
How were the statues moved? (List some of these theories)
What purpose did the statues serve? What is the Rapanui name for the statues?
What happened to the statues that were located on the raised platforms?
When was the quarry abandoned? What did archaeologists also find appearing at the same time?
What do the skeletal remains of the in habitats show around this time?
What reasons likely led to the endemic warfare?
What did the pollen analysis reveal about the original environment of Easter Island?
What did the Dutch sailors find when they arrived at Easter Island?
What is the significance of the Orongo site on Easter Island?
What causes finally led to the collapse of the Easter Island Civilization?
What Awaits you:
• High Quality custom-written papers
• Automatic plagiarism check
• On-time delivery guarantee
• Masters and PhD-level writers
• 100% Privacy and Confidentiality
|
<urn:uuid:b03df3ca-873e-42db-baf3-9c0f2072840e>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.9974141716957092,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9694868326187134,
"url": "https://paperforpay.com/define-geophysics-and-describe-3-geophysical-surveys-that-could-be-conducted-during-a-land-based-exploration-program/"
}
|
About Seesaw Sign Up
Teachers, save “Comparative and Superlative Adjectives” to assign it to your class.
Mrs. Gray
Student Instructions
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
Create four sentences using comparative and superlative adjectives using text and emojis. 1. Tap add Add. 2. Tap label and type a sentence using either comparative or superlative adjectives. 3. Tap label and add emojis that go with your sentences. 4. Use the mic button to record yourself telling what the differences between a comparative and superlative adjective. Click the check to add to your journal.
4th Grade, 3rd Grade, 5th Grade, English Language Arts, Writing
2305 teachers like this
Students will edit this template:
|
<urn:uuid:b309559a-6cf5-4c4b-ae38-73c7264ff616>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.609375,
"fasttext_score": 0.3810126781463623,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8026994466781616,
"url": "https://app.seesaw.me/activities/7hx5mz/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives"
}
|
What’s the Hype about the Ice?
Learn about the history of ice harvesting, ice fishing, where to fish, and some safety tips that could save your life!
The movie Frozen introduced a modern audience to the long-forgotten trade of ice cutting. Think men working with pick-axes and saws to extract massive blocks of ice from a frozen lake to sell to customers far and wide. In the late 1800s, the ice harvest played an important role in the Canadian economy. YDH sat down with Georgina Pioneer Village curator Melissa Matt to learn about Lake Simcoe’s ice cutting trade – and talk about its popular ice fishing scene.
Ice Harvesting
Take us back to Lake Simcoe circa 1870. How did the ice cutting boom get started?
In the beginning, many ice businesses were run by local families, and butchers and dairies would harvest their own ice right out of lakes and ponds. As farms grew bigger and more hotels opened, there was greater demand for fresh, clean ice. In 1876, James Fairhead started the Springwater Ice Company, which later became Lake Simcoe Ice Company after it acquired the Knickerbocker Ice Company. At Jackson’s Point, the ice trade employed 50 men and 12 horses!
How did workers harvest the ice from the lake?
It was quite a process! First, they had to clear the ice surface of snow using scrapers and a team of horses. Then, they used hand saws with sharp teeth – picture the two-handed saws used to cut down trees, but with just one handle – to cut massive ice blocks. When we say massive, we mean it… they were seriously big! Workers needed the ice to be between 14 to 20 inches thick before they would consider cutting, and the ice blocks harvested by the Lake Simcoe Ice Company weighed up to 300 pounds. Fun fact- the men who worked at the Jackson’s Point lumber mill in the summer worked in the ice trade in the winter. It was the perfect fit because they were used to loading and unloading rail cars. The lumber mill had a derrick, which is like a crane arm, which they used for lifting heavy objects. In the winter, they rigged the derrick to lift the ice blocks. At the time, the Lake Simcoe Junction Railway went right to the ice, so workers could load the blocks directly onto the train. This allowed the Lake Simcoe Ice Company to ship ice to customers as far away as Toronto and the United States. This trade was responsible for providing an enormous contribution to jobs in the region. It provided jobs for local men, as well as men who came to Lake Simcoe specifically for work. They rented rooms in boarding houses run by women, leading to even more work.
Picture dozens of men and horses, local farmers and seasonal workers, in teams scraping away the snow, scoring the ice with grid lines, breaking off large sections, and sawing the ice into manageable blocks. Men and horses manoeuvring ice blocks up ramps on to carts or elaborate wooden structures to be slid onto larger carts then horse-drawn to vast ice houses to be stored until needed, or to the nearby specially built rail line for shipping to local ice houses across southern Ontario.
Businesses and homes didn’t have access to factory ice or refrigeration for a couple of decades into the 20th century, but once they did the ice harvesting business declined dramatically. Small operations continued around Lake Simcoe into the mid-1950s and special seasonal events like the Alton Mill Fire & Ice Festival use large blocks for ice sculptures.
Alton Mill Fire Ice Festival
We understand, the ice fishing industry is also a time-honoured trade in Lake Simcoe.
That’s right. We have records going back as far as the early 1800s that show settlers bought fish from First Nations spearfishers during the months of January and February. At the time, settlers ate lots of preserved meats during the winter months and fresh caught fish was a welcome change of pace.
What did ice fishing look like in those days?
A spearfisher would make a hole in the ice, which they would cover with a small evergreen tent. They’d lie on the ice with the tent covering their upper body and keeping them warm. When they spotted a fish, they would strike it with a spear that had a barbed tip. Blacksmiths created spearheads with 13 tines that were attached to poles measuring 10 to 15 feet long. Another cool innovation is the wooden herring decoys spearfishers used. The decoys were weighted with lead and had tin fins that determined how they moved underwater. Georgina Pioneer Village has some spears and decoys for viewing in our collection – just be sure to call ahead and make an appointment!
And now, Lake Simcoe is known as the ice fishing capital of North America!
That’s right! In 1991, we hosted the World Ice Fishing Championship, and the Canadian Ice Fishing Championship came along in 1994. It’s always so magical to see the community of hundreds and hundreds of ice huts rise up on the frozen lake in the winter.
Now the ice fishing enthusiasts rule the ice and the sounds of men and horses, saws and surf, have been replaced by the beeps of sonar and underwater cameras, the hum of heaters, the whoops and the high fives, and the roar of snowmobiles heading back to land at the end of the day.
Kids Ice Fishing
Ice fishing. There are fewer winter experiences that are more quintessentially Canadian than gathering your friends around a frozen hole in the dead of winter, waiting for the tell-tale tug of a fishing line.
Around these parts, the ice fishing season typically starts in mid to late January and closes March 15 (the date all huts must be off the ice). Whether you’re an avid fisherman or just curious about ice fishing, there are plenty of ice hut operators in York Durham Headwaters who can supply you with everything you need to get out on the ice this winter.
Ice fishing Couch
Since prehistory ice fishing on Lake Simcoe has provided essential cold weather edibles for Ontario residents. Now, ice fishing might be more a sport than a food source, but it’s a sport that comes with certain risks and requires a certain expertise to practice safely and successfully. Newbies should not try this on their own!
Regardless of personal experience, one thing has not changed over time about ice fishing: the adrenaline rush when you feel the tug of a fish on your line and the thrill of landing your catch amid cheers from your friends and family.
Lake Simcoe is known as probably the best location for ice fishing in Canada. Yellow perch, whitefish, lake trout, burbot and pike abound in the freshwater sanctuary whose waves wash the northern shores of York and Durham Regions. From the first safe ice in December to mid-March, as the law, the climate, and COVID allow, the frozen surface of Lake Simcoe will be dotted with ice fishing huts sheltering eager anglers and their catches.
From Barrie to Beaverton, the coast of Lake Simcoe is home to some of the best ice fishing operations. These businesses generally offer personal guides, transportation, shelter, all kinds of equipment, meals and years of hands-on experience. You’ll learn about jigging for whities and lakers, inside tips like goby sauce, and the true meaning of “Fish on!” Of course, you’ll need to check with individual business owners for rates, requirements and services available before you book a trip.
Try ice fishing on Lake Simcoe this winter. You might get hooked!
Ice Fishing
• Ice conditions can shift quickly. If you are an inexperienced ice fisher we strongly recommended that you check in with one of our seasoned ice hut operators for ice conditions before you venture out onto the lake.
• You must have a valid fishing license. Be sure to get one before you head out to the lake.
• Implement a safety plan by letting others know where you’re planning to fish and when you plan on returning.
• Wear appropriate clothing and equipment both for safety and to ensure that you have the most comfortable and pleasurable ice fishing experience possible. We recommend warm layers of clothing, water resistant gloves and insulated boots—it can get cold out there and snow can get deep around the huts. Don’t forget your hat!
Purchase a Fishing License
Ice Fishing on Island Lake
Fishing reels
Ice Fishing Bait
• Ice doesn’t freeze at uniform thickness.
• Ice is often much thicker and safer near the shore than the ice that is farther out, especially at the start of winter season
• As you move further out on to the ice, regularly check the thickness with a spud bar or an auger.
• Ice that forms over moving water, like a natural spring or near the mouth of a river or stream can be weaker than the surrounding ice.
• Ice that has formed over old ice holes may be weak.
• Keep your eye out for pressure cracks, this may indicate that the ice is weak.
• The colour of the ice will give you a clue as to its integrity. Clear blue ice is strong, where as white or opaque ice is much weaker.
• Beware of ice that looks honeycombed. This indicates that the ice may be thawing.
• Driving on ice requires extreme caution, it is important to know the thickness of the ice before venturing out. Here are the recommended minimum thickness levels for safety:
• Snowmobiles: at least 20 centimetres (8 inches) of clear blue ice
• Light vehicles: at least 30 centimetres (12 inches) or more
• Double the recommended thickness if the ice is white or opaque.
• CAUTION: Heavy snow on a frozen lake or river slows down the freezing process.
These tips are provided by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. You can learn more about ice fishing by visiting their ice fishing resource page.
Ice Fishing Catch
By Rob Morphy and Erika Cuccaro
After a long day outdoors, there’s nothing quite like a warm beverage and some comfort food. Check out some great spots to warm up below!
Stay local and check out these ice fishing staycations right here in YDH!
YDH Logo
|
<urn:uuid:256d1a69-3a9d-4d42-8184-e45b109e30a1>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.671875,
"fasttext_score": 0.018770277500152588,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9556049108505249,
"url": "https://yorkdurhamheadwaters.ca/ydh-on-ice/"
}
|
Dec 05, 2020 I Jocelyne LeBlanc
Young Boy Unearths 3,000-Year-Old Perfectly Preserved Gold Bead
A perfectly preserved gold bead from the time of the First Temple was found by a 9-year-old Jerusalem boy during an archaeological project. The boy, whose name is Binyamin Milt, found the bead in August while looking through dirt from Jerusalem’s Temple Mount during the Temple Mount Sifting Project (TMSP).
The granule bead was so well preserved that the supervising archaeologist of the project first thought that it was from modern times. The bead was small and cylindrical with a hole in the center. It had four layers of small gold balls that were put together in a flower-shape. The entire bead measured just 6 millimeters in diameter and 4 millimeters in height.
It was only after Dr. Gabriel Barkay analyzed the findings from the dig that he realized the bead looked quite similar to other objects that he had previously discovered when he was excavating burial systems from the First Temple era in Katef Hinom. The only difference between the bead that Binyamin found and the ones that were unearthed by Dr. Barkay was that the ones the doctor found were made from silver.
Temple Mount 570x371
Temple Mount
Based on the fact that numerous other similar-looking beads that were unearthed at other locations in Israel date back to the Iron Age (between the 12th and 6th centuries BC), it’s safe to assume that the one the boy found was also from that same time period. Several gold beads were previously discovered in Megiddo, Tel el-Ajjul and Tel el-Farah that all dated back to between the 12th and 9th centuries BC.
It’s actually quite rare to find gold jewelry from the First Temple Era because gold hadn’t been refined so the majority of the jewelry created back then was made with silver. Beads from that time period were manufactured by a technique called granulation which required the goldsmith to be extremely precise and experienced with that type of fine work.
Granulation is a technique where the goldsmith would attach gold or silver balls (called granules) to each other or to a small piece of metal. The granules get their round shape from small pieces of metal being melted on a bed of charcoal or charcoal powder.
Gold Beads1 570x380
(Not the gold bead mentioned in this article.)
As for what the bead was used for, it’s still unclear, although it has been speculated that an important member of society or even a priest wore the bead as part of an ornament or a pendant on a necklace. In ancient times, some beads were used in burial offerings to keep away evil spirits as well as in jewelry as pendants, bracelets, and tiaras, in addition to being ornaments on belts and clothing fringes. They were also used in amulets, pins, stamps, spinning whorls, and weights.
More information will be released in a publication once the experts finish analyzing all of the items found during the project. Pictures of the rare gold bead can be seen here.
Jocelyne LeBlanc
|
<urn:uuid:a35c6881-1d28-4162-b3fa-ae021856a7a5>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.04093515872955322,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9808667898178101,
"url": "https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2020/12/young-boy-unearths-3000-year-old-perfectly-preserved-gold-bead/"
}
|
Blender For Dummies
Book image
Explore Book Buy On Amazon
Besides transform operations, the most commonly used modeling tool in Blender is the Extrude function. In meatspace, extrusion is a process whereby some material is pushed through a shaped hole of some sort.
When you were a kid, did you ever cut out a shape in cardboard and force clay or mud or Play-Doh through it? If so, you were extruding. If not, you certainly missed out on a good solid five to ten minutes of fun (but don't worry, it's never too late to start).
In 3D, extrusion follows a similar concept, except you don't have to create the hole to extrude through. Instead, that shape is determined by your selection and you can extend that selection in any direction. Use the following steps to extrude:
1. Select the object you want to edit by right-clicking it.
2. Tab into Edit mode.
3. Select the vertices, edges, or faces you want to extrude.
Use any of the selection methods listed in the previous section.
4. Extrude your selection in one of several ways:
• Use the E hotkey.
• Left-click Add→Extrude Region in the Tools tab of the Tool Shelf.
• Choose Mesh→Extrude→Extrude Region from the menu in the 3D View's header.
After you extrude your selection, Blender automatically puts you into grab mode on the newly extruded parts.
Now, if you extrude a polygon, your new extrusion is constrained to move only along its normal. If you don't want this constrained behavior, middle-click your mouse (without moving it) and the constraint is removed, allowing you to freely move your extrusion around.
If you extrude an edge, your extrusion is constrained to a plane perpendicular to your newly extruded edge. If you extrude a single vertex, you're in a free extrude mode that's completely unconstrained. In order to use constraints in this case, you need to use the coordinate system constraint hotkeys.
The selected orientation in the Transform Orientation menu is active even if you're transforming with hotkeys. So if you set that menu to the Normal orientation, you can press Z→Z, and your extruded region is constrained to its face's normal. (Just pressing Z once constrains it to the global Z-axis rather than the face's normal.)
There are advantages and disadvantages to Blender's extrude function leaping directly into grab mode. The advantages are that you have all the transform functionality, such as axis-locking, snapping, and numerical input immediately available to you. The disadvantage is that, because of this autograb behavior, if you cancel the operation by right-clicking or pressing Esc, the newly extruded vertices, edges, or faces are still there, just located in exactly the same place as the vertices, edges, or faces that they originated from.
For this reason, if you cancel an extrude operation, make sure that your duplicate vertices, called doubles, are no longer there. A quick way to check is to press G after you cancel your extrusion. If it looks like you're extruding again, you have doubles.
You can get rid of doubles in a variety of ways:
• If the canceled extrusion operation was the last thing you did, undo it by pressing Ctrl+Z. This solution usually is the quickest.
• If you still have the doubles selected, delete them. You can activate the delete operation with hotkeys (X or Del), clicking Remove→Delete Vertices in the Tools tab of the Tool Shelf, or by going to Mesh→Delete Vertices in the 3D View's header. If you use the delete hotkey, you see a menu where you decide what elements of the mesh you want to delete. In this case, you choose Vertices. The disadvantage of this method is that it also removes the faces created by those vertices.
• If you're unsure whether you have doubles from previous canceled extrusions, use Blender's special Remove Doubles function:
1. In Edit Mode, select all by choosing Select→(De)select All from the 3D View's header or pressing A until all vertices are selected.
2. Press W→Remove Doubles, and Blender removes all doubles from your mesh.
You can find this option in Mesh→Vertices→Remove Doubles in the 3D View's header, as well as the Tools tab of the Tool Shelf (Remove→Remove Doubles).
If you have Blender's mesh auto-merge feature enabled (it's disabled by default, but can be enabled in the 3D View's header menu in Mesh→AutoMerge Editing or by a button in the 3D View's header with an icon of two arrows pointing at each other), you might expect that duplicate vertices automatically are removed/merged if you have a canceled Extrude operation. This isn't the case. Those extruded vertices will remain in place until you move them, so don't assume that you're automatically safe from having doubles when auto-merge is enabled.
If you look in the Mesh menu of the 3D View, you have more than one Extrude option. A second Extrude operation, called Extrude Individual (Shift+E), works, depending on which selection mode you chose. If you're in Face Select mode, then the Extrude Individual operation extrudes each face you selected along its independent normal.
Likewise, if you're in Edge Select mode, Extrude Individual extrudes each edge you selected independently of one another. And the same principle works on vertices if you're in Vertex Select mode and choose Extrude Individual.
When you're modeling, the most common type of extrusion you want is related to what you selected. For example, if you want to extrude an edge, you select that edge, or if you select a group of faces, chances are good that you want to extrude that as a region. As expected, Blender has shortcuts for these common modeling tasks.
Blender also has an even faster way to do an extrusion on a mesh. This is a great feature if you're making an organic model that consists of a long series of extrusions, such as a tree or the profile of a wine glass. To perform a quick extrusion:
1. Select your object and tab into Edit mode.
2. Select the vertices, edges, or faces you want to extrude.
3. Ctrl+left-click where you'd like the extrusion to end.
Blender automatically decides what kind of extrusion you want and extrudes your selection right where you'd like. Working this way is particularly useful when you're doing a series of multiple extrusions, one right after the other, such as when you're roughing out a shape by "drawing" with vertices or edges.
Proportional editing works in Object mode as well. This capability can be really handy, but it can sometimes yield undesirable results if you want to use this feature only while in Edit mode. For this reason, double-check your 3D View's header before performing a transformation to see whether proportional editing is enabled.
About This Article
This article can be found in the category:
|
<urn:uuid:49405549-90ca-402b-9784-807a8c082f2e>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.05637425184249878,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9315223693847656,
"url": "https://www.dummies.com/article/technology/software/animation-software/blender/blenders-no-1-modeling-tool-extrude-142871/"
}
|
NewsLocal News
Christmas trees pose fire hazard the longer they're up
Christmas trees.JPG
Posted at 11:42 AM, Jan 03, 2022
and last updated 2022-01-03 14:42:26-05
Some people like to keep their Christmas tree up after the holidays to continue the festive spirit, but they pose a danger the longer they stay up.
Battalion Chief Ray Hais of the San Luis Obispo City Fire Department explained, “It's kind of like a blowtorch. You know, I hate to use that analogy, but with the dry leaves and the dry branches on the Christmas tree, it has such a high fire hazard and low moisture content in it, that once it ignites, there literally is no stopping it and it's going to spread throughout the home.”
According to fire officials, on average, there are about 150 house fires related to Christmas trees every year throughout the United States.
“No matter how much water or how much you care for it, it is going to continue to dry out and the more it dries out, the greater the fire hazard,” Hais said.
Nearly 40 percent of Christmas tree fires happen in January, according to the National Fire Protection Association.
“The biggest thing for that we see as far as tree fires, is candles, matches, cigarettes, things like that. A little bit too close to the fire. And once it gets into the tree, there's honestly, there's absolutely no stopping it,” Hais warned.
He says if a Christmas tree does catch on fire, evacuate immediately and call 911.
“The sooner we are dispatched, the sooner we can get there and the sooner we can salvage a majority of your house. Do not try to fight, especially a Christmas tree fire on your own because it is going to be a losing battle,” Hais said.
People can dispose of their trees by cutting them up and putting them in their green waste containers.
Jeff Clarin, District Manager for the San Luis Obispo branch of Waste Connections, said, “We actually have as a curbside pick up, we actually cut your trees up that fit in your green waste container - no more than six inches in diameter and just cut it in about four foot sections. You put it in your regular green waste container and then we can actually service it on your service day.”
People can use a chainsaw to cut up the tree, but make sure there are no lights, stands or ornaments still attached.
At Waste Connections, they will put the Christmas trees through a digester where it becomes soil compost. From there, it is sold to farmers.
San Luis Obispo City Fire would also like to remind people to be extra careful when they are taking down Christmas lights.
They already had some incidents where people have fallen off ladders and ended up in the emergency room.
|
<urn:uuid:4ba8c17a-8ed5-462e-a87b-aa94835b790b>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.019593358039855957,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9550591111183167,
"url": "https://www.ksby.com/news/local-news/christmas-trees-pose-fire-hazard-the-longer-theyre-up"
}
|
How did the Phalanx work? (A complete guide)
In our modern-day world, the phalanx as a military formation is long obsolete. And yet the word phalanx is still a major part of our language. Terms like „standing together like a phalanx“ are often used.
But what exactly is a phalanx and how did the Phalanx work? And why was the Phalanx so successful that we, after 2.500 years are still speaking about that specific formation while other historic formations are long forgotten?
The goal of the phalanx was to break the hostile formation by putting as much pressure on it as possible. After breaking the hostile formation the phalanx would dissolve into individual combat.
But let’s dive into a little bit more detail:
What is the phalanx?
To find the reasons why the phalanx was such a formidable fighting force we have to find out what a phalanx actually was.
The ancient greek phalanx was a deeply staggered formation of heavy infantrymen, so-called Hoplites.
Hoplites were not professional soldiers (Sparta as the exception). They were Militiamen. Most of them were farmers and Craftsmen who were called to arms in the case of a campaign.
Click here to read my article with more Information on what Hoplites are and what regulations there were for becoming a Hoplite.
Because the hoplites were militiamen they usually didn`t have the skills that a professional soldier would have in the fields of combat and being able to maneuver in complex formations.
In order to compensate for all these disadvantages, the Phalanx was created.
The Idea of the Phalanx was that the Hoplites would stand in a close formation in which they covered each other. Actually, the idea of covering each other must be understood in a literal meaning.
The Hoplon, the shield the Hoplite got his name from, was designed in a way that it would mostly protect the soldier to the left of the actual shield bearer.
It is important to stress that most battles were rather short and didn`t rely on elaborate tactics. (Once again Sparta being the exception). But why didn`t they?
Maneuvering in complex formations and using elaborate tactics only works with highly disciplined and well-trained soldiers. Every soldier has to know exactly what he is supposed to do. That kind of discipline and routine usually only comes with a lot of training. Training that militiamen lacked.
And the Corinthian helmet limited both view and hearing which made it harder to understand commands. That by the way is one of the reasons why the helmet that was used by the Romans had a different design.
Another reason was the militia structure of the army. Except for Sparta the Hoplites were just not trained enough to perform complex tactical maneuvers.
And in addition to that, the leaders of the army usually fought on the right side.
So in contrary to generals of later eras they were not able to overlook the battle. Because of that, the army leaders had a lot less influence on the course of the battle. But why would they fight on the right side of the phalanx?
The leaders of greek phalanxes usually fought on the right side because that was the most dangerous and most vulnerable place.
And coexidentialy also offered the highest glory.
Fighting on the right end of the phalanx was so dangerous because a Hoplite would mostly be protected by the shield of the men on his right. And on the right end of the phalanx, there were no men left whose shields would provide cover for the men next to them.
But now let’s take a look at how the phalanx actually worked:
How did the Phalanx work?
The Goal of the Phalanx, similar to other tactics that used close formations, was to break the hostile formation.
In order to archive that it was necessary to put as much pressure as possible on one or several points in the hostile formation.
In that context, pressure can actually be taken literally.
Staggered to be up to 8 men deep the ancient greek phalanx would advance on the enemy in a more or less closed formation.
Some historians argue that the men would sing the anthem of their city not only to boost morale but also to give a rhythm for the marching men.
It is not known if that was actually the case. But since it is quite difficult for a large group of soldiers to advance while holding a close formation it seems likely that there was some kind of instrument or chant to provide a rhythm.
Once again Sparta is the exception. We actually know that the spartiates, more Information on spartan society here, used flutes to give signals. They did that for example at the battle of Plataea.
Click here to learn more about one of the most important and jet often overlooked battles of the Greco Persian wars. Or here to find out what incident caused the Greco Persian Wars.
The shields would be locked against each other offering Protection to the men on the left of the shieldbearer.
There would also be light infantry, armed with javelins, bow and arrow, and slingshots in front of the actual phalanx. Their goal would be to test the strength of the hostile formation, to inflict casualties, and disrupt the opposing formation if possible.
When the opposing Formations came close to each other these lightly armed men would evade to the sides and fall back behind the phalanx. As lightly armed Infantrymen without noteworthy protection, a close encounter with a Hoplite would have proven fatal.
Click here for more information on the economic difference that decided if a man would fight as a hoplite or as a lightly armed infantryman.
After the light infantrys first encounter, the Phalanx would usually try to run the last distance. That was done to overcome the fear of the coming battle.
To the best modern theories, the phalanx would then stop and would start stabbing at the hostile formations with their spears.
This video is embedded from Youtube and will only be loaded if you click on the Play Button. By loading the video you agree to Youtube`s privacy policy.
Other historians believe that instead of stabbing at each other the phalanx would use a technique called Othismos.
But more on Othismos in the next paragraph.
What is Othismos?
Othismos, literally meaning pushing, is the supposed concept of ancient greek warfare used by the Phalanx.
About 100 years ago an oxford professor decided that the literal translation of Othismos „pushing“ should actually be seen as a mass-pushing similar to American football.
His Idea was that the Phalanx would run the last distance and would smash into the hostile formation with as much power as possible.
And since the Phalanx was staggered up to 8 men deep not only the men in front but also the 7 men in the back of each man at the frontline would push against the hostile formation.
The idea was that by projecting that kind of force against the hostile formation the formation would break. The enemy soldiers would then flee while throwing away their heavy, the escape obstructing, shields.
If the enemy line would not break under the pressure of the pushing phalanx then the formations would have probably dissolved into one on one combat or fights between groups.
Did Othismos really happen?
It is highly debated if Othismos should really be understood as a literal mass pushing.
There are several reasons why an actual mass-pushing like in American football might not be a good idea.
The most prominent reason is the weapons. Slamming into a formation that holds pointy sticks at you seems like a mediocre Idea. Even if you are covered by a large shield, the Hoplon.
Also, historians are not sure how exactly othismos has to be understood they all agree on the effectiveness of the phalanx.
This leads to the next question. What made the phalanx so effective that it dominated warfare for centuries?
Why was the phalanx so effective?
One of the main reasons why the Phalanx was so successful was the social pressure on the militiamen who were fighting in the phalanx.
Think about it: You are standing in a close formation and you know that if you flee the comrade next to you will lose the bulk of his protection.
Running away and abandoning the comrades would have resulted in life-long shame.
Another reason why the Phalanx was so successful was the psychological damage the enemy took when the phalanx, (especially the spartan phalanx) advanced.
Just imagine, you are standing on a battlefield while a wall of well-protected (actually covered from toe to head) singing men slowly advance. If you were unlucky enough to face Sparta the spartiates would all have the same symbol, the Greek letter „Λ“ on their shields making them even more intimidating.
And also the fact that the equipment of the Hoplite, more on that in my article here, was usually much more protective than the equipment of their non-greek opponents was a reason for the effectiveness of the phalanx.
Because of its specific equipment, close formation, and social pressure on the individual man, the Phalanx was highly effective.
But while the Phalanx dominated the battlefields between the 7th and 4th century BC also had a few weaknesses that should lead to its demise in the 4th century BC.
And if you are interested in what style of formation replaced the phalanx (and was used by an extremely well-known military genius) I would recommend you my article here.
What kind of losses were normal during a battle?
Now let’s talk about the losses that the phalanx warfare would inflict. First of all, it is important to state that all numbers are merely estimates.
It is estimated that the victorious phalanx would have around 5% casualties while the defeated phalanx would have around 14% casualties.
Historians estimate that the truly bloody part was not so much the Othismos but the moment when one formation broke and the defeated men would try to flee.
The idea behind it was that …
1. The fleeing men were hindered by the men behind them.
Think about it. If the first lines of the phalanx (usually 8 men deep) realize that the battle is lost the men at the end of the formation haven`t necessarily gotten that impression yet.
For example. The formation is 8 men deep. The 4 men in front lose hope in their chances of victory and realize that it is time to flee but the 4 men behind decide that the battle isn`t lost yet and that it is still time to push back.
Suddenly you have giant chaos that would have been exploited by the winning side.
Actually, that kind of chaos following the collapse of any tight formation was usually the bloodiest part of the entire battle.
2. The fleeing men would throw away their heavy shields in order to run faster.
But that left them vulnerable. Now that would usually not be a problem because a man without the heavy shield (up to 16 pounds) would be faster than a man with that kind of extra load.
But if you combine that with the chaos that I described in 1. you see the problem.
For centuries the winning side would actually pursue the enemy. It wasn`t until later that especially Sparta banned the pursue of defeated enemies.
Obviously not out of the goodness of their hearts but because they realized that by pursuing the fleeing enemy they were giving up the order of their own phalanx which led the individual hoplite much more vulnerable.
And at one point Sparta could not accept the unnecessary loss of spartiate lives. Click here for my article with more information on why Sparta could not afford to lose men in the useless pursuit of an already beaten enemy.
How many spartans were in one phalanx?
Now let’s give some actual numbers on how many men would fight in a phalanx. That obviously depended on the size of the city.
In order to provide some numbers, I chose Sparta as the largest greek infantry power during the Greco-Persian Wars.
Click here to learn more about how the Greco-Persian war that led to battles like at the Thermopylae actually started.
During the Battle of Plataea, one of the largest Hoplite-battles of History, Sparta fielded about 10.000 Hoplites.
Here you can find my article with more information on the less well known but decisive battle of the greco-persian wars. 5.000 being Spartiates and 5.000 being perioikoi. Click here to read my article for more information about the big difference between spartiates and Perioikoi.
I hope you enjoyed our short visit to ancient Greece.
Take care of yourself because you deserve it. You really do.
Until next time
Yours truly
Luke Reitzer
P. Bardunias, F. Ray Jr., Hoplites at War. A Comprehensive Analysis of Heavy Infantry Combat in the Greek World, 750-100 BC (2016).
L. Burckhardt, Militärgeschichte der Antike (2008).
|
<urn:uuid:882b356e-f5e9-4df6-a4bb-e0dcfb56dc1d>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.71875,
"fasttext_score": 0.7525060772895813,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9716356992721558,
"url": "https://neutralhistory.com/how-did-the-phalanx-work/"
}
|
Christian Early Medieval Period
Christian Early Medieval Period
Puerta del Perdón of the Cathedral of Cordoba, former Aljama Mosque. J. Parcerisa engraving (1855).
Cordoba is conquered by the troops of the Christian King Fernando III in June 1236. At that time the city would be divided into two distinct sectors: the Medina, which will be known as “La Villa” – and the Axerquia or Ajerquia. Both surrounded by two walled walls and connected to each other through different doors and gates.
Three-dimensional reconstruction of the Ferdinand church of San Lorenzo with the superimposition of the minaret of the previous mosque, currently preserved inside (AST).
After the Castilian conquest, the main Mosque is used and consecrated to Christianity, like other ancient centers of Islamic worship in the city. The site occupied by the old Alcazar of Andalusia is divided between King Ferdinand III, the bishop, some nobles and the Order of Calatrava. Traditionally it has been considered that the current Christian Alcazar is a homogeneous work, result of the initiative of Alfonso XI in 1328. However, archaeology has shown that a good part of its layout is inherited from the Almohad period, and that its subsequent modification does not respond to a single constructive impulse, but is a consequence of the constant contribution of reforms and extensions.
Cordoba from the south of the Guadalquivir, detail of the engraving by Anton van der Wyngaerde (1567)
Much of the urban planning of the Almohad city is maintained in the Christian city. The walls preserve in essence the same layout, especially the Villa. The main streets are preserved, and continue crossing the city from East to West and from North to South, connecting the most important doors; however, many of the secondary streets will lose part of their intricate previous morphology, as they widen or disappear due to the assimilation of properties, often causing small squares at the confluence of several of these streets (hillocks).
The purely Christian urbanism will be developed in the areas of the city that until now had remained virtually deserted, as in the strip of land located in the Ajerquia that runs parallel to the eastern wall of the wall of the town, in the area of the Alcazar Viejo (today Barrio de San Basilio), or in other parts of the interior of the city that until that time had remained dedicated to orchards or corral, such as the sector North of the Axerquia, through which ran a stream intramuros (Guadalcolodro) that complicated its habitability.
The first map of Cordoba with the different Lower Medieval parishes (from Garcia, Gamiz 2010).
The city is initially organized in fourteen collations, seven in the Village and seven in the Axerquia, each of them presided over by a parish that gives it its name: Santa Marina, San Lorenzo, Santiago, Sta. Maria, etc. A lower unit within them are the neighbourhoods, in which people are sometimes grouped according to the trade they exercise, as there are establishments destined for a specific purpose or because of the ethnic and / or religious characteristics of their inhabitants (Juderia, Moreria, etc.). The current toponymy of Cordoba still conserves many of these references (streets of Farrier, Strainer, Biolermakers, Spice Rangers, Weapons, etc.). The trades that needed a greater use of water were concentrated closer to the river, detecting in the area of the riverside streets with the names of Badanas, Tundidores, Noques … In this part of the city, which is also an axis of passage very frequented by merchants, there are also numerous inns and inns, where the mancebia district also settled. Another fact of relevance is the creation of numerous hospitals and health care centers of different types, such as asylums and houses destined to shelter the poor, children and even demented people.
Late medieval Collaciones indicated in the Plano de los Franceses of 1811 (ESCOBAR 1989).
Cemeteries are linked to these churches, sometimes also reflected in toponymy; like the street Cemetery, located next to the Church of the Magdalena, or the Paseo de los Amortajados, next to the current Church of the San Rafael Oath.
The walls are repaired and reconstructed during the Late Middle Ages, especially in the Axerquia, as shown by the tower of the Malmuerta, built at the beginning of the 15th century. Nevertheless, the outline and dimensions of the previous Islamic wall are maintained in broad strokes.
CÓRDOBA DE LA LLAVE, Ricardo (1990): La industria medieval de Córdoba. Córdoba
CORDOBA DE LA LLAVE, Ricardo, MARFIL RUIZ, Pedro (1995a): “Aportaciones al estudio de las murallas medievales de Córdoba. Estructura y técnicas de construcción en el Sector Ronda del Marrubial”, Meridies, 2, pp. 145-177.
ESCOBAR CAMACHO, J. M. (1989): Córdoba en la Baja Edad Media: Evolución Urbana de la Ciudad. Córdoba.
ESCOBAR CAMACHO, J. M.: (2003): “La imagen de una ciudad a fines de la Edad Media: Córdoba en la época del Gran Capitán”, en Córdoba, el Gran Capitán y su época. Córdoba, pp. 17-45.
ESCOBAR CAMACHO, J. M. (2006): “De la Córdoba islámica a la cristiana: conquista, repoblación y repartimiento urbano”, en Al-Mulk, 6, pp. 69-94.
ESCOBAR CAMACHO, J. M. (2009): “La Córdoba bajomedieval (siglos XIII-XV). El origen de la ciudad cristiana”, en ESCOBAR, J. M.; LÓPEZ ONTIVEROS, A.; RODRÍGUEZ NEILA, J.F.: La Ciudad de Córdoba: origen, consolidación e imagen. Córdoba, pp. 83-131.
ESCRIBANO UCELAY, V. (1972): Estudio histórico-artístico del Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos de Córdoba. Córdoba.
GARCÍA ORTEGA, Antonio Jesús, GAMIZ GORDO, Antonio (2010): “La Ciudad de Córdoba en su Primer Plano: un Dibujo Esquemático de 1752”, Archivo Español de Arte. 83, pp. 23-40.
GARRIGUET MATA, J. A. y MONTEJO CÓRDOBA, A.J. (1998): “El Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos de Córdoba” Actas del I Congreso de Castellología Ibérica. Palencia, 345-364.
JORDANO BARBUDO, M. A. (1996): Arquitectura medieval cristiana en Córdoba: Desde la Reconquista al inicio del Renacimiento, Córdoba.
JORDANO BARBUDO, M. A. (2002): El Mudéjar en Córdoba. Córdoba.
LEÓN, A.; LEÓN, E. y MURILLO, J. F. (2008): “El Guadalquivir y las fortificaciones urbanas de Córdoba”, IV Congreso Internacional sobre fortificaciones: “Las Fortificaciones y el mar”, Alcalá de Guadaira (Sevilla), pp. 261-290.
NIETO, M.; LUCA DE TENA, C. (1980): “El Alcázar Viejo, una repoblación cordobesa del siglo XIV”, Axerquía 1, 229-273.
SANTOS GENER, S. (1954): “Notas para la historia del Alcázar Nuevo de los Reyes Cristianos de Córdoba” Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos 60.2, 579-594.
|
<urn:uuid:9ea8edbb-8cbf-4ecd-8816-45a6c2f4e606>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.03250986337661743,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7324891090393066,
"url": "http://www.arqueocordoba.com/en/historia/medieval/bajomedieval/"
}
|
• Graham Abbott
In this post we're going to explore an enormous span of European music history, looking at how composers have set one particular text to music. Known as the Magnificat, this is, after the Ordinary of the Mass, the most-frequently set text in the history of church music. I just want to survey some of this vast, rich heritage.
The text of the Magnificat comes directly from the Bible, from the first chapter of St Luke's Gospel which tells the story known in Christian tradition as the Annunciation. The Virgin Mary is told by an angel that, despite the fact that she is a virgin, she will give birth to the son of God. Mary then visits her cousin Elizabeth to discover that she too is pregnant (she became the mother of John the Baptist). In response, Mary sings a song of praise to God and it's this song which is the text of the Magnificat.
In Latin, the first line of this song is Magnificat anima mea dominum, and in usual church practice the text is referred to by its first word.
Leonardo: The Annunciation (c. 1475)
As with most texts sung in the Christian liturgy, the earliest known musical settings of the Magnificat are those in the medieval chant usually known today as Gregorian chant and there are several chants for the text. From the 6th century onwards the Magnificat was used as the final canticle in the Office of Vespers, the sunset or evening service; it was and still is traditionally associated with evening worship in Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches. [listen]
The earliest surviving polyphonic settings of the Magnificat (that is, settings with more than one voice part) date from the 15th century. Also, virtually all polyphonic Magnificat settings up to the 17th century are based on pre-existing melodies. In the vast majority of cases the melody used is the Gregorian chant setting of the Magnificat text, which is in some way woven into the polyphonic setting. In rare cases another melody is used.
When the pre-existing melody is used in long notes in one part, while the other parts weave around it with new music, the long note part is called a cantus firmus. Where the pre-existing melody is used more freely, say, broken up and used in fragments, or embellished, this practice is called cantus prius factus, which simply means "pre-existing melody".
This is part of a three-voice setting by the Franco-Flemish composer Gilles Binchois, who died in 1460. The uppermost part is an elaboration the Magnificat's Gregorian chant setting. [listen]
That setting, like virtually all Magnificat settings of the Renaissance, began with an intonation. That is, the first word - Magnificat - was chanted to its Gregorian setting rather than set by the composer. This three-part setting by Binchois' more famous contemporary Guillaume Dufay does the same, and again the top part is an elaboration of the chant melody. This performance takes up an option of doubling some of the sections with instruments. [listen]
Guillaume Dufay (left) and Gilles Binchois (right)
In Europe in the 15th and 16th century virtually every composer who wrote church music would have to write Magnificat settings because the liturgy demanded it so regularly.
In Tudor England, the brilliant flowering of Catholic church music before the Reformation gave the world some of the most complex and exuberant church music in the repertoire. William Cornysh composed for the Chapel Royal under Henry VII and Henry VIII and died in 1523. His five-part Magnificat displays a common feature of later Renaissance settings, in that the composer only sets alternate verses, leaving the other verses to be sung in the chant versions. Sometimes odd-numbered verses were left to be chanted, sometimes even-numbered; most composers (especially on the Continent) composed Magnificats both ways, although the first word - Magnificat - was virtually always chanted, regardless. Sometimes composers did set the entire text polyphonically, usually for high feast days or other special occasions, but even then the first word was usually intoned and not set by the composer.
Cornysh's setting displays the sheer indulgence in sound for its own sake which characterises pre-Reformation Tudor church music, something which makes the settings rather long as the syllables are often greatly extended. [listen]
Robert Fayrfax was a contemporary of Cornysh. His five-part Magnificat Regale is one of the glories of Tudor church music. The "regale" part of the title indicates that it is based on a chant beginning "regale et progenie", suggesting a royal connection, either with Eton or with King's College, Cambridge. As with Cornysh's setting, the set verses alternate with chant ones, and the setting is extended again by virtuosic vocal writing. The composed sections are based on fragments of the "regale" chant. [listen]
Thomas Tallis, that amazing Tudor composer who worked under no less than four English monarchs - and their own respective takes on religion - composed a number of Magnificat settings, both in Latin and in English. This is one of his most elaborate. [listen]
Thomas Tallis (posthumous portrait)
Meanwhile, on the Continent in the 16th century, composers at the centre of the Catholic world turned out huge numbers of Magnificat settings. Major names like Tomás Luis de Victoria wrote 18 settings, Pierluigi da Palestrina 35 and Orlande de Lassus around 100. The reason for needing so many is that settings were written in different modes; the eight church modes were the equivalent of our major and minor keys. Liturgically the Magnificat is introduced and followed by an antiphon, a short sung text appropriate to the day. The antiphons were all in different modes and generally the modes of the antiphon had to match that of the Magnificat, hence the need for so many different polyphonic settings, in different modes.
The modes were sometimes referred to as "tones" and this is what is meant by a title like Magnificat primi toni or "Magnificat on the first tone". This tells us that the Magnificat is in the first mode, which was the Dorian mode.
The most widespread Magnificat settings in Europe at this time (according to Grove, which was my major source for this survey) were those by a Spanish composer, Cristóbal de Morales, whose life spanned the first half of the 16th century. [listen]
Cristóbal de Morales (posthumous portrait)
The name which towers above all in the annals of late Renaissance polyphony is Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose career was centred on Rome. His 35 Magnificat settings include a full cycle in all the tones. [listen]
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
Tomás Luis de Victoria, who died in 1611, ranks with Palestrina as one of the masters of high Renaissance church music. Of his 18 Magnificats, 16 set the verses alternately with chant. The other two set the entire text after the first word is intoned. This is the opening of one of these, for eight parts, divided into two choirs, one high and one low. [listen]
Not all Renaissance settings of the Magnificat were based on the Magnificat plainchant. About 40 of Lassus's 100 settings were based on other material, in some cases secular. This setting is based on a popular secular madrigal, Ancor che col partire, by Cipriano de Rore. [listen]
Orlande de Lassus
Palestrina, Victoria and Lassus bring us to the end of the high Renaissance and the start of what later generations came to call the Baroque. The absence of instrumental parts in most of the recordings linked to so far here shows the overwhelming practice of the Renaissance in having music of this nature sung unaccompanied, or, if local practice allowed instruments, they only doubled the existing voice parts. Practices varied from place to place and what might have held sway in London, Rome or Madrid didn't always apply elsewhere. Venice always went by their own rules and in St Mark's basilica the use of instrumental choirs in tandem with vocal choirs was well established by the end of the 16th century.
Giovanni Gabrieli, organist at St Mark's until his death in 1612, wrote some spectacular music for the basilica, including seven Magnificat settings. His 14-part Magnificat was published in 1615, three years after his death. [listen]
With the seismic shifts in musical taste and practice from the start of the 17th century we enter the period later generations called the Baroque. The first great master of the new, exuberant style - which gave the world, among other things, opera - was Claudio Monteverdi, whose work in Mantua, and later in Venice, created sumptuous church works and much else besides. Of his four known Magnificat settings, two were written as part of the famous Vespers of 1610. One of these, for seven voices, requires large instrumental forces, and the other is an alternative setting for six voices without the instruments.
Strozzi: Claudio Monteverdi (c. 1630)
Separate to this are two settings Monteverdi published in 1641, two years before his death, in the great collection called Selva morale e spirituale. Like the two settings in the Vespers publication, the two in the Selva have contrasting requirements. One is for four voices without instruments, the other is much grander, for eight voices and instruments.
Monteverdi's settings still intertwine the plainchant setting into his rich and complex textures. This is the larger setting from the Selva. [listen]
Eighteen years younger than Monteverdi was the greatest German composer of the 17th century, Heinrich Schütz. Schütz studied with Giovanni Gabrieli in Venice shortly before Gabrieli's death and shortly before Monteverdi arrived in the city. He was thus well-acquainted with the Venetian style of multiple choirs of voices and instruments and in Germany transferred this style into his German-language works for the Lutheran church.
Spätner: Heinrich Schütz (c. 1660)
Lutheran worship at this time - and well into the 18th century - while mostly in the vernacular language still allowed the use of Latin for some texts on special occasions and the Magnificat was one of these. Schütz's lavish setting of the Magnificat (thought to have been written sometime before 1665) calls for three vocal choirs - one of soloists, the other two of multiple voices - as well as violins and trombones in addition to the organ and bassline instruments. [listen]
The influence of opera on church music throughout the Baroque was extensive. Larger texts like the Magnificat were broken up, with each part of the text set as a completely separate, stand-alone movement. This is often called a "cantata" setting, and many of the arias especially took on an operatic style. Antonio Vivaldi wrote a very large body of church music including psalm settings, mass movements and solo motets. Some of these were commissioned by individual churches, others were intended for the Ospedale della Pietà in Venice where he taught.
A cantata-style setting of the Magnificat in G minor by Vivaldi exists in several versions. After composing it, probably for the Pietà, around 1715 he revised the chorus parts, instrumentation and the solo parts several times. The work has a huge range of styles, moods and textures. [listen]
Probable portrait of Antonio Vivaldi (c. 1723)
Which brings us, chronologically, to Johann Sebastian Bach. As with the Lutheran churches in which Heinrich Schütz worked, the Leipzig churches in Bach's time also permitted certain texts to be sung in Latin on certain occasions. Given its connection with the birth of Jesus, the Magnificat was usually sung at Christmas Vespers in Leipzig, and it was for his first Christmas as Cantor there that Bach composed the first version of his Magnificat in 1723.
Haussmann: Johann Sebastian Bach (1746)
This was a setting in E flat, in the cantata style taking several movements, and there were four extra movements setting German Christmas texts interpolated into the Latin Magnificat text. In the early 1730s he revised it, removing the German Christmas texts and transposing it into D; it's the later version which is usually performed today. It's a work of spectacular variety, and the opening chorus shows the virtuosity Bach required of his singers and instrumentalists. There is, as in Vivaldi's setting, a wide variety of moods spanning a sequence of rather short movements. [listen]
In the 1740s, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach composed a large-scale setting of the Magnificat which rivals that of his famous father. It's thought by some that it was composed with a view to the younger Bach applying for his father's job after the elder Bach's death, but as it turned out, despite applying twice, Emanuel Bach didn't get the Cantor's position in Leipzig.
Löhr: Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
The younger Bach's style reflects the transitional period between the high Baroque and the later Classical style of Haydn and Mozart. JS Bach's music is full of semiquavers but they have melodic importance and shape the music completely. CPE Bach's instrumental semiquavers, in the opening chorus especially, are decorative and incidental to the far more straightforward nature of the music. [listen]
CPE Bach's Magnificat is, like his father's, a "cantata" style setting, with the text broken up and set as discrete movements. By the later part of the 18th century, when Haydn and Mozart and their contemporaries were at work, this was regarded as a very old-fashioned way of composing. This is not to say it wasn't used, but when it was (such as in Mozart's unfinished "Great" Mass in C minor) is was intended to be grand and monumental, invoking the past.
Far more common was a more compact form of text-setting, sometimes called "symphonic", in which the text is set in a single movement. Sometimes there are contrasting sections within this movement, but by and large the text is contained in one piece rather than many.
Mozart set the Magnificat a number of times as part of his duties in Salzburg. The most notable settings are in his two sets of Vespers written in 1780, which set the five psalms and Magnificat used at formal Vesper services. In each case, the texts are set as single movements, following a sort of abridged sonata form. This means that often different texts are heard sung to music encountered earlier, with the result that form is more important than the text a lot of the time.
The difference between cantata and symphonic approaches to text can be seen in the durations of these works which sets exactly the same words. JS Bach's Magnificat takes about 25 minutes; CPE Bach's takes about 40. In his Solemn Vespers for a Confessor, the Magnificat is all done in about five. It starts at 20'46 in this recording. [listen]
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1777)
Large scale settings of the Magnificat - either cantata style or symphonic - all but disappear from the repertoire, in the Catholic church at least, in the 19th century. But in the Anglican church the Magnificat had, since the English Reformation in the 16th century, had a role in the service of Evening Prayer, or Evensong as it is often called. This paralleled the place of the Magnificat in the Catholic Office of Vespers, and also in the Lutheran Vesper service as well, both of which were held in the afternoon or evening.
In the Anglican liturgy, the Magnificat was set as one of the two main canticles for Evening Prayer, usually in tandem with another New Testament canticle, the Nunc Dimittis. The Latin titles were retained in the Book of Common Prayer despite the canticles themselves being sung in English.
The practice of setting the Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis for use in Anglican worship, usually with organ accompaniment, became a standard practice in the 19th and 20th centuries. This is part of the Magnificat from John Stainer's Service No 3 in B flat, composed in 1884. [listen]
John Stainer
The Magnificat has always had a role to play in the All Night Vigil (sometimes called Vespers) of the Russian Orthodox Church. In his famous setting of 1915 for unaccompanied choir, Sergei Rachmaninov lavished great attention on the fifteen texts he set, of which the Slavonic text of the Magnificat is the 11th. The Orthodox text intersperses a refrain honouring the Virgin between the verses, and Rachmaninov's setting is based on the traditional Orthodox chants. [listen]
Sergei Rachmaninov (1921)
To conclude this survey I want to share with you parts of three very different settings of the Magnificat from the later 20th century.
The Armenian heritage of the American composer Alan Hovhaness comes to the fore in his large-scale setting of the Magnificat composed in 1958. The text is broken up, cantata style, to make a work lasting about half an hour. The composer said that he was aiming to suggest the mystery and mysticism of early Christianity. [listen]
Alan Hovhaness
The Polish modernist composer Krzysztof Penderecki composed his large-scale setting of the Magnificat in 1973-74 in response to a commission from Salzburg Cathedral. Scored for bass soloist, choirs and orchestra, it takes around three-quarters of an hour. The text is divided into seven sections and cast in four main movements, and the demands on all the performers are substantial as Penderecki sets the text with his own, very personal take on mysticism and praise. [listen]
Krzysztof Penderecki (2008)
A modernist of a very different sort - sometimes called one of the "holy minimalists" - is the Estonian composer Arvo Pärt. His intensely meditative music based on traditional harmony has won new friends for modern music in recent decades, and his choral music is much-loved of choirs. His Magnificat for unaccompanied choir was composed in 1989. Pärt aims, like Penderecki and Hovhaness, to portray the Virgin's praise in ecstatic, mystical tones, but his means of doing so is markedly different. The repetitive calm of the music is intense and attractive, although it's not everyone's cup of tea; this music can be annoying in the extreme to those not able to "get into" the music's language...like any music, I guess. But I think it's certainly very beautiful and worth the effort. [listen]
Arvo Pärt (2008)
In this survey we've covered more than five centuries of polyphonic music. As always, looking at one text set by many different composers from different times and in different traditions is in some ways a microcosm of western music history itself. But the sheer variety of approaches the Magnificat text has inspired - from rarefied mystery to exultant joy - is remarkable.
Fra Angelico: The Annunciation (c. 1443)
This article is based on a pair of Keys To Music programs first aired on ABC Classic FM (now ABC Classic) in October and November, 2014.
213 views0 comments
Recent Posts
See All
|
<urn:uuid:204ab708-54f3-4709-81d0-bef0ff58defd>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.984375,
"fasttext_score": 0.08158481121063232,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9650780558586121,
"url": "https://www.grahamsmusic.net/post/magnificat"
}
|
Before the 19th century when the first colonial foot stud on Somali soil, Somalia was a stateless society that lacked a common political and legal system. Political and legal systems were found in Somali history, but every clan developed and had its own. This was the nature of Somalia and its people for centuries. The first time that Somalia saw itself under a common rule was in the colonial era. The two main parts of Somalia (Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland) were colonized by Italy and Great Britain. Each colonizer changed the structure and nature of Somali society, especially the political and legal structure. The colonizers introduced a unitary system to their colonies and therefore for the first time, made a common political and legal system.
In the late 1950s when independence was near, the Somali people of both sides decided to unite and form a unitary state. The new republic would have a parliament that consisted of 123 parliamentarians, 90 from Italian Somaliland and 33 from British Somaliland which would elect the speaker of parliament and the president, who will later appoint a prime minister. After gaining independence and forming the republic, representatives from British Somaliland didn’t manage to equally appear in the top positions of the executive. The consequence was after a year, a number of British Somaliland military officers attempted to stage a coup in order to demand secession.
In the late 1980s when the Siad Barre regime was at its worse, another group of military officers from British Somaliland attempted to overthrow the regime, but this time they were stronger and well equipped. After failing to crush them with ground forces, the regime ordered the national Air force to bomb two of the major cities in British Somaliland (Hargeisa and Burao) where the militias had a stronghold causing thousands of lives and properties in each city.
After several years of war and destruction, in 1991, British Somaliland finally managed to secede and declared independence from Somalia. Since then, Somaliland managed to form a democratic political system and maintain peace. In 1991, all of Somalia entered a period of instability and darkness, but Somaliland managed to surpass all the challenges and come out as the most peaceful and democratic entity in the Horn of Africa, whereas still, the other part of Somalia (Italian Somaliland) faces security threats from ongoing civil war and terrorism and unable to attain political stability. So, the question is, how can Somaliland expect to reunite with Somalia again? Somaliland can only reunite with Somalia when Somalia gains permanent security and political stability and a political system that will guarantee what happened in the past will not happen again.
Security is a priority for Somaliland. As mentioned earlier, Somaliland managed to form one of the most secure and stable societies in the Horn of Africa. I personally lived in Hargeisa (the capital city of Somaliland) when I was young and experienced its peace and stability. The biggest vivid memory that I have of Somaliland’s security was seeing money changers walking through the city with their bags full of cash in the middle of the night without any fear for their lives and properties. On the other hand, Somalia is still dealing with security issues, and terrorism is a major problem the country faces. By uniting with Somalia in its current situation, terrorism and instability could pass on to Somaliland and ruin its main accomplishment in the past three decades. Political stability is also one of the uniqueness of Somaliland compared to other Horn of African countries. For the past three decades, Somaliland managed and still manages to hold free and fair elections where citizens vote for their representatives at national, regional and local levels where all elections are nearly held without any political crisis.
For the past thirty years, Somalia had a culture of political instability, especially during election periods where citizens don’t have the right to vote and corrupted selected delegations elect parliamentarians who subsequently elect the speaker of parliament and the president. The other issue comes from the constitution and the constitutional court. Somalia still functions with a provisional constitution and is yet to establish a constitutional court. On the other hand, Somaliland has a constitution that was passed through a referendum and also has a functioning constitutional court and a judicial system that checks on both the legislation and the executive branches. The constitutional crisis in Somalia can be seen in its daily political life, from the central government trying to extend its tenure by interfering in regional elections by using force and intimidation, to federal member states behaving and making decisions out of their constitutional capacity, this isn’t a political environment where Somaliland would choose to enter.
The biggest mistake that was made in 1960 was that the two sides united unconditionally, without making any formal agreements on how the future republic will function. After uniting in 1960, an indirect clan-based power-sharing system was implemented, which meant the bigger the clan, the more power it received. Compared with clans in Italian Somaliland, clans that reside in British Somaliland are quite smaller which caused other major clans in Italian Somaliland to exploit much of the power.
Somaliland doesn’t see itself as part of Somalia, but rather it sees itself as an independent sovereign state that is equivalent to Somalia which will have a huge influence on future negotiations. In future negotiations, Somaliland will demand power to be shared equally between her and Somalia, by not recognizing the current clan-based power-sharing system. This is a trap that Somaliland is aware of and will never fall for, demanding the power to be shared between her and Somalia equally, will never come off the table.
|
<urn:uuid:7244fae5-217b-4604-8d2c-214f3fc90fc2>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.859375,
"fasttext_score": 0.43504220247268677,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.96751868724823,
"url": "https://malinm.com/2022/06/05/why-somaliland-will-not-reunite-with-somalia-in-the-near-future/"
}
|
How Are Amethyst Geodes Formed?
How Are Amethyst Geodes Formed
••• Edalin/iStock/GettyImages
Intro to Amethyst Geodes
Not even scientists are 100 percent sure exactly how amethyst geodes form--or how any geodes form. There hasn't been much research, because geodes are just fun scientific anomalies with little, if any, scientific benefits. They're rocks that seem plain on the outside but when opened reveal a cavity in the middle filled with beautiful crystals. The general scientific consensus is that amethyst geodes are created in a two-step process. First, there's the formation of the cavity and then the formation of the crystals.
Gas Cavities Form
An amethyst geode is a hollow rock with amethyst crystals lining the inner walls, so first the cavity must be formed. This can happen anywhere there is or was lava close to the earth's surface. As a result, amethyst geodes can be found in thousands of places around the globe. The first step in the natural process that creates amethyst geodes is the formation of gas cavities in lava. The gas cavities can form from bubbles (just like the carbonation causes bubbles in your soda). Some scientists theorize that the cavities can also be formed when cooling lava flows near tree roots or other things sticking out of the ground. The cooling lava hardens completely before filling in around the outcrop, creating a cavity.
The Cavities are Filled
The cavities then fill up with a silica-rich liquid that contains trace amounts of iron. Over time, this liquid forms crystals -- six-sided pyramids (rhombohedrons) of amethyst. Crystals with a color that range from light lilac to deep purple are formed when there is a trace of iron in the liquid, resulting in amethyst geodes.
Related Articles
How to Tell the Difference Between a Geode & a Nodule
Facts About Geodes
How to Identify Texas Rocks
How to Find Agates
Methods to Create Opals in a Lab
Gems of Hawaii
What Is the Difference Between Pumice & Scoria?
How to Clean Geodes
How Are Minerals Formed?
What Minerals Make Up Pumice?
Everything You Need to Know About Geology (The Study...
In Which States Are Dinosaur Fossils Found?
What Colors Are Geodes Naturally?
How To Grow Amethyst Crystal
School Project: How to Make a Volcano That Blows Ash
List Some Ways That Fossils Can Be Preserved
The Rock Most Likely to Contain Fossils
How to Calculate Length of Sides in Regular Hexagons
Rock Hunting in Central Texas
Stones Found in Arizona
Dont Go!
We Have More Great Sciencing Articles!
|
<urn:uuid:ae848d96-24e5-4797-b06d-eda412e35b0b>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.9375,
"fasttext_score": 0.07505714893341064,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8688670992851257,
"url": "https://sciencing.com/how-amethyst-geodes-formed-4913351.html"
}
|
From the 11th to the 16th centuries why did Europeans travel from the Carolingian heartland up to the periphery of the continent and beyond? During their explorations, was there a certain perception of how they percieved others and how others percieved them?
Expert Answers
An illustration of the letter 'A' in a speech bubbles
Although the sincerity of their intentions might be questioned, the primary reason for travel outside the European mainland during the early Middle Ages was the spread of Christianity. Europe was at the time heavily influenced by Christianity, in fact the continent called itself Christendom. As members of a missionary religion, Christians believed they had an obligation to spread that religion elsewhere. Most of those who travelled to distant areas did so with this purpose in mind.
Later, with the advent of the early modern age, trade rather than the spread of religion became the motivating factor. After the publication of Marco Polo's Map of the World, and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the desire for trade with distant areas became a consuming element in European political affairs. Interestingly, Europeans often conflated religion and trade. When Vasco da Gama was asked by an Indian sultan why he had travelled to that distant land, he replied "for Christians and Spices."
Approved by eNotes Editorial Team
|
<urn:uuid:a85e22fb-2f42-47a5-af68-9f03d953be87>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.125,
"fasttext_score": 0.9604496955871582,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9533363580703735,
"url": "https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/from-11th-16th-centuries-why-did-europeans-travel-336841"
}
|
//About the Wobbegong
About the Wobbegong
Photo Credit :: Public Domain @ Wikimedia
The common name for the 12 carpet shark species in the family Orectolobidae is wobbegong. They are found in shallow temperate and tropical waters of the western Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans, primarily around Australia and Indonesia, though one species (Orectolobus japonicus) can be found as far north as Japan. The term wobbegong is thought to have originated in an Australian Aboriginal language and means “shaggy beard,” referring to the growths around the mouth of the western Pacific shark.
Wobbegong sharks are bottom-dwelling sharks that spend the majority of their time resting on the sea floor. Most species reach a maximum length of 1.25 m (4.1 ft), but the spotted wobbegong, Orectolobus maculatus, and banded wobbegong, Orectolobus halei, can reach 3 m (9.8 ft).
Wobbegongs have a symmetrical pattern of bold markings on their backs that resembles a carpet. Wobbegongs and their close relatives are commonly referred to as carpet sharks due to their eye-catching pattern. Camouflage is enhanced by the presence of small weed-like whisker lobes surrounding the wobbegong’s jaw, which act as sensory barbs as well as camouflage. Wobbegongs use their camouflage to hide among rocks and catch smaller fish that swim too close to them, which is typical of ambush predators. Wobbegongs also have a strong jaw with needle-like teeth that help them catch reef fish and other sharks for food.
Wobbegongs are not generally considered dangerous to humans, but they have attacked swimmers, snorkelers, and scuba divers who have come too close to them. The Australian Shark Attack File contains over 50 records of unprovoked wobbegong attacks, and the International Shark Attack File contains 28 records, none of which were fatal. Surfers have also been bitten by wobbegongs. Wobbegongs are extremely adaptable and can easily bite a hand that is holding onto their tail. They have many small but sharp teeth, and their bite can be painful even through a wetsuit; once bitten, they have been known to hang on and be difficult to remove.
Visibly atrophied dorsal musculature distinguishes underfed wobbegongs. (the wasting {thinning} or loss of muscle tissue)
By | 2022-09-03T21:09:46+00:00 September 3rd, 2022|Blog :::: KSG Scuba Scoop|0 Comments
Leave A Comment
|
<urn:uuid:2822e3d3-f607-40a0-b528-3a3d8003c639>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.018445253372192383,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.949794352054596,
"url": "https://www.kirkscubagear.com/blog/about-the-wobbegong/"
}
|
The Markhor Lesson Summary Notes and Explanation in English Class 7th
The chapter presents a concise and informative introduction of the most distinctive member of the Caprinae family, the Markhor.
Wild and Free
Markhors are huge goats that dwell on mountains between 600 and 3500 metres high. Their name is derived from two Persian words: mar, which means snake, and khor, which means eating. The name is particularly odd because these goats are vegetarians, but their screw horns resemble the winding body of a snake, therefore the name. They can be found in the wooded highlands of Northern Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan. They’re located in India in the Pir Panjal range, which runs between Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
In the summer, their grizzled light brown to black coat is smooth and short, but in the winter, it gets longer and thicker. The maneless females are redder in colour with shorter hair and a small black beard, while the males have abundant hair on the chin, throat, chest, and shanks.
The breeding season is in the winter, and the gestation period lasts between 135 and 170 days, resulting in the delivery of one or two children, seldom three. Grass and leaves make up their herbivorous diet. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources has categorized the Markhor as an endangered species, with only about 2000 to 4000 Markhors left in the wild.
The Markhor is a wild species that is on the verge of extinction. Hunting pressure, human warfare, and increased disturbance and competition from domestic goats and sheep are also threats. The flare-horned Markhor population is estimated to have been halved in the last 25 years, despite international and national protection. They must be conserved; otherwise, we will lose a valuable wildlife resource.
|
<urn:uuid:85dcd535-611c-43b7-989b-59fb1b450c8c>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.03125,
"fasttext_score": 0.04698890447616577,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9488739967346191,
"url": "https://englishsummary.com/lesson/the-markhor-lesson-summary-notes-and-explanation-in-english-class-7th/"
}
|
Study Guide
Henry VI Part 3 Women and Femininity
By William Shakespeare
Advertisement - Guide continues below
Women and Femininity
Where would the characters in Henry VI, Part 3 be without gender stereotypes to make their insults really sting? For example, people are always ragging on Margaret becauseshe's a woman: she's called every name in the book, just for being on the battlefield. All the time the men stop and discuss this chick. What gives?
Well, in Shakespeare's day, women were expected to be submissive and silent; they didn't go off to wars or lead armies. So, okay, maybe it's shocking that Margaret is the complete opposite of that. But why is Margaret's femininity (or lack thereof) so important to these guys?
We get a lot of examples of what the characters think of men and women just by listening to how they offend each other. According to the play, men should be strong, scary, and powerful, while women should to be quiet, calm, and obedient. But in reality, how many characters actually live up to this model?
Questions About Women and Femininity
1. In what ways does Margaret control her husband? Why does he allow her to do this?
2. Why is everyone hung up on the fact that Margaret is a strong woman? Does this comment on their masculinity at all?
3. How is "womanhood" or "femininity" defined in Henry VI, Part 3? What kinds of roles do women play?
Chew on This
Margaret's strength emasculates the men around her.
Margaret isn't a strong woman; she's just bloodthirsty.
This is a premium product
Tired of ads?
Join today and never see them again.
Please Wait...
|
<urn:uuid:656a6d95-7f8b-4f78-a062-fc04fb8abed0>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.992213249206543,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9586003422737122,
"url": "https://www.shmoop.com/study-guides/literature/henry-vi-part-3/themes/women-and-femininity"
}
|
Mount-RushmoreMount Rushmore is one of the famous mountains in South Dakota, located in the black hills mountain range. It is famous due to the large sculptures of four famous presidents of the United States. These presidents are Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. Mount Rushmore receives around 3 million international tourists every year.
How Sculptures on Mount Rushmore Were Formed?
Doane Robinson was a historian who had an idea to somehow promote the tourism in South Dakota State of the US. He thought to form sculptures on one of the mountains in the black hills. He convinced the sculptor Gutzon Borglum in 1924 to carve the sculptures. Gutzon Borglum had chosen Mount Rushmore for carving sculptures because it receives maximum sunlight throughout the day in the black hills. The sculptures of Mount Rushmore were finished in 1941 and many sculptors have contributed to them.
Furthermore, it was proposed to add the fifth sculpture of one of the US presidents. But after the survey, it was found that the rocks of the mountain will not be able to support the fifth sculpture. If further sculpting is done on the mountain, the four remaining sculptures can become damaged.
Geology of Mount Rushmore
Mount-Rushmore-large-viewMount Rushmore is mostly composed of granite (a type of igneous rock). Around 500 million years ago, Mount Rushmore eroded which shrunk its size. In the next 200 million years, the sandstone buried the whole mountain. Until recently around 70 million years ago, the mountain was again re-exposed in some geological activities.
One of the reasons for making sculptures on Mount Rushmore was its erosion resistance. It erodes very little as compared to other mountains in the Black Hills. It has been estimated that Mount Rushmore erodes around 1 inch every 10,000 years. This makes it suitable to hold the sculptures for a longer time.
Interesting Facts
• The Sculptures cost around 989,992 dollars in 1941. If you take inflation into account then these are around 17 million USD in 2020.
• The peak of Mount Rushmore reaches 5,725 feet high.
• The height of presidents’ faces in Mount Rushmore is about 60 feet.
• “Hall of Records” is the secret room behind the head of Abraham Lincoln’s face sculpture. The secret room contains documents about the information of Mount Rushmore and the US history.
|
<urn:uuid:4f6a5fe7-7d52-4436-9b42-5b7d74e9d4a8>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.15672165155410767,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9638140797615051,
"url": "https://science4fun.info/mount-rushmore/"
}
|
What necessitated the Berlin Airlift and when could it finally stop? The Berlin Airlift was caused by the Russians taking supplies from Germany. It could finally stop in May 1949, where many Allied soldiers were tired out.
What needle do you use for needlepoint? what size needle to use for needlepoint.
What was the cause of the Berlin Airlift?
In response to the Soviet blockade of land routes into West Berlin, the United States begins a massive airlift of food, water, and medicine to the citizens of the besieged city. … The Soviet action was in response to the refusal of American and British officials to allow Russia more say in the economic future of Germany.
What prompted the Berlin Airlift quizlet?
Why did the Berlin Airlift begin? It happened because the US used containment to stop the spread of communism so the Soviets built a wall separating west(allied) and east Berlin. So the US sent airplanes to West Berlin to send raw supplies. … When Soviet forces lifted the blockade on land access to western Berlin.
Who opposed the Berlin Airlift?
‘” Stalin did not want the Berlin Airlift. On May 12, 1949, the Soviets ended the blockade of Allied-occupied Berlin after 11 months, and West Berliners began welcoming the first British and American land convoys.
What was the result of the airlift?
The Berlin Airlift was a tremendous Cold War victory for the United States. Without firing a shot, the Americans foiled the Soviet plan to hold West Berlin hostage, while simultaneously demonstrating to the world the “Yankee ingenuity” for which their nation was famous.
What Soviet action led to the Berlin Airlift?
The blockade was a Soviet attempt to starve out the allies in Berlin in order to gain supremacy. The blockade was a high point in the Cold War, and it led to the Berlin Airlift. A conflict that was between the US and the Soviet Union.
What was the purpose of the Berlin Wall quizlet?
to prevent East Germans from escaping to democrate West Berlin.
Why was the Berlin air lift needed when the Soviets decided to blockade West Berlin quizlet?
Because they thought that if they block the city of Berlin with no access to food or supplies France, Britain and the U.S would leave and the Soviet Union would have Berlin all to themselves.
Why was the Berlin Airlift considered a symbol of the Cold War?
The Berlin Airlift could be called the first battle of the Cold War. It was when western countries delivered much needed food and supplies to the city of Berlin through the air because all other routes were blocked by the Soviet Union.
Why didn't the Soviets stop the Berlin airlift?
Originally Answered: Why didn’t the Soviets shoot down planes during the Berlin Airlift considering the West was in East Germany airspace? The Soviets didn’t shoot down American planes because that would have been too much of a provocation from an international political standpoint.
Who was to blame for the Berlin Blockade?
The Berlin crisis of 1948-9 was ultimately the fault of Stalin. Despite having legitimate concerns to the re-emergence of a capitalist Germany, heightened by American anti-communist action such as the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, his actions far outweighed the circumstances.
Why did the Soviets stop the Berlin Blockade?
On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt western supply lines.
What changed after the Berlin Airlift?
The Berlin Crisis of 1948–1949 solidified the division of Europe. Shortly before the end of the blockade, the Western Allies created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Two weeks after the end of the blockade, the state of West Germany was established, soon followed by the creation of East Germany.
What were the effects of the Berlin crisis?
The Berlin wall divided families who found themselves unable to visit each other. Many East Berliners were cut off from their jobs. West Berliners demonstrated against the wall and their mayor Willy Brandt led the criticism against the United States who they felt had failed to respond.
What were the long term effects of the Berlin Airlift?
Another important consequence of the blockade and airlift was the continuation of Western presence in Berlin. In the long term, this would ensure that Berlin continued to a be a hotspot in Cold War relations, facilitating another crisis with the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961.
What did Stalin do about the Berlin Airlift?
On 24 June 1948, Stalin cut all land access to Berlin for the Allies. This became known as the Berlin Blockade.
What did Stalin do in response to the Berlin airlift?
Shortly thereafter, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade (June 24, 1948 – May 12, 1949), one of the first major crises of the Cold War, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. … In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.
What led the Soviet Union to blockade land traffic to and from Berlin?
The main cause of the Berlin Blockade was the Cold War, which was just getting started. Stalin was taking over eastern Europe by salami tactics and Czechoslovakia had just turned Communist (March 1948). … Stalin wanted to destroy Germany, and the USSR had been stripping East Germany of its wealth and machinery.
What country controlled the area around Berlin?
West Berlin was formally controlled by the Western Allies and entirely surrounded by the Soviet-controlled East Berlin and East Germany. West Berlin had great symbolic significance during the Cold War, as it was widely considered by westerners an “island of freedom” and America’s most loyal counterpart in Europe.
What was the Berlin Wall flashcards?
What was the Berlin Wall? The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off (by land) West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin.
What purpose did the Berlin Wall serve both literally and metaphorically )?
The official purpose of this Berlin Wall was to keep so-called Western “fascists” from entering East Germany and undermining the socialist state, but it primarily served the objective of stemming mass defections from East to West.
What was the Berlin blockade and airlift quizlet?
The Berlin Blockade was an attempt in 1948 by the Soviet Union to limit the ability of France, Great Britain and the United States to travel to their sectors of Berlin, which lay within Russian-occupied East Germany.
How did the Berlin Airlift stop the spread of communism?
He gambled to prevent a military alliance of the other allies and against the creation of a democratic German state. His actions produced the opposite effect; the Berlin Airlift led directly to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance that could counter Soviet power.
How did the Soviets harass airlift pilots?
Between 10 August 1948 and 15 August 1949, there were 733 incidents of harassment of airlift planes in the corridors. These incidents included Soviet pilots buzzing the transport aircraft, air-bourne obstacles such as tethered balloons, radio interference and searchlights in the pilots’ eyes, etc..
What happened in the Berlin Airlift How did that show how the US and USSR were now enemies instead of allies?
How did that show how the US and USSR were now enemies instead of allies? The Berlin Airlift was when the US made an airlift to transport to the Soviet controlled part of Berlin. It showed that the US and USSR were enemies by splitting Berlin down the middle.
What does Berlin symbolize?
Berlin, long a symbol of Germany, was also the symbolic center of the Cold War until the collapse of communism in 1989. Its citizenry weathered some chilling and dramatic clashes during the Cold War, which were representative of the larger global struggle.
Who was Tempelhof?
Throughout the Cold War years, Tempelhof was the main terminal for American military transport aircraft accessing West Berlin. In 1969 one of the pilots during the Berlin Airlift, and the original Candy Bomber, Gail Halvorsen, returned to Berlin as the commander of Tempelhof airbase.
Why was 1949 considered the bad year?
1949 was a bad year for the United States. The Soviet Union had detonated their bomb, and then China Fell to the communists after a Civil War between Mao Zedong’s communists and Jiang Jeishi’s nationalists. … This led the United States to really feel like they were losing as they saw communism start to spread.
How difficult the task of the airlift was for the allied nations?
The airlift was a daunting task at first. More than 2 million Berliners were relying on the aid, which included much-needed food, fuel and medicine. Over time, though, it became more efficient, and the number of airdrops increased.
Why did Stalin simply not invade West Berlin?
Stalin did not intend to risk war over Berlin, and he did not intend to ‘drive the Allies out’. More likely, his intention was to show that the Soviets also had power in Germany which could match the demonstrations of economic power and unity that the West had just shown.
What lesson did the US learn from the Berlin Airlift?
The Berlin Airlift and WWII before it taught a generation of young Americans a process we now call logistics–how to bring together massive quantities of materials, manufacturing and people and use them to solve seemingly impossible problems.
Why was the outcome of the Berlin Airlift such a propaganda victory for the West?
the Soviet Union was threatening to expand its influence. Why was the Berlin Airlift considered a victory for the West in the Cold War? The airlift symbolized popular resistance to further Soviet expansion in Europe. … his assumption that a policy of appeasement would not discourage Soviet aggression in the region.
How many pilots died during the Berlin Airlift?
There were 101 fatalities recorded during the Airlift. The number includes 40 British and 31 American servicemen. The majority died as a result of accidents resulting from hazardous weather conditions or mechanical failures.
What was the Berlin crisis Class 12?
Berlin crisis of 1961, Cold War conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States concerning the status of the divided German city of Berlin. It culminated in the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961.
Who tore down the Berlin Wall?
Happily for Berliners, though, the speech also foreshadowed events to come: Two years later, on November 9, 1989, joyful East and West Germans did break down the infamous barrier between East and West Berlin. Germany was officially reunited on October 3, 1990.
Did the Berlin Wall separate families?
Many families were divided by the Wall — either by its construction or by escapes. In the 28 years the Wall stood, at least 100,000 people escaped to West Germany from the East.
|
<urn:uuid:76ed4a91-3a43-4ae6-9f8f-6c9304d04837>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.84375,
"fasttext_score": 0.966586172580719,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9681981801986694,
"url": "https://interesting-information.com/what-necessitated-the-berlin-airlift/"
}
|
Minoan goddesses & women
Women’s History Month Focus: Minoan females
Continuing the celebration of all things wonderfully female, both historically and prehistorically, the featured image is from the island of Crete. The ancient civilization of the Minoans (as we now call them) was very women centered. From archaeological finds, we know that sculpted, painted, or carved females were the predominate forms here from Paleolithic to Neolithic through to Bronze Age times.
There are numerous frieze paintings like the one above that show the joy of women in Minoan society. Women collected saffron (a prized trade good); led or participated in sacred rituals, dances, and feasts; and appeared to be practiced bull leapers. In the image below, the women are depicted as white, while the men are depicted as red. (Note: this is not a portrayal of ethnicity, but rather sacred art stylization with red, white, and black being the overall palate.)
Knossos Minoan bull leaping
Goddesses of Crete
Evidence for several goddesses was unearthed by archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans. The photo on the left shows some of the items Evans found in the Knossos Palace. The photo on the right show the snake goddess on display in the archaeological museum on Crete.
Things from The Temple Repositories of Knossos palace, including two famous snake goddesses soon after its discovering in 1903 Source Evans, A.J. (1921-35). The Palace of Minos - Volumes 1-4.
Items from the Temple Repositories of Knossos palace. Minoan goddesses are prominent. Photo by Sir Arthur Evans, 1903.
Minoan Snake Goddesses, Herakleion museum, Crete. J. Ollè, 2005.
Theories abound as to why Crete revered snake goddesses, but goddesses associated with snakes or symbolically represented by snakes are found world-wide: Australia, India, Greece, Libya, Mesopotamia, Northern Europe, Sweden, Egypt, Korea, etc. Additionally, Minoan goddesses have been generally typified as Potnia (meaning Lady or Mistress) such as Lady of the Animals, Lady of the Plants, or Lady of the Mountains.
Bronze shield from the Idaean Cave on Crete. The Mistress of Animals stands grasping a lion in either hand. c. 700 BCE
Bronze shield found in the Idaean Cave on Crete. The Mistress of Animals stands grasping a lion in either hand. c. 700 BCE
Minoan goddess_sealThis Minoan gold seal shows several sacred symbolic items. Notice that only women (or goddesses or both) are portrayed on the seal. Additionally, poppies, crocuses, and lilies are being held together with a double ax. Associated with the double ax is a womanly figure-eight shield. The plant behind the seated goddess is commonly identified as a fruiting tree. To me, however, living here in Oregon, there is a strong resemblance to bound hop vines. Two snakes demarcate the boundaries between earthly and celestial as they become the border to the sun and moon.
What the preceding images all share is a perspective focused on the exuberance and mystery of life. Solemnity in female figurines appears in the “Cycladic” figures; these sculptures were found primarily in Minoan tombs. Although museums typically display these figurines upright, due to their original location, scholars are now suggesting that they may have been laid flat, possibly representing sacred female “energy” protecting the dead.
Cycladic female figuerineI hope that you’ve enjoyed this brief introduction on the importance of women and goddesses in Minoan culture. What speaks to you about these ancient artifacts? Do any of them surprise you? I’d love to hear your thoughts on them or on the Minoan culture in general. Happy Women’s History Month!
2 thoughts on “Minoan goddesses & women
1. Thanks, Gwynne for reading the blog post and commenting. 🙂 Yes, the Minoan civilization was beautiful and accomplished. Thanks again for your comments!
Comments are closed.
|
<urn:uuid:fdaea7ad-5f2c-4687-a829-eca19b21f2e4>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.02488112449645996,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9435741901397705,
"url": "https://www.mythwoman.com/minoan-goddesses-women/"
}
|
It’s all in the fins: Pectoral fin rotation in bonnethead sharks
We think of sharks as quick and maneuverable animals able to leap out of the water and turn on a dime to capture prey. But, like most of us, sharks don’t spend all of their time cruising through the water at top speed. Most of the time, they are moving at a more moderate pace.
Unlike extreme movements, moderate kinematics are understudied in fish. Dr. Sarah Hoffmann and colleagues at Florida Atlantic University decided to investigate the steady swimming in sharks focusing on the turning behavior of the bonnethead (Sphyrna tiburo). She used a technique called Video Reconstruction of Moving Morphology (VROMM) to measure the motion of the shark’s pectoral fins in 3D.
Using VROMM on freely swimming sharks is no easy task. Dr. Hoffmann had to figure out a way to attach markers onto the parts of the animal she was interested in. For this experiment, black beads were super glued on to an anaesthetised bonnethead before releasing it into a large circular filming tank. Two GoPros captured the 3D motion of the shark turning casually through the water as well as the specific degrees of rotation of its pectoral fins.
(Hoffmann et al Figure 1a – Example of the bead layout on a bonnethead shark)
It turns out that bonnethead sharks rotate their pectoral fins in a very complex way depending on where they are in the water column when they are turning. They are even able to adjust their behavior to use the ocean floor turing a turn. Dr. Hoffmann found that this complicated pectoral fin rotation plays a significant role in how the animals move! Previously, researchers assumed that it was only the bending of the body that caused a shark to turn. But pectoral fin rotation directly relates to how fast and sharp the animal turns around in the water.
Dr. Hoffmann also described the muscles that control pectoral fin movement and again used VROMM to measure how each muscle contributes to the way a bonnethead turns. She did this by using the same black bead markers on an anesthetized fish, and shocking the muscles individually with an electric current to see how they cause the fin to move. Each of the three muscles contributes in a very specific way to the rotation of the fin. The shark needs to activate different muscles at different times throughout the turn to achieve the specific rotations we see in a freely swimming fish.
(Hoffmann et al Figure 7. Illustrations of Bonnethead Shark pectoral fin muscles and their individual roles in fin rotation)
Why is it important for us to look at the way sharks move while they are casually meandering through the water? Dr. Hoffmann says that researchers spend so much time focusing on extreme movements, that we forget that animals spend most of their time doing other things. Looking at day to day casual kinematics can help us to better compare and understand the relationship between morphology and kinematics in a larger variety of species.
Leave a Reply
You are commenting using your account. Log Out / Change )
Twitter picture
Facebook photo
Connecting to %s
|
<urn:uuid:c04114b8-30e0-4f39-b671-2257d0daf475>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.5,
"fasttext_score": 0.7402175664901733,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9218205213546753,
"url": "https://iobopen.com/2019/09/16/its-all-in-the-fins-pectoral-fin-rotation-in-bonnethead-sharks/"
}
|
Main content
Current time:0:00Total duration:8:58
Video transcript
(jazz music) Dr. Harris: We're going to talk about the process of stone carving, which I think is very hard to imagine without power tools and also the process of getting the stone from a quarry. Dr. Drogin: This is one of the marble quarries in Carrara, Italy, which is where most of the finest marble for sculpture, especially in the Renaissance came from and still, as you can see, they do quarry marble from this area. Dr. Harris: And didn't Michelangelo get his marble from Carrara? Dr. Drogin: That's right. This is where Michelangelo liked to get his marble, because of its very pure white qualities. You can see today they do use some power tools and electric things like a bulldozer, but at the time, the way it would work is that the very first step would be to dislodge a block of marble from the marble in the mountain and that would be done by creating cracks in the area that you wanted to get the block from and then inserting wooden wedges that were soaked in water. As the water would cause the wood to expand, that is actually strong enough to crack the marble and it would dislodge a large marble block. Dr. Harris: So you have this wooden peg that's going into a crack and being saturated with water that makes the crack open more. Dr. Drogin: Right, so you put a whole series of pegs along a line and that'll create a large crack that will dislodge the block. Dr. Harris: Then removing that block from the cliff and then somehow getting it to Florence. Dr. Drogin: Actually, some of the first work, in terms of shaping the stone, might actually be done at the quarry. Dr. Harris: Oh. Dr. Drogin: That way you're not transporting extra weight, since it's, of course, very hard to move. You might shape it down, block it down to it's general shape and then you might transport it in that way. Dr. Harris: That makes sense. Dr. Drogin: For this reason, sometimes sculptors, like Michelangelo actually started doing work on the sculpture in the quarry or in the town where the quarry was. Dr. Harris: Was this transported by river? Dr. Drogin: That's right, they usually tried to transport these things by boat. Rivers and canals, because of course, the blocks being so heavy, it's easier to do it that way than over land. Let's talk about the process and some of the tools that would be used. As we said, the first step is you get a block out of the mountain. Then the next step is that you want to shape the block down to the general shape of the sculpture that you're making. Here's the tools. These are modern tools, but they're essentially the same as the tools that were use in the Renaissance. The first step, as I said, is to just get the shape of the figure and for that, you're going to use the tool that looks just like a giant pick, which is this one right here. You're going to use that with a large mallet, a sledgehammer, and all you're doing is cutting away the extra marble that you're not going to use. You're just getting the general shape of the sculpture. Dr. Harris: What would happen if you hacked at it and something cracked in a way and took off a big slice that you didn't want? Dr. Droging: Then generally, you would start again. Dr. Harris: That would be very bad, right? Dr. Drogin: Right, exactly. There's no going backwards with marble carving, since it is a reductive process. You do need to be very, very careful. As I said, you start by getting the general shape and then once you've got the general shape of the figure or whatever it is that you're carving, then you'll switch down to these chisels that have teeth, starting with a larger one, like you see here. That you use with much more delicate taps and a smaller hammer that gives you more control to get the more details that you want from the figure. As you need more and more details, you move to finer and finer a chisel. A very good example of what this looks like, since we already started talking about Michelangelo we can use this example. This is Michelangelo's incomplete figure of the Awakening Slave, one of the figures that was planned for the tomb of Pope Julius the Second. This dates from around 1530. Here you can see the block that the figure is being carved from. What you can see, especially in some details, is that the very large rough area surrounding the figure, that's what Michelangelo had started to chop away. He's just using a pick and a hammer and you can see these marks in here are not made with a refined chisel. He's basically just whacking away at this marble, because he just wants it to go away. Dr. Harris: I imagine Michelangelo had big muscles in his arms from doing this. Dr. Drogin: You have to be very strong to do this kind of thing. Then what's really nice is, especially in this image, if we look at the detail, for instance, in what's the left arm of the figure on the right, you can see here he's shifted to one of those chisels that have teeth, because now he's not just trying to get rid of the marble, he's actually trying to shape it and to give it some kind of form. If you look at the chest, you can see those kinds of teethmarks there, but they're a little fainter and a little smaller, because there he's getting more detail and so he's switched to a chisel with finer teeth. Here's a detail of the face and again, you can see the same different kinds of chisel marks that we were talking about a minute ago. These, which are just made with the pick to get rid of the marble and then here, where it looks like it's been scratched with a fork. Those are the kinds of areas where he's using a chisel with teeth to shape the figure some more. Dr. Harris: I'm reminded of Leonardo saying that sculpture was inferior because you had to get all messy. Dr. Drogin: It is messy. You sweat, you get covered in dust. It's a very sloppy process compared to - Exactly and takes a lot of exertion compared to painting. Dr. Harris: And of course a block of marble was very expensive. Dr. Drogin: Absolutely, that's right and it's important when we're talking about marble, in terms of sculpture, to think that marble costs ten times more than wood, in terms of what the finish product will cost. I also want to look at this detail again, because besides talking about marble carving in general this incomplete figure gives us a window into Michelangelo's particular approach to sculpture, because he said in his writings, he discusses how when he's making a marble figure, he looks at the block as soon as it's come out of the quarry before he's even touched it with any chisel and he visualizes the figure trapped inside the marble. Essentially, he says, "All I'm doing is releasing "the figure from inside the stone. "It's already there, it's pre-existing in the stone itself "and all I'm doing is setting it free, taking away "all the marble that surrounds it." Dr. Harris: So you can see the figure trapped inside. Dr. Drogin: Exactly and this particular example gives us a really good illustration of that idea, because in a way, it looks like the figure is already all there and all he's doing is letting it out. Dr. Harris: Getting rid of all that dead material to let a living figure free. Dr. Drogin: That's right. Now, of course, as we said, this is an incomplete figure. This is not a finished sculpture by Michelangelo, but - Dr. Harris: He did that a lot. Dr. Drogin: There was a lot of sculptures (crosstalk) Dr. Harris: Given the process, why one would leave them incomplete. It's so difficult, they would take so long, and he had patrons making so many demands on him. Dr. Drogin: That's right, but luckily, in a way, we have different sculptures at a lot of different stages of incompletion, so we can really see how he progressed along the way. To switch to a different sculpture, this is the so-called Doni Tondo from about 1505. Here again, you can see the different kinds of chisel marks. For instance, rougher, coarser ones here on the chest, much finer ones on the face where he started to get much more detail. What I really want to emphasize, though, is that when Michelangelo's sculptures were actually complete, in other words when they were signed and on public display, like the famous Pieta in Rome from the 1490s, they had an incredibly high polish. There were no more chisel marks at all, because you progress through the finer and finer chisels but then the last stages are going to be that you've sanded down and then also that you polish it with leather, so it gets this very, very pristine, glossy, smooth finish. When you're looking at something like this, it's hard to imagine even that it was carved with a hammer and tools. Dr. Harris: It is. Dr. Drogin: Look at the flesh or the fabric on her head. It seems to transcend the medium. Dr. Harris: So there are really two kinds of sculpting processes. One is an additive process, right, of sculpting from clay or wax or plaster and this would be a subtractive process of taking away. Dr. Drogin: That's right. These examples that we've looked at have given us a really good idea of how you progress from the mountain to the finished work of art. (jazz music)
|
<urn:uuid:5eb0235f-0e2a-481d-8f1a-1258fdca8c82>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.36713433265686035,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9815060496330261,
"url": "https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/special-topics-art-history/creating-conserving/sculpture/v/quarrying-and-carving-marble"
}
|
domingo, 13 de noviembre de 2016
How a VOR Works
16 Feb, 2014 in Articles / IFR Flight by
VOR is short for Very High Frequency (VHF) Omni-directional Range. When VOR was invented it replaced the Low-Frequency Range, which had only four legs. Thus the term “Omni-directional”, indicates that a VOR generates courses in all directions, which is its distinctive characteristic.
VOR is also distinct from Non-directional Beacons (NDB) in that the directional signal is embedded in the VOR signal. With an NDB there is no directional information embedded in the signal thus the airborne radio must have direction finding abilities.
I have created a computer animation, shown below, that explains in pictures better than I can do it in words how a VOR station works.
Basically the VOR transmits two signals. The “phased signal” is transmitted outward in a spiral, shown in blue in the animation. A second signal is transmitted simultaneously with each revolution of the spiral. This second signal acts as a timing reference. Your VOR receiver picks up both signals and acts like an oscilloscope creating a standing wave of both signals. The phase difference between the signals represents the radial you are on. A radial is simply your bearing awayt from the VOR.
In the animation I have slowed the process down so that you can see it. In a real VOR the signals are transmitted 30 times per second and move out at the speed of light.
In the animation you can drag the airplane around the VOR to all the different radial. As you do so watch the standing waves at the bottom. You will notice that the phase difference between the red and blue waves corresponds to the radial you are on.
Radials are Relative to Magnetic North
A radial is by definition a direction, or course, outward or away from the station.
When a VOR station is installed it must be calibrated. In most parts of the world VORs are calibrated so that the zero radial is oriented toward Magnetic North. In the simulation above the VOR is initially oriented to True North, but you can adjust the variation slider in the animation and you will see that it reorients the VOR to Magnetic North. All the calibration actually does is change the starting point of the timing pulses (the red pulses) so that a new one starts as the spiral passes Magnetic North.
In northern Canada VORs are oriented to True North.
Now that we know how a VOR station works and how our radio interprets the information let’s examine how the course is displayed to the pilot in the cockpit
Display of VOR Course in the Cockpit
Three different instruments are in common use for displaying VOR information to pilots in the cockpit. In order from oldest to most modern they are:
1. RMI
2. Standard VOR Indicator
3. HSI
I will explain each in order.
There is a simulation below that you can use to explore and compare how these three indicator systems work. You can drag the airplane around to see how the RMI, Standard VOR Indicator and HSI react. You can change the course using the OBS and CRS knobs (just hold the mouse button down on the knob.) You can also turn the airplane by adjusting the heading bug.
Use the “Sectors” button to see how an HSI or Standard VOR Indicator dissect the world into 8 unique sectors.
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
The oldest method of displaying VOR information is called an RMI, short for Radio Magnetic Indicator. An RMI is simply a rotating needle on top of a heading indicator.
In the animation below the blue needle is the RMI-needle. I have chosen to install the RMI-needle as part of an HSI (I will describe HSI in a moment.) It is common practice these days to install the RMI-needle as part of an HSI rather than as a stand-alone instrument. But, some airplanes with older avionics have the RMI as a separate instrument. Either way it works the same.
In the animation drag the airplane around and notice how the blue RMI-needle reacts.
Most pilots would say that the RMI-needle is pointing at the VOR. In reality it is rotating so that the tail of the RMI-needle indicates which radial you are on. The difference between these two points of view is rather subtle. As long as the heading card is accurately indicating your heading there is no difference. But should the heading system fail the RMI-needle no longer points at the station, but the tail of the needle would still tell you what radial you are on. I will write an article about failure modes at a later time.
Standard VOR Indicator
RMI has the advantage of being simple, both to construct and interpret, but it requires a lot of skill to navigate accurately with it. Consequently, soon after VOR was invented the Standard VOR Indicator was invented.
The Standard VOR Indicator is still in use today, although low-cost HSIs are rapidly replacing it.
The Standard VOR indicator lacks the ease of use of the RMI, but once setup a pilot can fly very precisely along a straight course. The ability to fly a straight line accurately is the only advantage.
The pilot uses a knob, known as the Omni Bearing Selector or OBS to choose a radial to navigate along. Once the pilot has made the choice all that is necessary is to keep the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) centered in order to fly a perfectly straight course along the radial or the reciprocal of the radial.
The Standard VOR Indicator also has a TO/FROM flag. The flag indicates FROM whenever the airplane is within 90 degrees of the chosen radial, and therefore indicates TO whenever the airplane is more than 90 degrees from the chosen radial.
The CDI will deflect left whenever the airplane is clockwise up to 180 degrees from the chosen radial and will deflect right whenever the airplane is up to 180 degrees counter-clockwise from the chosen radial.
The CDI is “alive” whenever the airplane is within 10 degrees of the radial or its reciprocal. If the CDI is centered with a FROM flag that means the airplane is on the selected radial, but if the CDI is centered with a TO flag (remember the TO flag shows when the airplane is more than 90 degrees from the radial) that means the airplane is 180 degrees off the radial, i.e. on the reciprocal of the selected radial.
When the airplane is abeam the station (approximately 90 degrees, either clockwise or counter-clockwise from the station) an OFF flag replaces the TO/FROM flag.
In the animation above you can drag the airplane around to see how the Standard VOR Indicator shows your position.
You can see from the simulation that there are 8 unique combinations of CDI and TO/FROM flag. To fully understand and use a VOR you need to understand each of the 8 possibilities.
If you can find an experienced IFR instructor to sit down with you as you explore this animation that would speed up your understanding.
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
The Horizontal Situation Indicator, or HSI, is a much easier instrument to use than the Standard VOR Indicator.
The HSI has all the same components as the Standard VOR Indicator. It has a Course Knob, which has the same function as the OBS knob on the Standard Indicator. It has a CDI and a TO/FROM flag. The extra thing it has is a Track-Bar (also known as a Course-Bar) that rotates with the heading card.
In the animation above you can set the HSI to any course you like. Notice that the Track-Bar rotates as you change the course. You can also make a turn by changing the heading bug using the HDG knob. When the airplane turns the Track-Bar turns and that is the innovation that makes it so much easier to visualize where your desired course is relative to your airplane.
Many pilot believe that when the CDI is deflected left they need to turn left and when the CDI is deflected right they need to turn right. With an HSI that is true, but with a Standard VOR Indicator it is not necessarily true. I will explain this point in an upcoming movie. This difference is the reason why the HSI really does give you situational awareness, hence the name. It is always safe to say that you should turn toward the CDI with an HSI, but with a Standard Indicator that is not always the case.
After many decades of training IFR pilots have have noticed that many pilots using HSI for the first time do not discriminate the TO/FROM flag very well. On the HSI the TO/FROM flag is a small triangle which points toward the arrowhead to indicate TO or toward the tail of the Track-bar to indicate FROM. Compared to the flag on the Standard Indicator it is quite subtle and many pilots fail to notice when the flag “flips” so watch out for that.
As with the standard indicator your best bet is to sit down with an experienced IFR instructor when exploring the animation above and do a side-by-side comparison of the standard indicator and the HSI.
No hay comentarios:
Publicar un comentario
Espero atento tus comentarios
|
<urn:uuid:ccfaed16-15e2-4b51-8988-7a54d5c48c6f>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.578125,
"fasttext_score": 0.33531832695007324,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9188602566719055,
"url": "https://blogaltovuelo.blogspot.com/2016/11/how-vor-works.html"
}
|
Your Cart is Empty
Odin The Ruler
The first systems of writing developed and used by the Norse and other Germanic peoples were runic alphabets. The runes functioned as letters, but they were much more than just letters in the sense in which we today understand the term.
Each rune was an ideographic or pictographic symbol of some cosmological principle or power, and to write a rune was to invoke and direct the force for which it stood. Indeed, in every Germanic language, the word “rune” (from Proto-Germanic *runo) means both “letter” and “secret” or “mystery,” and its original meaning, which likely predated the adoption of the runic alphabet, may have been simply “(hushed) message.”
Customer Reviews
No reviews yet Write a review
|
<urn:uuid:b6f9a33e-fdd8-4680-bb7b-abd628e27eef>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.31248539686203003,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9666500687599182,
"url": "https://www.vikingsroar.com/products/odin-the-ruler"
}
|
Travel, encounter and experience German heritage alongside the Danube
• P1030613.jpg
• DZM00023.jpg
• P1030616.jpg
The fresco-secco paintings on the southern wall of Ulm’s town hall reflect the important role which Ulm played in the history of emigrants from German regions to the southeast of Europe. Also, the different coats of arms of other trade towns in the painting show Ulm’s function as a centre of trade.
In Ulm, the streams of Iller and Blau enter the Danube. From this point onwards, the Danube was navigable from the middle ages onwards. This made Ulm an important port for trade in southern Germany. Amongst others, wine, wood, leather, cheese, pigments, flintstone and seeds were transported to Hungary on the “Ulmer Schachteln” (ships, litteraly: “Ulm’s boxes”). Also, a speciality called “Ulm’s oysters” was transported from here, since Ulm was a prime location for edible snails. In the 19th century these “oysters for the poor” were transported to Vienna and sold to gourmets there. But not only products were transported on the 2.860-kilometre long river, but people as well. From the 17th century onwards, emigrants were travelling on the Danube. Most of them went in the direction of Hungary and although the journey was arduous, it was a safer and faster route than the country way.
The painting on the town hall displays an Ulmer Schachtel with its characteristic black and white striped paint. In the front part of the ship the passengers were seated, the helpers and skippers stayed on the roof and navigated the ship with their long wooden rudders. The wild waters of the Danube cover the ship in spume.
The Ulmer Schachtel, earlier called “Wiener Zille” (“Viennese barge”), travelled on a tight schedule and had predefined prices. The journey to Vienna took, depending on the water-level, eight to fourteen days. At that time, the ships were also called “ordinari ships”, because they travelled to Vienna “ordinary” on a regular schedule.
Usually, 40 passengers would be on the ship, however, during the high tide of migration, up to 150 people were on them. These waves of migration began in 1712. In 1768, 3.000 migrants went on the “ordinari ships” within three months. In the 19th century, the railway took the monopoly from the Ulmer Schachtel and in 1987, the last “Viennese barge” was used for commercial purposes. However, the ships were not forgotten and turned into one of Ulm’s symbols. Today, the ships are used for touristic purposes.
The Danube Swabians have not forgotten the ships as well. They are displayed on many memorials in Hungary and have become a symbol for the history of migration to the Danube countries.
The fresco-secco painting can be found on the southern side of the town hall.
The fresco-secco painting shows an Ulmer Schachtel with travellers and crew.
Ulmer Schachtel with its typical striped black and white paint.
|
<urn:uuid:61cb322c-e18e-411b-b27d-91aed26176c3>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.055152297019958496,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9741971492767334,
"url": "http://www.danube-places.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=173&Itemid=348&lang=en"
}
|
Textile finishing determines the final appearance and aesthetic qualities of a textile. It may also modify a variety of physical and chemical characteristics of textile materials in response to consumer needs. Textile finishing is the final stage in changing the quality of a fabric in terms of appearance, handling, and functionality by mechanical and chemical means. Textile finishing has evolved through time into the process by which textile resources are converted into technical textiles. Developing multifunctional fabrics that are highly efficient, durable, cost effective, and made in an ecologically sustainable manner is undoubtedly the future trend in textile finishing.
The finishing sector comprises operations such as the textile industry’s processing and functionalization unit, which is a high-cost, energy-intensive, and hazardous chemical-demanding process. Sustainability is a critical aspect that must be addressed to address the many problems provided by the textile industry in terms of regulating the use of water, electricity, hazardous chemicals, and so on. Textile finishing in a sustainable manner may be accomplished using environmentally friendly techniques.
Textile Finishing Techniques that are Eco-Friendly
1. Antimicrobial finish derived from natural ingredients:
Antimicrobial materials are widely utilized in a variety of applications, including surgical gowns, undergarments, and infant wear. Antimicrobial treatments are now being applied to traditional clothing and household textiles. Antimicrobial agents kill or prevent pathogens from developing, and their effects are regulated. Because of the presence of carbohydrates in the fibres, bacteria may readily destroy cotton and other natural fibres. Antimicrobial-finished fabrics are utilized in a variety of goods, including athletic equipment, footwear, medical textiles, furniture, automotive textiles, intimate clothing, and others.
The presence of microorganisms in textiles causes odor and discoloration, as well as health problems. Microbial infections cause inflammation, allergies, and skin diseases; thus, clothes worn next to the skin should be antibacterial. Natural antibacterial compounds-based eco-friendly antimicrobial fabrics are becoming increasingly popular. Many plants contain compounds that, when applied, have an antibacterial effect, such as tannin, flavonoids, and terpenoids. They can act as both a bactericide (killing the bacterium) and a bacteriostat (preventing the microorganism from growing).
1. Plasma completing processing
Plasma treatment is a physicochemical approach for surface modification that changes the surface both physically and chemically while leaving the material’s bulk characteristics intact. The plasma surface modification concept is as follows:
The plasma atmosphere is made up of free electrons, radicals, ions, atoms, molecules, and different excited particles, depending on the plasma gas involved. The interaction of these excited species with solid surfaces placed in plasma reactors causes chemical and physical change of the material surface.
All the active species react with the surface of the substrate, resulting in chemical functionality on the surface. Furthermore, the reactive particles produced react directly with the surface of the treated substrates without altering their bulk characteristics.
Cold plasmas, also known as non-thermal plasmas, are used extensively in a wide range of textile applications. Cold plasma is used to cure textiles either under vacuum or at atmospheric pressure. Without a doubt, plasmas are the most effective surface treatment treatments.
The following features differentiate plasma:
• Because plasma is utilized at a low temperature, the possibility of fabric damage is reduced.
• The ability to apply plasma over a wide range of thermal, physical, and chemical temperatures enables fine-tuning of fabric surface treatments.
• Because of its dry treatment procedures, plasma is an ecologically friendly alternative.
1. Nanotechnology implementation:
Nanotechnology is one of the most sustainable technologies in the dyeing and finishing business. This technique employs textile fibres with sizes ranging from 1 to 100nm. When applied in textiles, nanotechnology has already demonstrated the ability to increase the surface area of individual threads. The long-term use of nanotechnology in the textile sector can minimize the use of hazardous and toxic chemicals that affect the environment. Water and beverage repellent protective coating is applied to nano-processed garments. Their protective layer is not visible to the naked eye.
When a material is transformed at sizes of about 100 nm, the structure of treated clothes becomes more compressed. As a result, clothing becomes stain- and dirt-resistant. This saves time and money on laundry. Technology is embracing environmentally beneficial features. Nanomaterials provide for superior ventilation and moisture absorption, resulting in enhanced breathability while retaining traditional materials’ pleasant hand feel. The crease-resistant function aids in the appearance of your garments. Toxins are not present in these Nano-processed products. Garments are more durable than usual fabrics and maintain their bright and new appearance. Manufacturing expenses are low, resulting in increased output.
1. Ultrasound-based finishing:
The procedure employs zinc oxide nanoparticles as an active medium and is based on the physical phenomenon of acoustic cavitation, which occurs when a solution containing nanoparticles is exposed to ultrasound, causing small bubbles in the solution to form, expand, and collapse in a matter of seconds. As a result, high-energy microstreaming patterns travel at a pace of around 500 meters per second. These particles are transported and securely embedded in the fabrics. This unique system enables maximum process reliability, productivity, sustainability, ease of maintenance, and cost effectiveness.
1. Sustainable UV technology:
Ultra-Violate exposure at low concentrations helps in killing the pathogens and others disease causing microbes. However, UV radiation causes wrinkles, skin damage, blisters, ageing, and other problems in the skin layer. As a result, UV protection gear has gained popularity in the textile sector. UV protection finishing is used in the fabric to counteract these negative effects. Several natural sources derived from mulberry, grapes, tulsi, aloe vera, honey, almonds, and other plants are used in the synthesis of UV protective garments to increase sun protection.
Traditional finishing processes have a harmful impact on the environment. As a result, the need for long-term solutions is growing by the day. Some environmentally friendly techniques, such as plasma technology, nanotechnology, and UV technology, are being used in the textile sector. As a result, with the developing idea of sustainability, sustainable dyeing and finishing techniques in the textile industry have received a lot of attention.
Ms. Kshipra Gadey,
Textile Value Chain
|
<urn:uuid:ca1b0dd1-b2bc-4b7f-ac04-99e82f20ea42>
|
{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.53125,
"fasttext_score": 0.07807821035385132,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9201237559318542,
"url": "https://textilevaluechain.in/in-depth-analysis/sustainability-in-textile-finishing-techniques/"
}
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.