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17th c. Ottoman war camel unearthed in Austria
In 2006, archaeologists excavating a site of a future shopping center in the town of Tulln on the Danube in Lower Austria discovered the skeleton of a large mammal. The location once boasted a tavern named “Auf der Rossmühle” (On the Mill) and it was in what would have been the tavern’s cellar that they found the skeleton. At first they thought it was a bovine or a very large horse, but archaeozoologist Dr. Alfred Galik identified it as a camel.
Testing of both the mitochondrial DNA and the nuclear DNA confirmed the morphological evidence that the animal was a hybrid of a dromedary mother and a Bactrian camel father. Its teeth and bones indicate the animal was an adult male, probably gelded, older than seven years. Lesions on the mandible show the camel was accustomed to wearing a harness and lesions on the shoulder blades were likely caused by the animal being made to rise and sit frequently to allow riders to mount and dismount. These are relatively minor repetitive stress deformities. Had the lad been used as a beast of burden, there would be significantly more damage to the bones. He was also fairly slender, so not ideally suited to bearing heavy loads but well suited as a riding animal. There are no signs of abuse or malnutrition. This guy was treated well.
Researchers were able to date the animal with some precision to the second half of the 17th century thanks to artifacts found buried in the backfill with the remains. A Rechenpfenning, a coin or token used for math calculations rather than legal tender, bearing the face of King Louis XIV dates to between 1643 and 1715. A lead bottle containing the cure-all theriac (I don’t think this one is going to get revived any time soon) labeled with the name of a Vienna apothecary’s shop placed it squarely in the 17th century as “Apotheke zur Goldenen Krone” was in business between 1628 and 1665. Documentary evidence found that the the property changed hands in 1690 which is doubtless when the cellar was backfilled for new construction above it.
While camel remains ranging in date from the Roman to the early modern era have been discovered before in Central Europe, they were disarticulated bones or partial skeletons at best. This is the first complete camel skeleton found and the timing makes it all the more intriguing because the late 17th century saw the final culmination of three centuries of war between Habsburg Austria and the Ottoman Empire where the camels came from. The overwhelming victory of the allied European powers at the Battle of Vienna in September of 1683 marked the turning point. Fighting continued until the Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in 1699, but the Ottoman forces were on the defensive the entire time and ultimately lost Hungary and Transylvania for good.
One of the leaders of the Holy League alliance, King of Poland John III Sobieski, who famously led the largest cavalry charge in history (18,000 horsemen) to inflict the coup de grace on the struggling Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna, wrote to his wife afterwards:
God and our Lord forever blessed be, He gave victory and glory to our people as the past centuries never knew before. All over the camp, countless riches fall into our hands. The enemy, their dead littering fields and the camp, flees in confusion. Camels, mules, cattle, sheep, which it had on the sides, our troops now take….
Tulln is just 25 miles northwest of Vienna. It was the staging ground where the allied troops met before the Battle of Vienna. Perhaps this camel made his way to the city as part of the spoils King John III Sobieski mentioned, or it may have been part of a peaceable exchange earlier that summer. Ottoman troops occupied the countryside around Tulln in August of 1683 but never conquered the town. Diplomatic channels were open since the Holy Roman Emperor’s ambassador and his secretary were released to Tulln by the Ottomans at that time.
We know it wasn’t still in Ottoman hands when it died, because they would have butchered it (which is part of the reason why there are so few complete camel remains found in Europe). There are no cut marks on the bone and the position of the articulated skeleton means it was buried intact. Researchers believe the camel may have been kept as an exotic animal exhibit in Tulln. With little experience in the care and feeding of camels and limited resources in a time of war, the locals probably wouldn’t have been ideal zookeepers. When the camel died a few years later, it was put in the cellar with a bunch of trash and covered by the backfill.
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Comment by Clay
2015-04-02 10:02:48
Interesting story, thanks!
Also, I bet you’ve been waiting for years to write a headline with the term “war camel” in it. Congratulations!
Comment by livius drusus
2015-04-03 09:52:56
You are correct, sir. Without even realizing it, I had a deep-seated need to say “war camel” in a title. I am now fulfilled.
Comment by SourceRunner
2015-04-02 11:47:19
…when I was twelve, I had the dubious privilege of riding a camel by the name of Kojak on a desert tour. He was a lovely creature, fair of form and lean, just as the one in this article was, but he had this unfortunate habit of turning his head around and “smiling” at the child on his back with huge, yellow teeth that looked more adapted to chomping fingers and toes than vegetative matter.
But his feet were amazing. They were like waterballoons filled with jello, stepping on the pebbles and shale and just spreading out to fit. And someone had trained him to moderate the sway of his body, so he had the beautifully smooth gait that make camels the ships of the desert, but little of the seasickness-inducing roll. And he was tall. Riding him was comparable to being at the top of a tree when the wind is blowing, with all of the gorgeous and slightly alien views available from a higher vantage.
When he broke into a run, though, it was rather uncomfortable. The run of a camel, at least in a saddle accoutrement without stirrups, is more bone-jarring than the worst trot of a horse. How is it possible to have a war camel, when riding them gets worse with speed, rather than better? It would throw off weaponry aim horribly. Were they not used as charging animals?
Ah well. I think 12-year-old me would have taken Kojak’s grinning a little better had someone intimated that he was a war camel. That would have explained those teeth nicely.
Comment by livius drusus
2015-04-03 10:06:57
I rode a camel once too. His name, alas, escapes me now, but I know exactly what you mean about that running gait. Also the waterballoons filled with jello. You should develop your quick research into a whole paper on camels and camalry.
Comment by SourceRunner
2015-04-02 17:15:11
After spending some of my free (read: enforced idle) time today light-researching to answer my own questions, I can report that there are disappointingly few credible sources readily available that discuss camel cavalry (? Really?) battle methodology. But, bottom line up front, the answer is “no, camels are not used as mounted charging animals.” Generally, at least. Not since we developed ranged artillery.
The most recent reported mass-camel mounted charge occurred in 1915 at the Suez Canal. places it, but go into how it was The rest of the sources tend to hold that if one wants to combine camels with guns, then the best tactic is to ride into battle, make them stop and lay down, dismount, and either act as infantry () or reassemble your heavy artillery that the camels were carrying and set up a station. Or, if you really wanted, you could on
Putting the guns or crossbows on the camels seems to have been a natural extension of the of using camels for Though, if you really want to make the camels weaponry bearers, it might be simpler to do as Timur the Mongol did, , or take a page from Cyrus,
There’s apparently some evidence that there were (which makes me want to rewatch videos of with an eye to judging how effective blade and lance use might be on camel-back, compared to horseback), but the topic doesn’t seem to be much covered on the Internet outside of a game that features scimitar-throwing camel cavalry.
Nope. By most near-modern accounts, war camels were less often used in charges, more often used in , and are now relegated to the duty of of patrols.
(Here’s hoping that the coding went right.)
Comment by livius drusus
2015-04-03 09:48:14
Holy smokes, SourceRunner, that is some impressive light research. I’d like to see your heavy research sometime! Fascinating stuff. I hadn’t even thought of exactly how the camels would have been deployed in battle.
Comment by RMW
2015-04-02 21:36:17
One lump or two?? (snicker)
Comment by livius drusus
2015-04-03 10:13:42
Do you take camel? (That was a Def Leppard reference, right?)
Comment by Cordate
2015-04-03 14:40:28
Now you’ve got me looking around too :) I found a few mentions of camels used in pre-Renaissance battles, including some bearing heavy armor, which would point more towards an in-combat use rather than only troop transport:
Without getting my hands on the book referenced though, we haven’t anything on how effective (or not) it was.
I did get to find out about an interesting wife of Muhammad, ‘Ā’ishah bint Abī Bakr. “During the reign of Ali, she wanted to avenge Uthman’s death, which she attempted to do in the Battle of the Camel. She participated in the battle by giving speeches and leading troops on the back of her camel. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination left a lasting impression.”
Comment by Abigail
2015-04-04 19:48:45
the “buried whole” thing seems odd to me–not disbelieving but it seems odd to have just dumped the whole animal out with the trash. Although, I did that with a mouse once that the cat brought me, so perhaps it’s not too different.
Comment by livius drusus
2015-04-05 09:46:58
I would imagine the animal was either housed on the premises or very nearby, so basically it was buried where it fell.
Comment by ottoman empire
2015-10-15 14:08:39
Good share,I like reading about Ottoman Empire.
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What is Hypothalamus? and How it works?
In This Article You Will Know:
• Which part of the brain controls homeostasis and homeostatic behaviours like drinking and eating?
• How does your body control the processes like the production of heat, growth and reproduction?
• Does the hypothalamus play any role in hypertension and hormonal dysfunctions?
• Who was the first to identify the hypothalamus as a distinct region within the brain?
Here you will get comprehensive answers to all these questions. In addition, you will also learn about the anatomy, functions and working of the hypothalamus.
What is Hypothalamus?
The hypothalamus was first identified and described as a distinct region in the diencephalon by ‘His’ as early as 1893. This revolutionary discovery paved the way for further research on this important unit of the brain.
It is a structural and functional unit or region in the brainwhose name is familiar to all neurobiologists. However, they may not claim to understand perfectly the position, limits and inner surface in context of the surrounding territories of the forebrain. In fact, there is controversy regarding the morphological model of the hypothalamus and that best accounts for its complexity.
Despite an ample number of neurogenetic and genoarchitectonic studies, it is still largely a matter of conjecture how hypothalamus is regionalized during the developmental processes.
The hypothalamus is responsible for the control and regulation of a number of body function, like drinking, eating, reproduction, heat production, homeostatic mechanisms of the body, and so on.
what is hypothalamus
Hypothalamus Functions:
Ranson and Hess and their colleagues observed that localized electrical stimulation of certain sites within the hypothalamus created profound effects on a range of behaviours, including feeding, drinking, responses to stress, thermoregulatory responses, autonomic functions and reproductive behaviour.
At that time, it was believed that such effects were the result of actions on the neural cell bodies within the hypothalamus. But, now it has been realized that the effects of lesions or electrical stimulation may also be due in part to effects on the descending or ascending axons of passage within the hypothalamic region.
It is an established fact that the hypothalamus is an important central station that is involved in the networked control of organismic humoral homeostasis, central control, motor drives, self-placing computation and patterns of circadian neural activity.
After receiving signals based on internal and external conditions, the hypothalamus translates them into hormones which inhibit or stimulate the secretions by the pituitary gland.
Through its secretions, the hypothalamus regulates the body functions, like growth, metabolism, development of sex cells (ova and sperm), stimulation of ovaries and testes, and so on.
The hormones secreted by the hypothalamus include corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), growth hormone-releasing factor, somatostatin and thyrotropin-releasing factor. In response to the action of these hormones, the pituitary gland gets stimulated to synthesize different types of hormones.
For example, CRF stimulate the master gland (the pituitary) to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone or ACTH. It produces the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) in response to the effect of GnRH. Similarly, the pituitary produces growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), in response to the secretions of growth hormone-releasing factor and thyrotropin-releasing factor, respectively, by the hypothalamus.
Here, as the very name suggests, the job of the thyroid-stimulating hormone is to stimulate secretions by the thyroid gland. Present in the neck region, the thyroid gland is a large ductless gland that produces hormonal secretions which regulate the processes, like growth and development, by controlling the rate of metabolism.
Hypothalamus Anatomy:
Anatomically, the region of the brain called hypothalamus can be subdivided both mediolaterally and rostrocaudally. In the mediolateral direction, the hypothalamus can be traditionally divided into three distinct longitudinal cell columns which are referred to as periventricular, medial and lateral zones.
hypothalamus anatomy
The medial zone contains most of the major nuclei of hypothalamus which usually have a distinct cytoarchitecture. On the other hand, the neurons of the lateral zone are more diffusely distributed and do not have anatomically distinct nuclei.
Rostrocaudally, the hypothalamus is most commonly divided into three structural components, called the anterior, middle and posterior parts. The anterior, middle and posterior parts of the hypothalamus are also referred to as the preoptic area, the tuberal part and the mammillary part, respectively.
There are short capillaries which connect the hypothalamic region of the brain to the pituitary gland.
How the Hypothalamus Works?
The job of the hypothalamus is to translate the signals received from the nervous system into hormonal secretions.These hormones activate the pituitary gland to synthesize or inhibit specific hormones in response to the signal from hypothalamus.
Both external conditions, like light or temperature,and internal conditions, like fears, play an important role in the translation of the signals by the hypothalamus into the hormones which stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland.
The conditions, like temperature, heat and fears are processed by other areas of the brain and then communicated to the hypothalamus through the neural signalling.
how the hypothalamus works
So, it can be said that the hypothalamus serves as a critical link between the endocrine system and the nervous system.
The pituitary (also referred to as the master gland because itregulates the hormonal secretions of several other glands) is positioned at the base of the human brain just beneath the hypothalamus. Both the parts of the pituitary (anterior and posterior) receive inputs from hypothalamus in very different ways.
The hypothalamus uses the route of direct blood supply (consisting of unique vasculature) to send hormonal signals to the anterior part of the pituitary gland.On the other hand, the posterior part of the pituitary is more like an extension of hypothalamus in that it is made primarily of the axons of the hypothalamic neurons.
• Alvarez-Bolado, G., Grinevich, V., &Puelles, L. (2015). Development of the hypothalamus. Frontiers in neuroanatomy, 9, 83.[2] [3] [5]
• Benson, J. B., & Haith, M. M. (Eds.). (2009). Diseases and Disorders in infancy and Early Childhood. Academic Press.[6] [7] [9] [10] [11]
• Llewellyn-Smith, I. J., &Verberne, A. J. (Eds.). (2011). Central regulation of autonomic functions. Oxford University Press.[1] [4] [8]
About the Author
Posted by: M.Isaac / Senior writer
The organs that are involved in breathing
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Bermuda hotspot
The Bermuda hotspot is a supposed midplate hotspot swell in the Atlantic Ocean 500-1000 km southeast of Bermuda,[1] proposed to explain the extinct volcanoes of the Bermuda Rise as well as the Mississippi Embayment[2][3][4] and the Sabine Uplift southwest of the Mississippi Embayment.[5]
A 2002 paper by Roy B. Van Arsdale and Randel Cox of the University of Memphis proposes that the Bermuda hotspot generated the Mississippi Embayment in the Early Cretaceous period, when the hotspot strengthened and uplifted the present-day Mississippi Valley. The resulting highland eroded over time, and when North American plate motion moved the valley away from the hotspot the resulting thinned lithosphere subsided forming a trough.[4] As evidence, Van Arsdale and Cox cite the seismic zones centered on New Madrid, Missouri and Charleston, South Carolina, and the volcanic kimberlite pipes in Arkansas.
Other papers[6][7] argue that the lack of a chain of age-progressive seamounts (as in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain), the absence of present-day volcanism, and the elongation of the Bermuda Rise oblique to plate motion are evidence against a hotspot origin for the Bermuda Rise. Peter R. Vogt and Woo-Yeol Jung[6] alternatively attribute the Bermuda Rise to a reorganization of mantle convection associated with the closing of the Tethys Sea, though noting that shallow processes may not explain the source of the magmatism. A more recent paper [7] finds a thinning in the mantle transition zone under Bermuda, apparently consistent with mantle upwelling and a hot lower mantle below Bermuda.
See also
1. ^ Vacher, H.L.; Rowe, Mark (1997). Vacher, H.L.; Quinn, T. (eds.). Geology and Hydrogeology of Bermuda, in Geology and Hydrogeology of Carbonate Islands, Developments in Sedimentology 54. Amsterdam: elsevier Science B.V. pp. 35–90. ISBN 9780444516442.
2. ^ Cox, Randel T.; Roy B. Van Arsdale (Jan 2007). "The Mississippi's Curious Origins". Scientific American. 296 (1): 76–82B. Bibcode:2007SciAm.296a..76V. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0107-76.
3. ^ Cox, Randel T.; Roy B. Van Arsdale (1997). "Hotspot origin of the Mississippi embayment and its possible impact on contemporary seismicity". Engineering Geology. 46 (3–4): 201–216. doi:10.1016/S0013-7952(97)00003-3.
4. ^ a b Cox, Randel T.; Roy B. Van Arsdale (2002). "The Mississippi Embayment North America: A First Order Continental Structure Generated by the Cretaceaous Superplume Mantle Event". Journal of Geodynamics. 34 (2): 163–176. Bibcode:2002JGeo...34..163C. doi:10.1016/S0264-3707(02)00019-4.
5. ^ Nunn, Jeffrey A. (1990). "Relaxation of Continental Lithosphere: an Explanation for Late Cretaceous Reactivation of the Sabine Uplift of Louisiana-Texas". Tectonics. 9 (2): 341–359. Bibcode:1990Tecto...9..341N. doi:10.1029/TC009i002p00341.
6. ^ a b Vogt, Peter R.; Woo-Yeol Jung (2007). Origin of the Bermuda volcanoes and the Bermuda Rise: History, observations, models, and puzzles (PDF). Special Paper 430: Plates, Plumes and Planetary Processes. 430. pp. 553–591. CiteSeerX doi:10.1130/2007.2430(27). ISBN 978-0-8137-2430-0. Retrieved 2008-08-12.
7. ^ a b Benoit, Margaret H.; Maureen D. Long; Scott D. King (2013). "Anomalously thin transition zone and apparently isotropic upper mantle beneath Bermuda: Evidence for upwelling". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 14 (10): 4282. Bibcode:2013GGG....14.4282B. doi:10.1002/ggge.20277.
Bermuda Pedestal
The Bermuda Pedestal is an oval geological feature in the northern Atlantic Ocean containing the topographic highs of the Bermuda Platform, the Plantagenet (Argus) Bank, and the Challenger Bank. The pedestal is 50 km (31 mi) long and 25 km (16 mi) wide at the 100 fathom line (-185 m), while the base measures 130 km by 80 km at -4200 m. Surrounding the pedestal is a much larger mid-basin swell known as the Bermuda Rise, measuring 900 km by 600 km at the 5000 m depth contour. The islands of Bermuda are located on the southeastern margin of the Bermuda Pedestal.The oceanic crust surrounding the Bermuda is about 120 Ma, while the initial uplift of the Bermuda Rise occurred in the Middle to Late Eocene. Erosion continued from that time until the Early Oligocene. Volcaniclastic deposition and erosion ended with subsidence below sea level in the Late Oligocene. Volcanic basement is at -75 m across the platform, and -50 m on the island, except for a highpoint near Castle Harbour, at -15 m. These volcanics consist of tholeiitic lavas and intrusive lamprophyric sheets.Scientists have long considered the Bermuda Pedestal to be the remains of a large extinct shield volcano that formed between 45 and 35 million years ago. A number of theories have been established to explain the origin of the Bermuda Pedestal. According to one of these theories, it was formed by the volcanic activity of the Bermuda hotspot. However, a hotspot origin for the Bermuda Pedestal has never been strongly supported and has been largely shut out by a detailed and tightly argued paper by Peter R. Vogt of the University of California and Woo-Yeol Jung of the United States Naval Research Laboratory. In contrast, Vogt and Jung propose that the Bermuda Pedestal possibly formed as a result of a worldwide reorganization of the Earth's tectonic plates due to the closing of the Tethys Ocean when the Indian subcontinent collided with Eurasia.The size of the Bermuda Pedestal combined with knowledge of other mid-ocean volcanoes tells us that the Bermuda volcano originally reached 1,000 m (3,300 ft) above sea level and that it took three to ten million years to reduce it to sea level.
Hotspot (geology)
In geology, the places known as hotspots or hot spots are volcanic regions thought to be fed by underlying mantle that is anomalously hot compared with the surrounding mantle. Their position on the Earth's surface is independent of tectonic plate boundaries. There are two hypotheses that attempt to explain their origins. One suggests that hotspots are due to mantle plumes that rise as thermal diapirs from the core–mantle boundary. The other hypothesis is that lithospheric extension permits the passive rising of melt from shallow depths. This hypothesis considers the term "hotspot" to be a misnomer, asserting that the mantle source beneath them is, in fact, not anomalously hot at all. Well-known examples include the Hawaii, Iceland and Yellowstone hotspots.
Jackson Volcano
Jackson Volcano is an extinct volcano 2,900 feet (880 m) beneath the city of Jackson, Mississippi, under the Mississippi Coliseum. The uplifted terrain around the volcano forms the Jackson Dome, an area of dense rock clearly noticeable in local gravity measurements. E.W. Hilgard published his theory of an anticline beneath Jackson in 1860 due to his observations of surface strata. The dome contains relatively pure carbon dioxide which is used in oil production in Gulf Coast oil fields. The noble gas data suggests mantle origins with a date of 70 million years for the Jackson Dome intrusion. Geologists have evidence of repeated uplifts accompanied by dike intrusions and volcanic extrusions, erosion, and sedimentation with one coral reef having developed during a submergence. Much of the oil at the crest of the dome volatilized during a late uplift, but oil production wells numbered over a hundred in 1934.
Jackson Volcano is believed to have been extinct for at least 66 million years. A hypothesis states that the Jackson Volcano and related igneous activity in Mississippi were a result of the North America Plate's passage over the Bermuda hotspot 66 million years ago. Alternatively, the volcanism may have been part of a worldwide eruption driven by superplumes, similar to the conditions that created the Deccan Traps and the Siberian Traps.The volcano is one of four inside cities in the United States, Diamond Head in Honolulu, Hawaii, Pilot Butte in Bend, Oregon, and Mount Tabor in Portland, Oregon being the others. The volcano was discovered in 1819.
Midnight Volcano
Midnight Volcano is a buried extinct volcano near Midnight, Mississippi in southern Humphreys County. The volcano was last active in the Late Cretaceous period and is associated with the volcanic activity of the Monroe Uplift, which occurred around 80 million years ago. The Jackson Volcano, southeast of Midnight, was active around 10 million years later. Volcanic debris from Midnight or other volcanoes of the Monroe Uplift were found in the "Coffee sand," a Cretaceous sand layer to the north of the volcano.
Mississippi embayment
The Mississippi Embayment is a physiographic feature in the south-central United States, part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. It is essentially a northward continuation of the fluvial sediments of the Mississippi River Delta to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois. The current sedimentary area was formed in the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic by the filling with sediment of a pre-existing basin. An explanation for the embayment's formation was put forward by Van Arsdale and Cox in 2007: movement of the earth's crust brought this region over a volcanic "hotspot" in the Earth's mantle causing an upthrust of magma which formed the Appalachian-Ouachita range. Subsequent erosion caused a deep trough that was flooded by the Gulf of Mexico and eventually filled with sediment from the Mississippi River.
Olympic-Wallowa Lineament
The Olympic-Wallowa lineament (OWL) – first reported by cartographer Erwin Raisz in 1945 on a relief map of the continental United States – is a physiographic feature of unknown origin in the state of Washington (northwestern U.S.) running approximately from the town of Port Angeles, on the Olympic Peninsula to the Wallowa Mountains of eastern Oregon.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
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Words: 401-500
Skills: Main / Central Idea Summary
Grades: 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th
Topics: History and Humor
Genres: Biography / Autobiography Informational
Lexile Range:
Lexile Measure:
CCSS: History/Social Studies and Reading: Informational Text
by Mark Twain from The Innocents Abroad
Chapter VII passage: Mark Twain is known for his fictional works, but he also wrote one of the best-selling travel books of all time: The Innocents Abroad. This passage recounts his trip to Gibraltar. After reading the excerpt, students will answer questions on the main idea and the details.
Reading Comprehension Passage
by Mark Twain from The Innocents Abroad
Published in 1869, Mark Twain’s book The Innocents Abroad tells of his trip through Europe and the Mideast in 1867. In this passage, Twain has arrived in Gibraltar, gateway to the Mediterranean Sea. He is taking a tour of Rock of Gibraltar and has already heard the story of the Queen’s Chair which he says is “a legend that had nothing very astonishing about it, even in the first place.”
“That high hill yonder is called the Queen’s Chair; it is because a queen of Spain placed her chair there once when the French and Spanish troops were besieging Gibraltar, and said she would never move from the spot till the English flag was lowered from the fortresses. If the English hadn’t been gallant enough to lower the flag for a few hours one day, she’d have had to break her oath or die up there.”
“Senor, that high hill yonder is called the Queen’s Chair—”
“Sir, I am a helpless orphan in a foreign land. Have pity on me. Don’t—now don’t inflict that most in-FERNAL old legend on me anymore today!”
Passage Only
Reading Comprehension Questions
1. Find a quotation from the passage that tells what Twain thought about the view.
2. How did the Spanish queen finally get to move from her chair?
3. What did Twain want to do rather than listen to the Queen’s Chair legend again?
4. Do you think Twain’s description of his Rock of Gibraltar tour encouraged others to go there? Why or why not?
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Marine sandglass
Article Id: WHEBN0025791266
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Title: Marine sandglass
Author: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Language: English
Subject: Hourglass, Time in physics, Nuclear timescale, Jiffy (time), Saeculum
Publisher: World Heritage Encyclopedia
Marine sandglass
Marine sandglass, revolving, 19th century, in a four-column brass stand
A marine sandglass is a timepiece of simple design that is a relative of the common hourglass, a marine (nautical) instrument known since the 14th century (although reasonably presumed to be of very ancient use and origin). They were employed to measure the time at sea or on a given navigational course, in repeated measures of small time increments (e.g., 30 minutes). Used together with the chip log, smaller marine glasses were also used to measure the boat speed through the water in knots. Although vital to maritime navigation, marine glasses were not accurate measuring instruments for the passage of time; many design and environmental factors could affect the duration of sand's flow, and therefore its reported time. Their use continued through the early 19th century, when they were supplanted by reliable mechanical timepieces, and by other advances in marine navigation.
Design and use
Marine sandglasses originally consisted of two glass bottles one inverted above the other, connected by a smal tube, with the ends wrapped and so joined together. Over time, the later progress in the art of glassblowing allowed them to be made in a single piece. The marine glass was filled with sand or a suitable material such as finely ground eggshell, lead or tin chips (used to avoid humidity). This flowing material was chosen with two main objectives: to avoid the humidity and to absorve motion.. both required for shipboard use.[2][3]
Placed in the upper half, the sand would flow slowly and steadily towards the lower half by the action of gravity, taking a certain time to empty (that was calibrated during their design and manufacture). Once the upper portion of the glass was empty, the glass could be turned to measure another time period.[2]
Sarcophagus dated ca 350 AD, representing the wedding of Peleus and Thetis (observe the magnification with the hourglass held by Morpheus in his hands)
The origin of the hourglass is unclear, although unlike its predecessor the clepsydra, or water clock, which may have been invented in ancient Egypt, the first referenced use:
• According The American Institute of New York: The clepsammia or sand-glass was invented at Alexandria about 150 B. C.[4]
• According the Journal of the British Archaeological Association: the so called clepsammia were in use before the time of St Jerome (335 AD) and the first representation of an hourglass it's in a sarcophagus dated c. 350 AD,[5] representing the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, discovered in Rome in the 18th century, and studied by Wincklemann in the 19th century, who remarked the hourglass held by Morpheus in his hands.[6]
Middle age
Then it disappears until it has been re-introduced in medieval Europe.[7][8] By the 8th century it is mentioned by a monk named Luitprand, who served at the cathedral in Chartres, France.[9][10] But it was not until the 14th century that the marine sandglass was seen commonly, the earliest firm evidence being a depiction in the 1338 fresco Allegory of Good Government by Ambrogio Lorenzetti.[11]
Use of the marine sandglass has been recorded since the 14th century; The written records about it were mostly from logbooks of European ships.[7] In the same period it appears in other records and lists of ships stores. The earliest recorded reference that can be said with certainty to refer to a marine sandglass dates from c. 1345, in a receipt of Thomas de Stetesham, clerk of the King's ship La George, in the reign of Edward III of England; translated from the Latin, the receipt says: in 1345:[12][13]
Another reference is found in an extensive inventory of the property of Charles V of France in his possession at the time of his death on September 16, 1380.[14] One item is an hourglass from the king's study at his castle of St. Germain en Laye, described as follows:[14][15][9]
Item ung grant orloge de mer, de deux grans fiolles plains de sablon, en ung grant estuy de boys garny d'archal.[14][15][9] [Item a large sea clock, with two large phials filled with sand, in a large wooden brass-bound case.][14][15][9]
Importance in navigation
Marine sandglass, helmsman's, in a four-column wood stand
In long-distance navigation through the open ocean, the sandglass or "glass" used to measure the time was a tool as important as the compass (which indicated sailing direction, and so ship's course).[2][3] Filled with the amount of sand suitable for measuring a lapse of half an hour, each time the sand emptied was also called a "glass"; eight glasses (four hours) defined a "watch".[2][3] The times determined by the sandglass, along with the record in the logbook of the speed measured with the "chip log", permitted the ship's navigator to plot his map position.[2][3] Multiplying the ship's speed by the time the course had been kept (measured with the glass), gave traveled distance,[2][3] a simple, overall method termed dead reckoning.[2][3]
The marine sandglass was critical for maritime navigation before the 19th century.[2][3] At the beginning of that century it became possible to navigate by the lunar distances.[2][3] Prior to this, dead reckoning navigation based on sandglass-determined times was used, alongside determination of latitude using the quadrant (see also backstaff, astrolabe, and octant);[2][3] this was the only system available to mariners to navigate the globe.[2][3] The parallel use of relative time measurements at sea, and time measurement by mechanical clocks on land continued from at least 1350 to 1805, i.e., for more than 450 years.[2][3]
Although vital to navigation, the marine glass was not an accurate instrument to measure the passage of time.[2][3] The design of the glass affected its accuracy in time measurement; the uniformity in fineness of the sand, the inner diameter of the connecting tube, and design aspects allowing wear that would effect the flow of sand all could contribute.[2][3] In addition, many shipboard factors could affect the duration of sand's flow and therefore influence the time measured, including the humidity inside the glass, the ability for it to be positioned in a perfectly vertical position, and the acceleration or deceleration of the ship's movements.[2][3] Finally, the use of short duration glasses to measure long periods of time introduced further error.[2][3] Marine glass use was supplanted by reliable mechanical timepieces, and by other advances in marine navigation.[2][3]
Watch sandglasses
Watch sandglasses were used on ships to measure watch times, typically in half-hour periods. The helmsman[2][3] or ship's page[16] were the crewmen responsible for turning the watch sandglass, thus supplying the time to be registered on the ship's log; watch measurement began with the sun reaching its highest point—its zenith—at midday, which was likewise the essential time reference point for navigation.[16] At that point in time, the ship's bell was struck eight times; after the first glass had emptied (half an hour), the ship's bell was struck once, after another glass, twice, and so on until four hours after midday, when it was again struck eight times.[2][3] At that point, a new watch began, and the sequence was repeated.[2][3]
Hence, in the voyages of Columbus, there are records that his crew logged the passage of time using a half-hour "ampolleta" (glass) that was turned every time it emptied to keep track of the "canonical" hours.[2][3] Likewise, during the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan to circumnavigate the globe, 18 hourglasses from Barcelona were in the ship's inventory, after the trip being authorized by emperor Charles V.[17]
Ship-log sandglass
Marine sandglass for chip-log
From the 16th century a smaller "glass" was used along with the chip log, to measure the speed (in knots) of the vessel over the water. The procedure was as follows:[2][3]
A sailor ran the chip log and another sailor the sandglass. The slide of the pulled over the stern and let run the first length of line till the quadrant was stabilized in the water. The sailor was leaving to run the line to pass freely leaving the slide by hand and touching the first knot sang "mark!" At the moment of the inverted glass and time began to run while the line was counting the knots as they passed until the sandglass sang "mark!" a second blow when they had dropped all the sand, then he caught the firmly the line, measuring the fraction of knot elapsed to the last mark! and cried P.E.: "Five knots and four fathoms!..[3]
See also
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v A History of Marine Navigation. Norton. 1973. pp. 108–110.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v José María Martínez-Hidalgo (1992). Enciclopedia general del mar. Garriga.
4. ^ American Institute of the City of New York (1870). Annual Report of the American Institute of the City of New York. C. van Benthuysen. pp. 1042–.
5. ^ British Archaeological Association (1873). The Journal of the British Archaeological Association. Brit. Arch. Ass. pp. 130–.
6. ^ British Museum (1810). A Description of the Collection of Ancient Terracottas in the British Museum ; with Engravings. K. Bulmer. pp. 88–.
7. ^ a b European journal of physics : journal of the European Physical Society. 1996.
8. ^ Mills, A. A., S. Day, and S.Parkes. "Mechanics of the sandglass." Eur. J. Phys. 17 (1996): 97-109.
9. ^ a b c d e F.J.Britten (190x). OLD CLOCKS AND WATCHES & THEIR MAKERS. LONDON B. T. BATSFORD, 94 HIGH HOLBORN. pp. 16 and 249.
10. ^ Hourglass history
12. ^ a b Anthony John Turner (1993). Of Time and Measurement: Studies in the History of Horology and Fine Technology. Ashgate Publishing Company.
14. ^ a b c d Time Museum; Bruce Chandler; Anthony John Turner (1985). The Time Museum: Time measuring instruments. pt. 1. Astrolabes, astrolabe related instruments. The Museum.
15. ^ a b c Gerhard Dohrn-van Rossum (15 June 1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. University of Chicago Press. pp. 380–.
16. ^ a b Bergreen, Laurence (2003). Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe. William Morrow.
17. ^ Pigafetta (1874). The First Voyage Around the World, 1519-1522. Hakluyt Society Press. pp. A12.
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You are on page 1of 39
imer gran conflicto de la Guerra Fra.
Factors Causing the
1. In March 1948 the Allied powers decided to
unite their different occupation zones of
Germanyinto a single economic unit.
2. In protest, the Soviet representative
withdrew from the Allied Control Council.
3. Coincident with the introduction of a new
deutschemarkinWest Berlin(as throughout
West Germany), which the Soviets regarded
as a violation of agreements with the Allies,
the Soviet occupation forces in
eastern Germanybegan ablockadeof all
rail, road, and water communications
betweenBerlinand the West.
24 Junio 1948: US anuncia que la administracin
cuatripartita de Berln se terminaba, y que los
aliados no tenan ms derechos en la zona.
26 Junio: EEUU y Gran Bretaa comienzan el
puente areo.
Julio : US aumenta la ocupacin armada en
Alemania del Este. Aumenta la tensin de los 2
12 Mayo 1949: Despus de 11 meses, se
levanta el bloqueo
Termina en Septiembre 1949.
Costo total: $224 millones, entreg
2,323,738 toneladas de comida .
The end to the blockade was brought
about because of countermeasures
imposed by the Allies on East German
communications and, above all, because of
the Western embargo placed on all
strategic exports from the Eastern bloc. As
a result of the blockade and airlift, Berlin
became a symbol of the Allies willingness
to oppose further Soviet expansion in
Factors Causing the
1. Marshall Plan
2. Union of Western German (Bizonia)
states creating its own currency
Eastern European countries would buy
Western Germany currency which devalues
the Eastern European currency
3. Differing aims for Germany
Russia wants it to crumble
US/ BR want to rebuild its economy
Therefore, Russia blocks off surface routes
from Western Germany to West Berlin
con U
General Lucius Clay
Called for armed
convoys to push
through the
Plan was never
American ground
forces in Europe
were not strong
enough to defeat
the USSR
Berlin Airlift
US decides not to start a war and decides to send
supplies to West Berlin by air (British proposal)
Shows the resolve of the US to keep West
C-47: Used to carry
supplies (3.5 tons each)
"Operation Vittles
"Operation Plane Fare"
3,475 tons of supplies
were needed daily to
keep the over 2 million
people alive
3475 3.5 (capacity of C47) = approximately 1000
flights/day needed!!!
Coal was the largest
necessity (industries)
Later in June, C-54s
were used (10 tons)
faster too
Spacing of 3 minutes,
both types of planes
were used
Airlift Facts
The blockade lasted 318 days (11 months)
In the winter of 194849 Berliners lived on dried potatoes,
powdered eggs and cans of meat
4 hours of electricity/day
275,000 flights carried over 1 million tons of supplies (2.3 million
with Britain)
On 16 April 1949, 1400 flights brought in 13,000 tons of supplies in
one day
Some pilots dropped chocolate and sweets
Candy Drops
May 1929 Soviets end the blockade
They did not want war either
Airlift continues for a few more months to
stock Berlin in case of another blockade
2.5 million West Berliners saved without
US would see the importance of air
transport and increases production of
transport planes
Template for Cold War conflicts push to
the point of war but drawing back just
before (Brinkmanship)
Leads to the creation of NATO
D) NATO North Atlantic Treaty
Truman Doctrine = political warning
Marshal Plan = economic resistance
NATO = military alliance
US, Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway,
Portugal, Italy, Britain, France, Belgium,
the Netherlands and Luxembourg
Reasons for
Protection from
unprovoked attack
Russian communism
posed a threat to
to be its
ters in
Organized defence of the West
European-American cooperation
total end of isolationism
First American peace time military
Soviets will respond with the Warsaw
Pact in 1955
Essay Assignment
Truman Doctrine
Marshall Plan
Berlin Blockade/Airlift
To what extent do the actions of the USA between
1945-1949 reflect a policy of containment
towards communism?
To what extent were the Americans/ Russians
responsible for escalating Cold War tensions
between 1945-1949? (causes and effects)
Their plan after this was to divide the
country into four zones of occupation,
each country controlling a zone
Each unit was to be administered through
a joint committee called the Allies Control
Council (ACC)
ACC formed by the commanders-in-chief
of each of the occupying armies and their
headquarters were in Berlin
Germany was to be treated as a single unit
so any decisions about it had to have
unanimous support from the ACC
As soon as the 4 zones were established
each Allie power began establishing their
own rules going against this policy
Berlin, Germanys capitol, was
situated in the Soviet Union zone
It was granted separate status, and
was divided into 4 zones again for
each Allie power
Each Allie power had to appoint a
commander for this section of Berlin
The western part of Germany had no
access to Berlin
In June 1945 the Allies agreed to
have one main road, one main rail
line and two air strips into the city
There began to be disagreements
between the Allies as to what their
mission was in Germany and how
long they would stay there
This caused a lot of tensions between
the US and Soviet Union
President Truman finally decided to
take a stand and released the
Truman Doctrine on March 12, 1947
The second step came through the
Marshall Plan
Sept 22, 1947- Soviet Union fought back
by rejecting the Marshall Plans European
Recovery Program
Tensions after this point escalated
between the Western powers (US, Britain
and France) and the Soviet Union
Feb. 1948- Western powers met in London
to discuss uniting their zones into a single
economic unit with the same currency
The Soviet Union wrote letters to each
government on February 13, 1948 stating
that any decisions that were reached at
this meeting would not be considered
legitimate in their eyes
To protest the London conference the
Soviet Union withdrew from the ACC
and the 4 powers never met together
Soviet Union began putting
restrictions on traffic to Berlin from
Western Zones (March 30, 1948)
US personnel traveling through the
Soviet zone by rail and highway had to
present evidence of identity
Shipments from Berlin to Western zones
had to be cleared through Soviet check
All baggage had to be inspected at
Soviet check points with the exception
The US protested, but the Soviets did not
In the spring of 1948 more restrictions
were put into place
Soviets explained them as technical
difficulties such as repairs to railways
Western zones restricted exports to Soviet
zone that were crucial to their economy
June 18, 1948- Western zones proceeded
with a common currency (Deutsche mark)
This currency spread to Western zones of
Berlin 4 days later
All residents of Berlin had no choice but to
exchange their Russian currency into
Deutsche marks to buy all goods they
This was the last straw for Soviets
In June 22, 1948, they established
their own separate currency that
would be used in the entire Soviet
zone, including all of Berlin
Two days, June 24, 1948, all land and
water traffic to and from Berlin was
stopped- this fully began the Berlin
Tensions and a war of words
continued between the US and the
Soviets- a fully blow war was
The US had to figure out the
intentions of the Soviets
Before they could do this, West Berlin
was running out of food and supplies
The Western zones had no way of
getting these supplies to their
people, except by air
The airlift began on June 26, 1948,
delivering food and fuel to West
By the fall these supplies had run
out, and another airlift had to be
The Soviets soon saw that the
blockade was not going to halt the
Western powers
March 1949- they entered
negotiations with USA, UK and France
to lift the blockade. Results were a 3
point plan;
Restriction on communications,
transportation and trade between Berlin
and Western zones will be removed May
9, 1949
Restrictions the Western zones imposed
will be removed May 9, 1949
On May 23, 1949, the 4 powers will
The final results were to keep
Germany divided between East and
The Federal Republic in Western
Germany was created on Sept. 21,
1949, New capital was Bonn
Democratic Republic in Eastern
Germany on October 7, 1949, capital
remained East Berlin
There was still fear about a military
build up in Eastern Europe, therefore
a Western alliance formed: North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
NATO treaty signed on April 4, 1949
in Washington DC by : Belgium,
Canada, Denmark, France, Great
Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxemburg,
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, US
(Greece, Turkey in 1952) (Western
Germany 1955)
Treated stated that an armed attack
against one or more will be
considered an attack against all of
At the same time Eastern Europe was
signing similar agreements
The Warsaw Treaty Organization was
signed by Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
East Germany, Hungary, Poland,
Romania and Soviet Union
This began the Cold War- Western
world armed lead by the US against
the Eastern world lead by the Soviet
Berlin- 1945
What were the consequences?
1st major flashpoint of Cold War
1949, Western allies estd. Federal
Republic of West Germany
1949, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation) founded
End to US isolationism
Divisions between East & West
Germany became permanent
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Find more information about
at the Center for Jewish History:
NOTE: you will be redirected
to the Web site for the
Ehrenstamm Family
Leaders in the textile industry of Moravia. The Ehrenstamm family came to prominence in the early nineteenth century. Its head was Veit Ehrenstamm (1760–1827), son of Salomon Jakob Kolin, a minor Jewish merchant from Prossnitz (Prostĕjov) who during the 1750s had been involved in the wool trade, purchasing fabrics from importers and then selling them piecemeal to hawkers and peddlers. After he lost his fortune as a result of the ban imposed by the Habsburg government on textile imports, his son, who had in the meantime adopted a German name, turned to different economic enterprises.
During the second Turkish War of Emperor Joseph II in the mid-1780s, Veit Ehrenstamm became a supplier to the Imperial (Austrian) Army. During the Napoleonic wars, he expanded his activities, providing a highly diversified range of goods and commodities such as salt, tobacco, wine, horses, carriages, food for troops, and spirits for officers. In particular, he specialized in the supply of uniforms through a partnership with Simon Lämmel, a leading Jewish banker in Prague.
By 1806, Ehrenstamm had secured almost a monopoly on the supply of uniforms to the Austrian army. With the capital he had amassed through this enterprise, he bought a wool garment factory in Prossnitz in 1801. The factory prospered throughout the first quarter of the nineteenth century, becoming one of the primary centers of the textile industry in the Czech lands and throughout the Austrian Empire.
In 1812, in addition to woolen garments, Ehrenstamm’s factory began to manufacture cotton goods while undergoing an accelerated process of automation. In 1826, the factory employed some 3,000 workers. After Ehrenstamm’s death in 1827, his three sons were unable to maintain the factory and went bankrupt after six years, during a period of crisis in the Moravian textile industry.
The history of the Ehrenstamm family constitutes a rare example of Jews who achieved success during the period of industrialization in Bohemia and Moravia in the early nineteenth century. Veit epitomized the economic activity of several Jewish families who had started out as suppliers to the army, won the confidence of Austrian authorities, and so received a kind of “personal emancipation.” These families eventually played a major role in the advancement of the textile industry in the Czech lands—which, in turn, played a major role in the industrialization of the region.
The failure of Ehrenstamm’s three sons, on the other hand, exemplifies the limitations in the evolution of the textile industry for Jews in Moravia during the Vormärz period (the time of Metternich’s rule). These limitations stemmed from three primary factors: the general economic crisis, which proved to be particularly detrimental to the textile industry in Moravia at the end of the Napoleonic wars; the strong opposition of Christian guilds, which dominated the textile industry; and the conservative nature of Moravian Jewish community leadership, which opposed changes in Jewish economic activity patterns as part of its general opposition to the modernization of Jewish society.
Suggested Reading
William O. McCagg, A History of Habsburg Jews, 1670–1918 (Bloomington, Ind., 1989); Gustav Otruba, “Der Anteil der Juden am Wirtschaftsleben der böhmischen Länder seit dem Beginn der Industrialisierung,” in Die Juden in den böhmischen Ländern, ed. Ferdinand Seibt, pp. 209–268 (Munich, 1983).
Translated from Hebrew by Rami Hann
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• Female Pilgrims and Mt. FujiChanging Perspectives on the Exclusion of Women
• Miyazaki Fumiko (bio)
Before 1872 women were excluded from most of Japan's sacred mountains, the sanctuaries of many Buddhist temples, and the inner precincts of Shinto shrines. Women were not the only ones to confront such limitations. Various customary rules restricted those in mourning or otherwise deemed unqualified from approaching certain religious sites and sacred places. But only women were subject to a blanket disqualification on the basis of their gender. This situation was one of the most notable features of the gender differences observable in the religious activities of those who lived in premodern Japan.1 What circumstances underlay this prohibition? How were women kept away from the sites in question? How did they respond to such rules?
There is no simple answer to such questions. The attitudes towards female pilgrims of those who managed sacred places and those who visited them were inevitably influenced by a variety of social, economic, political, and cultural developments. Attitudes further changed over time. This article seeks to explore just such an interplay of factors in a particular case: the establishment and breakdown in the course of the Tokugawa period of the exclusion of women from Mt. Fuji.
In the Tokugawa period, Mt. Fuji, which had been known as a mysterious mountain since ancient times, developed into a popular pilgrimage site. Its popularity can be seen from the fact that in the early nineteenth century more than ten thousand pilgrims visited Mt. Fuji during the few months of the summer climbing season.2 In other seasons, when it was dangerous to climb the [End Page 339] mountain, people worshiped it from afar. People held the main deities presiding over the mountain to be female. These were Sengen , the deity of the volcano; Sengen Daibosatsu (the Great Bodhisattva of Sengen), the Buddhist form of the volcano deity; and Konohana no Sakuya Hime , the Shinto counterpart of Sengen Daibosatsu.3 Ironically, however, human women were prohibited from climbing the mountain.
People rarely challenged the exclusion of women from sacred places prior to 1872, when the Meiji government issued an order abolishing the practice.4 Mt. Fuji, however, was exceptional in this regard. Throughout the latter half of the Tokugawa period female pilgrims tried to climb as high up the mountain as they could whenever the opportunity presented itself. Some leaders of the association of lay believers in the cult of the mountain criticized the custom of not allowing women access to it and encouraged women to ignore the prohibition. Various groups with divergent interests in pilgrimage to Mt. Fuji fought over the treatment of female pilgrims. Finally, in 1860, twelve years before the Meiji government banned the exclusion of women, the summit of Mt. Fuji was temporarily opened to both sexes. By considering the activities and motives of those who objected to the exclusion of women from Mt. Fuji, those who tried to modify the practice, and those who tried to maintain it, as well as the efforts of the women who wanted to climb the mountain, we can gain a fuller view of the actual situation regarding the exclusion of women at a popular pilgrimage site in the latter half of the Tokugawa period.
Exclusion and Gender Hierarchy in Japanese Religion
The exclusion of women was termed nyonin kinsei or nyonin kekkai(the latter term also indicated the act of designating the area women were not to enter). Although the terms became widespread from the Tokugawa period, the origin of the exclusion of women from sacred mountains is unclear. Some scholars surmise that it originated in ancient folk beliefs. One of the first researchers to address this topic was Yanagita Kunio . He tried to find clues to the origins of nyonin kinsei in legends and folk tales about female religious figures who were transformed into rocks as a result of their intrusion into sacred mountains. Such tales, he concluded, emerged out of ancient folk practices in which priestesses conducted religious rites in the lower reaches of mountains. He conjectured that the sites where the priestesses had performed these rituals came to demarcate a border beyond which women should not go.5...
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Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity
10th Edition
John C. Kotz + 3 others
ISBN: 9781337399074
Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity
10th Edition
John C. Kotz + 3 others
ISBN: 9781337399074
Textbook Problem
Write equations for the half-reactions that occur at the anode and cathode in the electrolysis of molten KBr. What are the products formed at the, anode and cathode in the electrolysis of aqueous KBr?
Interpretation Introduction
The half reactions occurs at cathode and anode during the electrolysis of molten KBr and aqueous KBr have to be determined.
Concept introduction:
It is a decomposition of ionic compounds by passing electricity through molten compounds or aqueous solutions of compounds.
Electricity used to produce chemical changes. The apparatus used for electrolysis is called an electrolytic cell.
Electrolysis of molten KBr:
During the electrolysis process molten KBr dissociates into K+and Br- ions. K+ ions are moves towards cathode and Br- ions are moves towards anode.
KBr K++Br
At cathode K+ gain one electron and for sodium and Br- ion lose one electron to form bromine gas .
The reactions occur at anode and cathode is as follows.
At anode:Oxidation: 2Br Br2
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Read Lesson Plan Template text version
Historic Nez Perce Clothing and Adornment
The National Park Service [NPS] Teaching with Museum Collections provides lesson plans for teachers to use NPS museum collections in student-centered educational activities. The collections tell the story of America; its peoples, cultures, varied habitats, significant events, and ideas that continue to inspire the world. Teaching with Museum Collections [TMC] emphasizes the links between the `real things;' the collections, and the sites where those collections were found, collected, or used. NPS collections include cultural objects, natural history specimens, archival documents and photographs. Lesson plans link to national education standards.
A. Header Lesson Unit Plan Title: Historic Nez Perce Clothing and Adornment Developer: Amy Woods, Kamiah Middle School, Kamiah, Idaho Grade Levels: 8th Grade Length of Lessons/Lesson Unit: Four to five 45 minute lessons B. Overview of this Collection-Based Lesson Plan Park name: Nez Perce National Historical Park Description: The purpose of this lesson is to give students an awareness of the similarities and differences in Nez Perce clothing and adornment worn over 200 years ago, and traditional clothing and adornment worn presently. Students will also develop an understanding of the processes involved in simple clothing construction and jewelry making. Photographs of a historic Nez Perce dress, a pair of moccasins and a necklace, articles in the Nez Perce National Historical Park museum collections, may be viewed online at and at Essential question What clothing and adornment would a Nez Perce youth have worn 200-400 years ago? How would these articles be constructed and with what materials? C. Museum Collections Used in this Lesson Plan NEPE 34191 NEPE 2383 NEPE 1990 NEPE-HI-2279 NEPE-HI-C9713 NEPE-HI-C9687 Dress Moccasin Grizzly Bear Claw Necklace Photograph of Chief Joseph's Band Women Leading the Horse Parade Nez Perce Drummers at the Long House, Spalding, Idaho Studio Portrait of Three Nez Perce Women
D. National Educational Standards Middle Grades I. Culture Social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of culture and cultural diversity, so that the learner can: a. compare similarities and differences in the ways groups, societies, and cultures meet human needs and concerns;
b. explain and give examples of how language, literature, the arts, architecture, other
artifacts, traditions, beliefs, values, and behaviors contribute to the development and transmission of culture; c. explain why individuals and groups respond differently to their physical and social environments and/or changes to them on the basis of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs; d. articulate the implications of cultural diversity, as well as cohesion, within and across groups. II. Time, Continuity, and Change Social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of the ways human beings view themselves in and over time, so that the learner can a. identify and use key concepts such as chronology, causality, change, conflict, and complexity b. to explain, analyze, and show connections among patterns of historical change and continuity; IV. Individual Development and Identity Social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of individual development and identity, so that these describe the ways family, gender, ethnicity, nationality, and institutional affiliations contribute to personal identity; a. describe the ways family, gender, ethnicity, nationality, and institutional affiliations contribute to personal identity; b. relate such factors as physical endowment and capabilities, learning, motivation, personality, perception, and behavior to individual development; c. identify and describe ways regional, ethnic, and national cultures influence individuals' daily lives; d. identify and describe the influence of perception, attitudes, values, and beliefs on personal identity; e. identify and interpret examples of stereotyping, conformity, and altruism; V. Individuals, Groups, and Institutions Social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of interactions among individuals, groups, and institutions, so that the learner can: a. demonstrate an understanding of concepts such as role, status, and social class in describing the interactions of individuals and social groups b. analyze group and institutional influences on people, events, and elements of culture VII. Production, Distribution, and Consumption Social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of how people organize for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, so that the learner can:
a. give and explain examples of ways that economic systems structure choices about how goods and services are to be produced and distributed; c. describe the role that supply and demand, prices, incentives, and profits play in determining what is produced and distributed in a competitive market system; d. explain the difference between private and public goods and services; e. describe a range of examples of the various institutions that make up economic systems such as households, business firms, banks, government agencies, labor unions, and corporations; f. describe the role of specialization and exchange in the economic process; g. explain and illustrate how values and beliefs influence different economic decisions; h. differentiate among various forms of exchange and money; i. compare basic economic systems according to who determines what is produced, distributed, and consumed; j. use economic concepts to help explain historical and current developments and issues in local, national, or global contexts; k. use economic reasoning to compare different proposals for dealing with a contemporary social issue such as unemployment, acid rain, or high quality education. English Language Arts Standards The vision guiding these standards is that all students must have the opportunities and resources to develop the language skills they need to pursue life's goals and to participate fully as informed, productive members of society. These standards assume that literacy growth begins before children enter school as they experience and experiment with literacy activities -- reading and writing, and associating spoken words with their graphic representations. Recognizing this fact, these standards encourage the development of curriculum and instruction that make productive use of the emerging literacy abilities that children bring to school. Furthermore, the standards provide ample room for the innovation and creativity essential to teaching and learning. They are not prescriptions for particular curricula or instruction. 1. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, and graphics). 2. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, and vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes. 3. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes. 4. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and non-print texts, artifacts, and people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience.
5. Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, and video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge. 6. Students develop an understanding of and respect for diversity in language use, patterns, and dialects across cultures, ethnic groups, geographic regions, and social roles. 7. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information). E. Student Learning Objectives After these lessons, students will be able to: · Critically analyze objects from museum exhibits of historic Nez Perce clothing and adornment · Recognize similarities and differences in the cultural aspects, materials, and construction of historic Nez Perce clothing and adornment and similar present day items · Construct replicas of historic clothing and adornment · Create and display a collection of exhibits for a classroom museum, cataloged in a Museum Collections Spreadsheet · Communicate their ideas and hypotheses through oral and written presentations E. Background and Historical Context The Nez Perce used materials from animals in their homeland and some trade items to make and decorate their clothing. Dresses, shirts, leggings and moccasins could be constructed of deer, bighorn sheep, or elk hides. Buffalo hides and various fur baring animals were used to make winter wraps & heavier moccasins. Hides used for clothing were cleaned, hair removed and softened with a mixture of animal brains and fat. The type of decoration used was a combination of personal choice and what items were available to the person. Dentalium, olivella, abalone and other types of shells were traded from the west coast. Porcupine quills could be dyed and sown on clothing and personal items. Feathers were used on headdresses or clothing and were sometimes dyed. Mineral paint and plant dye were also used to paint designs. Glass beads, made in many countries of Europe and Asia, became a very popular decorative element for clothing and personal items. As a trade item beads were brought into the Pacific Northwest by Europeans and Americans in the mid to late 1700s. In making present day traditional clothing for ceremonies and pow wows the Nez Perce have access to many of the same items used in the past. They also use modern materials such as yarn, for fancy dance regalia or tin cones for the jingle dress. Many of the materials are purchased from companies that specialize in making and selling beads, hides, etc.
G. Materials Used in this Lesson Plan Similar Items: simple tunic style dress (very plain A-line without belts, pleats, ruffles, etc...), necklace with large ornaments, high-top sneakers Photographs: laminated copies of historic Nez Perce dress, moccasins, and necklace from online park museum collection. Handouts: Traditional Basket Designs, Two-Skin Dress pattern, Poncho patterns, Making Cordage. Writing Materials: Journal paper, pencils, color pencils, chart paper for compare/contrast sheets, markers Dress/Poncho Materials: Two yards unbleached broadcloth or faux leather, paint in a variety of colors suitable for painting on cloth, paint brushes, one spool of floss, scissors, needles with large eyes, raffia, assorted beads, dress and poncho patterns, basket design patterns. Necklace/Bracelet Materials: raffia (natural color), scissors, assorted beads (varied in size, color, and shape), paper cups Class Museum Materials: Museum catalog spreadsheet, black ink pen, ruler, buff colored construction paper H. Vocabulary Awl tool used for punching holes in leather to allow sewing Sinew animal tendon used as a cord or thread Tanned hide cleaned and softened animal hide into buckskin Natural pigment a coloring property in animals, minerals and plants, used to paint or dye items. I. Teacher Tips o o o o o o Download and laminate color prints of the museum objects used in the Nez Perce Attire Activity Download and laminate historic regalia photos. Separate beads and store in plastic containers with lids. Tape or glue a bead to each lid so container contents are easily identified. Enlarge animal skin pattern to fit 8 ½ x 11 paper. Cut out several animal skin patterns to be used for two-skin dress pattern or poncho pattern that students will use to trace onto fabric. Make a sample of a dress, poncho, necklace and bracelet for students to use as a model for each activity.
J. Lesson Implementation Procedures Activity One: Introduction Tell students they will be using objects from a National Park Service site as source of learning and information. Explain that they will learn to look very closely at an object or set of objects to deduce historical, cultural and social information and to draw inferences about
people, events, and life then and now. Ask questions that draw on observational skills, and develop activities that exercise powers of deduction, inference, and creativity based on this introductory lesson. Do the following with the students: · Divide students into three groups. Assign students in each group the role of recorder or presenter. You may have as many as three students performing each role. · Hand out laminated pictures of Nez Perce attire, giving the dress to one group, moccasins to another group, and necklace to the third group. · Hand out the modern day dress, sneakers, and necklace to each group with a similar historic Nez Perce item. · Provide each group with a large piece of chart paper divided into three columns. Instruct students to title columns by name of piece: Historic Nez Perce ___________ (name of item), Present Day _____________ (name of item), Common Characteristics. Example: Historic Nez Perce Moccasins; Present Day Sneakers; Common Characteristics · Instruct groups to brainstorm unique characteristics of each assigned piece and the common characteristics of the two items being compared. Recorders write group comments on chart paper. · Presenters from each group share group findings with class. Allow time for class discussion after each group's presentation. Display charts on wall or bulletin board for future reference. · Students summarize activity in response journal with writing and sketches. Activity Two: Compare and Contrast Museum Objects with Contemporary Regalia · Divide students into three groups. Assign students in each group the role of recorder or presenter. You may have as many as three students performing each role. · Hand out laminated pictures of Nez Perce attire, giving the dress to one group, moccasins to another group, and necklace to the third group. · Hand out the historic regalia photographs to each group. · Instruct groups to look at the museum objects and see if there are versions of those still worn by Nez Perce in the contemporary pictures. What's different? What's the same? Record what each group sees. · Presenters from each group share group findings with class. Allow time for class discussion after each group's presentation. Activity Three: Create Authentic Replica of a Nez Perce Dress or Poncho Do the following with the students: · Students may choose to make a dress or poncho. (Most likely the boys will make a poncho and the girls will make a dress). · Provide each group with a collection of supplies to create the piece of attire assigned to them (products will be small versions of authentic item). · Write vocabulary words and definitions on board. Show students the supplies they will be using in place of sinew, awls, tanned hides, and natural pigments.
Dress/Poncho: (See diagrams of poncho and dress on handouts.) Students trace pattern on fabric. Dress requires a front and back piece. Cut around traced lines. Thread needle with arm's length piece of floss. Sew dress front to dress back along sides and top, leaving an opening for arms and head. Cut slit in poncho for head as shown on pattern. Fold in half at slit, and sew sides leaving an opening for arms. Dress/poncho may be embellished by tracing basket design patterns (handout) on garment and painting with fabric paint. Pieces of beaded raffia may be attached to front of dress/poncho for added decorative features. Students summarize activity in response journal with writing and sketches.
Activity Three: Create authentic Nez Perce necklace or bracelet Do the following with students: · · · · · · Teacher demonstrates method for making cordage using raffia. See attachment of making cordage. Arrange supplies in two separate areas of classroom. Place raffia and scissors in one area and various containers of beads in another area to avoid congestion. Provide pieces of raffia cut to the desired lengths for a bracelet or necklace as examples for students. Divide students into two groups and send one group to cut raffia pieces, and send one group to choose beads and plan bead design for a necklace or bracelet. Instruct students to place beads in paper cup. Groups trade areas when tasks are completed. Students return to desks or tables to string beads on the raffia. Twist raffia together following the instructions for making cordage. Thread beads on the cord creating the desired pattern. A knot may be made between beads or anywhere on the raffia for design purposes; however, knots need to be made at each end to prevent beads from falling off cord. Students summarize activity in response journal with writing and sketches.
Activity Four: Classroom Museum Exhibit Do the following with students: · · Teacher demonstrates how to catalog items for classroom museum using a sample item prepared earlier for Activity Two and Activity Three. (dress, poncho, necklace, bracelet) Give each student a worksheet with categories of information needed to catalog an object; Catalog Number, Object Name, Material, Dimensions, Description, Manufacture Date, Cultural ID, Artist/Maker. Instruct students on how to complete each category on a spreadsheet using the teacher-provided sample item: Students write information on spreadsheet for the items they made in Activity One and Activity Two Each student will make a place card out of buff colored construction paper folded in half to measure 3 x 5 inches. Instruct students to write their name and the name of the item on the folded place card. Students display items in glass display cases with place card.
· · ·
K. Evaluation/Assessment for Measurable Results Evaluated using a rubric which identifies the following components of the Nez Perce Attire and Artifacts Unit: · · · · · Art: hand made replica of a Nez Perce dress or poncho with artistic additions such as painted or beaded designs Art: hand made replica of a Nez Perce necklace using various beads and meaningful personal items Social Studies/History: classroom museum exhibits including similar objects of primary sources with interpretive labels Language Arts: daily entries of text and graphics in Response Journal describing processes for activity completion and results of lessons Language Arts: contribution to chart comparing and contrasting modern attire and adornment to historical Nez Perce adornment
L. Extension and Enrichment Activities · · · Encourage students to bring "old" items from home (with parent or grandparent permission) and compare them to similar present day items. Visit a local historical society or museum and create a written record of the exhibits which are representative of similar present day items. After doing some research conduct an on-line tour of a museum and create a written record of the exhibits which are representative of similar present day items.
M. Resources Bibliography Shawley, Stephen Douglas. Nez Perce Dress: A Study in Culture Change. Washington State University, 1974. Grafe, Steven Leroy. "The Origins of Floral Design Beadwork in the Southern Columbia River Plateau." Ph.D dissertation, University of New Mexico, 1999. Raymer, Dottie. Welcome to Kaya's World 1764: Growing Up in a Native American Homeland. Middleton, Wisconsin: Pleasant Company Publications [American Girls Collection], 2003. Web Sites Nez Perce National Historical Park Nez Perce Tribe: Nez Perce National Historical Park: Colville Confederated Tribes: Umatilla Confederated Tribes: Site Visit · Pre-Visit: Before the visit, have the students visit the virtual museum web site and look at the online exhibit and complete activity one, how to read an object. After completing
· ·
activity one, choose two more objects and analyze those. Also, have the children come prepared to analyze one or two objects of their choice on display in the museum. Site visit: Call the park to make arrangements to visit. Go to the park home page to contact park staff at Have the students pick an object in the museum and analyze it using the knowledge gained in how to read an object. Post-visit: Have the students write down their reactions to what they learned about how museum objects can tell stories. Conduct one of the lessons extension activities.
N 13
Making Cordage If possible show students natural fibers used for cordage: year old dead stalks of milkweed (carefully break open stalks and strip the fiber away); bark from dogbane, sage, or juniper, and yucca leaves. Demonstrate how to make cordage with raffia, this can be purchased at a craft store, following the steps below. Divide the class into groups of 3 or 4 students. Give each student 2, 15-inch pieces of raffia. Assist each group; also have students help each other. Tie one end of Strand A and one end of Strand B together. Hold both strands side-by-side, in your left hand between your forefinger and thumb (if right-handed, vice-versa if left-handed). Pick up Strand A between your right forefinger and thumb, and twirl the strand away from your body (clockwise), Step 1 on figure. Figure 1 Take the twisted Strand A and bring it toward your body, over and then under Strand B, Step 2 on figure. Hold Strands A and B between your left forefinger and thumb about where you crossed A over B, repeat the twirling and crossing sequence: pick up Strand B, twirl it away from your body, and cross it over and under Strand A.
Continue these steps. The twirling in one direction and crossing in another direction forms an interlocking pattern like that of machine-made rope. If the cordage looks all twisted in the same direction, then the locking twist is not taking place, and usually the strands are being twirled in the wrong direction.
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By Own work by Louis le Grand on 2006-08, CC BY-SA 2.5,
The Baroque (US: /bəˈrk/ or UK: /bəˈrɒk/) is a highly ornate and often extravagant style of architecture, art and music that flourished in Europe from the early 17th until the late 18th century. It followed the Renaissance style and preceded the Neoclassical style. It was encouraged by the Catholic Church as a means to counter the simplicity and austerity of Protestant architecture, art and music. The baroque style used contrast, movement, exuberant detail, grandeur and surprise to achieve a sense of awe. The style began in the first third of the 17th century in Rome, then spread rapidly to France, northern Italy, Spain and Portugal, then to Austria and southern Germany. By the 1730s, it had evolved into an even more flamboyant variant, called rocaille or Rococo, which appeared in France and central Europe until the late 18th century.
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Peace in the Minoan Civilization
Around 2000-1400 B.C.E., the Minoan civilization heavily prospered. It can be seen from mere observations of the city that they did not rely on protective walls since they were isolated on the island of Crete. How did this affect their art and gender? Now, to better understand some aspects of the Minoan society, it is important to focus on the ritual games, human sacrifices, and myths.
In the Minoan Society, they had very interesting rituals. They called it, "The Ritual Game" (Fiero 78). In today's society, this can be seen as the modern day bull fighting as seen in Portugal. I immediately was wondering why a person would leap over a raging bull. After I analyzed the Minoan's bull-leaping fresco from the Palace of Minos, it seemed a bit clearer. This is a cultural sport that is related to their society's blood sacrifices. It amazed me none the less. To increase the survival rate of the people doing this sport, they must have been well trained. Their cultural acceptance was to train for this day, and they would have to start young. In the match, the fresco displays a man leaping over a bull's back while he had aid from two other women. This picture tells me that the gender balance must have shifted slightly. Women's role must have shifted from no power at all to running the household and assisting their husbands. Their blood ordeals, which were observed by many, had women in them.
Through further analysis, one can conclude from the figure Priestess with snakes that women began to be highly praised in the Minoan society (Fiero 79). This is most likely do to the fact that women gave birth to the children, which allowed their society to continue. It could also be noted, from the appearance of the statue, that the snakes the Priestess is holding represents a type of fashion statement that many women wore. The snakes represented a renewal of life due to the shedding of the skin. This molting process leaves behind the snake's old skin in order to form a better and newer version of it-self. This process of shedding became a symbol of rebirth and renewal in the Minoan society (Venefica). This being said, it shows that their art frescos were influenced by the gender roles in their society.
All of this is connected to their human sacrifices. The bull fights are indeed directly related, note the numerous frescos that incorporated both genders. This is because not everyone would survive a bull fight. They are fast, strong, and ferocious creatures with no remorse at all. The fact that they are taunting the bulls makes the situation even worse. Their writings, some four thousand six hundred tablets, depict accounts of these events happening. These events dragged on for ages, until it was believed from historical records and many geological findings that an earthquake destroyed the Minoan society.
While the Minoans were prospering, a well-known myth was developing. This myth focused on the creation of Minotaur, "A Minotaur half-man half-bull hybrid born of the union of Minos' queen and a sacred white bull" (Fiero 79). This myth most likely was developed from the constant cultural obsessions with bulls. It can be inferred that when a man was making acrobatic moves over the bull's back, he was bonding on a deeper level of connection to the bull, such as using his cleverness and physical agility to challenge the bull for a short time.
All of the aspects such as the ritual games, human sacrifices, and myths can be seen as heavy influences on Minoan art and gender. These influenced the Minoans to concentrate on the arts in the Palace of Minos. The rituals, such as the bull fights, caused the different myths to emerge throughout the society. While in this culture, women also had a better opportunity to gain influential power in their society, as depicted in the frescoes.
Works Cited
Fiero, Gloria K. "Minoan Civilization." The Humanistic Tradition: the First Civilizations and the Classical Legacy. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2011. 78-79. Print.
Venefica, Avia. "Snake Symbolic Meaning." What's Your Sign? Discover the World of Signs and Symbolic Meanings. Avia Venefica. Web. 14 Oct. 2011. Web.
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Viking Age Iceland: Leadership
A picture of Leif Eirksson's statue in Reykjavík, Iceland
Icelandic chieftains, called goðar (sing. goði),[1] were more like political leaders than the warrior chiefs of many contemporary cultures. They possessed only slight formal authority to police, and until well into the thirteenth century had almost no military means to forcefully repress the surrounding population. As leaders they were unable to limit the access of other farmers to natural resources, and they had no privileged control over a region’s surplus production. Like other prominent farmers, they were able to weather bad times, but there were no community works such as extensive irrigation systems, waterways or fortifications whose upkeep and defence offered the goðar a leadership niche. Goðar, both as individuals and as a group, had only limited ability to compel the free landholding farmers (bœndr, sing. bóndi) to do their bidding. The situation did not change for those farmers who were a chieftain’s thingmenn (sing. thingmaðr),[2] meaning legally recognized followers.
Although not a commanding nobility, the goðar functioned as leaders of interest groups composed of thingmenn drawn from among the bœndr. These groups, established through personal alliances, were based on shared self-interest between leaders and their thingmenn. A bóndi who had become a thingman of a goði was referred to as being “in thing” with the chieftain. The political office of a goði was called a goðorð, a term that means the “word” (orð) of a goði. To all appearances the goðar assumed leadership peacefully, with the consent of the free farmers, early in the tenth century. A chieftaincy or goðorð was treated as a private possession that normally passed to a family member, though not necessarily a first son. In addition to being inherited, a goðorð could be purchased, shared or received as a gift. There were perhaps more than twice as many chieftains as chieftaincies, because each of the several men who shared a goðorð could call himself a goði.
Scholars sometimes translate the term goði as priest-chieftain because it is derived from the Old Norse word goð, meaning “god.” Probably the term stems from the responsibilities that early Icelandic chieftains had as priests of the old religion. The written sources originate in the later Christian period and are not reliable concerning pre-conversion religious practices.[i] Although we cannot be precise about numbers, there is no doubt that many goðar exchanged their previous religious function for that of Christian priests when Iceland converted to Christianity in the year 1000.[ii] Having survived and in part engineered so dramatic a religious change, the goðar retained their traditional authority. Embracing the new beliefs, they held on to their occupational monopoly, solidifying their political control in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Whether in heathen or Christian times, the goðar were a small-scale elite able to exert both ideological and political power.
[1] Hereafter the English term “chieftain” and the Icelandic term goði (pl. goðar) are used interchangeably. Referring to goðar as chieftains is an old scholarly tradition, though the correspondence is not exact.
[2] Maðr, plural menn, is a word that appears frequently in Old Norse. Similarly to the English words “man” and “men,” it can be gender specific, but often means “people”.
[i] Olsen 1966.
[ii] Because of uncertainty as to what calendars the medieval Icelanders used at different times, a controversy exists as to whether the conversion should be dated by our modern calendar to 999 or 1000. Since the precise date is in doubt, and probably will remain so, I have chosen the traditional year of 1000. Ólafía Einarsdóttir 1964: 72-90 argues for the year 999. Jakob Benediktsson in his introduction to Íslendingabók 1968 reviews in detail the question of dating, including the views of Ólafía Einarsdóttir 1964: xxix-xv.
— Jesse Byock, Viking Age Iceland
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PHOTOS: See the Zoo Where Jews Hid from the German Army
Polish couple Jan Żabiński and his wife Antonina became the directors of the Warsaw zoological garden in 1929. Their large collection of exotic animals brought in tourists from all over the world.
The couple opened the zoo up to many artist and musicians, who came to work, get inspired, or give outdoor concerts. This period of inspiration and colorful guests soon earned the couple’s residential villa the nickname “the house under a wacky star.”GQE2OL7JT
The zoo thrived until World War II, when the German army invaded Poland. It was 1939, and the bombings immediately killed many of the animals the couple had raised or nursed to health. Jan had no choice but to put down most of the predatory animals for fear that they’d run amok in the streets of Warsaw after the bombings.
What happened next is even worse: The German army organized a hunt at the zoo, shooting any animal they deemed “not valuable.” A few animals were transported to other zoos, but the ones that remained all this became food sources for locals and the invading German army.
Strangely, the German army appointed Jan Żabiński as superintendent of Warsaw’s public parks. This gave him the unique opportunity to secretly help the Jewish community evade capture by the Germans. He convinced the Germans to allow him into the Jewish Ghettos, where over 83,000 people died of starvation and disease. Jan lied and said he was going there to care of the greenery when in fact he was connecting with his Jewish friends and colleagues. Soon, he began bringing them food and messages. He also began breeding pigs in the abandoned zoo and smuggled the meat inside the ghettos.
Żabiński also forged documents and smuggled some Jews out to organized “hideouts” in the Aryan sections of Warsaw. The couple and their son also opened their home, where the zoo was located, to Jews seeking a hiding place. When there was danger of oncoming German officers, Antonina, who would play “Go, go to Crete!” from Offenbach’s La belle Hélène operetta on the grand piano to send them running and hiding. These Jews were also given nicknames – the names of the animals in the zoo – to avoid suspicion from outsiders.zoo2
During the war, Jan Żabiński took part in the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. He was arrested and taken away to a German prison camp. During this time, Antonina continued to care for the Jews left in the ruins. Fortunately, Jan survived and was able to witness the official reopening of the zoo in 1949.
American author Diane Ackerman published a book about the Żabiński family in 2007. The Zookeeper’s Wife was inspired by Antonina’s diariesThe book is currently being made into a movie with Jessica Chastain in the role of Antonina and Johan Heldenbergh as Jan. The movie’s release date is scheduled in 2016.
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kids encyclopedia robot
Rufous rat-kangaroo facts for kids
Kids Encyclopedia Facts
Quick facts for kids
Rufous rat-kangaroo
Rufous Bettong (Aepyprymnus rufescens) (9855539716).jpg
Conservation status
Scientific classification
Rufous Bettong.JPG
Distribution of the rufous rat-kangaroo
The rufous rat-kangaroo (Aepyprymnus rufescens), more commonly known as the rufous bettong, is a small marsupial species of the family Potoroidae found in Australia. It is not classified as threatened. The rufous bettong is about the size of a full-grown rabbit.
The rufous rat-kangaroo is the only member of its genus, and is the largest of all the potoroids. It is generally grey with a hint of reddish brown and its scientific name means "reddish high-rump". It was once thought of as a solitary, nocturnal animal, but recent observation indicates that the rufous rat-kangaroo may form loose, polygynous associations. It feeds mostly on tubers and fungi, but also on leaves and other vegetation.
A species of the family Potoroidae (rat kangaroos), small to medium marsupials that include the living Potorous (potoroos) and Bettongia (bettongs). They are not closely related to others of the family, and the largest extant potoroine species, and their characteristics have them placed within a monotypic genus.
Aepyprymnus rufescens is distinguished by the ruffled and bristly hair of the pelage and rufous tint of the fur at the upper parts. The hair across the back is predominantly grey, the rufous tinge more evident, and is interspersed with silvery hairs. An indistinct stripe appears at the hip line. The underparts are also grey, although paler. The combined head and body length is 385 to 390 millimetres. The tail may be from 340 to 390 mm in length, and excepting a white tip that may appear the colour is overall grey-brown. The ears are comparatively long, 48 to 57 mm, with a triangular form. The colour of the ears is very dark at the outer side and pink at the interior, the fringe is lined with silver hairs. A hairless pink rim appears around the eye. The weight range is from 2.5 to 3.5 kilograms.
A similar species, the northern Bettongia tropica, may be distinguished by the lack of shaggy fur with a rufous tinge, their blackish tail, and this species hairless pink ring at the eye and pointy triangular ears.
The vocalisation includes an alarm call, a soft hissing sound, another sound like a chainsaw when in aggressive postures and they regularly emit a grunting noises during normal activity.
Breeding occurs throughout the year, once the female has reached maturity, generally at 11 months. The male reaches maturity between 12 and 13 months. Once mature, the female is capable of breeding at three-week intervals. The gestation of the young is about 22–24 days. After the young are born, they live within the pouch for about 16 weeks. Upon leaving the pouch, the joey stays near the mother for about 7 weeks, while it gets used to fending for itself.
The species may share nests or be solitary, a male may cohabit with one or two females. The nest is located beneath a dense under-story of vegetation, a shallow clearing that is matted with woven plant material. The foraging activity is strictly nocturnal, they will only emerge after sunset and return to the nest before first light. The posture varies with the activity of the species, assuming an upright position on the hind parts to survey its surroundings, drawing the forelimbs to the chest when hopping rapidly away from a threat, and resting on all four limbs and the tail when slowly moving during feeding.
The favoured foods are subterranean fruiting bodies of fungi and tubers, and the species have strong clawed forelimbs that allow them to excavate these. Other foodstuffs consumed include some insect larvae, the stems of sedge-like plants, grasses and seeds.
The museum collector Charles M. Hoy noted that the species entered his camp at night, eating pieces of bread but ignoring the vegetable scraps.
Distribution and habitat
It is found in coastal and subcoastal regions from Newcastle in New South Wales to Cooktown in Queensland, and was formerly found in the Murray River Valley of New South Wales and Victoria.
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Rufous rat-kangaroo Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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What Were the Positive/Negative Outcomes of the Columbian Exchange?
By Staff WriterLast Updated Apr 2, 2020 12:14:15 PM ET
The Columbian Exchange occurred when travelers from the Old World met residents of the New World. Advances in farming represent a positive outcome, and the spread of disease represents a negative outcome from this meeting.
Positive Impacts
There were many positive impacts from the Columbian Exchange, such as the introduction of new crops and farming techniques to the introduction of various domesticated animals to the New World. Some of these crops and animals include potatoes, cows, oxen and horses, among other livestock. In return, the New World brought many new crops of their own to Europe and other Old World locations. Some of these crops include sugar cane, bananas and corn, or maize as it was called by the natives.
Other New World items that found their way to the New World include a variety of beans, including lima, butter and kidney; modern day favorites such as pineapple, avocado and cocoa beans, as well as gourds such as squash, pumpkin and others. This free exchange of goods led to the idea of a global trade for foodstuffs, with food shipments coming to the Americas from ports around the world.
Old World farming techniques brought to the New World include the plow, which allowed farmers to more easily cultivate the land. This ability to cultivate the land led to further development of civilization, as Native Americans could focus more on other pursuits besides survival, as they had to do with their previous hunter/gatherer society.
Negative Impacts
In addition to the many positive plants and animals the Columbian Exchange brought to the various cultures involved, the exchange also brought with it many negative outcomes. New diseases never before encountered in the New World represent one of the most deadly of these negative outcomes. Large swaths of the New World population were wiped out by diseases that they had few defenses against. This did more damage than any army could do.
In addition, slavery helped set the stage for further conflict between the states of the fledgling country of America. Some could even argue that the effects of slavery can still be felt even in modern times. Wars engineered by the invading Old World forces represent another negative impact on the New World. The greed of New World explorers seemed to know no bounds, with wars arising out of their desire for gold and a need to exploit the natural resources of the various regions they inhabited.
The introduction of firearms to the New World can be seen as both a blessing and a curse. Firearms made it easier to hunt for game meat, but the guns' destructive forces allowed people to use them with devastating results against their friends, neighbors and enemies.
A final area where the arrival of Old World settlers had an impact on the New World includes the area of architecture. Old World settlers brought with them many tried and true building techniques, which allowed for the building of stronger and more permanent structures built to withstand the elements and the forces of nature. The wheel also helped in the establishment of society, allowing New World natives to transport building materials to farther points from their origin.
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Introbooks Team
Homo Sapiens
Dengarkan di aplikasi
Around 13.5 billion years ago, energy, time, matter and space had come to be known as the phenomenon of the Big Bang. The theory of the fundamental features of the universe is referred to as physics. Around 30,000 years when these features had appeared, energy along with matter had started the coalescing into various complex structures referred to as the atoms. These then combined themselves into bigger molecules. The theory of atoms along with molecules as well as its interaction is referred to as the chemistry. Some 3.8 billion years before, on some planet known as the Earth, several molecules had combined to result in some large and well-defined structures known as the organisms. The theory of the organisms is referred to as biology.
Around 70,000 years before, the organisms which belonged to the group homo sapiens had started forming even larger and elaborative structures known as the cultures. The development of these cultures is known as history.
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Researchers create origami-inspired satellite antennas that can self-fold
TechXplore February 4, 2021
Satellites and space vehicles will need to pack more cargo for the long haul. However, certain items, like dish antennas used for wireless communication, pose a challenge since they cannot be very densely packed for flight because of their signature bowl shape. A team of researchers in the US (Texas A&M University, Pennsylvania State University, UC Irvine) has designed, fabricated, and characterized a self-foldable Active Origami Reflector Antenna (AORA) of parabolic form. They used shape memory polymer (SMP) composites and applied origami principles for smooth folds to determine the shape and fold pattern of a planar sheet that can be folded to reach the parabolic antenna shape. They fabricated and demonstrated a proof-of-concept prototype of the AORA whose folding was driven by thermal actuation of the SMP composite folds. They studied the far-field EM characteristics of the prototype, the effects of the antenna shape parameters on its EM characteristics and compared the performance of the AORA to that of equivalent smooth and faceted parabolic reflectors. Applications of the AORA include high-gain directional radio telescopes and satellite telecommunication…read more. TECHNICAL ARTICLE
Posted in Antenna design and tagged , , .
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Week 2
This week the children have begun their new unit, Newspapers, in English. They have heard the story Zeraffa Giraffa which is based on a true story. The children had to pick out the 5 W's (who, what, where, why, when) in order to begin thinking about what information a newspaper report gives. They then began to consider other features of newspaper reports so they can move onto planning their own next week.
In Maths, the children have continued with worded problem but in the context of measure. They began looking at one-step problems involving all four operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and moved onto two-step problems at the end of the week.
In Science, the children have looked at teeth and began thinking about why different animals have different types of teeth.
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Crane (machine)
The first known crane machine was the shadouf, a water-lifting device that was invented in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and then appeared in ancient Egyptian technology. Construction cranes later appeared in ancient Greece, where they were powered by men or animals (such as donkeys), and used for the construction of buildings. Larger cranes were later developed in the Roman Empire, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.
Cranes were so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf. Ancient Greek: γέρανος, French grue.[2]
Ancient Near East
The first type of crane machine was the shadouf, which had a lever mechanism and was used to lift water for irrigation.[3][4][5] It was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) circa 3000 BC.[3][4] The shadouf subsequently appeared in ancient Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC.[5][6]
Ancient Greece
A crane for lifting heavy loads was developed by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC.[7] The archaeological record shows that no later than c. 515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the existence of the crane.[7]
The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next 200 years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp reduction in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique made the use of several smaller stones more practical than fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic period with its pattern of ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 15–20 metric tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums.[8]
Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane preferable to the Greek polis over the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic societies of Egypt or Assyria.[8]
The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems (Mech. 18, 853a32–853b13) attributed to Aristotle (384–322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek construction sites by then.[9]
Roman Empire
The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, when construction activity soared and buildings reached enormous dimensions. The Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. We are relatively well informed about their lifting techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius (De Architectura 10.2, 1–10) and Heron of Alexandria (Mechanica 3.2–5). There are also two surviving reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed.
The simplest Roman crane, the trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a rope, and a block containing three pulleys. Having thus a mechanical advantage of 3:1, it has been calculated that a single man working the winch could raise 150 kg (3 pulleys x 50 kg = 150), assuming that 50 kg represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a longer time period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys (pentaspastos) or, in case of the largest one, a set of three by five pulleys (Polyspastos) and came with two, three or four masts, depending on the maximum load. The polyspastos, when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x 50 kg = 3,000 kg). If the winch was replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load could be doubled to 6,000 kg at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much bigger mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in comparison to the construction of the ancient Egyptian pyramids, where about 50 men were needed to move a 2.5 ton stone block up the ramp (50 kg per person), the lifting capability of the Roman polyspastos proved to be 60 times higher (3,000 kg per person).[10]
However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier stone blocks than those handled by the polyspastos indicate that the overall lifting capability of the Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, for instance, the architrave blocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and one corner cornice block even over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of about 19 m.[9] In Rome, the capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of about 34 m (see construction of Trajan's Column).[11]
It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike a siege tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure (Mechanica 3.5).[12] Second, a multitude of capstans were placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught animals).[13] This use of multiple capstans is also described by Ammianus Marcellinus (17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of the Lateranense obelisk in the Circus Maximus (c. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan.[14] Lifting such heavy weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work groups applying the force to the capstans.
Middle Ages
During the High Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of the Western Roman Empire.[16] The earliest reference to a treadwheel (magna rota) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225,[17] followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240.[18] In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in 1244, Antwerp in 1263, Brugge in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291,[19] while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331.[20]
Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels or wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders, hods and handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval construction sites[21] and harbors.[19]
Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th century also by windlasses shaped like a ship's wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'dead-spots' in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123.[22]
The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded,[17] although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of the windlass from which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Alternatively, the medieval treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart drawn from Vitruvius' De architectura which was available in many monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the observation of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities.[20]
Structure and placement
The medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around a central shaft with a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier 'compass-arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced 'clasp-arm' type featured arms arranged as chords to the wheel rim,[23] giving the possibility of using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage.[24]
Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither placed on the extremely lightweight scaffolding used at the time nor on the thin walls of the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in the initial stages of construction on the ground, often within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults.[25] Thus, the crane 'grew' and 'wandered' with the building with the result that today all extant construction cranes in England are found in church towers above the vaulting and below the roof, where they remained after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft.[26]
Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of walls with the stand of the machine secured to putlogs.[27]
Mechanics and operation
In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists – much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome[28] – were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well.[25] Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place,[25] or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall.[28] Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load.[29] Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340.[30] While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.[31]
It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the load from running backward.[32] This curious absence is explained by the high friction force exercised by medieval tread-wheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control.[29]
Harbour usage
According to the "present state of knowledge" unknown in antiquity, stationary harbor cranes are considered a new development of the Middle Ages.[19] The typical harbor crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. These cranes were placed docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting methods like see-saws, winches and yards.[19]
Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying geographical distribution: While gantry cranes which pivoted on a central vertical axle were commonly found at the Flemish and Dutch coastside, German sea and inland harbors typically featured tower cranes where the windlass and treadwheels were situated in a solid tower with only jib arm and roof rotating.[15] Dockside cranes were not adopted in the Mediterranean region and the highly developed Italian ports where authorities continued to rely on the more labor-intensive method of unloading goods by ramps beyond the Middle Ages.[33]
Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the relatively slow progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured double treadwheels to speed up loading. The two treadwheels whose diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were attached to each side of the axle and rotated together.[19] Their capacity was 2–3 tons which apparently corresponded to the customary size of marine cargo.[19] Today, according to one survey, fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are still extant throughout Europe.[34] Some harbour cranes were specialised at mounting masts to newly built sailing ships, such as in Gdańsk, Cologne and Bremen.[15] Beside these stationary cranes, floating cranes which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into use by the 14th century.[15]
Early modern age
A lifting tower similar to that of the ancient Romans was used to great effect by the Renaissance architect Domenico Fontana in 1586 to relocate the 361 t heavy Vatican obelisk in Rome.[35] From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture.[36]
Cranes were also used domestically during this period. The chimney or fireplace crane was used to swing pots and kettles over the fire and the height was adjusted by a trammel.[37]
Industrial revolution
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution the first modern cranes were installed at harbours for loading cargo. In 1838, the industrialist and businessman William Armstrong designed a water-powered hydraulic crane. His design used a ram in a closed cylinder that was forced down by a pressurized fluid entering the cylinder – a valve regulated the amount of fluid intake relative to the load on the crane.[38] This mechanism, the hydraulic jigger, then pulled on a chain to lift the load.
In 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the households of Newcastle. Armstrong was involved in this scheme and he proposed to Newcastle Corporation that the excess water pressure in the lower part of town could be used to power one of his hydraulic cranes for the loading of coal onto barges at the Quayside. He claimed that his invention would do the job faster and more cheaply than conventional cranes. The corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside.[39]
The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to establish the Elswick works at Newcastle, to produce his hydraulic machinery for cranes and bridges in 1847. His company soon received orders for hydraulic cranes from Edinburgh and Northern Railways and from Liverpool Docks, as well as for hydraulic machinery for dock gates in Grimsby. The company expanded from a workforce of 300 and an annual production of 45 cranes in 1850, to almost 4,000 workers producing over 100 cranes per year by the early 1860s.[39]
Armstrong spent the next few decades constantly improving his crane design – his most significant innovation was the hydraulic accumulator. Where water pressure was not available on site for the use of hydraulic cranes, Armstrong often built high water towers to provide a supply of water at pressure. However, when supplying cranes for use at New Holland on the Humber Estuary, he was unable to do this because the foundations consisted of sand. He eventually produced the hydraulic accumulator, a cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. The plunger would slowly be raised, drawing in water, until the downward force of the weight was sufficient to force the water below it into pipes at great pressure. This invention allowed much larger quantities of water to be forced through pipes at a constant pressure, thus increasing the crane's load capacity considerably.[40]
One of his cranes, commissioned by the Italian Navy in 1883 and in use until the mid-1950s, is still standing in Venice, where it is now in a state of disrepair.[41]
Mechanical principles
There are three major considerations in the design of cranes. First, the crane must be able to lift the weight of the load; second, the crane must not topple; third, the crane must not rupture.
For stability, the sum of all moments about the base of the crane must be close to zero so that the crane does not overturn.[42] In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the "rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip, thus providing a safety margin.
Under US standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a crawler crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane supported on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These requirements, along with additional safety-related aspects of crane design, are established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in the volume ASME B30.5-2018 Mobile and Locomotive Cranes.
Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat stricter because of the dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion. Additionally, the stability of the vessel or platform must be considered.
For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment created by the boom, jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be less than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail.
There are four principal types of mobile cranes: truck mounted, rough-terrain, crawler, and floating.
A truck-mounted crane has two parts: the carrier, often referred to as the lower, and the lifting component which includes the boom, referred to as the upper. These are mated together through a turntable, allowing the upper to swing from side to side. These modern hydraulic truck cranes are usually single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane. The upper is usually powered via hydraulics run through the turntable from the pump mounted on the lower. In older model designs of hydraulic truck cranes, there were two engines. One in the lower pulled the crane down the road and ran a hydraulic pump for the outriggers and jacks. The one in the upper ran the upper through a hydraulic pump of its own. Many older operators favor the two-engine system due to leaking seals in the turntable of aging newer design cranes. Hiab invented the world's first hydraulic truck mounted crane in 1947.[43] The name, Hiab, comes from the commonly used abbreviation of Hydrauliska Industri AB, a company founded in Hudiksvall, Sweden 1944 by Eric Sundin, a ski manufacturer who saw a way to utilize a truck's engine to power loader cranes through the use of hydraulics.
Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special equipment to transport the crane unless weight or other size constrictions are in place such as local laws. If this is the case, most larger cranes are equipped with either special trailers to help spread the load over more axles or are able to disassemble to meet requirements. An example is counterweights. Often a crane will be followed by another truck hauling the counterweights that are removed for travel. In addition some cranes are able to remove the entire upper. However, this is usually only an issue in a large crane and mostly done with a conventional crane such as a Link-Belt HC-238. When working on the job site, outriggers are extended horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while stationary and hoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers. Loads suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane acts as a counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by crane operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.
Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5 short tons (12.9 long tons; 13.2 t) to about 1,300 short tons (1,161 long tons; 1,179 t). Although most only rotate about 180 degrees, the more expensive truck mounted cranes can turn a full 360 degrees.
Rough terrain
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. The engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler crane. Most have 4 wheel drive and 4 wheel steering for traversing tighter and slicker terrain than a standard truck crane, with less site prep.
The main advantage of a crawler crane is its ready mobility and use, since the crane is able to operate on sites with minimal improvement and stable on its tracks without outriggers. Wide tracks spread the weight out over a great area and are far better than wheels at traversing soft ground without sinking in. A crawler crane is also capable of traveling with a load. Its main disadvantage is its weight, making it difficult and expensive to transport. Typically a large crawler must be disassembled at least into boom and cab and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its next location.[45]
Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes can be found on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with a capacity of 7,100 tonnes (7,826 short tons; 6,988 long tons) each. For 50 years, the largest such crane was "Herman the German" at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, one of three constructed by Hitler's Germany and captured in the war. The crane was sold to the Panama Canal in 1996 where it is now known as Titan.[46]
Other types
All terrain
An all-terrain crane is a hybrid combining the roadability of a truck-mounted and on-site maneuverability of a rough-terrain crane. It can both travel at speed on public roads and maneuver on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering.
AT's have 2-9 axles and are designed for lifting loads up to 1,200 tonnes (1,323 short tons; 1,181 long tons).[47]
Pick and carry
A pick and carry crane is similar to a mobile crane in that is designed to travel on public roads; however, Pick and Carry cranes have no stabiliser legs or outriggers and are designed to lift the load and carry it to its destination, within a small radius, then be able to drive to the next job. Pick and Carry cranes are popular in Australia where large distances are encountered between job sites. One popular manufacturer in Australia was Franna, who have since been bought by Terex, and now all Pick and Carry cranes are commonly referred to as "Frannas" even though they may be made by other manufacturers. Nearly every medium and large sized crane company in Australia has at least one and many companies have fleets of these cranes. The capacity range is between ten and forty tonnes as a maximum lift, although this is much less as the load gets further from the front of the crane. Pick and Carry cranes have displaced the work usually completed by smaller truck cranes as the set-up time is much quicker. Many steel fabrication yards also use Pick and Carry cranes as they can "walk" with fabricated steel sections and place these where required with relative ease.
A sidelifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer, able to hoist and transport ISO standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists, which can lift a container from the ground or from a railway vehicle.
Carry deck
A carry deck crane is a small 4 wheel crane with a 360 degree rotating boom placed right in the centre and an operators cab located at one end under this boom. The rear section houses the engine and the area above the wheels is a flat deck. Very much an American invention the Carry deck can hoist a load in a confined space and then load it on the deck space around the cab or engine and subsequently move to another site. The Carry Deck principle is the American version of the pick and carry crane and both allow the load to be moved by the crane over short distances.
Telescopic handler
Telescopic handlers are like forklift trucks that have a telescoping extendable boom like a crane. Early telescopic handlers only lifted in one direction and did not rotate;[48] however, several of the manufacturers have designed telescopic handlers that rotate 360 degrees through a turntable and these machines look almost identical to the Rough Terrain Crane. These new 360-degree telescopic handler/crane models have outriggers or stabiliser legs that must be lowered before lifting; however, their design has been simplified so that they can be more quickly deployed. These machines are often used to handle pallets of bricks and install frame trusses on many new building sites and they have eroded much of the work for small telescopic truck cranes. Many of the world's armed forces have purchased telescopic handlers and some of these are the much more expensive fully rotating types. Their off-road capability and their on site versatility to unload pallets using forks, or lift like a crane make them a valuable piece of machinery.
Dry bulk or container cranes usually in the bay areas or inland water ways.
Travel lift
A travel lift (also called a boat gantry crane, or boat crane) is a crane with two rectangular side panels joined by a single spanning beam at the top of one end. The crane is mobile with four groups of wheels steerable wheels, one on each corner. These cranes allow boats with masts or tall super structures to be removed from the water and transported around docks or marinas.[49] Not to be confused mechanical device used for transferring a vessel between two levels of water, which is also called a boat lift.
A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads. The simplest form is a crane mounted on a flatcar. More capable devices are purpose-built. Different types of crane are used for maintenance work, recovery operations and freight loading in goods yards and scrap handling facilities.
Aerial crane or 'Sky cranes' usually are helicopters designed to lift large loads. Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift units/loads onto shopping centers and highrises. They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, (cars, boats, swimming pools, etc.). They also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires.
Some aerial cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft, such as airships.
Exchanging mobility for the ability to carry greater loads and reach greater heights due to increased stability, these types of cranes are characterised by the fact that their main structure does not move during the period of use. However, many can still be assembled and disassembled. The structures basically are fixed in one place.
Optimization of tower crane location in the construction sites has an important effect on material transportation costs of a project.[50]
In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in conjunction with a signaller (known as a 'dogger', 'rigger' or 'swamper'). They are most often in radio contact, and always use hand signals. The rigger or dogger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is responsible for the safety of the rigging and loads.
Tower cranes are used extensively in construction and other industry to hoist and move materials. There are many types of tower cranes. Although they are different in type, the main parts are the same, as follows:
• Mast: the main supporting tower of the crane. It is made of steel trussed sections that are connected together during installation.
• Slewing unit: the slewing unit sits at the top of the mast. This is the engine that enables the crane to rotate.
• Operating cabin: on most tower cranes the operating cabin sits just above the slewing unit. It contains the operating controls, load-movement indicator system (LMI), scale, anemometer, etc.
• Jib: the jib, or operating arm, extends horizontally from the crane. A "luffing" jib is able to move up and down; a fixed jib has a rolling trolley that runs along the underside to move goods horizontally.
• Counter jib: holds counterweights, hoist motor, hoist drum and the electronics.[51]
• Hoist winch: the hoist winch assembly consists of the hoist winch itself (motor, gearbox, hoist drum, hoist rope, and brakes), the hoist motor controller, and supporting components such as the platform. Many tower cranes have transmissions with two or more speeds.
• Hook: the hook (or hooks) is used to connect the material to the crane. It is suspended from the hoist rope either at the tip, for luffing jib cranes, or in the hoist rope belly underneath the trolley for hammerhead cranes.
• Weights: Large concrete counterweights are mounted toward the rear of the counterdeck, to compensate for the weight of the goods lifted.[52]
A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach (also see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (or derrick) will often be lifted to the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards, which may be more difficult than the installation.[53]
Tower cranes can be operated by remote control, removing the need for a cab for the crane operator to work from.
Each model and distinctive style of tower crane has a predetermined lifting chart that can be applied to any radii available depending on its configuration. Similar to a mobile crane, a tower crane may lift an object of far greater mass closer to its center of rotation than at its maximum radius. An operator manipulates several levers and pedals to control each function of the crane.
Self-erecting tower cranes
Generally a type of pedestrian operated tower crane. Self-erecting tower cranes are transported as a single unit and can be assembled by a qualified technician without the assistance of a larger mobile crane. They are bottom slewing cranes that stand on outriggers, have no counter jib, have their counter weights and ballast at the base of the mast, can not climb themselves, have a reduced capacity to standard tower cranes, and seldom have an operator's cabin.
In some cases, smaller self-erecting tower cranes may have axles permanently fitted to the tower section to make maneuvering the crane onsite easier.
Tower cranes can also use a hydraulic powered jack frame to raise itself to add new tower sections without any additional other cranes further assisting beyond the initial assembly stage. This is how it can grow to nearly any height needed to build the tallest skyscrapers when tied to a building as the building rises. The maximum unsupported height of a tower crane is around 265 ft.[54] For a video of a crane getting taller, see here:[55]
For another animation of such a crane in use see this video:[56] (Here, the crane is used to erect a scaffold which in turn contains a gantry to lift sections of a bridge spire.)
Though not all telescopic cranes are mobile cranes, many of them are truck-mounted.
A telescopic tower crane has a telescopic mast and often a superstructure (jib) on top so that it functions as a tower crane. Some telescopic tower cranes also have a telescopic jib.
The "hammerhead", or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib crane consisting of a steel-braced tower on which revolves a large, horizontal, double cantilever; the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the machinery and counterbalancing weight. In addition to the motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design. These cranes are generally constructed in large sizes and can weigh up to 350 tons.
The design of Hammerkran evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century and was adopted and developed for use in British shipyards to support the battleship construction program from 1904 to 1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as armour plate and gun barrels. Giant cantilever cranes were also installed in naval shipyards in Japan and in the United States. The British government also installed a giant cantilever crane at the Singapore Naval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed at Garden Island Naval Dockyard in Sydney (1951). These cranes provided repair support for the battle fleet operating far from Great Britain.
In the British Empire, the engineering firm Sir William Arrol & Co Ltd was the principal manufacturer of giant cantilever cranes; the company built a total of fourteen. Among the sixty built in the world, few remain; seven in England and Scotland of about fifteen worldwide.[57]
The Titan Clydebank is one of the 4 Scottish cranes on the Clydebank and preserved as a tourist attraction.
Level luffing
Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook also move up and down as the jib moves (or luffs). A level luffing crane is a crane of this common design, but with an extra mechanism to keep the hook level when luffing.
An overhead crane, also known as a bridge crane, is a type of crane where the hook-and-line mechanism runs along a horizontal beam that itself runs along two widely separated rails. Often it is in a long factory building and runs along rails along the building's two long walls. It is similar to a gantry crane. Overhead cranes typically consist of either a single beam or a double beam construction. These can be built using typical steel beams or a more complex box girder type. Pictured on the right is a single bridge box girder crane with the hoist and system operated with a control pendant. Double girder bridge are more typical when needing heavier capacity systems from 10 tons and above. The advantage of the box girder type configuration results in a system that has a lower deadweight yet a stronger overall system integrity. Also included would be a hoist to lift the items, the bridge, which spans the area covered by the crane, and a trolley to move along the bridge.
A gantry crane has a hoist in a fixed machinery house or on a trolley that runs horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or two beams (twin-girder). The crane frame is supported on a gantry system with equalized beams and wheels that run on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular to the trolley travel direction. These cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial installations. A special version is the container crane (or "Portainer" crane, named by the first manufacturer), designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.
Most container cranes are of this type.
Located on the ships and boats, these are used for cargo operations or boat unloading and retrieval where no shore unloading facilities are available. Most are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic.
Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to carry a shell grab or bucket, rather than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes, such as coal, minerals, scrap metal etc.
A loader crane (also called a knuckle-boom crane or articulating crane) is an hydraulically powered articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used for loading/unloading the vehicle cargo. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a small space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the sections may be telescopic. Often the crane will have a degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator's instruction.
Efficiency increase of cranes
Lifetime of existing cranes made of welded metal structures can often be extended for many years by aftertreatment of weldings. During development of cranes, load level (lifting load) can be significantly increased by taking into account the IIW recommendations (the International Institute of Welding Technology IIW published the Guideline "Recommendations for the HFMI Treatment" in 2016) leads in most cases to an increase of the permissible lifting load and thus to an efficiency increase.
Similar machines
Types of crane-like lifting machine include:
More technically advanced types of such lifting machines are often known as 'cranes', regardless of the official definition of the term.
Special examples
• Finnieston Crane (aka the Stobcross Crane)
Category A -listed example of a 'hammerhead' (cantilever) crane in Glasgow's former docks, built by the William Arrol company.
50 m (164 ft) tall, 175 tonnes (172 long tons; 193 short tons) capacity, built 1926
• Taisun
– double bridge crane at Yantai, China.
20,000 tonnes (22,046 short tons; 19,684 long tons) capacity, World Record Holder
133 m (436 ft) tall, 120 m (394 ft) span, lift-height 80 m (262 ft)
• Kockums Crane
– shipyard crane formerly at Kockums, Sweden.
138 m (453 ft) tall, 1,500 tonnes (1,500 long tons; 1,700 short tons) capacity, since moved to Ulsan, South Korea
• Samson and Goliath (cranes)
– two gantry cranes at the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast built by Krupp
Goliath is 96 m (315 ft) tall, Samson is 106 m (348 ft)
– span 140 m (459 ft), lift-height 70 m (230 ft), capacity 840 tonnes (830 long tons; 930 short tons) each, 1,600 tonnes (1,600 long tons; 1,800 short tons) combined
• Breakwater Crane Railway
– self-propelled steam crane that formerly ran the length of the breakwater at Douglas.
– ran on 10 ft (3,048 mm) gauge track, the broadest in the British Isles
Crane operators
Crane operators are skilled workers and heavy equipment operators.
See also
1. "How Are Cranes Powered?". Bryn Thomas Cranes. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
2. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cranes" . Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 368–372.
4. Chondros, Thomas G. (1 November 2010). "Archimedes life works and machines". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 45 (11): 1766–1775. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2010.05.009. ISSN 0094-114X.
5. Sayed, Osama Sayed Osman; Attalemanan, Abusamra Awad (19 October 2016). "THE STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE OF TOWER CRANES USING COMPUTER PROGRAM SAP2000-v18". Sudan University of Science and Technology. The earliest recorded version or concept of a crane was called a Shaduf and used over 4,000 years by the Egyptians to transport water. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
7. Coulton 1974, p. 7
8. Coulton 1974, pp. 14ff
9. Coulton 1974, p. 16
10. All data from: Dienel & Meighörner 1997, p. 13
11. Lancaster 1999, p. 426
12. Lancaster 1999, pp. 427ff
13. Lancaster 1999, pp. 434ff
14. Lancaster 1999, p. 436
15. Matheus 1996, p. 346
16. Matthies 1992, p. 514
17. Matthies 1992, p. 515
18. Matthies 1992, p. 526
19. Matheus 1996, p. 345
20. Matthies 1992, p. 524
21. Matthies 1992, p. 545
22. Matthies 1992, p. 518
23. Matthies 1992, pp. 525ff
24. Matthies 1992, p. 536
25. Matthies 1992, p. 533
26. Matthies 1992, pp. 532ff
27. Matthies 1992, p. 535
28. Coulton 1974, p. 6
29. Dienel & Meighörner 1997, p. 17
30. Matthies 1992, p. 534
31. Matthies 1992, p. 531
32. Matthies 1992, p. 540
33. Matheus 1996, p. 347
34. These are Bergen, Stockholm, Karlskrona (Sweden), Kopenhagen (Denmark), Harwich (England), Gdańsk (Poland), Lüneburg, Stade, Otterndorf, Marktbreit, Würzburg, Östrich, Bingen, Andernach and Trier (Germany). Cf. Matheus 1996, p. 346
35. Lancaster 1999, p. 428
36. Lancaster 1999, pp. 436–437
37. The Victorian Web
38. "Armstrong Hydraulic Crane". Machine-History.Com. Archived from the original on 10 January 2014.
40. McKenzie, Peter (1983). W.G. Armstrong: The Life and Times of Sir William George Armstrong, Baron Armstrong of Cragside. Longhirst Press. ISBN 0-946978-00-X.
41. "Newcastle crane 'priceless' part of Venetian heritage". BBC. 20 May 2010. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
42. Brain, Marshall. "How Tower Cranes Work". Retrieved 2 April 2014.
44. Khan, Inamullah (14 July 2017). "Top 12 Different Types of Cranes used in Construction Works". CivilGuides. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
45. "15 Types of Cranes used in Construction (SURPRISE List)". Define Civil. 21 September 2018. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
46. "Herman the German". Retrieved 27 April 2014.
47. "LTM11200-9.1". Liebherr. Retrieved 1 June 2008.
48. "Crane Lifts Big Load." Popular Science, August 1948, p. 106.
49. "Travel Lift". Retrieved 1 October 2019. and other pages on this website.
50. Kaveh, Ali; Vazirinia, Yasin. "Optimization of tower crane location and material quantity between supply and demand points: A comparative study". Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering. 62 (3): 732–745. doi:10.3311/PPci.11816.
51. Elliott, Matthew (19 December 2015). "Tower crane anatomy". Crane & Rigging. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
52. "the component of the tower cranes". 21 April 2012. Archived from the original on 27 June 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
53. Croucher, Martin (11 November 2009). "Myth of 'Babu Sassi' Remains After Burj Cranes Come Down". Khaleej Times. Archived from the original on 1 October 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
54. "How Tower Cranes Work". HowStuffWorks. 1 April 2000. Retrieved 23 August 2019.
55. "Crane Building Itself". YouTube. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
56. "MTC – News". Archived from the original on 8 June 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
57. "The Cowes Giant Cantilever Crane". Archived from the original on 28 August 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
58. "Hiab Loader Cranes - Custom-made cranes for highest productivity". Archived from the original on 22 March 2013.
History of cranes
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Roman sites
Roman camp – Contubernia
The accurately reproduced dwellings of the legionaries (contubernia) are absolutely unique in Europe and offer overnight stays for families, schools and groups. They have been reconstructed using wood, clay and limestone based on the methods that would have been deployed between 30 and 45 AD. During this period, the 13th Legion was stationed at Vindonissa with approx. 5,000 to 6,000 soldiers.
The contubernia reproduced here were built entirely by hand - just as the legionaries themselves would have built the originals. The materials used, the construction techniques and the dimensions have been recreated as faithfully as possible down to the last detail. The scientific basis for this was provided by archaeological excavations at Vindonissa and other Roman military camps.
Space was very limited
A contubernium (shared barrack room or tent) consisted of two rooms. The legionaries used the front room to keep their weapons and equipment in, while the rear room was for living and sleeping. They would also cook in the contubernium as evidenced by the fireplaces found. Eight legionaries cohabited in a contubernium so space was very limited.
Generally speaking, ten contubernia went together to form a troop barracks (centuria). With a total of 80 men, the unit was commanded by a centurio or officer. His dwelling was at the head of a troop barracks and was considerably larger and more comfortable than the legionaries' dwellings.
Work which required space such as cleaning and repairing weapons was presumably carried out under the covered porch (porticus). In a legionary camp there were also large workshop buildings (fabricae) in which specially trained craftsmen soldiers (immunes) carried out various types of work such as fashioning wood, metal and leather. Alongside there were also smaller workshops (fabriculae) which were directly attached to the contubernia.
The contubernia be visited with museum admission.
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Get up to 60 % extra points for free! More info
Lesson 6 - First steps in MongoDB
In the previous lesson, Introduction to MongoDB, we installed the MongoDB database and connected to it. Today we're going to get a little familiar with it. We'll explain the basic concepts and learn to write data and read it back. We'll also work with the Mongoose package and explain what a schema and model are.
Last time we installed the Mongoose package into a new project. Mongoose will provide us with an API to make the work with Mongo easier. At the same time, we wrote a simple script to connect to the database:
mkdir mongo-project
cd mongo-project
npm init --yes
npm install mongoose
And index.js looked like this:
const mongoose = require('mongoose');
mongoose.connect('mongodb://localhost:27017/moviesdb', { useNewUrlParser: true })
.then(() => console.log('Connected to MongoDB!'))
.catch(err => console.error('Could not connect to MongoDB... ', err));
MongoDB stores data in collections (we can say that collections correspond to tables in the SQL databases - if you don't know SQL, imagine an Excel spreadsheet). Individual records in a collection are called documents (they correspond to the rows of a traditional database's table). And individual items of each document (something like table columns) are fields. Does it make sense? Okay, let's go!
In Mongoose, we use a schema to define the structure of our documents. As the official Mongoose documentation says, "everything in Mongoose starts with a schema." The schema is specific to Mongoose, Mongo itself has no such thing (last time we said Mongo is schema-less). Let's prepare a simple schema for our movie database:
...End of the preview...
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Activities (2)
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Samiksha Jaiswal (Editor)
Updated on
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The obște (pl. obști) was an autonomous agricultural community of the Romanians/Vlachs during the Middle Ages. Mixing private and common ownership, the communities generally employed an open field system. The obști were usually based on one or more extended families. This system of organization was similar throughout the Vlach-inhabited areas and it generally receded as overlords assumed more power over the rural communities and as the peasants lost their freedom by becoming serfs.
The word obște is of Slavic origin, its original meaning being "common", referring to the common ownership and usage of the fields. Nevertheless, the organization system is assumed to predate the Slavic contact, previously the word for community being cătun (cognate with Albanian katund), a word that changed its meaning in modern Romanian into "hamlet" or "mountain village".
The villages, autonomous and lacking a political superstructure, employed their own defense system: the very words for village in Romanian (sat, archaic fsat) and Albanian (fshat) are derived from the Latin word fossatum, meaning "a ditch used for fortifications".
Most villages were not ancient, but they were founded and discarded during successive colonization steps. As extensive farming was used, the areas with depleted soil were abandoned for new land, often obtained through deforestation. Sometimes, they were divided into more groups, each looking to found its own obște on fertile land, something known as the "swarming of the obști" (roirea obștilor).
The villagers in an obște were often the descendants of the founder (or sometimes, founders) of the village, which was known as moș ("forefather"). By the 16th century, in Wallachia, each extended family (moșneni, people with a common forefather) had its own tracts of land which they used in common.
The obști had their own common law system, known in Romanian as obiceiul pământului ("custom of the land"), an unwritten law system which set rules for the relations between the villagers, including the rules for the usage of the land. The obști had judicial powers on their members, the elders of the village being the judges.
Whereas some historians such as Ioan C. Filitti argued that the obști were an exceptional way of organization and a recent development, Nicolae Iorga argued that the obște was one of the most ancient institutions of the Romanian peasant, being prior to the founding of the medieval Romanian states.
Some historians such as P. P. Panaitescu argued that its origin can be found in the organization of the Dacian settlements, which was revived following the Roman retreat. As arguments for its origin being previous to the Slavic contact are given words such as gint (pl. ginture) which was a term of Latin origin (from gens/gentilis) to refer to a community formed by an extended family.
Similar systems of organizations were found among the Slavs and Germans. In the region, it was found among the East Slavs, where it was known as obshchina or mir, the West Slavs where it was known as opole and the Serbs, where it was known as okolina.
As the feudal states were created, the obști were affected by the system of princely decrees, which gave land (danii) to a newly created nobility. This led to a gradual disappearance of the common ownership of land, transforming the free peasants into serfs. The feudal system, which was already formed by the 15th century, did not destroy the obști, but a greater number of obști became serf obști: while the Hospodar or the boyars owned the whole villages, they kept their internal organization.
At the beginning of the 20th century, it was still found in some mountainous areas of Romania, such as Vrancea and Câmpulung in Moldavia as well as Dragoslavele and Rucăr in Wallachia.
Obște Wikipedia
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María Angélica Díaz del Campo
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Welcome to the DragonflyIssuesInEvolution13 Wiki
Sexual Selection
A process in Natural Selection whereby individual organisms gain a genetic (breeding) advantage by attracting mates. This can occur when males of a species attract more females through successful display behavior (vocalization, demonstrations, or appearance) or through dominance of other males.
Sexual Selection & Evolution
YouTube segment of the video "Why Sex" from PBS's Nova Evolution series covering sexual selection and evolution
1. A place where males of certain bird or mammal species assemble during breeding season to engage in competitive and territorial displays in order to attract females.
Wikipedia photo of male Great-tailed Grackles on a lek. Photograph by Michael J. Plagens, 2007.
"Lekking" is the gathering of males at a lek site. Behavior associated with lekking often consists of ritualized signals to other males in attempts to display dominance or to females to display fitness for breeding.
Black Grouse Lek
This YouTube video provides a glimpse into a springtime Black Grouse lek in Norway.
Sexual Ornamentation
Sexual ornamentation is a characteristic that attracts a mate or stimulates reproduction. This ornamentation is not limited to morphological features, such as wattles, antlers, color, etc. but may also include song and display, such as male grouses on lekking grounds (Badyaev, 2004) and bugling and urine odor among rutting elk or wapiti. Sexual ornamentation also applies to plants that attract pollinators through the development of flowers (Badyaev, 2004).
Badyaev, A.V. (2004) Developmental perspective on the evolution of sexual ornaments. Evolutionary Ecology Research, 975-991.
Astounding Mating Dance Birds of Paradise -- High Quality
Bird of Paradise for BBC's DVD (posted by Alex Ivanov on Youtube)
Meerkat staning guard.
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Colorful feathers which are an example of an exaptation from insulation to aid in flying
What is an Exaptation?[edit | edit source]
Exaptations are characteristics that serve as a beneficial function for a species, but were not originally designed for their current use. Exaptations can be either types of behavior or physical characterisits developed over time. The functions of exaptations do not perform the intended fuction they were originally designed for, unlike adaptations which specifically develop through natural selection through evolution for the purpose it performs.
Futuyma, F.J. 2009. Evolution. 2nd Ed. Chapter 11. Retrieved from http://ncse.com/files/pub/evolution/Evolution--Futuyma--chap11.pdf
Examples of Exaptations[edit | edit source]
• Feather's orignal use for insulation, then exapted for use in flight
Elephant Ear-flapping
An elephant flapping it's ears to cool itself off
• Lungs of the Basal fish underwent exaptation into the gas bladder, serving a new purpose
• Elephant's ears serve a secondary purpose of radiating heat from their body through blood vessels and flapping their ears to cool themselves
• Elephant's trunk has been exapted from just a nose to serve purposes of extra appendage, drink with, and breathe through while swimming in deep waters
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7th Civics
I. Choose the correct answers:
1. The children are the future pillars of our nation.
2. The Article 39 in the constitution provides facilities for children to develop in a healthy manner.
3. The Government of India introduced the right to education on 1st April 2010.
4. The 72nd and 73rd Amendment Acts have provided 33% reservation of seats for women in the local bodies.
5. Swayam singh deals with the socio economic development and empowerment of woman through self-help group.
II. Fill in the blanks:-
1. The Juvenile injustice act was amended in the year 2000.
2. The child line service aims at helping children during times of differenties and emergency.
3. The child marriage restrait act of 1978 has increased the age of marriage to irls from 15 to 18 years.
4. Tamilnadu legislature passed the prohibition of Eve-teasing law in 1997.
5. The family counseling centres were started to give counseling for the victims facing social problems.
III Match:-
1. Article 45 —- free and compulsory education.
2. ICDS scheme —- to reduce rate of mortality
3. Children’s day —– 14th November
4. Dowry prohibition — 1961
5. Short stay home —- rehabilitions of girls.
IV Answer the following:-
1. What does article no 24 deal with?
Article 24 is a fundamental right. It deals with the right against exploitation and prohibition of child labour.
2. Name a few acts passed for the welfare of children.
Article 39(f) provides facilities for the children to develop in a healthy manner, provides for proper care for child and youth, and provides protection against exploitation. Article 45 provides for free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years.
3. Which group of children are given due recognition by our government on the republic day?
v The national child Award for exceptional achievement was instituted in 1996 to honor such children.
v Children between the age group of 4and 15 years are honoured with meritorious award on Republic day every year.
4.How do Article 23 help women?
v Article 23 prohibits trade of woman like commodities.
v Forced labour is made as an offence.
v Human trafficking is made illegal.
v Woman is assumed the right against exploitation.
5. What does Dowry prohibition act law?
v The dowry prohibition act of 1961 bans the custom of giving and receiving dowry.
v The dowry prohibition amendment act of 1986 provides drastic punishments for those ill-treating women in connection with dowry.
V. Detail:-
1. What are the schemes and programmes undertaken for the upliftment of child?
v Integrated child development services (ICDS) scheme (1975) has the following objectives.
v To improve the health of children pregnant woman and feeding mother.
v To reduce the rate of mortality and malnutrition and school dropout.
v Rajiv Gandhi National scheme for children of working mothers provides service to child of working by opening crèches.
v An integrated programme for street children provides facilities like shelter, nutrition, healthcare, education and leisure facilities.
v It protects them from abuse and exploitation.
v Childline services aims of difficulties and emergencies. They also concentrate on childcare and protection.
v Integrated child protection scheme provides institutional as well as non institutional support for children.
2. Give a detailed account of the economic empowerment schemes for women.
v Many schemes and program have been formulated to protect educate and uplift women in India.
v This programme was started in the year 1996 to provide employment for women in handloom, handicrafts, khadi and village industries.
v The scheme was for the socio-economic development and empowerment of women through self help group, etc.
v These homes help to rehabilitate girls and women facing social, economic and emotional problems.
v These centers give counseling to the victims facing social atrocities and family mal-adjustment.
v Girls in the age group of 15 years and above who fail to complete their schooling due to various reasons are given education and training in relevant skills.
v These courses create job-opportunities for them and facilities their empowerment
7th Civics
I Choose the correct answer:
1. The Headquarters of the UNO is at___________ .
a) Washington b) Hague c) New York
2. The _________is called the Parliament of Mankind.
a) Trusteeship Council b) General Assembly c) Economic and Social Council
3. One of the official languages of the UNO is________
a) Hindi b) German c) French
4. There are permanent members in the Security Council.
a) 4 b)5 c ) 1 0
5. The programme launched by the has successfully eradicated small pox.
II Fill in the blanks:
1. The term United Nations was coined by Franklin Roosevelt.
2. The UN Charter was signed by 56 countries on 26th June 1945.
3. The executive branch of the UNO is security council.
4. All the Trust Territories have attained self-government by the year 1994
5. The International Court of Justice is located at Hague in Holland.
III Match the following:
1. UN conference – San Francisco
2. UNO – 24 Oct 1945
3. Ban ki moon – UN secretary general
4. UN head quarters – New York
5. UNHCR – resettles refugees
IV Answer the following questions briefly.
1. Describe the emblem of the UNO.
The emblem is a map of the World as seen from the North Pole with five concentric circles.
It is surrounded by a wreath of olive branches which symbolizes peace.
The World map depicts the United Nations area of concern in achieving its main purpose namely peace and security.
2. Which are the official languages of the UNO?
The official languages of the UN are English, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Arabic.
3. Mention any two objectives of the UNO
v To solve the disputes among the member countries through peaceful means.
v To maintain international peace and security.
v To develop friendly relations among nations.
v To co- operate in solving international, economic, social, cultural or humanitarian Problems.
v To promote social progress, better living standards and human rights.
4. Who are the permanent members of the Security Council?
v The Security Council is composed of fifteen members – five permanent members and ten non permanent members.
v The permanent members are Russian Federation, France, USA, UK and China.
5. What is the role of the International Court of Justice?
v The International Court of Justice is also known as the World Court.
v The International Court solves the disputes between the countries concerned.
v The Court also gives advisory opinion to the United Nations and its specialized agencies.
v It is situated in the city of Hague in Holland.
V Answer in detail.
1. Write a note on the millennium development goals of the UNO.
UNO Millennium Development Goals
v The UNO formulated the following goals for the present millennium.
· To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
· To achieve universal primary education.
· To promote gender equality and empower women.
· To reduce child mortality
· To improve maternal health.
· To fight against HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
· To ensure environment sustainability.
· To develop a global partnership for development.
2.What are the main organs of the UNO? Explain the functions of the Security Council.
Organs of UNO
The six principle organs are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, the Trusteeship Council and the Secretariat.
The Security Council
v The Security Council is the second important organ of the UNO. It acts as the executive branch of the UNO.
v The Security Council is composed of fifteen members – five permanent members and ten Non Permanent members.
v The non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a term of 2 years.
v The Security Council meets every month and a new President is elected.
v The Council needs a 2/3 majority to take decisions. The permanent members have the veto power.
v (Power to say No to a decision.)
7th Civics
I Choose the correct answer:
1.A Political party creates ———- awareness.
2.Bi- party system exists in ———–
3.A party which is recognized as a state party in ——— states is a national party.
4.————— form the backbone of democracy.
Political parties.
II .Fill in the blanks
1.In a democracy, the citizen is both the ruler and ———
2.Political parties help in forming ———- opinion.
3.political parties serve as a link between the ———- and the government.
4.The country having the larest number of political parties is ——–
5.Large and established parties have unique ———
III. Answer the following question:-
1. Give Abraham Lincolns definition for democracy.
According to Abraham Lincoln:
2. What is a political party?
A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold powers in the government.
3. What are the components of a political party?
A political party has three components- A leader, Active members and The Followers.
4. Mention a few characteristics of a political party?
· A political party agrees on important matters of public policy.
· It aims to take part in the struggle for power.
· It Implements its policies and programmes by constitutional means.
· It should have definite aims and objectives.
5. When is a political party recognized as a National party?
A party is recognized as a state party in at least four states is recognized as a National party.
IV. Details
1.Give an account of the functions of political parties in a democratic country.
· Parties contest elections.
· Parties put forward their policies and programmes, before the voters.
· Parties play a decisive role in making laws.
· The party which wins majority in the elections becomes the ruling party and runs the government those parties that lose the majority in the elections from the opposition.
· Parties shape public opinion.
· They raise and highlight issues.
2. What are the three types of party system in the world? Explain with examples.
There are three types of Party system in type world namely,
1. Single party system:
Single party system in which one ruling party is permitted. Eg. USSR
2. Bi-party system.
Two party system in which two major parties exists. Eg.USA, UK.
3. Multi party system.
Multi party system in which there are more than two political parties. Eg. India, Sri Lanka.
7th Civics
I. Choose the best answer:-
1. The first session of the constituent Assembly was presided Dr.S.P.Sinha.
2. Our constitution came into existence on 26th Jan 1950.
3. The preamble declares India as a ______ country. Democratic.
4. The people of India are given complete authority by the Indian Constitution.
5. In a parliamentary system, the executive is collectively responsible to the Legislature.
The first president of Indian was Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
2. The chief architect of the Indian constitution was Dr.BR.Ambedkar.
3. An introduction to our constitution is found in the Preamble.
4. A secular state does not have a religion of its own.
5. Directive principles aim at the establishment of the welfare state.
1. Constituent Assembly — 9th Dec 1946
2. Drafting committee —- 29th Aug 1947
3. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar —- Chairman of committee
4. Republic day —- 26th Jan 1950
5. Right against exploitation — Prohibition of forced labour.
1. Write a note eon B.R. Ambedkar
The Drafting committee was consisted on 29th Aug 1947 under the chairmanship of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar.
He was a brilliant constitutional expert and chief architect of Indian constitution.
2. What does the preamble declare our country to be?
The preamble declares India as a Sovereign, Socialists, Secular, democratic Republic.
Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity are the objectives of the constitution.
3. Why do we say India is a secular state?.
· In a secular state, the people are not discrimination on the basis of religion.
· All citizens enjoy freedom of worship.
· The state does not have a religion of its own.
· All religions in our country have the same status and support from the state.
4. What is meant by constitutional Remedies?
Right to constitutional remedies enables the citizen to approach the Supreme Court directly when there is violation of fundamental rights.
5. What does universal; Adult franchise mean?
The constitution of India has introduced Universal Adult franchise.
All the citizens above the age of 18 years irrespective of their caste, color, religion, sex, literacy, wealth etc. are entitled to participate in elections.
1. What does popular sovereignty mean?
v The constitution gives complete authority to the people of India.
v The popular sovereignty or complete authority of the people is reaffirmed in several places in the constitution, particularly in the chapter election.
v The central and state governments derive their authority from the people.
v They are ultimately responsible to the people through the legislature.
v Hence, people are sovereign.
v This is the principle of popular sovereignty.
2. Write in detail on the fundamental rights guaranteed to a citizen.
Right to equality:
All are equal before law.
Right to freedom:
Freedom of speech and expression, right to life, personal liberty etc.
Rights to freedom of Religion:
It guaranteed the citizen freedom to follow any religion.
Cultural and Educational right:
It gives rights to all citizens to reserve their language, script and culture.
Rights to constitutional Remedies:
This enables the citizen to approach the Supreme Court directly when there is violation of
fundamental rights.
3. What are the fundamental duties? Mention any 5 of them.
v The Indian constitution contains certain duties to be performed by all the citizens of India.
v These duties are called such as fundamental duties.
v To abide by the constitution and its ideals, to respect the
v National flag, the National anthem etc.
v To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
v To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood.
v To value and preserve the rich heritage of our culture.
v To strive towards Excellence in all spheres.
7th Civics
I. Choose the best answer:-
1. India is the _______largest country in the world Seventh.
2. The constitutions of India came into force on 26 Jan 1950.
3. The supreme court of India is at New Delhi.
4. The National song Vande mataram was composed by Bankim Chandra chatterjee.
5. Our national tree is the Banyan tree.
1. The Republic of India is governed in terms of the constitution.
2. The head of the Indian union is The President of India.
3. The loksabha is also called as The lower house.
4. Satyameva jayatee is inscribed in our National Emblem.
5. The National Bird of India is Peacock
1. The president – First citizen of India.
2. The chief minister – Appointed by the Governor.
3. Supreme Court – Guardian of our Constitution
4. National symbol – Unique identification.
5. National Anthem – Rabindranath Tagore.
1. Write about the location of India
· India is bounded by the Himalayan ranges in the north.
· The Indian Ocean in the south,
· The Bay of Bengal in the east,
· Arabian Sea in the west.
· India is entirely situated in the Northern Hemisphere.
2. What are the Qualifications needed for a person to be elected as the president of India?
A person who is the citizen of India.
And not less than 35 years of age can contest the presidential elections.
3. Name some of our National symbols.
v National song — Vande Mataram
v National Animal — Tiger
v National Bird — Peacock
v National flower — Lotus.
4. What is the message given by our National Anthem?
The National Anthem reflects the glory and the greatness of our motherland.
It gives the message of tolerance, unity, integrity and patriotism.
5. What is our National flower noted for?
The National flower noted for its majesty, grandeur, beauty and fragrance.
It denotes unity.
1. Write in detail about the Lok Sabha
Loksabha is also called as the lower house of the parliament.
It consists of memebers who are mostly directly elected by the people on the basis of universal adult suffrage.
The candidate who secures the maximum votes represents his constituency in the lok sabha.
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What is Social Distancing?
Social distancing is a public health intervention in which people are discouraged from convening in groups and encouraged to keep physical distance from others in order to slow the spread of illness.
Unavoidable in-person meetings should be short, in a large meeting room where people can sit at least three feet from each other; avoid shaking hands.
Limit recreational or other activities such as classes and meetings etc. where close contact to others is likely.
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(1897–1990). American physician, scientist, and educator William Bosworth Castle concentrated on hematology, or the study of blood. He discovered that pernicious anemia—a fatal disease in which the production of red blood cells is impaired—is caused by deficiency in the body’s digestive system.
Castle was born on October 21, 1897, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His father was a zoology professor at Harvard University. Castle graduated from Harvard in 1921 with a medical degree. He started his medical career at Massachusetts General Hospital. In 1924 he began to teach at the Harvard School of Public Health (now the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health). The next year Castle started work at the Thorndike Memorial Laboratory of Boston City Hospital (now Boston Medical Center). He would stay at Thorndike for 25 years and at Harvard for nearly 50 years, mainly doing research and experiments.
Although Castle did research into a variety of blood disorders, he was best remembered for his work on pernicious anemia. In 1927 he was working under American physician George Richards Minot at the Thorndike Memorial Laboratory. The previous year Minot had discovered that eating raw liver helped to treat pernicious anemia, although he did not know why it worked. (Minot would win the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1934 for his findings.)
Castle extended Minot’s studies by investigating the cause of pernicious anemia. By the late 1920s he had discovered that patients with the disease lacked a gastric substance normally produced by the stomach and thus were unable to absorb what would later be known as vitamin B12. He found that pernicious anemia could be corrected by dietary treatment, which is why liver—which is high in B12—helps the condition. His observations also directly linked the digestive system with bone marrow, where blood cells are formed.
Castle was the recipient of many awards during his long career. He died on August 9, 1990, in Boston, Massachusetts.
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This Is How (and Why) Time Zones Came to Be
Don't even get us started on daylight savings.
mapJoseph Sevcik/Shutterstock
Every traveler who has experienced the joys of jet lag has probably wondered at least once, “Why can’t the time be the same everywhere in the world?” (Here are some tricks for taking the edge off of jet lag.)
Alas, thanks to forces very much out of our control—namely, the rotation of the Earth—different parts of the globe experience sunlight and darkness, day and night, at different times. Try to imagine what it would be like if, despite that, the time was the same everywhere in the world. 12:00 AM would be the middle of the night in some parts of the world… but in other parts, people would be eating dinner at midnight, just waking up, taking their lunch break, et cetera. Not only would the name “midnight” be a misnomer for most of the world, but that would mean that the date would change in broad daylight, right in the middle of people’s days. Sounds like a big mess. The occasional confusion that comes with time differences is definitely the lesser of two evils in this situation!
And if you think keeping track of time differences is confusing, imagine what international travel would be like without time zones. You’ll be surprised to know that this time-zone-free world actually existed more recently than you might think.
Throughout most of history, different towns would keep track of the time themselves, without any kind of standardization. Clocks were set so that noontime corresponded with the sun’s highest point in the sky, which varied greatly by location. And for the most part, this system worked, since international travel was uncommon by today’s standards and not nearly as rapid. However, as travel—namely by train—became more widespread in the mid- to late-1800s, people began to see the need for a more universal system of timekeeping.
One of these people was a scientist and engineer named Sir Sandford Fleming. Rumor has it that he missed a train while traveling, because he was confused about its departure time, and had a stroke of genius. (That’s one way to make the best of a travel mishap.) In 1878, Fleming proposed that the 360 degrees of the globe be divided into 24 separate “zones” according to longitude. He suggested that adjacent zones be one hour apart. Fleming’s idea caught on, and six years later, world leaders met in Washington, D.C. to establish the standard time zones we know today. In 1918, a law took effect mandating the use of these zones in the United States.
Of course, things can never be that simple. Several countries complicate matters with variations on the standard time zones. Though China geographically spans five longitudinal time zones, the time is the same throughout the entire nation. Not to mention, several countries use half-hour and even 45-minute time zones (we’re looking at you, Nepal and Australia). And then there’s Antarctica, whose confusing time zone situation earned a spot on our list of geography facts everyone gets wrong.
Got your brain wrapped around time zones? Tackle the next time-related mystery with these facts you never knew about daylight savings.
[Sources: ThoughtCo, Wonderopolis]
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Meghan Jones
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1) Does a fire burning in a fireplace represent an equilibrium situation? Why or why not?
2) Does the following represent a equilibrium situation? Liquid mercury and mercury vapour are found in a thermometer.
1. 👍
2. 👎
3. 👁
1. 1. No, because gases are not contained; i.e., they are exiting through the chimney.
2. Yes, the Hg vapor and Hg liquid are confined.
1. 👍
2. 👎
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How do sinkholes form? - PAESTA Podcast Series: Episode 36
Episode 36 podcast
You Asked, We Answered!
Transcript of the podcast
Hello, my name is Chrissy and I am a Junior at Penn State Brandywine. I am here today to answer the following question: How do sinkholes form? Many people know what a sinkhole looks like, but not many people know how it actually forms. Sinkholes occur in many places, such as, Canada, the United States, and Europe. It is based on the land and what is underneath. Sinkholes can come in many shapes and sizes and there are actually different types. Some sinkholes get so big that they can swallow up a house or car. Sinkholes occur overtime rather than abruptly. In this podcast I am going to discuss many different characteristics of what a sinkhole is, what shapes and sizes a sinkhole can be, the different types of sinkholes, prone sinkhole areas, and mainly, how a sinkhole is formed.
There are a lot of different descriptions about how a sinkhole is characterized. I can start by saying a sinkhole can be summarized as an area where there isn’t any exterior drainage and if it rains, the rainfall travels under the earth’s surface. [1] A sinkhole can also be described as a bowl-shaped hole that constructs while the surface under the land sinks and then the surroundings pour out. [2] Some have different shapes. If you think about a sinkhole, it almost looks like a cereal bowl, but some are actually bowl shaped and some have walls that are upright and can make a personal waterhole. Sinkholes can vary in sizes too. Some can be over 100 feet deep and wide. [1]
Next, there are actually different types of sinkholes that include dissolution, cover- subsidence, and cover- collapse sinkholes. A dissolution sink hole is when the water from rain and the water from the exterior meet in between limestone, and then the soft carbonated rock moves towards the exterior and a little hole starts to appear. Cover- subsidence sinkholes occur over time, are tiny, and rare. [1] Also, with cover- subsidence sinkholes sand smothers the rock foundation and the sand flows into the rocks, resulting the ground to drop. [3] Cover- collapse sinkholes happen in clay because soil and clay are like best friends, but once the soil goes under, this process cannot be seen, and the land then falls. [2] Cover- collapse sinkholes are the most dangerous out of the three types because clay covers the rock foundation and eventually when the liquid starts to disappear, the clay and foundation start to disintegrate causing the land to unexpectedly cave-in. [3]
Furthermore, there are many sinkhole prone areas, such as karst areas. Karst can be described as areas with rocks similar to limestone that has become soft. Just about the Eastern part of the United States is considered vulnerable. Specifically Florida because Florida is mainly karst. [2] From what I heard and have read, Florida is known for having a lot of sinkholes and Florida residents are used to them. A sinkhole occurred in Florida that was about 21 meters wide and it swallowed up a swimming pool and multiple houses. There are many reasons why Florida has sinkholes. One of the reasons is because their limestone is really old. So old that it is causing the ground to collapse. The limestone did not have a chance to be flattened by pressure, which leads to erosion. [4] Sinkholes can form just about anywhere. A major sinkhole happened in Ottawa. Many buildings and shopping centers near the sinkhole had to be evacuated because gas lines and water lines exploded and were damaged. The reason this sinkhole happened is because Ottawa was established on land called Leda. This clay can be defined as “quick clay” and it is mainly known for being weak and unsafe. This sinkhole caused major damage causing peoples utilities to be shut off. [5]
Lastly, a sinkhole is formed in a karst area where the rock, specifically limestone, has a chance of being disintegrated by liquid. [6] When the rock starts to disintegrate, space can form underneath the surface. When the space underneath the surface becomes large, the ground eventually collapses and that is when a sinkhole is formed. [1]
Overall, sinkholes can be considered unpredicted and dangerous but only happen in some areas. I would not worry too much about them since a majority of them are considered uncommon. Having knowledge about sinkholes can be beneficial for a lot of people just in case a sinkhole starts to form or if someone is simply just interested in sinkholes. Before this podcast, I always wondered how sinkholes form and now I finally know. Anyway, sinkholes are unpredictable and it is hard to figure out when a sinkhole could actually happen since we tend not to know what is happening below our feet. I mean, is anyone ever aware of what happens below their feet? Probably not, but always take precaution wherever you go and always be aware of your surroundings. Especially when it rains because water plays a huge part in the formation of sinkholes. From what I discussed in this podcast, I hope you learned a lot about sinkholes and enjoyed listening to this podcast. Thank you.
(This audio file was recorded by Chrissy Gledhill, undergraduate student, Penn State Brandywine, on November 9, 2016. References available in the attached transcript.)
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Leadership Learnings for Adults
Leadership lessons from Apic: Rama
August 5, 2020
Dr. Thaker spoke about Values, Leadership, Communication, and Ethics explained how these qualities were evident in Ramayana. Dr. Thaker analyzed how the saint composer presented Rama as a leader, arbiter, just ruler, true friend, equanimous prince, and a person who knew the value of detachment and attachment
What should be the focus of one’s character- — Rama’s qualities draw attention to the greatness of Rama’s name, he said. Two qualities of Rama stand out, namely, satya and dharma,
In the Ramayana, Lakshmana is unable to kill Indrajit, and he finally says, “ If Rama is one who keeps his promise, then let this arrow kill Indrajit.” And that is enough for the arrow to hit the target. Tyagaraja is lost in admiration of Rama when he sings ‘Raama nee samaaanam evaru.’ (Who is equal to you, Rama?)
A good leader tries different ways like reconciliation, mediation, negotiation, and arbitration, to resolve conflicts Rama tried everything possible to get Ravana to mend his ways. He offered to gift Ayodhya to Ravana. He recognized Vibhishana as the ruler of Lanka. But Ravana did not budge. With all possible avenues exhausted, Rama had no alternative but to kill Ravana.
A good leader makes decisions only after conferring with others. When Vibhishana arrived from Lanka, Rama asked the monkeys what he should do: should he accept Vibhishana, or send him away. Rama had already made up his mind as to what he was going to do. And yet, he was not dictatorial, but allowed others to state their points of view. A good leader does what is right. He does not go by what would be a popular decision.
An iron maker is allowed to speak what he feels. That means society does have a right to reveal our feelings/emotions. A leader have to listen to it and decide the facts accordingly. Justification have true value in leadership.
Had Rama abided by popular opinion in the case of Vibhishana, then the latter would not have been admitted into Rama’s camp. But when the consensus was against Vibhishana, Rama welcomed him, showing that while he was willing to lend his ears to the opinion of others, he would always abide by dharma. ‘Nagumomu’ (Abheri) is a cry for acceptance, and can be interpreted as Vibhishana’s words of anguish as he awaits Rama’s decision.
In ‘Emani Maataaditivo Rama’ (Thodi), Tyagaraja marvels at Rama’s ability to choose the right words, keeping in mind the listener’s bent of mind. This is in tune with the modern concept of designing an advertisement to convince the target audience.
Here are some lessons that someone can learn and can apply in the corporate world: Some Management Lessons from Ramayana to become effective managers in the corporate world:-
1. Team Motivation is essential
One of the topmost management principles is to motivate your team. We can learn this thing from Ramayana that when Hanuman went Lanka. Hanuman’s mission was to find Sita there and convey her Lord Ram’s message. When it was confirmed that Sita is in Lanka then Janmant asked Hanuman to go there. Jamwant helped Hanuman to realize his true potential and motivated him to go to Lanka. We can learn the lesson from Ramayana and can apply in the corporate world that how Jamwant motivated Hanuman as a good manager to help him in realizing his true potential and act like that.
2. Give value to your subordinates
A good manager or leader is the one who can get work done even by its opponents. A good manager hears all the things that his subordinates say to him and tries to keep them together in the oddest situations. When the company or an organization is not in a good situation, then a good manager’s responsibility is to listen to his subordinates and keep them together. In Ramayana, Rawan shows the qualities of a bad manager many times. And this reason becomes the departure of his kingdom. Rawan did not listen to his managers from the starting and from that there is a situation came in the state of war with Ram because of Rawan’s mismanagement, one of the wisest managers, Vibishan left his kingdom in between a crisis.
3. Leaders create more leaders
There always comes a time when a leader has to create more leaders. So that they can make their own independent decisions. And there is not anymore dependency on anyone to make decisions in bad situations. When the Sita’s whereabouts were known then Hanuman, from his own burn the Lanka. The Ram was not happy with Hanuman’s decision by burning Lanka. After that, Hanuman stopped taking decisions on his own. Then Ram removes himself from the scene so that Hanuman can take his own decision and rediscover himself to make things right. During the war, the Mahiravan succeeded in kidnapping both Ram and Laxman and take them into Patal Lok. From the physical and intellectual power, Hanuman succeeded in rescuing both Ram and Laxman and thus Ram created a leader and from that Hanuman could use his abilities of leadership.
4. Communication is Vital
In Ramayana, two brothers Sugriva and Bali became enemies of each other. The reason for enmity, of two brothers was misunderstanding or miscommunication. Because of the sour events, Rama could do his task. In management, be careful of happening miscommunication at any stage. This could lead to a big crisis.
5. Believe in your team and their efforts
A manager or leader should always motivate and believe in his team to achieve the desired goal. A manager who believes in his team definitely met with his goal achievement. The army of Rakshasa was very powerful and unbeatable. They had defeated many devas and powerful kings. But the soldiers in the Ram’s army were not originally soldiers and they had never experienced that experienced army before. But the Rama built confidence in his army to fight. Ram’s confidence and enthusiasm make his army to fight and conquer victory.
6. Ready to take Risks
This is the topmost management lesson one can apply in the corporate world. Leaving the comfort zone is the most important thing in any business or enterprise. In today’s world, the marketing experts or gurus who travel the world, get a good experience of customer’s taste or like, better serve the market. In Ramayana, when Rama was ordered to live in the forest for the course of fourteen years, then Rama and Sita took it as a challenge to involve the ordinary people of their kingdom to better understand their problems and situations. They didn’t remain limited in the comforts of their palace. It helps them to understand the ground realities in a better way.
7. Successfully execute plans
A good manager’s responsibility is to make a clear plan and execute it successfully step by step. In Ramayana, When Hanuman gets the responsibility to search Sita then Hanuman has done this task brilliantly and single highhandedly. This way, he gave an introduction of his wisdom that how he conducts himself in the task and single minded is a perfect example to be followed by the managers in the corporate world. At the time of crossing the sea, he rejected the invitation which was given by Mount Myna-aka to take some rest in the way to better complete the task.
8. Having a Clear Vision
Having a clear vision is a very important thing in the corporate world as well as in all aspects of life. A clear vision will always be a motivating factor in focusing on the goal and not to be turned aside of it. It is very important for a leader to have a clear vision that what he is aiming for and what consequences he has to bear in the future. He should also be careful of his subordinates or followers that who is helping him to achieve his goal. In the Ramayana, the Ram’s vision was clear that he has to save his wife Sita and to defeat the evil personalities. The clarity about the goal forced his army to put their soul and heart in the war to save Sita.
9. Having Patience
A good manager’s quality is to have patience in all situations. Maintaining cool in bad situations helps a person to achieve its goal. In Ramayana when Sita was kidnapped then Ram wandered resource lies in the forests to search the Sita. In Ramayana, it is detailed how Ram feels sad, deeply and the memories which were linked with Sita. But his intense sorrow did not stop him from searching the Sita even he did not know the single detail of the enemy. Even in the worst situations while battling with Rawan, the Ram maintained his courage and patience and by doing this, he inspired his army to not only continue the battle but even win it.
10. Be careful of doubtful Attractions
A good manager’s quality is to not to be attracted by doubtful attractions in his way. In Ramayana, when Sita got madly attracted by a beautiful golden deer, she refused to take notice of her husband’s advice. She could not pay attention to that the deer could not be a natural deer, it can be evil in the false appearance. It is her unpleasant trouble of acquiring the deer to be her playmate that forced Ram to go behind the scene. Afterward, it became the way of getting her separated by his husband Ram and get kidnapped by Rawan.
11. Tolerance… Keep tolerating in life. It could be for TEAM, Family and friends, and organization. I do agree that things do not come up to your mark, but, you remain silent and tolerant.
12. Walking on Talking:
Following promises in life is everything. A promise once given can not be withdrawn.
13. Gentle touch: To offer a gentle touch to personality, the leader has to compromise and adjust and show flexibility in his idea. A leader does tolerate, compromise, and adjust with the TEAM or circumstances or situations. He never compromises with value and ethics.
14. Family spirit: Rama is able to display a great family spirit and bonding. To showcase, he sacrifices even his kingdom.
15. Sympathy: A leader does show sympathy for his well-wishers and doer. In Ramayana, Bird JATAYU sacrifices his life in the fight against Ravana. A bird is a well-wisher to King Rama. a lot of Well-wishers in life, they are to be taken care of when you get an opportunity.
16. Character not personality: A leader should focus on character, not personality. Rama shows a couple of times character by following ethics, value, and code of conduct. A person can polish his personality by learning manners, etiquette, styles, and communication. But a character can be developed by fOLLOWING Certain code of conduct. Rama is able to display sich 16 great qualities in life.
None can go to the past and live a life. But everyone can live in the present and shape the future.
About author
Dr Shailesh Thaker
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Plough Monday
Today is Plough Monday – the first Monday after the feast of the Epiphany (6th January). The origins of the day are not clear but one possibility is that it was the first day when the peasants returned to work after the Christmas holiday. Medieval peasants did not own land but were given an area of land to farm in return for working two or three days a week farming their lord’s land. During the twelve days of Christmas they were given a holiday from working their lord’s lands, but once Epiphany had passed the lord would want his land ploughed ready for the spring seed to be sown and so all his serfs would be obliged to turn up with their ploughs and do just that.
At this time it was usual for a light to kept burning in the local church before the image of a saint that was known as the plough light. This was probably a semi-Christian ritual to ensure a good harvest. The first practice of going around the village with a plough on this day and begging for money was to ensure that there was enough to pay to keep the plough light burning throughout the year. The Reformation put an end to plough lights, but the tradition continued although in a slightly different form. On the day before Plough Monday, sometimes called Plough Sunday, the ploughs were taken to the local church to be blessed. On the Monday the decorated ploughs were paraded through the streets by ploughmen dressed in their clean white shirts with the sleeves decorated by brightly coloured ribbons. They would call out for ‘a penny for the ploughboys!’ from the local landowners and to prevent themselves being recognised there began a tradition of the ploughboys blackening their faces. They were usually accompanied by an old woman – or a boy dressed up as an old woman – called the Bessy and there was often also a fool, dressed in skins complete with a tail whose job it was to collect the money. Anyone who refused to pay up would have a furrow ploughed outside their home. One record from 1597 tells of a court case in which ten men from the village of North Muskham in Nottinghamshire were ordered to turn back the furrow they had ploughed across the churchyard on ‘Plow Daie’!
The money was intended to be given to the poor, though from some accounts that did not always happen as the event became associated with rowdiness and drinking and damage to property. It become less popular as industry took the place of farming though it was still marked in many places and by the 19th century it had become associated with straw bears – men or boys clothed in a layer of straw who danced to encourage the crops to grow in the spring.
Although not widely celebrated today the tradition does live on and in some places has been revived as folk dancing event.
2 thoughts on “Plough Monday
1. It’s great to hear that people are keeping old traditions alive, Lesley.
2. Indeed it does. My late husband revived the tradition in the Cambridgeshire Fens and founded the Mepal Molly Men. They continue to this day, but sadly without any of the founder members. Even after we left the area, my husband and later our two sons both returned every Plough Sunday to dance all day Monday. The “Molly” changed every year.
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Home > News > Content
Do You Know What A Thread Is
Jan 04, 2020
All components and parts with standardized structure and size are called standard parts, such as bolts, screws, studs, nuts, washers, keys, pins, rolling bearings, etc. Parts whose structure and size are partially standardized are called common parts, such as gears and springs.
Basic knowledge of threads
Formation of threads
Spiral bodies formed by plane graphics such as triangles, rectangles, etc. that are coplanar with the axis of the revolution plane are called threads. Threads are parts
A common structure above, there are two types of external and internal threads, generally used in pairs.
Basic elements of threads
(1) Tooth profile The thread is cut with a plane passing through the thread axis, and the resulting cross-sectional shape is called the thread profile. Common thread teeth are triangular, trapezoidal, zigzag and rectangular. Different thread types have different uses, see Table 6-1.
(2) Diameter
There are three diameters of the thread: large diameter (d or D), small diameter (d1 or D1), and medium diameter (d2 or D2), as shown in Figure 6-3. The large diameter of ordinary threads and trapezoidal threads is also called the nominal diameter. The top diameter of the thread is the diameter of the top circle of the tooth, that is, the large diameter of the external thread, and the small diameter of the internal thread;
(3) Number of lines n
There are single and multiple threads. Threads formed along one helix are called single-thread threads, as shown in Figure 6-4 (a); threads formed along more than two helix are called multi-thread threads, as shown in Figure 6-4 (b).
(4) pitch P and lead Ph
The axial distance between the corresponding points of two adjacent threads on the medium diameter line is called the pitch. A turn along the same spiral line, the distance moved axially is called the lead. The lead of a single-thread thread is equal to the pitch, that is, Ph = P; the lead of a multi-thread thread is equal to the number of lines multiplied by the pitch, that is, Ph = nP. As shown in Figure 6-4.
(5) Rotation
There are two types of threads: right-handed and left-handed. Threads processed according to the right helix and clockwise are called right-handed threads, otherwise they are called left-handed threads. See Figure 6-5. Right-handed threads are commonly used in engineering.
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History of La Guajira
The first humans arrived at La Guajira about 10.000 years ago. The Wayuu indigenous are part of the Arawak family. It is not certain where the Arawak emerged. Most likely they are from the Amazon. What is certain is that different Arawak groups spread over the Caribbean Sea (e.g. the Tainos indigenas of Cuba), the Guayanas, and parts of the Amazon until Bolivia and Brasil. The descendants of the Arawak share a common root of their languages. Groups of Arawak arrived at La Guajira about 900 d.C.
History of La Guajira: Wayuu indigenous La Guanira around 1890.
Wayuu indigenous around 1890.
When the Spaniards arrived for the first time at the South American continent 1499 La Guajira was populated by various ethnizes. The Spaniards called the first natives who lived at Cabo de la Vela “Guajiros” (farmers). The term “Guajiro” got established after 1600. It was used for all all indigenous in the region.
Pearls. The Spaniards discover pearls between Cabo de la Vela and Riohacha. Martín Fernández de Enciso founds the first settlement Nuestra Señora Santa María de los Remedios del Cabo de la Vela at the La Guajira peninsula in 1537. The village becomes a center for pearl fishing and trade. Amerindian slaves were brought from other parts of the Caribbean. However, the surrounding of Santa Maria lacks water supply and the settlers suffers from attacks of local indigenous. In 1544 Santa Maria gets relocated to Rio de la Hacha which develops into a center for pearl trade. After 1570 the amerindian slaves get substituted by African slaves. Riohacha was target of several pirate attacks from France, Great Britain, and the Dutch.
Conquista. At the beginning of the 16th century, the “encomienda” (to entrust) system was introduced by the Spanish crown to reward colonists by giving them the right to enslave a number of indigenous. The colonists were responsible for educating and converting them to Christianity. The system was abused and lead to a significant decrease of the native population. In the mid of the 16th century the system got reformed because of heavy abuse. There was resistance from the colonists. The encomienda system got finally abandoned in the 18th century.
Piracy and Smuggling. One of the reasons why the La Guajira peninsula never got conquered was probably also due to its islated location, harsh living conditions, and few resources. There was few to win for the Spaniards. However, the Wayuu were always part of the larger international conflicts between French, English, Dutch, and Spaniards. The peninsula is a gate to the Caribbean and attractive for trade.
The Wayuu resisted the “civilized” world for many centuries. During the 20th century the settlements Uribia and Nazareth were founded to gain control over Alta Guajira. Capuchin missionaries and the influence of the settlements have inevitably changed the Wayuu culture. In the 1970s and 80s natural gas and coal deposits were discovered and are being exploited. Since the end of the 20th century tourism has arrived at Alta Guajira. Recently, the political crisis in Venezuela caused a mayor number of refugees that migrate to Colombia. During the previous decades Colombians went to Venezuela to find a better life. For the first time in history Colombia has become a target for refugees. As border region with many families having relatives in both countries, La Guajira is especially affected.
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Also found in: Wikipedia.
Any of a series of sensory cells or organs in certain fish, such as sharks and electric eels, that detect electric fields and are often located on the head and along the lateral line.
e·lec′tro·re·cep′tion n.
e·lec′tro·re·cep′tive adj.
(Zoology) zoology an organ, present in some fishes, that detects electrical discharges
References in periodicals archive ?
By combining data from thousands of tiny electroreceptor organs in its skin, its brain senses an image of an object.
Specialized electroreceptor organs, termed "ampullae of Lorenzini," are located on the snout of these predators, where they function in the detection of prey species.
"You just need to grow the nerve a little bit further and you have a basic electroreceptor."
You need to be a medical physiologist/physicist to follow this complex paper, but it basically shows the complex mechanism that allows many animals to detect weak electric and magnetic fields, via electroreceptor cells.
The sensitivity of the electroreceptor system has been studied in a broad range of elasmobranchs (reviewed by Montgomery, 1988; Kalmijn, 2003) and there is no evidence of a lesser sensitivity in rays when compared to sharks.
Species differences in effect on electroreceptor input on electric organ pacemakers and others aspects of behavior in electric fish.
(1995) reported similar findings in afferent discharges from electroreceptor organs of catfish.
Some fish and amphibians are known to sense electrical currents, but the platypus appears to use a distinctly different, independently evolved type of electroreceptor. These receptors may be located in the ducts of mucous skin glands, which would prevent them from drying out when the platypus is out of the water, the scientists suggest.
In this study, the threshold receptive field is defined as the location of the epidermal pore of the ampullary electroreceptor, but in actuality the "receptive field" of the electroreceptor is the distance between the pore and the electroreceptor cells within the internal alveoli across which the voltage drop is measured.
Szabo (Eds.), Electroreceptors and Other Specialized Receptors in Lower Vertrebrates (Vol.
Electroreceptors on snout are an excellent sense to touch and smell aids them to locate their prey [3].
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(c) Damaged seeds would _________ on top of water.
Answer :
(c) Damaged seeds would float on top of water.
Damaged seeds are hollow from inside. That means their inner content is either dried up due to harsh environmental conditions or is eaten up by the microbes. So the inner content becomes hollow and thus it gets lighter.
As we know that lighter particles float on water because of their low density hence damaged seeds float on water while the good seeds which have their full inner content settles at the bottom of the container in which water is present.
NCERT solutions of related questions for Crop Production & Management
NCERT solutions of related chapters class 8 maths
NCERT solutions of related chapters class 8 science
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Extrapolation comes from the word extra, meaning “outside,” and a shortened form of the word interpolation. Interpolation might sound like a made-up word, but it’s not. An interpolation is an insertion between two points. So an extrapolation is an insertion outside any existing points. If you know something about Monday and Tuesday, you might be able to make an extrapolation about Wednesday.
Definitions of extrapolation
1. noun
see moresee less
type of:
illation, inference
2. noun
see moresee less
type of:
calculation, computation, figuring, reckoning
problem solving that involves numbers or quantities
Word Family
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AP Latin: DBG VII Analysis
• Analysis:
This is the longest book in the Gallic Wars and it describes the great revolt of most of the Gallic tribes. Tribes which Caesar has fought earlier, and many with whom he has been at peace, combine and try their luck against the mighty Roman general. It is here that we are able to see how delicate is the balance of political control in Gaul and how great is the responsibility of the governor responsible for peace. In other books, the rebellions are generally restricted to a single area at a time, but here the revolt is general, including even the usually reliable Aedui.
The revolt begins when the Gauls hear of the political turmoil in Rome. They obviously think that Caesar will be unable to leave Rome to return to the army and that the army will be ineffectual without him. Thus they want to ready their forces in secret and so do not exchange hostages, which would reveal that coalition was being accomplished. Instead a solemn oath is taken.
We can be fairly sure that many of the Gallic leaders involved are interested in personal power rather than political freedom for their people. This seems to be the case with Vercingetorix, and it certainly will be the case later with the Aeduans. Thus one of the most difficult problems facing Caesar is the ease with which one ambitious or dissatisfied local politician can incite an otherwise peaceful state to rebellion. In Vercingetorix' case, the chiefs of the tribe are opposed to his plans, hut he manages to organize his own army, dispose of the chiefs, and revolt against Rome.
It should be noted, however, that not all the tribes revolt freely. Some of the tribes that join the rebellion do not even wish to be included in the fracas, but are forced into it by circumstances. The Bituriges, for example, would have remained on Caesar's side had not the Adenans failed to help them.
It is little wonder that Caesar is accorded heroic stature, especially after one considers the deeds recorded in this book. Clearing a roadway through six feet of snow in the Cevennes mountains is a massive feat when one considers that it had to be done by manual labor. And by doing what the enemy had considered impossible, Caesar strikes fear into the enemy. He quickly gets his army together and, though matters are still dangerous, he is able to move with striking effect. He takes Cenabum by being ready for anything. His men are waiting; when the men of the town sneak out, the Romans are able to flood inside. All of Caesar's skills — being prepared, moving quickly, and taking advantage — are more important in this book than anywhere else; this widespread Gallic rebellion is his greatest challenge.
The portrait of Vercingetorix is far from that of a villain; he is a professional and recognizes the danger in letting Avaricum stand. And Caesar quite deliberately presents him in this way because if Vercingetorix is shown to be a superior leader; then Caesar's success against him is even more impressive.
The break in the narrative seems necessary and not simply a whim of the writer: Caesar must stop the war to settle the childish dispute among the Aedui. The law is clear and there is no justification for Cotus' attempt to have the office. The diversion, besides providing relief from the battle scenes, also prepares us for the jealousy within the tribe and figures in the betrayal later. The Aedui, as we see when Caesar visits them, are easily confused and led astray, and we are prepared for their irrational attacks on the Romans.
Convictolitavis is bribed, but there is the implication that he is largely influenced by a desire for greater power, for even though he is in office because of Roman authority, he says he would prefer that Rome had to come to the Aedui for assistance rather than vice versa. He is easily swayed and so is his partner Litaviccus; both of them are ready to believe any rumor. When Eporedorix reports the events to Caesar, the general realizes that it is not necessary to fight the Aedui. Instead, he simply had Eporedorix and Viridomarus ride out with the troops and let themselves be seen by the Gauls, who immediately return to the Roman side at the sight of the two men.
One of the appealing elements in the Gallic Wars is inclusion of the many Roman tactical errors. When Caesar's troops, for instance, capture a strategic hill of the Gauls, they ruin success by being too enthusiastic and charging against orders. They are so confused, in fact, that after they find themselves in trouble, they are unable to recognize the friendly Aeduan forces that come to help them. Note, too, that later when Caesar chastises them, he makes sure that he also spends much time encouraging them; he knows that a group of soldiers who are beaten, and then told by their leader that it was because of their own foolishness, is not a group that will be an effective fighting force. Thus, after his lecture, he compliments them equally on their bravery and lets them fight a few minor battles to regain their confidence.
Caesar suspects that Eporedorix and Viridomarus will betray him, but he does not want to seem distrustful because he cannot be sure. He merely points out, before letting them ride away, all that he has done for them and their people. He seems, at times, to be almost unduly humane. This quality is also observe when he gives the German horsemen the mounts his men have been using; he wants the Germans to have the best horses available. The Romans are not cavalrymen and the Gauls still with Caesar are no good at cavalry fighting, thus this thoughtfulness is rewarded later when the cavalry is responsible for the breakdown of the enemy forces at Alesia.
The battle at Alesia is perhaps the most involved of all battles described in the Gallic Wars. Caesar's assault position is inside a double ring of fortifications. One side faces the town, the other protects the Roman rear. He is between two enemy forces and knows that his role can shift from attacker to defender if things do not go well, so he must be especially crafty and thus, to make sure an enemy attack cannot reach his lines too quickly, he takes the added precaution of planting traps outside his trench.
This is one of the rare occasions in which one of Caesar's own camps has a deficiency in its construction. The hillside, at the end the enemy attacks, is open because Caesar would have had to enclose the entire hill to complete his entrenchments. This could have been done, but another problem would have presented itself: he would have had to station troops on the other side of the hill to protect that part of the entrenchment, thinning both the ranks facing the city, and those facing the enemy force. As it turns out, the weakness is to his advantage, for the enemy commits itself to attack, and Labienus is able to send the cavalry around behind the enemy force and is successful in disrupting it.
Caesar is most deserving of the twenty-day thanksgiving proclaimed by the senate.
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Wing development
t of the body can have no more than one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it. The tracheae are invaginations of the cuticular exoskeleton that branch (anastomose) throughout the body with diameters from only a few micrometres up to 0.8 mm. The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells and serve as sites of diffusion for water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Gas may be conducted through the respiratory system by means of active ventilation or passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their haemolymph. This is one of the factors that may limit their size. A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helices. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers and bees, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a gill. Note that despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (ecdysis). Some terrestrial woodlice have evolved pseudotrachea, also called corpora allata (singular: corpus allatum), which is made up of air tubes that delivers oxygen to their haemolymph; a similar system has been found in some caterpillars.
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skip to content
Alchemy and Colour
Alchemy, a discipline that prepared the ground for early modern chemistry and experimental science, focused on the transmutation of ‘base’ metals (lead, tin) into ‘noble ones’ (silver, gold). Since metals were commonly associated with celestial bodies, some artists’ recipes used the names of planets and metals interchangeably: for instance, the Sun for gold, the Moon for silver and Venus for copper. The transformation of artists’ materials was often understood in alchemical terms. Cennino Cennini’s 14th-century treatise on painting described six colours on his palette as ‘made by alchemy.’
Alchemical scroll
England, first half of the 16th century
This is the largest and finest of some twenty scrolls associated with the English alchemist George Ripley (died c.1490). The images and allegorical poems summarise the stages in the creation of the philosopher's stone and the transformation of ‘base’ metals into ‘noble’ ones. Most of the pigments were applied later, but the original materials – white paper, black iron-gall ink and red vermilion ink – represent the colours of the alchemical path. They signal the stages of transformation: from a base metal like lead (black) through silver (white) to gold (red).
Cat. 25 - Fitzwilliam Museum, MS 276*
Given by James W.L. Glaisher in 1914
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Bending the curve: are we flattening it?
There are two terms that are used complementary to one another to determine if a country has the pandemic under control.
Bending the curve refers to the graphical representation that the number of daily cases is plateauing and later on sees a continuous decline in the trajectory of the curve.
Figure 1. Are we bending the curve?
Figure 1 above illustrates the current condition of various countries based on days since the first cases reached 30/day (X axis) and the number of cases (in logarithmic scale, Y-axis). One can see that there are countries that are still on an upward trajectory while others have begun to bend (slightly or significantly) their curves.
Has the Philippines bent its curve?
Figure 2. Daily confirmed deaths due to COVID-19 (United States, Italy, Indonesia, the Philippines, South Korea, and Brazil)
Figure 3. Daily vs total confirmed deaths due to COVID-19 (in red is the United States). Other countries illustrated include Brazil, Italy, South Korea. Indonesia and the Philippines.
Figures 2 & 3 above show how we are faring. And while the United States may have the most cases in the world, they have also begun to bend the death curve with less daily deaths vs total confirmed cases as well. Brazil on the other hand is the new epicenter in the world to watch out for as its death rates begin to climb staggeringly. Indonesia still has an upward trajectory for deaths (in proportion to their upward trajectory in cases, see Figure 6 below).
The other term used by epidemiologists is more commonly known as “flattening” the curve. Let me delve on this a bit as this has caused some confusion among the public.
Figure 4. Illustration of the concept of flattening the curve.
Flattening a curve does not imply that the curve should flatten to ZERO. It is a misconception among lay that a curve in order to be called “flattened” is pressed to the ground.
In a pandemic, the curve varies in shapes from country to country, with some countries taking a steeper climb than others. As a general rule, when a country has a steeper rise in cases (more people get infected), it will also have a steep fall (the patients either get better or die because the virus has infected a large segment of the population already).
A steep rise in cases carries a large burden on the health system. Too many sick people overwhelm the healthcare system and overloading beyond the capacity to treat people results in greater death rates. More people die not only because there are no more hospital beds, but the overall health system – from healthcare workers to basic supplies – are exhausted rapidly.
Interventions like the ECQ and social distancing, hygiene, wearing masks and other ways at minimizing the transmissibility of an infection from one person to another (i.e.. school closure, limiting travel and work, closing borders and minimizing movements) are ways to flatten the curve. A flatter curve does not mean that we pummel the curve to the ground (although wouldn’t that be great?). When we flatten the curve, we slow down the infection rate. It assumes that the same number of people eventually get infected, but over a longer period of time. Slowing down the infection de-stresses the health care system.
That’s the story of the COVID-19.
There is currently no vaccine or drug to treat this disease and we’re all scrambling at the availability (or unavailability) of testing. The collective action of everyone in the community is needed in order to address the challenge of seeing a decline in the cases of COVID19.
Have we flattened our curve?
Figure 4 above illustrates the health care capacity of a country in the broken lines. Without precautions during a pandemic, the number of people infected would be disproportional to the health care capacity resulting in a direct collapse of the health system and indirectly leading to more deaths. The “flatter curve” (in orange hue) has the same area under the curve (number of patients) but spread out over a period of time when compared to the more steep curve (in dark pink when no precautions are observed).
Figure 5. Image from the CDC and criteria for claiming “flattening of the curve”
There are two major criteria (shown in figure 5) to say that the curve has flattened. (1) Slow acceleration of number of cases, and (2) reduction in the peak number of cases and related demands on hospitals and infrastructure. I would boldly venture on saying that the overall reduction in death rate is an ideal parameter to indicate that we’ve reduced the demand on hospitals and infrastructure.
As of May 20, 2020, the DoH reports that facility capacity of various hospitals in the Philippines is not overwhelmed. Only 34.5% of total ICU beds and 17.8% of mechanical ventilators are being used.
The death rates have also dramatically dropped weekly. From April 26 – May 2, the average deaths was 16/day. May 3 – May 9 showed an average of 15/day. May 10 – May 16 an average of 16/day. May 17 – May 23 show a dramatic drop to 6/day.
Number of new confirmed cases are also on the decline. The last 4 weeks (since April 26) saw a 7 day average of 240 cases/day. To say that we’re slowing the acceleration of cases is to see a conservative decline by at least 10% from the average of the previous week. We ended last week with an average of 242 cases/day. I wanted to test the threshold of 225 cases/day for the week. THE 7 DAY AVERAGE FOR THE WEEK OF MAY 17-23 is 210!
With this new 7 day average for last week, we now test the threshold of 190 cases/day for the coming week. If this is sustained in spite of latent data, then we can confidently say that we have not only begun to, but we have flattened the curve. (This has to be something consistently seen over a 4 week period).
Figure 6. Daily vs Total confirmed COVID-19 cases (US, Italy, Philippines, Indonesia, South Korea and Brazil)
Figure 6 above shows the Philippines and the United States plateauing on cases, with Brazil now in an upward trajectory. A plateauing of cases means a slowing down in the trajectory (shifting the curve to the right). If we sustain at declining by 10% the weekly threshold, we will have similar bending curves as South Korea and Italy. While Indonesia may have lower death rates compared to the Philippines, its cases remain on an upward trajectory and have not plateaued yet.
Statistics for the day
The world is now at 5,328,548 confirmed cases with 340,425 deaths (6.39% case fatality rate) and 2,175,290 recoveries (40.8% case recovery rates). The ratio of recoveries to deaths is higher at 6.4:1.
Back home in the Philippines, the Department of Health has publicly announced 180 new cases, 85 new recoveries and 6 new deaths.
Our case fatality rate has improved and is now down to 6.26% with recovery rates up at 23.06%. Globally we rank now lower in recovery rates at 140 (out of 165 countries), and are doing much better at number 30 (from number 29) in death rates.
The Department of Health website has not updated the Data Drop files as of this writing but reported that of the 180 new cases today, 114 (63%) are from the NCR while the remaining 66 (36%) are from others. The NCR remains to be a hotspot contributing to more than 60% of the daily cases reported in the Philippines.
Update (May 24, 2020)
Based on the DoH website this morning of the 114 cases in the NCR, Quezon City is back on top of the heap (25), followed by Manila (23) and Makati (16). The rest include: Caloocan City (15); Malabon (6); Marikina and Mandaluyong (5 each); San Juan (2); and Parañaque, Pasig, Taguig, Pasay City, Muntinlupa, Las Piñas and Pateros with 1 apiece. Only Navotas had no reported case yesterday. There were 9 cases for validation.
Of the remaining 66 cases, almost 60% was from Davao City alone with 38 new cases. The rest were from Rizal (4), Laguna (1), Cavite (5), Batangas (1), Quezon (1), Bulacan (3), Bataan (3), Nueva Ecija (1), Iloilo Province (1), Iloilo City (1), Baguio (1), Cagayan de Oro (1), Cotabato (1), Surigao del Norte (1) and the remaining were for validation.
Testing Capacity
As of May 22, 2020, a total of 287,294 tests have been done among 265,061 individuals with 20,264 testing positive (7.6% positivity rate). There were a total of 9,504 tests done yesterday alone (6% of who were positive). As of yesterday, there are 7,128 samples in the backlog.
Disclaimer: All information provided in the daily reports and updates are based on the Data Drop of the Department of Health website. The accuracy of information is dependent on the information released from the DoH. All other graphs, citations and projections are referenced appropriately. Any change in future data particularly on latency reporting may affect the overall trend cited in this post.
COVID-19 in the Philippines: The explanation
The wave
The pronouncement of the health secretary that we’re in our “second wave” in the pandemic deserves an explanation for why I disagree.
According to reports, the claim is based on the fact that the first infections and death seen in the archipelago was the first wave. To him it may make sense because we came from zero cases. The first three cases and the first death were interpreted by their epidemiologists as the first wave. If that argument were to hold water then every country that has not reported any case at the start has had its first wave already. As a matter of fact, we have overtaken China because Wuhan has not even declared a second wave. Nor has South Korea and Singapore, in spite of the minimal uptick in cases.
Which means that all 212 countries are in their second wave of the infection. A most likely unacceptable argument regarding the understanding of what epidemiological waves of diseases are. But let’s simplify it for clarity.
Figure 1. Temporal dimension of an epidemic
If you look at the above figure, let’s focus on the temporal dimension (time on the X axis). The cases are on the Y axis. The epidemic wave plots cases against time. During an epidemic the number of new cases increases rapidly to a peak then falls gradually till the epidemic is over.
The concept of epidemic wave helps describe the number of people affected by the disease (new confirmed cases) and the possibility that the course of the epidemic may be predictable. The reasons for many disciplines – from biology to mathematics to even economists – to become interested in the subject.
Figure 2. Cases and Deaths
Figure 2 on the left above shows new cases. In red, it shows that the cases rise then gradually tapers off until the epidemic comes to an end with 0 cases. In blue is the cumulative number of cases. Notice that there are two X axes – on the outermost left is the number of new cases while on the outermost right the cumulative number of cases (overall total). As the new cases reach a peak and then begin to decline (in red), the cumulative cases plateau because there are no added cases (in blue).
Every case has an outcome. Either the infection is resolved or results in death. On the right side of Figure 2, you see deaths as the endpoint. The pattern for people dying from the disease is a bit different from the number of cases. Notice this time (in blue) that there are peaks and troughs in between. The swings mean that death is not constant.
Nevertheless, during the whole epidemic, as you see the number of cases decline, there is also a proportional decrease in mortality. When there are no more cases, there are also no more deaths.
Figure 3. Measles epidemics in various countries from 1945-1970
To get a clear understanding of an epidemic wave, Figure 3 above shows how waves from one disease alone – measles as an example – would differ from country to country. Some epidemics may occur annually (like the US) while it is more spaced apart for other countries like Denmark or even Iceland. Epidemic waves occur when public health measures are not properly instituted. Nevertheless, if you look at Figure 3, notice that these so-called “waves” have different peaks. Which means that after one outbreak is controlled, because of ongoing local transmission of the disease, another outbreak is likely to happen but not necessarily of the same magnitude.
Figure 4. Total daily confirmed cases PHILIPPINES
Figure 5. Daily confirmed deaths PHILIPPINES
Figures 4 and 5 show the number of daily confirmed cases and deaths in the Philippines. I am unsure where the basis of the first wave to the declaration of a second wave of infection lies. First of all, we have not even flattened the curve. So I don’t know what wave their epidemiologists are talking about. The number of daily new cases remain above 200 (in fact today we saw another rise above the 7 day average threshold last week of 242). But that cannot be faulted on actual cases reported because in reality, the latency of data is stupendous. Recoveries now take almost 10 days to report, while deaths more than 9 days. There are so many layers of validation that it’s so difficult to make heads or tails of the data. Are we or aren’t we doing better? In spite of the almost 2 1/2 months of community quarantine, we seem to not be gaining much headway in terms of new confirmed cases.
Perhaps the secretary of health should provide a clear explanation on his basis for saying we are actually in the second wave to allay public fears on how and when this second wave appeared. Because if indeed a first wave occurred when three cases occurred with one death way back in the end of January of early February, it goes back to the question – what did the agency do to mitigate this “first wave”? Should there not have been more aggressive measures recommended instead of having to wait for the tsunami that came along in March? And the fault for not having defused the first wave goes back to the agency.
Nevertheless, the good news is that we are actually seeing a slowing down in death rates. As I mentioned, every pandemic will have an endpoint – death or recovery. It is common sense that when there are no more cases, there will be no more deaths due to that infection. In the meantime, I defer to the other epidemiologists to provide an explanation of the so-called “second wave”. Personally, and I may be wrong here, we have not even flattened the curve.
In the interest of transparency, the health agency must reveal how much more backlog information they have and when the surprise reveal will be.
The curve has flattened (?)
Interestingly, an economist attempted at making sense of the data as well. In an article published by Rappler, there are two figures that make this analysis both truthful and disturbing.
The bar graph above shows the daily deaths reported (in blue) and the date they died (red). Which actually is what the reports of the DoH show (not considering that a lot of data is still latent). Hopefully we will not get surprise numbers in the end. And that the number of deaths continue to actually decline.
The second graph shows us data on hospital admissions. The dramatic decline in hospital admission is also a good sign that perhaps we’re not getting sicker patients. Less severe and less critically ill. Which means that the intervention of quarantine, social distancing, hygiene and PPE actually created a large impact on the number of patients requiring hospitalization. The more vulnerable patients stayed home. The general population was less at risk.
But to declare that we have flattened the curve based on these two parameters is not accurate from the medical point of view. The majority of cases we’re seeing now are asymptomatic or mild cases. As long as the number of new confirmed cases are up, there will always be risks to the community at large. Hence, it is disturbing that one cherry picks on data without looking at the over-all picture.
Let’s agree that there are gains being made in the challenging fight against this virus. But let’s have a more uniformed scientific approach by being cautious at what we predict and not be alarmist to a public that is already on the edge of their seats at this pandemic.
Then there’s the confusion on return to work requirements
If the twin confusion above was not enough for the day, there’s a statement from one of the advisers of the president that all the doctors do is to complain. Particularly on the use of the rapid testing kits.
For the record, while it may seem like a complaint to him, for those of us who know what we actually are doing and recommending, the use of rapid testing kits as a requirement for workers to return to work is not scientifically sound and adds up additional expenses to the employer for a tool that may not be at all that useful.
Figure 6. Diagnostic Tests in the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Rapid diagnostic tests are antibody detection tests. Which means that while they may find some use in the latter phase of the infection after a quarantine period, it give you a false sense of complacency when patients get tested during the first 10 days of illness – during the incubation period. Most likely they will test negative EVEN if they have the virus.
To address the issue that all the doctors do is to complain, let me write down what I believe should be a sound recommendation.
1. Nothing works as good as a good triage. In short you need to assign people who will check each and everyone (including the employer) for symptoms before they are allowed to work. This is because more than 80% of transmission of COVID19 are from patients who have symptoms. Always ask returning workers about a history of FEVER and RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS in last 2-3 weeks. If they had a combination of these, test with RT-PCR if you suspect them to have COVID19. Keep them isolated for 2-3 weeks regardless of the RT-PCR result. If they turn out positive, then they need to be cleared based on the protocol of the Department of Health before they are able to return to work. If they test negative and have had no symptoms after being quarantined for the last 2-3 weeks, then they can return to work.
2. I have not encountered any literature or recommendation on the ideal laboratory test to clear workers who have no symptoms for work. If you refer to Figure 6 above, a rapid antibody will be falsely negative in a patient who is incubating with the virus in the early part of the infection. If a patient has been asymptomatic for 2-3 weeks and test (+) IgG and (+) IgM it’s either the patient has had an infection and recovered or may have false positive results.
3. If you do RT-PCR in a patient who doesn’t have symptoms, it may NOT be cost-effective to screen everyone considering the cost of doing RT-PCR. Besides, one negative test does not mean that the patient does not have the virus. After all, even RT-PCR will be negative in 1/3 of patients.
4. Not all the antibody tests are the same. If a company decides on using them to screen their workers who come back to work, make sure that it’s a validated test kit. It does not mean that just because it is registered with the Philippine FDA, it has been validated already. Use kits that have high sensitivity and specificity. While these may be more expensive than some other kits, precision is a price worth paying for.
The takeaway message is that this virus will be with us for quite awhile and yes the economy is hurting. That includes us, the doctors who practice and yet risk our lives to see patients who are sick.
Yet reality and practicality tells me that even if you test once and test negative, you can still get infected tomorrow or anytime in this pandemic. Because it isn’t over yet. And the numbers tell us that we’re nowhere near a flattening of the curve.
While testing has its use and may be part of the solution, it also has its limits. Let us use these tests judiciously at the same time without having to burden employers with additional costs for something that may not have much cost-benefit in the end. Moving forward, really need a paradigm shift in the way we live, work and play.
The Brief
As predicted in the world:
Back home:
Our case fatality rate is lower at 6.37% (we now rank 28 of 163 countries in deaths) compared to the global average of 6.5% and the ASEAN average of 2.43%. Our case recovery rate is also up at 22.2% ( we still rank lower at 134 out of 163 countries) compared to the global average of 39.4% and the ASEAN average of 40.7%.
The site of the Department of Health is down as of this writing so we cannot verify the additional information that they released. Nevertheless, I’m posting what they announced. We had a jump in new confirmed cases up now at 279 with 150 (54%) from the NCR, 14 from Region 7 (5%) and 115 from others (41%).
[After this explanation, we go back to THE BRIEF tomorrow.]
Into the perfect storm
After all, it’s been 45 days since the lockdown.
The anatomy of disappointment are expectations.
The answer is simple. With caution.
Why do we need to be obsessed with data accuracy?
It’s a simple answer.
The second important parameter will always be death.
So why do I feel that we’re into the perfect storm?
June is fast approaching.
Fever. Colds. Chills. Cough.
Dengue. Measles. Seasonal Flu…to name a few.
Hence the urgency in getting out of this pandemic really quick.
The story that numbers tell
Let’s look at the numbers again.
Finally, there’s the interpretation of the data.
Cumulative is the operative word in the presentation of data.
Life after April 30…
Figure 1
Table 2
But I can teach my readers how to interpret the data.
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Easing it will be the way to go.
We should not overlook one other fact.
The extension
He didn’t mince words.
Hindi ko alam kung kailan ako makapaghatid ng pagkain sa lahat.
Hindi ko alam saan ako magkuha ng pera.
The live telecast surely didn’t sit well with the audience.
The objective for extending it till the end of the month?
What do we do on April 30, 2020?
Exit strategies
It’s almost 3 weeks since the lockdown in Luzon.
So my readers asked me one good question.
Will (or should) the lockdown be extended?
So here we go.
The answer is YES.
Figure 1
Figure 2
What works?
Plan B
We have only two scenarios as we approach the April 12 deadline of the Luzon Lockdown period.
It either gets extended a few weeks more or it gets lifted.
Either way, the bottom line is not only the human toll this pandemic is causing but the economic toll as well.
COVID-19 has changed the paradigm of what is the “new normal”. The millennials and the more recent “alphabet” Generations have never seen anything like this. Neither have we.
Two scenarios will play out as we go towards the end of the second week of being “locked down”.
Let’s be realistic. The number of new cases (and sadly new deaths) WILL NOT go down overnight. Or soon, for that matter. So let’s keep our expectations real. Locking down everyone for the next month will not make the statistics decline NOW. Remember, it took China in general and Hubei in particular almost 3 months to bring their numbers to where it is today. But they had a different model. And isolating Wuhan from the rest of China and the rest of the world took an economic toll on the country. But China will always be China. They are, after all, an economic powerhouse. They can build a hospital dedicated to managing SARS or COVID-19 in a matter of 10 days.
Keeping it real, the Philippines will always be the Philippines. The eternal beggar for donations. Let me call a spade a spade. We recognized this problem early in January. There was one death in three cases. From a foreigner who traveled from Wuhan, China to the Philippines via Cebu into Dumaguete and finally into Manila. He later passed away in a government hospital. That alone should have served as a red flag.
How we even got from that point to where we are today is a different story altogether. But the answer partially lies in what President Duterte said – The Kit is the Kit.
The 4-week lockdown will hopefully slowly bring the number of positive cases down in the remaining 2 weeks. By “containing” everyone and presuming everyone is positive for the infection or are potential carriers (note: asymptomatic), we make the viral “infection” run its normal course. People within the same household who probably have mild to no infection will recover on their own. If enforced properly, this will curtail ongoing community transmission. Those that progress to being critically ill are then hospitalized, isolated and hopefully, recover with minimal sequelae.
The numbers should gradually slow down. The “curve” will flatten. The limited healthcare resources will not be usurped. And perhaps in another two months, life will breath new air.
Then again, the success of a lockdown is a hypothetical presumption. It may work best for highly disciplined countries. Those with very few informal settlers. Those with better healthcare resources. And those with best economies because they have the means to feed and fend for its people. Like a zombie movie out of Netflix, the gated communities will probably be the last or least affected because they have the most resources.
How long do we lockdown and what are our grounds for endpoints? The anatomy of disappointment are expectations. As we near the date, are we seeing what we want to see? Why or why not? Should we extend the lockdown? If we do, how long do we extend?
Metro Manila is a highly dense city. We have more people here than Wuhan alone. More than 15% of people in the Philippines residing in Metro Manila. While there are many gated communities in the metro, they comprise only 1/3 of the population. Majority are informal settlers. How to quarantine a family of 10 that live in a 15 square meter area or a community whose homes are a thin plywood board apart with access alleys measuring 1 meter in width is a virtual nightmare.
So, yes. We need to get out of this lockdown in the next few weeks. Extending it is an option but a calculated risk on the economy of a third world nation like ours. As the poor would say, they will not die of Coronavirus but of hunger. We cannot keep giving them dole outs. Micro, small and medium enterprises will eventually crumble, with the smallest losing the most and most likely will be unable to recover at all. People will lose their jobs as these owners will need time to recuperate losses. Half of them will not be able to bounce back. The remaining half will struggle against the tide. There will be massive lay offs. Riots, violence, looting, unrest are worse case scenarios.
Is the lockdown the only solution?
No. And we need to get out of this rut quickly while taking into account the lessons learned from how other countries are managing their own crisis.
That’s why we need a plan B. This government should learn to shift gears now by appointing experts who understand crisis management and not rely on amateurs who only have political clout as the qualification for being appointed into public office. Sadly, some Filipino politicians use any form of crisis or disaster to be able to tap into government funds for their personal gain. Greed, power, and ambition are well entrenched in the DNA of corrupt politicians who run for public office because to them, it is a business enterprise. For a country like ours, it is a family affair.
As the various cities and provinces move into lockdown mode, the longer the time to relief, the more the economy will take the brunt of the pandemic. It has hurt more affluent nations already. Imagine the impact it will create in a small country like ours whose financial reserves are being depleted to sustain the fledgling business sector and the jobless.
The cash assistance program of the government IS THE WRONG solution to the current crisis. It is not a sustainable solution. The small patches being addressed include giving cash assistance to the informal settlers and those unemployed due to the crisis. Which I personally think is a bad idea. This is a problem that will last into Plan B. Which means that the government will need to sustain the micro, small and medium enterprises in a time of difficulty. They will need to give up more than just dole outs to the poor. The question is, are they willing to?
This would mean not collecting taxes, SSS, Pag-Ibig, Philhealth, GSIS and other contributions for an agreed period of time. This would also mean that losses can be claimed against taxes. Loan reprieve should not be voluntary but mandatory. All banks and other lending agencies should be mandated to require those who have existing loans if they wish to restructure their loans to lower rates. It is unfair that current lending rates have been lowered but not adjusted for those whose loans are locked in at a fixed rate at a time when they borrowed money from them. Those who are willing to hold off payment for say, 3 months, should be allowed to do so in order to recoup the financial losses of this lockdown. Local governments should be mandated to provide a reprieve to local businesses as well. Rebates in business permits can be given. For example, for those that pay quarterly instead of annually, the second quarter payments should be waived. While the business permit may be based on the gross income of the company in the year before, it should be able to assist the local business sector these unexpected extraordinary losses. In addition, it should be fair in next year’s assessment when paying for a mayors permit. (I am sure everyone knows that the LGUs turn a blind eye when it comes to the business permits. They will not believe the income tax statements you declare and insist their own computations.) Reprieve from rental of business establishments where the offices or stalls or stores in malls should be granted as per duration of the lockdown. In short, greed must be tempered from all sectors.
Sustaining the smaller and medium enterprises is essential. The aftermath of the pandemic will impact not only on health and lives of everyone but on the economic repercussions of the lockdowns. Let us face it, at the end of the day, it is those who have the least in life that suffer the most. If these small and medium enterprises close, there will no jobs to go back to. And everyone loses.
There are two models that can be used. The China experience (total lockdown) or the South Korea experience (no lockdown at all). The people in the government can integrate the experience of both countries and perhaps create a hybrid one for the Philippines. Using either of models (China or South Korea) ALONE will not work because our economic structure is fragile and poor.
The New York Times published an interesting article on “How South Korea Flattened the Curve” In a nutshell, Fisher and Sang-Hun point out the strategies on how to contain the coronavirus without shutting down the economy. The downside? It may not work abroad.
The article points that the lessons, “while hardly easy, appear relatively straightforward and affordable: swift action, widespread testing and contact tracing, and critical support from citizens.” The four lessons are:
Lesson 1: Intervene Fast, Before It’s a Crisis
We were there in the beginning of this war. Three cases all foreigners. One death among them. Then we were stumped. Too few testing kits were at our disposal. Even up to today, we’re stuck with the bureaucratic red tape and the parasites and opportunists who take advantage of their positions in government to overtake the queue or by-pass the algorithm on who we prioritize for testing.
We intervened ahead of the world. Our major mistake was the mixed messages being sent by various agencies. Basic epidemiology would have taught us that if there was 1 death in 3 cases, the overall case fatality rate is 33% for the country. A number far too high from the average case fatality rate of 4-5%. Which means we were not picking up the real numbers. To have one casualty from the virus, you needed to find at least 25 cases.
But the virus has arrived. And the traditional response may not be the solution here.
Lesson 2: Test Early, Often and Safely
Culled data as of March 20 shows how far behind we are when it comes to testing. As the kits came in last week, the numbers began to swell. Everyone wanted to get tested. Understanding testing is vital in the decision on whether we test those at risk, those exposed, those at highest risk and/or test everyone?
But should we test everyone?
No. That would be a waste of resources. And may provide a false sense of security.
Like any laboratory test – reliability and accuracy is crucial. The tests should be be done in a safe place by well trained people who pass accredited and quality standards. In a nutshell, the validity of a testing kit will need to get verified. Results can vary between 30-60% accuracy. Other reports include 10-30% pick up rate depending on what you use. And are dependent on the timing, how the specimen was obtained and transferred, the severity of illness, the viral load and of course the way the specimen is run in the laboratory. These factors alone will make testing in a country with 7,641 islands a strategic impossibility.
The model used in Korea is opening more testing centers. The question is – do we have enough testing centers that fulfill the requirements for biosafety in handling specimens for these tests – in the country? The answer is a NO. Even if we beef up capacity, it will take months before we can have enough accredited laboratories for testing along.
To show you the model of South Korea, here is what they did:
This is most unlikely easy to put up in the Philippines. Hygiene, the very basic tenet of infectious disease is difficult to enforce in a community that lacks water, basic toilet facilities, and garbage disposal. Ignorance is also important to manage, doctors included.
What can we do realizing these limitations?
After the curve sees some flattening (which won’t be anytime tomorrow), mitigating the spread is vital. The key is to do testing on EVERY SUSPECTED CASE (not on everyone). This way we can conserve resources. All patients who are positive, regardless of severity of symptoms should be admitted to a designated COVID facility. Since schools have been closed, public or private schools can be used as COVID facilities for those that DO NOT have severe symptoms that will require hospital care. Food, water, and isolation is all that is needed. Making them stay AT HOME in the community will place more people at risk. Knowing the Filipino mentality and culture, home quarantine will not work.
Lesson 3: Contact Tracing, Isolation, and Surveillance
The Department of Health through their Epidemiology Bureau does a lot of contact tracing. The challenge is the patient. Some (if not many) of whom are afraid to reveal they have come in contact with patients for fear of being positive for the virus and the idea of being isolated. In short, people must be willing to lose a part of their privacy as a necessary trade-off for the good of the community.
Here is the model used in South Korea:
For all the technological wizardry of this nation, and how socially connected Filipinos are with their gadgets and other platforms, creating an app similar to this is a walk in the park. Two large telcos – Globe and Smart – should be mandated to work with the government in providing free data to those who will eventually need to use this app during self-quarantine.
Lesson 4: Enlist the Public’s Help
And this is where it gets a bit tricky.
Our bayanihan spirit defines us as Filipino race. But sadly that same spirit isn’t a consistent one. When people do things in order to be recognized as heroes in the end, we all end up as losers. Finding recognition at the heart of an outbreak of this proportion is not a solution. It is a problem. While government needs to listen to suggestions from private sectors, the private sectors should be able to sit down and work with the government on various matters. For example, certain corporations can help at procurement of PPEs and face masks (eg. banks and other lending institutions), while others focus on their special fields (telecommunications, food manufacturing, etc). We don’t ALL have to donate food. Equipments, health facilities, testing kits, disinfectants, etc are at the core of lacking in support. Let’s segregate it. And it would be fantastic if we had only ONE keeper of funds for the private sector donations that would turn it over and do accounting with ONE recipient of funds from the government sector (perhaps the Department of Finance). This way, accountability is transparent.
Either way, the virus will disappear slowly.
Will it ever go away?
Scientifically speaking – No.
At best, after the dust has settled, we will understand how to recognize early this disease, manage the infection and hopefully find a treatment, and discover a vaccine.
The next two weeks will be crucial. It will be a defining moment on whether we proceed to doing mop up operations after the war or prolong the war. This invisible enemy in our midst is so far winning the war. A measly virus that has claimed lives, disrupted economies, changed the normal way we live and breath and engage with families and friends has the upper hand now because we hid under the rug the red flag two months ago when a foreigner died of COVID19 in our country.
The perpetual beggar stance of our nation is disappointing. We have billions to spend on intelligence resources, private planes and foreign travel and yet we wait for donations for – THE KIT.
The next two weeks is crucial. We either have plan B or the virus continues to decimate us medically and economically.
This government can have its most defining moment now or be the ultimate lackey because no one will ever forget this pandemic that will forever be etched in the history of science and economics. Ever.
Social distancing and lockdowns: Will it work?
Yes. But with a price to pay.
Life in the metro, and in most parts of the world, has drastically changed in the past few days. As more new cases of the novel coronavirus are being reported, some people seem to be losing it. Literally, jumping the gun and going gaga over the additional cases that are being reported.
Epidemiologist, Adam Kucharski in his book “The Rules of Contagion: Why Things Spread and Why They Stop” proposes an interesting perspective on this topic during this lockdown period.
Flattening the curve: What does it mean?
Li, Pei, et al. in Science (16 March 2020) published an article analyzing the prevalence and contagiousness of UNDOCUMENTED novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV2) infections is “critical for understanding the overall prevalence and pandemic potential of this disease.” That publication (which serves as an interesting read) estimated that 86% of all infections were undocumented before travel restrictions were imposed in China on January 23, 2020. “Per person, the transmission rate of undocumented infections was 55% of documented infection, yet due to their greater numbers, undocumented infections were the infection source for 79% of documented cases. These findings explain the rapid geographic spreads of SARS-CoV2 and indicate containment of this virus will be particularly challenging.”
The study indicated that multiple factors including: identical and isolation of undocumented infections, awareness among health care providers, availability of viral identification assays, use of face masks, restricted travel, delayed school reopening and isolation of suspected persons can potentially slow the spread of the disease. Combination measures increase the reporting rates, reduce the proportion of undocumented infections and decrease the growth and spread of infection.
The lessons learned from the outbreak of the novel Coronavirus in Wuhan is a bitter pill to swallow for the global community. Experts in epidemiology talk about “flattening the curve” in order to primarily slow down the acceleration of number of cases. By slowing down the case rates, the burden and demands on various resources of the healthcare system is indirectly addressed.
Without intervention during a pandemic outbreak, the number of cases continue to rise, significantly overwhelming the healthcare system. Temporary intervention measures include lockdowns, quarantines, isolation and social distancing. It reduces the peak number of cases thereby reducing the number of overall cases. A disease declared as a pandemic will take years to eradicate. The discovery of vaccines may provide the long-term solution but it is not something that will occur overnight.
A pandemic will take time to naturally “flatten” on its own. Because of the initial overwhelming burden on scarce resources of healthcare (especially in third world countries), the death toll will be much higher. Those at the forefront are primarily affected. If there are less healthcare workers to tend to more sick people, the mortality and morbidity rate increases. If there are more sick people that will need hospital beds and ventilators because of more severe COVID-19 infection, the already limited resources are usurped more quickly. Scales of outcomes then become dependent on financial capacity for better and more aggressive care.
In epidemiology, the idea of slowing a virus’ spread so that fewer people need to seek treatment at any given time is known as “flattening the curve”. It explains why so many countries are implementing “social distancing” guidelines.
Brandon Specktor, Coronavirus: What is ‘flattening the curve,’ and will it work?, LiveScience, March 17, 2020
The broken lines represent the health care capacity of a country.
In the above graph, as the number of people disproportionately increase and no precautions are placed, the health care capacity is exceeded, exhausted and fails. In order to maximize (not overwhelm) the health care capacity, there is a need to slow down the infection rate. Flattening the curve assumes that the same number of people ultimately get infected, but over a longer period of time.
Does it work?
In 1918, a global pandemic of Spanish flu was seen. Compare two U.S. cities – Philadelphia and St. Louis. Infectious disease experts warned of the flu spreading in communities. The reaction of both communities was different. A massive parade went as scheduled in Philadelphia, gathering hundreds of thousands of people together. In 2-3 days, thousands of people in the Philadelphia region started to die. At the end of six month, 16,000 deaths were recorded. In St. Louis on the other hand, the city officials implemented social isolation methods – schools were closed, travel was limited, personal hygiene and social distancing was encouraged. At the end of six months, 2,000 deaths were recorded – 1/8 the number in Philadelphia.
How long is this going to last?
That’s the question that’s begging for an answer.
Unlike 1918, we’re living in a different era. More than a century later, our tools at combatting infectious diseases are more rapid, accurate, and precise. But even cutting edge technology and digital advancement won’t solve this problem overnight. One avenue science has not caught up with is a contagion unknown by all. When the enemy is new, the learning curve is steep. Which means that it will take in casualties before we know how to deal with it.
This will not go away anytime soon. With appropriate mitigation measures – both medium- and long-term – we will be able to suppress this. We need to bring the number of reported cases down using ancient aggressive epidemiological tools – social distancing, quarantine, lockdown of high risk communities, and testing patients. Belligerent testing, case finding, contract tracing are vital to keep the cases declining. When the dust finally settles, the government should put into place an overlapping long-term plan on how to keep the numbers down. For example: (1) all people who travel should have mandatory quarantine of a minimum of 14 days upon arrival. (2) Everyone who comes in contact with a COVID-19 positive patient, should undergo testing, monitoring and self-quarantine regardless of test status (if any). (3) Social distancing should be norm for the next few month until this blows off. (4) Schools may need to get cancelled for the rest of the school year. (5) Vaccine-preventable diseases should be mandatory for all so that we are not taken aback when another outbreak (preventable at that) surprises us in the future. (6) Honesty is a direly lacking trait among Filipinos. For more personal reasons for that matter. (7) Sale and events that will entice a crowded group should be canceled up to the year end. But these are just examples and I am sure people will get upset to some degree.
Eradication is another story altogether.
Someone asked me if this will ever go away. The answer is no. I don’t think so. One strategy to making this vanish is to develop a vaccine at best. But like any new drug, this isn’t like some Avenger movie where a vaccine is developed in a couple of hours, needle plunged into the arm, and presto – we’re immune! This will take quite awhile because whatever is developed out there needs to get tested for safety and efficacy. How long will it protect you? Do you need added doses? What’s the immune response to the vaccine? What are the short and long-term side effects? We all want to be guinea pigs during a crisis.
Let me end this by saying that it’s okay to be disappointed with what’s happening. Sadly, we still have a lot to learn about this virus. And how it will play out. The worst will spare many of us. But only resilience will make us survive this pandemic. Yup. The pandemic will end. As it did with the Spanish Flu of 1918, it ended in 1920. With the novel coronavirus, “what we don’t yet know is when.”
Life in the time of Coronavirus pandemic
Lockdown. Quarantine. Isolation. Containment.
These are words that are unheard of in the last century in democratic countries.
In the context of a health setting, these words were last used in a flu pandemic in 1918. More than a century ago.
A hundred years later, who would have ever imagined that another pandemic would arise? Yet it did. The virus is called SARS-COV-2. The disease – COVID-19.
The New York Times 3.16.2020
The evolution of digital technology, social media and the internet has undoubtedly changed the way we live in the 21st century. Everything is now readily accessed by our fingertips. Mobile devices and other accessory gadgets have created wonders at how staying connected we can still be in spite this health crisis we’re experiencing. All these have cemented the fact that human beings are social creatures. It has become our core DNA.
However, when social distancing becomes the rule, our norms are perturbed. Daily habits get changed. Schools are closed. Mobility is restricted. Travel bans and vacations are at a standstill. Work is muddled. Deadlines and targets affected. Economies are tested. Finances are disrupted. Those that have the least in life, end up suffering the most.
Life is at pause mode.
In societies where life plays out on the street or in the cafe, where friends are greeted with kisses on the cheeks, the outbreak is creating fear and fragmentation.
Steven Erlanger, The New York Times, 3.16.2020
While the novel coronavirus gains steam outside of China and at a pace much faster than its spread in Wuhan, the doubling rates in the rest of the world has become a major concern.
In the above table it shows that aggressive testing is proportional to the doubling rate. The more aggressive we test on a broader scale, the longer the period to doubling time. Below is the Philippines data.
That doubling time is why we react the way we do now. The number of deaths has disproportionally risen. In one of my blog posts, there’s a daily track on the status of the pandemic. The stance of the World Health Organization at the beginning of this COVID-19 outbreak was a feeble one. That’s how we got to where we are today. The reactionary attitude of individual nations is rationalized. Albeit a bit late, they’re doing all they can to bring this pandemic to its knees.
So I’m writing this blog on a day off from the hospital because I am heeding the call of the government – stay home, stay safe.
Yet I cannot help but think about the other people outside my gated community. 90% of those that own businesses in Metro Manila are micro enterprises (not even small or medium). They invest their hard earned money in tiny businesses inside malls. With the shut down of malls or other places of business, they have nothing at all. Suffering an economic loss is an understatement. 80% of employees depend on the flailing public transportation system of the metro. No matter how difficult life is, how far they live, they will trek to their place of work because they have mouths to feed and bills to pay. The disruption in daily life is most lamentable among those who have the least in life. And so yeah, I’m not all rah-rah about the total expanded community quarantine, a.k.a, lockdown. That’s because the government forgot to think about the larger group of people affected by this lockdown. And when you have government officials who tell you to just shut up and shove it, well that’s the kind of empathy you get from people who have water for brains. We silently concurred with government people who were out-of-touch with reality because we have the means to sit back, relax and watch how this eventually evolves.
Then there are my colleagues who are at the forefront of the battle against this pandemic continue to tend to patients who flock to the Emergency Room demanding for tests because of paranoia or probably real COVID-19 illness. And those of us who still get up in the day and see sick and well patients because we are morally and ethically bound by the responsibility of our profession. The whole health force at risk, tired, undermanned and yet end up unappreciated by others who have nothing better to say or do because all they care about are their personal bravados.
I would least care for the generation that thrives on bars, crowds and parties. Upending the lives of these social animals have no bearing at all on how this pandemic is addressed. If they take a reality check, they will realize that when the dust settles, unlike the 80% of the lower socioeconomic working class, they will be back to their spoiled, privileged daily lives sipping designer coffees and hanging out at bars or other forms of reckless or blissful living. Their whining is annoying. Someone should slap them to reality.
Finally, there are the opportunists who take advantage of the gullible and/or the vulnerable. Those heartless businessmen who hoard medical supplies and sell them at extravagant prices, or peddle equipments, tools, medicines, medical devices that have no scientific value or at best useless for diagnosing or treating COVID-19 should be punished for economic sabotage. Sadly, some of them have direct connections with government officials who are accomplices to criminal acts of deception. The vermins who take advantage of a crisis for personal economic gain and thrive on disasters for financial remuneration will have their comeuppance.
Growing up in the metro, I remember seeing only deserted streets during the Holy Week, especially Good Friday. That’s the best day of the year for me. When the daily rush of work is placed to a one day pause, it’s a wonderful feeling to breath for a day. The past few days has been a quiet one. One of solitude and peace. It has allowed me (and hopefully all of us) to reflect on life at a time of a pandemic.
As each day evolves, we get to see the good in humanity. Those selfless people who give more of themselves than you would expect. The extraordinary heroes during unprecedented times. Those who think out of the box in order to share our Filipino bayanihan spirit. Not having to think about what we can do about ourselves, but sharing whatever we can and have because we care more about our neighbors. Symbolically, the season of lent did not come at a better time to symbolize the strength, resiliency and sacrifice during this time of crisis.
Then there are the wolves. I am lost for words at describing the decrepit people who walk among us. They will forever be a symbol of evil lurking among good. They will remind us that the battle of the novel coronavirus is not between science and the virus, but a representation of the fight between good and evil. The struggle is real but that should remind us that in both good and bad times, we will survive this.
Sit back. Breath. Appreciate your family and friends. Enjoy the new found freedom from the humdrum of work. Go for a walk. Listen to music. Finish a book. Binge on Netflix. Break up with your boyfriend or girlfriend. Connect with yourself and sit down and contemplate on the life you’ve really wanted.
There are a million things you can do. And should do. Those things and tasks you’ve sidelined can be addressed now.
Perhaps the coronavirus outbreak is a gentle reminder to us that life will show its beautiful side in the midst of being ugly. That life is fleeting. That life is a gift and should be celebrated. Everything else that happens around us is just a bonus or noise.
Stay safe. Stay home. Good luck!
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The Lost Mandan War Party
This is another in a series of blogs that highlight battles where the Indians won. In this case, the battle was fought Native against Native. Few know what happened that day.
The Setup
The published journals (1834-1839) of trader Francis A. Chardon, an employee of the American Fur Company at Fort Clark, just off US Route 90 near Brackettville in southwest Texas, chronicled the repeated hit-and-run raids of the Lakota Sioux against Mandan (Miiti Naamni) and Hidatsa (Awadi Aguraawi) Indians. Traditionally, both tribes occupied territory following the Missouri River basin extending from present day North Dakota through western Montana and Wyoming.
The Combatants
The Mandan
The Mandan, were Plains Indians who traditionally lived in semipermanent villages along the Missouri River in what is now North Dakota. They spoke a Siouan language.
Mandan Village by George Catlin
As an aside, 18th-century reports about characteristics of Mandan lodges, religion and occasional physical features among tribal members, such as blue and grey eyes along with lighter hair coloring, stirred speculation about the possibility of pre-Columbian European contact. The artist George Catlin believed the Mandan were the “Welsh Indians” of folklore, descendants of Prince Madoc and his followers who emigrated to America from Wales in about 1170. This view was popular at the time but most historians now disagree.
In the 19th century the Mandan lived in dome-shaped earth lodges clustered in stockaded villages; their economy centered on raising corn (maize), beans, pumpkins, sunflowers, tobacco and on hunting buffalo, fishing, and trading with nomadic Plains tribes. The Mandan also made a variety of utilitarian and decorative items, including pottery, baskets, and painted buffalo robes depicting the heroic deeds of the tribe or of individuals. At this time Mandan culture was one of the richest of the Plains; the tribe hosted many prominent European and American travelers, including American explorers Lewis and Clark, Prussian scientist Prince Maximillian, and artists Karl Bodmer and George Catlin.
Mandan Braves by Karl Bodmer
Traditional Mandan villages consisted of twelve to 100 or more earth lodges. Each village generally had three chiefs: one for war, one for peace, and one as the day-to-day village leader.
The Hidatsa
The Hidatsa originally lived in the Devil’s Lake region of North Dakota, before being pushed southwestward by the Lakota. As they migrated west, the Hidatsa came across the Mandan at the mouth of the Heart River. The two groups formed an alliance and settled into an agreeable division of territory along the area’s rivers.
Hidatsa Dog Soldier by Karl Bodmer
The Hidatsa played a central role in the Great Plains Indian trading networks based on an advantageous geographical position combined with a surplus from agriculture and crafts.
In 1800, a group of Hidatsa abducted Sacagawea in a battle against the Shoshone. She was taken as a captive to a Hidatsa village near present-day Washburn, North Dakota. In 1804, Lewis and Clark came to the Hidatsa in their three villages at the mouth of the Knife River, and the Mandan in two villages two miles down on the Missouri River. Sacagawea was hired as a guide by Lewis and Clark and on several occasions saved the expedition from ruin.
The Lakota (Sioux)
In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Lakota Sioux lived in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and the Dakotas, then moved to the upper Missouri River about the time the horse was reintroduced to the Great Plains, in this case about 1730.
From then on, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. However, the large and powerful Mandan, and Hidatsa villages (along with the allied Arikara) prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri to buffalo hunting grounds.
Lakota Sioux War Party
Tit for Tat
By 1750, the tribe grew to become the principle military power of the Northern Plains. For that reason, the Lakota had made it a policy to drive out the Mandan and Hidatsa from their homelands in a long-term effort to eliminate competition for food and trade by all neighboring tribes and to gain control of the upper Missouri River. Hit-and-run raids were frequent and brutal to the point the Mandan and the Hidatsa rarely left their fortified mud-domed homes to hunt or to tend their crops.
In 1790, a Lakota attack on the village of Big Hidatsa, near today’s Stanton, North Dakota, went wrong. The Hidatsa killed 100 or more retreating Sioux in a counterattack. Hostilities continued as the Lakota grew in influence and population. Over a five-year period, Chardon’s journal reports nearly seventy Mandan and Hidatsa were killed in Lakota raids. Mandan war parties struck back and destroyed fifty teepees in the winter of 1835 – 36. In response, Lakota depredations increased until, under pressure of a virtual siege, the Mandan and Hidatsa struck again.
Payback Backfires
Chief Wounded Face led a combined party of twenty-eight composed of Mandan and Hidatsa braves out to the Great Plains in search of retribution, in late May 1836.
Most of the evidence concerning the fate of the war party is second-hand, but from existing documents written by persons who knew Sioux participants, we can get an idea of what happened.
On 31 May 1836, Mandan braves, accompanied by some Hidatsa warriors, left their homes near present-day Stanton, southeastern North Dakota, and travelled nearly 240 miles northwesterly. In June, they met a war party of an unknown number of Lakota Sioux led by Chief Wa-Na-Tah (Waneta) at the elbow of the Sheyenne River, near what is now Lisbon in central North Dakota.
The Sheyenne River is a slow-moving tributary of the Red River of the North. The area around the hook of the river where the battle took place is relatively flat. Here ambush would have been unlikely due to the long distance lines of sight, so let’s assume a full-on frontal battle. Chances are good that day in May was sunny and temperature was in the high seventies with a slight wind.
Without witnesses and little documentation, one can only imagine how the fight went down. Maybe it played out something like this:
The Fight
Indians were protective of their hunting grounds, so Lakota scouts hiding in the spare North Dakota grass lands most likely spotted the Mandan war party in their territory. They sent word back to the main camp and the Lakota warriors grabbed their clubs and bows and mounted up. Some of them may have taken time to paint their faces and war horses. The Sioux favored quick hits in broad daylight. They also favored overwhelming force and probably sent a number of much greater size than the 28-man Mandan/Hidatsa force.
Indian Fight by C. M. Russell
Lakota Chief Wa-Na-Tah had briefed his braves on the ultimate goals of the coming conflict and a general idea of what to do, but once his men hit the field, it was every warrior for himself. Wa-Na-Tah’s second concern would have been to limit casualties of his own men. The low number of Lakota lost is testimony to this. At the same time, there was no shame in retreating to fight another day. The only shame for a Lakota was in surrender.
Warriors rode into battle on their best ponies motivated by the chance to earn bragging rights, feathers, praise, horses, and captives. The ultimate act of bravery was to get close enough to touch an enemy with a coup stick without being harmed. A warrior’s status mattered, and competition to count the greatest coup was intense. Touching the first enemy to die in battle also counted as coup.
Imagine that the Lakota charged the Mandan at first sight. There were no preliminary warnings, just a hoard of horses trained for battle with legs stretched to the limit on a dead run. Understand that decades of war had embedded in each brave a burning hatred that resounded in high-pitched ululations amplified by the pounding of hoofs. Picture the feathered bonnets laid back from the wind across the running horses. Envision the hail storm of arrows from the mounted archers. Visualize the weapons of war held high: antler clubs, stone axes, and flint knives. Every warrior intended to obliterate everything in his path.
The Mandan, for their part, charged as soon as they saw the Lakota. Imagine the fear and resignation of the men when they realized they faced a much larger force. Still, they closed at the run. The screams of horses and the bellows of combatants accompanied the collision of animals and men. No warrior would run away, that day.
Native warfare was absolute. The role of the warrior was to fight. The role of the enemy was to die. Dismounted, Lakota used clubs to smash skulls, axes to sever arms, knives to slit throats. Shrieks of the dying mingled with the triumphant shouts of the coup takers. The fighting continued until there was no one left to die.
All Mandan and Hidatsa braves were killed and scalped. The bodies of the Manda and Hidatsa were abandoned where they died, the defeated unworthy of burial. Nine dead Lakota were taken home for the mourning ceremony and burial above ground on scaffolds.
Chief Wa-Na-tah (Waneta)
Weeks after the battle, Wa-Na-Tah bragged that all twenty-eight scalps were suspended in Sioux camps. Rumors spread that two Mandan escaped from the slaughter, but those men, if they existed at all, were never seen again. (One Lakota brave, in love with a Mandan girl, fought alongside the Mandan. The Sioux did not scalp his corpse out of deference to their own, but they did not take his body home.)
By July 20, in an era where news travelled slowly, the Mandan war party was reported missing and given up for dead after sixty days absent. On September 13, news via a trader confirmed that the war party was lost with all dead. A ceremony was held. Mourners showed their grief by wailing and cutting themselves.
The loss of twenty-eight men was a disaster for the Mandan who were to suffer an even greater loss through repeated small pox epidemics. The last was the worst.
A year later, on June 18, 1837, the steamboat St. Peters approached Fort Clark. In addition to supplies, the sternwheeler brought the two-year-old son of Fort Clark’s superintendent, Francis Chardon. Chardon met the boat some 30 miles downstream and removed his son from the boat after hearing that people on the boat were infected with smallpox.
When the steamboat landed at Fort Clark, people came and went from the boat to the fort and the villages. Workers from the boat and the post unloaded goods and loaded bales of furs. All of the activity took place in less than 24 hours amid singing, dancing, and celebration.
There were approximately 1,600 Mandan living in two villages at that time. The disease killed 90% of the Mandan people including Chief Four Bears. Estimates of the number of survivors vary between 27 to 150 persons.
Chief Four Bears by George Catlin
The survivors banded together with the surviving Hidatsa in 1845 and moved upriver, where they established Like-a-Fishhook Village next to Fort Berthold in North Dakota. Today, the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Nation, also known as the Three Affiliated Tribes, are located on the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in central North Dakota near New Town.
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All Six Rounded Up
'The Taming of the Shrew' is one of the books that were written by William Shakespeare, the famous English literature writer. There are different characters that were created by Shakespeare in this book that make up the book and help to develop the overall theme that is found in this book. To understand these characters better, this essay will analyze their nature by putting them in pairs and then comparing them to each other. Following this point, Vincentio will be compared to Baptista, Bianca to Katherina, and Petruchio to Kathrine. The main focus of this comparison will be on the conflict that arose between and among them because of their personal characters.Character Pair: Bianca and KatherinaTo begin with, Bianca and Katherina are sisters or rather daughters of Baptista. Katherina is older than Bianca and the two grew up with two different characters. In line with this, their father Baptista favors Bianca who is younger. Therefore, when suitors propose to marry Bianca, her father, who is stooped in traditions argues that the younger sister cannot in any way get married before the elder sister is married. As a result of this, one of Bianca's suitors convinces his friend to propose to Katherina (Shakespeare 38).There are various conflicts that emerge as this book develops its theme between the two sisters. First, the tradition in which this society is set in does not allow the younger sister to get married before the older one. Therefore, this creates a conflict of interest in the sense that marriage accomplishments of Bianca depended on Katherina being marriage (Shakespeare 24). Similarly, there is a conflict between their characters. Bianca, who is more favored her father has a mild character whereas her sister Katherina is rude, sharp-tongued and foul-tampered at the beginning of the play. In addition, when this play approaches to an end, their characters are reversed, with Bianca being rude and disrespectful whereas Katherina had been tamed by her husband and therefore was more respectful and mild in character.Vincentio and Baptista
Vincentio is a wealthy character that is introduced in this play at the end of the play. He is the father of Lucentio, a young man who was studying in a high class University in Padua. However, during the course of his studies, Lucentio is diverged from the core course of his studies by a beautiful woman named Bianca. He disguises himself as a tutor and wins her hand in marriage. On the other hand, Baptista is the father of Bianca, a lovely woman that was loved by Vincentio's son. In line with this, Vincentio and Baptista are related in the sense that their children, Vincentio's Lucentio and Baptista's Bianca were in love and wanted to marry each other (Shakespeare 118). However, there is a conflict between these two characters that emerges at the end of the play. First, when Vincentio comes to visit his son Lucentio, he believes that his son is dead when he finds Tranio impersonating him. On further inquiry, Vincentio discovers that he has also been impersonated and his son has been allowed to marry Bianca. This raises a conflict between Baptista and Vincentio on the legality of the marriage of his son Lucentio to Bianca and how Baptista allowed Vincentio to be impersonated. However, as the play draws to an end, Vincentio and Baptista are able to solve their conflicts and end up celebrate the marriage of their children together (Shakespeare 163).Petruchio and Katherina
The relationship between Petruchio and Katherina is based on the fact that Petruchio is Katherina's who finally married her. When it is realized that Bianca cannot be given in marriage to Hortensio, he convinces his friend Petruchio to woo and marry Katherina. In this regard, whereas Petruchio ends up marrying Katherina, the origin idea on this marriage emanated from the fact that he was helping his friend Hortensio to get Bianca as a wife. In the same way, marrying Katherina gave Petruchio an opportunity to get her an enormous amount of dowry (Shakespeare 180). This however matures into a serious marriage, whereby Petruchio marries Katherina.Despite the fact that Petruchio loved and married Katherina at the end, he became a madman in order to tame her. This conflict between Petruchio and Katherina creates a hostile environment which resulted in Katherina being starved, given poor clothes and mistreated as a way of taming her hostile, proud, foul-tempered and sharp-tongued character (Shakespeare 95). In actual sense, the cruelty that is exposed by Petruchio was not part of his character but simply a means of taming Katherina.The relationship between Bianca and Katherina emanated from the fact that these were blood sister who had been begotten to Baptista. Katherina was the eldest whereas Bianca was the younger one. 'For I have firmly am resolv'd you know; that is, not to bestow my youngest daughter before I have a husband for the elder' (Shakespeare 24). In this society, marriage traditions were highly observed and a younger daughter could not be married before the eldest.However, having been born to one father did not allow them to grow up with the same character. In fact their character differs like day and night. Similarly, their marriages are totally different with Katherina's marriage being a happy one whereas Bianca's marriage was full of disrespect. 'The wisdom of your duty, fair Bianca, hath cost me a hundred crowns since supper-time' (Shakespeare 177). This reflects that somebody's character can be transformed from either good to bad or bad to good.Vincentio and Baptista can be compared as two wealthy men whose children, Lucentio and Bianca had decided to get married. Therefore, they were father-in-laws to each other since their children ended up getting married. 'But do you hear, sir? Have you married my daughter without asking my good will?' (Shakespeare 163). It is important to note that despite the fact that Vincentio's son married Baptista's daughter, they eloped, i.e. Lucentio and Bianca.However, it is important to note that a conflict emerges between them when Vincentio appears to visit his son and finds Tranio disguising himself as Lucentio. When he confronts this issue, he is imprisoned since it is thought that he is a madman. Things are made worse between him and Baptista when his son appears and presents Bianca as his wife. In reference to Shakespeare (2004), 'I will slit the villain's nose that would have sent me to the gaol' (163). In this regard, conflicts are a stumbling block to peace in this particular society. On the other hand, Petruchio was a suitor of Katherina who proposed to her with the aim getting large dowry for her while at the same time helping his friend Hortensio to marry Bianca. According to Shakespeare (2004), 'And, for that dowry, I'II assure her of Her widowhood, be it that she survive me' (62). In this case, Petruchio is attached to wealth when it comes to marriage and as a result he can maintain his faithfulness when he is assured that he will get a large dowry for his wife.After marrying Katherina, Petruchio became a hostile man and shrew towards her as a way of taming her volatile character. Therefore, Petruchio deprived Katherina most of her needs including clothing and food in order to induce discipline and especially respect in her. 'The poorest service is repaid with thanks; and so shall mine, before you touch the meat' (Shakespeare 130). This shows that whereas one might have had a bad character while young, one is capable of changing and becoming a better person.
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Last Updated on May 5, 2015, by eNotes Editorial. Word Count: 984
It is 1609, and the forty-six-year-old Galileo Galilei, a renowned if impoverished professor of mathematics at the University of Padua in Italy, is forced to live frugally and in humble surroundings despite his taste for luxury and good food. Through it all, he maintains an obvious love of learning. When his housekeeper’s son, Andrea Sarti, brings in a model of the geocentric universe based on the ancient Ptolemaic system, Galileo patiently demonstrates how in actuality the earth orbits around the sun, as had been hypothesized by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus.
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A young aristocrat named Ludovico Marsili arrives, seeking a tutorship under Galileo. Marsili explains that he had seen primitive telescopes in Amsterdam, where they were being sold in the streets. Galileo sends Andrea out to purchase lenses for his own experiments with the device. He promises Priuli, the curator, that he will soon have something practical to offer the authorities in Venice.
Galileo gives a demonstration of his own improved telescope to the Venetian senators and arsenal artisans; afterward, he has his fourteen-year-old daughter, Virginia, present it to the city as a gift, to be copied and openly sold. Priuli tells Galileo that the gift will improve Galileo’s financial situation. However, the curator visits Galileo and his friend Sagredo to complain that Galileo had deceived the city fathers. A ship from Holland had arrived in Venice and was about to unload a shipment of telescopes to be hawked cheaply on every street corner. After the curator’s indignant exit, Galileo explains to Sagredo what his improved telescope has revealed to him: evidence that there is movement in the previously believed fixed and rigid crystalline spheres of the universe. To Virginia and Sagredo, Galileo announces his intention to move to Florence and seek the patronage and protection of the wealthy and powerful Medici family.
In Florence, Galileo is quickly disappointed by the cautious and politic courtiers of Cosimo de Medici, who is but a boy of nine years. However, Galileo earns a temporary victory when Christopher Clavius, the chief astronomer at the Papal College in Rome, confirms Galileo’s findings. Soon after, Galileo encounters Cardinal Barberini at a masked party and dinner at the home of Cardinal Bellarmin. Barberini (who will later become Pope Urban VIII), takes a practical view of Galileo’s findings, which leads Galileo to believe that he has a strong ally at the papal court, despite the guarded manner in which Barberini expresses his support. At the same party, another Church leader, an inquisitor, urges Virginia to look after her father’s spiritual well-being with a veiled hint that she should spy on him.
Galileo’s growing renown wins for him many converts, including the Little Monk, who, when first confronting Galileo, strongly argues a humanitarian’s case for not disseminating Galileo’s Sun-centered theory of the solar system. The Little Monk’s thirst for truth proves too powerful, however, and he is soon drawn into Galileo’s inner circle.
Galileo remains content to study without publishing his findings. Then, just as his eyesight begins to fail from having repeatedly looked at the sun in his telescope, Galileo grows bolder. Word comes that the pope is dying and that his most likely successor would be Cardinal Barberini, which gives Galileo hope that the Church might be more receptive to his radical ideas. However, Galileo soon begins to pay a price for his dedication and relentless pursuit of evidence to prove his theories. His daughter is the first to suffer. Marsili, with stern warnings to Galileo about his revolutionary concepts, breaks off his eight-year engagement to her.
In the meantime, Galileo’s radical ideas have become common knowledge in the Italian streets. Ballad singers and dancers enact in song and pantomime what the authorities consider the dangerously heretical and seditious notions of Galileo. In catchy choruses and engaging dances, they sing with raucous abandon that Galileo is a thinker bent on destroying the Bible. Indeed, friends and supporters, like Matti, an iron founder, try to warn Galileo. Gradually even they desert him.
Under pressure from the Church, Cosimo de Medici withdraws his protection, as does Pope Urban VIII, the former Cardinal Barberini, who instructs his cardinal inquisitor to threaten Galileo with torture to exact a confession of heresy and ultimately a recantation. To the dismay of his close followers, who await him at the Florentine ambassador’s house in Rome, Galileo recants. The news is announced to his family and friends by the church bells of Saint Marcus, followed by the town crier’s reading of the text of the recantation. Galileo, his abjuration done, sits quietly by himself, unnoticed among the commotion in the street, listening to the words of the crier.
Nearly nine years have passed since the recantation. Feeling betrayed, Galileo’s disciples had long turned away from him. Only Virginia believes that her father had done the right thing and that he has saved himself from damnation. Galileo himself, still vigorous but nearly blind, remains a de facto prisoner of the Inquisition, under house arrest in a country villa near Florence, under the care and watchful eye of Virginia. Secretly, he works at night on his scientific opus. He hides his papers inside a globe.
Galileo wants to get his theoretical work out to the burgeoning European scientific community. His former apprentice, Andrea, visits him, reluctantly, to ask about his health. After admitting that he had recanted out of a fear of being tortured, Galileo commits the manuscript to Andrea’s care. Andrea conveys the document across the Italian frontier on his way to Amsterdam, ironically even as a group of children harass an old woman by accusing her of being a witch, the very kind of superstitious excesses that Galileo’s radical theories would ultimately end. Soon, Galileo’s scientific opus, Discorsi, will be published and, in turn, will commence the golden age of science.
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Pinking shears
The pinking shears design was patented by Louise Austin in 1893.[1] In 1934, Samuel Briskman patented a pinking shear design (Felix Wyner and Edward Schulz listed as the inventors).[2]
The cut produced by pinking shears may have been derived from the plant called a pink, a flowering plant in the genus Dianthus (commonly called a carnation).[4] The color pink may have been named after these flowers, although the origins of the name are not definitively known. As the carnation has scalloped, or "pinked", edges to its petals, pinking shears can be thought to produce an edge similar to the flower.
1. Austin, Louise. "Pinking Shears patent". Google patents. Google. Retrieved October 1, 2019.
2. Wyner, Felix (July 3, 1934). "Pinking Shears Patent". Google Patents. Retrieved December 8, 2019.
3. Hinze, H. (April 1916). "The Pinking Machine -- Its Uses". The Clothing Designer and Manufacturer. 9 (1): 41.
4. Pankiewicz, Philip R. (2013). American Scissors and Shears. Universal-Publishers.
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Anthropogenic Apples: Pacific crabapple (Malus fusca) translocation and revitalization
Did early humans bring apples with them in their migrations from continent-to-continent? Why are Pacific crabapples—a coastal species—found far inland from the coast and exclusively at old habitation sites? We are documenting the anthropogenic (human) dispersal of Pacific crabapple and the evolution and genomics of the species in North America
Moołks (Tsm'syen) or Milkst (Gitxsan) are an extremely important food for many Indigenous communities throughout British Columbia. The tiny apples (about the size of your baby finger nail) were harvested in the fall en masse and stored over the long winter months. They were typically stored with oolichan or bear grease and other berries (high bush cranberry, black huckleberry), and could last for up to 20 years without spoiling. The apples tend to ferment quickly after harvest concentrating the sugars and enhancing their taste, they are a reliable source of vitamins and nutrients that supplemented fish-heavy diets.
Archaeological lore suggests that, "where there are apples there are villages", which begs the question, why? Why do apples do well where humans were? Were apples so intently managed that they relied on humans for dispersal? Why are some apples more successful at reproducing than others? In a three pronged approach I study the co-evolution of apples and humans by looking at first, the regional distribution of moołks and milkst in the Skeena Region — focusing on community ecology and interviews with Elders and knowledge holders (in partnership with Leslie Main Johnson).
In the second approach to this research, and in collaboration with Logan Kistler (Smithsonian Institution), we are using a genome-scale approach for the analysis of a subset of Malus species. The Malus genus is widespread throughout Asia and yet only one species is native to Western North America. Our hypothesis suggests that the Malus distribution in the Pacific Northwest is the result of ancient anthropogenic dispersals (moving from continent-to-continent with people). This research has the potential to humanize what have always been perceived as “natural” plant distributions and fundamentally alter how we understand phytogeography and human migration stories. We are using cutting-edge genomic strategies that have the potential to revolutionize the quality and amount of sequencing genes used to understand plant population genetics.
Finally, while Indigenous Peoples have always known the extent to which their ancestors have managed and acted within their landscapes, colonialism has disrupted and oppressed how communities can access and manage their traditional foods today. Working with Spencer Greening and his Gitga'at community (Justin and Nollie pictured above), we are currently testing experimental methods for managing crabapples. These experiments are based on the accounts of Elders like Betty Loo Dundas who remembers pruning apples and ground clearing around the base of trees to increase yields. Ongoing test plots will be used to help inform revitalization strategies, and incorporate our research into applied food sovereignty initiatives.
Research Collaborators
Leslie Main Johnson, Athabasca U
Spencer Greening, Gitga'at, SFU
Logan Kistler, Smithsonian Institution
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Learning Semaphore
When Tower Bridge is about to open, the Bridge Driver communicates with the ship to check that they’re ready to pass through. To do that we now use radio but, back when Tower Bridge was first opened, radio wasn’t invented so they had to use semaphore.
Semaphore is a way of sending messages to people who you can see but are too far away to talk to. Using your arms (or flags), you can spell out words - each position means a different letter.
Can you and your family have a go at sending messages to each other by semaphore using the semaphore alphabet? Start with this challenge sheet for practice then see what else you can say!
You don’t need flags to send semaphore messages, you can just use your arms! However, you could have a go at making your own semaphore flags using some paper, a stick (a wooden spoon works too!) and some glue or tape.
Equipment needed
Nothing! But you might find it easier if you can print off the downloadable sheets below.
Minimum number of people:
Semaphore Alphabet
This sheet shows you the different signals for each letter of the alphabet.
Download PDF
Challenge Sheet
This sheet gives you your first semaphore signal challenge!
Download PDF
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Study Guide
Moby-Dick Setting
By Herman Melville
(Click the map infographic to download.)
Nineteenth-Century America: Nantucket And The New England Coast; The Open Sea And The Pequod
This novel exists on an epic scale. How epic? Oh, epic enough that it takes you literally around the globe.
When Ishmael decides to take a whaling voyage, one of his reasons is that he wants to see the world. You might be under the impression that, as a reader, you’ll get to see the world with him, experiencing a lavish array of sights, sounds, and settings. After all, the Pequod sails most of the way around the world, through three different oceans, and meets ships from all sorts of other countries.
Well, we’re sorry to disappoint you, but, like Captain Peleg, we have to ask what you see when you look over the bow of the Pequod. Here’s what Ishmael saw: "nothing but water; considerable horizon though, and there’s a squall coming up" (16.37).
That’s the only world you’re going to see in this novel, a world of water that you could pretty much see standing in one place on the dock in Nantucket. But this unchanging expanse of ocean gives the novel a convenient everything-and-nothing feel: like the ship, the novel ranges across a wide variety of settings, and yet it seems like it’s always pretty much in the same place.
Our comments on the setting of Moby-Dick wouldn’t be complete without a few words on nineteenth-century American culture. The Pequod may seem pretty separate from any real land or country, but over the course of the novel we gradually learn just how strongly it holds to its American-ness, both in its whaling customs and its attitude toward other ships.
Plus, the complex social makeup of the Pequod makes it feel more like a metaphorical, miniaturized version of a nation than a simple whaling ship. So it’s reasonable to assume that Melville is suggesting the ship can represent all of the United States. If so, we need to consider the ways in which contemporary political and social issues are being subtly represented in the novel—especially issues of race and slavery, since the nation is on the brink of the Civil War.
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Skip to main content
Public buildings
by Ben Schrader
From the parliamentary complex in the capital city to the town halls that dot the country, public buildings play vital roles in New Zealand life.
Central-government buildings
Public buildings are those that are used by central or local government, or owned by the government on behalf of the public. Since 1840 numerous public buildings have housed the three arms of government:
• the executive (ministers of the Crown and their government departments)
• the legislature (Parliament)
• the judiciary (the court system).
As the capital, Wellington has a greater proportion of public buildings than other New Zealand cities. In 2011 the public sector occupied nearly half the city’s office space.
Government House, Auckland
During New Zealand’s Crown colony period (1840–56) settlers were ruled by a governor who lived in and ruled from Government House, situated in landscaped grounds above the town of Auckland.
The first Government House burned down in 1848 and was replaced by a much grander edifice. It was the largest residence in New Zealand. Designed in the fashionable neoclassical style, it was built from kauri timber fashioned to look like stone.
Auckland’s government centre
When New Zealand elected its own central and provincial governments in 1856, a utilitarian, wooden Parliament building was erected below Government House. Its design was austere, mirroring the limited money and resources available to the budding state.
The judiciary was headquartered in a wooden courthouse in town. Not until the early 1860s did the government agree to erect a new Supreme Court (now called a High Court) in a more appropriate location beside Parliament. The impressive, neo-Gothic, brick and stone building was finally completed in 1868. By this time, Parliament had moved to Wellington, which had become the capital in 1865.
‘The Shedifice’
When MPs met in the first Parliament Building in Auckland, the structure was little more than a bare shell, still to be lined. Henry Sewell described it as ‘a great wooden barnshaped affair, which might serve as a Hospital, a Jail or a Barrack – or if gutted be turned into a Methodist meeting house.’ MPs disparagingly dubbed it the ‘Shedifice’.
Parliament Buildings, 1865–1907
Wellington’s provincial council building, situated on the town’s government reserve in Thorndon (a site stretching between Hill, Sydney, and Molesworth Streets), became the new Parliament in 1865. The provincial council moved to another part of town.
Parliament continued to expand. Space was soon exhausted, and the first of many additions was built. By 1890 a higgledy-piggledy string of Parliament buildings lined Sydney Street.
Growth accelerated when the Liberal party, with its greater emphasis on state intervention, took office in 1891.
In 1899 the old provincial council building was pulled down and replaced by a masonry, neo-Gothic parliamentary library. When Parliament Buildings caught fire in 1907, the library was the only part that survived.
Government Buildings, 1876
In 1876 the demand for space in Parliament was temporarily relieved by the construction of the four-storey Government Buildings opposite the government reserve. The entire executive moved there from Parliament Buildings. It was also where cabinet met until 1948.
Government Buildings was another neoclassical structure, using wood to look like stone. In 1996 it became Victoria University of Wellington’s law school.
Government House, Wellington
The governor came to Wellington in 1871 and moved into a new and imposing residence on the government reserve. Although his role was now largely ceremonial, his position as the monarch’s representative demanded a suitably worthy building. After the 1907 Parliament Buildings fire, Parliament took over Government House for its own functions, and a new one was built in suburban Newtown.
‘The Wellington triangle’
With the completion of the Supreme Court in 1881, the buildings of the three arms of government formed a right-angled triangle. The Supreme Court sat at one point; Parliament at another; and Government Buildings was at the right angle. This relationship was re-emphasised with the opening of the new Supreme Court in 2010.
Supreme Court, 1881–2012
The judiciary received a fitting home in 1881 when the Supreme Court opened beside Government Buildings. The handsome, new neoclassical building was the first Wellington public building constructed of masonry.
In 2003 New Zealand severed its links with Britain’s Privy Council and New Zealand’s Supreme Court became the highest court available to New Zealanders. A new modernist-style Supreme Court building was erected adjoining the old one.
Parliament Buildings, 1908–2012
New Parliament Buildings were agreed to in 1911. They would be built in two stages: the first structure would contain Parliament; the second would house Ministers of the Crown, Bellamy’s (Parliament’s caterers) and a new library. The first stage opened in 1922.
Due to financial constraints only the first stage was built, giving the neoclassical building an asymmetrical appearance. During the 1960s there was a push to complete it, but architects argued for a new design.
The government consulted British architect Sir Basil Spence, who proposed a modernist, beehive-shaped building to house Ministers and Bellamy’s. The existing library would remain. The government concurred and the ‘Beehive’ executive wing was completed in 1979. Bowen House, a 1990 office block outside Parliament grounds, provided additional office space for parliamentary staff and MPs, as well as select committee meeting rooms.
State-sector buildings
The state sector is made up of government departments and other Crown entities. Throughout New Zealand’s history, the number and function of public buildings have fluctuated as the state sector has grown or shrunk. Under the expansionist first Labour government (1935–49) new office buildings were erected in Wellington to house a burgeoning public service.
Cultural and social change has also played a part. For example, public anxiety about crime rates led to several new prisons being built to accommodate higher incarceration numbers in the early 2000s. Meanwhile, the post office was an important public building in many communities until the 1980s, but government cutbacks and new technologies such as the internet led to a large number being closed.
Within the state sector most, but not all buildings fall into one of four main types: offices, transport buildings, hospitals and centres of education.
Wellington’s first public building
In 1843 Mary Petre wrote in her diary that she had organised an outing with some of her friends to visit Wellington’s first public building: a prison!
The government architect
To oversee the design and construction of public buildings, the colonial government set up the office of Superintendent of Public Works in 1840. A Colonial Architect’s office followed in 1869. Then in 1909 the title of government architect was created within the Public Works Department. The state also commissioned private architects to design public buildings.
In 1988 the position of government architect was abolished, and commissions to commercial architects became the norm.
Office buildings
Government Buildings was the first office building erected in Wellington to house the entire civil service. The service soon outgrew the structure and more buildings were needed.
Expansion of the state in the 1960s led to proposals for a ‘government centre’ of office buildings near Parliament, but only some of these were built. From the late 1980s the government began selling its office buildings, preferring to lease space.
Branch offices were also built in other cities and towns to deliver state services. These were often called government or departmental buildings.
Grand designs
The design of new public buildings has usually reflected contemporary trends in Western architecture.
• During the 19th and early 20th centuries neoclassical and neo-Gothic styles were fashionable – they were grand and ornate.
• In the 1930s the cleaner, streamlined forms of art deco were favoured.
• From the 1950s functional, modernist styles were used.
• In the 2000s, green or sustainable buildings (usually in a modernist-derived style) were in vogue.
Transport centres
Some of the most imposing public structures are transport centres. Dunedin’s opulent railway station (1906) remains one of New Zealand’s celebrated buildings. The grandeur of Wellington Railway Station reflected the Railways’ standing as the largest government department when it opened in 1937. In contrast, airport buildings were often plain. Auckland International Airport opened at Māngere in 1966, but its box-like terminal said little about the glamour of the new jet age. Christchurch was an exception. In 1960 it opened an elegant Modernist terminal; in 2011 an equally stylish new building replaced it.
From 1847 the first hospitals were built in major towns to treat low-income Europeans and Māori. New buildings within hospital compounds mirrored clinical specialisation: some were devoted to fever patients, others to children or the aged. In 1904 the government set up separate maternity hospitals around the country, known as St Helens hospitals.
Buildings also reflected treatment theories. For example, in the early 20th century some wards sported wide verandahs and sliding doors so patients could benefit from ‘recuperative’ sun and fresh air. Older hospital buildings have typically been demolished in favour of new ones that ostensibly better meet modern health-care practice.
Lunatic asylums
Among the largest public buildings in the 19th century were lunatic asylums – psychiatric hospitals. Some of the buildings were vast, forbidding and dehumanising, and housed many hundreds of patients in soulless wards. Changing ideas about psychiatric care from the 1980s led to most of them closing.
Schools are the most prominent public buildings in many localities and are often a social and community hub. The first schools were privately run and fee-paying, but from the 1850s provincial governments opened schools.
In 1877 state-provided primary education was made compulsory, secular and free. More schools were built and existing ones enlarged. A similar process occurred from 1944, when the school leaving age was raised to 15, leading to a boom in new secondary schools.
The architecture of most primary schools was more utilitarian than ornate, but secondary schools were often grand structures designed to impress and to convey school values.
During the 1920s ‘open air’ classrooms became fashionable, where sliding doors were pushed open to let in light and air. From the 1970s new schools, both primary and secondary, were less imposing and formal, with rooms that could be opened or enclosed depending on what was being taught.
New Zealand’s first university – the University of Otago – opened in Dunedin in 1871 and by 1878 was housed in an imposing neo-Gothic building. By 1899 several other main cities had universities as well.
From the 1950s universities greatly expanded, with new buildings and campuses that enlivened and boosted cities. The University of Waikato in Hamilton opened in 1964. The University of Canterbury completed its move to a new campus in suburban Ilam in 1975, and in 1993 Massey University opened a new campus in Auckland.
Civic and cultural buildings
Town halls
Reluctant readers
Libraries and art galleries
From blight to treasure
Overseas buildings
Hononga, rauemi nō waho
More suggestions and sources
How to cite this page: Ben Schrader, 'Public buildings', Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, (accessed 24 January 2021)
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Wet-collodion process
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Alternative Titles: collodion process, collodion wet-plate process
Wet-collodion process, also called collodion process, early photographic technique invented by Englishman Frederick Scott Archer in 1851. The process involved adding a soluble iodide to a solution of collodion (cellulose nitrate) and coating a glass plate with the mixture. In the darkroom the plate was immersed in a solution of silver nitrate to form silver iodide. The plate, still wet, was exposed in the camera. It was then developed by pouring a solution of pyrogallic acid over it and was fixed with a strong solution of sodium thiosulfate, for which potassium cyanide was later substituted. Immediate developing and fixing were necessary because, after the collodion film had dried, it became waterproof and the reagent solutions could not penetrate it. The process was valued for the level of detail and clarity it allowed. A modification of the process, in which an underexposed negative was backed with black paper or velvet to form what was called an ambrotype, became very popular from the mid- to late 19th century, as did a version on black lacquered metal known as a tintype, or ferrotype.
Read More on This Topic
history of photography: Development of the wet collodion process
Photography was revolutionized in 1851 by the introduction of the wet collodion process for making glass negatives. This new technique,...
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The Stone Breakers,vs Dancers in the Wings
The two paintings that I will be discussing in my paper are The Stone Breakers, Le Raincy (1882) by George-Pierre Seurat and Dancers in the Wings (1876-1878) by Edgar Degas. In both paintings, Seurat and Degas applied the idea “modernity leisure” into their paintings but in very different subject matters. The distinctive style of brushstroke, composition and choice of color scheme in combination with the optical will purpose to bring completely different feelings to the audience.
In Seurat’s painting, there are three human figures standing as the primary subject. The three figures are identified as peasants work in the field of the suburban, breaking large stones into smaller pieces for further use as materials to pave streets or as a way of removing stones from the field to grow crops. From the painting, two of the workers are women, who come into the field to join their husbands as a way of earning a living. The pile of rocks is built up in the middle ground of the painting while the green rectangular block that is parallel to the horizon in the background represents the woods.
In addition, the two women in the painting as presented by Seurat do not only represent the entire community but also an indication that in this community there are no jobs designed for men and women. The women are doing what in other communities are left for men due to their masculine nature. This is a community devoid stereotype but everyone including men and women can earn a living in any way possible. It takes the women to straggle in the hard way to for a daily bread.
To the audience, Seurat communicates that during the period to which the paintings were made, men and women collaborated to in working as way to show unity among themselves. In the resent time women have come to a point of social statues whereby they cannot do much the hard work. It is therefore the duty of men to step forward to accomplish such works. In addition, this period presented a technological time that much machines had not been developed such as the each moving machines with the ability to break the rocks to be used for constrictions. Meaning men and women had to use more physical force in accomplishing such work.
In Degas’s painting, there are two human figures. The two young female dancers are in the backstage before a performance. Instead of capturing the dancers during the performance, Degas decides to capture them while they are behind the scene. There are no eye contacts between the figures and the painter, showing that the posture was not focused in any way. He depicted what happened in Paris after Haussmannization of the city. The painter had claimed the dancer as being part of the modern culture. The number of hotels, cafes, theater and dance halls, etc. have increased, it had become where Parisian take leisure time and entertainment. In contrast to what is happening on Degas’s canvas, Seurat painted the hard-working labor that is happening in the countryside. They both chose a subject that depicts what life in modernism is like.
Degas use of the technique in the composition is applying diagonal perspective. Degas’s painting is organized against symmetry as a significance of anticlassical style. This is depicted on the right edge crops off by the dancer that is dressed in yellow. The oblique line starting from the lower left corner leads the audiences’ eye to the dancer that is dressed in pink. The dancer dressed in pink positioned in the back is partially blocked by the dancer on the right. Degas’ use of fragmentation is created through the tilted perspective capturing the scene from a different angle and slicing the dancer off the frame. The angled perspective replaced the classic style where there is centering. On the other hand, Seurat demonstrates “flatness” in his painting. In addition, that which is evident from both paintings is the absence of vanishing point that represents the divine metaphor to God.
Seurat and Degas use different scheme of colors in their painting since users of complementary color brings out the color to human eyes and Degas uses supplementary color such as yellow and orange together, red and pink together with a mixture of white to bring luminous color to the painting. We can see that Degas used a grayish green color in the background that is dark, which contrasts with the dancers’ dress color. In Seurat’s painting, he arranged complementary color next to each other, which makes the color more vivid. For example, the woman on the right has a dark persimmon color used on her hands, and she is wearing blue, and the edge of her dress is a greenish color. Both the blue and greenish color echoes the red that creates a high contrast that vibrates each other. The man at the back also has dark persimmon color on his hands, which echoes the woods in the background. Even the woods that have some dried brownish leaves complements the green. Throughout the whole painting, Seurat has used this technique to create an impression of very hardworking men and women in the community. Finally, Seurat creates the paintings with divisionism, dividing the brush strokes into little dabs and broken strokes.
In addition, Degas in his painting presents a social value that is a very important part of human development. Entertainment is crucial part of human development; therefore, Degas takes time to inform the audience of certain forms of entertainment such as dancing. Dancing as presented in the painting further implies that it is not a recent for of entertainment but an ancient form. This therefore means that dancing as a form of entertained is as old as man himself.
Similarly, from the paintings, Degas communicates to the audience that dancing is not only a form of entertainment but also a profession that is growing big every passing day. Therefore, dancing can be done for commercial purposes hence a way of earning a living. These dance are just but a representation of a larger group of dancers across the world more so to the French as they reminder of the hard time they had undergone. Thus restoration of peace in the country called for celebration since normalcy was returning in the country. In conclusion, Degas sends a strong message to the audience` that dancing is also an important activity in the society as a form of entertainment.
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Central Park Birding:: About the Park
All text and photographs Copyright © Phil Jeffrey 2001-2009 unless explicitly stated otherwise.
Central Park
Central Park was constructed on the island of Manhattan in New York City in the late 1800's to a design by Calvert Vaux and Fredrick Law Olmstead selected by public competition in 1858. This pair also later designed Prospect Park in Brooklyn. At the time of the 1858 plan, Manhattan was in a period of rapid expansion and the city's urban development had barely reached beyond present-day Midtown. The land that Central Park was built on was relatively sparsely developed. The creation of Central Park spurred development further north into Manhattan as the areas immediately bordering the park became more desirable.
At 843 acres, or approximately 2.5 miles by 0.5 miles, Central Park is a large urban park, stretching from 59th Street to 110th Street and Fifth Avenue to Central Park West (i.e. Eighth Avenue) in one of the most densely populated islands in the world. A combination of it's sheer size and varied original design means that Central Park offers a range of habitats, from the 100 acre Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis Reservoir that attracts wintering waterfowl to the nearly 40 acre Ramble that contains extensive canopy and some understory. And of course, being a park, there's no shortage of grassland.
The park has had a rather eventful history, dominated by politics, and sometimes neglected. However it has undergone somewhat of a renaissance in recent years. It's also undergone numerous modifications due to various influences. Robert Moses led a radical clean-up of the neglected park in the 1930's, filled in the old Croton Reservoir to create the Great Lawn, added playgrounds and ballfields. However this period of improvement was matched by a period of decline during the 1960's and 70's until the founding of the Central Park Conservancy in 1980. This non-profit group still manages the park by virtue of a contract with the NYC Parks Dept. The Conservancy relies on donations by private individuals, corporations etc for the vast majority of its operating budget, yet has been responsible for a remarkable resurgence in the fortunes of the park. (See the Conservancy website for more on Central Park history, and on the Conservancy's history).
Central Park remains the most visted urban park, with approximately 25 million visitors per year. By comparison Yosemite National Park gets ~3.5 million visitors per year and Yellowstone National Park gets ~3 million visitors annually.
How to Get There
You can always walk. New Yorkers walk everywhere too. Most parts of Manhattan are as safe as any urban area, even at night. Manhattan's north/south blocks ("short blocks") between streets are 20 to a mile. Manhattan's east/west blocks are more variable but closer to 4 or 5 to a mile. Manhattan is not very large, but it has an extensive public transport infrastructure so it's not really necessary to walk too far.
Street parking in Manhattan is difficult at the best of times, and parking garages are expensive so I recommend coming into Manhattan via public transport if at all possible. Most parking meters are of short duration (1 or 2 hours) and are active even on Sundays - the city council recently passed a ruling that eliminated parking meter charges on Sundays, even though signs may remain to the contrary.
By subway: the west side is better served than the east side in this regard. The C line runs local up Central Park West, with stops at 72nd St and 81st St being particularly convenient since they are right at the edge of the park. Be aware that the A line runs express over the same route, and stops only at 59th St at the extreme south-west corner. (The A runs local 10:30pm-6am). The 1 line runs a little further west on local stops, with the 2 and 3 lines running express over the same route (2/3 stops at 72nd and 86th being most convenient, the 1 also stops at 66th, 79th, 86th). On the east side your option basically is the 6 line (local) stopping at 68th, 78th, 86th or 96th or the 4 and 5 lines running express over the same route and stopping at 59th and 86th streets only. You'll have to walk a few blocks west from the Lexington Avenue 4/5/6 stops to the park. Check out the MTA subway map for more details. The F and N/R lines also run close to the park, stopping at the south end and south-east corner. Contrary to what you might expect, New Yorkers are quite helpful in setting you straight if you manage to get lost on the subway system.
By bus: there are numerous bus lines running up both sides of the park, and a few that cross the park at the traverses. On the east side the M1/M2/M3/M4 run "up" (i.e. northbound) on Madison Ave and "down" (southbound) on 5th Ave. On the west side, the M10 runs up and down Central Park West, the M7 and M11 run up Amsterdam and down Columbus. The M66 and M72 buses run across the 65th Street traverse between east and west sides. The M79 crosses the park at 79th St, the M86 at 86th St and the M96 at 96th St. If you are not confused enough already, you can download the MTA Manhattan bus map.
By cab: usually I'd recommend specifying the following intersections to cab drivers: "72nd and 5th Ave" for the Ramble; "72nd and Central Park West" for Strawberry Fields and the west shore of the Lake; "81st and Central Park West" for Tanner's Spring and Turtle Pond area; "110th and 5th Ave" for Harlem Meer. These are all on the outer edge of the park. Telling them to take you to "Central Park" is analogous to telling them to take you to Manhattan: it's a big place, and you probably want to go somewhere more specific. Cab drivers can also be induced to go to the Central Park (Loeb) Boathouse before they close the park drives at 10am, but don't expect them to always know where that is. They will not drop you at arbitrary locations within the park nor will they pick you up within it even if you see a free cab driving by. You must walk out to the local streets to hail a cab.
Birding the park
What makes Central Park special as a birding location is habitat and location. New York City and the associated urban sprawl sit right on the Atlantic Flyway a major migration route that channels many of the migratory birds down the Atlantic coast (see more on flyways and migration routes). Under good migration conditions in spring and fall a torrent of migrating birds is passing over New York City. Since most small birds migrate at night, they start looking for shelter and food when the sun comes up. Those that find themselves above the city itself gravitate toward the city parks, and Central Park is one of the largest and most centrally-located. You can also find migrants in city neighborhoods (I found a Yellow-throated Warbler on the Upper East Side in April 2005, quite by chance), but you find greater numbers and diversity in the city parks. Central Park is not unique as a migrant magnet - all the other city parks attract them as well - but it is by far the most intensively birded. Central Park's habitat is not pristine or perfect but it's a substantial improvement over the alternatives they are presented with. Birds that migrate during the day, like waterfowl and birds of prey, don't find the park quite as much of a magnet (hummingbirds are an exception) but vantage points like Belvedere Castle are good places to watch for these too.
Central Park's property of concentrating migrants into a small area, and the rapid communication of sightings, make it a very productive area to bird and one of the top 100 North American Birding Hot Spots. About 200 species occur in the park fairly regularly, and about another 85 are found only very rarely - see my summary by species for more details.
In the "field" in Central Park, sightings are communicated by word-of-mouth and also increasingly by cell phone. Many people saw the Central Park Boreal Owl on the day it was found on the Christmas Bird Count by virtue of this informal communication network. (Central Park was one of the 25 locations that constituted the first CBC). There's a sightings log that sits in a folder in the cafe section of the Loeb Boathouse on the east shore of the Lake. There are also an expanding array of internet-based NYC bird sites, which vary as to their degree of immediacy. My eBirdsNYC group, which I took over from Ben Cacace, is a good place to find sightings (common or rare) within the greater NYC area. Lloyd Spitalnik's Metro Birding Briefs is for timely reporting of rarer birds. Mike Freeman's nyc bird report summarises sightings in more of a database approach. The New York City RBA is (regrettably) not often communicated in electronic form, but you can call (212) 979-3070 to check the RBA by the more traditional telephone.
I've broken down my guide to birding Central Park into three sections: by location, by season and by species.
Other websites:
Central Park-related Websites (a few of many):
NYC bird sightings including Central Park:
Websites associated with birding in/around Central Park:
(and there are doubtless more that I've omitted for space and time).
Comments etc to my email address.
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About Seesaw Sign Up
Teachers, save “Exploring the Power of Ostinato - Repeti…” to assign it to your class.
Teresa Fraraccio
Student Instructions
Exploring the Power of Ostinato - Repetition in Music
If making music is like making a cake, then including some repeated rhythm or melody is an essential ingredient! Remember the repeated: taa taa taa taaa from Beethoven's "Symphony No 5"? Or Queen's : stomp stomp clap, stomp stomp clap in "We Will Rock You"? The human brain LOVES to hear something repeated! Our brains are wired that way. A repeated rhythm or melody in music is called an OSTINATO. 1. Watch the video attached. 2. Take some time to explore creating an ostinato of your own. It can be a rhythm pattern or short melody. 2. Tap and go to the student activity page. 3. Tap and write the rhythm of your ostinato using taa and ti-ti's and rests. 4 Tap and record yourself performing your ostinato -use your voice or an instrument (or found object like plastic bucket or box etc)
3rd Grade, 5th Grade, 4th Grade, Music
2 teachers like this
Students will edit this template:
Listen and learn- What is an ostinato? Why is it important?
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Ergebnis der Suche
Ergebnis der Suche nach: (Freitext: ANALYZING)
Es wurden 11 Einträge gefunden
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• Analyzing Maps to Better Understand Global Current Events and History
This New York Times lesson provides strategies to help students gain that confidence so they can interpret even the most complex historical or current maps. The lesson also suggests ways for using current events maps as a tool to better understand both history and what’s going on in the world today (2016).
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• Nowhere to Go but Up? Analyzing Economic Measures in a Downturn
How do we know when the economy is in a recession? How do key economic indicators perform in a downturn? In this New York Times lesson, students create graphs of various economic measurements, using quantitative and qualitative reasoning skills to compare, contrast and correlate the performance of measures like gross domestic product, unemployment and personal ...
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• BUBBLE TROUBLE: Analyzing Causes of the Economic Crisis.
In this NY Times lesson, students use several different resources from The New York Times to discuss, analyze, and present on the causes and effects of the 2008 economic crisis.
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• There’s Something Funny About These Candidates
In this NY Times lesson, students learn about the power of caricature to reinforce and/or create media images of politicians and public figures by analyzing political cartoons and spoofs from the past and present (2008-15).
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• Building a Better Argument: Critical Thinking
In these lessons, students will learn to create good arguments by getting a handle on the basic structure. The lesson will provide useful tips for picking out premises and conclusions and for analyzing the effectiveness of arguments (Annenberg Classroom, USA 2011).?
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• Analyzing Propaganda through Historical Sources
Lesson Plans connected to The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. and its exhibition about the role of propaganda in World War II (2010).
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• Earth Exploration Toolbook
Step-by-step instructions for using Earth system science datasets and scientific analysis tools. Chapters include ”Analyzing the Antarctic Ozone Hole,” ”Climate History from Deep Sea Sediments,” and ”Evidence for Plate Tectonics” (Carleton College, USA 2012)
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• Don’t Trash the Earth
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• Give Me Liberty or Give Me Freedom
In this New York Times lesson (2003), students examine the ways in which the terms ”liberty” and ”freedom” have been used in the United States in various historical, cultural, and political contexts. (2007-15)
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• Making Sense of Maps
A place for students and teachers to begin working with maps as historical evidence. Written by David Stephens, this guide offers an overview of the history of maps and how historians use them, a breakdown of the elements of a map, tips on what questions to ask when analyzing maps, an annotated bibliography, and a guide to finding and using maps online.
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The Furniture R Us Company manufactures tables and chairs as part of its line of furniture. The table below shows the resources required and the unit profits for each product. The two resources consumed in manufacturing the furniture are: wood (300 board feet in inventory), and labor (110 hours available). The owner wishes to determine how many tables and chairs should be made to maximize the two profits from furniture. The owner might decide to make as many chairs as possible, since chairs are more profitable than tables. Altogether, there is enough labor to produce exactly 11 chairs, and the owner's profit would be $88. But this plan would leave 80 board feet of wood unused. Would it be more profitable for the owner to make some tables and fewer chairs? Determine how many of each item should be produced and the optimal profit.
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2014 National Planning Excellence Awards: Planning Landmark
Housing Act of 1949
The Housing Act of 1949 was passed to help address the decline of urban housing following the exodus to the suburbs. The legislation provided governance over how federal financial resources would shape the growth of American cities. Components of the legislation aimed at reducing housing costs, raising housing standards, and enabling the federal government for the first time, to aid cities in clearing slums and rebuilding blighted areas. The program emphasized new construction. In addition to improving the available housing stock, the program made open space land, neighborhood facilities, and basic water and sewer facilities eligible for federal assistance.
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Indians Came Up with the Name “Buffalo Soldier”
Interesting and ironic: the Native Americans named black men in the U.S. military “buffalo soldiers.” It was a commentary on their hair, which reminded the Indians of a buffalo’s coat. But the name took, not really in a good way, and all regiments of blacks in the military were called Buffalo Soldiers for far too long. They were in the army because they wanted freedom from slavery and instead were forcibly enlisted. The cycle of paradox continues: the black soldiers were part of the effort to address the “Indian Challenge.”
What was the Indian Challenge? In the mid-1800s, folks were traipsing across the country–more land, more gold. This got in the way of the natural order of things for the Native Americans–people were in their space, and it was standard practice in the Southwestern region to raid Mexican villages and haciendas for warriors to win recognition and to increase the tribe’s wealth. Now, the bounty was coming to them via “emigrant trains.”
Enter Fort Davis, Texas–and other forts across the region.
The military had to protect the roads from raids.
San Antonio-El Paso Road
And the mail and to be delivered–no ifs, ands, or buts.
Covered Wagon and US Mail Wagon
400 men lived at Fort Davis, spending most of their time scouting for Indians, conducting border patrol with Mexico, escorting the mail, and labor-intensive tasks like building roads and telegraph lines. The men at Fort Davis saw very little “action.”
The Fort was abandoned in due time, and ruins remain. They make pretty pictures.
Ruins at Fort Davis Texas
Ruins at Fort Davis Texas
Cottonwood at Fort Davis
Candidly, this wasn’t the most intriguing place I’ve been to. But interestingly they play the bugle (via recording) throughout the day, marking the soldiers’s activity. Why bugle? Because watches weren’t common, so the music told the time. Another clever moment–before the Civil War diverted funds and attention, Fort Davis experimented with camels imported from the Middle East and found they were much better suited to the desert than the poor horses.
Got the Bob Marley song stuck in your head? Here are the lyrics to Buffalo Soldier. You’re welcome.
Do you know of other ways that time was told?
3 Responses
Thanks for the lesson behind the term I knew from the Marley song but had no idea about the meaning or history behind it.
If its a sunny day, I can guestimate by looking up in the sky. I saw a Nat Geo or Discovery special about Icelandic spar (type of stone) which may have been used for navigation (and time telling) even on cloudy days by the Vikings.
I’ve listened to Bob Marley sing about the Buffalo soldiers for years. It has been my feeling that he lifted the Woy yoy yoy, woy yoy-yoy yoy chorus from the old Banana Splits variety show. Remeber the four animals that had a Saturday Morning tv show…with Danger Island (starring a young Jan Micheal Vincent) and a cartoon and general mayhem that only humans dressed in comic animal costumes could get into during a live action sequence? Fleegle, Bingo, Drooper and Snorky? Specifically, if you look for, find and listen to their theme song (The Tra La La Song[One Banana, Two Banana]) you might find the similarities amazing. Liz Phair also recorded the song for a cd much later on. Yeah!
John – I don’t remember the Banana Splits in the slightest! Are you older than I am? I thought we were the same age…? It’s odd, bc I tend to know pop culture beyond my era, but this one has me stumped. Well done, friend! Watched a YouTube video and you’re totally right about the tunes!!
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Unit Overview
Imagine you’re an archeologist tasked by a museum to replicate a petroglyph. What would you do first? How would you solve the challenge? Students will learn to think like materials engineers as they explore the rock cycle and the properties of different rocks working to solve a real-world challenge. The storybook Galya and Natasha’s Rocky Adventure sets the scene, introducing twin sisters whose mother, an archaeologist, studies petroglyphs, or ancient stone carvings. To replicate the petroglyph, students follow along with the twins as they analyze the properties of rocks and human-made materials and reflect on how processing affects these materials.
Core Program Unit Components
Educator Resources
Materials Kit
Buy Now
Grouped product items
Product Name Qty
Replicating an Artifact Educator Resources
Galya and Natasha's Rocky Adventure Storybook
Galya and Natasha's Rocky Adventure Digital Storybook
Replicating an Artifact Materials Kit
Replicating an Artifact Refill Kit
Replicating an Artifact Hard Rock Refill
Replicating an Artifact Soft Rock Refill
Safety Kit
Replicating an Artifact - 1yr Digital
Replicating an Artifact - 3yr Digital
Ten Resources for Diverse Learners
Student Discussion Support * * *
Teacher Discussion Support * * *
English Learner Strategies * * *
Differentiation Duplication Masters * * *
Flip book StorybookEnglish and Spanish1 * *
Character Cards1 * *
Visual Vocabulary Cards1 * *
Illustrated Engineering Design Poster - English 8.5x11in. included
(available for sale in 20x30 in.)
Illustrated Engineering Design Poster - Spanish 8.5x11in. included
(available for sale in 20x30 in.)
Materials Reference Sheet1 * *
Alternative Lesson Progression *
1 Spanish version available in the Digital Unit only.
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Indian Geography Questions (MCQs) for UPSC, State PCS and SSC Examinations
21. Consider the following Hills of India:
1. Bateshwar hills
2. Biligiriranga Hills
3. Chin Hills
4. Dhosi Hill
Which among the following presents a correct set of states in which they are located?
[A] Rajasthan, Karnataka, Nagaland, Haryana
[B] Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Rajasthan
[C] Bihar, Karnataka, Manipur, Haryana
[D] Bihar, Karnataka, Mizoram, Haryana
Show Answer
22. Pagladia Dam Project is located in which state?
[A] Arunachal Pradesh
[B] Sikkim
[C] Assam
[D] West Bengal
Show Answer
23. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct regarding tribal groups in India:
1. Bhils are the people of Dravidian stock now living in M.P. and Rajasthan.
2. The Gonds constitute the largest tribal group of India.
3. Onges, Shompens and Sentinelese are the inhabitants of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
[A] 1 and 2
[B] 1 and 3
[C] 2 and 3
[D] 1, 2 and 3
Show Answer
[A] Bangladesh
[B] Pakistan
[C] china
[D] Nepal
Show Answer
25. Mushroom Cultivation is successful in Kashmir because of ___:
[A] Cold Climate
[B] Presence of suitable soil
[C] Availability of mule dung and paddy straw
[D] Mushroom cultivated as an intercrop to Saffron
Show Answer
26. With reference to recent trends in demography of India, a unique feature is a divided between different states. Consider the following statements with this respect:
1. There is a substantial fertility decline in the South India in recent years in comparison to North India
2. Average population age is greater in case of South India in comparison to North India
Which among the above is / are correct?
[A] Only 1
[B] Only 2
[C] Both 1 & 2
[D] Neither 1 nor 2
Show Answer
27. Organic farming helps:
1. in increasing carbon sequestration in the soil
2. to reduce water footprint
3. in soil conservation
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
[A] Only 1 & 2
[B] Only 2 & 3
[C] Only 1 & 3
[D] 1, 2 & 3
Show Answer
28. Which among the following is / are common features of the drainage pattern of Ganges river system?
1. Parallel Courses of rivers
2. Tributaries meeting their master streams at acute angles
3. Most rivers are of perennial nature
4. Lower reaches of rivers with steep gradient suitable for hydropower generation
Choose the correct option from the codes given below:
[A] Only 1 & 2
[B] Only 2 & 3
[C] Only 1, 2 & 3
[D] 1, 2, 3 & 4
Show Answer
29. Which of the following is / are correct statements about Lateritic soils?
1. Lateritic soils are rendered infertile by the presence of excess iron
2. In India, Lateritic soils are observed mainly in Western states
3. Lateritic soils generally have high silt/clay ratio
Select the correct option from the codes given below:
[A] Only 1
[B] Only 1 & 2
[C] Only 1 & 3
[D] 1, 2 & 3
Show Answer
30. Consider the following plants:
1. Wheat
2. Rice
3. Onion
4. Potato
Which of the above are true annual plants?
[A] Only 1 & 2
[B] Only 2 & 3
[C] Only 3 & 4
[D] Only 1 & 4
Show Answer
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This week in history: February 28-March 6
25 years ago: Swedish PM Olof Palme assassinated
Swedish PM Olof Palme
On the night of February 28, 1986, the prime minister of Sweden, Olof Palme, was gunned down as he walked back to his Stockholm residence after watching a movie at a nearby cinema. Palme, who had been without a bodyguard, was approached from the rear and shot in the back, and was pronounced dead on arrival at a nearby hospital. His wife survived a second gunshot from the assailant.
The assassination of Palme, a Social Democrat, remains an unsolved mystery. Nearly three years later, a brain-damaged petty thief named Christer Pettersson was accused and identified by Palme’s widow, Lisbet Palme, as the killer. But Pettersson was acquitted on appeal—he had no motive, no history of homicidal violence, and there were doubts over Mrs. Palme’s testimony.
Palme created no shortage of enemies in his two terms as prime minister (1969-1976; 1982-1986). He had postured as an outspoken left critic of US foreign policy and Western imperialism. Palme had compared the Vietnam War to the Holocaust, called for an end to apartheid in South Africa, supported the Palestine Liberation Organization, and cultivated good relations with Cuba and Nicaragua.
However, Palme’s “anti-Americanism” would be better thought of as a loyal opposition whose aim was to gain advantage for Swedish and European capitalism. Sweden’s “neutrality” was in fact a mirage—its government continued to maintain secret military relations with NATO even under Palme.
50 years ago: Kennedy orders creation of Peace Corps
Kennedy greeting Peace Corps recruits, 1961
On March 1, 1961, US President John Kennedy issued an executive order calling for the formation of a Peace Corps, whose stated tasks would be to send young Americans to poor nations to provide technical assistance, teach citizens there about the US, and learn about other cultures themselves.
In reality, the Peace Corps was an instrument in the tool kit that sought to counter the growing hatred of “Yankee imperialism” all over the world. Three days later, Kennedy placed his brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, as the first head of the program.
The proposal illustrated the contradictions of American liberalism, then at its zenith, and those of the Peace Corps’ progenitor, Kennedy. While aiming to provide a facelift for the US abroad, supposedly by combating poverty, it also aimed to establish a foothold in nations where the US had little credibility and where revolutionary movements threatened important interests.
The Peace Corps would appeal to the idealism of American youth, which Kennedy was inspiring through his speeches. The president called on a new generation to enlist in “a grand and global alliance” to fight tyranny, poverty, disease, and war. “To those peoples in the huts and villages of half the globe struggling to break the bonds of mass misery,” he said in his inaugural address, “we pledge our best efforts to help them help themselves.”
He was at the same time escalating the American military presence in Vietnam and pushing a dramatic expansion of military spending, and would soon promote another new body for American youth, the “Green Berets,” otherwise known as the US Army Special Forces.
75 years ago: Seamen’s strike on SS California leads to formation of the National Maritime Union
SS California passing through the Panama Canal
The SS California was a passenger ship run by the Panama Pacific Limited, whose crew, on March 1, 1936, led by ‘Big Joe’ Curran, launched a sit-down strike for better wages and conditions. When the ship was due to depart San Pedro, California, the crew refused to cast off. The striking workers refused to disembark to prevent scab labour being brought aboard. The sit-down strike would be successfully utilized on a grander scale later that same year by autoworkers at the General Motors plant at Flint, Michigan.
The SS California was forced to stay docked at San Pedro for three days before the intervention of US Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins. She persuaded the crew to sail on to New York City, where a grievance hearing would supposedly be arranged. She also promised to see to it that the strikers would not be prosecuted by the American government or the company.
However, upon its docking in New York, the SS California was met by FBI officers under the direction of Secretary of Commerce Daniel Roper, who declared the strikers ‘mutineers’ and had their leaders arrested. Panama Pacific lambasted Curran through advertisements in the national press and when the case came to court, he and the other strike leaders were fined two days pay, fired by Panama Pacific and blacklisted.
The fate of the SS California led to a ten-week strike led by Curran and the newly established Seaman’s Defence Committee along the American east coast. In 1937 Curran helped establish the National Maritime Union (NMU), which affiliated with the newly formed Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) the same year.
100 years ago: Famine, plague threaten millions in China
Chinese and British officials at opening of Kowloon-
Canton Railway
Famine and disease were threatening millions of Chinese, according to media accounts this week in 1911.
One such report detailed how the famine zone was working itself from the south, spreading north through Shantung, Anhui, and Jiangsu provinces, while the plague zone was spreading south from Manchuria, Xiamen, and Yantai. The Red Cross reported that in 3 million were starving in Jiangsu and Anhui alone.
“Already the people are reduce to eating roots and turnip tips,” wrote American missionary William F. Junkin. “[T]his wretched diet soon makes them sick…To raise money people have sold the furniture from their homes, and even the timber in their houses, tearing them down to make them marketable, and living now out of doors in slush and snow.” Another missionary in Andong described a family sitting down for a meal of potato leaves. The head of a relief operation in China reported that the first spring harvest would be scanty because the people were too weak to work and draft animals had been consumed for flesh.
Though less deadly at that point, the plague epidemic was receiving greater attention because it was believed by medical experts to be the first on such a large scale since the Middle Ages. Chinese authorities worked to quarantine villages—leaving residents to die—fearful that the plague’s spread could be used as a pretext for new interventions by Russia in Manchuria.
The famine was caused in part by a torrential rainfall the previous summer—16 inches in two days—that had destroyed crops in the south. The authorities had months to prepare for the famine, but nothing was done to address the looming disaster until it was too late. The decrepit Qing Dynasty was thoroughly corrupt and at the mercy of the Great Powers, which had carved up China into zones of influence and whose wealthy elite were made rich through the much-prized “China market.” But the “free market” did not provide food to the Chinese countryside, and when it became scarce the market made it unaffordable to millions.
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Term 3: Week Thirty
pythagorasThis lesson continues with how Latin endings showing possession (prompting accurate use of apostrophes in English!), and pupils are given the opportunity to translate sentences containing possessive Latin nouns. In the cultural segment, we meet the ancient Greek mathematician (and all-round brainbox) Pythagoras and demonstrate his theorem of the hypotenuse.
small_download wk30_plan
small_download wk30_notes
small_download wk30_pres
small_download wk30_pythagoras
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FREE CHAPTER from ‘A Practical Guide to Hoarding and Mental Health for Housing Lawyers’ by Rachel Coyle
This chapter describes what hoarding is, summarising its key elements
In reading this book, it will be helpful to have a clear idea of the basics of what hoarding is.
What hoarding encompasses
Hoarding is the persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value. Hoarding can be related to compulsive buying (such as never passing up a bargain), the compulsive acquisition of free items (such as collecting flyers), or the compulsive search for perfect or unique items (which may not appear to others as unique, such as an old container).
Hoarding can also encompass a specific habit such as the collection of newspapers or animals, but this should not be mistaken with collecting. In the majority of cases where animals are the animate object hoarded, they are found dead or severely ill.
In general, collectors have a sense of pride about their possessions and they experience joy in displaying and talking about them. They usually keep their collection organized, feel satisfaction when adding to it, and budget their time and money.
In contrast, hoarders tend to experience embarrassment about their possessions and feel uncomfortable when others see them, even though this may not seem obvious to the onlooker. They have clutter, often at the expense of liveable space, feel sad or ashamed after acquiring additional items, and they are often in debt.
Someone who hoards may exhibit the following[1]:
1. Inability to throw away possessions. The persistent difficulty with discarding or parting with possessions regardless of value is often due to a perceived need to save the items and distress is associated with discarding them;
2. Severe anxiety when attempting to discard items;
3. Great difficulty categorising or organising possessions;
4. Indecision about what to keep or where to put things;
5. Distress, such as feeling overwhelmed or embarrassed by possessions and, or alternatively, impair the social, occupational or other areas of the person’s functioning;
6. Suspicion of other people touching items;
7. Obsessive thoughts and actions: fear of running out of an item or of needing it in the future; checking the rubbish for accidentally discarded objects;
8. Functional impairments, including loss of living space, social isolation, family or marital discord, financial difficulties, health hazards.
These symptoms often result in accumulation and, or alternatively, clutter congesting living areas precluding activities for which those spaces were designed, compromising the use of those areas. It is not uncommon for the affected areas to only be cleared and made cleaner because of the involvement of a third party.
The World Health Organisation (‘WHO’) finally announced recognition of hoarding as a disorder in June 2018. On 18 June 2018, the WHO released its new International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11)25. ICD-11 was presented at the World Health Assembly in May 2019 for adoption by Member States to come into effect on 1 January 2022. That definition is:
“Hoarding disorder is characterised by accumulation of possessions due to excessive acquisition of or difficulty discarding possessions, regardless of their actual value. Excessive acquisition is characterized by repetitive urges or behaviours related to amassing or buying items. Difficulty discarding possessions is characterized by a perceived need to save items and distress associated with discarding them. Accumulation of possessions results in living spaces becoming cluttered to the point that their use or safety is compromised. The symptoms result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning.”
Symptoms and Mental Illness
Hoarding is a disorder that may be present on its own or as a symptom of another disorder. Those most often associated with hoarding are obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (‘OCPD’), obsessive-compulsive disorder (‘OCD’), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (‘ADHD’), and depression.
Hoarding is occasionally associated with eating disorders, pica (eating non-food materials), Prader-Willi syndrome, psychosis or dementia[2].
Compulsive Hoarding
Compulsive hoarding is
“(1) the acquisition of, and failure to discard, possessions which appear to be useless or of limited value. (2) living spaces sufficiently cluttered so as to preclude activities for which those spaces were designed; and (3) significant distress or impairment in functioning caused by the hoarding’’ (p. 341)[3]”.
Therefore, there are three symptoms:
1. Excessive acquisition of possessions;
2. Difficulty discarding – placing of higher values on possessions;
3. Clutter that prevents normal use of living spaces.
The causes of hoarding are not fully known. Some people start hoarding after a stressful change, such as bereavement or illness. It may be connected to a trauma, including as far back as childhood. Individuals that are reclusive or a perfectionist, may also be more susceptible.
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (‘OCD’)
Compulsive hoarding occurs in 20–30% of OCD patients[4].
OCD is a form of anxiety disorder characterised by obsessions (recurring thoughts or images that cause distress) or compulsions (repetitive behaviours) or, both.
1. Obsessions include fears of being contaminated by germs or causing of harm to oneself or others;
2. Compulsions, on the other hand, can be acts or rituals such as repeatedly checking or washing and putting objects into order.
Hoarding is a sub-type of OCD. The cognitive-behavioural theory of OCD is based on the idea that distorted beliefs, assumptions and thoughts can give rise to feelings of anxiety and distress and if a person responds to these unpleasant feelings, avoidance and/or rituals build up over time.
This often means that hoarders (and particularly those with OCD) have:
1. Problems making decisions – this includes deciding whether keeping something is of benefit or not;
2. A tendency to be a perfectionist because whatever decision is made must be right but because this is not possible, for fear of the consequences, the object/s are kept, thereby avoiding the need to make a decision. Procrastination becomes commonplace;
3. Emotional attachment – sentimental attachment is not uncommon even if the object/s in question appear to the onlooker to be of little functional value. For the individual hoarder, however, the object/s may feel a part of who they are, their identity or provide them comfort;
4. Distorted beliefs such as feeling responsible for not wasting things and for using objects properly. They cannot bear to dispose of it because of the belief that they might need it tomorrow or some other day or time in the future, however far into the future that might be.
Can there be a pre-disposition to hoard?
Hoarding behaviour can run in families but whether this is genetic or a learnt behaviour is unknown[5].
It can stem from a loss of a loved one, loss of a pet, ill treatment in the workplace, to name just a few.
Physiologically, the regions of the brain associated with hoarding are the anterior cingulate cortex (‘ACC’) and associated areas. The dorsal ACC is associated with decision making. The ventral ACC concerns motional and motivational salience and experiences[6]. ACC activation is lower in hoarding individuals than in healthy individuals[7].
[1] Frost R.O. & Steketee G. (1999). Issues in the treatment of compulsive hoarding. Cognitive and Behavioural Practice, 6, 397-407
[2]Hoarding has been observed in a number of other disorders including schizophrenia, anorexia, organic mental disorders, and depression.
[3]Frost R.O. & Gross R.C. (1993). The hoarding of possessions. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 31, 367-381.
[5] Winsberg M.E, Cassic K.S. & Koran L.M. (1999). Hoarding in obsessive-compulsive disorder and related disorders: a report of 20 cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 591- 597
[6] Grisham JR, Baldwin PA. Neuropsychological and neurophysiological insights into hoarding disorder. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2015;11:951–962
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History of organ transplantation
The first successful corneal allograft transplant was performed in 1837 in a gazelle model; the first successful human corneal transplant, a keratoplastic operation, was performed by Eduard Zirm at Olomouc Eye Clinic, now Czech Republic, in 1905. The first transplant in the modern sense - the implantation of organ tissue in order to replace an organ function - was a thyroid transplant in 1883. It was performed by the Swiss surgeon and later Nobel laureate Theodor Kocher. In the preceding decades Kocher had perfected the removal of excess thyroid tissue in cases of goiter to an extent that he was able to remove the whole organ without the patient dying from the operation. Kocher carried out the total removal of the organ in some cases as a measure to prevent recurrent goiter. By 1883 the surgeon noticed that the complete removal of the organ leads to a complex of particular symptoms that we today have learned to associate with a lack of thyroid hormone. Kocher reversed these symptoms by implanting thyroid tissue to these patients and thus performed the first organ transplant. In the following years Kocher and other surgeons used thyroid transplantation also to treat thyroid deficiency that had appeared spontaneously, without a preceding organ removal. Thyroid transplantation became the model for a whole new therapeutic strategy, organ transplantation. After the example of the thyroid other organs were transplanted in the decades around 1900. Some of these transplants were done in animals for purposes of research, where organ removal and transplantation became a successful strategy of investigating the function of organs.
Kocher was awarded his Nobel Prize in 1909 for the discovery of the function of the thyroid gland. At the same time, organs were also transplanted for treating diseases in humans. The thyroid gland became the model for transplants of adrenal and para-thyroid glands, pancreas, ovary, testicles and kidney. By 1900 the idea that one can successfully treat internal diseases by replacing a failed organ through transplantation had been generally accepted.[5] Pioneering work in the surgical technique of transplantation was made in the early 1900s by the French surgeon Alexis Carrel, with Charles Guthrie, with the transplantation of arteries or veins. Their skilful anastomosis operations, the new suturing techniques, laid the groundwork for later transplant surgery and won Carrel the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. From 1902 Carrel performed transplant experiments on dogs. Surgically successful in moving kidneys, hearts and spleens, he was one of the first to identify the problem of rejection, which remained insurmountable for decades. The discovery of transplant immunity by the German surgeon Georg Schöne, various strategies of matching donor and recipient, and the use of different agents for immune suppression did not result in substantial improvement so that organ transplantation was largely abandoned after WWI.[5]
The first attempted human deceased-donor transplant was performed by the Ukrainian surgeon Yuri Voronoy in the 1930s;[6][7] rejection resulted in failure. Joseph Murray and J. Hartwell Harrison performed the first successful transplant, a kidney transplant between identical twins, in 1954, successful because no immunosuppression was necessary in genetically identical twins.
The emerging field of regenerative medicine promises to solve the problem of organ transplant rejection by regrowing organs in the lab, using the patients' own cells (stem cells or healthy cells extracted from the donor site.)
Timeline of successful transplants
1950: First successful kidney transplant by Dr Richard H. Lawler (Chicago, U.S.A)[9]
2005: First successful ovarian transplant by Dr P N Mhatre (Wadia hospital Mumbai, India)
2005: First successful partial face transplant (France)
2006: First jaw transplant to combine donor jaw with bone marrow from the patient, by Eric M. Genden Mount Sinai Hospital, New York
2006: First successful human penis transplant (later reversed after 15 days due to 44 year old recipient's wife's psychological rejection) (Guangzhou, China) [10][11]
2008: First baby born from transplanted ovary by James Randerson
2010: First full facial transplant, by Dr Joan Pere Barret and team (Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron on July 26, 2010 in Barcelona, Spain.)
2011: First double leg transplant, by Dr Cavadas and team (Valencia's Hospital La Fe, Spain)
Liver transplantation history
The liver has been the noble organ, the organ of life from time immemorial - liver in English, Leber in German, derived from the verb to live.
Liver transplantation was first attempted in dogs by Welch in Albany in 1955 and Cannon in California in 1956. The first human liver transplant was performed in 1963 by a surgical team led by Dr. Thomas Starzl of Denver, Colorado, United States. The three-year-old child with biliary atresia, in a disastrous physiological condition, received the liver from another child who had died from a brain tumor. The recipient survived for five hours after the transplantation, succumbing to the complications of coagulation and haemostasis encountered during the operation. The second liver transplant in man was performed on May 5, 1963, was more successful, although the patient died on the 22nd postoperative day from pulmonary embolism but with a normal liver. Dr. Starzl performed several additional transplants over the next few years before the first short-term success was achieved in 1967 with the first one-year survival post transplantation.
Despite the development of viable surgical techniques, liver transplantation remained experimental through the 1970s, with one year patient survival in the vicinity of 25%.The introduction of cyclosporin by Sir Roy Calne markedly improved patient outcomes, and the 1980s saw recognition of liver transplantation as a standard clinical treatment for both adult and pediatric patients with appropriate indications. A further advance was the improvement of liver preservation by the introduction of University of Wisconsin Solution (Viaspan) in 1987 extending periods of cold storage in Collins solution by two to three fold. Liver transplantation is now performed at over one hundred centers in the USA, as well as numerous centers in Europe and elsewhere. One-year patient survival is 80–85%, and outcomes continue to improve, although liver transplantation remains a formidable procedure with frequent complications. However, the supply of liver allografts from non-living donors is far short of the number of potential recipients, a reality that has spurred the development of living donor liver transplantation.
Lung transplantation history
James Hardy, MD, and Watts Webb, MD, performed the first human lung transplant at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in 1963. The patient, a 58-year-old man suffering from end-stage emphysema and lung cancer, died 18 days later.
The 1960s and 1970s saw a number of additional unsuccessful attempts at human lung transplantation. The modern era of lung transplantation was launched in 1983 when Dr. Joel Cooper and his associates at the University of Toronto successfully transplanted two patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. The success of Dr. Cooper and his team stemmed in part from their understanding of how to protect the vulnerable bronchial anastomosis (bronchial "hookup").
The team also pioneered new surgical techniques, contributing to the evolution of the lung transplant procedure.
Since the initial transplant era, further development of surgical techniques and new medications have led to increasingly-successful outcomes for transplant patients. Medications such as cyclosporin and tacrolimus lower the risk of organ rejection. Antimicrobial agents such as ganciclovir and valganciclovir more effectively help prevent or treat infections. Clinicians understand better how to deal with complications such as donor graft dysfunction and chronic rejection. Improved donor management, expanded donor criteria, and improved preservation techniques have also played a role in lung transplantation's growing success.
Today lung transplantation is a widely-accepted therapeutic option for a growing number of end-stage lung diseases. Continued development of new transplant medications furthers the science of transplantation and brings with it new hope and optimism for thousands of people who will benefit from this life-saving surgery.
The first successful transplant surgery involving the lungs was a heart-lung transplant, performed by Dr. Bruce Reitz of Stanford University on a woman who had idiopathic pulmonary hypertension.
• 1983: First successful long-term single lung transplant (Tom Hall) by Joel Cooper (Toronto)
• 1986: First successful long-term double lung transplant (Ann Harrison) by Joel Cooper (Toronto)
• 1988: First successful long-term double lung transplant for cystic fibrosis by Joel Cooper (Toronto)
Heart transplantation history
The history of heart surgery, spanning only 100 years to date, has seen some of the most daring and persistent men and women in all of medical history. Many aspects of heart surgery, including such innovations as the heart-lung machine, aortic aneurysm surgery, and the correction of congenital heart defects, have provided future surgeons with an important lesson: diligent research can solve complex problems. The history and development of cardiac transplantation is particularly full of challenges that have been overcome, with the research phase alone spanning more than 90 years. During that time, essential contributions came from all over the world, including the United States, Russia, England, and South Africa. As is typical of medical advancement, individual contributions did not stand alone but added to the experience of those who had come before. Even so, the work of a few particular groups deserves special recognition. Most notable is the Stanford team, led by Dr. Norman Shumway, who continued to transplant human hearts when other institutions had abandoned hopes for the operation. Largely because of the commitment of that team, cardiac transplantation has become a standard option in the treatment of end-stage heart disease. Currently, only the availability of donor hearts limits the number of cardiac transplantations performed worldwide.
By the 1960s, surgeons were ready to tackle hearts too far gone for repair. In 1964, a team of surgeons in Jackson, Miss., performed the first animal-to-human heart transplant on record, placing a chimpanzee's heart into a dying man's chest. It beat for an hour and a half but proved too small to keep him alive, a failure that revealed surgeons would have to use human hearts if transplants were to achieve enduring success.
First Heart Transplant (1967): On December 3, 1967, South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard conducted the first heart transplant on 53-year-old Lewis Washkansky. The surgery was a success. However, the medications that were given to Washkansky to prevent his immune system from attacking the new heart also supressed his body's ability to fight off other illnesses. Eighteen days after the operation, Washkansky died of double pneumonia.
In 1984, the world's first successful pediatric heart transplant was performed at Columbia on a four-year-old boy. He received a second transplant in 1989 and continues to live a productive life today.
Kidney transplant history
The French surgeon Mathieu Jaboulay (1860-1913), also in Lyon, was the first to clearly document kidney transplants from animals to humans. In 1906, he transplanted the left kidney of a pig into the left elbow of a woman suffering from nephrotic syndrome (Jaboulay,1906). This is considered the first human renal transplant, a xenotransplant. However, the graft failed because of early vascular thrombosis
Three years later, in 1909, Ernest Unger (1875-1938) in Berlin transplanted a monkey kidney into a girl dying of renal failure; no urine was produced, and Unger concluded that the biochemical barrier was insoluble (Unger, 1909).
1936: First Human Transplants
Working in some obscurity, Yu Yu Voronoy (in Kherson, Ukraine) performed six human kidney allografts between 1933 and 1949 - the kidneys being transplanted into the thigh. The first 'successful' one, in 1933, was the first transplanted human kidney (Voronoy, 1937; Hamilton, 1984). The recipient was a 26-year old woman who was admitted in a uraemic coma after swallowing mercury chloride in a suicide attempt. Voronoy retrieved the kidney from a 60-year-old man who had died from a fracture of the base of the skull. The donor had been dead for 6 hours. The kidney was ABO-incompatible (B to O). The recipient died 48 hours later without making urine but the vessels were patent at autopsy 2 days later. In the six transplants he reported, no significant renal function occurred in any of them.
1945-1953: First Successful Renal Transplants
As dialysis was not yet available, they decided to try to save her life by performing a kidney transplant; obtaining a kidney from an elderly patient who had just died during surgery. They wheeled a 29 year old woman, with acute renal failure, to the treatment room at the end of the hall; and, using two gooseneck lamps for light, attached the donor kidney to the woman’s antecubital vessels, so that it rested outside the skin. They then covered the kidney with a plastic bag and watched as the patient’s urine drained into a jar. This primitive transplant lasted only four days, and she recovered renal function, surviving to be discharged. This may have been the first (albeit perhaps not entirely necessary) 'successful' deceased donor transplant, outside the abdomen.
David Hume (1917-1973), Boston
Richard H Lawler (1896-1982), Chicago
1954-60: Boston and Murray
History of Tissue Transplantation
• 1900s - Successful transplantation of bone, soft tissue and corneas began.
• 1949 - The establishment of the U.S. Navy Tissue Bank gave the nation its first bone and tissue processing and storage facility.
• 1970s -The rapid development of transplant medicine, combined with factors including general population growth and expansion of the elderly population caused an increased demand for donated tissues and organs.
• 1986 - There were more than 300 bone banks in operation.
• 1993 - The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) initiated regulation of all U.S. Tissue Banks.
• 1997-2005 - Additional regulations were announced including the required registration with the FDA of all tissue banking establishments and tissue donor suitability criteria.
o The FDA enforced the comprehensive Good Tissue Practices. This regulation which binds all agencies that recover, process, store, label, package, distribute, screen or test human tissue resulted in greater safety assurances industry wide.
o Today - It is estimated that over one million allograft tissue transplants are performed annually.
• Allografts are utilized in almost all surgical disciplines including:
• orthopedics
• neurosurgery
• gynecology
• cardiac surgery
• burn care and many others.
• Over time, physicians have realized the benefits of using allograft tissues over the alternatives such as autografts and synthetics.
History of immune suppression
1960-65: Age of Imunosuppression
In November 1960 the first successful non-twin sibling living transplant in the UK was carried out by Hopewell. 'Success' was difficult to define in these early transplants. This patient died after seven weeks. Also in 1960, Willard Goodwin, at the University of California in Los Angeles, started using corticosteroids as a further adjunct to the treatment (Goodwin, 1963). Further work on immunosuppression was clearly necessary.
Hand transplantation history
In contrast to the earlier attempts at hand transplantation, the Louisville group had performed extensive basic science research and feasibility studies for many years prior to their first clinical procedure {for example, Shirbacheh et al., 1998}. There also was considerable transparency and institutional review board oversight involved in the screening and selection of prospective patients.
On January 14, 2004, the team of Professor Jean-Michel Dubernard (Edouard-Herriot Hospital, France) declared a five-year-old double hand transplant a success. The lessons learned in this case, and in the 26 other hand transplants (6 double) which occurred between 2000 and 2005, gave encouragement to other transplant operations of such organs as the face, abdominal wall or larynx.
On May 4, 2009 Jeff Kepner, a 57-year-old Augusta, Georgia, resident, underwent the first double hand transplant in the United States at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center by a team led by Dr. W.P. Andrew Lee, who also had been performing careful basic research on such transplants for many years. A CNN story on his follow up demonstrated the limited functional restoration to be expected, particularly following bilateral transplantation.
On March 8, 2011, 26-year-old Emily Fennell underwent an 18 hour surgery to attach a right hand. This was performed in the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center.
March, 12 2011 Linda Lu became the recipient of the first hand transplant in the Southeast, performed at Emory University Hospital, from a donor “Leslie Sullivent”.
On February 27, 2013, 38-year-old Eskandar Moghaddami received first hand transplant surgery by the 15 Khordad Hospital plastic surgery team in Iran, Tehran(Head of team:Dr Abdoljalil Kalantar-Hormozi,professor of plastic surgery,Shahid Beheshti university of medical sciences).
Face transplant history
Self as donor ("face replant")
Partial face transplant
The world's first partial face transplant on a living human was carried out on 27 November 2005 by Bernard Devauchelle, an oral and maxillofacial surgeon, and Jean-Michel Dubernard in Amiens, France. Isabelle Dinoire underwent surgery to replace her original face, which had been mauled by her black Labrador dog. A triangle of face tissue from a brain-dead human's nose and mouth was grafted onto the patient. On 13 December 2007, the first detailed report of the progress of this transplant after 18 months was released in the New England Journal of Medicine and documents that the patient was happy with the results but also that the journey has been very difficult, especially with respect to her immune system's response.
In April 2006, Dr Guo Shuzhong at the Xijing military hospital in Xian, China similarly transplanted the cheek, upper lip, and nose of Li Guoxing, who was mauled by an Asiatic black bear while protecting his sheep. On 21 December 2008 it was reported that Li had died in July in his home village in Yunnan. Prior to his death, a documentary on the Discovery Channel showed he had stopped taking immuno-suppressant drugs in favor of herbal medication – suggested by his surgeon to be a contributing factor to his death.
Full face transplant
On 20 March 2010, a team of 30 Spanish doctors carried out the first full face transplant on a man injured in a shooting accident. It became the first full face transplant in the world.
In Turkey
On 21 January 2012, Turkish surgeon Dr. Ömer Özkan and his team successfully performed a full face transplant at Akdeniz University's hospital in Antalya. The 19-year-old patient, Uğur Acar's face was badly burnt in a house fire when he was a baby. The donor was 39-year-old Ahmet Kaya, who died on 20 January.[24] The Turkish doctors declared that his body had accepted the new tissue.
Almost one month later on 24 February 2012, a surgical team led by Dr. Serdar Nasır conducted the country's second successful full face transplant at Hacettepe University's hospital in Ankara on 25-year-old Cengiz Gül. The patient's face was badly burned in a television tube implosion accident when he was two years old. The donor was 40-year-old N. A. (his family did not allow revealing of his identity), who experienced brain death two days before the surgery following a motorcycle accident occurred on 17 February.
On 16 May 2012, surgeon Dr. Ömer Özkan and his team at the Akdeniz University Hospital performed country's third and their second full face transplant, fourth face transpant in Turkey at all. The face and ears of the 27-year old patient Turan Çolak from Izmir were burnt as he fell into an oven when he was three and half years old. The donor was Tevfik Yılmaz, a 19-year young man from Uşak, who had attempted suicide on 8 May. He was declared brain death in the evening hours of 15 May after having been in intensive care station for seven days. His parents donated all his organs.
In the United Kingdom
In October 2006, surgeon Peter Butler at London's Royal Free Hospital in the UK was given permission by the NHS ethics board to carry out the face transplant. His team will select four adult patients (children cannot be selected due to concerns over consent), with operations being carried out at six-month intervals.
In the United States
In 2004, the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio, United States, became the first institution to approve this surgery and test it on cadavers.
The first full face transplant performed in the US was done on a construction worker named Dallas Wiens in March 2011. He was burned in an electrical accident in 2008. This operation, performed by Dr. Bohdan Pomahač and Dr. Jeffrey Janis, was paid for with the help of the US defense department. They hope to learn from this procedure and use what they learn to help soldiers suffering from facial injuries.[33] One of the top benefits of the surgery was that Dallas has regained his sense of smell.
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Image Alt
Casting Instruments
Casting is the creation of a required shape by filling a mould with a liquid which hardens and acquires the shape. In the case of bronze, the most common means of casting is called cira perdu or “lost wax”. This means that the shape is formed with wax. The wax is then surrounded with liquid clay or ceramic shell to make a mold. A pouring hole is left open at the top. The mold is then heated to harden the clay and burn out the wax. Bronze is fired to a temperature of 1100 degrees C approx when it becomes liquid and is then poured into the mold. If everything has gone to plan the shape should be in bronze inside when the mold is broken open. In the case of the horns this system requires a large amount of preparation, good luck and a lot of welding and clean up afterwards.
In the Bronze Age, however, a two part clay mold with a central core was used to make horns. Professor Peter Holmes’ study on original instruments concludes that the mold was formed around a solid shape in two halves and a core of clay was then positioned between and held in place with bronze pins or chaplets. The clay had to be fired before casting and this meant that the mold would shrink by 10%. Thus the shape of the horn had to be artificially altered to take this into account. He concludes that in some instances no finishing work was necessary after the horns were poured. A mold line can still be seen on instruments where the two clay halves did not absolutely match up, very much as one might see the mold line on a milk bottle today.
Many techniques and devices were employed to achieve such excellence which are lost in time but through exploration and trial and error these casting methods are being relearned.
Reference : Boolybrien The Personal Hoard of a Bronze Age Musician Simon O’Dwyer: Appendix : Notes on the Methods Used in the Reproduction of the Boolybrien Hoard. Holger C. Lönze. Page 15.. (page 157 within volume).
Tue ‒ Thu: 09am ‒ 07pm
Fri ‒ Mon: 09am ‒ 05pm
673 12 Constitution Lane Massillon
781-562-9355, 781-727-6090
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'Tis the Season for Conception - male and female fertility changes throughout the year
Does it ever seem like you’re invited to an awful lot of summer birthday gatherings? For good reason. In the United States, most births occur between June and early November. Count back nine months, and you’ll see that places most conceptions in the fall and winter.
What’s going on? Is the crisp autumn air, or the joy (or anxiety) of the holiday season, triggering more unprotected sexual intercourse? Or is it something else entirely?
It turns out reproduction is seasonal across all living organisms, from plants, to insects, to reptiles, to birds and mammals – including human beings. The ultimate explanation for this phenomenon is an evolutionary one.
Earth’s environment is seasonal. Above or below the equator, the year is structured by the winter, spring, summer and fall. In equatorial regions, the wet and dry seasons punctuate the year. Organisms have evolved strategies to reproduce at the time of year that will maximize their lifetime reproductive success.
Humans are no exception and maintain this evolutionary outcome: birth seasonality. Researchers, including us, have recently been working to understand more about why births are seasonal because these patterns can have a big impact on childhood disease outbreaks.
Tracking birth peaks across the globe
The first studies demonstrating human birth seasonality date back to the early 1800s.
In some countries, local customs can explain birth seasonality. For example, in the 1990s, researchers showed that the traditional July-August wedding season in Catholic communities in Poland resulted in lots of births in the spring. But wedding season does not drive birth seasonality everywhere, and there is only a small correlation between weddings and births 9 to 15 months later in most locations. Thus, nuptial beds are not the full story.
There is a clear pattern of births across latitude. Here in the U.S., states in the North have a birth peak in early summer (June-July), while states in the South experience a birth peak a few months later (October-November).
Globally, popular birthdays follow a similar pattern with peaks occurring earlier in the year the further north you get from the equator – for instance, Finland’s is in late April, while Jamaica’s is in November. And in the U.S., states further south, like Texas and Florida, experience birth peaks that are not only later in the year, but also more pronounced than those seen in the North.
So what influences conception?
Research shows that the seasonality of births correlates with changes in local temperature and day length. And regions with extreme temperatures typically have two peaks in births every year. For example, data from the early 1900s showed two pronounced birth peaks per year in West Greenland and Eastern Europe.
Rural populations tend to have a more dramatic seasonal birth pulse than urban populations, probably because country dwellers may be more subject to environmental conditions, including changes in temperature and day length. Environmental factors like these could influence human sexual behavior.
Additionally, as in other animals, these environmental changes could drive seasonal changes in fertility. This means that, rather than just an increase in frequency of sexual intercourse, female and/or male fertility may change throughout the year, as an endogenous biological phenomenon, making people more likely to conceive at certain times – with the prerequisite of sexual intercourse, of course.
Biologists know that the fertility of non-human mammals is influenced by day length, which may act like a reproductive calendar. For example, deer use the shortening days of autumn as a signal for timing reproduction. Females get pregnant in the fall and carry their pregnancy through winter. The goal is to give birth at a time when plenty of resources are available for newborns – being born in springtime is evolutionarily beneficial.
So animals with long pregnancies tend to be short-day breeders, meaning they only breed in the short days of autumn and winter; they’re pregnant through the winter and give birth in spring. Whereas animals with short gestation periods are long-day breeders; they conceive in the long days of spring or summer and, because their pregnancy is short, have their young that same spring or summer. Many species only mate and are only capable of getting pregnant during a specific time of year – those long or short days, for instance – and the length of day itself directs their hormones and ability to conceive.
Humans may not be so different from other mammals. Day-length has the potential to influence human fertility and it does seem to explain the patterns of birth seasonality in some places, but not others. In addition to the length of day, researchers have shown that social status and changes in the standard of living also affect birth seasonality. There seems to be no single driver for birth seasonality in people, with an array of social, environmental and cultural factors all playing a role.
Losing our seasonal connection
There is one thing all researchers in this field agree on: People are starting to lose birth seasonality throughout the Northern Hemisphere. (Due to a lack of data, it is currently unknown what is happening in countries south of the equator, such as those in Latin America and Africa.)
There are two pieces of evidence to support this. First, the strength of the birth pulse – from June to November in the U.S. – has been decreasing for decades; and second, locations that had two birth peaks per year now only have one.
This loss of birth seasonality may be partially due to social factors, such as pregnancy planning and the increasing disconnect humans have with the natural environment and, therefore, the seasons. The root of this change is likely tied to industrialization and its downstream societal effects, including indoor work, fewer seasonal jobs, access to family planning, and modern housing and artificial light that obscures the natural day length that could influence fertility.
Whatever the cause of birth seasonality, one thing remains clear, at least here in the U.S. – right now remains the prime time for conception.
Reprinted from The Conversation LINK to article
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what is the meaning of cross section of a conductor?
Asked by Amuthavalli Thayyal Gopala Krishnan | 26th Sep, 2013, 11:30: AM
Expert Answer:
A cross section is the two-dimensional area you would get by cutting through the a conductor with a plane.
For eg., a cylindrical conductor, if cut the normal way, has a circular cross section.
Answered by | 26th Sep, 2013, 12:47: PM
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"url": "https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/what-is-the-meaning-of-cross-section-of-a-conductor/q2lpelyy"
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Cenote – Ts’ono’ot – Dzonot: The water hole or holy spring
The Spanish word "Cenote" is derived from the Mayan word "Dzonot" and means something like "holy spring". In ancient Mayan culture, people believed that the cenotes were the entrances to the underworld "Xibalba", where their rain god "Chac" lived. Therefore, the Mayas also performed rituals and sacrificial offerings in some cenotes to live in harmony with their god "Chac"; so that it rains enough and drinking water is always available. One of the cenotes on the site of the huge pyramid complex of "Chichen Itza" is especially known for such offerings. At that time, the heydays of the Mayas, people did not know yet that they actually live on the largest freshwater reservoir in the world and therefore would have enough drinking water available at all times. Basically, the Yucatán Peninsula is nothing more than a huge sponge, whose interior is soaked with clearest fresh water.
It all started many millions of years ago, when the Yucatán Peninsula was nothing more than a huge coral reef. During several ice ages, the sea level dropped, exposing the coral reef and causing it to die. Thus, over the course of time, a limestone plateau with a thickness of approximately 1,5 kilometres was formed that was flooded again after the ice ages. This process repeated many times and every time the coral reef was dry, atmospheric carbon dioxide fused with rain to form carbonic acid, which penetrated the soft limestone and dissolved it. Since all water flows towards the sea, the limestone was dissolved bit by bit. Thus over the course of time an underground river system was formed, which flows through a gigantic tunnel system into the sea. Due to the shifting of the earth's plates, the Yucatán Peninsula has not been flooded for 44 million years and has remained as we know it today. But the dissolution process of the caves has continuously advanced and during further ice ages, the last one was approximately 18.000 years ago, the water level in the caves decreased and increased again and again. As a result, many of the cave systems were not filled with water inside for long periods of time, because the water level at that time was about 10 meters lower than it is now. During this dry season the impressive stalactites, stalagmites and even dripstone columns were formed by the same dissolution process that originally formed the caves.
On the way between the surface and the ceiling of the cave the acid rain has dissolved the limestone, thus liquefying it and converting it into the mineral calcium carbonate. When the drop of water was hanging from the ceiling of the cave for about 20 minutes before it dripped down, it released the previously liquefied mineral calcium carbonate onto the cave ceiling and thus, drop by drop a stalactite was formed. The same drop, when it hit the ground, also released the mineral calcium carbonate there and a stalagmite grew up from below. If this process took place often enough over the course of time, stalagmite and stalactite eventually joined together in some places to form impressive dripstone columns. This process is very long and depends on the amount of rainfall and the porosity of the limestone. Basically one can say that a stalactite grows on average between 1 and a maximum of 10 centimetres in 100 years! The thicker a stalactite is, the slower it grows - so thin, filigree stalactites grow many times faster.
The cenotes are mostly created by the collapse of the cave ceiling - a so-called "cave collapse". At a time when the water level was lower and the cave ceiling was very thin, the weight of the cave ceiling and the jungle became too much and the cave ceiling simply gave way. These "sinkholes" (cenotes) then filled with water and opened the entrance to the caves. Other, particularly deep cenotes are most likely due to meteorite impacts about 64 million years ago north of the Yucatán Peninsula in what is now the Gulf of Mexico. The immense force of the impacts blasted deep holes into the limestone. The cenote at "Chichen Itza" is probably the most famous cenote that was created by a meteorite impact. The green algae water is very striking in these cenotes. The impact hole is filled with rainwater and since no underground river allows the water to drain away, unlike the cenotes formed by a cave collapse, no water exchange takes place and the water in the cenote becomes algae. Even if the data varies greatly depending on the source, it is said that between 1,500 and 2,500 cenotes are now known by name and statistically recorded. However, experts estimate that there are about 10'000 cenotes on the Yucatán Peninsula!
In the meantime, most of the cave systems on the Yucatán Peninsula have filled up again with clearest rainwater, which is extremely filtered on the approximately 4-day journey from the earth's surface down into the huge cave systems. Due to the dissolution of the limestone it contains a lot of calcium carbonate and therefore has no drinking water quality (by today's standards), although it is crystal clear. Due to the facts that the Riviera Maya is located by the sea, and the river speed in the caves is very low (1.5 - 2.5 kilometers in 24 hours), the sea continuously pushes salt water into the caves. Thus, from a depth of 10 meters there is salt water in many of the caves around here. Between salt and fresh water an intermediate layer is formed in which the water species mix, the so-called "halocline". In its untouched state it appears like a surface in the water and when illuminated with a lamp it conjures up a white line on the limestone of the cenote.
Adapted from Stefan Ullrich
• Twitter
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Transitions dfa
Add: nybovada79 - Date: 2020-12-12 19:41:34 - Views: 7159 - Clicks: 6488
Add transitions of transitions dfa the start state to the transition table T’. Similarly, given a character from the alphabet, we can ask a state to transit to another. A DFA is represented by digraphs called state diagram. What is the final state of the DFA? transitions dfa Step3d: Since we have to take AND of both DFA so final state would be Q 2,4, since it contains final state of both DFA. In mathematical terms, the transition function, δ: K×Σ ⇾ K in a DFA becomes a transition relation, transitions dfa Δ ⊆ (K×Σ)×K in an NFA. Building a nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) is very much like building a DFA. Empty string transitions are not seen in DFA.
If there are multiple final states, a new final state should be transitions dfa created with an ε-transition from each of the previous final states. Such a graph is called a state transition diagram. Thus, the DFA has states, if the transitions dfa original NFA has states. , DFA cannot change state without any input character. For a DFA, the definition of the transition function for a string is: $$ &92;widehat&92;delta:Q&92;times&92;Sigma^&92;star&92;to Q $$ The first part (before the arrow) defines all combinations of all strings with all states by using the cartesian product. 2 days ago · RAILER Draw the transition diagram of a DFA whose language = w€ 0,13* | w contains at least two ls and w contains even number of Os).
See more results. These are states that are reachable along paths labeled &39;a&39;, also allowing any edges labeled ε. The term deterministic in DFA means that the DFA can exist in, or can make the transition to, only one state at a given point of time for given inputs. A transition function is defined on every state for every input symbol. in the DFA graph with transitions labeled with the equivalent regular expressions. Hence it is called non-deterministic. Thus a final state of the DFA should be transitions dfa any state set which contains some final state of the NFA.
DFAs NFAs can be constructed from DFAs using transitions: Called NFA- Suppose M1 accepts L1, M2 accepts L2 Then an NFA can be constructed that accepts: L1 U L2 (union) L1L2 (concatenation) L1* (Kleene star) Closure Properties of NFA-ls NFA to DFA Conversion DFA vs NFA Deterministic vs nondeterministic For every nondeterministic automata, there is an equivalent deterministic automata. transition table and then passing it to some kind of function, we will define method States transition(char ch). Equivalence to DFA. Stack transitions dfa Exchange network consists of 176 Q&A dfa communities including Stack Overflow, the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers.
The construction is close to the subset construction, as the states of D are subsets of the states transitions dfa o. A dfa for Lis given by the following transition graph: 2. Note that initially, every transition in the DFA is de facto labeled with a regular expression. DFA Machine that transitions dfa accepts all strings that start and end with same character For the above problem statement, we must first build a DFA machine. An nfa for the set is given by the following transition graph: 2. Transition table would like this after adding final state. The start state is the state representing the NFA start state and any nodes reachable from it via epsilon transitions. It explains the transitions dfa uniqueness of the computation.
This includes transitions dfa the start state of the NFA dfa and any states that can be reached by a e-transition. When an input (or action) is given, then a transition occurs from one subset transitions dfa transitions dfa of to another. DFA doesn&39;t have epsilon transitions. . Backtracking is allowed in DFA: In NDFA, backtracking is not always possible. • Automata are string processing devices. An nfa for Lis given dfa by the following transition graph: transitions dfa 2. For one of the inputs.
· For a DFA to be valid, there must a transition rule defined for each symbol of the input set at every state to a valid state. It works for any general dfa that you have specified through five tuples during the execution of the program. In particular, the transitions dfa start state of the DFA is the ε-closure of the NFA start state, i. There is a directed edge from node q to node p labeled a if δ (q, a) = p. Transition Diagram A transition diagram or state transition diagram is a directed graph which can be constructed as follows: transitions dfa There is a node for each state in transitions dfa Q, which is represented by transitions dfa the circle. • The only change from a DFA is the transition function δ • δ takes two inputs: – A state from Q (the current state) – A symbol from Σ∪ε (the next input, or ε for an ε-transition) • δ produces one output: – A subset of Q (the set of possible next states - since multiple transitions dfa transitions can happen in parallel! The state transitions of the DFA are easy to define based on the way the NFA is set up with symbols corresponding to transitions dfa state names: δ(Q,σ) = Q - transitions dfa upper_case transitions dfa (σ), for all Q ⊆ Σ UP, σ ∈ Σ There are two parts to proving this claim: The DFA constructed by the Rabin-Scott construction consists of all 2 n states as indicated. This is obviously a failure.
The vertices represent the states. Elimination of ε-Transitions • Given an ε-NFA N, this construction produces an NFA N&39; such that L(N&39;)=L(N). Each one of those combinations can result transitions dfa in change of the state of the machine. You transitions dfa can work out from such a definition whether epsilon transitions are categorically disallowed, or are allowed in certain narrow circumstances. . with nothing, not even or phi.
For example: both (q0,a,q1), (q0,a,q2) ∈ Δ, so it&39;s not functional. Step3(a,b,c): Constructed transition table will be as. If it had it, it could transit from current state to other state without any input i. Does DFA have Epsilon transitions?
The transition function takes a DFA state representing transitions dfa some set x of NFA dfa states and maps it to the DFA state representing all the NFA states reachable from a state in x. In NFA, if the transition of start state over some input alphabet is transitions dfa null,. In the theory of computation, a branch of theoretical computer science, a deterministic transitions dfa finite automaton (DFA)—also known as deterministic finite acceptor (DFA), deterministic finite-state machine (DFSM), or deterministic finite-state automaton (DFSA)—is a finite-state machine that accepts or rejects a given string of symbols, by running through a state transitions dfa sequence uniquely transitions dfa determined by the.
NDFA permits empty string transitions. 7: Design an nfa with no more than ve states for the set fababn: n 0gfaban: n 0g. The arcs labeled with an input alphabet show the transitions. In the process, we create state 2.
Check if this DFA accepts 10101. If we have to take OR of both DFA the final state would be Q 0,4,Q 2,3,Q 1,4,Q 2,4. Effective Janu, CVS Caremark will be the pharmacy benefit manager (PBM) for the Plan’s prescription drug program. DFA will produce a dfa unique computation /run enabling transitions dfa the dfa automaton of each input string. However, an NFA is different from a DFA in that it satisfies one of two conditions. What is a transition function in DFA? A DFA for that language has at least 16 states.
Requires less space. 11: Find an nfa with foour states for L= fan: n 0gfbna: n 1g. How many states does a DFA have? • The construction of N&39; begins with N as input, and takes 3 steps: 1. This is an alternative to representing communication between separate, interdependent finite-state machines. 0,1 a b 2 For state 0,1, we create a transition for each possible input, a and b. Minimize that product DFA as much as possible. , reading a string and deciding whether or not it is in the language accepted by the DFA).
Hope this cleared your doubt. This is a java program to simulate the DFA(deterministic finite automata) developed using J2SE. We present it now. transitions dfa Thus, it is clear that every formal language that can be recognized by a DFA can be recognized by a NFA.
0,1 The start state of the DFA is the set of states the NFA can be in before reading any input. DFA machine is similar to a flowchart with various states and transitions. · In a DFA, for a transitions dfa particular input transitions dfa character, the machine goes to one state only.
public class DFA. DFA reject the string in case the termination state is other than the transitions dfa accepting state. The state transitions of the transitions dfa DFA are derived directly from the transitions between nondeterministic I-states. And as definition, we know that the input must be from the input set. We could make an "a" transition to a dead state, but the omission of the transition is more succinct. DFA transitions dfa only has one state transition for every symbol of the alphabet, and there is only one final state for its transition which means that for each character that is read, there is one corresponding state in DFA.
The finite automata are called NFA when there exist many paths for specific input from the current state to the next state. Theory Of Computation (TOC) | Eliminating transitions dfa Epsilon Transition (ε-Transitions): Given any Epsilon NFA (ε-NFA), we can find a DFA D that accepts the same language dfa as E. The meaning when $&92;delta(q,a)$ dfa does not exist is simply that the DFA does not accept the input string. , Reviewing our idea that, for a given string w the relevant DFA state is the set of all NFA states reachable from the start state by w. Add an arc from p to q labeled a iff there is an arc labeled a in N from. In that case, check the definition of deterministic finite automata (DFA) that is relevant for you. Manish Bhojasia, a technology veteran with 20+ years @ Cisco & Wipro, is Founder and CTO at Sanfoundry. • One state is initial(denoted by a short incoming arrow), and several are final/accepting(denoted by a double circle).
Any serious treatment of automata transitions dfa will define DFA rigorously. In automata theory, a finite-state machine is called a deterministic finite automaton (DFA), if each of its transitions is uniquely determined by its source state and input symbol, and reading an input symbol is required for each state transition. If start state makes transition to multiple states for some input alphabet, then treat those multiple states as a single state in the DFA. The initial state is denoted by an empty single incoming arc. A DFA machine can be constructed with every input and output.
A deterministic finite automata does not need a transition from every state for every symbol. For this purpose, you have to draw two DFAs first and then you have to compute their product DFA. Make p an accepting state of N&39; iff ECLOSE(p) contains an accepting state of N. Minor point: when we write a transition table for a DFA, the entries are elements not sets so there are no present. CVS Caremark currently processes prescription claims from participating pharmacies, mail order claims and paper claims filed by participants for approximately transitions dfa 103 million members across the country. Every NFA is not DFA, but each NFA can be translated into DFA. Requires more space.
The transition from a state can be to multiple next states for each input symbol. DFA cannot use empty string transition.
Transitions dfa
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Covenants in General
What are the basic elements of a covenant? Was there a covenant at creation?
In the original order of creation, man's relationship with God was covenantal. This can be inferred in a number of ways.
First, the standard means by which a suzerain king (the greater king) related to a vassal king (the lesser king) was through a national treaty, also called a covenant. These were arrangements whereby the suzerain imposed a relationship on the vassal, as well as the terms of that relationship. He offered blessings for following the terms of the relationship, and threatened curses against breaking the terms of the relationship. Since man was God's vassal king, and God was the suzerain, Moses' and his original audience would have assumed that God would relate to mankind through a covenant.
Second, there are a number of standard features of a covenant, and these can be found in the creation account. Now, it is important to note that there are two basic definitions of a covenant. One is that a covenant is the agreement between two parties, such as a treaty or contract. The other is that a covenant is the relationship between these parties that is forged by that agreement. In point of fact, the Bible uses the word "covenant" in both ways. While there is no covenant document or ceremony or sacrifice in the creation account (common elements of a covenant agreement), there is plenty of evidence that a covenant relationship existed between God and mankind.
Different scholars list the elements of covenants in different ways, but there are at least five basic elements of covenantal relationships that are typically reflected in ancient covenant documents, each of which is present in the creation account:
1. Benevolence of the Suzerain.
Prior to forming the covenant, the suzerain demonstrated good will in the form of blessings to the vassal. In the case of mankind, he created mankind and placed him in a "very good" (Gen 1:31) Garden. He was the Suzerain's crowning of creation.
2. Imposition on the Vassal.
Covenant relationships were unilaterally imposed by the suzerain upon the vassal. With regard to mankind, God assigned humanity a role that could not be refused (Gen 2:15). He also imposed stipulations, consequences, and perpetuity (see below). See "Conditional and Unconditional Covenants" below.
3. Stipulations.
Covenant stipulations consisted of laws that vassal kings had to follow. Ancient suzerains often required vassals to provide tribute and men to serve in armies, etc. (just as suzerains and vassals commonly required these things from their subject peoples; cf. 1 Sam 8:11-17). In the Garden of Eden, the stipulations included working and taking care of the Garden (Gen 2:15), being fruitful and multiplying (Gen 1:28), and not eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:16-17).
4. Consequences.
Covenants also imposed consequences, both positive consequences (i.e., blessings) for obedience to the stipulations, and negative consequences (i.e., curses) for disobedience to the stipulations. The most obvious consequence mentioned in the creation narrative is the curse upon creation (including Adam and Eve) if Adam/Eve ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:16-17).
5. Perpetuity / Succession.
Covenants also provided for their continuation in the future. Often, this provision took the form of mentioning who would inherit the covenant obligations, both suzerain and vassal, in future generations. Such rules of succession were based on the understanding that the covenant was perpetual. Appropriately, the consequences of God's original covenant with mankind extended to future generations of humanity (e.g., all mankind, not just Adam and Eve, were thrown out of the Garden of Eden; Gen 3:24; see also Rom 5:12-19).
Third, other portions of Scripture refer back to the original creation with the understanding that it was covenantal. For instance, Hosea 6:7 reads: "Like Adam, they have broken the covenant they were unfaithful to me there." Some commentators take the word "Adam" as a reference to humanity in general, or to a city by that name (cf. Josh 3:16). But the most natural reference seems to be to the first man. This first man of course represented all mankind, as he was their federal head (Rom 5:12-21).
Genesis itself also alludes to a covenant with Adam. When the covenant with Noah is introduced, the vocabulary refers to confirming (Hebrew: qum; Gen 6:18; 9:11ff.) an existing covenant rather than creating (Hebrew: karath) a new covenant. Thus, a preceding covenant is assumed when God speaks to Noah about confirming his covenant. While nothing in Genesis is called a "covenant" prior to the account of Noah, it is reasonable to conclude that Moses understood the initial arrangement between God and humanity to be the antecedent to the covenant with Noah. Cf. "The Renewed or New Covenant?" below.
Finally, it is clear that there was a covenant under Christ (Matt 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20; 2 Cor 3:6; Heb 7:22; 8:6). The New Testament draws a parallel between Adam and Christ, and associates the two in terms of standard covenant elements (Rom 5:12-19; 1 Cor 15:22, 45-49). Since these elements explicitly refer to a covenant in the case of Christ, it is reasonable to conclude that they also refer to a covenant in the case of Adam. Whereas Christ served as the covenant administrator in his day, Adam was the covenant administrator at creation, which is why we refer to the Adamic administration of the covenant.
Related Links:
Conditional and Unconditional Covenants
The Renewed or New Covenant?
What is the Covenant of Grace?
Answer by Dr. Joseph R. Nally, Jr.
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Vanadium is a steel-grey, corrosion-resistant metal, which exists in oxidation states ranging from -1 to +5. Metallic vanadium does not occur in nature, and the most common valence states are +3, +4, and +5. The pentavalent form (VO3-) predominates in extracellular body fluids whereas the quadrivalent form (VO+2) is the most common intracellular form. Because of its hardness and its ability to form alloys, vanadium (i.e., ferrovanadium) is a common component of hard steel alloys used in machines and tools. Although most foods contain low concentrations of vanadium (< 1 ng/g), food is the major source of exposure to vanadium for the general population. High air concentrations of vanadium occur in the occupation setting during boiler-cleaning operations as a result of the presence of vanadium oxides in the dust. The lungs absorb soluble vanadium compounds (V2O5) well, but the absorption of vanadium salts from the gastrointestinal tract is poor. The excretion of vanadium by the kidneys is rapid with a biological half-life of 20-40 hours in the urine. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. Vanadium is probably an essential trace element, but a vanadium-deficiency disease has not been identified in humans. The estimated daily intake of the US population ranges from 10-60 micrograms V. Vanadyl sulfate is a common supplement used to enhance weight training in athletes at doses up to 60 mg/d. In vitro and animal studies indicate that vanadate and other vanadium compounds increase glucose transport activity and improve glucose metabolism. In general, the toxicity of vanadium compounds is low. Pentavalent compounds are the most toxic and the toxicity of vanadium compounds usually increases as the valence increases. Most of the toxic effects of vanadium compounds result from local irritation of the eyes and upper respiratory tract rather than systemic toxicity. The only clearly documented effect of exposure to vanadium dust is upper respiratory tract irritation characterized by rhinitis, wheezing, nasal hemorrhage, conjunctivitis, cough, sore throat, and chest pain. Case studies have described the onset of asthma after heavy exposure to vanadium compounds, but clinical studies to date have not detected an increased prevalence of asthma in workers exposed to vanadium. Vanadium is a trace element present in practically all cells in plants and animals. It exerts interesting actions in living systems. At pharmacological doses, vanadium compounds display relevant biological actions such as mimicking insulin and growth factors as well as having osteogenic activity. Some vanadium compounds also show antitumoral properties. The importance of vanadium in bone arises from the studies developed to establish the essentiality of this element in animals and humans. Bone tissue, where the element seems to play an important role, accumulates great amounts of vanadium. Among several metals, vanadium has emerged as an extremely potent agent with insulin-like properties. These insulin-like properties have been demonstrated in isolated cells, tissues, different animal models of type I and type II diabetes as well as a limited number of human subjects. Vanadium treatment has been found to improve abnormalities of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and of gene expression in rodent models of diabetes. In isolated cells, it enhances glucose transport, glycogen and lipid synthesis, and inhibits gluconeogenesis and lipolysis. The molecular mechanism responsible for the insulin-like effects of vanadium compounds have been shown to involve the activation of several key components of insulin-signaling pathways that include the mitogen-activated-protein kinases (MAPKs) extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and p38MAPK, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K)/protein kinase B (PKB). (A7727, A7728, A7729)
Top Gene Interactions
Related Pathways
General Information
Mechanism of Action
Vanadium Interacts with Diseases
Vanadium Interacts with Genes
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12 files
The large communal nests of sociable weavers provide year-round insulated refuge for weavers and pygmy falcons
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posted on 02.10.2020, 14:17 by Anthony Lowney, Diana Bolopo, Billi Krochuk, Robert L. Thomson
The primary role of nests as structural support for eggs, nestlings, and incubating parents is well established, but our understanding of their secondary roles and their adaptive features is still limited. Nests can serve a particularly important role in protecting or buffering birds from weather. In hot, arid environments, maximum daily temperatures can exceed a species’ upper critical temperature threshold and during the nonbreeding season temperatures may also drop below freezing. Nest structures that help buffer against extreme temperatures may play a crucial role in managing the costs of thermoregulation, especially those nests that are used and maintained year-round. We use extensive year-round data to investigate the thermal benefits of massive colonial structures built by sociable weavers in the arid savannahs of the Kalahari, South Africa. These colonies consist of multiple nesting chambers and are used as roosts when birds are not breeding. We explored whether these structures provide thermal buffering throughout the year and how individual chamber placement within the colony and features of the chambers influenced their thermal buffering capacity. We also investigated whether nest chambers occupied and modified by an obligate nest parasite, the African pygmy falcon provided additional thermal buffering. Our results show that sociable weaver colonies provide thermal benefits throughout the year, buffering both hot and cold ambient extremes. Chambers with longer entrance tunnels provided better insulation than chambers with shorter entrance tunnels, and chambers located toward the center of a colony provided greater insulation than chambers at the edge. Chambers occupied by falcons did not display additional thermal benefits, which may be due to falcons choosing chambers with shorter entrance tunnels. Because falcons are larger than weavers, they may find it harder to enter chambers with longer entrance tunnels, and/or because weavers cease maintenance of those chambers. In conclusion, the communal nests of sociable weaver provide thermal benefits to weavers and heterospecifics alike, creating a more optimal environment for breeding, roosting and reducing thermal stress. In a landscape that is becoming increasingly harsh under climate change, the importance of these structures to the local animal communities may also increase.
(Paper provisionally accepted to Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. DOI to follow.)
Biological Sciences
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<urn:uuid:1229f74e-e306-44cd-9c06-0ba69f103d36>
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"language": "en",
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"url": "https://zivahub.uct.ac.za/articles/dataset/The_large_communal_nests_of_sociable_weavers_provide_year-round_insulated_refuge_for_weavers_and_pygmy_falcons/13042169/1"
}
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Toxoplasma gondii is an important pathogen transmitted by food, with raw or undercooked meat as the main foodborne source of toxoplasmosis. In Peru, 2–4 million people have antibodies to T. gondii. It is believed that more than 60 million people in the United States are infected with T. gondii. In this study, the prevalence of T. gondii in pigs from Peru and the United States was determined by Western blot. The presence of IgG antibodies to T. gondii from serum samples was determined. Blood samples were collected from 137 pigs at a slaughterhouse in Lima, Peru, and 152 pigs at a slaughterhouse in Georgia. Of the serum samples collected from swine, 27.7% (n = 38) from Peru and 16.4% (n = 25) from the United States were positive for T. gondii. Swine represent a significant source of human infection with T. gondii in Peru and the United States.
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<urn:uuid:ba42a3fc-13a2-411c-868b-9aa917e9c310>
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"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.515625,
"fasttext_score": 0.026760876178741455,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9626070857048035,
"url": "https://meridian.allenpress.com/journal-of-parasitology/article-abstract/90/4/902/3566/Seroprevalence-of-Toxoplasma-gondii-in-Swine-From?redirectedFrom=fulltext"
}
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Discovered Check: Puzzle 3 Worksheet
4.4 based on 17 votes
Using the black pieces, your child must strategize and show the move that puts the white king in check. Chess games are interesting, fun, and educative, all at the same time. And, that is why most parents prefer their children engage in a game of chess to build their thinking skills. Draw a line from the black chess pieces to the white king, showing how the king will be put in check. Then, look through the options provided and check which one correctly notes your move.
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<urn:uuid:8a2ece90-0da9-4157-b76c-04e49195e161>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.14591288566589355,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9414018392562866,
"url": "https://www.kidsacademy.mobi/printables/discovered-check-puzzle-3/"
}
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Saving the Sequoias: The Most Magisterial of Trees in California Face a Big Risk
By Glen Martin
Ronald Reagan was (in)famously unmoved by ancient forests, claiming that “when you’ve seen one redwood, you’ve seen them all.” But most of us still feel a frisson when we stroll among old-growth trees, particularly when they’re the biggest dang trees on the planet: Sequoiadendron giganteum, otherwise known as giant sequoias. (That’s biggest by volume, by the way. Coast redwoods, Sequoia sempervirens, may be taller but typically are more slender.)
Coast redwoods are distributed fairly thickly in a 15-to-20-mile wide strip along the California littoral from Big Sur to the Oregon border. Giant sequoias, on the other hand, are scattered among 75 groves on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, and that presents some unique conservation challenges. If we are going to preserve these magisterial trees, as Save the Redwoods League conservation science manager Richard Campbell has observed, we only have 75 chances to get it right.
The situation is especially crucial in the northern range of the giant sequoia. Recent research by UC Berkeley professor of Environmental Science, Policy and Management Richard Dodd confirms that trees in the eight northernmost groves are genetically truncated when compared to trees in the south.
“The northern groves are more isolated from each other than the southern groves,” says Dodd. “In the south, the groves are almost continuous in some places. As a consequence, there has been much less genetic exchange (among trees) in the north than in the south. The northern trees are not only genetically distinct from the southern trees (when the two groups are compared). Each northern grove also is distinct from every other northern grove.”
The northern groves are thus diverging genetically—from the southern groves, and from each other. If this process continued through deep time, as scientists characterize very long periods, speciation could result: The northern and southern trees could evolve into separate species.
That’s unlikely to happen, says Dodd, “but our work does show there is less genetic diversity in the northern groves. On, the one hand, that’s not surprising. Small populations (of a given organism) usually show less genetic diversity than larger populations. But in the case of giant sequoias, it also shows we have to be very careful with our management strategies. We have unique genetic combinations in the north that we might want to take particular effort to preserve. We don’t know the benefits they might confer in the future.”
The future Dodd alludes to, of course, is one in which climate change is accelerating. (In other words, the future that now seems disturbingly like our drought-blighted present.) If, as seems likely, temperature and precipitation patterns shift over the coming decades and centuries to the warmer and drier end of the spectrum, giant sequoias may find they need to migrate longitudinally (north) or in elevation (higher) to survive. And this may require direct human intervention, such as people planting trees.
And that raises the question: What trees to plant? And where? In a warmer and drier Sierra Nevada, it could well be that trees from the southern groves would do better in north grove sites than extant north grove trees. And northern grove trees would have to shift northward to find conditions their genetics would deem suitable.
How far north?
“We’ve just begun researching that question—how far north the giant sequoia range might extend (under various climate change models),” Dodd says. “Off the top of my head, I think we might be looking at 200 to 300 kilometers.”
But Dodd cautions there is an implicit risk in trying to match specific giant sequoia genotypes with changing climatic conditions. There is, after all, the Law of Unintended Consequences to consider.
“It could be that current northern grove sites could benefit from an injection of southern grove genes,” muses Dodd. “At a certain point, the northern sites could be (climatically) similar to the southern sites of today. But there are very real ethical issues to take into account when you start shifting things around.”
Dodd cites eucalyptus as an example of good intentions going wrong in the moving-stuff-to-alien-soil realm.
“Eucalyptus was considered a useful and attractive tree, and it was planted widely throughout California,” he says. “Now it’s viewed as a stubborn invasive that threatens native species. It’s possible that transplanting giant sequoias from one area to another ultimately could be part of a sound conservation program. But it should be a last resort. Once you start moving genes around, it’s difficult or impossible to reverse the process. The good thing is that giant sequoias are mostly in national parks and protected forest lands, so we have the basic framework for long-term protection already established. We just need to proceed carefully with management.”
Filed under: Science + Health
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For the southern groves I am marginally concerned about genetic isolation but I am most concerned about groundwater overdraft and water diversion in and around groves. With climate change and deep droughts all the straws in the aquifers of the Sierra Nevada may spell the death knell to these magnificent trees and other conifer ecosystems.
Please sign my petition with MoveOn,asking President Obama to make the northern most groves of Sequoia Sempervirens in Oregon into a Redwoods of Oregon National Monument.I am seeking to have 100,000 acres of land already in a National Forest protected as a National Monument.With Climate Change,these groves,now unprotected,will be critical,as the above article explains.Gabe Sheridan
Please protect our national treasures for generations to come.
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<urn:uuid:b34e6c27-e4cc-4dcd-aa15-df96690ffb12>
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{
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"edu_score": 3.53125,
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9353454113006592,
"url": "https://alumni.berkeley.edu/california-magazine/just-in/2015-03-23/saving-sequoias-most-magisterial-trees-california-face-big"
}
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Can you smell your coffee? If not, you should get tested for COVID-19
A daily quick sniff of something pungent—like coffee or a scented candle—is an easy way to find out if you have one of the coronavirus’s most unique symptoms.
[Source images: Macrovector/iStock; Allevinatis/iStock]
Smell loss—called anosmia—is a common symptom of COVID-19. For the past nine months, the two of us—a sensory scientist and an infectious disease epidemiologist—have applied our respective expertise to develop smell-based screening and testing programs as part of a response to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
In early October, one of our graduate students shared the story of her mom and her daily coffee routine. It illustrates perfectly how smell checks could be used as a screening tool for COVID-19 infection. One afternoon, our graduate student’s mom went to make her habitual cup of coffee only to discover she could not smell or taste it. She’d heard from her daughter about COVID-associated anosmia, so she next tried smelling some pine-scented cleaning spray and couldn’t smell that either.
Given her sudden and unexplained anosmia, our student’s mom quarantined herself and got a COVID-19 test, which came back positive. By taking her smell loss seriously, getting a rapid test, and self-isolating, she created a dead end for the virus, breaking the transmission chain before the virus could spread to anyone else.
By some estimates, 44% to 77% of people with COVID-19 lose their sense of smell. But many are unaware they have lost their sense of smell until they actively try to smell something that should have an odor, like scented candles. This is why we are encouraging people to actively try to smell something each day. Sudden unexplained anosmia is a specific symptom of COVID-19. It can be used as a daily DIY screening tool by individuals, providing another tool in the fight to contain COVID-19.
A smell stopper
COVID-19 affects your sense of smell in a different way than a common cold does. When your nose is stuffy, odorants—the lightweight odor active molecules found in the air—are physically unable to reach the smell receptors at the top of your nasal cavity.
With COVID-19, loss of smell is instead caused by a signaling disruption. Research has shown that the virus attacks cells behind the bridge of the nose immediately next to olfactory neurons. These supporting cells are covered with many of the ACE2 receptors that the virus exploits to enter cells, so they are especially vulnerable. This tissue becomes inflamed, temporarily disrupting the ability of the olfactory neurons to signal the presence of an odorant.
Unlike the common cold, many COVID-19 patients also lose their sense of taste as well as chemesthesis—the ability to sense the tingle of carbonation or burn of chili peppers.
A very specific symptom
Unexplained anosmia is normally quite rare with other viral infections, especially in the absence of congestion or nasal blockage. If someone loses their sense of smell that is a good sign of a possible COVID-19 infection. In fact, recent analyses suggest that if you had to pick just one symptom, sudden smell loss may be the single best predictor of a COVID-19 diagnosis.
Loss of smell is very specific to COVID-19, but not everyone with SARS-CoV-2 infection reports smell loss. Critically, being able to smell things does not mean you are COVID-free. If you were able to smell your coffee this morning, that is an ambiguous result: It might mean you don’t have COVID-19, but it could also mean that you are infected with SARS-CoV-2 and simply didn’t lose your normal sense of smell.
While fever checks have been widely deployed, they are not specific to COVID-19—many other illnesses, like the flu or strep throat, also cause fevers. Using loss of smell as a COVID-19 test is far from perfect. But because a daily smell check is very specific, instantaneous, and quite literally free, it is a highly useful screening tool.
Do it yourself, daily
The story of our graduate student’s mom illustrates how active smell checks can catch COVID-19 cases in people with no other symptoms. At Penn State, where we work, we are putting this into action.
This fall, the school launched our “Stop. Smell. Be well.” project to raise awareness of the connection between sudden smell loss and COVID-19. We even developed different “sniff cards” with a peel-and-smell panel so people could check their sense of smell with a standardized tool.
While such a tool is preferable for research, doing a daily smell test for public health reasons does not require a bespoke sniff card. The test could be simply sniffing your morning cup of coffee or the shampoo you use in the shower.
Smell checks cannot and will not catch every undiagnosed infection, since an estimated quarter to half of COVID-19 patients do not lose their sense of smell. But given that DIY smell tests can be done at zero cost, the downsides of using them for screening are minimal.
Screening stops spread
Screening is one of the most basic tools of public health. The most critical factors for an effective COVID-19 screening tool are frequency and speed, with test sensitivity being secondary.
It is easy to check your sense of smell—who doesn’t have a bag of coffee or tea in their kitchen or a bar of soap in the bathroom? And it is fast—you know immediately if your milk went sour. Combine this with the high specificity of anosmia relative to other symptoms, and we believe daily at-home smell checks can help fill the need for a rapid, cheap and specific screening tool. Tracking sudden smell loss can even be used for population-level monitoring of COVID-19 cases within a country or region.
Of course, no screening program will catch 100% of cases. It is critical for individuals to continue practicing other harm reduction behaviors. Still, we encourage you to Stop. Smell. Be well. And if you do lose your sense of smell, please self-isolate and contact a health professional.
John E. Hayes is a professor of food science at Penn State and Cara Exten is an assistant professor of epidemiology at Penn State. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.
The Conversation
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<urn:uuid:4c417161-454c-4556-a070-bd2d3abee7b5>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.03058457374572754,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9411073923110962,
"url": "https://www.fastcompany.com/90585051/sniff-check-covid-19-early-detection"
}
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Ants Rule: The Long and Short of It
ants rule
Book Information
Holiday House February 2017
Mathematics Curriculum
Mite-size engineers construct the perfect roller coaster in this fun-filled introduction to measurement and data presentation.
The ants need to plan the Blowout Bug Jamboree! But how can they build a roller coaster for the festival if they don't know how many bugs will come, or how big those bugs will be?
This enjoyable introduction to measurement, comparison, and data visualization focuses on building math skills that aren't dependent on units-- so it works equally well for young readers used to inches or centimeters.
And most of all-- it's fun! Colorful cut-paper art brings the bugs-- and their creations-- to life. In a deluxe fold-out spread, everything comes together in a huge, perfect rollercoaster-- big enough for all the bugs at the Jamboree to enjoy, and filled with tiny details for clever readers to spot!---from the publisher
40 pages 978-0823436606 Ages 5-8
Keywords: engineers, insects, ants, measurement, comparison, roller coaster, math, Math Curriculum, fun, construction, building, 5 year old, 6 year old, 7 year old, 8 year old
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<urn:uuid:47212d72-d475-478f-a6ce-590766897de2>
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{
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"fasttext_score": 0.2651960849761963,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8336939811706543,
"url": "https://abookandahug.com/ants-rule-the-long-and-short-of-it/"
}
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From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
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Kunstformen der Natur (1904) by Ernst Haeckel
Kunstformen der Natur (1904) by Ernst Haeckel
Mutiny is the act of conspiring to disobey an order that a group of similarly-situated individuals (typically members of the military; or the crew of any ship, even if they are civilians) are legally obliged to obey. The term is commonly used for a rebellion among members of the military against their superior officer(s), turning the strongest arm of the law into a danger for the legal order.
During the Age of Discovery, mutiny particularly meant open rebellion against a ship’s captain. This occurred, for example, during Magellan’s journey, resulting in the killing of one mutineer, the execution of another and the marooning of two others, and on Henry Hudson’s Discovery, resulting in Hudson and others being set adrift in a boat.
See also
Unless indicated otherwise, the text in this article is either based on Wikipedia article "Mutiny" or another language Wikipedia page thereof used under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License; or on original research by Jahsonic and friends. See Art and Popular Culture's copyright notice.
Personal tools
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<urn:uuid:8ca27b70-b707-48e3-b074-f17d509c96ea>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.028545260429382324,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9024803042411804,
"url": "http://www.artandpopularculture.com/Mutiny"
}
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• cpwsole
Thunder Valley Scientists Investigate Owl Adaptations
Even though winter break just ended, the students at Thunder Valley were eager for a great day of scientific investigation. The educators from SOLE came to visit the four classes with bins full of owl biofacts and pellets to dissect.
Students had a chance to examine talons, wings, and skulls observing what makes owls uniquely adapted to survive. Hypotheses were presented and discussed among the young scientists, and new wonders sprang up as the investigations continued. Why are the feathers colored in this pattern? What kind of owl could this be from? Why are the eye sockets in the skull so big? Why are the talons so curved? Why do owls turn their heads so far?
Comparing the sound that owl feathers make versus non-owl feathers was a highlight for many students especially when they had a chance to see and hear the differences for themselves. Have you ever looked closely at an owl feather? Their feathers are specialized to help cut the wind as they fly through the air, keeping their flight silent. Why would owls need such a special adaptation?
Owls are amazing for all of these special characteristics, but the big investigation was just beginning! Keeping their scientist minds cranking, students were asked to examine an owl pellet. What is an owl pellet and what does it contain? Not many knew before the dissection began. Clues were passed out first, such as the tools needed for the work as well as some charts to help identify what might be contained within.
Once the pellets were handed out, students unwrapped the small parcels and discovered…. Vomit! An owl eats its prey whole. What it cannot digest, it must get rid of in another way. The owl’s gizzard collects everything indigestible and compacts it into a pellet that can be regurgitated. These compacted masses are called pellets, and they can tell us a lot about what and how much an owl is eating.
Many students were excited to dig into the investigation and happily used the provided tools or their own hands to carefully take the pellet apart to discovery what it held. Others took a little more persuasion but became interested once they found their first bone. By the end of each class, students were animatedly talking to each other about their discoveries and helping each other identify the bones they recovered. Almost every student chose to take their findings home to show off to friends and parents.
Every class made discoveries and learned something new in the hour-long program, and it will be a long time before these great scientific discussions die down. SOLE is excited to offer this new program to our schools. Thank you to Thunder Valley teachers and students for being such great scientists in the new year!
#InClassProgram #Owls #ThunderValley #ColoradoParksandWildlife
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<urn:uuid:6ed90405-e326-4341-8401-92e3e078aa97>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.25,
"fasttext_score": 0.8738060593605042,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9730303287506104,
"url": "https://www.cpwsole.org/post/2018/01/04/thunder-valley-scientists-investigate-owl-adaptations"
}
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Drones can make useful tools for learning more about the environment, but in some cases they can upset the same ecosystems they’re being used to study. Now, a new type of drone is being made from biodegradable, eco-friendly materials.
The "biodrone" was designed by a team of students from Brown, Spelman, and Stanford Universities in collaboration with NASA’s Ames Research Center. The group’s leader, NASA biologist Lynn Rothschild, recently spoke with Discover magazine about the project. She says she got the idea from a previous drone crash that nearly yielded disastrous results: The 400-pound research device went missing off the Alaskan coast in 2013, but was luckily discovered by fisherman with its fuel tank still intact. Future incidents may not end so uneventfully, which is why Rothschild helped develop a drone that can crash with little environmental impact.
To construct the prototype, the team worked with the material science company Ecovative. The biodrone's frame is composed of a fungal root material called mycelium, which was placed in a mold where it consumed leaf and grass cuttings until it had completely filled out the mold's shape. The mycelium was then dried out at 180 to 200°F, leaving a lightweight chassis. That chassis was coated with cellulose acetate, which was then itself coated with a hydrophobic protein found in paper wasp saliva to make it waterproof. The propellers were molded from the same plastic found in biodegradable forks and knives. According to Discover, while a 100 percent biodegradable motor is still theoretical, one future possibility is a bacterial fuel cell used to provide electricity and power the propeller motors. Another potential addition is a camera made with ultra-thin silicon that dissolves in water, or electronics printed on sheets of cellulose acetate in dissolvable silver nanoparticle ink.
According to WIRED, these biodrones could also have applications on missions to Mars. By biogenerating a drone on Mars from a sample of cells, NASA would be saving both space and money on the trip there. Such a drone's biogenerative properties could also open up the possibility for one-way research missions, since there's no concern about retrieving toxic materials—instead of harming whatever environment it lands in, the drone could provide a fungus-flavored treat to creatures nearby.
[h/t: Discover]
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<urn:uuid:8a4aa199-78d4-4e2a-96d8-f89680970411>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.03125,
"fasttext_score": 0.138857901096344,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.947622537612915,
"url": "https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/72214/earth-friendly-drone-made-biodegradable-fungus"
}
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Wagley proposed the following as the common secondary characteristics of Plantation America: 1. similarity of food crops, 2. slash and burn horticulture, 3. local markets and women marketeers, 4. commonalities in cuisine, 5. basic 10 features in musical patterning 6. African derived folklore 7. Afro-American religious cults, 8. "a series of traditions and values" which include the special stereotypical roles of "mammy," "the black uncle," "the young gentleman" and others2 (Wagley 1957:9-11). The author referred to the above as an "incomplete list" of the common cultural features of Plantation America (Wagley 1957:11). Additions to this list might include the following characteristics: the slave and free(d)people fishing village (Price 1966), the presence of communities composed of the descendants of maroons (Price 1973), the emergence of a mulatto class or caste (Reuter 1918, Leyburn 1966, Curtin 1955), the development of elaborate racial classifications (Wagley 1952, 1959a and Harris 1964), similarity in language syntax and usage and the social role of the verbal performer (Dillard 1972, Parsons 1933-43, Abrahams 1983, Herskovits 1958, Turner 1949), the survival of Euro-African magical syncretisms (Puckett 1926, Whitten 1962, Tallant 1946, Hurston 1931, 1935, Herskovits 1958, Bastide 1978, Simpson 1940a, Hyatt 1970), a series of motor habits (Herskovits 1966), "persistent poverty" (Beckford 1972, Valentine 1968), the development of various symbolic forms of pan-Africanism, such as negritude among the elite
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<urn:uuid:f3ca0c3c-ee44-472c-817d-9e43439fbdf7>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.6875,
"fasttext_score": 0.9516276121139526,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8324150443077087,
"url": "https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/00/09/95/84/00001/legacyofplantati00hayf_Page_035.txt"
}
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Date Palm Leaves Analysis
Friday, March 6, 2020 , Dates Tree
Date Palm Leaves Analysis
Date palm, scientifically called “Phoenix dactylifera”, belonged to palm family (Arecaceae). It is cultivated for the sweet edible fruits. The date palm has been prized from remotest antiquity and may have originated in the regions now in Iraq. The date palm leaves are commonly known as date palm fronds Date pedicels, and date palm flower cluster.
These leaves and their petioles are used to nourish livestock. They are used usually as a corresponding feeding source by the dwellers of the oasis. A date palm tree can generate compound leaves of fern, palm or cycad of 13.5-20 kg of dry fronds yearly. Given that 1.15 million palm trees were planted with and assuming an average thickness of 100-125 trees/ha, it is estimated that 1.9-2.4 million tons of dry fronds are available each year.
Date Pedicels
Date pedicels are the small stems attached to the fruits to the primary stalk of the bunch. Some dates are sold in branch, on the pedicels, others are sold separately taking away off the branches. The useless pedicels are then used as animal feeding in the same manner like straw.
After the annual pruning the date palm leaves are found in the farm.
The harvesting of palm leaves
Date palm leaves can be harvested till aging and chopped up to 2-5 cm length before being fed to animals. The coarse midrib and the frond base has to be removed. It is possible to make leaf silage after chopping the fronds and then mix them, adding urea, or with urea and a carbohydrate-rich material
Date Pedicels
The protein content in the pedicels is low and decreases with the passage of time. Pedicels when chopped to 2-5 cm length charged with urea obtained a higher nitrogen content which remains stable at the time of storage. Urea-treated pedicels can be stored for a year under black plastic sheets or a combination of clay and chopped straw.
Environmental impact
There is a long tradition of using cull dates and date palm leaves as well as date pits to feed animals, and the crop remains serve as raw materials to make building materials domestic items furniture and building materials.
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<urn:uuid:1af63134-de03-4423-82ad-51668591012a>
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{
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"edu_score": 3.546875,
"fasttext_score": 0.024800777435302734,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9265459179878235,
"url": "https://www.greendiamond.co/date-palm-leaves-analysis/"
}
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Scope (programming)
Scope (programming)
In computer programming, scope is an enclosing context where values and expressions are associated. Various programming languages have various types of scopes. The type of scope determines what kind of entities it can contain and how it affects them -- or semantics. Typically, scope is used to define the visibility and reach of information hiding. Scopes can:
* contain declarations or definitions of identifiers;
* contain statements and/or expressions which define an executable algorithm or part thereof;
* nest or be nested.
Variables are associated with scopes. Different scoping types affect how local variables are bound. This has different consequences depending if the language has static (lexical) or dynamic scoping.
Static scoping (also known as lexical scoping) was first introduced in Lisp 1.5 (via the FUNARG device developed by Steve Russell, working under John McCarthy) and added later into Algol 60 (also by Steve Russell), and has been picked up in other languages since then. Descendants of dynamically scoped languages often adopt static scoping. Emacs Lisp, for example, uses dynamic scoping, Common Lisp has both dynamic and static scoping, and Scheme uses static scoping exclusively. The original Lisp used dynamic scoping. In other cases, languages which already had dynamic scoping have added static scoping afterwards, such as Perl. C and Pascal have always had static scoping, since they are both influenced by the ideas that went into Algol.
The following example shows various scopes declared in the language C#:namespace N{ // namespace scope, merely groups identifiers class C { // class scope, defines/declares member variables and functions void f (bool b) { // function scope, contains executable statements if (b) { // unnamed scope for conditionally executed statements ... } }
Static versus dynamic scoping
One of the basic reasons for scoping is to keep variables in different parts of the program distinct from one another. Since there are only a small number of short variable names, and programmers share habits about the naming of variables (e.g., i for an array index), in any program of moderate size the same variable name will be used in multiple different scopes. The question of how to match various variable occurrences to the appropriate binding sites is generally answered in one of two ways: static scoping and dynamic scoping.
Static scoping (also known as lexical scoping)
With static scope, a variable always refers to its top-level environment. This is a property of the program text and unrelated to the runtime call stack. Because matching a variable to its binding only requires analysis of the program text, this type of scoping is sometimes also called "lexical" scoping. Static scope is standard in modern functional languages such as ML and Haskell because it allows the programmer to reason as if variable bindings are carried out by substitution. Static scoping also makes it much easier to make modular code and reason about it, since its binding structure can be understood in isolation. In contrast, dynamic scope forces the programmer to anticipate all possible dynamic contexts in which the module's code may be invoked.
For example, consider the following program fragment (in Pascal):
Program A;Var I:Integer; K:Char; R:Real; Procedure B; Var K:Real; L:Integer; Procedure C; Var M:Real; Begin // (1) End; Begin // (2) End; Begin// (3)end.
In the above code, the variable I is accessible as an Integer at points (1), (2) and (3) in the program because its scope is global, and is not overridden by another variable of the same name. The variable K is accessible as a Real at points (1) and (2) and as a character at (3). Also, because of the scope of K, the variable called K in C (at point (1)) and B (at point (2)) is not the same variable K in the main program at point (3). Variable L is accessible only in procedure C at point (1) and procedure B at point (2), and is not accessible from the main program. Variable M is only accessible in procedure C at point (1), and is not accessible either from Procedure B or the main program. Also, procedure C can only be called from Procedure B; it cannot be called from the main program. Also, there could be yet another procedure C declared later in the program, and a reference to that procedure would be dependent upon where in the program code as to which procedure is being called, same as to which variable is being referenced in the above example.
Correct implementation of static scope in languages with first-class nested functions can be subtle, as it requires each function value to carry with it a record of the values of the variables that it depends on (the pair of the function and this environment is called a closure). When first-class nested functions are not used or not available (such as in C), this overhead is of course not incurred. Variable lookup is always very efficient with static scope, as the location of each value is known at compile time.
Dynamic scoping
With dynamic scope, each identifier has a global stack of bindings. Introducing a local variable with name "x" pushes a binding onto the global "x" stack (which may have been empty), which is popped off when the control flow leaves the scope. Evaluating "x" in any context always yields the top binding. In other words, a global identifier refers to the identifier associated with the most recent environment. Note that this cannot be done at compile time because the binding stack only exists at runtime, which is why this type of scoping is called "dynamic" scoping.
Generally, certain blocks are defined to create bindings whose lifetime is the execution time of the block; this adds some features of static scoping to the dynamic scoping process. However, since a section of code can be called from many different locations and situations, it can be difficult to determine at the outset what bindings will apply when a variable is used (or if one exists at all). This can be beneficial; application of the principle of least knowledge suggests that code avoid depending on the "reasons" for (or circumstances of) a variable's value, but simply use the value according to the variable's definition. This narrow interpretation of shared data can provide a very flexible system for adapting the behavior of a function to the current state (or policy) of the system. However, this benefit relies on careful documentation of all variables used this way as well as on careful avoidance of assumptions about a variable's behavior, and does not provide any mechanism to detect interference between different parts of a program. As such, dynamic scoping can be dangerous and almost no modern languages use it. Some languages, like Perl and Common Lisp, allow the programmer to choose static or dynamic scoping when (re)defining a variable. Logo and Emacs lisp are some of the few languages that use dynamic scoping.
Dynamic scoping is fairly easy to implement. To find an identifier's value, the program can traverse the runtime stack, checking each activation record (each function's stack frame) for a value for the identifier. This is known as deep binding. An alternate strategy that is usually more efficient is to maintain a stack of bindings for each identifier; the stack is modified whenever the variable is bound or unbound, and a variable's value is simply that of the top binding on the stack. This is called shallow binding. Note that both of these strategies assume a last-in-first-out (LIFO) ordering to bindings for any one variable; in practice all bindings are so ordered.
This example compares the consequences of using static scope and dynamic scope. Observe the following code, in a C-like language:
int x = 0;int f() { return x; }int g() { int x = 1; return f(); }
With static scoping, calling "g" will return 0 since it has been determined at compile time that the expression "x" in any invocation of "f" will yield the global "x" binding which is unaffected by the introduction of a local variable of the same name in "g".
With dynamic scoping, the binding stack for the "x" identifier will contain two items when "f" is invoked from "g": the global binding to 0, and the binding to 1 introduced in "g" (which is still present on the stack since the control flow hasn't left "g" yet). Since evaluating the identifier expression by definition always yields the top binding, the result is 1.
In the language Perl, variables can be defined with either static or dynamic scoping. Perl's keyword "my" defines a "statically" scoped local variable, while the keyword "local" defines "dynamically" scoped local variable [ [ Perl FAQ 4.3 What's the difference between dynamic and static (lexical) scoping?] ] . This allows for further clarification with practical examples of each scoping model.
$x = 0;sub f { return $x; }sub g { my $x = 1; return f(); }print g()." ";
The example above uses "my" for static scoping of g's local variable "$x". As above, calling "g" returns 0 because "f" cannot see g's variable "$x", so it looks for the global "$x".
$x = 0;sub f { return $x; }sub g { local $x = 1; return f(); }print g()." ";
In this alternative, "local" is used to make g's "$x" dynamically-scoped. Now, calling "g" yields 1 because "f" sees g's local variable by looking up the execution stack.
In other words, the dynamically-scoped variable "$x" is resolved in the environment of execution, rather than the environment of definition.
See also
* Closure (computer science)
* Global variable
* Local variables
* Name binding
* Name resolution
* Variables (scope and extent)
* Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman. [ “Lexical addressing”] . "Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs".
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
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Cassegrain reflector
Light path in a Cassegrain reflecting telescope
In a symmetrical Cassegrain both mirrors are aligned about the optical axis, and the primary mirror usually contains a hole in the centre, thus permitting the light to reach an eyepiece, a camera, or an image sensor. Alternatively, as in many radio telescopes, the final focus may be in front of the primary. In an asymmetrical Cassegrain, the mirror(s) may be tilted to avoid obscuration of the primary or to avoid the need for a hole in the primary mirror (or both).
The classic Cassegrain configuration uses a parabolic reflector as the primary while the secondary mirror is hyperbolic.[2] Modern variants may have a hyperbolic primary for increased performance (for example, the Ritchey–Chrétien design); and either or both mirrors may be spherical or elliptical for ease of manufacturing.
The Cassegrain reflector is named after a published reflecting telescope design that appeared in the April 25, 1672 Journal des sçavans which has been attributed to Laurent Cassegrain.[3] Similar designs using convex secondaries have been found in the Bonaventura Cavalieri's 1632 writings describing burning mirrors[4][5] and Marin Mersenne's 1636 writings describing telescope designs.[6] James Gregory's 1662 attempts to create a reflecting telescope included a Cassegrain configuration, judging by a convex secondary mirror found among his experiments.[7]
The Cassegrain design is also used in catadioptric systems.
Cassegrain designs
Light path in a Cassegrain reflector telescope
"Classic" Cassegrain telescopes
In most Cassegrain systems, the secondary mirror blocks a central portion of the aperture. This ring-shaped entrance aperture significantly reduces a portion of the modulation transfer function (MTF) over a range of low spatial frequencies, compared to a full-aperture design such as a refractor or an offset Cassegrain.[8] This MTF notch has the effect of lowering image contrast when imaging broad features. In addition, the support for the secondary (the spider) may introduce diffraction spikes in images.
• is the effective focal length of the system,
• is the distance between the two mirrors.
The conic constant of the primary mirror is that of a parabola, , and that of the secondary mirror, , is chosen to shift the focus to the desired location:
and is the secondary magnification.
The Ritchey-Chrétien is a specialized Cassegrain reflector which has two hyperbolic mirrors (instead of a parabolic primary). It is free of coma and spherical aberration at a flat focal plane, making it well suited for wide field and photographic observations. It was invented by George Willis Ritchey and Henri Chrétien in the early 1910s. This design is very common in large professional research telescopes, including the Hubble Space Telescope, Keck Telescopes and Very Large Telescope(VLT); it is also found in high-grade amateur telescopes.
The Dall-Kirkham Cassegrain telescope's design was created by Horace Dall in 1928 and took on the name in an article published in Scientific American in 1930 following discussion between amateur astronomer Allan Kirkham and Albert G. Ingalls, the magazine's astronomy editor at the time. It uses a concave elliptical primary mirror and a convex spherical secondary. While this system is easier to polish than a classic Cassegrain or Ritchey-Chretien system, the off-axis coma is significantly worse, so the image degrades quickly off-axis. Because this is less noticeable at longer focal ratios, Dall-Kirkhams are seldom faster than f/15.
Off-axis configurations
An unusual variant of the Cassegrain is the Schiefspiegler telescope ("skewed" or "oblique reflector", also known as "kutter telescope" after its inventor Anton Kutter[9]) which uses tilted mirrors to avoid the secondary mirror casting a shadow on the primary. However, while eliminating diffraction patterns this leads to several other aberrations that must be corrected.
Several different off-axis configurations are used for radio antennas.[10]
Catadioptric Cassegrains
Catadioptric Cassegrains use two mirrors, often with a spherical primary mirror to reduce cost, combined with refractive corrector element(s) to correct the resulting aberrations.
Light path in a Schmidt-Cassegrain
Light path in a Maksutov-Cassegrain
The Schmidt-Cassegrain was developed from the wide-field Schmidt camera, although the Cassegrain configuration gives it a much narrower field of view. The first optical element is a Schmidt corrector plate. The plate is figured by placing a vacuum on one side, and grinding the exact correction required to correct the spherical aberration caused by the spherical primary mirror. Schmidt-Cassegrains are popular with amateur astronomers. An early Schmidt-Cassegrain camera was patented in 1946 by artist/architect/physicist Roger Hayward,[11] with the film holder placed outside the telescope.
Cassegrain radio antennas
A Cassegrain radio antenna at GDSCC
Cassegrain designs are also utilized in satellite telecommunication earth station antennas and radio telescopes, ranging in size from 2.4 metres to 70 metres. The centrally located sub-reflector serves to focus radio frequency signals in a similar fashion to optical telescopes.
An example of a cassegrain radio antenna is the 70-meter dish at JPL's Goldstone antenna complex. For this antenna, the final focus is in front of the primary, at the top of the pedestal protruding from the mirror.
See also
1. ^ Raymond N. Wilson, Reflecting Telescope Optics I: Basic Design Theory and its Historical Development, Springer Science & Business Media - 2013, pages 43-44
4. ^ Lo specchio ustorio, overo, Trattato delle settioni coniche
6. ^ Stargazer, p. 115.
7. ^ Stargazer, pp. 123 and 132
9. ^ - The Kutter Schiefspiegler Archived February 19, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
11. ^ US Patent 2,403,660, Schmidt-Cassegrain camera
12. ^ New optical systems for small-size telescopes
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If you were a linguist, how would you accurately describe 'click' sounds distinct to certain African languages? It's no easy task but in order to accurately preserve a language like N|uu, which has fewer than 10 remaining speakers (and all over age 60) linguists have to be able to document.
Cornell University professor Amanda Miller and colleagues recently used high-speed, ultrasound imaging of the human tongue to precisely categorize sounds produced by the N|uu language speakers of southern Africa's Kalahari Desert, a step toward understanding the physics of speech production.
The reason was that prior tools were either too large to carry to fieldwork situations in Southern Africa, or too unsafe. Ultrasound imaging changed that by allowing Miller's research team to use safer, faster, non-invasive technology in the field to view the back part of the tongue.
click language Ouma Hannie Koerant speaker of Niuu
Ultrasound imaging of the human tongue could change how linguists describe 'click languages' and help us understand the physics of speech production. Ouma Hannie Koerant, a speaker of N|uu, which has fewer than 10 speakers in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, prepares to have her mouth and tongue imaged as she pronounces N|uu words. The ultrasound stabilization headset anchors an ultrasound probe in the same spot under her chin throughout the recording session. Credit: Johanna Brugman, Cornell University, and Bonny Sands, Northern Arizona University.
Published in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association. The National Science Foundation supports the research.
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TheMagnificent Palace in the Sky
Running from the demons of his past, a king searches for an impregnable fortress to establish his reign and protect his family. Stumbling upon an old monastery built around an imposing rock, he decides to convert it into his citadel. And so begins the extravagant and complex construction of the Palace in the Sky, a monumental feat that still baffles the architects and engineers of today.
King Kashyapa I (473–495 AD) had much to fear from the moment he took on the mantle of supreme ruler of Sri Lanka. He had wrongfully ascended the throne, having imprisoned and then killed his father, the former King Dhatusena. Kashyapa’s younger half-brother and rightful heir to the throne, Prince Moggallana, had fled to India to raise an army in order to exact his revenge on the usurper. The violent actions of the ambitious and power hungry Kashyapa had led to turmoil in the Kingdom of Anuradhapura, the seat of power for the Kings of Sri Lanka from 377BC–1017AD.
Kashyapa knew his hold on the throne was shaky, and he was very aware of the possible return of his wronged younger half-brother, Prince Moggallana. Therefore, he decided to abandon the capital Anuradhapura, a place that still held those who were loyal to the murdered King Dhatusena and the rightful heir. He searched for a suitable stronghold that could protect him and his court in the event of an invasion by his brother. He soon found an old monastery situated around a giant rock which towered over the surrounding jungle, some 60 kilometers southeast of the city of Anuradhapura. Wanting the site for himself, Kashyapa built a new temple and monastery for the monks on another rock formation located a few kilometers away (Pidurangala). The king soon began designing and constructing an entire city, a fortress and a palace atop and around the 660ft rock which would go on to be named Sigiriya (Lion Rock).
The construction of Sigiriya is believed to have taken seven years, with Kashyapa having commissioned a Sinhala architect, Sena Lal, to complete work on the great citadel. In its heyday Sigiriya is believed to have consisted of a magnificent royal palace built on the surface of the rock, replete with lavishly landscaped gardens and pools. The ceremonial entrance contained a spectacular feature that gave the Lion Rock its name. A great and imposing lion, the mythical ancestor of the Sinhala race and the royal symbol of Sri Lankan kings, stood guard at the entrance, its large open mouth housing the stairs that led to the summit.
Creating a Pleasure Palace
Kashyapa was a man who revelled in sensory experiences and he wanted his specially constructed masterpiece to indulge his every sensory desire. Thus, Sigiriya was designed to be a pleasure palace for the extravagant king and his trusted aides. Beautiful and intricately designed terrace, boulder and water gardens, the latter consisting of extremely sophisticated hydraulic systems, were laid out around the rock for the gratification of the royals.
The western face of the rock, akin to a gallery, was covered in intricate art, of which the most famous are the sensuous and detailed paintings of the semi-naked ‘Sigiriya Damsels’. A highly polished, plastered ‘Mirror Wall’ was placed beneath the gallery containing the famous frescoes. Those who visited Sigiriya in its glory days to marvel at its wonderment, scribbled poetry and prose on this wall, which became a special homage to the art and beauty unique to the spectacular rock fortress.
The landscape surrounding the rock was transformed into a functional city with houses, hospitals, cemeteries, as well as specific precincts for hunters, scavengers and foreigners. Moats and ramparts were built to fortify the city against invaders. Along with its visual appeal, the city of Sigiriya also demonstrated a complex level of functional urban design.
The Abode of the God-King
According to renowned archaeologist Dr. Senarat Paranavitana, King Kashyapa may have had another and more mystical reason for choosing to build his citadel at Sigiriya. The deification of the monarch was a concept that was gaining popularity in Asia, inspired by the tale of the God-King Kuvera who ruled from Mt. Kailasa in the Himalayas. The ‘Palace in the Sky’ would have helped Kashyapa to portray himself as a celestial being, a ruler from on high, a God-King much like Kuvera. Sigiriya may very well have been a vast and excessive construction planned to deify Kashyapa and wash away the stain of his murky rise to power.
Revenge Comes from Across the Sea
King Kashyapa’s elaborate schemes in moving the capital city to Sigiriya proved futile when Prince Moggallana returned with an army of Sinhala loyalists and mercenaries from South India. Moggallana declared war on his half-brother to avenge the death of his father and to claim his throne. As Moggallana’s army advanced on Sigiriya, Kashyapa rallied his troops and went forth to defend his ill-gotten throne. A glorious battle ensued in the plains surrounding the rock fortress.
At one point in the battle, as Kashyapa moved forward astride the royal elephant, his path was obstructed by a large stretch of swamp. The king turned his elephant around to navigate a different path. His troops saw him turn back and wrongly assumed that he was trying to flee the battle. In a complete breakdown of morale and discipline, they began to retreat and run away to save their own lives.
Realizing what was happening to his army and anticipating a humiliating defeat, Kashyapa chose to end his life rather than be taken prisoner. He pulled out his dagger, slit his own throat, raised the dagger on high and stuck it back in its sheath. Kashyapa was as dramatic in death as he was in life, as the show of raising the dagger was meant to draw the attention of Moggallana to the suicide. Moggallana, completely different in nature to the ruthless Kashyapa, was relieved that he didn’t have to shed his brother’s blood and carried out the fallen king’s funeral rites in a respectful manner. Once he ascended the throne, King Moggallana I abandoned Sigiriya and shifted the capital back to the city of Anuradhapura.
Sigiriya was returned to the monks who had previously inhabited the site and once again became a monastery. The monks too finally abandoned Sigiriya in 1155, and it was only used very briefly for military purposes by the Kingdom of Kandy in the 16th and 17th centuries.
The palace and its surroundings braved the elements for many years before slowly starting to crumble. The jungle crept back over the land, shrouding the once bustling city away from human eyes. The great lion slumbered, abandoned and forgotten.
The Rock Re-Discovered
The architectural wonder that is Sigiriya may have been lost forever if not for the curiosity of Jonathan Forbes, a major in the British army who accidentally stumbled upon the site in 1831. Forbes’ discovery grabbed the attention of the British colonizers who were eager to explore the ancient site. The lost city slowly began to reveal its secrets to the archaeologists that meticulously excavated the fortress and its surrounding landscape, a process that continues to this day, with new revelations still being made.
The original radiance and splendour of Kashyapa’s magnificent ‘Palace in the Sky’ may have faded with time, but Sigiriya still has the power to amaze and astound those who continue to visit.
Featured Tales
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Liquorice Root
Glycyrrhiza glabra
By Ahsan Khan
Please note: Liquorice candy specifically found in North America actually does not contain any liquorice for reasons unknown (Collins, n.d.)
Scientific Name
Glycrrhiza glabra, also known as the Liquorice plant has been utilized for many beneficial purposes (Foster, 2010). Its discovery has paved the way for the advances in medicines (MedlinePlus, 2010), which will be examined more thoroughly later on.
Appearance of Plant
The plant can grow anywhere from two to five feet in length (HowStuffWorks, 2008). It also produces pinnate leaves, and bears fruit that is shaped like a pod (HowStuffWorks, 2008). Its flowers are a bright violent and its roots are yellow inside (HowStuffWorks, 2008). Figure 3 shows a mature liqUntitled_4.pnguorice plant
Environmental conditions
Although this plant has many beneficial aspects, it can only be grown in certain places (The herbal resource, 2006). Sunny environments with rich fertile soil are required for this plant to flourish (The herbal resource, 2006).
Commonly found
This plant is mostly located in Asia and Europe, but can be found where the environmental conditions are favourable (The herbal resource, 2006).
How do we get it? Which part of the plant is it obtained from?
The Liquorice plant can be used to produce an immense variety of products (How products are made, 2010). The specific product that will be examined in this report is the liquorice candy. This product is obtained from the root of the plant. The root is well known for its sweetness, as it is 50 times sweeter than sucrose, thus the name “sweet root” (Oxford Dictionary, 2010). An extract is formed by boiling the liquorice roots which in turn is used to form candy (How products are made, 2010). This extract is sold as a syrup and solid (How products are made, 2010).
Making the Product
Brief Intro
The production of liquorice candy dates back to thirteenth century (How products are made, 2010). Today it is sold in many different flavours including strawberry, cherry, chocolate, and black liquorice (Figure 4). The process to make liquorice candy involves several steps outlined by the following flow chartUntitled_5.png
Beneficial Impacts
What is it used for?
Liquorice candy has been around for over many years and has been noted for its beneficial effects when used in moderation (Dhom, n.d.). Liquorice is utilized for many medicinal purposes, such as congestion, coughs, and sore throats (Foster, 2010). It was not until the late 1800s that liquorice candy was mass produced (How products are made, 2010).
Who uses it?
With the correct amount of consumption, the candy can be consumed by majority of people as it contains no fat and has beneficial values (MedlinePlus, 2010). It can used to thin the blood, help lower cholesterol levels and even boost the immune system (Thibodeaux, n.d.) Table one show’s the nutritional information for different types of liquorice candies.
Explain how economy, society and environment is improved by this product
With the help of liquorice, people who have problems with their health such as high blood pressure, an unresponsive immune system, or hepatitis B can attain a cure and relief (Medline, Plus, 2010). This has improved their overall life, thus helping better the general society.
What other products did your plant replace?
It is interesting to note that although liquorice candy is eaten for pleasure, it can pack a wide variety of health benefits (MedlinePlus, 2010). Other plants can also provide similar health benefits such as the Naturleaf (Dhom, n.d.). Certain Sterols and sterolins from the plant, Naturleaf can be taken to control asthma (Dhom, n.d.). Liquorice can have an immediate effect within hours in achieving the same results (Dhom, n.d.). Liquorice has a tremendous result rate when compared to Naturleaf.
Harmful Impacts
How are people, society are harmed from this product?
When liquorice candy is consumed in large quantities, the result can be very injurious (Foster, 2010). Excess liquorice in the body can cause salt and water retention, heart problems, and hormone imbalances (Foster, 2010). Pregnant women are recommended to not eat liquorice as it can change the hormone levels, thus harming the foetus (Dhom, n.d.). Some side effects can possibly become very serious such as, decreased potassium in blood, and a decreased sexual interest in men (MedlinePlus, 2010). People who have heart disease, kidney disease, and hypertonia are all strongly recommended to not eat liquorice. These diseases can all be aggravated and worsen with the use of liquorice candy (MedlinePlus, 2010). Left unchecked, these harmful effects can eventually harm the society as a whole.
The discovery of the Liquorice plant was an immense step forward for the human race. The use of the liquorice plant and candy has been around for centuries (How products are made, 2010). Its wide usage and great beneficial effects have improved the lives of many. It is greatly utilized for medicinal purposes, such as improving an immune system, common colds, and high blood pressure (MedlinePlus, 2010). Regardless, too much of anything can be harmful, and although liquorice candy can provide a great taste and benefits, it can also be a hazard for some people (Foster, 2010). These harmful impacts can reduce the health of indiviuals in the society and cause problems for future generations (Foster 2010). In the end, it solely rests upon the public to decide whether this product’s positives outweigh the negatives, and make the right choice.
Foster, Steven. (2010, August, 5) Herbs at a glance, liquorice root. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from //http://nccam.nih.gov/health/licoriceroot///
Medline Plus. (2010, November, 19) Liquorice. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/881.html
The herbal Resource. (2006) The liquorice root. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.herbal-supplement-resource.com/licorice-root.html
How products are made, volume four. (2010) Liquorice. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Licorice.html
Thibodeaux, Marie, Wanda. (n.d.) What is liquorice extract? Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.ehow.com/about_5110331_licorice-extract.html
How stuff works. (n.d.) Liquorice. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/botany/licorice-info.htm
Wikipedia. (2010, November, 29) Liquorice. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Licorice.html
National Confectioners Association. (n.d.) Liquorice. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://classic.candyusa.com/Candy/CandyType.cfm?ItemNumber=930&navItemNumber=526
Liquorice Roots. (n.d.) Liquorice powder. Retrieved December 11, 2010, from http://www.liquoriceroots.com/liquoricegallery.html
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Scientific Name
The scientific name for ginger is Zingiber officinalis (Schar, 1998). Ginger comes from the family of **Zingiberaceae
Figure1: Fresh ginger rhizome (epicwrestling, n.d)
Figure1: Fresh ginger rhizome (epicwrestling, n.d)
* (Katzer, 2007).
In 1807, an English botanist named William Roscoe (1753-1831) gave this plant the name Zingiber officinale (Foster, 2010). The name comes from the ancient word singabera, where it is originated from Greek and Arabic words meaning "shaped like a cone" (Foster, 2010).
What is it?
Ginger is an herb used for spices and as a herbal medicine( See figure 1). Ginger can be used fresh, dried and powdered, or as a juice or oil (Lindberg, 2010). Even though we call it "ginger root," we are really talking about the rhizome (underground stem) where the plant stores its food supply (Barker, 2010).
Ginger was one of the earliest spices known in Western Europe, it was used since the ninth century ("Encyclopedia of Spices," 2003). It became so popular in Europe that people included it in their daily seasoning, like salt and pepper("Encyclopedia of Spices," 2003).
Appearance of the Ginger Plant
Ginger is basically a swollen stem (Drori, 2005). The rhizome ginger looks like deer antlers, and ca
figure 2: Labelled Ginger Plant (Tutornext, 2008)
n grow up to one meter in length, the rhizomes(also known as the roots) grow underground(see figure: 2) , deep beneath the soil (Drori, 2005). The ginger plant produce flowers which are purple and a cream colour. They are about 30 centimetres long (Drori, 2005). The ginger plant also produces red flowers; each flower has three chambers that contain small black seeds (Drori, 2005).
The ginger plant has shooting runners off the central plant (Schar, 1998).The runners which are really the growing tips are used in medicine, tea, drinks, etc. They are collected before the buds come out of the surface of the soil (Schar, 1998). The rhizome is thick, tangled and light to dark beige in color (Sidhe, 2010).The stem often extends as much as 1 foot above the ground (Sidhe, 2010).
Where ginger grows
Ginger doesn’t depend of a lot of energy from the sun to grow. It needs a portion of the sun, and regular moisture in well-drained soil (Scheper, 2010). It is easy to grow ginger from pieces of the ginger root which are firm and fresh but not dry (Scheper, 2010).
The preferred environment where ginger grows should be high in humidity, mild and contain moist soil (Sidhe, 2010). It can be grown anywhere if these conditions are met and whether it is naturally or artificially produced (Sidhe, 2010).
Ginger is now commercially cultivated in almost every tropical and subtropical country in the world (Foster, 2010). Ginger plants can’t stand frost, direct sun, strong winds, and soggy, waterlogged soil (Bradtke, 2010). It is harvested all year around, as long as the season temperatures stay moderate. Ginger is best grown in late winter and early spring because of tropic weather at this time. The best time to harvest ginger is any time after the leaves have died down. Usually it takes eight to ten months to get to that point (Bradtke, 2010). In the winter a ginger plant begins its life cycle in early spring. In late spring or early summer, the leaves send food to the rhizome to help it create the buds that grow into new, self-sufficient plants (Kelly, 2010).
Places commonly found
Ginger is a tropical plant which was originated in Asia, but it can also be found in Africa and Arabia (Schar, 2006). Greeks and Romans used ginger frequently; they said it came from India through Arabia using the Red Sea (Schar, 2006). In the European records it stated that it appeared during the 11th century, and was one of the greatly taxed spices (Schar, 2006).
Ginger is commonly used as a commercial crop (Scheper, 2010). Fifty percent of worldwide ginger is produced in India, while the best quality of ginger comes from Jamaica (Scheper, 2010).
During the 1990s, the U.S. imported approximately over 4,000 metric tons of ginger per year (Foster, 2010) . The main world producers for ginger include Fiji, India, Jamaica, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and China (Foster, 2010). Americans import ginger from China, Africa, Central America, Brazil, and Australia, and several Caribbean countries (Foster, 2010).
In order to obtain the ginger the rhizome is extracted from the ground. The rest of the plant is not needed. The rhizome is the par where the plant stores its food reserves, and is the one used for b
Figure 3: Lemon Ginger tea
oth cooking and medicinal purposes (Rueben, 2010). The essential oils in the rhizome are the reason for the fragrance (Rueben, 2010). Ginger is used based on it being a natural remedy and common cooking substance. It is always in demand because it is "all natural goodness". The specific product that I am doing is ginger tea, it comes in a powder like substance. The rhizome is used in order to make ginger tea (refer to figure 3). The powder can be mixed with water, lemon, and or honey in order to achieve the end results of the tea.
please see attached flow chart
We all remember a point in our lives when we had a home remedy using ginger, whether it was ginger ale or ginger tea (Scizer, 2010). The primary uses for ginger is for cooking or medicine. Medically ginger is used for upset stomachs, motion sickness (diahrrea), nausea and vomiting (Scizer, 2010). Health care professionals commonly recommend ginger in order to help prevent or treat nausea and vomiting associated with motion sickness, pregnancy, and chemotherapy for cancer (UMMC, 2006). It can also be used to assist in digestion, for mild stomach problems, to aid with inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, and could even be used in heart disease or cancer (UMMC, 2006).
Effectiveness of ginger
Nausea and vomiting after surgery: A gram of ginger before surgery seems to reduce the amount of nausea and vomiting after the first 24 hours of a surgery (Lindberg, 2010).
Dizziness: consuming ginger seems to reduce dizziness and nausea (Lindberg, 2010).
Prevention of morning sickness: Ginger seems to reduce nausea and vomiting for some pregnant women (Lindberg, 2010). Taking any herb or medication is a risk while pregnancy, women should discuss this with their healthcare provider before hand to prevent experimenting and causing hazards (Lindberg, 2010). Ginger is also used for food absorption and to eliminate gas and bloating (Annie's, 2008). Ginger also stimulates circulation so it is good for cold hands and feet (Annie's,2008). Some say it reliefs flu, colds, loss of appetite there is no proper evidence to back this up (Annie's 2008).
Ginger is used by mainly humans as a source of sickness or remedy. Ginger tea is beneficial to the economy because it creates jobs for farmers, factory workers, and truck drivers. It also creates jobs for farmers because they cultivate it and extract it from the ground. There is a high demand for farmers to grow ginger. It makes jobs for factory workers because they clean, package, and produce the tea. The tea comes is bags and boxes so there is a factory running in order for the final product to be produced. Like any plant ginger is good for the environment because of photosynthesis, it produces oxygen and takes in carbon dioxide. Ginger tea has made an improvement on society because without it people would be purchasing expensive medicines that are costly. While with ginger tea all that is needed is ginger and a couple of other ingredients in order to have quick and efficient and cheap relief.
Ginger Tea replaces pricey medicines in the market. The price of ginger tea is less than the price of a bottle of medicine. Instead of purchasing medicines like Pepto Bismol for nausea and upset stomach relief, ginger tea can be purchased. Ginger tea not only has an advantage over these products because it is cheaper it is also natural and has less side effects than medicine would. Ginger tea works naturally as appose to medicines that have chemicals in them. Ginger tea is also filled with goodness and vitamins, great alternative to tea or coffee and it is a tateful beverage.
One of the first safety measures of ginger to remember while using it is that you need to have a timely and healthy amount of ginger tea according to the needs of your body (et.al, 2010) . The problem of most of the botanical medicines, especially the ones in forms of herbs and roots is that there is a good chance that the herbs would react with medication (et.al, 2010). If ginger tea does reacts with other medications, some symptoms include belching, nausea, heartburn and stomach upset. (et.al, 2010). These side effects also occur if over consumption of ginger tea is taken. (et.al, 2010).
Ginger Tea is bad for the economy because it is expensive to transport good from a different country. It order to transport good from Asia or Africa to Canada it needs to travel by air or water, this is a costly process. If ginger was able to grow in North America it would be easier and let costly to transport and manufacture into a tea.
Ginger tea is bad for the environment because the manufacturing of the product contributes to pollution. There has to be
Figure 4: Factory emitting pollution
a way for the ginger to reach countries like America and Canada and transportation is one of the main problems for contributing to pollution ( refer to figure 4). It is transported through ships and trucks. Gasses are emitted into the air causing pollutants. In order to get the finished product to tea, ginger is dried and powdered in the factories; it is then added with other herbs and other products. Afterwards it is packaged, labeled and sent off to stores. During these manufacturing steps the factories emit a lot of pollution to the air.
Ginger is bad for society because too much of one thing is bad. This goes for ginger tea too, if too much is consumed it can cause bad side effects. Also people might depend too much on Ginger as a tea as appose to other teas which produce different vitamins.
Other alternatives to Ginger tea are actual medicines. They are more pricy but it works as well and quickly. Medicines like ‘Pepto Bismol’ can assist with upset stomach and nausea. Also lemon juice or lemon tea can replace ginger because they also relieve upset stomach and nausea. Lemon is another form of natural relieve, because it has vitamins.
Ginger, which is an rhizome not root, is a natural medication to many people. Overall ginger tea is great and it takes
Figure 5: Whole ginger rhizome
the place of medicines. Ginger plant is also attractive and has flowers (see figure 5). Not only is the warmness soothing but it also has a purpose to it. Ginger tea relieves nausea, upset stomach, morning sickness, motion sickness and assists with chemotherapy. Ginger tea is an alternative for medicine not only because it is has a better taste it but because it works, its natural, and a lot cheaper. It is very easy to grow ginger and there isn't much care needed. The environment should be moist and have some sunlight but not a lot. It is grown in places like South America, Nigeria, Jamaica and other isalnds, Arab countries, China and India (Foster, 2010). In order to produce ginger the rhizome is picked, dried, cleaned, and grinded, this isn't a long process. It takes maximium 9 month to have a plant at it's mature age. Ginger tea is used for as medication to sooth and relieve a person but it also have other benifits. It bring money to the economy, the rhizome goes through photosynethesis while it is in a plant creating oxygen, and it gives people a natural healer instead of using medicine. The rhizome also produces ginger ale, culinary uses, and as an oil. As to everything else in the world there is always a negative to it. In order to produce ginger tea it has to be shipped to factories, cleaned, and transported to stores. This process takes alot of travelling and alot of pollution is caused. Also since large amounts of ginger cannot be gown in Canada it takes alot of money in order to ship it here. But overall ginger is a great herb, tastes great as tea and really works as medicine.
Web Pages
Annie's Remedy, Initials. (2008). Ginger zingiber officinale .Retrieved fromhttp://www.anniesremedy.com/herb_detail27.php?gc=27c&gclid=CKXF8__e56UCFUS8KgodfSRD4g
Barker, L.B. (2010). How does ginger grow?. Retrieved from
http://www.ehow.com/how does_4566992_ginger-grow.html
Bradtke, B.B. (2010). How to grow ginger . Retrieved from http://www.tropicalpermaculture.com/growing-ginger.html
Drori, J.D. (2005). Plant cultures ginger. Retrieved from http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/ginger_plant_profile.html
Foster, S.F. (2010). 2010 steven foster group, inc. Retrieved from http://www.stevenfoster.com/company/steven/index.html
Kelly, M.K. (2010, March 10). The life cycle of ginger plant. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/facts_6053439_life-cycle-ginger-plants.html
Rueben, R.B. (2010). All4naturalhealth ginger. Retrieved from http://www.all4naturalhealth.com/ginger-plants.html
Schar, D.S. (n.d). Planet biotanic ginger. Retrieved from http://www.planetbotanic.ca/fact_sheets/ginger_fs.htm
Scizer, R.S. (2010). Ginger. Retrieved from http://www.medicinenet.com/ginger_zingiber_officinale-oral/article.html
Sidhe, W.S. (2010). Ginger root facts. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com/about_5349862_ginger-root.html
University Document online
Lambson, L.L. (2010). Ginger tea. Retrieved from http://www.brighthub.com/health/alternative-medicine/articles/18698.aspx
Katzer, G.K. (2007). Ginger (Zingiber officinale rosc.). Unpublished manuscript, University of Graz, Australia, Retrieved from http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Zing_off.html
UMMC, Initials. (2006). Ginger. Unpublished manuscript, Medcial center, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Retrieved from http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/ginger-000246.html
Online Reference Work ( Encyclopedia)
Encyclopedia of Spices Ginger. (2003). Epicentre herbs. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/ginger.html
Scheper, J.S. (2010). zingiber officinale . Floridata plant encyclopedia. Retrieved December 13, 2010, from http://www.floridata.com/ref/z/zing_off.cfm
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What is Hanukkah and how is it celebrated?
Use the Hanukkah Resource Bundle to answer these questions and engage your students in a study of Hanukkah and celebrations around the world.
Australian Curriculum Links: ACHASSK065
So, what's included?
✓ Engaging 500-word article entitled Happy Hanukkah! targeted at a 8-11 year old audience.
✓ Tri-level question guide about the above article.
✓ Celebrations and Commemorations Definitions printable.
✓ Jewish Word Dictionary worksheet to build a visual dictionary.
✓ Hanukkah and Christmas Comparison worksheet.
✓ Jewish Vocabulary Wordsearch.
Purchase Issue 06 of HistoriCool Magazine in print or digital format to use this resource alongside the coinciding mag.
Add To Cart
You might also be interested in...
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London’s Burning!
When the Great Fire of London broke out in 1666, it was so large the smoke could be seen in Oxford. It raged for four days, destroying 80 per cent of the city. Diarist Samuel Pepys wrote that “with one’s face in the wind, you were almost burned with a shower of firedrops.”
But as London’s medieval heart lay smouldering, some saw a golden opportunity to break with the past and create a modern, magnificent city. They began making plans for a revolutionary new London. Yesterday was the anniversary of the great fire of London. Ironic really, nothing that great about destruction is there!!
2.The fire in figures
What was destroyed in the Great Fire?
The great fire started in Pudding Lane on 2 September and spread rapidly westwards towards Fleet Street. It almost reached the Tower of London in the east.
3.A new vision for the city
The fire broke out during a time of great upheaval in Britain, with old certainties shaken by the English Civil War.
A new intellectual elite was emerging, made up of men keen to share ideas and scientific discoveries. They believed London’s medieval structure with timber fronted buildings, network of alleyways and open sewers no longer reflected the ideals of the age. The fire provided a rare chance to create a modern capital.
Steeped in mathematical knowledge and the writings of the ancients, like Roman architect Vitruvius, they imagined a spacious, well planned city to rival the splendour of ancient Rome.
Men of science
With the embers still burning, London’s intellectuals finalised their plans for the city. The most famous of these came from Royal Society members John Evelyn, Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke.
Hooke designed a regimented grid-iron plan, inspired by the cities of the ancient world, while Evelyn and Wren imagined a city of piazzas, with St Paul’s Cathedral and the Royal Exchange at its heart.
4. London’s lost city
The plan favoured by the King belonged to Christopher Wren. Sadly for the men who dreamt of progress, Wren’s brave new city was rejected. Citizens didn’t want to surrender their plots of land to his vision and refugees from the fire, camping out at Moorfields, were facing starvation. The King decided to restore London along its original medieval plan but gave his architects the opportunity to embark on some innovative architectural ventures.
Are you interested in History? Love learning about the past and the blood and gore that comes along with it? You do?! Perfect! Let’s be seeing you enroling then. For courses, please click here.
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Ursuline Martyrs of Valenciennes
The biography of St. Ursula, Virgin and Martyr, is notable for being strong in fable but weak in factuality. In Cologne, Germany, there is a church dedicated to her, in which an obscure Latin inscription dating from the fourth or fifth century states that a senator named Clematius had rebuilt the structure to honor a group of Christian virgins who had been martyred on that spot.
Legend took over thereafter. By the tenth century the story had it that she was a Christian princess who desired to remain unwed and who, to escape a proffered marriage, spent three years traveling on pilgrimage by sea and by land, accompanied by a number of unmarried young women. She and her companions happened to arrive at Cologne in 451, just after the pagan Huns had captured that city. Attila, their leader, executed all these young women out of hatred for Christianity.
The number of Ursula and her martyred companions was usually given as eleven, but a later development of the legend said there were 11,000! Some historians have guessed that this absurd figure could be the result of misreading of a Latin inscription: “The “M” in “XI. M.V”, meant to stand for “martyrs” (“Eleven Martyr-Virgins”) was taken for the Roman numeral “M”, which stands for one thousand.
What, now, of the Ursuline nuns of Valenciennes, martyrs during the French Revolution?
In 1535 St. Angela Merici established, at Brescia, Italy, a “Company of St. Ursula,” dedicated to teaching, especially Christian doctrine. She chose St. Ursula as their patroness because their primary occupation was to be teaching. Originally, the members lived in their own homes; but in 1585 a new rule was devised for those who wanted to live in community. The OSU (Order of St. Ursula) thus became a regular religious order. It gradually spread throughout the world (including Canada and the United States). Divisions of the community led to the establishment of several different jurisdictions, but the total number of members of all jurisdictions made the Ursulines one of the largest of all women’s religious families.
Ursuline nuns were particularly numerous in France: By 1700 there were 350 French Ursuline monasteries with 9,000 nuns.
At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, French Ursuline nuns had a monastery and school at Valenciennes, within the boundary of France but very close to the border of the Austrian Netherlands (the present Belgium). The Revolutionary government closed a larger number of religious houses and schools, including that of the Ursulines. Evicted, the Ursulines moved across the border to Mons in the Netherlands, where another Ursuline monastery gave them shelter.
In 1793 Austria invaded northern France to vindicate its sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands. In doing so it also seized a strip of French territory that included Valenciennes. The evicted nuns therefore returned to Valenciennes, now Austrian, and reopened their school. But the French retaliated and recaptured Valenciennes. What were the poor nuns to do now? They decided to continue with their school in their old home.
Shortly thereafter, the French government arrested and jailed the Ursulines of Valenciennes. On what charge? That they were emigrees who had returned to France without permission and were illegally conducting a religious school! Five of them were brought to trial on October 17, 1794. They stated frankly that they had returned to teach the Catholic religion. For this crime they were condemned to death by the anti-Christian French authorities.
As the nuns were being led out to the guillotine in the marketplace, one of them, Marie Augustine Dejardin, said to the mother superior (who had not yet been sentenced), “Mother, you taught us to be valiant, and now that we are going to be crowned, you weep!”
Five days later the same superior, Marie Clotilde Paillot, and the other five nuns were condemned to die in the same manner. Mother Paillot made the public declaration, “We die for the faith of the Catholic, Apostolic Roman Church!” This time the victims were transported to the guillotine in a tumbril or dump-cart.
Now, the commissioners had overlooked a lay sister of the community, Cordule Barre. Cordule would not be separated from her sisters. Hurrying over to the cart, she climbed in of her own accord, and was executed with the rest. As they moved on to the scaffold, all six sang the Litany of Our Lady.
Pope Benedict XV beatified these eleven women in 1920 as the “Ursuline Martyrs of Valenciennes.” Once again, eleven virgins bearing the name of St. Ursula had laid down their lives for the Faith; but the story of their heroic death is not clouded by the mist of fancy that enshrouds the martyrdom at Cologne of St. Ursula herself and her young companions.
-Father Robert F. McNamara
Christ the King Church
445 Kings Highway South
Rochester, NY 14617
(585) 544-8880
St. Cecilia Church
2732 Culver Road
Rochester, NY 14622
(585) 544-8880
St. Margaret Mary Church
401 Rogers Parkway
Rochester, NY 14617
(585) 544-8880
Online Giving
© 2017 Saint Kateri Tekakwitha Parish, Irondequoit, NY
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mn GB
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Wild fauna and flora
CITES stands for "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora" and is often names the "Washington Convention" after the name of the city it was initially signed in 1973.
The convention entered into force on 1 July 1975 and as of date, 180 countries have become contracting parties to the convention. The aim of the convention is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival, protecting them from being traded in excessive amounts or becoming extinct.
The convention has three appendices:
Appendix I includes all species that are threatened with extinction and are or may be affected by trade.
Mongolia has passed the legislation to become a contracting party to this convention on 4 May 1995 and by joining the convention on 4 April 1996, we became the 133rd member country. Mongolia has included 14 mammals, 71 birds, 8 plants, 2 fish and insects and crawlers one each in the appendices I and II.
In accordance with the provision 1 of the Article 9 of the convention, a management committee and a scientific committee have been appointed the task of implementing the matters related to the convention.
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"url": "http://www.customs.gov.mn/en/2012-03-14-03-21-37/2014-03-24-06-16-45/cites"
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Upper Moshannon Creek
Nearly all of the 35 square mile Upper Moshannon Creek watershed is located in Centre and Clearfield counties. However, a small section of the watershed’s headwaters are located in Snyder Township.
Moshannon Creek itself is 57.4 miles long and serves as the boundary between Centre and Clearfield counties. The creek is known for its reddish-orange rocks and water, and is commonly called the “Red Moshannon” or “Red Mo.” The unusual coloration is caused by iron compounds that drain into the creek from old, nearby mining operations. The pollution from this abandoned mine drainage (AMD) makes the waters acidic, which is harmful to fish and other wildlife.
Moshannon Creek and its tributaries flow north until Moshannon Creek empties into the West Branch of the Susquehanna River.
How can I help protect the Moshannon Creek Watershed?
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John F Kennedy and the Term Paper
Excerpt from Term Paper :
" The spectacular effect achieved by the Russians therefore had a significant effect upon the minds of citizens around the globe (Dick, March 24).
The financial and political implications of the Apollo program became significant once the president made the decision to commit the United States to a Lunar landing. It was important to the president to set a goal that his country had a good chance of achieving before the Soviet Union. After a definite decision for the launch of the project was made, further important issues of politics and financing became deciding factors in the growth and development of the program.
The decision proved to be sound if the reaction of the nation could be used as a measure of effectiveness. The American imagination was captured, and they lent overwhelming support for Kennedy's decision to sponsor the moon landing. In the eyes of the nation, difficulty, expense and complication were minor issues in the light of the grand achievement that it promised to be.
In terms of the political issues mentioned above, the Apollo program and intended moon landing were so ambitious that it effectively dealt with most of the problems faced by the administration during the time. If they were successful, the Soviet leadership in space and technology would be effectively rivaled, and any other embarrassing political decisions, such as the Bay of Pigs would vanish into the background. Indeed, the presidential commitment to the program was sufficiently dramatic to once again place the United States at the forefront of the space race. Interestingly, this was accomplished by no more than announcing the president's intention to commit to the program. Nothing practical had been accomplished to back the commitment. Yet the size of the program was sufficient to impress the nation's imagination in symbolic terms, and Kennedy effectively refocused the spotlight of the world upon the United States (Dick, Oct 22).
The timing is also significant. In 1961, neither the United States or the Soviet Union had nearly the technological or scientific capacity to carry out a moon landing. This was in fact so far beyond the ability of either country that the early success of the Soviet Union's space endeavor could in no way predetermine whether they would be able to rival the American in a project of such scale. The United States therefore had a reasonable, or even a strong chance of success. The public mood, as seen above, was therefore one of excited optimism and complete support.
The concomitance of political and public support for the program provided NASA with the drive and resources necessary to launch the project on a very large scale.
Additional programs were also created for further scientific and technological support and research that could be used prior to and after the moon landing. From the beginning, the program was therefore conducted on an integrated basis (Dick, Oct 22).
This integration also occurred on the public scale: in addition to international prestige, the technological group assigned to the Apollo program proposed a national effort that would incorporate not only scientific, but also commercial components. In this, the positive mood of the nation could then be used to full effect to encourage continued support for the Apollo. In retrospect then, it is easy to see how Kennedy, despite his initial misgivings, had little other choice than to announce his commitment to the program. The overwhelming confluence of people, institutions and interests moved the administration inevitably towards the decision and its culmination. Once the decision had been made, financial and technical issues, along with the promised time scale, needed particular and close attention.
After the Decision: Financial and Scheduling Issues
According to a 1962 schedule drawn up by Brainerd Holmes, the Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, the first human Apollo launch was set to take place during March 1965. Several more launches were set for the ensuing years until 1968, with the first piloted Lunar landing set for the latter half of 1967. This, according to the schedule, was the earliest possible date at which such an attempt could be made.
The human factor was however not far behind in complicating many of the issues surrounding the Apollo program. Holmes and James Webb for example experienced significant strain in their relations, starting in the summer of 1962. Dick (Oct 22) regards this problem as one of professional pride. Holmes had for example been labeled in the media as the "Apollo czar," while Webb received no such recognition. This strain was exacerbated by the feature of a Holmes photograph on the cover of Time magazine during August 1962. On a personal level, this made for difficulties in professional performance.
Another issue that ran concomitantly with personal and scheduling issues was the financial issue. Kennedy's full acceptance of the Apollo program means that he also had to make a commitment in terms of resources. Holmes was therefore obliged to approach Webb for supplemental funding to ensure that the schedule was met on a timely basis. This funding amounted to $400 million, which was not in the Fiscal Year 1962 budget shortfall (Garber, 2002).
Holmes approached the issue from several angles, but was rejected by Webb on several occasions. Holmes retaliated by complaining to the media and Congress, whereafter he approached President Kennedy directly, thereby undermining Webb's authority, further straining the relationship (Garber, 2002).
Webb however, on 29 October 1962, also approached Kennedy via a letter (Webb, 1962) concerning a modification to the budget so that the Lunar landing program could be revised to occur six months and twelve months earlier than scheduled. Both were however large sums of money and required revisions to the existing budget and an appeal to Congress for additional funding. Kennedy reacted to this by requiring a review of the national space effort. The culmination of the review was a report concluding that Apollo required $16.4 billion in total to succeed, and in addition also addressed the issue of project acceleration.
Holmes and Webb continued to experience personal conflict. According to Garber (2002), Holmes publicly complained about Webb's effect on the space program. Holmes however apologized to Kennedy, presumably for one of his comments during these complaints. President Kennedy reacted to the conflict and budget issues by calling a meeting for the purpose of being briefed on his options regarding the program. Both Homes and Webb were present.
In terms of the budget, the issue of the extra requirement of $400 million was discussed, together with options of accelerating the program. A specific requirement for the approval of this amount was an assertion by the president that it was in the interest of national security. The outcome of the meeting was that Apollo received a national security designation during April 1962, according to which the program had top priority for attention and material. This indicates the political importance of the program for Kennedy. It was however also politically important to ensure that the Apollo program did not adversely affect other programs of high national security importance. Other issues still to discuss was the acceleration of the program and the increase of the budget (Garber, 2002).
The acceleration of the program was a very important issue, especially in terms of other essential NASA programs. According to Webb, an important concern was the significance of these other programs to ensure the success of Apollo. Accelerating Apollo itself could decrease its chances of success, as the other programs were designed to provide research data for Apollo. Without sufficient data, it would be nearly impossible to accurately determine the success of Apollo on the basis of much more than guess work.
On this issue, Kennedy and Webb experienced a serious disagreement during the meeting. Webb, as mentioned above, was concerned about the technical and scientific necessity of key programs at NASA for the success of the Apollo mission. Programs such as the Centaur upper stage and the Surveyor would for example be neglected if Apollo received priority attention above all else. Webb's second concern was his own negotiating position in the face of a clear statement from the president regarding the priority of Apollo. If the president were to clearly state the priority of Apollo above other programs, Webb feared that this might be to the detriment of his position (Garber, 2002).
Specifically, the key programs mentioned above were not formally part of the Apollo program. Webb nonetheless believed that their timely completion was crucial to the success of Apollo. Centaur for example was created with the purpose of robotic probes into space, its relevance to the Apollo program lay in its use of liquid hydrogen for a propulsion fuel. Webb felt that the knowledge gained from the use of this fuel was vital to the Apollo program. According to Garber (2002), this was an accurate assessment, as benefits were indeed gained from observing Centaur's use of these fuels.
Webb furthermore addressed the issue of scientific programs in the same vein. Ranger and Surveyor were two programs that Webb deemed…
Cite This Term Paper:
"John F Kennedy And The" (2007, January 20) Retrieved May 19, 2017, from
"John F Kennedy And The" 20 January 2007. Web.19 May. 2017. <>
"John F Kennedy And The", 20 January 2007, Accessed.19 May. 2017,
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Sunday, October 5, 2008
Prompt 4
France was more able than Germany to recover from the religious wars because the French king Francis I made a deal with the pope to renounce the Pragmatic Sanction in France through the Concordat of Bologna thus giving the French king power over the French Catholic Church. With this power he controlled his subjects both through the state and church. Any rebellion there may have been was probably crushed quickly. Germany on the other hand was full of rebellious princes who wanted to defy the Habsburgs and revolt against the church that gave the HRE power. Because France worked against the common goal of beating the Habsburgs while Germany revolted, France was able to stay unified and recover quickly from the religious wars.
Sarah Hayes said...
Don't you think that maybe it was because Gemrnay was divided politically? Both countires had state curches (everyone in the HRE was Catholic), but France just had one king.
Brittany Hanes said...
It could have been, but i think it was because france had absolute power because the king made sure he had the power. he united his princes to one cause( destruction of the Habsburgs) instead of letting them fight and scheme. By keeping the absolute power he kept his control and it was that much easier to overcome something that barely effected you.
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Huntington's disease is caused by the trinucleoide CAG repeats in a gene coding a protein called huntingtin. As often happens with trinucleotide repeat diseases, the syndroms get worse over generation. This effect is called genetic anticipation and Huntington's disease is not an exception. As the altered HTT gene is passed from one generation to the next, the size of the CAG trinucleotide repeat often increases in size. The longer the size of the repeat, the more earlier onset of signs and more severe symptoms.
Kaiser Faward, Genetic anticipation in Huntington's disease, 2004
Ad blocker interference detected!
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Public Release:
The power of touch
Sex-changing snails switch sooner when together
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute
Many animals change sex at some point in their lives, often after reaching a certain size. Snails called slipper limpets begin life as males, and become female as they grow. A new Smithsonian study shows that when two males are kept together and can touch one another, the larger one changes to female sooner, and the smaller one later. Contact, rather than chemicals released into the water, is necessary for the effect.
"I was blown away by this result," said co-author Rachel Collin, staff scientist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI). "I fully expected that the snails would use waterborne cues to see their world."
A male limpet has a comparatively enormous penis--sometimes as long as his entire body--which rather incongruously emerges from the right side of his head. This elongated apparatus is necessary to extend around and under the female's shell in order to reach her genital opening. When a snail changes sex, the penis gradually shrinks and then disappears at the same time that female organs develop. It is thought that this kind of sex change is advantageous because large animals are able to produce larger numbers of eggs as females, while small males can still produce plenty of sperm (which require much less energy to make than eggs).
"Slipper snails don't move around much, so you don't really think of them having complex reactions to each other," Collin said. "But this study shows that there is more going on there than we thought."
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Sheetrock is the brand name for the drywall produced by the United States Gypsum Company, and while it's common, it isn't the only type of drywall around. Drywall consists of a paper-covered, hard-packed gypsum core, and it usually comes in 4- by 8-foot sheets with thicknesses from 1/4 to 5/8 inches. It's one of the most common waste materials produced on construction sites, and it's important to dispose of it responsibly.
The stack of gypsum board
credit: hadkhanong_Thailand/iStock/Getty Images
Stack of sheet rock.
Its Gypsum Composition
The original drywall, Sheetrock consists of 90 percent gypsum and 10 percent paper. Gypsum is a naturally occurring mineral known as hydrous calcium sulfate, which is a mixture of calcium sulfate and water. The gypsum used to make drywall is mined from ancient seabeds, where it collected over eons. The plaster used to coat drywall, which must often be discarded at the same time as the drywall itself and is often referred to as mud, is 100 percent gypsum. Gypsum is hard and powdery when dry, but it turns into a slurry when mixed with water.
Drywall as Landfill
Many builders simply bag up the drywall left over from a construction project and throw it in the landfill, but there's a problem with this approach. Although neither gypsum nor paper are toxic, the materials can provide a substrate for microorganisms to grow. When organic matter is added to the landfill, these organisms convert the sulfate in gypsum to hydrogen sulfide, a foul-smelling gas. The resulting odor problem can be so severe that some communities ban the disposal of drywall in landfills. Gypsum from discarded drywall can also leach into the soil during heavy rains and contaminate the groundwater.
Recycling Drywall
Many communities recycle the gypsum in drywall to use as a soil conditioner, with facilities at landfill stations to handle this recycling. Among the many ways it benefits soil, gypsum replaces sodium, making the soil less salty, and it provides a source of calcium and sulfur without raising pH. It also helps loosen compacted soil. Drywall castoffs from new construction are the easiest to recycle; when recycling drywall from remodeling projects, it's necessary to remove nails and pieces of wood trim first. Drywall from older houses may have been painted with lead-based paint, and because lead is toxic, this drywall should not be recycled.
Reducing Waste
The best drywall disposal solution is to avoid creating waste in the first place. One way to minimize waste is to order sheets with dimensions appropriate for the room you're drywalling and to cut judiciously. Scrap pieces of drywall also come in handy as concrete forms. If you're engaged in new construction, Cal Recycle recommends placing scrap pieces of drywall in the wall cavities before you cover them. You can also save drywall pieces for another project, offer them for free online as salvage or donate them to the project of another builder or organization, such as Habitat for Humanity.
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Campbell's Monkey (Cercopithecus campbelli)
The Campbell's monkey has cheek pouches to store food in while it travels.
The Campbell's monkey lives in various habitats including: primary lowland rainforest, secondary forest, riverine forest, and dryer woodland (Cords, 1987). This species is found in Western and Central Africa.
The Campbell's monkey forages for fruits, leaves , and gums (Bourliere et al., 1970). Group sizes for this species range from 8 to 13 individuals (Bourliere et al., 1970). This is a diurnal species.
The Campbell's monkey moves through the forest quadrupedally (Fleagle, 1988).
Infanticide might occur in groups of Campbell's monkey (Galat-Loung and Galat, 1979). This species is territorial and defends its territory from other conspecific groups (Galat-Loung and Galat, 1979). Allomaternal care, when a mother will let other females care for her infants, occurs in this species (Bourliere et al., 1970). In this species there are two kinds of groups, one with one adult male and a number of females and another comprised only of males (Cords, 1987).
head-bobbing: This is used as a threat display by the Campbell's monkey and head bobs up and down (Estes, 1991). This often occurs with staring with open mouth (Estes, 1991).
nose-to-nose greeting: This is when two Campbell's monkeys will approach each other and touch the muzzles together (Estes, 1991). This behavior is a greeting behavioral pattern and usually precedes play or grooming (Estes, 1991).
The Campbell's monkey gives birth to a single offspring.
Bourliere, F., Hunkeler, C., and Bertrand, M. 1970. Ecology and Behaviour of Lowe's Guenon (Cercopithecus campbelli lowei) in the Ivory Coast. In Old World Monkeys. Eds J.R. Napier and P.H. Napier. Academic Press.
Galat-Loung, A. and Galat, G. 1979. Consequences Comportementales des Perturbations Sociales Repetees Sur une Troupe de Mones de Lowe Cercopithecus campbelli lowei de Cote d'Ivoire. Terre et Vie. Vol. 33, 4-57.
Last Updated: October 6, 2003.
[The Primata] [Primate Fact Sheets] [Subfamily Cercopithecinae] [Cercopithecus Links]
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Discovering Asia's ceramic development
The indigenous ceramic trade
Painting of a Chinese ship. The Turiang may have looked somewhat like this.The Chinese and Arabs shipped ceramics across the South China Sea as early as the 9th century. Chinese oceangoing 'junks' were designed differently from Southeast Asian vessels. Chinese ships carried two or more masts, and were commonly around thirty metres in length. They were built from temperate-climate wood, joined by iron nails. Southeast Asian ships were built from tropical hardwood and were joined by wooden dowels. Portuguese arrivals in Malacca in 1509 reported that Malay ships were very large and capable of navigating as far as east Africa.
By the 12th century, enormous quantities of Chinese green-glazed ceramics (celadon) were exported to the Middle East, India and throughout Southeast Asia. At the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), when the Chinese emperor prohibited overseas trade, Chinese potters moved to Thailand and resumed production.
Drawing of a South China Sea ship. The Royal Nanhai may have looked somewhat like this.Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Southeast Asian countries made and shipped the largest volumes of ceramics traded on the South China Sea. The earliest Southeast Asian exporters were Thailand and Vietnam. They traded frequently with Japan, the Philippines, Borneo and the Indonesian archipelago.
Asian markets predominated, despite some trade with the Middle East, until the early 17th century when Europeans started to ship large volumes of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain to Europe.
Exhibition index
Maritime Asia homepage
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