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Resources for Service Quality Improvement as Competitive Advantages: A Conceptual Model for Services Firms in Vietnam
Hoa Quynh Thi Bui, Thanh Hai Nguyen
Abstract
The main aim of the research paper is to develop a conceptual model for services firms in Vietnam. This model will helps to achieve our research objectives by assessing the resources necessary for service quality improvement as a competitive advantage strategy inside the company, the role of soft factors (human resources factors) for service quality improvement, and critical solutions relating to business operating and management strategy of the company. The arguments are based on the resource based view theory and review of literatures in regional countries. This coming research will be an in-depth qualitative study using content analytic approach.
Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.5539/jsd.v5n9p141
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Journal of Sustainable Development ISSN 1913-9063 (Print) ISSN 1913-9071 (Online)
Copyright © Canadian Center of Science and Education
To make sure that you can receive messages from us, please add the 'ccsenet.org' domain to your e-mail 'safe list'. If you do not receive e-mail in your 'inbox', check your 'bulk mail' or 'junk mail' folders.
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<D <M <Y
Y> M> D>
Well, Nobody's Going to Top That: But today O'Reilly said they were interested in my book proposal, which is awesome. I have to go back to Bakersfield for a while to take care of my mother, so I'm probably going to write that book while I'm there.
[Main]
Unless otherwise noted, all content licensed by Leonard Richardson
under a Creative Commons License.
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<D <M <Y
M> D>
(1) Month of Kickstarter #8: Ice: Making it quick and backing just one project today: Columbia Icefield Gigapixel. But we also have a cool Month of Kickstarter Platinum: $175 gets you a Cardboard Robot: robotic arm and smart phone camera crane.
See ya tomorrow!
[Main]
Unless otherwise noted, all content licensed by Leonard Richardson
under a Creative Commons License.
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Revision history of "BeagleBoardProcessingJS"
Jump to: navigation, search
Diff selection: Mark the radio boxes of the revisions to compare and hit enter or the button at the bottom.
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• (cur | prev) 00:52, 14 July 2011Wmat (Talk | contribs). . (654 bytes) (+26). . (Categorized page.)
• (cur | prev) 11:05, 13 April 2011Jkridner (Talk | contribs). . (628 bytes) (+628). . (Created page with "Utilizing the Cloud9 IDE on Node.JS, Processing.JS and Linux on the BeagleBoard, I'm working on a project to make learning Linux easier. The staring point source is at https://g...")
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"url": "www.envirolink.org/topics.html?catid=10&do=catsearch&topic=Overpopulation&topicsku=2002119151843&topictype=subtopic",
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advanced search
Overpopulation - Articles
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Displaying 1 - 3 of 3 resources in Overpopulation and Articles:
1. And Then There Were Too Many
The roots and development of the idea of overpopulation. ...
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We are retelling the history of the management of human excrement as originally narrated by Abby A. Rockefeller. ...
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In 1992, Sir Michael Atiyah, president of the Royal Society of London, and Dr. Frank Press, president of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, issued ...
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"url": "www.eoearth.org/article/Invasive_Plant_Abundance?topic=54268",
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Rate This Article
Average: 3/5
Invasive Plant Abundance
Ecosystem Disturbance:
Invasive Plant Abundance
Nutrient Network esearch sites dotted across the globe. Credit: NSF Nutrient Network.
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Sidney Draggan Ph.D.
Home and Away: Are Invasive Plant Species
Really That Special?
Invasive plants are a major environmental problem--but how abundant are they?
Sevilleta, NM. Credit: Scott Collins, NSF Sevilleta LTER Site. Invasive plant species are a serious environmental, economic and social problem worldwide. Their abundance can lead to lost native biodiversity and such ecosystem functions as nutrient cycling.
Despite substantial research, however, little is known about why some species dominate new habitats over native plants that technically should have the advantage.
A common but rarely tested assumption, say biologists, is that these plants behave in a special way, making them more abundant when introduced into communities versus native plants that are already there.
If true, it would mean that biosecurity screening procedures need to address how species will behave once introduced to nonnative communities--very difficult to get right, researchers have found.
Scientists in a global collaboration called the Nutrient Network tested this "abundance assumption" for 26 plant species at 39 locations on four continents and found numerous problems with it.
The results are published in a paper in the journal Ecology Letters.
"Predicting success of invading species is difficult and uncertain, but very important," says Henry Gholz, program director in the National Science Foundation (NSF)'s Division of Environmental Biology, which funds the Nutrient Network.
"The Nutrient Network has enabled a field test of one of the most basic assumptions of current models," says Gholz, "and found it lacking. But, the results could lead to better predictions in the future."
Twenty of the 26 species examined had a similar or lower abundance at introduced versus native sites.
"The results suggest that invasive plants have a similar or lower abundance at both introduced and native ranges, and that increases in species abundance are unusual," says scientist Jennifer Firn from Queensland University of Technology and CSIRO, Australia, the lead author of the paper's 36 co-authors.
"Instead, abundance at native sites can predict abundance at introduced sites, a criterion not currently included in biosecurity screening programs."
Sites in New Zealand and Switzerland, for example, were similar in species composition, sharing--in some cases--more than 10 species, all with similar abundances.
The results are the first to be published from the Nutrient Network.
The Nutrient Network is led by individual researchers at the various sites, and coordinated through NSF funding to biologists Elizabeth Borer and Eric Seabloom of the University of Minnesota.
"The Nutrient Network is the only collaboration of its kind where individual researchers have set up the same experiment at sites around the world," says Borer.
For three years scientists have been collecting population, community and ecosystem-scale plant data, including species-specific distribution and abundance data, with standardized protocols across dozens of sites.
"The experimental design used is simple," says Borer, "but it's one that provides a new, global-scale approach for addressing many critical ecological issues.
"It will tell us information we need to know about invasive species and changing climates."
February 1, 2011
-NSF-
Citation
National Science Foundation (Content Source);Sidney Draggan Ph.D. (Topic Editor) "Invasive Plant Abundance". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth February 1, 2011; Last revised Date May 7, 2012; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Invasive_Plant_Abundance?topic=54268>
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"url": "www.familysearch.org/learn/wiki/en/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Category:Blount_County,_North_Carolina",
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Changes related to "Category:Blount County, North Carolina"
From FamilySearch Wiki
This is a list of changes made recently to pages linked from a specified page (or to members of a specified category). Pages on your watchlist are bold.
Recent changes options Show last 50 | 100 | 250 | 500 changes in last 1 | 3 | 7 | 14 | 30 days
Hide minor edits | Show bots | Hide anonymous users | Hide logged-in users | Hide my edits
Show new changes starting from 05:51, 18 May 2013
Page name:
No changes on linked pages during the given period.
New to the Research Wiki?
In the FamilySearch Research Wiki, you can learn how to do genealogical research or share your knowledge with others.
Learn More
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"url": "www.ga.gov.au/about-us/news-media/news-2011/rocks-attract-interest-in-temora.html",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T14:52:42.000Z",
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Rocks attract interest in Temora
31 May 2011
Visiting the TEMORA zircon site
(L-R) Keith Sircombe, Bill Hibberson,
Lance Black, Chris Lewis, Christina Talavera,
Emma Chisholm, and Liu Dun Yi.
© Temora Independent
The popularity of Temora in central New South Wales as a destination for visitors is not limited to the town's Aviation Museum, but also includes a more earthly attraction - a rock outcrop.
The rocks, which are in a paddock on a farm outside Temora, contain tiny zircon crystals, an element vitally important to geochronology.
The crystals are the TEMORA zircon reference which is considered to be among the finest in the world for deriving the age of rocks. It is used by dating laboratories around the world, including in Geoscience Australia's Sensitive High Resolution Ion MicroProbe, or SHRIMP .
Among those using Temora zircon is the Beijing SHRIMP Center in the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences and its Director, Professor Dunyi Liu, took the opportunity while in Australia to visit the site of the prized zircons with staff from Geoscience Australia and the Australian National University.
Professor Liu is leading a team undertaking analytical work at the Australian National University prior to the delivery of a second SHRIMP to the Beijing laboratory, acquired from the Canberra-based manufacturer Australian Scientific Instruments.
The Beijing SHRIMP Center analyses several hundred rock samples each year and has finalised a Memorandum of Understanding with Geoscience Australia to ship 200 kilograms of raw Temora rock to Beijing Academy of Geological Sciences in September.
Topic contact: media@ga.gov.au Last updated: May 31, 2012
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Service Unavailable Error Message When You Browse a Web Site
This is an article on Service Unavailable Error Message When You Browse a Web Site in ASP.
When you configure your IIS webserver and find the following message
Service Unavailable
Then the first solution to the above error is http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?id=823552 but if this does not solve the problem try doing the following stuff.
Open the IIS Manager, right click Web Sites and select properties:
Switch to the Service Tab
Check "Run WWW Service in IIS 5.0 Isolation Mode".
You will be asked for Restart of IIS. Click yes to restart IIS. If you are not asked just restart IIS.
Newbie Member
3Aug2006,02:32 #2
This solved my problem which occurred after installing VM Server. My question is what does isolation mode really do and why did it fix the problem?
Go4Expert Founder
3Aug2006,10:50 #3
As suggested by Microsoft
Quote:
Originally Posted by Microsoft
You can run IIS 6.0 in one of two modes: worker process isolation mode or IIS 5.0 isolation mode. Worker process isolation mode is the default mode, that is, the mode that the server runs in on a clean installation. You can use IIS 5.0 isolation mode to run applications developed for older versions of IIS that are determined to be incompatible with worker process isolation mode.
This means you will not be able to take advantage of worker process isolation and the other features of worker process isolation mode.
Go4Expert Member
28Aug2006,21:48 #4
I am getting the service unavilable error in the interval of 3 to 6 months. the application is created using asp and oracle.
i can see the following error in the event log.
Error:
Application pool 'application name' is being automatically disabled due to a series of failures in the process(es) serving that application pool.
can anyone tell me where is the problem? my application side or iis6 server side?
Go4Expert Founder
28Aug2006,22:51 #5
Can you clarify what you meant by 3 to 6 months.
Go4Expert Member
29Aug2006,15:19 #6
Hi shabbir,
Thanks for the reply,
i was getting that error before 6 months. after that i am getting the same error now
Regards,
Kalees
Last edited by kalees; 29Aug2006 at 15:23..
Go4Expert Founder
29Aug2006,16:00 #7
Understand and Diagnose an Application Pool Crash would be good place to start off.
Go4Expert Member
29Aug2006,21:01 #8
Hi shabbir,
Thanks for the valuable reply,
According to that article, we have to install debugger for find out the error that will happen in the next time. I can understand, but my question is whether my application may cause this error or not? if it is so then i have to check my asp pages for infinite loop,syntax errors..etc.But it is a very standard application and running for more than 4 years without problems.
Please kindly guide me.
Regards,
Kalees
Go4Expert Founder
29Aug2006,21:10 #9
The cause of the errors cannot be from the program. It just the problem from the installation or configuration point.
Go4Expert Member
30Aug2006,14:07 #10
many thanks
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The Bengal IT department has initiated the process of setting up an e-waste management and processing unit in an adjoining district of Calcutta.
To prevent serious injury from being caused to environment and humans, national green tribunal (NGT) on Wednesday banned burning of plastics, tyres, wires or any such materials in the scrap market
The Orissa State Pollution Control Board (OSPCB) is going to form a committee to create an inventory of e-wastes following frequent failure to collect these wastes in the state.
Throwing out your old computer in a garbage dump may lead to mercury poisoning and a possible brain stroke. Confused?
Designers of everything from mobile phones to electric car batteries should make their products far easier to recycle to offset soaring demand for metals, two United Nations reports recommended on
If you have e-waste in your neighbourhood and do not know how to dispose it without causing any damage to the environment, just log in to www.ewaste.in.
JAIPUR: Come May and the country's first five-star rated green building in Achrol exclusively dedicated to environment audit will be ready to be inaugurated by Vice-President Hamid Ansari.
Odisha government said on Tuesday that it has engaged five private agencies for disposal of e-waste and created awareness on the danger of such pollution.
BHUBANESWAR: The Orissa State Pollution Control Board (OSPCB) has authorized five collection centres in Bhubaneswar and Cuttack to collect electronic wastes and send it to registered recyclers for
Last year, two inspectors from California’s hazardous waste agency were visiting an electronics recycling company near Fresno for a routine review of paperwork when they came across a warehouse the
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Bibliography: The Mystics
You are not logged in. If you create a free account and sign in, you will be able to customize what is displayed.
Title: The Mystics
Author: Katherine Cecil Thurston
Year: 1904
Type: NOVEL
ISFDB Record Number: 155773
Note: First book appearance 1907, 1904 copyright date(possible magazine appearance) referenced on the copyright page.
User Rating: This title has fewer than 5 votes. VOTE
Current Tags: None Add Tags
Publications:
Copyright (c) 1995-2011 Al von Ruff.
ISFDB Engine - Version 4.00 (04/24/06)
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"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:13236",
"uncompressed_offset": 570161723,
"url": "www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/9/9/3149",
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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9(9), 3149-3165; doi:10.3390/ijerph9093149
Article
Linear and Non-Linear Associations of Gonorrhea Diagnosis Rates with Social Determinants of Health
1 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA 2 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Applied Sciences, Epidemic Intelligence Service, Scientific Education and Professional Development Program Office, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Received: 25 July 2012; in revised form: 6 August 2012 / Accepted: 23 August 2012 / Published: 3 September 2012
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social and Economical Determinants of Health)
Download PDF Full-Text [317 KB, uploaded 3 September 2012 13:58 CEST]
Abstract: Identifying how social determinants of health (SDH) influence the burden of disease in communities and populations is critically important to determine how to target public health interventions and move toward health equity. A holistic approach to disease prevention involves understanding the combined effects of individual, social, health system, and environmental determinants on geographic area-based disease burden. Using 2006–2008 gonorrhea surveillance data from the National Notifiable Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance and SDH variables from the American Community Survey, we calculated the diagnosis rate for each geographic area and analyzed the associations between those rates and the SDH and demographic variables. The estimated product moment correlation (PMC) between gonorrhea rate and SDH variables ranged from 0.11 to 0.83. Proportions of the population that were black, of minority race/ethnicity, and unmarried, were each strongly correlated with gonorrhea diagnosis rates. The population density, female proportion, and proportion below the poverty level were moderately correlated with gonorrhea diagnosis rate. To better understand relationships among SDH, demographic variables, and gonorrhea diagnosis rates, more geographic area-based estimates of additional variables are required. With the availability of more SDH variables and methods that distinguish linear from non-linear associations, geographic area-based analysis of disease incidence and SDH can add value to public health prevention and control programs.
Keywords: social determinants of health; gonorrhea diagnosis rates; product moment correlation; maximal information coefficient
Article Statistics
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Cite This Article
MDPI and ACS Style
Moonesinghe, R.; Fleming, E.; Truman, B.I.; Dean, H.D. Linear and Non-Linear Associations of Gonorrhea Diagnosis Rates with Social Determinants of Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 3149-3165.
AMA Style
Moonesinghe R, Fleming E, Truman BI, Dean HD. Linear and Non-Linear Associations of Gonorrhea Diagnosis Rates with Social Determinants of Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2012; 9(9):3149-3165.
Chicago/Turabian Style
Moonesinghe, Ramal; Fleming, Eleanor; Truman, Benedict I.; Dean, Hazel D. 2012. "Linear and Non-Linear Associations of Gonorrhea Diagnosis Rates with Social Determinants of Health." Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 9, no. 9: 3149-3165.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health EISSN 1660-4601 Published by MDPI AG, Basel, Switzerland RSS E-Mail Table of Contents Alert
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20.109(F11): Laboratory Fundamentals of Biological Engineering
Home People Schedule Fall 2011 Assignments Lab Basics OWW Basics
DNA Engineering System Engineering Biomaterials Engineering
Scientific data is communicated in many ways. Data can be shared informally through email with a collaborator or in lab group meetings. Data can also be formally communicated as publications in peer-reviewed journals or as hour-long seminars at international meetings. Successful scientific careers require both written and oral presentations, and scientific reputations are based on BOTH. It is important to know that every presentation, no matter how informal, will build or hurt your reputation. That's the reason you can find such detailed and numerous guidelines for giving scientific job talks--the list captures what commonly annoys search committees and what leads to rejection letters for candidates.
Seminars, group meetings, ten-minute talks, and journal clubs are all ways scientists share data orally. While the content, length and purpose of each talk varies, they share certain common elements, including organization, clarity, and proper attribution for the work.
The oral presentations you will give in this class will be ten-minute talks. Your talks will include an introduction to the topic, a presentation of data, a summary and a time to answer questions from your classmates. Realistically, only two or three ideas can be effectively conveyed in so short a time, and even that will require that you carefully plan what you will say and then practice saying it. You will not be allowed to talk for more than ten minutes.
In addition to the advice below, you should also consult with Atissa Banuazizi.
Contents
Things to remember about giving your talk
• A 10’ talk is NOT a 30’ talk given very fast
• It will help if you memorize at least the first few sentences of your talk
• Think of ways to transition from one slide to the next (“In the next slide I’ll show you some data that identifies the protein detected”)
• Figure out how to work the lights, slide projector, curtains etc before you begin.
• Keep the lights as bright as possible. If you have to turn the lights off for some image to be properly seen, then remember to turn the lights back on. People can and do fall asleep during dark seminars
• Laser pointers or sticks should be used to direct attention to images on the screen. Be sure to always use a pointer with a specific purpose in mind, rather than constantly gesturing in the general vicinity of your slide; otherwise, the audience will not know what's important. Don’t aim your laser pointer at anyone since it can damage a person’s eyes.
How to deal with nerves
• Consider it excitement and turn it into enthusiasm
• Remember that even the most experienced speakers get nervous right before a talk
• Speak in a louder voice
• Don’t speak in a monotone
• Do practice your talk, which will help eliminate crutch words such as “so,” “um,” and “like”
Format
Section Minutes Number of slides Do Don't
Introduction ~2 2-3
• Set the scene for the data you will present - introduce key concepts that the audience will need to follow along
• At the beginning or end of the introduction, briefly state the overall scope and significance of the study - what is the central question and why is it interesting?
• Try to summarize background material with a model slide
• Assume you are addressing experts
• Give more information than is absolutely needed to understand the rest of your talk
• Put too much information on each slide. You can bring in a few details as you speak if you are using PowerPoint animation
Data ~7 4-6
• Present the data in a logical sequence, letting each slide build upon the last
• Include a title for each slide. The title should be the conclusion to be drawn
• Make every element of your slide visible to the entire room. This means 20 point font or greater
• Interpret each slide thoroughly and carefully
• Point out strengths and weaknesses of the data along the way
• Read your talk. Similarly, don’t read lists from slides
• Put too much information on each slide. Each slide should make only one point
• Ever say, “I know you can’t read this, but…” Everything on each slide should be legible.
• Be afraid to remind audience how the data fits into the overall question
Summary ~1 1
• Review each of your main “messages”
• Say what the study contributed to the field
• Forget to acknowledge all contributors
Question & Answer ? 0
• Answer the question being asked. If you are unclear about the question, ask for clarification
• Respect every question and questioner
• Take too long with one question. If the topic is involved, suggest you meet after the talk to discuss it more
REHEARSE YOUR TALK SEVERAL TIMES
Find examples of short talks here and here
and some tips for the Q&A period are here
Day sign-up
Please put your name under the day you wish to present. There are 7-8 slots on each day, depending on lab section. Slot location does not determine speaker order.
Slot Day 4 (T/R) Day 8 (T/R) Day 4 (W/F) Day 8 (W/F)
1 Shelley A Emily Brown Dorma Flemister Mariana Duran
2 Laura Seaman Michael Hwang Robin Yeo Daniel Glover
3 Hannah Johnsen Jonathan Chien Yimin Chen Brook Wassie
4 Cara Brown Richard Park Michelle Fung Cuong Nguyen
5 Colin Beckwitt Brian Djaja Paul Muir
6 Jamal Elkhader Divya Chhabra
7 Tonia Tsinman Gonzo Guajardo Edgar Matias
8 Queenie Chan / Luis Juarez (ANS ok)
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Kim:Lab Members
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Revision as of 14:57, 4 October 2012 by Derek M. Britain (Talk | contribs)
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HOME RESEARCH PEOPLE PUBLICATIONS INTERNAL POSITIONS NEWS LINKS CONTACT OUTREACH
Principal Investigator
Deok-Ho Kim, PhD
Assistant Professor
Department of Bioengineering
Center for Cardiovascular Biology
Institute of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine
Center for Nanotechnology
University of Washington
Box 355061, Seattle, WA 98195
Citation
Postdoctoral Scholars
Hee Seok Yang
neoscate@gmail.com
Kshitiz
kshitizkz@gmail.com
Ki-Hwan Nam
Young Soo Choi
Research Scientists/Specialists
Katya Nagornyak
nkaterin@gmail.com
Research Scientist
Melissa Walzer
walzerm@uw.edu
Lab Manager/Research Scientist
Graduate Students
Alex Jiao
NIH Bioengineering Cardiovascular Training Grant Fellow
Jesse Macadangdang
Daniel Carson
Andrew Wang
Jonathan Tsui
Undergraduate Students
Sam Frankel
frankelizer@gmail.com
Nicholas Neal
Julie Antetomaso
Derek Britain
Mary Gate Scholar
NASA Scholar
Cameron Nemeth
Mary Gate Scholar
Nicole Trosper
Mary Gate Scholar
Oscar Lee
Daniel Lih
Kevin Mun
Rasan Cherala
Visiting Scholars
Radu Reit
rreit3@gatech.edu
Georgia Institute of Technology
Elsa Mesfin
aipelsi@gmail.com
Seattle Central Community College
Jinah Jang
jinahjang@postech.ac.kr
POSTECH
Former Group Members
Faculty Collaborators
• Prof. Charles Murry, University of Washington
• Prof. Kahp-Yang Suh, Seoul National University
• Prof. Michael Regnier, University of Washington
• Prof. Michael Laflamme, University of Washington
• Prof. Yu Sun, University of Toronto
• Prof. Morayma Reyes, University of Washington
• Prof. Suzie Pun, University of Washington
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SynBERC
From OpenWetWare
Revision as of 12:56, 26 April 2007 by Reshma P. Shetty (Talk | contribs)
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The Synthetic Biology Engineering Research Center (SynBERC) is a multi-institution research effort to lay the foundation for synthetic biology, which aims to build biological components and assemble them into integrated systems to accomplish specific tasks.
News
• 4/25/2007: Video of Remy Chait's talk is available.
• 4/17/2007: Remy Chait is speaking at MIT on April 24 at 12pm EST.
• 4/9/2007: The SynBERC sponsored seminar series is in progress. Andy Ellington is speaking at Prairie View A&M University on April 11 at 3pm CDT.
• 3/22/2007: Video of Steve Benner's talk is available.
Browse archive
Groups
Courses
Research Thrusts
Proposed Projects
• Add your proposed projects to the appropriate Research Thrusts above. If you don't wish to have your project viewed publicly, add it to the SynBERC intranet.
To access the SynBERC intranet, please request an OpenWetWare account and then email Kevin Costa with your username to be added as a SynBERC user.
Testbed Applications
Links
Resources
Recent changes
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User:Stuart McKellar/Notebook/Bird Sex Testing/2013/01/04
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(Temps and new primers)
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ITS4 5'-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3' reverse all
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Revision as of 21:30, 3 January 2013
Project name Main project page
Previous entry Next entry
Reconciling information and thoughts after break
I did some reading and thinking and research during the xmas break. This is the result.
Housekeeping Genes
Finally found some housekeeping primers: 18S-F908 18S a AGCGAAAGCATTTGCCAAGA 401 This study (SVB) 18S-R1309 18S a AGTCTCGTTCGTTATCGGAATT This study (SVB)
(from http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/11/5/05-0211-t1.htm)
Temps and new primers
P2/P8 primers work best at 60C, confirming my lab work. (from http://www.academia.edu/1460726/Sex_Identification_of_Some_Pet_Birds_by_Polymerase_Chain_Reaction-Based_Methods )
also, this paper suggests using some new primers and was getting results very similar to my ones. Going to try and order NP an MP primers. See this paper for what a positive and negative result looks like using P2/P8 primers.
Also this page suggests using 1μL of 10μM primer to give final concentration of 0.5μM in 20μL. Maybe I should start running the reactions at 20ul instead.
Mushy primers: ITS1 5'-TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3' forward all ITS4 5'-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3' reverse all
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[1] So he lay there asleep, the much-enduring goodly Odysseus, overcome with sleep and weariness; but Athena went to the land and city of the Phaeacians. These dwelt of old in spacious Hypereia [5] hard by the Cyclopes, men overweening in pride who plundered them continually and were mightier than they. From thence Nausithous, the godlike, had removed them, and led and settled them in Scheria far from men that live by toil. About the city he had drawn a wall, he had built houses [10] and made temples for the gods, and divided the ploughlands; but he, ere now, had been stricken by fate and had gone to the house of Hades, and Alcinous was now king, made wise in counsel by the gods. To his house went the goddess, flashing-eyed Athena, to contrive the return of great-hearted Odysseus. [15] She went to a chamber, richly wrought, wherein slept a maiden like the immortal goddesses in form and comeliness, Nausicaa, the daughter of great-hearted Alcinous; hard by slept two hand-maidens, gifted with beauty by the Graces, one on either side of the door-posts, and the bright doors were shut. [20] But like a breath of air the goddess sped to the couch of the maiden, and stood above her head, and spoke to her, taking the form of the daughter of Dymas, famed for his ships, a girl who was of like age with Nausicaa, and was dear to her heart. Likening herself to her, the flashing-eyed Athena spoke and said: [25] “Nausicaa, how comes it that thy mother bore thee so heedless? Thy bright raiment is lying uncared for; yet thy marriage is near at hand, when thou must needs thyself be clad in fair garments, and give other such to those who escort thee. It is from things like these, thou knowest, that good report goeth up among men, [30] and the father and honored mother rejoice. Nay, come, let us go to wash them at break of day, for I will follow with thee to aid thee, that thou mayest with speed make thee ready; for thou shalt not long remain a maiden. Even now thou hast suitors in the land, the noblest [35] of all the Phaeacians, from whom is thine own lineage. Nay, come, bestir thy noble father early this morning that he make ready mules and a wagon for thee, to bear the girdles and robes and bright coverlets. And for thyself, too, it is far more seemly [40] to go thus than on foot, for the washing tanks are far from the city.” So saying, the goddess, flashing-eyed Athena, departed to Olympus, where, they say, is the abode of the gods that stands fast forever. Neither is it shaken by winds nor ever wet with rain, nor does snow fall upon it, but the air [45] is outspread clear and cloudless, and over it hovers a radiant whiteness. Therein the blessed gods are glad all their days, and thither went the flashing-eyed one, when she had spoken all her word to the maiden.
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load focus English (Samuel Butler, Based on public domain edition, revised by Timothy Power and Gregory Nagy., 1900)
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Citation URN: urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:6.1
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exta ōrum, n
sup. for *ecista from ex, the chief internal organs of the body, significant organs (in prognostication): exta interpretari: dare, L.: inspicere: reddere Marti, V.: lustralia, V.: victimae, L.
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Dr. Dmatix's Personnel File
Dr.Dmatix, taking a local flu epidemic rather too seriously.
Dr.Dmatix's personal file
Name: Andrew.J Dmatix
Occupation: Field Researcher
Security Clearance: Level 3
Specialization: Zoology, Classical History
Profile: Dr. Dmatix, Foundation researcher, is a man of a somewhat peculiar nature. Though he is usually fairly confidant, and can be trusted to handle situations that fit within his specific fields of interest efficiently and decisively, he can be unpredictable in other situations, especially when faced with diseases and germs, which he finds "icky". Show the man a rampaging bear made of quicksilver and chunks of human flesh, and he won't batter an eyelash. Show him a seven year old girl with chickenpox and he'll scream in a voice so shrill the girl will call him a sissy.
History: Dr. Dmatix was first brought to the Foundation's attention by MTS Omega-131 ("Mirthbusters") commander ███ ██████, when he confronted SCP-1██ (a bear made of quicksilver and human flesh) without battering an eyelash when said creature broke into his place of work in search of a mate. The doctor managed to temporally neutralize the bear until the task force was able to contain it using nothing more than a fire extinguisher, a paperclip chain and a can of barbasol. He then proceeded to scream like a huge pansy and hide under his desk when he saw SCP-1██'s containment procedure (a seven year old girl with chickenpox rubbing her face against it).
SCPs:
Foundation Tales:
The Breath storyline:
Page tags: author
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Search Engine Tools
Jan 25, 2004 • 7:47 pm | (0) by | Filed Under Search Engine Optimization Tools
Nothing too exciting, but some might find them useful...
• Google AdSense Sandbox - Lets you view what AdWords would be served up by Google for any webpage.
• Search Engine Script - Takes the complexity of adding a "search this site" function to any website (it uses the Google API on the backend).
Previous story: Enough is Enough
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Yahoo! Search on Steroids
May 6, 2004 • 8:50 am | (1) by | Filed Under Other Search Engines
UJIKO is this new search engine that uses the Yahoo! search technology but gives you a completely new interface with customized or personalized options.
delete result ******************** love result
"When you click on one of the results, the page is stored by UJIKO and will instantly appear in the first results next time you search. Choose which site will be first with the heart-grade or, on the contrary, filter the one you dislike. All sites you find can be modified: title, description and heart grade will be memorized and displayed during another query. Finally, you can create filters to mark or delete some results depending on their addresses (URL) or description."
View Large Image
Previous story: Contextual Advertising + Profile-Based Advertising
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CMD sent two reporters to track ALEC in Oklahoma
Click here to help support our future investigations.
Alice M. Rivlin
From SourceWatch
(Redirected from Alice Rivlin)
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Learn more about Pete Peterson-funded astroturf projects at the Fix the Debt Portal.
Alice M. Rivlin is best known for her role as budget director in the Clinton administration (1994-1996).
Rivlin has deep ties to the finance industry and to budget austerity advocacy groups funded by Peter Peterson.
A former vice chair of the Federal Reserve Board (1996-1999), Rivlin has served on the board of directors of the global consulting firm BearingPoint (2001-2006), The Washington Post Co. (2002-2006), the New York Stock Exchange (2005-2006), the NYSE Group (2006-2007), and NYSE Euronext (2007-2009).
Ties to Pete Peterson's "Fix the Debt"
The Campaign to Fix the Debt is the latest incarnation of a decades-long effort by former Nixon man turned Wall Street billionaire Pete Peterson to slash earned benefit programs such as Social Security and Medicare under the guise of fixing the nation's "debt problem."
Rivlin is a member of the Campaign to Fix the Debt's steering committee.[1] She is also on the board of Fix the Debt’s parent organization, the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget, and was a member of the Simpson-Bowles Commission (on its discretionary and mandatory spending working group), where she voted for Simpson and Bowles’ recommended $200 billion annual cuts in discretionary spending, raising of the Social Security retirement age, cutting the federal workforce by 10%, and reductions in federal pensions and student loan subsidies.
Rivlin also co-chaired the Debt Reduction Task Force with Pete Domenici at the Bipartisan Policy Center, a precursor to the Simpson-Bowles Commission.
Rivlin also backed a proposal to voucherize Medicare, though she objected to Republican vice presidential candidate Paul Ryan's claim that his privatization proposal had her backing,[2] since Rivlin had not agreed with Ryan's proposal on how much vouchers would be worth and wanted to keep the current delivery system as an option for seniors.[3] Under the Ryan-Rivlin plan, the CBO stated, "voucher recipients would probably have to purchase less extensive coverage or pay higher premiums," and "future beneficiaries would probably face higher premiums in the private market for a package of benefits similar to that currently provided by Medicare."[4]
This article is part of the Center for Media and Democracy's investigation of Pete Peterson's Campaign to "Fix the Debt." Please visit our main SourceWatch page on Fix the Debt.
About Fix the Debt
The Campaign to Fix the Debt is the latest incarnation of a decades-long effort by former Nixon man turned Wall Street billionaire Pete Peterson to slash earned benefit programs such as Social Security and Medicare under the guise of fixing the nation's "debt problem." Through a special report and new interactive wiki resource, the Center for Media and Democracy -- in partnership with the Nation magazine -- exposes the funding, the leaders, the partner groups, and the phony state "chapters" of this astroturf supergroup. Learn more at PetersonPyramid.org and in the Nation magazine.
Brookings Institute Biography
Rivlin "is a Visiting Professor at the Public Policy Institute of Georgetown University and a Senior Fellow in the Economic Studies program at the Brookings Institution. She is the Director of the Greater Washington Research Program at Brookings. Before returning to Brookings, Ms. Rivlin served as Vice Chair of the Federal Reserve Board from 1996 to 1999. She was Director of the White House Office of Management and Budget from 1994 to 1996, and Deputy Director (1993-94). She also chaired the District of Columbia Financial Management Assistance Authority (1998-2001).[5]
"Ms. Rivlin was the founding Director of the Congressional Budget Office (1975-1983). She was director of the Economic Studies Program at Brookings (1983-1987). She also served at the Department of Health, Education and Welfare as Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (1968-69).[5]
"Ms. Rivlin received a MacArthur Foundation Prize Fellowship, taught at Harvard, George Mason, and The New School Universities, has served on the Boards of Directors of several corporations, and as President of the American Economic Association. She is currently a member of the Board of Directors of BearingPoint, the New York Stock Exchange and the Washington Post Company.[5]
"She is a frequent contributor to newspapers, television, and radio, and has written numerous books. Her books include Systematic Thinking for Social Action (l971), Reviving the American Dream (1992), and Beyond the Dot.coms (with Robert Litan, 2001). She is co-editor (with Isabel Sawhill) of Restoring Fiscal Sanity: How to Balance the Budget (2004), Restoring Fiscal Sanity 2005: Meeting the Long-Run Challenges, and (with Litan) of The Economic Payoff from the Internet Revolution (2001).[5]
"Ms. Rivlin was born in 1931 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and grew up in Bloomington, Indiana. She received a B.A. in economics from Bryn Mawr College in 1952; and a Ph.D. from Radcliffe College (Harvard University) in economics in 1958. She is married to economist Sidney G. Winter, who is a professor at the University of Pennsylvania. (August 2005)" [5]
Resources and Articles
Featured SourceWatch Articles on Fix the Debt
Other Related SourceWatch Articles
References
1. Fix the Debt, "Who We Are", organizational website, accessed December 2012.
2. Ezra Klein, "Rivlin: 'I don't support the version of Medicare premium support in the Ryan plan'", The Washington Post, April 6, 2011.
3. Meredith Shiner, "Alice Rivlin: I don't back 'Ryan-Rivlin' plan", Politico, April 5, 2011.
4. Congressional Budget Office, "Preliminary ANalysis of the Rivlin-Ryan Health Care Proposal", organizational document, November 17, 2010.
5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Brookings Institution, Alice M. Rivlin, organizational biography, accessed October 25, 2007.
6. National Advisory Board, AmericaSpeaks, accessed October 25, 2007.
7. Directors, Cafritz Foundation, accessed December 20, 2008.
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Fixing OS X: Update Instead of Reinstalling
A few weeks ago my new AirPort Express showed up. To use it, you have to install a new piece of software, the AirPort Express Assistant (the old AirPort Assistant doesn't work). No big deal, however, as I was installing the software, just after the installer started its traditional disk optimization phase, my TiBook shut down. I'd forgotten to plug it in and it picked that moment to run out of juice.
I plugged in the power supply and brought the computer back from sleep mode, but the installation had gone horribly awry and so I started it over again. Stopping a disk optimization in mid stream is not a good idea. There's no telling what might have been messed up. Over the next few days I noticed a few odd things.
First, none of the Apple supplied menu bar items worked anymore. Things like the clock, AirPort status, and so on wouldn't start and gave strange error messages on the console. Menu bar items from third parties continued to operate fine. No amount of plist deletions, cache clearings, or rebootings would bring them back.
My iPod wouldn't sync with iTunes anymore. It would mount on the desktop and the iPod updater recognized that it was on the firewire, but iTunes couldn't see it.
I tried several things, including restoring some files from backup, but nothing seemed to work. I knew that the disk had been hosed somewhere that affected the system software, but it wasn't clear where. I was considering reloading the OS. I happen to have a spare 12 inch Powerbooks right now and I thought maybe I'd just transfer my working files to that and then reload in peace and safety. Then while searching Google for tips to make sure I knew everything I needed before I began, I ran across an idea that worked for me.
Rather than reload the entire OS, I just downloaded the OS X 10.3.4 combined updater and ran that. Luckily, it fixed both of the problems I'd experienced. I may not be out of the woods yet; I may yet find some lurking problem that requires that I reload the OS, but for now, I'm golden and with much less effort that would have been required to reload the entire OS.
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
On the internet it says that groupon has been profitable since June 2009. Does anyone have a reasonable guess how much profit they make?
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4 Answers
Given they raised $36 million recently I would imagine they are making alot of money - if valuation was based on future earnings. They take a cut from the coupon sales and given they sell a lot in different cities you could probably estimate turnover but profits would be tricky, their operating costs can't be that high as the major cost is probably marketing staff to find merchants.
In the UK the group buying market is exploding, so if you're thinking about entering this market it will be tough.
disclaimer: we developed a group buying site for likebees.com
EDIT: now that they are raising yet another round at a 1+ billion valuation, I would like to think they are at least going to be profitable, otherwise we're in another bubble
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Does it say it is profitable on their site? My understanding they are fairly new and VC funded. Doubt that they even broke even.
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Groupon Math: Data Scraping to Estimate Revenue might give you some idea about their numbers.
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This link says that they are clearing $1M a week, but there's absolutely no substantiation for the claim. It's from TechCrunch, so believe that (or not) depending on your religion and politics :-)
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I know this has been asked million times but i am still not sure. I bought a PO box number recently. I have looked at Mailbox Forwarding and EarthMail and others but none of them have addresses in Massachusetts. my question is that when you form LLC, there are couple of addresses that they ask while filing in the certificate of organization.
• principal office street address i am assuming this is the office street address. since mine is virtual, what would i put in here? po box, my home address, earthmail/regus address [which is not in mass, so not sure whether it will be treated as foreign entity] also, is this information publicly available to people?
• street address where records will be maintained what is this address. is this mailing address they are asking? can this be po box, earthmail/regus, home address
• registered agent i will have my name here but not sure what address to put in. because i do know this is going to be part of public record.
• Filers contact information. This will be again my name and address. so what address should i put in. also will this be part of public record..
i know most of you have done this couple of times, so help is appreciated.
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1 Answer
This is simply my practical experience as an owner of multiple businesses:
Principal office street address = the main location where your business is conducted. If it's out of your home, then it's your home address. They get to know where you're actually doing business.
Street address where records will be maintained = Where your official books and business records are physically kept. This is in case an official needs to do an audit/review of some sort. Thus, it cannot reasonably be a post office box.
Registered agent address = the reliable contact information for the agent of the corporation. This can be a PO box so long as it is a reliable contact point for you.
Filers contact information = the reliable contact information for the filer. Again, this can be a PO box so long as it is a reliable contact point for you.
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I'm in the process of trying to establish my first startup. At the moment I'm working with a friend of mine on developing the idea, and we had already created a prototype for our product on a mobile device.
We are not satisfied with how we progress with our code and design, and so we would like to add a few more people to work with us on this project.
Me and my friend got an unwritten agreement of us splitting our shares 50/50, if a day comes and we become profitable.
For now we keep our day job, and we plan that it will stay this way for the next few months until we could show a concrete version to a VC and hopefully get some funding. Only then we could quit our day jobs, because now we just don't have the money to risk for this little adventure.
So we would like to progress as fast as possible and for that we need more people to work with us. We were thinking about adding 2-3 more people to work with us on our spare time, but we are not sure on which status we could add them. We can't pay any salaries, and to be honest I think that at this stage we will need people that will be as determined as we are for this project, and I'm not sure that people on pay will be the same. But I also don't think we can offer them shares without seeing how they progress, or if we get along and etc..
I also don't have the money to pay for fancy legal agreements and all kinds of lawyers services, and to be honest I think that if I'll start with all of these legal agreements I would never have the time to actually focus on the real product.
So how would you guys suggest approaching my friends? What should I offer them? Can our own agreements (with no lawyers support) suffice for this stage?
I know my question is a little complicated, but I hope some of you could still help me out. Every piece of information is crucial at this stage.
Thanks!
share|improve this question
2 Answers
up vote 1 down vote accepted
Since you havent registered an entity, it will not be possible for you to offer ESOPS or plain vanilla equity to the people you want to bring on board. Typically, if a start-up does not have money to pay to initial members, equity in exchange of services can be given as initial compensation. Giving equity can be a good way to encourage team members to defer their compensation. ESOPS is a good example of this. You concern on giving equity can be reduced by ensuring that you continue to keep a majority and offer minor stakes to the new members. I dont see what else you could offer them at this stage. You can check if they are willing to buy into the idea of a profit share, if and only if the business makes a profit.
As far as agreements are concerned, I would strongly advise you to consult a lawyer. The structuring of agreements with differed compensation will require appropriate legal expertise.
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Having seen, on many occasions, the efforts of startup entrepreneurs who have put together their own agreements, I will offer the following thoughts:
1. There is some likelihood that you can put together an agreement that expresses reasonably accurately the parties' intent with respect to ownership of the business and remuneration. ("Some" likelihood reflects the fact that some people are better, and some are worse, at expressing themselves in an organized, coherent fashion.)
2. There is virtually no likelihood that you can put together an agreement that properly assigns ownership of the product and associated intellectual property rights.
Disclaimer: This information does not constitute legal advice and does not establish an attorney-client relationship.
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Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I came across Microsoft Surface today, and one tiny detail get me thinking.
There is a small "TM" next to the word "Surface", can they do that? Can a common word like surface be trademarked like that? Even when it gets a meaning the is so close to the original meaning?
An further more. Does this mean that I have to trademark my product names, even when they are common used names? like "Red Spreatsheet" and "Blue Sky"?
This troubles me.
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3 Answers
The 'TM' means that they are claiming common-law rights in the mark -- the idea is that people will so identify the word 'surface' with Microsoft that it would be unfair to allow anybody else to come out with a 'Surface' tablet.
Microsoft has probably already applied for a registered trademark on the name -- it just takes a few months for those to be published.
Whether the USPTO will let them do this, or not, is another matter. The more generic or descriptive a mark is, the less likely that the USPTO will let it through. So, you cannot trademark the word "apple" when applied to apples, but there's no problem when applied to computers. I don't know that 'surface' really describes this tablet, but it's certainly more descriptive then something fanciful like "Xerox" or "Android." However, note that Microsoft already has a trademark on 'surface' for that table with a display built into it.
'Red Spreadsheet' is nearly complete descriptive -- like the 'apple' above. 'Blue Sky,' on the other hand, is registered to an Arizona real estate company, to a company that does computer animation and to a company that does utility bill management services, among others.
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They can try. When they sue someone for trademark violations, the courts will have to decide if they actually can. Note that "TM" is not necessarily a registered trademark.
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Registering a Trademark only protects the use of that name in that specific industry. I can make a Surface clothing line and be completely free from MS's grasp as it is not likely that you would confuse my clothing line with their tablets.
If you search http://uspto.gov you will see that the Trademarks are broken down into industry's.
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kickstarter alternatives for non US startups?
I've recently been looking into getting funding for my startup (we're building a web-based social platform). I've looked into www.kickstarter.com and it looks pretty cool however it is only open to US ...
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When, and how should I think about getting money out of a free site/service?
How to (slightly) monetize a tiny niche website... when it's free to use? I'm developing a small niche website to help an airline worker I know solve a problem she faces fairly regularly. It seems ...
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Research article
TWEAK and Fn14 expression in the pathogenesis of joint inflammation and bone erosion in rheumatoid arthritis
Anak ASSK Dharmapatni1*, Malcolm D Smith2, Tania N Crotti1, Christopher A Holding1, Cristina Vincent4, Helen M Weedon2, Andrew CW Zannettino3,6, Timothy S Zheng4, David M Findlay5,6, Gerald J Atkins5,6 and David R Haynes1
Author Affiliations
1 Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
2 Rheumatology Research Unit, Repatriation General Hospital, Daws Road, Adelaide, SA 5041, Australia
3 Myeloma Research Laboratory, Bone and Cancer Laboratories, Division of Haematology, Institute of Medical & Veterinary Science, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
4 Immunology, Biogen Idec Inc., Cambridge Centre, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
5 Bone Cell Biology Group, Discipline of Orthopaedics and Trauma, University of Adelaide, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
6 Hanson Institute, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
For all author emails, please log on.
Arthritis Research & Therapy 2011, 13:R51 doi:10.1186/ar3294
Published: 24 March 2011
Abstract
Introduction
TNF-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) has been proposed as a mediator of inflammation and bone erosion in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This study aimed to investigate TWEAK and TWEAK receptor (Fn14) expression in synovial tissue from patients with active and inactive rheumatoid arthritis (RA), osteoarthritis (OA) and normal controls and assess soluble (s)TWEAK levels in the synovial fluids from patients with active RA and OA. Effects of sTWEAK on osteoclasts and osteoblasts were investigated in vitro.
Methods
TWEAK and Fn14 expression were detected in synovial tissues by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Selected tissues were dual labelled with antibodies specific for TWEAK and lineage-selective cell surface markers CD68, Tryptase G, CD22 and CD38. TWEAK mRNA expression was examined in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) sorted on the basis of their expression of CD22. sTWEAK was detected in synovial fluid from OA and RA patients by ELISA. The effect of sTWEAK on PBMC and RAW 264.7 osteoclastogenesis was examined. The effect of sTWEAK on cell surface receptor activator of NF Kappa B Ligand (RANKL) expression by human osteoblasts was determined by flow cytometry.
Results
TWEAK and Fn14 expression were significantly higher in synovial tissue from all patient groups compared to the synovial tissue from control subjects (P < 0.05). TWEAK was significantly higher in active compared with inactive RA tissues (P < 0.05). TWEAK expression co-localised with a subset of CD38+ plasma cells and with CD22+ B-lymphocytes in RA tissues. Abundant TWEAK mRNA expression was detected in normal human CD22+ B cells. Higher levels of sTWEAK were observed in synovial fluids isolated from active RA compared with OA patients. sTWEAK did not stimulate osteoclast formation directly from PBMC, however, sTWEAK induced the surface expression of RANKL by human immature, STRO-1+ osteoblasts.
Conclusions
The expression of TWEAK by CD22+ B cells and CD38+ plasma cells in RA synovium represents a novel potential pathogenic pathway. High levels of sTWEAK in active RA synovial fluid and of TWEAK and Fn14 in active RA tissue, together with the effect of TWEAK to induce osteoblastic RANKL expression, is consistent with TWEAK/Fn14 signalling being important in the pathogenesis of inflammation and bone erosion in RA.
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Breathless
I came. I saw. I got my butt kicked.
74.32 miles in 6:55:41 with 9,237 feet of elevation gain. That works out to an average speed of 10.7 mph. Yeah, I know – not a century. I missed the checkin time by 30 minutes at Pass 3 and wasn’t allowed (“strongly encouraged”) to go the remaining 19.1 miles.
I completely underestimated the amount of effort it would take to get to the first Rest Stop at Beaumont. I was shooting for 1.5 hours but wound up at 2:21. Right from the start it was up hill and what really killed a number of us was that at the top of Jack Rabbit Trail, the trail was under water and I had to hike-a-bike through some mud and grass to get around. My Speedplay pedals don’t like mud – spent several minutes clearing out the mud so I could clip in.
In any event, I made that stop short – fueled up, re-watered, rinsed off my cleats and took off. About 8 minutes. I had just about two hours to get to Mill Creek, almost 18 miles away about half of that was up. And by up, I mean into the clouds/fog and the sudden drop in air temperature. From the moment I started I could see my breath and my glasses were fogged for most of the climb. At best, I could see many 50 feet ahead of me – sometimes less, a lot less. This was a tough climb too – I started doing 15 minutes ride, 1-2 minute break. My legs thanked me. The downhill was insane – 35+ mph with air temp in the low 40s. With the windchill it felt… well cold!
At Mill Creek (Stop #2), I had put just over 4 hours. That was my planned solid food break and bathroom stop. I planned on a 15 minute stop but the bathroom line took longer and it ended up being more like 24 minutes. Since I made the cutoff time, I took off to Angelus Oaks, 3k feet of climbing but a mere 11 miles.
That ride starts out on what’s called Damnation Alley which I thought was because for 7 miles it appears that the road is flat and NON-ENDING. That’s half true – it isn’t actually flat. It was work though. I fould out later that it’s name is attributed to the soaring heat in the canyon during most other years. Ironically, this was also the only part of the ride that saw any sun and was the only time I pulled off clothing.
At mile 49.1 or so I started a more serious climb for the last 4 miles of this route. That too was work, managable work. Somewhere around 5k feet, temperature dropped like a rock but since there was little air coming at me so it didn’t matter too much.
Unfortunately, when I got to the end of that lap, I was 30 minutes past the cutoff time. The gals manning the aid station said it was even colder on the way up and the fog was worse.
The ride back was 18.1 miles, all of which was downhill. All of which was in screamed down that mountain at 38+ mph. What a ride!
So whatever, weather and time were against me. I finished though, 3 passes. And had I been able to go on, I would have. I felt strong – my heart felt steady (kept it at about 160bpm even during the worst of the climbs), my legs, while tired and occassionally “crampy”, felt strong. I certainly had the energy.
While eating some food at the Burrito Fiesta at the finish, I learned that a number of people didn’t finish – some bailed out after going hypothemic. One thing AR’s taught me: plan and dress accordingly. I was never uncomfortably cold. Of course there were some equipment failures that took some people out too.
Things I learned:
1. BRING A MAP CASE! This never crossed my mind until I realized I had no good place to keep the route sheet. I ended up tucking it under my bike shorts leg.
2. Lube, lube and lube. I missed a spot and am paying dearly for it. Had to stop off at Rite-Aid on the way home to pick up some ointment. Convenient, Rite-Aid was next door to a 24hr Fitness, so I showed while I was there.
3. The Bento Box looks like a good add on – just the right size to hold some miscellanous stuff in a really handy location. I could have used on of those.
So below I have a link to my GPS output on MotionBased.
And some pictures, not many but some.
Tags:
Categories: Non Work
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Category:Hardware
From NAS-Central Buffalo - The Linkstation Wiki
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Pages in category "Hardware"
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You are here: Home » Content
The content in Connexions comes in two formats: modules, which are like small "knowledge chunks," and collections, groups of modules structured into books or course notes, or for other uses. Our open license allows for free use and reuse of all our content.
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Error!
Success!
Enterprise Library 3.1 Log Errors
0
kicks
Enterprise Library 3.1 Log Errors (Unpublished)
Today, I came across a couple of confusing errors while trying to re-setup logging again on a new PC and running my web application. It was throwing an exception logging error for Enterprise Library in my Data Layer. “Format of the initialization string does not conform to specification starting at index 45” and “Inaccessible logs: Security Error”
Kicked By:
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Pike County, MississippiEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
United States Mississippi Pike County
Guide to Pike County Mississippi genealogy. Birth records, marriage records, death records, census records, family history, and military records.
Mississippi
Online Records
Contents
County Courthouse
Pike County Courthouse
PO Box 309
Magnolia, Ms 39652
Phone: 601-783-3362
Clerk Chancer Court has divorce, probate,
court and land records from 1882.
Clerk Circuit Court has marriage records. [1]
History
Parent County
1815--Pike County was created 9 December 1815 from Marion County.
County seat: Magnolia [2]
Boundary Changes
Record Loss
1882--Some records were lost.
Places / Localities
Populated Places
Neighboring Counties
Resources
Cemeteries
Census
For tips on accessing Pike County, Mississippi census records online, see: Mississippi Census.
Church
Court
Land
Local Histories
Maps
Military
• Civil War service men from Pike County served in various regiments. Men often joined a company (within a regiment) that originated in their county. Listed below are companies that were specifically formed in Pike County.
- 3rd Battalion, Mississippi Infantry
Company E - McNair Rifles, aka Pike County Rifles
- 4th Regiment, Mississippi Cavalry
Company I - Stockdale Rangers
- 7th Regiment, Mississippi Infantry
Company B - Bogue Chitto Guards
Company H - Dahlgren Rifles
Newspapers
Probate
Taxation
Mississippi tax records replace missing censuses and provide lists of residents during years between censuses. There may be gaps of several years. For more information see Mississippi Taxation.
Vital Records
Marriage
• 1882-1885 - Pike County Marriage Books A and B Index 1882-1885. Batch M520231 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1888-1895 - Pike County Marriage Books C and D Index 1888-1895. Batch M520234 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1890-1901 - Pike County Marriage Books D and E Index 1890-1901. Batches M520233 and M749942 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1895 - Pike County Marriage Book F Index 1895. Batch M520235 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1895-1901 - Pike County Marriage Books F thru H Index 1895-1901. Batch M749937 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1897-1904 - Pike County Marriage Books G thru I Index 1897-1904. Batch M749938 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1901-1906 - Pike County Marriage Books J thru L Index 1901-1906. Batch M749975 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1904-1910 - Pike County Marriage Books K thru N Index 1904-1910. Batch M749940 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1906-1911 - Pike County Marriage Books M thru O Index 1906-1911. Batch M749962 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1910-1916 - Pike County Marriage Books P thru R Index 1910-1916. Batch M749941 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1911-1917 - Pike County Marriage Books Q thru S Index 1911-1917. Batch M749955 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1916-1921 - Pike County Marriage Books T thru V Index 1916-1921. Batch M749988 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1917-1922 - Pike County Marriage Books U thru W Index 1917-1922. Batch M749977 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1921-1924 - Pike County Marriage Book X Index 1921-1924. Batch M749987 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1922-1927 - Pike County Marriage Books Y and Z Index 1922-1927. Batch M749956 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
• 1924-1927 - Pike County Marriage Book AA Index 1924-1927. Batch M749939 at FamilySearch - free.[3]
Societies and Libraries
Family History Centers
Web Sites
References
1. Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America, 10th ed. (Draper, Utah: Everton Pub., 2002), Perry County, Mississippi page 382, At various libraries (WorldCat); FHL Book 973 D27e 2002.
2. The Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America,10th ed. (Draper, UT:Everton Publishers, 2002).
3. 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Genealogical Society of Utah, Parish and Vital Records List (July 1998). Microfiche. Digital version at https://www.familysearch.org/learn/wiki/en/images/f/f2/Igimississippip.pdf.
Need additional research help? Contact our research help specialists.
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• This page was last modified on 11 May 2013, at 17:49.
• This page has been accessed 1,713 times.
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Changes related to "New Hampshire Digital Collections"
From FamilySearch Wiki
This is a list of changes made recently to pages linked from a specified page (or to members of a specified category). Pages on your watchlist are bold.
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Maryland, Register of Wills Books (FamilySearch Historical Records)Edit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 14:49, 10 July 2012 by HawkBlade124 (Talk | contribs)
This article describes a collection of historical records available at FamilySearch.org.
Contents
Record Description
This collection is comprised of digital images from court records at the Register of Wills in Maryland. Includes the following counties:
• Baltimore City
• Caroline (1838-1940)
• Cecil (1851-1940)
• Charles (1629-1947)
• Kent (1664-1948)
• Prince George's (1796-1940)
• Queen Anne's (1833-1940)
• Somerset (1664-1948)
• St. Mary's (1658-1946)
The following counties are also listed for inclusion in this collection:
• Allegany (1790-1852)
• Anne Arundel (1777-1884)
• Baltimore (1664-1863)
• Carroll (1837-1852)
• Frederick (1737-1896)
• Garrett
• Harford (1774-1948)
• Howard (1840-1873)
• Montgomery (1777-1851)
• Talbot (1668-1900)
• Washington (1777-1852)
• Wicomico (1868-1940)
• Worcester (1665-1853)
This collection is being published as images become available. Additional details will be added as they become available.
Each county began keeping probate records from the time the county was created. Orphan’s Court was the name of the probate court at the county level. Probate records were generally recorded in the county where the person lived. Estates were probated for approximately 25 percent of the heads of households in the United States before 1900, whether or not the individual left a will. Wills were more likely to have been found in rural communities than in larger cities and industrial areas. For a list of records by localities and dates currently published in this collection, select the Browse.
County probate records have been kept from the time the county was formed to the present. The included dates and exact offices vary by county.
Probate records were used to legally dispose of a person’s estate after his or her death. If the deceased had made a will, the probate process transferred the following from the deceased to an executor or executrix: the legal responsibility for payment of taxes, care and custody of dependent family members, liquidation of debts, and transfer of property title to heirs. If there was no will, the transfer went to an administrator or administratrix. A guardian or conservator was appointed if the deceased had heirs younger than 21 or if the heirs were incompetent due to disability or disease.
The death date, residence, and other facts that were current at the time of the probate proceedings are reliable, but realize that there is still a chance of misinformation. The records may omit the names of deceased family members or those who had previously received an inheritance. In some cases, the spouse mentioned in the will was not the parent of the children mentioned. Also, some wills do not name family members.
Citation for This Collection
The following citation refers to the original source of the data and images published on FamilySearch.org Historical Records. It may include the author, custodian, publisher, and archive for the original records.
Maryland Orphans' Court. Maryland, registers of wills books. County Registrar of Wills in Maryland.
Information about creating source citations for FamilySearch Historical Collections is listed in the wiki article Help:How to Create Source Citations For FamilySearch Historical Records Collections.
Record Content
Probate records include petitions, inventories, wills, guardianships, accounts, decrees, and other court documents. They include the following genealogical information:
• Name of the testator or deceased
• Names of heirs, such as spouse, children, other relatives, and friends
• Name of the executor, administrator, or guardian
• Names of witnesses
• Residence of the testator
• Dates the documents were written and recorded (used to approximate event dates since a will was usually written near the time of death)
How to Use the Records
Probate records are arranged by county and then by date. To begin your search you will need to know:
• The place of residence
• The approximate death or probate date
• The name of the deceased
Compare the information you find in the probate records to what you already know about your ancestors to determine which record is about your ancestor. You may need to compare the information of more than one person to make this determination.
When you have located your ancestor’s record, carefully evaluate each piece of information given. These pieces of information may give you new biographical details that can lead you to other records about your ancestors. Add this new information to your records of each family.
For example:
• Use probate records to identify heirs and relatives.
• You may be able to use the probate record to learn about adoptions or guardianship of any minor children and dependents.
• Use the document (such as the will) or the recording dates to approximate a death date.
• Use the information in the probate record to substitute for civil birth and death records since the probates exist for an earlier time period.
• You may be able to use the probate record to learn about land transactions.
• Use the birth date or age along with the residence or place of birth of the deceased to locate census, church, and land records.
• Use the occupations listed to find other types of records such as employment or military records.
• Compile the entries for every person who has the same surname as the deceased; this is especially helpful in rural areas or if the surname is unusual.
• Continue to search the records to identify children, siblings, parents, and other relatives who may have died in the same county or nearby. This can help you identify other generations of your family or even the second marriage of a parent. Repeat this process for each new generation you identify.
• When looking for a person who had a common name, look at all the entries for the name before deciding which is correct.
Keep in mind:
• Wills are more likely to be found in rural communities than in larger cities and industrial areas.
• The information in the records is usually reliable, but depends upon the reliability of the deceased or the testator.
• Earlier records may not contain as much information as the records created after 1900.
• There is also some variation in the information given from one record to another record.
If you are unable to find the ancestors you are looking for, try the following:
• Check for variant spellings of the surnames.
• Check for a different index. There are often indexes at the beginning of each volume.
• Search the indexes and records of nearby counties.
For a summary of this, information see the wiki article United States, How to Use the Records Summary (FamilySearch Historical Records).
Known Issues with This Collection
Problems with this collection?
See a list of known issues, workarounds, tips, restrictions, future fixes, news and other helpful information.
For a full list of all known issues associated with this collection see the attached Wiki article. If you encounter additional problems, please email them to support@familysearch.org. Please include the full path to the link and a description of the problem in your e-mail. Your assistance will help ensure that future reworks will be considered.
Related Websites
Related Wiki Articles
Contributions to This Article
We welcome user additions to FamilySearch Historical Records wiki articles. Guidelines are available to help you make changes. Thank you for any contributions you may provide. If you would like to get more involved join the WikiProject FamilySearch Records.
Citing FamilySearch Historical Collections
When you copy information from a record, you should list where you found the information. This will help you or others to find the record again. It is also good to keep track of records where you did not find information, including the names of the people you looked for in the records.
A suggested format for keeping track of records that you have searched is found in the wiki article Help:How to Cite FamilySearch Collections.
Citation Example for a Record Found in This Collection
"Maryland, Register of Wills Books, 1792-1983." images, FamilySearch (https://www.familysearch.org: accessed May 22, 2012), Maryland, Register of Wills Books, 1792-1983 > Prince George's > Index to Wills and Administrations, 1698-1978 vol A-D > image 15 of 335; entry for James C Allen, 2 April 1969; Prince George's County Courthouse, Upper Marlboro, Maryland.
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Meeting report
Crops in all shapes and sizes
Loreto Holuigue1, Jean-Philippe Vielle-Calzada2 and Rodrigo A Gutiérrez1,3*
Author affiliations
1 Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Avda. Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, 8331010, Chile
2 National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity, Irapuato 36500 Guanajuato, Mexico
3 Department of Biology, New York University, 100 Washington Square East, New York, NY 10003, USA
For all author emails, please log on.
Citation and License
Genome Biology 2008, 9:319 doi:10.1186/gb-2008-9-9-319
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://genomebiology.com/2008/9/9/319
Published:11 September 2008
© 2008 BioMed Central Ltd
Abstract
A report of the joint American Society of Plant Biologists/Sociedad Mexicana De Bioquímica meeting held in Mérida, Mexico, 26 June-1 July 2008.
Meeting report
A recent conference of plant biologists held in Mexico brought together scientists working on a wide range of species, from the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana to crops such as maize, tomato and rice. Appropriately for the locale, research relevant to major Central and South American crops was conspicuous. A few of the highlights in the areas of maize and tomato genetics and plant computational biology are reported here.
Maize genomics, genetics and epigenetics
Maize (corn, Zea mays L.) was domesticated from a species of wild teosinte, the common name for a group of annual and perennial species of Zea native to Mexico and Central America. Phylogenetic evidence suggests that maize arose from a single domestication event that occurred in Mexico about 9,000 years ago and which gave rise to a group of ancient landrace varieties. As the main center of origin and domestication, Mexico has the largest diversity of maize genetic resources. John Jones (Washington State University, Pullman, USA) presented evidence from fossilized pollen suggesting that the ancient farmers of San Andrés Tabasco in southern Mexico were cultivating an early form of maize about 7,300 years ago, 1,200 years before any previous archeological evidence of maize cultivation. He suggested that, in addition to serving as an ancestral food source, maize may have played a role as a driver of cultural development.
Despite the importance of selection-dependent bottleneck effects that drastically reduced genetic diversity, most maize genes have retained high levels of nucleotide diversity compared with other cereals. Erik Vollbrecht (Iowa State University, Ames, USA) presented work on the ramosa1 locus (ra1) showing that during the domestication of maize from teosinte, this locus experienced positive selection, as indicated by low ra1 nucleotide variability in both maize landraces and modern inbreds. ra1 encodes a putative C2H2-type zinc finger transcription factor that is unique to the Andropogoneae (the large grass tribe that includes maize and sorghum), and Vollbrecht suggested that the gene originated coincidentally with the evolution of a specialized short-branched spikelet pair distinctive of maize and its close relatives.
Maize is an ideal model plant in which to study the epi-genetic basis of phenotypic variation. Paramutation is an epigenetic phenomenon that results in the establishment of meiotically heritable expression that depends on the ability of specific DNA sequences to communicate in trans. Vicki Chandler (University of Arizona, Tucson, USA) reported that paramutation at the maize b1 locus is mediated by seven unique 853 bp non-coding tandem repeats that are necessary for this trans communication. Transcription of these repeats into small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) depends on mediator of paramutation 1 (mop1), a gene encoding an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase most similar to RDR2 in Arabidopsis. Chandler has strikingly found that the presence of siRNAs corresponding to tandem repeats in non-para-mutagenic individuals indicates that the siRNAs are involved in, but not sufficient for, paramutation, opening up the possibility of new discoveries about the basis of large-scale genomic information.
Palomero Toluqueño is an ancestral popcorn landrace with one of the smallest genomes among Mexican maize. One of us (J-P V-C) described progress in sequencing this genome, undertaken to explore landrace genomic diversity and to complement the sequencing of the inbred maize line B73 by the Maize Genome Sequencing Consortium. The total Palomero Toluqueño sequence generated represents coverage of approximately 3× the full genome and 20× the gene-enriched regions. Structural and functional analysis reveals a large number of hitherto unreported genes, suggesting that the ancient landraces contain a large pool of unexplored genetic diversity. This diversity should be potentially useful for generating new crops as well as for the study of the evolution and domestication of maize and other cereals.
Molecular mechanisms of tomato fruit morphology
Edible fruits are markedly diverse in size and shape. Breeding and mutation analysis in tomato have resulted in a diverse collection of germplasm, which provides a rich resource for studies on fruit morphology. Fruit morphological changes occur during ovary formation and/or during fruit formation, and so tomato varieties with different-shaped fruits can give insights into these developmental processes. Esther Van Der Knaap (Ohio State University, Columbus, USA) described the work of herself and colleagues on the mechanisms underlying tomato shape, and reported the identification of the gene SUN, one of the major genes controlling the elongation of tomato fruit. SUN was positionally cloned and found to encode a member of the IQ67 domain family. Van Der Knaap reported that the sun mutation responsible for the elongated shape of some tomatoes is the result of an interchromosomal duplication mediated by a retrotransposon - an unusual 24.7-kb gene duplication event mediated by the long-terminal repeat retrotransposon Rider. This event resulted in a new genomic context that increased SUN expression relative to that of the ancestral copy, culminating in an elongated fruit shape. This discovery shows that retrotransposons may be a major driving force in genome evolution and gene duplication, resulting in phenotypic changes in plants.
Despite the fact that the tomato genome sequence is not yet complete, the release of partial information by the Tomato Genome Consortium http://www.sgn.cornell.edu webcite, together with extensive genetic data and new tools for functional genomics, has allowed significant advances in this model crop. Fernando Carrari (Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agrícola, Buenos Aires, Argentina) and his colleagues combine genetic, genomic and metabolomic tools to dissect genetic determinants of quantitative trait loci affecting the chemical composition of tomato fruit. Carrari reported work using metabolic profiling and phenotyping of a collection of interspecific introgression lines to identify quantitative metabolic loci (QML) distributed across the tomato genome. The physical mapping of the QMLs is being addressed by using genome sequence information, an integrated analysis of metabolite and transcript levels during fruit development. Cararri reported that five genomic regions have been screened in detail and 127 candidate genes for regulation of metabolism during fruit ripening have been found. Candidate genes are being evaluated by a combination of virus-induced gene silencing and transgenesis. An integrated view of tomato fruit metabolism will help to uncover traits and targets with potential for improving fruit composition.
Computational challenges for the plant sciences
In the post-genomic era, data integration, analysis and interpretation are major factors limiting advances in biological research. Fortunately, a new generation of scientists well versed in both computational and experimental aspects of plant biology is rising to the challenge. Seung Rhee (Carnegie Institution, Stanford, USA) presented a new bioinformatics approach based on gene function correlation networks, developed in collaboration with Insuk Lee, to identifying genes that code for enzymes catalyzing the 'missing' steps in known metabolic pathways. On the basis of these predictions, her group chose 18 genes for experimental validation, and, in collaboration with other laboratories in the plant metabolomics consortium NSF2010 Metabolomics http://www.plantmetabolomics.org webcite, determined the meta-bolomic profiles of 18 Arabidopsis lines carrying homozygous knockout mutations in these genes. The different mutants showed distinct alterations in their metabolomic profiles, and mapping the altered compounds in each mutant line back to the relevant metabolic pathway enabled the bioinformatics-derived predictions to be validated.
Computational modeling has also been applied to the mechanisms underlying the characteristic grain pattern of wood, which is determined by the orientation of cells in the vascular cambium. Grain pattern remains approximately constant for a tree's life, but can reorient in response to injury. This reorientation response is critical to the health of the tree as the grain direction determines the movement of water and assimilates in the stem. There are two competing hypotheses to explain wood-grain patterning: one proposes that the orienting signal is mechanical strain in the cambium; the other that it is a concentration gradient of the plant hormone auxin in the plane of the cambium. Eric Kramer (Bard College at Simon's Rock, Great Barrington, USA) described a computer model developed by his group that supported the second hypothesis by providing quantitative predictions of auxin concentrations and their correlation with grain pattern in Populus after injury. Their model was validated by experimental measurements of auxin concentrations around an injury site in Populus.
One of us (RAG) presented the new software platform VirtualPlant http://www.virtualplant.org webcite, designed in collaboration with researchers at New York University. VirtualPlant enables the visualization, integration, and analysis of genomic data from a systems-biology perspective and simplifies the use of mathematical and statistical methods to help summarize and quantify the data. As proof of principle, VirtualPlant was used to predict the key transcription factors that regulate Arabidopsis gene networks in response to organic nitrogen (for example, glutamic acid). One predicted network was validated, showing that regulation of the expression of the master clock-control gene CCA1 by glutamine or a glutamine-derived metabolite directly regulates the expression of the key nitrogen-assimilatory genes. This work also discovered unexpected connections between nitrogen metabolism and the circadian clock in Arabidopsis. Regulation of CCA1 by organic nitrogen signals may represent a novel input mechanism for nitrogen nutrients to affect plant circadian clock function.
In the age of genomics, collaboration is key to successfully addressing outstanding questions in plant biology. The new iPlant Collaborative project http://www.iplantcollaborative.org webcite presented by Rich Jorgensen (University of Arizona, Tucson, USA) is likely to play a key role in advancing plant sciences in the years to come. This 5-year $50-million program funded by the US National Science Foundation aims to develop an international cybercommunity of plant biologists, computational specialists and other disciplines to enable new conceptual advances in plant science. iPlant will initially provide services through a small, committed centralized core, and will gradually become distributed throughout the community. Jorgensen stressed that iPlant is "by, for and of the community", and the problems addressed through it must be driven by specific, compelling, and tractable 'grand challenges' that serve the entire breadth of the plant sciences. Plant researchers around the world are encouraged to put forward proposals and participate in the project.
Acknowledgements
Research and travel is funded by Millenium Nucleus for Plant Functional Genomics (P006-09-F) to RG.
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Correction
Correction: Structure and dynamics of the pan-genome of Streptococcus pneumoniae and closely related species
Claudio Donati1*, N Luisa Hiller2, Hervé Tettelin3, Alessandro Muzzi1, Nicholas J Croucher4, Samuel V Angiuoli3, Marco Oggioni5, Julie CD Hotopp3, Fen Z Hu2, David R Riley3, Antonello Covacci1, Tim J Mitchell6, Stephen D Bentley4, Mogens Kilian7, Garth D Ehrlich2, Rino Rappuoli1, E Richard Moxon8 and Vega Masignani1
Author Affiliations
1 Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
2 Allegheny General Hospital, Allegheny-Singer Research Institute, Center for Genomic Sciences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 152123, USA
3 Institute for Genome Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 801 West Baltimore Street, MD 21201, USA
4 The Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
5 Laboratorio di Microbiologia Molecolare e Biotecnologia, Dipartimento di Biologia Molecolare, Universita' di Siena, Policlinico Le Scotte, 53100 Siena, Italy
6 Division of Infection and Immunity, Glasgow Biomedical Research Centre, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
7 Institute of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
8 University of Oxford Department of Paediatrics, Medical Sciences Division, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington OX3 9DU, UK
For all author emails, please log on.
Genome Biology 2011, 12:140 doi:10.1186/gb-2011-12-10-140
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://genomebiology.com/2011/12/10/140
Received:18 October 2011
Accepted:20 October 2011
Published:20 October 2011
© 2011 BioMed Central Ltd.
Correction
After publication of this Research [1], we noted that there is a misspelling in the name of Mogens Killian. Furthermore, we noted errors to Additional File 1, Table S1. For the strain S. pneumoniae AP200, the "Location of isolation" should be "Italy" rather than "University of Siena". Also, in the Acknowledgements, we should have thanked all the AP200 genome project participants for providing early access to the AP200 genome sequences rather than Annalisa Pantosti only. The AP200 genome project was supported by a grant from the Italian Ministry of Research (FIRB 2005-RBLA054453).
References
1. Claudio Donati, Luisa Hiller N, Hervé Tettelin, Alessandro Muzzi, Croucher NicholasJ, Angiuoli SamuelV, Marco Oggioni, Dunning Hotopp JulieC, Hu FenZ, Riley DavidR, Antonello Covacci, Mitchell TimJ, Bentley StephenD, Mogens Kilian, Ehrlich GarthD, Rino Rappuoli, Richard MoxonE, Vega Masignani: Structure and dynamics of the pan-genome of Streptococcus pneumoniae and closely related species.
Genome Biology 2010, 11:R107. PubMed Abstract | BioMed Central Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text
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HAVE IMPACT PRESSURES ON COMPOSITE BREAKWATERS
G.R. Mogridge, W.W. Jamieson
Abstract
Wave impact pressures and forces on composite breakwaters have been measured in the laboratory. A solid wall breakwater and a perforated breakwater were instrumented with small pressure transducers in a study designed to estimate the relative effectiveness of perforated breakwaters in reducing impact loads caused by breaking waves. Experimental results of maximum pressures and forces measured on the breakwater walls are presented as cumulative probability distributions. It is concluded that the perforated breakwater experiences significantly lower breaking wave loads although local impact pressures may be as high as those measured on the solid wall breakwater. Further studies are required on the perforated breakwater and alternative designs to determine the most suitable caisson type for the reduction of wave impact forces.
Keywords
wave impact; impact pressure; breakwater; composite breakwater
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
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BLOCK SUBSIDENCE UNDER PRESSURE AND FLOW
T. Sakai, H. Gotoh, T. Yamamoto
Abstract
The block subsides gradually into sandy bed under water pressure fluctuation. In actual coast the oscillatory flow also acts on the block. The block subsidence is reproduced qualitatively in a laboratory. The subsidence occurs even under the oscillatory flow. Under some combinations of water pressure fluctuation and oscillatory flow, the subsidence is larger than any of the subsidence under the pressure fluctuation only and the subsidence under the oscillatory flow only.
Keywords
block subsidence; pressure; armor
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
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Back to Basics: How Class Conflict Is Recreating Basic Writing
Jessie Casteel
Abstract
At its inception, scholarship in the field of basic writing was largely concerned with simply establishing basic writing as a field and defining its borders and mission. In the 90’s, the field of inquiry into basic writing shifted to reflect a preoccupation with its social mandate, specifically the potential for basic writing to establish a more equal, empowering space for underrepresented student populations and more ready, broad access to formal education which might thereby lead to positive, egalitarian change both within and without the sphere of academic discourse. However, our current social, political, and economic climate renders many of the approaches educators sought to embrace in the past currently unviable, even as it underscores the very concerns those approaches attempted to address. I will explore the fact that basic writing classrooms now, more than ever before, reflect fundamental socioeconomic inequalities in our educational system, making questions of a social mandate still vital. Furthermore, I will be positing that the old debates over the place and definition of basic writing are current once more as failing funding and legislative priorities necessitate the search for complex, novel solutions to those questions within the framework of a pragmatic reexamination of the options still open to educators today. I will present and explore several solutions currently being tested in the field of basic writing education, such as institutional partnerships, altered course design, revised assessment systems, and increased writing center involvement. Finally, I will argue that the crucial factor in the success or failure of these varied solutions lies in a single, simple factor: the amount of personal instructional attention available.
Keywords
Developmental; composition; pedagogy
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Plaza: Dialogues in Language and Literature
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User:Pranav Rathi
From OpenWetWare
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[[Image:Optical tweezers.png|thumb|850px|Optical Tweezers model in Solidworks]]
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==About Me==
==About Me==
Revision as of 12:57, 1 March 2013
Contents
About Me
Education
• Planning on getting PhD, Optical Science&Engineering, University Of New Mexico, Albuquerque-NM working at Koch Lab at UNM.
• 2010, MS, Optical Science&Engineering, University Of New Mexico, Albuquerque-NM
• 2005, MS, Applied-Physics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff-AZ
• 2003, MA, Mathematical Sciences, MJP-Rohalkhand University, Uttar Pradesh-UP, India
Experience
Skills & Expertise
Research interests
Optical Trap
1. Optics: nano, nonlinear, photonics, Bio-optics and optoelectronics.
2. Design and construction of optical, opto-mechanical, opto-electrical and other devices.
3. Material research through AFM, confocal, near and farfield microscopy and FTIR-spectroscopy.
4. Design and construction of devices for bio-engineering research.
Research & Work
• [Optical Tweezers[1]]
• [Design & Construction of devices for Optical Tweezers[2]]
• [Other research projects [3]]
• [Project page [4]]
Reccomendations
Contact Info
This user is a DNA unzipper
Personal tools
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andrea's bookmarks
"Something must be done when you find an opposing set of desires of this kind well to the fore in your category of strong desires. You must set in operation a process of competition, from which one must emerge a victor and the other set be defeated."
Collier, Robert on desire
"We call it a Society; and go about professing openly the totalest separation, isolation. Our life is not a mutual helpfulness; but rather, cloaked under due laws-of-war, named fair competition and so forth, it is a mutual hostility."
Carlyle, Thomas on society
"Pride is an admission of weakness; it secretly fears all competition and dreads all rivals."
Sheen, Fulton John on pride
"Life is nothing but a competition to be the criminal rather than the victim."
Russell, Bertrand on life
4 fans of this quote
"The healthiest competition occurs when average people win by putting above average effort."
Powell, Colin on effort
3 fans of this quote
"The only competition worthy a wise man is with himself."
Jamieson, Mrs. on competition
"Never violate the sacredness of your individual self-respect."
Parker, Theodore on self-respect
5 fans of this quote
"Do your duty and leave the rest to heaven."
Corneille, Pierre on duty
This quotation can be viewed in the context of a book
"No eulogy is due to him who simply does his duty and nothing more."
Augustine, St. on duty
3 fans of this quote
"The rule of joy and the law of duty seem to me all one."
Holmes Jr., Oliver Wendell on duty
This quotation can be viewed in the context of a book
"Thou shalt not covet; but tradition approves all forms of competition."
Clough, Arthur Hugh on competition
"Mighty in deeds and not in words."
Motto on deeds and good deeds
"Impatience is the cause of most of our irregularities and extravagances Command by obeying."
Motto on leadership
"Death rather than disgrace."
Motto on honor
"Let my honor be without stain."
Motto on honor
"Those who endure conquer."
Motto on endurance
10 fans of this quote
"Rank imposes obligation."
Motto on duty
3 fans of this quote
"Eagles do not beget Doves."
Motto on animals
"By letting it go it all gets done. The world is won by those who let it go. But when you try and try. The world is beyond the winning."
Lao-Tzu on attachment
17 fans of this quote
"You may be deceived if you trust too much, but you will live in torment if you don't trust enough."
Crane, Frank on trust
22 fans of this quote
"I will attained victory by God and my sword."
Motto on victory
"To love someone deeply gives you strength. Being loved by someone deeply gives you courage."
Lao-Tzu on courage
26 fans of this quote
"Let each day be your masterpiece."
Unknown, Source on excellence
"If you want to achieve excellence, you can get there today. As of this second, quit doing less-than-excellent work."
Watson, Thomas J. on excellence
5 fans of this quote
"The toughest thing about the power of trust is that it's very difficult to build and very easy to destroy. The essence of trust building is to emphasize the similarities between you and the customer."
Watson, Thomas J. on trust
7 fans of this quote
"Faith is believing what you know ain't so."
Twain, Mark on faith
23 fans of this quote
"There is nothing so annoying as a good example!!"
Twain, Mark on example
26 fans of this quote
"I believe that our Heavenly Father invented man because he was disappointed in the monkey."
Twain, Mark on evolution
24 fans of this quote
"We are all alike, on the inside."
Twain, Mark on equality
22 fans of this quote
"Common sense is not so common."
Voltaire on common sense
10 fans of this quote
"I've always been very zealous about not invading other people's private spaces."
Jennings, Peter on privacy
"Immature love says: I love you because I need you. Mature love says: I need you because I love you."
Fromm, Erich on love
225 fans of this quote
"A man that is born falls into a dream like a man who falls into the sea. If he tries to climb out into the air as inexperienced people endeavor to do, he drowns."
Conrad, Joseph on dream
"Know thyself, believe in God, and dare to dream."
Salley, John on dream
6 fans of this quote
"When asked what he would do if he only had six months to live: Type faster."
Asimov, Isaac on dream
8 fans of this quote
"Man will do many things to get himself loved; he will do all things to get himself envied."
Twain, Mark on envy
25 fans of this quote
"The first half of life consists of the capacity to enjoy without the chance; the last half consists of the chance without the capacity."
Twain, Mark on joy
15 fans of this quote
But wait... my book has more: prev 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 next
Andrea Braden's quote collection
I'm female and made my book on 19th February 2007.
My book as a pdf
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buxombabe's bookmarks
"To love means loving the unlovable. To forgive means pardoning the unpardonable. Faith means believing the unbelievable. Hope means hoping when everything seems hopeless."
Chesterton, Gilbert K. on hope
126 fans of this quote
"Hope is the expectation that something outside of ourselves, something or someone external, is going to come to our rescue and we will live happily ever after."
Anthony, Dr. Robert on hope
33 fans of this quote
"The only wealth is life."
Thoreau, Henry David on money
3 fans of this quote
"Nothing that is God's is obtainable by money."
Tertullian on money
5 fans of this quote
"We are responsible for what we are, and whatever we wish ourselves to be, we have the power to make ourselves. If what we are now has been the result of our own past actions, it certainly follows that whatever we wish to be in future can be produced by our present actions; so we have to know how to act."
Vivekananda, Swami on action
4 fans of this quote
"One may walk over the highest mountain one step at a time."
Wanamaker, John on action
4 fans of this quote
"Real love stories never have endings."
Bach, Richard on love
107 fans of this quote
"Women wish to be loved not because they are pretty, or good, or well bred, or graceful, or intelligent, but because they are themselves."
Amiel, Henri Frederic on love
136 fans of this quote
"In real love you want the other person's good. In romantic love, you want the other person."
Anderson, Margaret on love
108 fans of this quote
"The reason why so little is done, is generally because so little is attempted."
Smiles, Samuel on action
4 fans of this quote
"Winning starts with beginning."
Schuller, Robert H. on action
"Better to do something imperfectly than to do nothing perfectly."
Schuller, Robert H. on action
"You will never win if you never begin."
Schuller, Robert H. on action
"The time for action is now. It's never too late to do something."
Sandburg, Carl on action
9 fans of this quote
"What saves a man is to take a step. Then another step."
Saint-Exupery, Antoine De on action
"You prove your worth with your actions, not with your mouth."
Riley, Pat on action
9 fans of this quote
"The journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step."
Proverb, Chinese on action
7 fans of this quote
"Speak out in acts; the time for words has passed, and only deeds will suffice."
Whittier, John Greenleaf on action
"A wise person should have money in their head, but not in their heart."
Swift, Jonathan on money
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I'm female and made my book on 2nd February 2011.
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Quotation added by staff
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I have known a German Prince with more titles than subjects, and a Spanish nobleman with more names than shirts. Goldsmith, Oliver
This quote is about aristocracy · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
A bit about Goldsmith, Oliver ...
Oliver Goldsmith (November 10, 1730(?) April 4, 1774) was an Irish writer and physician known for his novel The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), his pastoral poem The Deserted Village (1770) (written in memory of his brother), and his plays The Good-natur'd Man (1768) and She Stoops to Conquer (1773).
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Look through the whole history of countries professing the Romish religion, and you will uniformly find the leaven of this besetting and accursed principle of action -- that the end will sanction any means. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor
Excerpt from Specimens of the Table Talk of Samuel Taylor Coleridge · This quote is about catholicism · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
A bit about Coleridge, Samuel Taylor ...
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (October 21, 1772 July 25, 1834) was an English poet, critic, and philosopher who was, along with his friend William Wordsworth, one of the founders of the Romantic Movement in England and as one of the Lake Poets. He is probably best known for his poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan, as well as his major prose work Biographia Literaria.
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Quotes about fanatics and fanaticism
These are quotes tagged with "fanatics and fanaticism". You can also search for quotes containing the word fanatics and fanaticism.
"There is no place in a fanatic's head where reason can enter."
Bonaparte, Napoleon on fanatics and fanaticism
5 fans of this quote
"Just as every conviction begins as a whim so does every emancipator serve his apprenticeship as a crank. A fanatic is a great leader who is just entering the room."
Broun, Heywood on fanatics and fanaticism
"A fanatic is one who can't change his mind and won't change the subject."
Churchill, Winston on fanatics and fanaticism
43 fans of this quote
"The fanatic is incorruptible: if he kills for an idea, he can just as well get himself killed for one; in either case, tyrant or martyr, he is a monster."
Cioran, E. M. on fanatics and fanaticism
4 fans of this quote
"Fanaticism soberly defined, is the false fire of an over heated mind."
Cowper, William on fanatics and fanaticism
"The most dangerous madmen are those created by religion, and people whose aim is to disrupt society always know how to make good use of them on occasion."
Diderot, Denis on fanatics and fanaticism
3 fans of this quote
"A fanatic is a man that does what he thinks the Lord would do if He knew the facts of the case."
Dunne, Finley Peter on fanatics and fanaticism
"Fervor is the weapon of choice of the impotent."
Fanon, Frantz on fanatics and fanaticism
"Fanaticism obliterates the feelings of humanity."
Gibbon, Edward on fanatics and fanaticism
This quotation can be viewed in the context of a book
"Defined in psychological terms, a fanatic is a man who consciously over-compensates a secret doubt."
Huxley, Aldous on fanatics and fanaticism
"A fanatic is a man who consciously over compensates a secret doubt."
Huxley, Aldous on fanatics and fanaticism
"Mere human beings can't afford to be fanatical about anything. Not even about justice or loyalty. The fanatic for justice ends by murdering a million helpless people to clear a space for his law-courts. If we are to survive on this planet, there must be compromises."
Jameson, Storm on fanatics and fanaticism
"In the history of mankind, fanaticism has caused more harm than vice."
Kronenberger, Louis on fanatics and fanaticism
"If you see one cold and vehement at the same time, set him down for a fanatic."
Lavater, Johann Kaspar on fanatics and fanaticism
"Fanatics are picturesque, mankind would rather see gestures than listen to reasons."
Nietzsche, Friedrich on fanatics and fanaticism
7 fans of this quote
"The worst of madmen is a saint run mad."
Pope, Alexander on fanatics and fanaticism
"Throughout human history, the apostles of purity, those who have claimed to possess a total explanation, have wrought havoc among mere mixed-up human beings."
Rushdie, Salman on fanatics and fanaticism
"Fanaticism consists in redoubling your efforts when you have forgotten your aim."
Santayana, George on fanatics and fanaticism
4 fans of this quote
"Wisdom becomes nonsense in the mouth of a fanatic."
Schuwdrmer, Otto on fanatics and fanaticism
3 fans of this quote
"I carry from my mother's womb a fanatic's heart."
Yeats, William Butler on fanatics and fanaticism
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Is AI Dangerous?
Posted 29 Apr 2007 at 15:51 UTC by steve
The Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies has published an essay by Michael Anissimov detailing his reasons for believing that artificial intelligence is dangerous. In short he believes that an intelligent agent with different goals than humans, or which has the capacity to have different goals, is inherently a threat to the survival of the human race. His conclusion appears based on the assumption that only humans can be equipped with "freedom, empathy, self-determination, consensus-building, conflict resolution, aesthetics, camaraderie, and rapport." Why won't machines have these qualities? "What programmer has the time to do all that work when general intelligence without the human-like morality will be significantly easier to achieve?"
Cliche, posted 30 Apr 2007 at 12:01 UTC by c6jones720 » (Master)
This topic is such a cliche at the moment most of the reports Ive seen recently about robotics seems to be focussed on this issue.
It looks like theres a lot of paranoia about AI. Perhaps they are indirectly telling us that they have already created a fully working AI, but are too scared to tell people about it.
Humans are dangerous, posted 30 Apr 2007 at 13:19 UTC by Daniel Casner » (Journeyer)
The gist of the above quote seems to come down to the good old computers are only as good as the people who use them idea. I.e. AI is dangerous only because humans are and that shouldn't be a shock to anyone.
right on, posted 1 May 2007 at 11:42 UTC by c6jones720 » (Master)
Daniel I think you've just about summed it up.
A new play about AUVs, posted 2 May 2007 at 11:50 UTC by c6jones720 » (Master)
I was just looking at newscientist and theres an advert for a play about a guy that develops AI for guiding swarms of AUVs without GPS. The point is that he develops the technology (harmless enough) and then the millitary get involved making it dangerous. It seems quite relevant to the current paranoia surrounding AI at this moment
http://www.newscientist.com/blog/technology/ http://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/landscape
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Command & Conquer: Generals - Zero Hour/USA Laser General vs. China Tank General
From StrategyWiki, the video game walkthrough and strategy guide wiki
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[edit] Mission 2: vs China Tank General
[edit] Hard Difficulty
At the start of this mission you will have a short period of time before the tanks roll in. Create your barracks and Supply center and have at least 3 supply choppers. Initially I would send the choppers to the small crates north, northeast, and east of your base. Keep your eye on the supply crates to the north as a Gattling Tank or two coming from the North is the initial attack and your supply choppers will be vulnerable. Save your "protected supplies" for when it is not safe to get money from other sources.
You need to build up base defenses very quickly. I normally set up 4 Firebases around the perimeter and complement them with 6 to 8 Laser Turrets. Initially I put one Ranger and 3 Rocket Soldiers in each Firebase. When I get the Pathfinder upgrade I will put pathfinders near the Firebase(but not in it) and fill the Fire base with 4 Rocket Soldiers. Be sure to keep an eye on your power supply when building all of those patriot systems.
If you have the Spy Drone Generals Power, use it to string out Spy Drones in a line across the map to provide an effective early warning system.
After your initial defense is up and running, build a War Factory and supplement your Firebases with Laser Crusaders and Avengers. You will need at least one if not two Avengers both at the northeast corner and southern tip of your base where the Helixs and Migs usually attack. You can later add a few ambulances to help your units heal between attacks.
Note: If you got the Spy Drone Generals Power, you can string them out in a line across the map (making sure that their sight radii overlap). This will provide an very effective early warning system to warn of approaching enemy troops and aircraft.
After your War Factory build a Strategy Center and an Airfield. Raptors and Comanches can help in your base defense especially against the few air attacks, but it is your FireBases and ground units that will do the majority of the work. You can also build a few Aurora Bombers to weaken the Emperor tanks for your other units to finish them off.
As you receive generals powers, locate the enemy Propaganda Center. If you destroy it, he can not build any Emperor Tanks, but he will rebuild it quickly after a short reprieve. Also, he keeps his hackers in the northeast corner of his base; taking them out will hamper his economy, but like everything else he will try to rebuild quickly.
Do not forget to build a few Supply Drops before you go broke. Also, when you build your Particle Cannon he will respond by building a Nuke Silo just to the West of his Propaganda Center. Make sure you can take out his Nuke because your base needs to be tight in order to survive his initial assaults. You can use your particle canon to take out his Propaganda Center and one of his two War Factories in one swipe.
There is a Tech Reinforcement Pad in the northwest corner of the map. It is not too difficult to capture and keep it on easier difficulties, but it is nearly impossible to keep without creating a complete expansion base on hard difficulty. The same can is true with the other tech buildings on the level.
Once you have secured your base and have enough defenses to be safe, it is time to take him out. Scan the map for his forces. He often keeps a bunch of units together just in the right size to take out with a MOAB power. Use The A10 power or a few Aurora Bombers to take out his perimeter defenses.
When it is time to assault his base, take a few pathfinders, a lot of Laser Crusaders, and a few Avengers to attack. The crusaders will do the attack, the pathfinders will take out enemy infantry and rocket launchers, and the avengers will protect your forces from air units. I found the easiest point to attack is from the southern tip of his base. His defensive tanks can usually be taken out with a MOAB dropped just to the west of his southern power generators. Press the attack north until you destroy his Command Center. Be sure not to let any dozers to pass you and rebuild the southern part of his base.
After the Command Center is destroyed, it should be easy to mop up the rest of his base. Just be a little wary of his defensive forces near the other entrances to the base.
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Côte d'Ivoire
From Wikitravel
Africa : West Africa : Côte d'Ivoire
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[[File:|250px|frameless|Côte d'Ivoire]]
Location
[[File:|250px|frameless]]
Flag
[[File:|108px|frameless]]
Quick Facts
Capital Yamoussoukro; Abidjan remains administrative center
Government republic; multiparty presidential regime
Currency Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (XOF)
Area 322,460 sq km
Population 17,654,843 (July 2006 est.)
Language French (official), 60 native dialects with Dioula the most widely spoken
Religion Christian 20-30%, Muslim 35-40%, indigenous 25-40%
Electricity 220V/50Hz (European plug)
Country code +225
Internet TLD .ci
Time Zone UTC
Côte d'Ivoire [1] (Ivory Coast) is a country in West Africa. It has a southerly facing North Atlantic Ocean coast, and is surrounded by Ghana to the east, Liberia to the west, Guinea to the northwest, Mali to the north, and Burkina Faso to the northeast.
[edit] Understand
[edit] History
Close ties to France since independence in 1966, the development of cocoa production for export, and foreign investment made Côte d'Ivoire one of the most prosperous of the tropical African states, but did not protect it from political turmoil.
In December 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Côte d'Ivoire's history - overthrew the government. Junta leader Robert Guei blatantly rigged elections held in late 1999 and declared himself the winner. Popular protest forced him to step aside and brought runner-up Laurent Gbagbo into liberation. Ivorian dissidents and disaffected members of the military launched a failed coup attempt in September 2002. Rebel forces claimed the northern half of the country, and in January 2003 were granted ministerial positions in a unity government under the auspices of the Linas-Marcoussis Peace Accord. President Gbagbo and rebel forces resumed implementation of the peace accord in December 2003 after a three-month stalemate, but issues that sparked the civil war, such as land reform and grounds for citizenship, remain unresolved.
The northern government has yet to exert control over the northern regions and tensions remain high between Gbagbo and opposition leaders. Several thousand French and West African troops, and a moderately-sized United Nations contingent, remain in Côte d'Ivoire to maintain peace and facilitate the disarmament, demobilization, and rehabilitation process.
Elections were finally held in 2010. The first round of elections were held peacefully, and widely hailed as free and fair. Runoffs were held 28 November 2010, after being delayed one week from the original date of November 21. Laurent Gbagbo, as president, ran against former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara. On 2 December, the Electoral Commission declared that Ouattara had won the election by a margin of 54% to 46%. The majority of the rest of the world's governments supported that declaration, but the Gbagbo-aligned Constitutional Council rejected it and then announced that country's borders had been sealed. An Ivorian military spokesman said, "The air, land and sea border of the country are closed to all movement of people and goods."
There has been an armed insurgency ever since, with pro-Ouattara forces on the one side and pro-Gbagbo forces on the other. By 1 April 2011, pro-Ouattara forces had penetrated Abidjan and street-level combat between the two sides was occurring. On April 11, 2011, UN and French forces captured Gbagbo; the Ouattara government has been moving toward an accounting of violence and abuses (though focusing almost solely on pro-Gbagbo perpetrators). Most governments are still advising their citizens against travel to the country.
[edit] Climate
Tropical along coast, semiarid in far north; three seasons - warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), hot and wet (June to October). The coast has heavy surf and no natural harbors; during the rainy season torrential flooding is possible.
[edit] Terrain
Mostly flat to undulating plains; mountains in northwest. Most of the inhabitants live along the sandy coastal region. Apart from the capital area, the forested interior is sparsely populated. The highest point is Mont Nimba (1,752 meters).
[edit] Regions
Map of Cote d'Ivoire with regions colour-coded
Lagunes (Abidjan)
the coastal lagoons area around the de facto capital of Abidjan
Northern Savanna (Bouaké, Comoe National Park)
the largely Muslim area held in recent years by rebel "New Forces"
Southwestern Forests (Taï National Park, Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve)
the tropical wet forest area inhabited by the Kru people bordering Liberia
Eastern Plantations (Yamoussoukro)
the partially cultivated area between Lac de Kossou and the border with Ghana
[edit] Cities
• Abidjan - Remains the administrative center and other countries maintain their embassies there.
• Korhogo - Rebel head quarters; otherwise idyllic, bursts with commerce during Feb - May because of flowing cotton and cashew trade.
• Aboisso - Important mile stone on the route connecting Abidjan and Ghana trade route
• Bouaké - the second largest city
• Dabou
• San Pedro - the second port city
• Yamoussoukro - Although it has been the official capital since 1983, it is not the administrative centre.
• Grand-Bassam - A coastal town full of colonial charm, often a retreat for local Ivorians seeking to escape the city life of Abidjan on the weekends.
[edit] Other destinations
Three National Parks are on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
[edit] Get in
[edit] Visa
Effective February 15, 2009, all non CEFA country citizens visiting Côte d'Ivoire must obtain a visa before arrival. The process is online at the Official Website for Visa. It does not appear that citizens of the United States can apply for a tourist visa over the internet at this time, whether that is due to poor website design or national policy is not known. Americans looking to travel to Côte d'Ivoire should contact the embassy in Washington D.C. directly [2].
[edit] By plane
The Felix-Houphouet Boigny International Airport has daily scheduled flights to and from Paris (Air France [3]) and Brussels (Brussels airlines [4]). There are also regular flights to other West-African capitals. The airport is a modern facility and increased security has shaken its old reputation as a place for travelers to be ripped off.
[edit] By train
The train journey between Abidjan and Ougadougou cuts through rebel territory and should not be attempted by foreign travelers.
[edit] By car
It is ill advised to try to enter Côte d'Ivoire from Guinea, Liberia, Mali, or Burkina Faso. The Ghanaian border is fairly secure. If you enter at Elubo, you can easily catch a shared taxi to Aboisso and then a bus to Abidjan. There are about ten military check-points between the border and Abidjan so have your documents ready. If you do not have proper documentation of your inoculations at the border you will be forced to pay a small fine and they will give you an injection at an on-site clinic.
[edit] By bus
Busses run daily between Abidjan and Accra. The service is offered alternating between the STC (Ghana) and its Ivoirian equivalent.
[edit] By boat
Abidjan has a beautiful evening ride on the lagoon in the city for tourists. It might not be breath taking, but is a very good pleasure trip. Daily, hundreds of Ivorians take the lagoon route to reach offices on the port side.
[edit] Get around
Inter-city travel in Côte d'Ivoire is usually more comfortable than travel in neighboring African countries. The roads are generally in good condition and the bus service is relatively modern. The down side is the very frequent military check-points which add hours to a trip. Though the stops are a hassle, Ivoirian soldiers tend to be pretty professional and don't hassle non-French western travelers. Soldiers in Ghana for example are much more likely to demand a bribe than in Côte d'Ivoire. Most western governments recommend that their citizens steer clear of Côte d'Ivoire. This should be taken particularly seriously by people travelling on French passports. An Ivoirian soldier's attitude towards you will change very quickly when you explain that you are not French.
Travel in Abidjan is the best when you have your own vehicle to travel around. The roads are very good and the traffic rules are obeyed to the T, excepting some taxi drivers who steer everywhere on the road. Lane discipline and traffic lights are followed with rigor.
Taxis are a great and easy way to get around in Abidjan. Just look for an orange colored car and flag it down. Fares are very affordable: US $2-4 depending on the length of the journey. Always negotiate before you get in the taxi, but they are overall reasonable (unlike in Accra).
[edit] Talk
The official language is French, but there are 60 native dialects as well. The most widely spoken is Dioula. Other native languages include Hamdunga, Loftus Africanus, Gigala, Oloofid, and Ulam. But one cannot survive without French for longer time duration. And business travelers need French on their tongue to close any small deal.
[edit][add listing] See
Tourist villages, beaches, and photo safaris are some of the main tourist attractions to see in Côte d'Ivoire.
[edit][add listing] Do
[edit][add listing] Buy
[edit][add listing] Eat
Good eats are cheap and you can find very good restaurants in Abidjan. You should get a vaccine for Hepatitis A before coming but even street foods are fairly clean. Try the national dishes like "garba", "alloco" and "attiéké". Alloco is simply fried plantains, mostly accompanied by a spicy vegetable sauce and boiled eggs. L'attiéké--grated yams that look like couscous but taste slightly sour--is often served with grilled fish and vegetables (tomatoes, onions, cucumber) and a must-try. Braised fishes and chickens are also very good and can be found on every corner. The most established chain is Coq Ivoire. When you order, make sure that you let them know whether you want the intestines. You can always ask for extra vegetables, especially avocados, which are amazing during the season. Another specialty is the excellent "shougouilla" a blend of charbroiled meat! For the ones who are not adventurous you can find the Hamburger House or the French restaurant at the Sofitel Hotel.
[edit][add listing] Drink
It is recommended for travelers from the west to visit bars and night clubs with security. Bidul Bar, Havana Club and others are in Zone 4 or Zone Quatre. If you do go, be aware of prostitutes that will want to talk to you. Other places are in Treicheville and Cocody but you should have private transportation or a cab. If you do drive at night do not stop fully at lights or signs. Be aware of car jackers. Keep a brisk pace so they cannot carjack you.
[edit][add listing] Sleep
The better place to stay is the Tiama Hotel. Quite expensive but safe. There is a wonderful hotel called Licorne in Deux Plateaux. They have a pool, great restaurant, and wireless internet. The rooms are clean and charming. Prices are 18-30,000 CFA per night. They are located behind the Total Station, around the corner from Pako. Ask anyone where Pako is, and you'll be able to find it from there.
[edit] Learn
[edit] Work
[edit] Stay safe
WARNING Côte d'Ivoire experiences periodic political unrest and violence in northern regions, and it is recommended to contact your embassy or consult other travelers about the present situation prior to travel inland. (Updated July 2012)
The UK's Foreign and Commonwealth office as well as the U.S. State Department advises against all travel to Côte d'Ivoire at this time.
Most of the crime committed in Abidjan is by unemployed youth. Should you ever feel in danger it would be wise to seek the help of a middle-aged man. This older generation is often very contemptuous of young criminals and will likely help you out if you are being hassled. Generally Ivoirians will recognize the dangers to foreigners in their country and will often be very protective of naive travelers. This is especially true in the Abidjan neighborhoods of Treichville and Adjame.
[edit] Stay healthy
HIV/AIDS has once reached epidemic proportions in the country, but has since saw huge improvements with an adult prevalence of 4.7%.
[edit] Respect
Although the country was previously referred to in English as "Ivory Coast", the country has requested that it be called "Côte d'Ivoire" (the equivalent in French). Pronouncing it "Coat di-VWAR" is close enough for an English-speaking person.
[edit] Contact
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Falun
From Wikitravel
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Kristine Church and the Engelbrekt statue, Main Square
Falun [1] is the administrative center of the Dalarna province in Sweden. It's the second most populous town in the area with about 37,000 inhabitants, about three quarter of its close neighbor Borlänge with 50,000 inhabitants.
[edit] Understand
Falun was built around the old copper mine, which was operational as early as the 11th century. The mine was an important resource during the years of the Swedish Empire and made Falun Sweden's second largest city around mid-17th century.
Since some fifteen years the mine is depleted, and now it's become a tourist attraction and made the UNESCO World Heritage List. Stora Kopparberg (now Stora Enso), the mining company, is still active although nowadays it's in the forest industry. It claims to be the world's oldest company, having existed more than a millennium.
The Dalarna province is by many considered to be the very essence of Sweden, with Dala Horses (see below) and traditional midsummer festivities. Falun has made some contributions to the Swedish heritage as well. Prime examples, and memories of the mining, are Falu Red Paint (Falu rödfärg) and the Falu Sausage (Falukorv). The red color of the copper was used to make a brownish red paint that has become hugely popular in Sweden. The archetypal image of idyllic Sweden somehow always seems to include a Falu red wooden cottage with white corners. The Falu sausage, thick and ring-shaped, is one of few food products protected by the EU through a "certificate of special character" which states what ingredients must be in a Falu Sausage. The sausage was originally made by meat from the thousands of oxen whose hides were used to make ropes for the copper mine. Today, meat from pigs as well as beef is used in the sausages.
[edit] Get in
Map of Falun
Falun is about 3 hours from Stockholm, and is reached most easily by road or train.
[edit] By plane
If you're in a hurry there is an airport at the neighboring city of Borlänge, about 20 minutes from Falun, serving Stockholm, Gothenburg, Malmö and Oslo in Norway.
[edit] By train
The train station is situated a five minutes walk from the city center and is served by the main train company SJ for connections to Stockholm. The local/regional connections are served by Tåg i Bergslagen/Tågkompaniet. Railway tickets can be bought at the SJ website [2] or Tågkompaniet (only in Swedish) [3] All tickets are available on both sites. You have to be prepared to change train or to a bus from the city of Borlänge for the last few kilometers.
[edit] By bus
There are very few bus connections from other cities. Swebus Express [4] has 1-2 connections a day with Stockholm and Gothenburg. Buses stop at the railway station which is a five minute walk from the city center and the hotels there. Unless your bags are very heavy, save the taxi money and walk instead.
[edit] Get around
[edit] By bus
Falun is small enough to be explored on foot, however there is a local bus network handled by Dalatrafik [5]. The price for a bus ticket is 25 SEK for adults and 20 SEK for children. Infants travel for free.
[edit] By bike
Bicycle is good way of getting around except for during snowy winter. Bikes for rental are available at:
• Cykel & Fjäll, right by the main square, +46 23 63862, [6]. edit
[edit] By taxi
Taxis in Sweden are pricey. If you want to take a cab in Falun, you will most likely have to phone and ask for one to pick you up - you'd be extremely lucky to catch an available one on the street. Exceptions are the railway station where there is a taxi stand, and weekend nights downtown. Major taxi companies in Falun include:
• Koppartaxi, +46 23 63000, [7]. edit
• Taxi Kurir, +46 23 15300, [8]. edit
• Taxi Falun, +46 23 18900, [9]. edit
[edit] By car
Parking is free on many streets and when there's a fee it rarely exceeds 6 SEK/hour.
[edit][add listing] See
[edit] Copper mine
The mining museum (yellow building), near the edge of the Great Pit. Central Falun is in the background.
The mine, known as the Great Copper Mountain [10], and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in December 2001 - a must-see when in Falun. The mine was an important source of copper for an entire millennium until mining ended December 8, 1992. Part of it is still open for visitors with a guide. The interesting tour, with English translation available upon request, takes about an hour and visitors are taken 65 meters underground.
Tours of the mine
May - September except July Daily, 10AM - 5PM
July Daily, 10AM - 6PM
October - April Weekends, 12.30PM and 2.30PM
Tickets are bought in the souvenir shop, and the price for adults is 100 SEK. Helmets and raincoats are handed out before the tour. Do not wear your best shoes or trousers, since the red, copper-rich mud in the mine causes stains. Shoe protection is available in the souvenir shop for 5 SEK.
There is also a mining museum in the area. It has exhibitions about the history of coins in Sweden (including the largest coins in the world), and scale models of mining inventions by medieval tech genius Christoffer Polhem. Entry fee 20 SEK.
The Great Pit (Stora Stöten) can be seen from the surface for free. It's the result of an enormous collapse in the mine in 1687, and with a depth of 95 meters and a diameter of 400 meters it's an impressive sight. Miraculously nobody was killed in the collapse since it occurred on Midsummer's Day when the miners were free from work!
[edit] Other attractions
• Dalarnas Museum, Stigaregatan 2, downtown, +46 23 765500, [11]. Closed Mondays. Has several exhibits about the province and its history. Its main attraction is the reconstructed 1910 library and study room of famous writer Selma Lagerlöf, portrayed on the Swedish 20 crown bill. 40 SEK for adults. edit
• Kristine Church, by the main square. Open daily, 10AM-4PM. Built in 1655 and was one of the prerequisites for Falun to get city rights. The renaissance church has two organs, from 1906 and 1982. edit
• Church of the Great Copper Mountain, near the corner of Kyrkbacksvägen and Seminariegatan. Open M-F 10AM-4PM, Sa 10AM-6PM, Su 9AM-6PM. The oldest building in Falun. It was most likely built during the 12th and 13th centuries. In the cemetery outside rests Fet-Mats Israelsson, a miner who was killed in a cave-in at the mine in 1677. He was discovered 42 years later, and since the conditions in the mine had preserved his body, his former fiancée immediately recognized him. Fet-Mats' corpse was put on display as an attraction for visitors - it wasn't until 1930 that he was finally laid to rest. edit
• Tourist Office, Trotzgatan 10-12, +46 23 83050, [12]. This office can help with almost anything tourist-related. edit
[edit][add listing] Do
Ski jump sculpture, Lugnet. Hills in the background.
• The Lugnet sports area in the north-eastern part of town offers many possibilities for sports, including in- and outdoor swimming pools, hiking and cross-country skiing. There is also a sports museum on the premises. The National Ski Stadium is in Lugnet. Its ski jumping hills can be seen from far away and have become a symbol of Falun. The hills area offers a café, a nice view of town, and a hint of just how insane you need to be to become a ski jumper. To get to the hills, keep going straight ahead after the Lugnet roundabout and follow the "Hopptorn" signs.
• The lake Runn provides many places to swim. With its many islands it's also popular among boat owners. Canoes and kayaks can be rented at Runns Sjöbod[13]. Prices between 300 and 500 SEK depending on size. Phone (+46) 73 9907422 or (+46) 73 9874701. E-mail backeus@telia.com. Another option is Främby Udde Camping, see the Sleep section. During winter you can instead rent skates and go tour skating, a popular winter activity.
• The cinema in town is on Östra Hamngatan just below the main square. Look for the rotating neon owl on the roof. Movies are normally in English with Swedish subtitles, except for children's films which are dubbed.
• The town's bowling alley is on the bottom floor of Scandic Hotel Lugnet (see below). Lane rental is 120 SEK per hour daytime, 155 SEK in the evenings and on weekends. Preferably book in advance on +46 23 24320. Friday and Saturday nights the place adds music and disco lights to make it all more fun.
Annual events include:
• The Runn Days (Runndagarna)[14], on and around lake Runn. Has a winter edition one weekend in mid-February, with tour skating, curling and other ice activities. The summer edition takes place on a weekend mid-August and features boat trips, music and general fun.
• The Swedish Ski Games (Svenska Skidspelen)[15]. World Cup competitions of cross-country skiing. Takes place in the Lugnet area in March.
• The Falu Party (Falukalaset)[16], turning downtown Falun into a large market with vendors, carousels and entertainment. It takes place in early June.
• The Copper Meet (Kopparträffen). Big meeting for motorcycle enthusiasts, around 500 riders gather every year. Includes a motorbike cortege through town, down into the Great Pit at the mine (no, it's not a lemming suicide; there are roads down to the bottom). Held late July every year.
• Falu Cruising. A vintage car procession through town, bringing car enthusiasts and almost everybody else out to watch the cars and the people in them. Arranged late July every year. Starts at 6PM and goes on until midnight.
• Falu Autumn Market (Falu höstmarknad), again turning the central parts into a market. Held late August/early September.
[edit][add listing] Buy
Dala Horse and Falu Maiden
Unlike the neighboring town of Borlänge, Falun doesn't have a dominating shopping mall outside the town centre. Thus the best shopping is downtown, mainly along the streets Slaggatan/Holmgatan and Åsgatan. If you're interested in local handicraft look for the Dalarnas Hemslöjd store by the main cobblestone square of Stora Torget, but be prepared for quite hefty pricetags. There's also handicraft and souvenirs available at the mine.
The most common souvenir from Falun and the Dalarna province is the Dala Horse, a symbol of Sweden. This small wooden horse has been carved since the 17th century. It is usually orange or blue and decorated with kurbits painting, a symmetrical type of decoration. If you want a genuine one, expect to pay at least SEK 100 for the smallest kind.
If the Dala Horse feels too mainstream and you want a symbol of the town of Falun rather than a symbol of Dalarna, look for a Falu Maiden. This lady is far from the fame of the Dala Horse and is not as easy to find in the shops. Look for the dress and the hat.
A third option is to buy a Kåre Goat. According to legend, the copper mine in Falun was discovered when the goat Kåre one day showed up at home with reddish dirt on his horns. Kåre's owner followed the goat into the woods the next day and saw him rub his horns in the ground, and thus the copper was found. A large wooden Kåre Goat stands on the mining area, overlooking road 50 towards Borlänge.
[edit][add listing] Eat
This guide uses the following price ranges for a typical meal for one, including soft drink:
Budget Under SEK 60
Mid-range SEK 60-120
Splurge Over SEK 120
[edit] Budget
Self-catering is always the cheapest way to get a meal in Sweden and there's plenty of food stores in Falun where it's possible to stock up. If you're starving in the middle of the night, run to the Statoil petrol station which is open 24-7 and offers hot dogs and groceries. Fast food is also available at the many pizzerias, at the Swedish fast food chain Sibylla, at McDonald's near Lugnet or at Gandhis Gatukök at the main square.
[edit] Mid-range
For fairly cheap restaurant food, catch "Dagens rätt" ("Dish of the day"), available weekdays at lunchtime in most restaurants. Price around 65 SEK. Check if the price includes drinks; if not, you can save money by asking for tap water instead. A daily overview in Swedish of what dishes are served in the different restaurants is found here. Most of the listed restaurants here are also open in the evening with à la carte prices around 100 SEK for a meal.
• American Takeaway, Holmgatan 16, +46 23 22044, [17]. Offers a lunch buffet and tasty pan pizzas - the best one is Mex-style, called El Taco. Not just takeaway, despite the name. Has a US-style interior with interesting red metallic sofas. edit
• The Kings Arms, Falugatan 3, +46 23 711344, [18]. Downtown pub/restaurant with good food. Dish of the Day 70 SEK. edit
• Tzatziki, Myntgatan 33B, +46 23 10980. Greek restaurant, specializing in coal-grilled food. Dish of the Day 65 SEK. edit
• Golden Palace, Holmgatan 26, +46 23 26868. Chinese restaurant, specializing in real chinese food and Hong Kong cuisine. Dish of the Day 75 SEK. edit
• Restaurang Hammars, Åsgatan 28, +46 23 39039, [19]. 3PM-midnight, closed Mondays.. Italian kitchen. Worth a visit just to see the cozy interior of the building which was built in 1776. They serve lunch with vegetarian alternatives and a la carte italian food. edit
• Mariann's Saloon, Slaggatan 13, +46 23 20101 (, fax: +46 23 20101), [20]. Western/Mexican style restaurant and pub. Dish of the Day 65 SEK. edit
• Åhlens Café & Restaurang, Åsgatan 21, +46 23 711427. Convenient for shoppers since it's found on the top floor of the Åhléns department store. Dish of the Day available. edit
• Restaurang China Thai, Nybrogatan 23, +46 23 28850. Asian restaurant with a popular lunch buffet. edit
• Kopparhatten, Stigaregatan 2 (same building as Dalarnas Museum), +46 23 19169, [21]. Situated inside Dalarnas Museum, serving local as well as international cuisine. edit
• Rådhuskällaren, Slaggatan 2, +46 23 25400, [22]. Offers Dish of the Day in the town hall cellars. Summertime it moves outside and is one of the nicest places to eat lunch if the weather is good. edit
• Geschwornergården, Gruvgatan 55 (by the Great Copper Mountain mine), +46 23 711923, [23]. The place to go if you suddenly get hungry while visiting the area around the mine. It shares management with the Banken restaurants. Make sure you get a seat outside if the sun is shining. Dish of the Day 65 SEK.. edit
[edit] Splurge
• Banken Två rum & kök, Stadshusgränd 2, +46 23 26025, [24]. The best and most expensive restaurant in town. Make sure to book your dinner table in advance and be prepared to pay at least a couple hundred crowns per dish. It is run in close cooperation with neighboring Banken Bar & Brasserie (see below), but it has its own entrance from Stadshusgränd. edit
[edit][add listing] Drink
Wednesday, Friday and Saturday is the best time for a night out. The bars below also serve as restaurants and offer Dish of the Day during weekday lunch hours.
• Systembolaget, Åsgatan 19, +46 23 12300. Not a bar but the only alcohol store in town, due to the Swedish government monopoly on alcohol. If you want to do it the Swedish way and save some money by having a pre-party before going to the bar, this is where to shop. edit
• Club Etage, Holmgatan 22 (top floor of the Jungfrun shopping galleria, use elevators at the bottom floor), +46 23 63131, [25]. (Closing time 2AM on weekends.). Downtown restaurant and night club. Look for the sky tracker lights in the sky and you'll find it. edit
• Banken Bar & Brasserie, Åsgatan 41 (Old bank building on the corner of Åsgatan and Stadshusgränd.), +46 23 711911 (), [26]. (Closes at 1AM on weekends). If you prefer sipping on a beer in a somewhat more quiet area, Banken is a good choice. edit
[edit][add listing] Sleep
[edit] Camping
Falun, like all of Sweden, has the Right to access rule which allows anyone to camp for one night almost anywhere in the woods.
• Lugnet Camping & Stugby, Lugnetvägen 38, +46 23 83563 (). Available for those who prefer their camping a bit more organized. It offers tent sites, camp sites with electricity and even well-equipped cabins. tent site 95 SEK, camp site with electricity from 160 SEK, cabin (five beds) 650 SEK. edit
• Främby Udde Camping, Främby Udde 20 (about 3 kilometers outside the town centre. Follow Sturegatan south-east until you see signs for Främby udde), +46 23 19784 (), [27]. Lakeside campsite with swimming, boat trips, miniature golf and canoe/kayak rental. Price for a campsite around 150 SEK.. edit
[edit] Budget
This guide uses the following price ranges for a standard double room:
Budget Under SEK 500
Mid-range SEK 500-1000
Splurge Over SEK 1000
• Cabins, +46 23 83050, [28]. Available for those who prefer the countryside and plan to stay at least a few days. During high season (late June, July and early August) minimum time of rental is one week, from Sunday to Sunday. Only consider this option if you have access to a car. Prices vary from around 1500 SEK/week for a small cabin during low season, to around 4000 SEK/week for a larger one during high season. Each cabin normally houses three people or more. edit
• Falu Fängelse, Villavägen 17, +46 23 795575, [29]. The former town prison has been modified and is now a hostel. It is situated in a quiet part of town, walking distance from the centre. Prices per person vary from 210 SEK for a dorm bed (2-, 3- and 4-bed rooms) to 300 SEK for a single room. Bring your own sheets or rent for 55 SEK.. edit
• Lindsberg Vandrarhem Falun, Lindsberg 10, +46 23 43030, [30]. Ecological hostel and course center in the Bergsgården World Heritage area a few kilometers outside the city center. Free wireless internet in rooms, lobby and library. Prices range from 130 SEK (per person in double room or dorm) to 170 SEK (for private room). edit
• STF Vandrarhem Falun, Vandrarvägen 3, +46 23 10560 (), [31]. The STF[32] hostel in town is situated about 3 kilometers east of the town centre, which makes it a not-so-attractive option if you don't have a car or a bike. Prices from SEK 190 for a dorm bed to SEK 250 for a single room (there is a 50 SEK discount for STF members). Same rules for sheets as above.. edit
Scandic Hotel Lugnet
[edit] Mid-range
• Hotel Falun, Trotzgatan 16, +46 23 29180, [33]. Family run hotel with 24 rooms featuring cable TV, phone, WC and a sink. Some have their own shower, the others have showers in the corridor. Some rooms have cooking equipment. Prices vary with season but start at 490 SEK for a single or 590 SEK for a double. edit
• First Hotel Grand, Trotzgatan 9, +46 23 794880, [34]. Downtown four-star hotel with direct access to the night club Harrys. Singles from 618 SEK, doubles from 718 SEK. edit
• Park Inn Bergmästaren, Bergsskolegränd 7, +46 23 701700, [35]. Centrally located in the same area as Hotel Falun and First Hotel Grand. Singles from 600 SEK, doubles from 790 SEK. edit
• Scandic Hotel Lugnet, Svärdsjögatan 51, +46 23 6692200 (), [36]. Situated near the Lugnet sports area about 10 minutes walk from the city centre. The building itself has an interesting design with windows made to resemble a ski jump ramp. Singles and doubles from 750 SEK. edit
[edit] Contact
[edit] Phone
The country code for Sweden is 46. The area code for Falun is 23, or 023 if you're calling from a Swedish phone. Mobile phones have numbers that start with 70 or 73, that is 070 or 073 if calling from a Swedish phone. When making international calls from a Swedish phone, dial two zeroes, 00, before the country code. The emergency number is 112.
[edit] Internet
Sweden is one of the most online countries in the world. The catch for visitors, however, is that there's a slight shortage of internet cafés since most people have good connections at home. An internet café/pool hall is on Falugatan 4, but it's a dark, dingy place. The best place to get online in Falun, as well as in many other towns, is the library (bibliotek). It is situated on Kristinegatan - walk towards the river from the main square and you're there.
Opening hours:
• Mon-Thu 10AM-7PM
• Fri 10AM-6PM
• Sat 10AM-3PM
• Sun 1-4PM
[edit] Get out
Carl Larsson's home, as portrayed by the artist himself in 1894.
• In Sundborn, 10 kilometers outside Falun, you'll find Carl Larsson-gården [37]. The 19th century home of national painter Carl Larsson is very popular among tourists, and the house and its surroundings is what inspired the famous painter as he created idyllic images that have come to symbolize Sweden. Guided tours are available daily between 10.00 and 17.00 in high season (May-September) and weekdays at 11.00 in low season. Entrance for adults is 100 SEK.
• If you're into downhill skiing Falun is about half an hour from Romme Alpin [38] outside Borlänge. The Bjursås Ski Center [39], some 30 minutes from Falun, also has very nice ski-slopes. The huge ski resort Sälen [40] is one of the most popular in Sweden. It's 200 kilometers from Falun, in the municipality of Malung. The second major ski resort in Dalarna, Idre [41], is about 240 kilometers from Falun. It is situated in the municipality of Älvdalen and mainly caters to families.
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Gilimanuk
From Wikitravel
Asia : Southeast Asia : Indonesia : Bali : West Bali : Gilimanuk
Revision as of 15:08, 2 November 2012 by Pratyeka (Talk | contribs)
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Gilimanuk is a port town in West Bali.
Get in
By boat
For most people, there is only one reason to come to Gilimanuk: it is the port for ferries to and from Banyuwangi (Ketapang) in Java. Ferries run every 20 minutes, 24 hours a day and take about half an hour to make the crossing, although loading and unloading can take much longer. Since the onset of terrorist problems in Bali, security is much, much tighter at Gilimanuk than it used to be and you should be prepared for some long queues. The fares are Rp 6,000 per person, Rp 95,000 per car and Rp 31,000 per motorbike.
By bus
Buses and bemos run to Gilimanuk from Ubung terminal in Denpasar, taking about 3 hours and costing Rp 30,000-50,000 depending on the quality of the vehicle.
Get around
Gilimanuk is very small, and you would never have a reason to do anything other than walk.
See
There is little of interest here, but Gilimanuk is only 15 to 20 minutes from West Bali National Park, and there are pleasing views across the Bali Strait to the mountains of East Java.
• Museum Situs Purbakala, Jl (about 500 m east of the ferry terminal), +62 365 61328. M-F 8AM-4PM. Architectural excavations in the Gilimanuk area have revealed the earliest evidence of human habitation in Bali. This small museum houses a collection of skeletons and artifacts found near Cekik, which are thought to be 3,000-4,000 years old. Worth a visit if you have an hour to kill before jumping on a ferry. Rp 6,000.
Do
Catch the ferry to Java.
Organise a boat trip around Gilimanuk Bay with a guide from the West Bali National Park office.
Watch some local cock-fighting.
Buy
Eat
A key pleasure (many would say the only pleasure) when staying in Gilimanuk is the unique local dish of Ayam Betutu (hot and spicy chicken). Chicken is boiled in a broth of local spices for up to 3 hours and wood-smoked (Betutu means smoked). It is normally served with steamed rice and plecing kangkung (hot and spicy spinach).
This unique dish will certainly please foodies and even the most jaded of traveller will appreciate the truly delicious flavours.
The recipe was apparently invented by the late Mrs Tempeh and the warung bearing her name is the most popular venue for this dish: Warung Men Tempeh in the old bus terminal.
Drink
Sleep
There are only basic guesthouses here, mostly used by truck drivers. Stay elsewhere if you can.
Hotel Sari (+62 365 61264) offers cheap fan cooled rooms. About 10 minutes south of the ferry terminal.
Pondok Wisata Lestari (+62 365 61504) is basic but probably the best of the options available. About 2 km south of the ferry terminal. This guest house is sometimes used by budget travellers who are visiting West Bali National Park as well as those making the crossing to Java.
Contact
Get out
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Lycian Way
From Wikitravel
Revision as of 12:14, 13 May 2012 by Eflatun (Talk | contribs)
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Contents
The lighthouse on the Cape Gelidonia, south of Olympos—one of the highlights of Lycian Way
This article is an itinerary.
Lycian Way (Turkish: Likya Yolu, [1]) is a 509-km, waymarked hiking trail in southwestern Turkey, connecting Fethiye in the west with southwest of Antalya (the village of Hisarçandır up on the mountains, to be more precisely) in the east along the Lycian coast.
Lycian Way is great, if sometimes a bit tiresome, to get a sense of true Mediterranean Turkey, away from crowded beaches, fancy resorts, and posh palm trees.
Get in
Both Fethiye and Antalya are well-connected to most cities in the country by inter-city buses. The nearest international airports are located at Dalaman for the western trailhead and at Antalya for eastern end.
It's fairly easy to get to western trailhead by minibuses (dolmuş, take those heading for Ölüdeniz, and get off just south of Ovacık/Hisarönü roundabout, at the large sign of 'Montana Resort Hotel') or even on foot from downtown Fethiye.
Fees/Permits
There are no fees or permits to be taken care of for hiking or camping along the Lycian Way.
Understand
Investigated and then waymarked by Kate Clow, a Britishwoman living in Turkey, with the help of a number of volunteers and Turkish Ministry of Culture in early 2000s, Lycian Way connects a number of villages, mountain hamlets, Lycian and Roman sites on its route and ranges from 0 mt (sea level) to 1,800 mt summit of Mt Tahtalı (known by the name Olympos in ancient times) at elevation. It's not a single footpath that has been intact since times immemorial, rather it's a collection of ancient paths, mule and caravan trails, forest and backcountry roads. For many sites, it's the most convenient way to get to, and still many others let themselves to be enjoyed only by those taking the effort to hike the trail.
Although there are some hikers doing the whole trail in one go, most people prefer to do it in sections, and in fact some sections are more popular than others. Some short sections of the trail near the major towns can even be regarded as a day trip.
Once littered, it is very hard to clean the trail up, as it mostly lies on a remote and rugged territory. Therefore, following leave-no-trace guidelines is important. Also, think ahead carefully about what you will need and what you won't, as anything that is regarded as "trash" will need to be carried to the nearest garbage bin - a convenience even some of the mountain hamlets completely lack, let alone the trail itself.
April-May and October-November is reported to be best to hike the trail, as it's warm (but not infernally hot unlike in summer!) and not rainy (unlike winter) during these months.
Signs and waymarks
Standard waymark of Lycian Way: you'll see a lot of these
One of standard signposts along Lycian Way
The standard waymark of Lycian Way is a half white, half red rectangle. There is no uniform distance between each mark along the route, when the trail start to twist and turn, they become more frequent and when the trail lies as a straight line, converting into an easily-visible path, then they become rarer. They are mostly painted on rocks along the route, though you can also spot some on utility poles, garden walls, or on the actual path itself.
Side paths straying from the main trail -and usually arriving in very off-the-beaten-path sites (in a literal sense!)- have marks similar to the standard rectangles, just yellow replaces white.
Other waymarks include a "turning" or an "S" rectangle (again half white, half red) with an arrow on, which mean there is a curve (or S-curves) coming ahead. They sometimes can be found immediately before the curve. There are also frequent "<" marks on the trail. These can be confusing if you interpret them as arrows, which they are not. They are instead meant to mimic the shape of the trail at that point. Therefore ">" mark would indicate that there is a switchback in the trail, NOT that you should go right. A "red cross" is marked on "wrong" trails and roads, usually accompanied by the standard rectangle painted on the "correct" way.
Once every five or so years, a number of volunteers replenish the waymarks. However, in the meantime some local villagers, at their all good will, repaint the marks on some sections and this may cause the new marks shifting a few (hundred) metres on either side of the actual trail. However, this is not a very big problem as the "new" marks will join the "old" marks somewhere in some way, so you will not get lost even by following these "accidentally" painted marks.
Signs, easily-recognizable, distinctive yellow arrows with the header Fethiye'den Antalya'ya Likya Yolu, i.e. Lycian Way Fethiye to Antalya, are nowhere as frequent as the waymarks, but still can be seen, and indeed are useful, on most junctions (where for example trail separates from a main road) and at village exits. They name the next destination on it with the distance in kilometres. Note the distances on signs are approximate, so don't worry if you see the distance going up or down by 1 km on the next sign.
Prepare
You may consider bringing in:
• Maps — Maps, usually available with some guidebooks, may be useful for spotting the water sources at least, but they are not absolute necessities to follow the trail as waymarks are sufficient to do that. Some maps, with varying degrees of detail, can also be found online for free. Keep in mind that Turkish government still doesn't let large scale maps of the area (or anywhere else in the country for that matter) to be reproduced for private, non-security uses though, so even the best maps (including those provided within Kate Clow's guidebook) show only a fraction of details. Useful might be also the maps of ancient Lycian sites (can be found in the Internet) in order to understand better the locations of ancient Lycian cities with respect to modern Turkish cities and villages.
• Tent and camping gear — While you'll find some kind of accommodation (mostly family-run guesthouses) in some villages (usually separated from each other by a distance of average daily walk) along most of the route, there are some sections where wild camping is your only choice for two nights on a row. Even if you don't plan to hike such a section, camping is a great way to reduce your accommodation costs and having camping gear at hand gives much more freedom: Who wants to walk the further 5 km to the guesthouse you plan to overnight while you are totally exhausted and are standing against a gorgeous view? But this choice, of course, has a toll: The lighter the backpack, the happier you will be.
• A torch — To have a torch or some other source of light is a must as no part of the trail, apart from those traversing the villages, is illimunated at night, and it quickly becomes a nightmare to follow the waymarks once the night sets.
• A phrasebook — Bring in a Turkish phrasebook as the trail goes through really remote mountain hamlets and most villages along the route hardly sees any non-locals, let alone foreigners, other than the hikers - although sometimes only a few km (and a good deal of elevation) separates these remote villages from mass tourism.
• Bottles and bottles and bottles of water — Hot and dry Mediterranean climate reigns the area, and you'll need lots of water. If it's summer, be ready to walk under the scorching sun for 3-4 hours straight without ever seeing a source of water in some sections of the trail.
• Wikitravel print-outs — In addition to the actual trail details below, seperate Wikitravel articles for relatively bigger settlements along the trail exist (indicated by blue links when viewed online). Make sure you check them out for more details on what to see and do and where to eat and sleep while passing through before setting out.
Walk
While the official start of Lycian Way is in Ovacık, the northern suburb of Ölüdeniz, you can hike it all the way from Fethiye (about 15 km away from Ovacık, and the hub of the region) without having the need to referring to road sides with the help of adjoining trails.
Fethiye-Kayaköy
Total distance: 8-9 km
Waymarked recently, a cobbled and wide medieval trail through a pine forest link Fethiye to Kayaköy, the "ghost town" on the hills, providing a quite easy hike between these locales, with the only hard (if it's summer and you are carrying a large backpack, that is) section being the first or so km out of Fethiye (ascenting and no shade). Some sections of this path is surfaced with tarmac though, so your peaceful walk will be intersected by the road a few times, but these sections are short fortunately.
The waymarks of this trail are sometimes yellow&red, suggesting that this is a side trail, while some other marks are white&red, meaning that this is the main trail. Yellow defaced with white and white defaced with yellow are also common. But no matter what, they are frequent and visible enough as not to let you get lost. Sign are headed with Likya Yolları rather than the usual Fethiye'den Antalya'ya Likya Yolu and Kayaköy is referred to as Kaya (Levissi) on signs.
Some of the Lycian rock tombs you'll see on your left while you are at your first kilometre out of Fethiye
From downtown Fethiye, start by following brown "Kayaköy" (sometimes "Kaya" or "Karmylassos") road signs. From the corner of the mosque, turn right (towards the hills/rock tombs), pass by the minibus stop (with minibuses heading for Kayaköy). Then you will come to a T-intersection, turn left and then about a couple of hundred metres later, right (look for the street sign saying "Kaya"). This will take you to the tarmac road out of Fethiye, heading for Kayaköy, after passing by a Lycian sacrophagus right in the middle of the road before you left built-up area. First the road follows the bottom of a valley, with rock tombs small and big carved on both sides. After having a bird's eye view of Fethiye to right, the road will swing left, still ascenting. After passing by a few cottages to left, you will see the first sign of the trail with the arrow pointing to left. The path entering the forest after passing a small stone bridge over a dry creekbed, not waymarked and not clearly visible, is actually a shortcut and rejoins the tarmac road after a couple of hundred metres away. After a short walk on the side of the road winding to left, the actual trail begins next to a fountain with cold water (the sign will also show you the way): Refill your bottles here because this is the last fountain until Keçiler, about 6 km away. The path will start as a dirt road with loose pebbles scattered about. After a short ascent, and before the trail swings toward right, there is a beautiful view of the Gulf of Fethiye towards left. You can rest here if you are tired already. A hundred metres away, the very-well designed cobbled path begins and gently ascents towards the hilltop, where you will once more join the tarmac road. After keeping on the side of the road for about 1 km, and having the first distant view of the ghost town inbetween the trees, there is another sign saying Kaya (Levissi) 5 km, pointing left which the road swings. It may look like it's showing the tarmac road, but it's not! It's actually showing the (re)start of the good ol' cobbled path, not clearly visible at this point, but lying just next to the road, albeit somewhat lower because of the elevation difference. The 'cobbled' trail at this point is not nearly as wide, or even, or as much of a defined trail, as the cobbled trail you were walking on earlier, and is easy to miss. The cobbled trail quickly turns right into the forest afterwards, while the road keeps lying straight. After a gentle descend in the forest, the path is once more intersected by road. This time, there is no sign or nearby marks to show the way. From where you exited the forest, you'll need to go to the right a few years and you will quickly see a rocky path, soon turning into a wide cobbled path, leading down to the right and down from the tarmac road. The trail will keep descending, and will cross the tarmac road again, at which found you need to walk a short ways to the right on the tarmac road and you will again see the wide cobbled path. Soon the forest will disappear with the first buildings since the exit of Fethiye. This is the village of Keçiler, nowadays a neighbourhood of Kayaköy and is 2 km away from Kayaköy. A coffehouse will welcome you into the village, take the path to left at the crossroad in front of it. From this point on, you will walk on dirt village roads with no descends or ascents. After walking a while, the road will wind right and will pass by a Lycian sacrophagus on the side of the hill to left. After the sacrophagus, you will, for the last time, join the tarmac road that descends from the hill to the left. This is the road that's following you since from Fethiye. After walking on the side of it a little bit, you'll come to the village square with a large fountain to left (very warm water!). You should take the straight road for Kayaköy, and a (fell as of July 2009) sign says the road to right leads to Afkule and Gemile (17 km, not accessible other than hiking). After a quick walk between some restaurants, you will arrive in the centre of Kayaköy (the ghost town part).
Kayaköy-Ovacık
In Kayaköy, there are a number of guesthouses, restaurants, a grocery store (cash only; on the left of the road turning right in front of the church, ask for market, pronounced maar-cayt), and an old fountain. The water from the fountain doesn't taste wonderful but is drinkable as many people, even non-locals, drink from it with seemingly no problems. There is also a simple map of the village made of an illustration on the side of the road between the fountain and the church. Note that it's posted reversed: Anything that shows up on the right of the illustration is on the left of you and vice versa.
From Kayaköy, you have two different trails to choose from to get to the official trailhead of Lycian Way in Ovacık: either the one that gets you to the beach next to the Blue Lagoon at Ölüdeniz, or the one that takes you right to Ovacık over the hills. If you choose to take the route via the beach, then you will have to walk on the side of the ascenting road with somewhat heavy traffic (in high season) between Ölüdeniz and Ovacık for about 3 km. You have, however, the option of taking a minibus (dolmuş) to avoid that section anyway.
The route via beach to Ölüdeniz
Total distance around 4-5 km
This route is reported to be one of the easiest hikes in the region (always descending, after the brief initial ascent that pass over the hill behind Kayaköy) and can comfortably be taken in 2 hours. The waymarks are the usual red&white or red&yellow rectangles.
The route starts near the St Taksiarhis Church (Upper Church) in the centre of ghost town. The trail partially runs through pine forest and offers impressive views of the sea below and St Nicholas Island off shore. At one point the trail connects to the road next to the beach clubs and leads to Ölüdeniz.
The route that leads straight to Ovacık
...
Ovacık-Kozağaç
Total distance: about 8 km, elevation: 250 mt to 750 mt
Ovacık and the nearby Hisarönü are located on the major road between Fethiye and Ölüdeniz. They are both fairly developed resorts typical in the area. They have all kinds of tourism infrastructure: Lots of hotels and guesthouses, restaurants and bars, grocery stores which accept credit cards and which carry a large selection of foods and drinks.
The official start of Lycian Way lies east of the road connecting Ovacık with Ölüdeniz. From Hisarönü roundabout (north of Ölüdeniz), walk towards the direction of Ölüdeniz, and in about 1 km later, you'll see the first yellow sign of Lycian Way on the left of the road; or on the right side of the road 3 km uphill from the coast of Ölüdeniz. It says Kirme 10 km, and all signs on this section drop Kozağaç in favour of Kirme as the first settlement on the route. However, this small sign is obscured by the adjacent much bigger signs of Montana Resort Hotel (easily visible) and some other signboards informing about Lycian Way project erected by local charities.
For this section, take along at least 5 litres of water per each person as this is a hard walk almost always ascenting with no descends or level grounds, there is almost no shade and there is no water source for 8 km straight on the route other than three rainwater cisterns with buckets recruited from old cooking oil tins. However, the cisterns are of no use unless you have purifying tablets or filters, as the water inside is full of mosquito larvae and stinks to high heaven. Take this note seriously before attempting the trail especially in summer.
After passing by the Montana Resort Hotel and a smaller guesthouse, the tarmac road gives way for a dirt (but still wide) forest track. You'll pass under the start sign of Lycian Way at this point. From this point on, all waymarks are the standard white&red.
Trail begins in a pine forest, but the trees will disappear eventually in favour of Mediterranean shrubland (the maquis) and the forest track will turn into a narrow footpath, sectionally cobbled but mostly covered with loose gravel. With some fantastic views of the Blue Lagoon to right, you'll start ascenting along the trail which turns and twists on the side of the mountain. This mule trail was the only connection of the inhabitants of the hamlets of Kozağaç and Kirme to the rest of the world until 1983, when a much wider dirt road was bulldozed from the other side of the mountain. It's still rarely used by local shepherds and their flocks. Be extra careful in this section as there is shometimes literally nothing between you and cliffs metres high. There are also some forking trails that should not be taken, so watch out for those red crosses at the junctions. At some point of the trail, green/turquoise dots will join in, however, they are not the marks you should be following. They rather show the way for the trail climbing up from the Ölüdeniz beach direct to the summit of Mt. Babadağ (1,970 mt). The green dots will accompany white&red rectangles until near Kozağaç.
Along most of the length of this section, you'll occasionally hear screams and 'yippees'. Don't worry, no one is in trouble. Just look above and you'll see the paragliders flying from the summit of the mountain to the beach.
After a sometimes-heavy and shadeless ascent which may seem like it will last forever, and passing through the occasional gate carved into rocks blocking the trail, you'll arrive the last cistern and a large tree which offer lots of shade under which to rest. However, be careful about scorpions and other possibly dangerous arachnids in this area. At this point, you have taken about two-thirds of the trail to Kozağaç with about a third more to go. If your water has started to go low, start water saving measures: Drink only when you are really thirsty, drink only one or two gulps, and stop eating snacks. The first (drinkable) water source is in Kozağaç.
The trail once more starts ascenting after the cistern. About 1 km away from Kozağaç, it will suddenly turn into level ground covered with larger gravel and some new constructions, including one looking like a fortress/castle with its large stone-covered towers will welcome you back to civilization here. The trail will afterwards join a wide dirt village road and after turning left while having the full sight of the village of Kozağaç, you'll arrive in the first fountain with very cold and good-tasting water to the left of the road. However, do not use soap in this fountain to avoid sud build-up as the long trough below the fountain is where local goats water. You can use soap, however, at the lower fountain coming from the trough as the wastewater there goes directly down the drain.
The green dots will draw apart to their way near the fountain, but as mentioned, they are not the marks to be followed.
Kozağaç-Kirme
Distance: about 4 km, elevation: 750 mt to 650 mt
Kozağaç is a mountain hamlet with only a few houses sandwiched between the towering granite body that is the Mt. Babadağ above and the high cliffs of the Kıdrak Valley below. There is no accommodation or a shop to speak of in this hamlet. The hamlet lies, however, just under the way of paragliders.
The trail will start slowly descending at the exit of Kozağaç, at where you will pass by another fountain with cold water. After passing by the abandoned school building you'll arrive in a section covered with fine grey sand. This is the bed which a part of the mountain slided in an earthquake in 1957, and still tens of big rocks fall and some pass through that bed every day. About 100 metres after the grey sands, you'll pass next to a source of water. It's not easily visible as it's not a fountain really, only a blue hose with no sink or through, but according to locals, the tasty water there comes from the very summit of the mountain and has no chance of contamination. At this point, you'll enter a pine forest. Most guidebooks and maps speak of a shortcut immediately on the edge of the cliffs through the forest here, however, there were no waymarks in the forest as of July 2009, and the waymarks along the wide dirt road were persuasively sufficient that the Lycian Way lies on the road, at least at the moment. Though no matter whether the trail lies there or not, walk into the forest to the edge of the cliff to have a rest against a stunning view of Kıdrak Valley below, a much more grandiose version of the more famous Butterfly Valley (7-8 km further away on Lycian Way). The resort lying on the edge of the bottom of the valley is Club Lykia World.
After a short and gentle ascent, view of Kıdrak Valley will fade away soon, as well as the pine forest, and the dirt road will wind towards left. After passing by another abandoned school building and a fountain full of bees, you'll arrive in a junction. As the waymarks show you, take left into the village of Kirme. The other roads lead to Karaağaç, a village still higher in the mountains, and Ölüdeniz via Faralya (this is the road used nowadays by local people and vehicles to get to the villages of Kozağaç and Kirme).
Kirme-Faralya
Distance: about 4 km, elevation: 650 mt to 350 mt
Kirme, like Kozağaç, is a mountain hamlet with no accommodation or shops, but is slightly bigger than Kozağaç. The trail will immediately start twists and turns as soon as it enters the village, so watch the waymarks carefully. From this point on, you will always be descending until Faralya. After finding the right exit at the little maze between the garden walls in the village, you'll walk along a little valley with a dry creekbed in the middle and surrounded by fields and orchards. After passing two fountains in the valley, in addition to one inside the village, you'll start quickly losing elevation towards Faralya on the side of a hill covered with shrubs. After climbing down some rocky terrain, with rocks lined like a gentle stair, you will suddenly arrive in a stream with a little waterfall which will welcome you to Faralya. Next to the waterfall is the hotel Die Wassermühle, converted from the old watermill of the village. You can quickly refresh yourself with the water, however still keep adhering to leave-no-trace guidelines as the stream forms the waterfalls in the Butterfly Valley below and once more used by travellers there.
Faralya-Kabak
Distance: 8 km
Faralya is the village on the cliffs above the Butterfly Valley. This is the first village on Lycian Way since Ovacık which has a number of guesthouses, a restroom (albeit a squat type primitive one, though they have running water and liquid soap; next to the mosque of the village - don't look for a Blue Mosque, it's a green little building. It's for free), a grocery store (Faralya Market; cash only, a very meager selection of vegetables, drinks, and snacks; it's located at the exit of the village, on the road to Kabak, though you will have to stray away from the Lycian Way as it's located after where Lycian Way forks from the road), and garbage bins (there is one in front of George's House, about 200 mt off the trail towards the cliffs of Butterfly Valley). There is a fountain in front of the mosque, but the water doesn't taste very good and it comes out of a moss-covered marble wall.
After arriving to Faralya at the side of the Die Wassermühle, the Lycian Way joins the tarmac road that is coming from Ölüdeniz. For a view of -or climbing down to- the Butterfly Valley, walk to right towards the direction of George's House opposite the mosque. This is a small village, so after passing away the mosque and a Lycian or Greek sacrophagus on the hill near it to left, the village ends. The Lycian Way quickly turns left into the forest after the exit of the village, abandoning the tarmac road towards Kabak, which is referred to as either Faralya (Kabak) or Kabak on signs from the point you entered Faralya on (Die Wassermühle).
Climbing down to Butterfly Valley
The climb is comparatively steep and there are ropes to use in several parts. Nevertheless the well trained locals can do the climb up form the valley in 15-20 minutes. Not suggested to climb in rainy weather since the rocks become slippery. One can stay there in the bungalows or tents for rent (35-40TL), go to visit the natural park with the waterfall or take a ferry to Ölüdeniz.
For some more details and safety tips on climbing down to the Valley, see Faralya article.
Kabak-Alınca
Distance: 7 km
Kabak, consisted of an upper village proper and a number of bungalows below on the coast, has a number of guesthouses and a small grocery store (cash only; at the upper village).
There are 2 ways to go to Alınca — via the beach of Kabak (descends down to the beach and connects to the hill road later) or via the hills around the valley with the fabulous sea views from the up. On the way one can find nice wild camping places.
From Kabak on, until Kınık (which is about three days walk away), there are no running water sources except the notable exceptions of the mosques at the hamlets of Bel and Dodurga, and most villagers rely on rainwater cisterns around this area. While you will not have problems regarding water for drinking or having a shower in the guesthouses along this section, be ready to filter your water from sparsely located cisterns in the countryside out of the hamlets. Also keep in mind that some cisterns that were noted at outdated guidebooks might have fallen out of use in the meantime, so plan ahead and pack along accordingly.
Alınca-Gey
Distance: 9 km
Alınca is an upper hill hamlet of just 13 households with no descend to a beach. There is no shop in the village. However, a villager, named Bayram, rents rooms for 30 TL a night. There is another recently opened guesthouse in the village, housed in a stone building named Alamut ( +90 252 679-10-69 (cell phone: +90-537-852-86-46, ), [2]. )
From Alınca, there are two ways — either the (non-waymarked) paved road used by vehicles or the actual Lycian Way route, which traverses a section which went through a landslide badly deformed the hillside, as well as some very narrow paths with deep cliffs just the length of a feet away from your steps — those afraid of heights will want to note that before heading out!
Between Alınca and Gey one can find a running water source if one continues hiking on the road (around 3 km away from Alınca after passing few farm houses on the left).
Close to Alınca, an alternative trail leads away as well, which goes through the village of Boğaziçi (4 km).
Gey-Bel
Distance: 6 km
The official name of Gey is Yediburunlar and it is comparatively bigger village compared to Alınca and has a mosque, a shop (named Lycian market, cash only), WC and a water source brought there just few years ago. This is again upper village with no descend to a beach.
The village mayor (muhtar) Bayram (not to be confused with the other Bayram in Alınca) rents a room and open-air patio of his two-story wooden house to hikers for overnights stays. Bayram can also reportedly arrange transfer of your excess luggage to your final destination with his pickup. There is also another, expensive boutique-type guesthouse just outside the village, run by a Turkish-South African couple. (Yediburunlar Lighthouse, +90 252 679-10-01 (mobile: +90-536-523-58-81, ), [3]. With cliff-top views. Open year-round. 250-300 TL double/half-board Nov-Mar. )
There are 2 ways to continue to Bel — direct route that continues from Lycian market to the right or you may take the side trail through the ruins of Sidyma near the modern village of Dodurga, which is a little longer.
Gey-Sidyma-Bel
Distance: about 10 km
Continue from the Lycian market in Gey to the left taking the road that starts to ascend, if around 20 min later you will pass the water source building on your left then you are on the right path. Continue until you will reach crossroads with few households from where you need to take the ascending road again. There on the top you should find the Lycian road signs again. Continue to Sidyma — the road will start to descend, first you will see the the castle wall on the left, but your way continues to the modern village Hisar first (drinkable water sources available) and after that you will find the ruins of an ancient city of Sidyma. The ruins that survived until these times are mainly the tombs though and few other ancient house ruins sometimes hidden in the bushes and the trees.
In order to return to Bel you will need to come back to the Lycian Way sign 'Bel 3km' and from there the road is descending all the time, you will pass also the few households visited before from where you will continue using the descending road to the left (not taken before). After a while on your left you will see a village down in a valley with a mosque which is Bel.
Bel-Gavurağılı
Distance: 10 km
There is a mosque in Bel with drinkable water available.
The signposts along the trail in this section indicate a settlement named Belceğiz between Bel (4 km away) and Gavurağılı. However, Belceğiz is just a single stone-built dwelling that belongs to an old shepherd who lives there just sometimes. The place around the dwelling though is very good for camping and has also fireplaces. During the night though it might become humid and cold. The only water source there — a cistern — is drinkable if purified or boiled before usage.
The way from Belceğiz to Gavurağılı descends down from the mountain.
Gavurağılı-Pydnai
Distance: 6 km
Gavurağılı is a hamlet with very few households, no shop and seems no drinkable water sources as well. One can use the car road from Gavurağılı to arrive to Pydnai in case the Lycian waymarks are lost.
Pydnai-Letoon
Distance: 8 km
Pydnai consists of the ancient town remains on a hill with an intact surrounding wall (which makes up most of what remained there to see in the town nowadays). Out of the walls, the town is surrounded by marshy ground, which was possibly a gulf serving as the harbour of the city back in ancient times. Lycian Way enters the city wall from one gate, and exits from another one after traversing the ancient town from one end to the other.
Pydnai (also spelled Pydnee on non-Lycian Way road signs) is situated close to the modern village of Karadere municipality where one can find a shop and several drinkable water sources, but it is around 2.5 km extra walk one way to the shop from Pydnai. In Karadere municipality one can find also shuttles to the nearby villages and towns including Kınık (Xanthos).
After traversing Pydnai, the trail descents towards the coast (if the way marks are lost one can just continue in the direction of the beach) and crosses River Özlen (Özlen Çayı) close to the river's mouth on a narrow, flimsy-looking wooden bridge at the western edge of Patara beach.
Most of this section lies on the level ground of a coastal plain, through an uninspiring "sea" of greenhouse plastics.
Letoon-Kınık
Distance: 4 km
Letoon was the main religious centre of Lycia, ruins of which now lie on the top of a slightly higher hill surrounded by greenhouses covering the coastal plain.
You will pass Eşen Çayı, known in ancient times as Xanthos River on a modern road bridge immediately at the entrance of Kınık, a relatively big-ish town on the route (at the very least, it's the biggest one since you left Faralya, or even Ovacık behind), and the hub for visiting both Letoon and Xanthos.
Kınık-Xanthos
Distance: 1 km
Kınık is comparatively big town with lots of tomato green houses, ATMs, plenty of shops, cafeterias, bus station and available places to stay overnight. There are many signs from Kınık showing the direction to Xanthos — which one could say is almost in the town itself — situated on the hill just to the left after crossing the bridge to enter Kınık. Even though Xanthos is a museum with an entrance fee (4 TL), sometimes after its working hours it is possible to visit it for free.
Passing Xanthos and continuing the road a little bit forward away from Kınık one can find a nice camping place next to the grain field and olive trees.
Xanthos-Çavdır
Total distance to Üzümlü: 17 km
At the beginning of this section you will cross D400, the main highway between Fethiye and Kalkan.
Çavdır-Üzümlü
The trail runs on the top of an ancient aqueduct for quite a while in this section.
Üzümlü-İslamlar
Üzümlü is a large-ish village with a restaurant (offering trout on the menu) and a guesthouse run by the village council (muhtarlık misafirhanesi).
İslamlar-Akbel
Here, there is a branching side trail (16 km) with a loop at the eastern edge of Patara beach (and the ruins of ancient city of Patara).
Akbel-Bezirgan
Distance, Akbel to Bezirgan 10 km.
At this section of the route, a side trail leads to the modern town of Kalkan, 3 km away.
The trail follows the main highway of the region for part of this section, passing by the town of Kalkan.
On the open plateau before arriving at Bezirgan, you will pass along a number of wooden granaries with corrugated metal roofs. These structures are said to be centuries old and the very same design is purported to be used by Romans or even Lycians.
Bezirgan-Sarıbelen
Distance: 7 km
Bezirgan is a large uphill town (yayla) with guesthouses available.
Sarıbelen-Gökçeören
Distance: 13 km
Sarıbelen is a small village. A local villager named Neşet rents his patio for campers, as well as Tim, an Australian settled in a distance from the village.
Gökçeören-Hacıoğlan Deresi
Distance: 8 km
A guesthouse run by a villager named Hüseyin is available in Gökçeören.
Hacıoğlan Deresi-Phellos
Distance: 14 km
Hacıoğlan Deresi is, unlike other location names found on the Lycian Way signposts, not a settlement but is just a creek (dere translates "stream" in Turkish).
Phellos-Çukurbağ
Distance: 3 km (But Lycian Way signposts drop Çukurbağ in favour of Antiphellos, which lies 11 km away from Phellos)
Phellos was a mountaintop Lycian city. Well-preserved typical Lycian sacrophagii is among what can be seen here.
ECO-ORGANIC FARM / guesthouse which is open all year in Cukurbağ Village on the Lycian trail. They serv organic food from their garden which is sertificat by NOP CERT Organic sertification group.Wine-bear, with hot water and free WiFi is available.
Çukurbağ-Antiphellos
Distance: 8 km
Çukurbağ, like Bezirgan, is another large-ish uphill town, yayla.
ECO-ORGANIC FARM / guesthouse which is open all year in Cukurbağ Village on the Lycian trail. They serv organic food from their garden which is sertificat by NOP CERT Organic sertification group.Wine-bear, with hot water and free WiFi is available.
Antiphellos-Apollonia
Distance: around 19 km
Antiphellos is the ruins of an ancient city just east of major town of Kaş (about 0.5km). Kaş is comparatively big touristic town with ATMs, shops, cafeterias, hostels, hotels, bars and a bus station. It has a little beach (Küçük Çakıl Plajı) inside the beach clubs close to the city center and a bigger beach (Büyük Çakıl Plajı) around 20 min walk away from the center.
The Lycian way continues from Büyük Çakıl Plajı to Limanağzı (about 3km), but be careful at one point the way branches into 2 - one continues over the hill forward and the other one descends to Limanağzı with a beach club, including restaurants and drinkable water sources.
From Limanağzı you can continue the Lycian way and reach the point where the both paths connect again, but one should be careful not to take the path back to Kaş since the Lycian way marks disappear for a while on the correct path and appear only later on. The path goes also through the fenced garden area and arrives later on to the uninhabited beach. In the next inhabited area there was a construction of a beach club (as of June 2011) where it was possible to buy water from the workers. The Lycian way from here continues on the road and then next to the seaside again passing several nice wild camping sites and the beach near Üzümlü. Later on the way is well marked until ancient ruins without particular name known. From this point the Lycian way marks might be faded and difficult to notice (as of June 2011). At the last Lycian way mark when facing the ruins the path continues behind you and does not follow the road down. Time to time there are also some stone made marks by people next to the faded Lycian way marks to attract attention of the trekkers. If the way marks are hopelessly lost one can try to reach the road which is on the left if the ruins passed before are behind you. On this road further you will arrive also to the Lycian yellow arrow with the direction to Kılınç (Apollonia). The first inhabited place which one will reach is Boğazcık. It is a little hamlet without any shops or drinkable water sources apart from Ali Kızmaz's pension where one can stay also over night or have a lunch, but one should take into account that in the hottest season the people are migrating to highlands. From here one can continue to the ruins of Apollonia or pass by the modern village Kılınç with a mosque and a little shop. The shop though might be closed at the hottest season because the owner might move to highlands, too.
Apollonia-Aperlae
Distance: around 7 km
The ruins of the ancient town Apollonia are located close to the modern little village Kılınç. In fact on the yellow arrow signs both names appear together.
Aperlae-Üçağız
Üçağız is known also as ancient Kekova.
Üçağız-Myra
Rock-cut tombs at Myra
Total distance: 21 km
Major localities and sights in this section are:
• Kapaklı
• Trysa
• Sura — 8 km to Myra
• Myra — an ancient Lycian town just north of modern town of Demre.
Demre is the last place with accommodation options until Finike, 30 km away, a distance which is hiked in three days by most hikers — a tent or sleeping bag is essential for two nights in this section.
Myra-Goncatepe
Total distance: 12 km
• Belören
• Zeytin
• Alakilise — ruins of a basilica which dates back to sixth century.
• Goncatepe
At Goncatepe, the trail reaches its maximum elevation of about 1,800 mt above sea level.
Goncatepe-Finike
Total distance: 18 km
• Belos
• Belen
• Finike
Finike is a modern major town and Lycian Way merges with the major highway D400 (or, rather ceases to exist) here, until near Mavikent, which is about 20 km away in the east. Taking public transport (or even hitchhiking) is the obvious sensible choice to cross this uninteresting coastal plain, covered by nothing else but greenhouse plastics.
Mavikent-Gelidonia
Total distance: 8 km
• Gagae
• Karaöz
• Cape Gelidonia (Gelidonya Burnu) — the cape with the lighthouse. There is a well next to the lighthouse with reportedly drinkable water. It's possible to camp on the level ground beside the lighthouse (the family operating it is pretty relaxed about this), even in the pergola covered with grapevines at the yard, however be extra careful about scorpions in this place, as many hikers report of them.
Gelidonia-Adrasan
Distance: 16 km
It takes at least 5 hours to hike this section which is one of the remotest parts of the trail. Inexperienced hikers are generally advised not to attempt this section alone, even by Kate Clow herself.
Some maps show a single source of water in this section, about a quarter of the way short of Adrasan, but most hikers report of not noticing it, so have extra water supplies when attempting this section.
Adrasan-Çıralı
Total distance: 20 km
• Upper Olympos (Bakacak) — the ancient city up on the hills.
• Lower Olympos — ancient city on the beach, next to a heavily travelled backpacker destination.
• Çıralı
At Çıralı, Lycian Way branches into two: one of the routes closely follow the coastline (if sometimes actually a little away from the beach itself), and the other via the mountains inland. The routes merge again in Gedelme up in the mountains and keep running towards north.
Çıralı-Gedelme
Coastal route
Çıralı-Phaselis
Total distance: 22 km
• Tekirova
• Phaselis — ruins of Roman city.
Phaselis-Gedelme
• Aşağıkuzdere
• Gedelme
Between Aşağıkuzdere and Gedelme, there are some mountain gorges, as well as a Roman bridge over a creek to pass.
Mountain route
Çıralı-Beycik
• Chimaera (Yanartaş) — the "burning stones", natural bonfires on the side of the mountain caused by a natural gas seep
• Beycik
Beycik-Gedelme
Total distance: 29 km
• Yukarı Beycik
• Yayla Kuzdere
• Gedelme
Between Yukarı Beycik and Yayla Kuzdere, you'll pass just east of 2,300 mt-high summit of Mt Tahtalı, one of the mountains known as "Olympos" to ancients.
Gedelme-Göynük Yaylası
Total distance: 24 km
Göynük Yaylası-Hisarçandır
Total distance: 22 km
Sleep
There is a variety of lodging (mostly family-run guesthouses and some campgrounds) in some of the villages along the route, usually 10 km inbetween. However at some remoter sections, wild camping is your only option. Plan ahead to see whether you will be needing camping gear or not.
Stay safe
You'll be mostly fine and safe by following the marks and keeping on trail, but there are certain things that one should be wary of.
• Do not take shortcuts. Waymarks will lead you where you should be going. In fact, what may seem as a shortcut may take you to a very different direction than you should be heading.
• Scorpions thrive in this hot region and stony/rocky areas —especially under the rocks— are their habitats. So never remove a rock unless you absolutely have to. Keep zips of your backpack and tent always locked. Check and shake your shoes before wearing them. Snakes are less of a concern, however be wary of them near streams.
• By sweating, you don't only lose water, but you also lose sodium, which is just quite as serious as dehydration - and you will sweat a lot on Lycian Way. Pack along sports drinks (usually available in Turkish supermarkets) or fortified powdered drinks (generally not available in Turkey). Having a salty soup at the end of the day will also balance some of your sodium loss.
• If you pitch a tent at the feet of Mt. Babadağ (around Kozağaç and Kirme), be wary that a very strong wind comes suddenly almost out of nowhere at around midnight and keeps blowing until the early morning. Make sure all of your stuff is neatly placed away from the cliffs and the tent is wind-proof and secured to the ground. Also don't camp on the way of falling rocks near Kozağaç (the grey sands area).
Contact
While you may receive a weak signal in some parts of the trail, you'll be mostly out of GSM coverage while hiking in the remote parts.
Get out
If your legs are not sufficiently tired yet, why don't you give the Saint Paul Trail, which is another 500-so km waymarked trail lying between eastern suburbs of Antalya and Yalvaç up in the north that is even wilder and more remote, a try?
This is a usable itinerary. It explains how to get there and touches on all the major points along the way. An adventurous person could use this article, but please plunge forward and help it grow!
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
1136.0 - Directory of Education and Training Statistics, 2004
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 17/12/2004
Page tools: Print Page RSS Search this Product
Contents >> Non-ABS Collections >> Cross-Sectoral
Cross-Sectoral
This section contains the following subsection :
Longitudinal Suvey of Australian Youth
International Student Enrolments
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© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Image copyright: Copyright expired - public domain
This image is in the Public Domain
ID number
P02565.001
Photographer
Unknown
Object type
Black & white
Date made
c 1943
Physical description
Black & white
Collection
Photograph
Description
Studio portrait of 15576 Pilot Officer (PO) Francis Howard (Frank) Russell, 20 Squadron, RAAF. PO Russell who diappeared whilst on operations in the South West Pacific area on 21 May 1944. He was stationed in Cairns and a crew member of Catalina A24/73 aircraft piloted by 391 Wing Commander H. G. Havyatt, Commanding Officer, at the time of his disappearance. Other crew were: Flying Officer (FO) H. B. Gill, FO J. A. G. Maslin, Flight Lieutenant F. W. Jeffrey, PO R. C. Phinsup, Sergeant (Sgt) H. W. Hall, Flight Sergeant (Flt Sgt) L. Dellitt, Sgt K. H. J. Clarke and Sgt J. D. Cowley. The crew were on a sea mining mission in the Java Sea and on 20 May 1944 a signal was received that the aircraft had been badly holed in both tanks and an attempt was to be made to get to a prearranged escape point. Although searches were carried out there were no sightings of the crew or plane.
Permalink: http://www.awm.gov.au/collection/P02565.001
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Research article
Under-reporting of birth registrations in New South Wales, Australia
Fenglian Xu1*, Elizabeth A Sullivan1, Deborah A Black2, Lisa R Jackson Pulver3 and Richard C Madden2
Author affiliations
1 PRERU, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia
2 Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Sydney, Lidcombe, NSW, 1825, Australia
3 Muru Marri Indigenous Health Unit, School of Public Health & Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, 2052, Australia
For all author emails, please log on.
Citation and License
BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2012, 12:147 doi:10.1186/1471-2393-12-147
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2393/12/147
Received:18 May 2012
Accepted:5 December 2012
Published:12 December 2012
© 2012 Xu et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
To determine the rates of birth registration over a five-year period in New South Wales (NSW) and explore the factors associated with the rate of registration.
Methods
This is a cross-sectional study using linked population databases. The study population included all births of NSW residents in NSW between 2001 and 2005.
Results
Birth registration rates in NSW were 82.66% in the year of birth, 93.19% in the first year, 94.02% in the second, 94.56% in the third and 95.08% in the fourth year after birth. The non-registration of births was mainly associated with such factors as neonatal and postneonatal death (adjusted OR = 3.84, 95% CI: 3.23-4.57); being Indigenous (adjusted OR = 3.26, 95% CI: 3.10-3.43); maternal age <25 or >39 years (adjusted OR = 2.81, 95% CI: 2.72-2.90); low birthweight (<2,500 grams) (adjusted OR = 1.79, 95% CI: 1.69-1.90); living in remote areas (adjusted OR = 1.57, 95% CI: 1.52-1.63); being born after the first quarter of year (adjusted OR = 1.08-1.56, 95% CI between 1.03-1.12 and 1.49-1.64); mother having more pregnancies (adjusted OR = 1.85-7.29, 95% CI between1.78-1.93 and 6.87-7.73). Mothers who were born overseas were more likely to register their births than those born in Australia (adjusted OR = 0.72, 95% CI: 0.69-0.75). Multiple births were more likely to be registered than singleton births (adjusted OR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.76-0.92). About one-third of the non-registrations of births in NSW were explained by the risk factors. The reasons for the remaining non-registrations need to be investigated.
Conclusion
Of birth in NSW, 4.92% were not registered by the fourth year after birth.
Keywords:
Birth; Registration; Factor; Australia
Background
In Australia, information on births is published annually by two organisations: the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) National Perinatal Statistics Unit (NPSU) [1,2]. The ABS annually collates and publishes birth registration data that are collected by state and territory Registries of Births, Deaths and Marriages (RBDM). The NPSU compiles the National Perinatal Data Collection from Midwives Data Collections (MDC) in all jurisdictions. These data include all births of at least 20 weeks gestation or 400 grams birthweight [1]. Data are published annually in Australia’s mothers and babies[2].
The MDC consistently reports more live births than the RBDM by year of birth. In 2004, the MDC reported 255,286 live births which was 4.8% higher than the 243,680 live births in the birth registration report [2]. This pattern was evident in preceding years as well. This gap has been gradually increasing over time.
In New South Wales (NSW), the percentage difference between the MDC and RBDM was 2.4% in 2000, 3.9% in 2001, 4.3% in 2002, 5.5% in 2003 and 6.7% in 2004. There is also variation in the size of the gap among other states and territories in Australia. In 2004, the differences were 6.7% in NSW, 6.3% in Queensland, 4.8% in South Australia, 3.9% in Western Australia, 2.5% in Victoria, 0.9% in ACT, 0.8% in North Territory and 1.2% in Tasmania [2].
In order to determine the reasons for the discrepancies between the numbers of births collected by the NSW MDC and the NSW RBDM, birth registration rates were followed up for four years after birth using linked data. The birth registration rates and factors associated with the rates are described in this paper.
Method
The study population included all live births of NSW residents recorded in the NSW MDC between January 2001 and December 2005. The birth records of the residents of other states and territories were excluded from the analysis.
Data is recorded in the MDC by either the midwife or medical staff. It includes all births in NSW of at least 20 weeks gestation or more than 400 grams birthweight, and includes maternal demographic factors, obstetric information and pregnancy outcomes. The NSW RBDM is recorded by the parents of the child and the forms are lodged with the Registrar of Births, Deaths and Marriages. It covers all births registered in NSW and includes demographic factors and some pregnancy outcomes. Study data were obtained from the NSW MDC and linked with the NSW RBDM. The births in the MDC were followed up until registration by the RBDM. The babies born from 2001 to 2005 were followed up until 2005. The births in 2001 had the longest follow-up period of four years.
For babies born in NSW from 1 January 2001 to 31 December 2005, there were 434,513 birth records, including 46 duplicate records, in the MDC and 405,366 birth records including 623 duplicate records in the RBDM. If the duplicate records are excluded, there were 434,467 birth records in the MDC and 404,743 birth records in the RBDM. The analysis is based only on NSW residents. In the MDC, 4,614 records included 4,521 residents of other states and territories; 93 records that did not state place of residence were excluded from the analysis. In the RBDM, 4,963 records included 4,338 residents of other states and territories; 625 records that did not state place of residence were excluded from the analysis. The missing rate in value of living place in RBDM (0.15%) was significantly higher than MDC (0.02%) p < 0.01.
The study was approved by the NSW Population & Health Services Research Ethics Committee, the Human Research Ethics Committees of University of Sydney and University of New South Wales, and the Aboriginal Health and Medical Research Council. Identifying information such as name, address, date of birth and gender obtained from the MDC baby and RBDM birth datasets is included in the Master Linkage Key which is constructed by the Centre for Health Record Linkage (CHeReL).
CHeReL performed the data linkage using probabilistic record linkage methods and ChoiceMaker software (refer http://www.cherel.org.au webcite). At the completion of the process each record in the Master Linkage Key was assigned a record identification number and a Master Linkage Key person ID (Project Person Number (PPN)) to allow linked records for the same individual to be identified and extracted. Linkage quality was assessed with the use of a random sample of 1,000 PPNs in which the false positive rate of the linkage was 0.4% and false negative less than 0.1%.
Descriptive statistics and cross-tabulations were generated for registration rates and proportions. Logistic regression model (enter) was used to explore the factors associated with registration rates. The factors entered into the model included being Indigenous, maternal age, mother’s country of birth, remoteness of living area, birthweight, the quarter of the year in which the baby was born, parity, plurality and neonatal and postneonatal death. The odds ratios (ORs) for the explanatory variables are presented. Some babies had more than one record in the data collections. The duplicate records were identified and excluded before merging the databases.
Definitions
Maternal Indigenous status: women who have given birth who identify themselves to be of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin.
Live birth: the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of conception, irrespective of the duration of the pregnancy, which, after such separation, breathes or shows any other evidence of life, such as beating of the heart, pulsation of the umbilical cord, or definite movement of voluntary muscles, whether or not the umbilical cord has been cut or the placenta is attached. Each product of such births is considered to be live born (WHO definition) [3].
Neonatal death: death of a liveborn baby within 28 days of birth [4].
Postneonatal death: death of liveborn baby after 28 days and within one year of birth [2].
The risk group included births with one or more of the following conditions: gestational age <37 or >41 weeks, birth weight <2,500 grams, neonatal or postneonatal death, Indigenous ethnicity, maternal age <25 or >39 years and not living in major cities.
The non-risk group included all remaining births with gestational age 37–41 weeks or birth weight ≥2,500 grams or no neonatal or postneonatal death or baby’s mother being non-Indigenous or aged 25–39 years or lived in major cities.
Results
For NSW residents, there were 427,134 live born babies between 1 January 2001 and 31 December 2005. There were 61 records excluded from the analysis because they were incomplete. The results are based on the eligible 427,073 births.
The overall registration rate between 2001 and 2005 was 91.80% by the end of 2005. There were 35,017 babies (8.20%) who had not been registered by 31 December 2005. The registration rates are described in detail in Table 1.
Table 1. Under-reporting of birth registrations for live births in four years after birth, New South Wales, Australia, 2001–2005
The majority of births (82.66%) were registered in the same year of birth, and 93.19% of births were registered by the end of the first year after birth. Babies from the risk groups accounted for 46.54% (198,761) of all live births, but accounted for 63.09% (22,091) of the non-registered births.
The births in 2001 had the longest follow-up time. The cumulative birth registration rates of babies born in 2001 are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1. Cumulative birth registration rates (%) of births in 2001, New South Wales, Australia.
Figure 2. Non-registration rates (%) of births in 2001, New South Wales, Australia.
The registration rates in the non-risk group were higher than in the risk group. The differences in the 2001 births were 5.81% in the year of birth, 5.07% in the first, 4.79% in the second, 4.41% in the third and 4.06% in the fourth year after birth.
For the births in 2001, there were 4,674 births that were not registered. The non-registration rate in the risk group was 4.06% higher than in the non-risk group (7.66% − 3.60%). The difference was attributed to risk factors and accounted for 53.00% (1,636) of the non-registered births in the risk group. The risk factors can explain 35.00% (1,636) of non-registered births in 2001(1,636/4,674). The rest of the non-registrations (3,038), accounting for 65.00% of the non-registered births, cannot be explained by this data.
Table 2 shows the registration rates and crude OR of risk factors. Factors that were significantly associated with non-registration included: neonatal or postneonatal birth, being Indigenous, maternal age <25 or >39 years, gestational age <37 or >41 weeks, low birthweight, not born in the first quarter of year, mother had previous pregnancies, and living in remote areas. Mothers who were born overseas were more likely to register their births than those born in Australia. Plurality was not statistically associated with non-registration by the crude OR. The year of birth was included in the model as a controlled factor.
Table 2. Rates and crude odds ratio for factors associated with non-registration, New South Wales, Australia, 2001–2005 (n = 427,073)
Table 3 shows the adjusted odds ratio of factors associated with non-registration of births. In addition to the nine factors which are significantly associated with non-registration of births in Table 2, multiple births were more likely to be registered compared with singleton births after controlling the nine factors.
Table 3. Adjusted odds ratio for factors associated with non-registration, New South Wales, Australia, 2001–2005 (n = 398,730*)
Discussion
Birth data are an essential source of information for governments, researchers and the community. The accuracy and ascertainment of births and registration data are important for planning and research. Birth registration, a state administration’s official record of a baby’s birth, is also important for individuals who use a birth certificate to prove age, parentage and citizenship.
Registration rates differ by country and area. The Population and development review published by UNICEF in 1998 reported that the registration rates were 99.8% in Europe, 98.9% in the Americas, 98.8% in Central Asia, 98.1% in the Middle East and North Africa, 90.4% in Sub-Saharan Africa and 76.5% in East/South Asia and the Pacific [5,6]. Industrialised nations registered nearly all their children while developing countries had a lower birth registration rate [5,6]. A cohort study of 766 births between 1985 and 1987 in a rural area of Korea showed that the registration rate was 75.2% within six months and 77.5% within two years [7]. Disparities also exist within countries. In Pakistan, for example, 88% of children born in the Punjab province were registered, while in the North-West Frontier Province the rate was only 46% [5]. Turkey’s western region had a registration rate of 84%, compared to 56% in the east [5].
Few studies report Australian birth registration rates and very few countries have attempted to assess the coverage level of registration objectively and thoroughly [5]. Many countries only report estimates of birth registrations [5]. To date, we have found no literature that linked population data is used to report the registration rate. This study shows that the registration rate in five-years period in NSW was only 94.34% (for births in 2001), which is lower than in Europe, the Americas, Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, but higher than Sub-Saharan Africa, and East/South Asia and the Pacific [5]. The difference between the results in Australia’s mothers and babies 2005 and the current study may be attributed to reporting biases, delayed registration and different data collection methods.
The trend of registration rates in Australia’s mothers and babies over the years was similar to the current study, except that the registration rate in the year of birth was relatively higher than in the current study (87.3% versus 82.7%) [2]. Australia’s mothers and babies 2005 included summary data, and the registration rates were calculated by dividing the number of registrations in the RBDM by the number of MDC births in the same year. The births which occurred outside of Australia but were registered should but not be excluded from the summary data. The linked data of the current study show that 5,741 (1.3%) of NSW residents’ births registered between 2001 and 2005 could not be linked to the birth records in the MDC and were excluded from the analysis. Data linkage can overcome this shortcoming in the summary data by excluding the births registered, but cannot be linked to the midwife’s birth records and accurately distinguish between registered and non-registered records. Consequently, the results from the linked population data are more accurate. However, the unlinked 1.3% of births in RBDM could not fully explain the difference of 4.6% (87.3% − 82.7%). This study implies that the registration rates in NSW were lower than the national registration rate.
This study found that the non-registration rate in NSW was 5.53% and associated with neonatal or postneonatal death, being Indigenous, maternal age <25 or >39, gestational age <37 or >41 weeks, low birthweight (<2,500 grams) and not living in major cities. UNICEF’s report (1998) showed that ethnic minorities, babies born at home and mobile populations have lower rates of registration than the general population [5]. In developing countries, cities tend to have higher rates than rural areas because civil registries are centralised [5]. UNICEF also found that as many as 40 million babies in developing countries are unregistered every year. The main reason is that the systems for reporting births in developing countries are not fully developed [5].
The cohort study in Korea showed that the registration rate within the legal due date was lower in mothers under 20 years of age and above 35 years, and in mothers who had only primary education [7]. The study also showed that the registration rate decreased as the birth order increased, and was higher in births that occurred between October and March than births that occurred between April and September [7]. All of the births for seven neonatal deaths in the Korean study were not reported [7].
The ABS publication, Births, Australia, shows the percentage of birth years when births were registered [1]. Of the births registered in NSW in 2006, 88.6% were born in the year of birth, 10.1% were born in 2005, 0.7% in 2004, 0.3% in 2003 and 0.1% in 2002 and 2001 [1]. The results suggest that there was a delay in registration. However, the registration rates could not be calculated from the data because they did not include the births that were born in NSW but were non-registered.
Reasons suggested for the interval between the occurrence and the registration of a birth included delays by the parents in submitting a completed form to the registry or delays by the registry in processing the birth. Hospitals and birth clinics notify state registries of recent births on a regular basis. For those births known to a registry that have not been registered within a prescribed time period, a reminder letter is sent to the parents of the child as a follow-up. Under the Births, Deaths and Marriages Registration Act 1995 all births in NSW are to be registered within 60 days of a child’s birth [8-10]. The Registry processes the Birth Registration Statement within 14 days of receiving the application. The 74 days (60 days plus 14 days) account for 21% of a year. The registration rate in the year of occurrence of the birth should be 79% or more. This study showed that 83% of births were registered in the year of occurrence. This implies that most parents adhered to the time requirement for registration of births. On the other hand, those who did not register their babies within the time requirement were less likely to register in the following years.
The Baby Bonus is a non-income tested lump sum payment for each child born (including stillborn) or adopted by Australian families. Parents were not required to formally register the birth of their child as a condition of receiving the Baby Bonus for births prior to 1 July 2007 [11]. This might be a reason for birth non-registrations. Since 1 July 2007, the birth registration rate should have improved, not including the stillborn, adopted and those born outside of NSW, because this requirement does not apply to parents whose child is stillborn, adopted or born outside of NSW [11].
Indigenous births were less likely to be registered. The average interval between the occurrence and registration of the birth was longer in Indigenous births (6.4 months in 2006) than in the general population (2.2 months in 2005) [1,12]. The average interval between the occurrence and registration of Indigenous births varied across the states and territories. Western Australia and Queensland recorded the largest average intervals (10.4 and 9.7 months respectively) in 2006, and the Northern Territory and Tasmania recorded the lowest average intervals (1.4 and 2.5 months respectively) [1,12].
The fee charged for registration and birth certificates are economic barriers for birth registration and UNICEF recommends free birth registration and birth certificates [13]. In NSW, birth registration is free but a fee is charged for the birth certificate; this fee increases regularly. Between 1 December 2007 and 31 November 2008 a birth certificate cost AUD36.00 (about USD 37.66, EUR 29.03), and AUD42.00 (about USD 43.94, EUR 33.87) since 1 December 2008 [14]. According to UNICEF, a birth certificate only cost AUD29.00 (about USD 30.34, EUR 23.38) in NSW in 2002 [13]. The impact of the fee increase of a birth certificate on the registration rate in NSW needs to be investigated.
Approximately 3.60% of babies in the non-risk group were non-registered; this cannot be explained by delayed registration or the risk factors mentioned above. A further study, in which parents of non-registered babies are interviewed, is necessary to identify other barriers to registration.
The Midwives Data Collection (MDC) is a population-based surveillance system covering all births including live births and stillbirths in NSW public and private hospitals, as well as homebirths. In 1992, the MDC became a statutory data collection under the NSW Public Health Act 1991. It received notifications of all births which occurred in NSW [4]. The attending midwife or doctor completes a notification form (or its electronic equivalent) when a birth occurs. The completed forms are sent to the NSW Department of Health where they are checked and compiled into the MDC database. The RBDM is a database of birth registrations. Under the Births, Deaths and Marriages Registration Act 1995, all babies in NSW must be registered within 60 days of birth. The hospitals in which the birth occurs, or the child and mother are taken to within 24 hours of the birth, supply a birth registration statement (BRS) to parents and a notification to the RBDM. If the birth occurs at home or in a location other than a hospital with a registered doctor or registered midwife in attendance, the registered doctor or midwife advises the RBDM of the birth and also provides the mother with a BRS. If the birth occurs in a location other than a hospital without a registered doctor or midwife in attendance, and the child is not taken to a hospital within 24 hours of the birth, the mother should call the RBDM and provide her name and home address, and names and addresses of two independent witnesses who saw the birth. Statutory declarations are then posted to the witnesses. Once they are signed and returned to the RBDM, a BRS is posted to mothers [8]. If 100% of births in NSW were registered, the number of births in the RBDM would be slightly higher than in the MDC because the RBDM includes births notified other than by medical staff. However, the RBDM reports fewer births than the MDC [2]. For the current study, the births records in MDC were more complete and used as a ‘gold standard’.
There were several limitations in this study which may have impacted its results. The analysis of factors was limited to the variables available in the linked data. Birth place, marital status and socio-economic level should be included in future studies. On the other hand, the interval from birth to registration cannot be calculated because the month of registration is not available in this study. However, the birth registration rates in this study imply that the median was less than one year. In some underdeveloped areas or countries, many children are registered later in life, for example when they enrol in school [5]. If the follow-up period in this study was extended to 10 years after birth, this factor could be assessed. A survey of the non-registered group is necessary to identify more reasons.
Conclusion
The majority of births (82.66%) were registered in the same year of birth and 93.19% of births were registered in the first year after birth. There were 4.92% of NSW births that were not registered by the fourth year. Around one-third of birth non-registrations in NSW could be explained by the following factors: neonatal or postneonatal death, Indigenous status, maternal age <25 or >39, gestational age <37 or >41 weeks, low birthweight (<2500 grams) and not living in major cities. Meanwhile, the remainder (65%) of non-registrations could not be explained.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
FX participated in the study design, data analysis and paper writing. LH participated in the study design. MPA participated in diagnoses grouping. EAS participated in the study design and coordinated and supervised the study. All authors read, revised and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Lee Taylor and Kim Lim of the NSW Department of Health Centre for Epidemiology and Glenda Lawrence of the Centre for Health Record Linkage, for undertaking the linkage and providing expert technical advice. We acknowledge the families who have contributed their data to this study, and recognise the elders of land on which we work – past, present and future.
References
1. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Births. Volume 3301.0. ABS, Australia Canberra; 2006.
2. Laws P, Abeywardana S, Walker J, Sullivan E: Australia’s Mothers and babies 2005. Volume perinatal statistics series No. 20 Cat. No. PER 40. AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit, Sydney; 2007. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
3. Under-five mortality rate (probability of dying by age 5 per 1000 live births), infant mortality rate per 1000 live births.
http://www.who.int/whosis/indicators/compendium/2008/3mr5/en/index.html webcite
4. Centre for Epidemiology and Research: New South Wales mothers and babies.
NSW Public Health Bull 200, 18(s-1):1-135.
5. UNICEF: UNICEF on deficient birth registration in developing countries.
Popul Dev Rev 1998, 24(3):659-664. Publisher Full Text
6. Dow U:
Birth registration: the ‘first’ right.
http://www.unicef.org/pon98/civil1.htm webcite
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
7. Park JHLC, Kim JR, Song JH, Yeh MH, Cho SE: Birth registration rate and accuracy of reported birth date in rural area.
Korean J Prev Med 1988, 21(1):70-81.
8. Register a birth.
http://www.bdm.nsw.gov.au/births/registerABirth.htm webcite
9. New South Wales Government: Births, deaths and marriages registration act 1995 regulation. Volume No 156. Gazette, NSW; 1995.
10. New South Wales Government: Births, deaths and marriages registration regulation. Volume No 103. Gazette, NSW; 2006.
11. Baby bonus - eligibility and guidelines.
http:/ / www.familyassist.gov.au/ internet/ fao/ fao1.nsf/ content/ publications-factsheets-maternity_p ayment_eligibility.htm webcite
12. Australian Bureau of Statistics: Births. Volume 3301.0. ABS, Australia Canberra; 2005.
13. UNICEF: Birth registration:right from the start. United Nations Children’s Fund Innocenti Research Centre, Florence; 2002.
14. Fees for products and services.
http://www.bdm.nsw.gov.au webcite
Pre-publication history
The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2393/12/147/prepub
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Ramsaas voted on the following stories on BizSugar
Did you know that the popular social networking channel Facebook is introducing new Facebook pages? If you have not logged on to your business’ Facebook page in a while, then it is time you do so. Whether you are ready to make the changes or not, your page will undergo a major change come March 30. Read More
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You are here: Home / Data and maps / Maps and graphs / Trend in annual temperature across Europe
Trend in annual temperature across Europe
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Grid boxes outlined in solid black contain at least three stations and so are likely to be more representative of the grid box. High confidence in the long-term trend is shown by a black dot. (In the map above, this is the case for all grid boxes.) Area averaged annual time series of percentage changes and trend lines are shown below each map for one area in northern Europe (green line, 5.6 ° to 16.9 °E and 56.2 ° to 66.2 °N) and one in south-western Europe (purple line, 350.6 ° to 1.9 °E and 36.2 ° to 43.7 °N).
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The Future of Human Nature: A Symposium on the Promises and Challenges of the Revolutions in Genomics and Computer Science (Conference): Session Five
The Future of Human Nature: A Symposium on the Promises and Challenges of the Revolutions in Genomics and Computer Science (Conference): Session Five
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Adil Najam
Series: Pardee Center Conference Series
Dates: April 10, 11, and 12, 2003
Location: Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future, Boston University, Boston, MA
Session Five
George Church
Ecology, Economics, and Exponentials: Modeling Technological Goals and Human Nature
[Editor’s Note: George Church’s presentation made extensive use of charts and other visual representations. A verbal summary is not able to convey his general ideas or his specific points adequately. The following summary, therefore, will necessarily appear disjointed and even incoherent in places.]
My talk will involve the convergence of genomics and computer science, with an emphasis on what sorts of timelines are plausible. I will also discuss the economic consequences, not only in terms of dollars, but also environments, ecologies, and so forth. I would like to give you a feeling for the kinds of things we do in systems biology, and then go on to discuss speculatively some implications it has for human nature. My background is in modeling, not only of the evolution of biopolymers such as proteins and DNA, but also structures that constitute molecular machines, and eventually whole ecosystems.
I have lived through two small revolutions, not as momentous as the Galilean and Darwinian, but quite important nonetheless: recombinant DNA and genomics. Both are reductionistic, and both rejuvenated systems biology, an old discipline. We now think of molecular processes as machines, but we can integrate them into metazoans like ourselves, cancerous stem cells, and ecosystems.
One way of modeling is to plot some calculated property on one axis and another observed property on another. Then we look for outliers, which are not to be swept away. They are not indicators that our model has failed. They are our friends and are potential discoveries about how our methods are not working. Some of these correlations have very interesting deviations from optimality. We are interested in how to take this ten-thousand-year history of genetically manipulating single molecules and, when we have a satisfactory level of precision, get to diversity. Despite doubts about what is acceptable in human breeding terms, it is quite possible that there is a great tolerance for diversity.
We think about diversity especially when we consider the limits to what we are able to do, and then try to extend them. Running speed, depths to which people can dive, breadth of the visible wavelength, temperature people can endure, the length of memory are all examples of limits that interest us. Once we exceed these limits, are we still within the range of human nature as we know it? We should remember that the Darwinian breakthrough, or clusters of Darwinian breakthroughs, allowed us to become hyper-adaptable and no longer dependent on DNA for inheritance and evolution. We are no longer limited by our germ-line. For some people laptops are as much a part of their being as their DNA. Maybe we should not change their germ-line but their laptops.
Does germ-line engineering hold the fastest promise for change? I would argue that somatic engineering is much closer at hand. Change through germ-line engineering takes about twenty years to manifest the result. On the other hand, somatic engineering—putting inorganic prosthesis or organic chemicals or somatic cell genetics into or outside our bodies—can take mere days. The other problem with germ-line engineering is the ethics of allowing adults to choose for their children or for other adults. Using the phenotype is more predictable. You can choose among a series of fertilized eggs, but that’s not very predictable. By the time to get to adulthood, on the other hand, it’s very clear what prostheses and drugs will and will not work. Similarly, if we want to work on our cells, histo-compatible adult stem cells may be more accessible and more appropriate, as will interfaces with organic engineering, nanotechnology, and more ordinary inorganic engineering.
When we plot growth in order to predict timelines, we see that the number of CPUs or CPU power will certainly overtake that of the population. CPU growth is definitely steeper than exponential growth and closer to a parabolic fit. When we compare the processing power of computers and the human brain, using Moore’s Law, we see a cross-over point at about ten to the fourteenth instructions per second. This does not address when or whether the entire internet will be equivalent to human intelligence. In addition to physical limits, we also need to think about cost limits and to compare them with other programs and their benefits, like launching satellites, or eradicating disease or sequencing the human genome. While undertaking any project always costs something, we should also remember than not undertaking them also entails a cost, which can often be considerable. Five percent of the global gross domestic product is dedicated to hackers and e-viruses.
The cost of progress, however, is not measured only in dollars. There is also the question of its effects on the environment. Since humans are hyper-adaptable, the amount of computing that we and our machines will be able to do is going to be limited primarily by the amount of energy at our disposal. There is, of course, sunlight and other sources of energy, like nuclear power. But we still have the problem of getting the heat off the earth. Right now we are consuming within three or four logs of the maximum. But not all energy is used for computation, and the efficiency of computation can change. In addition, there are alternative natural mechanisms that are doing similar jobs that are just now being discovered.
What will happen to diversity? There is the problem that a replicating system will turn the entire surface of the earth into itself. But there are other, more insidious ways of losing diversity. We may have to start thinking seriously about using geographical isolation to achieve this goal. It has played one of the major roles in evolution. We need to know not only common mutations, but every mutation that occurs, not just in our germ-line, but in our somatic cells as well. One problem here is devising the instrumentation that can monitor these changes and making it inexpensive enough to use.
We have seen maybe four logs of improvement in efficiency over the course of the genome project, but we’re still ten logs away from the efficiency of some very commonly used equipment, like video recording. We would like to be able to get DNA analysis and nucleic acid analysis down to the level of video recording costs. We have discovered that existing organisms can do inorganic and organic nanofabrication beautifully. We need to harvest the biosphere for these remarkable molecular machines. In a certain sense, therefore, we already have achieved atomic precision.
I’ve been talking about systems biology because it is so embracing and more holistic than our usual speculations. The timelines I’ve been discussing are often higher than exponential. They may not continue at these rates, but their limits are determined by mass and cost. We should start thinking about our inheritance in larger terms than DNA. Germ-line changes are the least of our worries.
Lynn Margulis
Biosphere Technologies and the Myth of Individuality
The “Gaia Hypothesis” explains the tendency of the Earth’s surface to maintain its temperature, reactive gas concentration, and alkalinity within astronomically narrow limits for millions of years. The self-maintaining properties of cells, organisms, communities, and ecosystems can be extrapolated to the atmosphere and surface sediments of planet Earth. Not only are we people (Homo sapiens mammals), one of the more than 10 million existing species components of the Gaian regulatory system but so are our machines. I argue that although not by themselves alive, like viruses and beehives, machines are capable of growth, reproduction, mutation, and therefore evolution. Machines change through time. Even though they are not self-sustaining and they have no metabolism, machines do evolve.
No single species is privileged. Many populations of organisms, like us, disrupt their own habitats by outgrowing their own ecological support systems. The Gaian Earth-regulating system which responds to perturbation by changes in metabolism, differential survival, growth, and species origin and extinctions maintains dynamic stability of the planet’s surface. The fossil record informs us that, for members of any given species, habitat loss is followed by population decline and, eventually, by extinction.
Technohumans grow now as “mammalian weeds.” Non-human ecosystems are converted to the agro-urban-technological, primarily by water and solar-radiation rerouting, soil depletion, and fossil-fuel combustion. The extremely successful recent human reproductive strategies alter or even extinguish lacustrine, riparian, dunal, marine coastal, forest, grassland, chaparral, and other non-human, primarily terrestrial, ecosystems. The agro-urban network overgrowth adds cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, polymeric plastics, metal oxides, aldehydes, aromatics, and hundreds of other compounds and sedimentary particles even to ocean water. The accelerated patterns of surface transformation to the agro-urban network coupled with Homo sapiens-induced species extinction are reminiscent of a phenomenon at a smaller size-scale: malignant melanoma and other solid tumor metastasis. Although ecological alteration of the Gaian body politic is about 105 times larger than melanoma or other cancers, the two phenomena share at least these characteristics: uncontrolled growth stimulated by the prototactic imperative to reproduce, and metabolic dependency on surrounding supportive communities by rerouting of energy, fluids, and organic compounds to the sites of most rapid proliferation. Lack of neural or other centralized control unleashes destructive, compulsive, proliferative behavior in cells, tissues, organisms, populations, communities, and beyond. Although we perceive ourselves, usually as individuals, scientific analyses shows each of us to be at least 10 percent dry weight “foreign” (i.e., bacterial). By means of a video (I hope) we will see how we, like all “individual animals” are complex composites, integrated communities that require chemical, microbiological, and ecological studies to be properly understood.
[Editor’s Note: A large part of Professor Margulis’s presentation consisted of slides and a long film of various microorganisms. Some of her commentary which is comprehensible only in conjunction with its illustrations has therefore regrettably been omitted.]
I feel so humble in the face of the past that I cannot talk about the future. The past, the evolutionary past, is so complex that thinking about the future in technological terms just boggles my mind. Emily Dickinson wrote:
A little Madness in the Spring
Is wholesome even for the King,
But God be with the Clown—
Who ponders this tremendous scene—
This whole Experiment of Green—
As if it were his own!
That’s how I feel about this meeting. It’s clowning to think that we can predict in detail the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere or the germ-line.
I want to impress you with the fact that technology belongs to the biosphere—what traditionally is called the noosphere. I want to show you some technologies that are extremely ancient. There is, for example, architectural habitat alteration that controls light, temperature, chemical composition, and water better than this room does. The one thing that distinguishes our species from the rest of nature is speech and symbolism. We can talk, and therefore we can lie. Deceit is all over biology.
When we look at these ancient natural technologies and then think about what I call the myth of individuality, we begin to appreciate the extent to which organisms are composite. We are also going to see how the World Wide Web, a communication among what looks like individual organisms, has been on the earth for maybe 35 hundred million years. It’s not silicon technology, but it is true technology. The idea that humans can synthetically adopt and incorporate photosynthesis into themselves is a real possibility and already exists in nature. Some predatory animals have developed associations with very efficient photo-synthesizers.
Examples of biospheric technology are the large termite mounds in Africa. Temperature there is regulated to within half a degree centigrade, humidity is maintained at 95 percent in extremely dry surroundings, and there is as much of the termite mound below ground as there is above it. Air flows through it, and there are divisions maintained into morgues, school rooms, and hatcheries. The termites derive their source of carbon and energy from the fungi they have learned to grow as crops. There can be as many as 30 million termites in these mounds, along with all sorts of associated animals that live with them.
We share 99.9 percent of our DNA with chimps. From a biological point of view, we are just another chimp. If we want to think about technological potentials for ourselves, we might take a look at how problems have already been solved in nature. Here is a stromatolite from the sea floor. It is the product of bacteria and has lasted hundreds of thousands if not hundreds of millions of years. It is a very complex community of microorganisms that are constantly maintaining and stabilizing sediment and recycling carbon and phosphorus in ways we have not even begun to approach. There are also examples of web organisms that communicate with each other, and photo-synthesizers that produce carbon and energy for the rest of the community and recycle the sulphur. These are stable, worldwide communities. We don’t know how they’re communicating, but they are communicating well enough for the same composition to be fundamentally the same worldwide.
As for the subject of individuality, here are mollusks that live entirely by photosynthesizing, having incorporated photosynthesis into their own bodies. Some animals incorporate the photosynthetic chloroplasts of algae. Others actually focus light on the photosynthetic entities that support it. These mechanisms suggest more feasible technologies than changing the germ-line of people.
[Professor Margulis showed a video and commented on it.]
Any organism has a multiple genomic background. The theory of the origin of species does not really lie in mutation. Mutations just modify. If you want to change organisms in serious ways, you can think about acquiring and integrating genomes that have already been optimized by natural selection. I want Emily Dickinson to have the last word:
But nature is a stranger yet;
The ones that cite her most
Have never passed her haunted house,
Nor simplified her ghost.
To pity those that know her not
Is helped by the regret
That those who know her, know her less
The nearer her they get.
This is a chapter from The Future of Human Nature: A Symposium on the Promises and Challenges of the Revolutions in Genomics and Computer Science (Conference).
Previous: Session Four | Table of Contents | Next: Session Six
Citation
Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range (Lead Author);Adil Najam (Topic Editor) "The Future of Human Nature: A Symposium on the Promises and Challenges of the Revolutions in Genomics and Computer Science (Conference): Session Five". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth April 3, 2008; Last revised Date April 3, 2008; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/The_Future_of_Human_Nature:_A_Symposium_on_the_Promises_and_Challenges_of_the_Revolutions_in_Genomics_and_Computer_Science_(Conference):_Session_Five>
The Author
The mission of the Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Study of the Longer-Range Future is to serve as a forum for representatives and experts from a broad range of disciplines to take an informed, rigorous, and thoughtful look at the multiple forces that will shape our global community in the next 35 to 200 years, and determine what specific impact they may have on our lives. The overarching mission of the Center is to serve as a leading academic nucleus for the study of the future and to prod ... (Full Bio)
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Magnitude 3 earthquake wakes Tasmanian residents
14 September 2006
A magnitude 3 earthquake occurred 10km south of Deloraine in northern Tasmania at 12:40am this morning, waking locals from their sleep.
"While people would have felt this minor Earth movement up to 20km away from the epicentre, earthquakes of this magnitude are unlikely to cause structural damage", said Duty Seismologist Dr Mark Leonard.
Geoscience Australia has received reports from members of the public, who heard a "bang" at the time of the quake.
"Tasmania experiences earthquakes of this magnitude every few years. The largest earthquake in Tasmania in the last 20 years was a magnitude 4.3 event that occurred near Lake Sorell in 2002."
Topic contact: media@ga.gov.au Last updated: May 31, 2012
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About this Journal Submit a Manuscript Table of Contents
ISRN Surgery
Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 132089, 15 pages
doi:10.5402/2012/132089
Review Article
Biliary Atresia: 50 Years after the First Kasai
Division of Pediatric Surgery, Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
Received 23 September 2012; Accepted 30 October 2012
Academic Editors: D. W. Blackhurst, J. C. Cendan, D. Laub, and D. E. Ziogas
Copyright © 2012 Barbara E. Wildhaber. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Biliary atresia is a rare neonatal disease of unknown etiology, where obstruction of the biliary tree causes severe cholestasis, leading to biliary cirrhosis and death in the first years of life, if the condition is left untreated. Biliary atresia is the most frequent surgical cause of cholestatic jaundice in neonates and should be evoked whenever this clinical sign is associated with pale stools and hepatomegaly. The treatment of biliary atresia is surgical and currently recommended as a sequence of, eventually, two interventions. During the first months of life a hepatoportoenterostomy (a “Kasai,” modifications of which are discussed in this paper) should be performed, in order to restore the biliary flow to the intestine and lessen further damage to the liver. If this fails and/or the disease progresses towards biliary cirrhosis and life-threatening complications, then liver transplantation is indicated, for which biliary atresia represents the most frequent pediatric indication. Of importance, the earlier the Kasai is performed, the later a liver transplantation is usually needed. This warrants a great degree of awareness of biliary atresia, and the implementation of systematic screening for this life-threatening pathology.
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Bibliography: The Karma Corps
You are not logged in. If you create a free account and sign in, you will be able to customize what is displayed.
Title: The Karma Corps
Author: Neal Barrett, Jr.
Year: 1984
Type: NOVEL
Language: English
ISFDB Record Number: 4520
User Rating: This title has fewer than 5 votes. VOTE
Current Tags: todo (1) Add Tags
Publications:
Copyright (c) 1995-2011 Al von Ruff.
ISFDB Engine - Version 4.00 (04/24/06)
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31 Bible Verses about Music Choices
Philippians 4:8 ESV / 16 helpful votes
Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is commendable, if there is any excellence, if there is anything worthy of praise, think about these things.
Ephesians 5:19 ESV / 14 helpful votes
Addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody to the Lord with your heart,
Colossians 3:16 ESV / 11 helpful votes
Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all wisdom, singing psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, with thankfulness in your hearts to God.
Romans 12:2 ESV / 9 helpful votes
Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind, that by testing you may discern what is the will of God, what is good and acceptable and perfect.
Psalm 150:4 ESV / 6 helpful votes
Praise him with tambourine and dance; praise him with strings and pipe!
Psalm 150:1-6 ESV / 5 helpful votes
Praise the Lord! Praise God in his sanctuary; praise him in his mighty heavens! Praise him for his mighty deeds; praise him according to his excellent greatness! Praise him with trumpet sound; praise him with lute and harp! Praise him with tambourine and dance; praise him with strings and pipe! Praise him with sounding cymbals; praise him with loud clashing cymbals! ...
James 4:17 ESV / 4 helpful votes
So whoever knows the right thing to do and fails to do it, for him it is sin.
James 1:22 ESV / 4 helpful votes
But be doers of the word, and not hearers only, deceiving yourselves.
1 Thessalonians 5:22 ESV / 4 helpful votes
Abstain from every form of evil.
1 Corinthians 8:1-13 ESV / 4 helpful votes
Now concerning food offered to idols: we know that “all of us possess knowledge.” This “knowledge” puffs up, but love builds up. If anyone imagines that he knows something, he does not yet know as he ought to know. But if anyone loves God, he is known by God. Therefore, as to the eating of food offered to idols, we know that “an idol has no real existence,” and that “there is no God but one.” For although there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth—as indeed there are many “gods” and many “lords”— ...
Romans 14:3 ESV / 4 helpful votes
Let not the one who eats despise the one who abstains, and let not the one who abstains pass judgment on the one who eats, for God has welcomed him.
Hebrews 5:1-14 ESV / 3 helpful votes
For every high priest chosen from among men is appointed to act on behalf of men in relation to God, to offer gifts and sacrifices for sins. He can deal gently with the ignorant and wayward, since he himself is beset with weakness. Because of this he is obligated to offer sacrifice for his own sins just as he does for those of the people. And no one takes this honor for himself, but only when called by God, just as Aaron was. So also Christ did not exalt himself to be made a high priest, but was appointed by him who said to him, “You are my Son, today I have begotten you”; ...
1 Timothy 6:3-5 ESV / 3 helpful votes
If anyone teaches a different doctrine and does not agree with the sound words of our Lord Jesus Christ and the teaching that accords with godliness, he is puffed up with conceit and understands nothing. He has an unhealthy craving for controversy and for quarrels about words, which produce envy, dissension, slander, evil suspicions, and constant friction among people who are depraved in mind and deprived of the truth, imagining that godliness is a means of gain.
1 Thessalonians 5:21 ESV / 3 helpful votes
But test everything; hold fast what is good.
Colossians 3:17 ESV / 3 helpful votes
And whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.
Ephesians 5:18 ESV / 3 helpful votes
And do not get drunk with wine, for that is debauchery, but be filled with the Spirit,
1 Corinthians 14:26 ESV / 3 helpful votes
What then, brothers? When you come together, each one has a hymn, a lesson, a revelation, a tongue, or an interpretation. Let all things be done for building up.
1 Corinthians 12:1-31 ESV / 2 helpful votes
Now concerning spiritual gifts, brothers, I do not want you to be uninformed. You know that when you were pagans you were led astray to mute idols, however you were led. Therefore I want you to understand that no one speaking in the Spirit of God ever says “Jesus is accursed!” and no one can say “Jesus is Lord” except in the Holy Spirit. Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of service, but the same Lord; ...
1 Corinthians 10:31 ESV / 2 helpful votes
So, whether you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God.
Romans 14:21 ESV / 2 helpful votes
It is good not to eat meat or drink wine or do anything that causes your brother to stumble.
Romans 14:1-23 ESV / 2 helpful votes
As for the one who is weak in faith, welcome him, but not to quarrel over opinions. One person believes he may eat anything, while the weak person eats only vegetables. Let not the one who eats despise the one who abstains, and let not the one who abstains pass judgment on the one who eats, for God has welcomed him. Who are you to pass judgment on the servant of another? It is before his own master that he stands or falls. And he will be upheld, for the Lord is able to make him stand. One person esteems one day as better than another, while another esteems all days alike. Each one should be fully convinced in his own mind. ...
John 5:39 ESV / 2 helpful votes
You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me,
John 1:1 ESV / 2 helpful votes
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.
Luke 24:27 ESV / 2 helpful votes
And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself.
Luke 6:46 ESV / 2 helpful votes
“Why do you call me ‘Lord, Lord,’ and not do what I tell you?
Matthew 28:19-20 ESV / 2 helpful votes
Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you. And behold, I am with you always, to the end of the age.”
Jeremiah 31:33 ESV / 2 helpful votes
But this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, declares the Lord: I will put my law within them, and I will write it on their hearts. And I will be their God, and they shall be my people.
Psalm 69:30 ESV / 2 helpful votes
I will praise the name of God with a song; I will magnify him with thanksgiving.
Psalm 30:4 ESV / 2 helpful votes
Sing praises to the Lord, O you his saints, and give thanks to his holy name.
Psalm 21:13 ESV / 2 helpful votes
Be exalted, O Lord, in your strength! We will sing and praise your power.
Numbers 3:1-51 ESV / 2 helpful votes
These are the generations of Aaron and Moses at the time when the Lord spoke with Moses on Mount Sinai. These are the names of the sons of Aaron: Nadab the firstborn, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. These are the names of the sons of Aaron, the anointed priests, whom he ordained to serve as priests. But Nadab and Abihu died before the Lord when they offered unauthorized fire before the Lord in the wilderness of Sinai, and they had no children. So Eleazar and Ithamar served as priests in the lifetime of Aaron their father. And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, ...
Suggest a Verse
Enter a Verse Reference (e.g., John 3:16-17)
Visit the Bible online to search for words if you don’t know the specific passage your’re looking for.
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OpenWetWare talk:Steering committee members
From OpenWetWare
Revision as of 12:24, 16 November 2006 by Austin J. Che (Talk | contribs)
(diff) ←Older revision | Current revision (diff) | Newer revision→ (diff)
Jump to: navigation, search
I think wikilist now works well enough that we can use it for the sc list. This would allow anyone to sign up on the wiki themselves. We just need to convert all the names on this page to usernames. --Austin Che 11:24, 16 November 2006 (EST)
Personal tools
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Daily Search Forum Recap: May 22, 2009
May 22, 2009 • 4:00 pm | (0) by | Filed Under Search Forum Recap
Here is a recap of what happened in the search forums today, through the eyes of the Search Engine Roundtable and other search forums on the web.
Search Engine Roundtable Stories:
• Color Red in the Google Toolbar PageRank Indicator
A Google Webmasters Help thread asks, what does it mean when the Google Toolbar PageRank indicator is a red color, as opposed to green? Here is a screen capture: So what does that mean? (1) Maybe this image was photoshoped (2) Or maybe there is a plugin that makes the color red, instead of green This is a joke, but it caught my attention and I thought it would be nice to lighten things up
• SEOs & Digg Like Oil & Water?
A Sphinn thread has discussion around the topic of how much Digg might not like SEO sites or blogs. Back when Digg was first getting started, SEOs flocked to it, as a way of driving traffic and ultimately links, to help promote the site in the search engines. In fact, this site was often features on Digg's home page, not because I gamed it or wanted the links, in fact, it often put stress on
• Mobile YouTube Experts: Share Your Skills With Others on Google
If you are a maven at YouTube and videos in the mobile space, you might be interested in a new Google Mobile Help thread. Googler, Robin, said he and Google is looking for mobile YouTube experts to make help videos to be syndicated on the YouTube Help Channel for others to learn from. Robin said: Help others out by making fun, creative, and informative videos that we can add to the YouTube mobile help center
• Yahoo Search Japan Update: US Update Soon?
The Yahoo Search Japan blog announced they are updating their index now. Perhaps this is a sign that Yahoo in the US will update soon as well. I am pretty sure that both indexes are mostly separate for the most part, I am not sure if it works the same way at Google, but I think it does at Yahoo. A WebmasterWorld thread has a single post about the update. One person who tracks Yahoo
Other Great Search Forum Threads:
Previous story: Color Red in the Google Toolbar PageRank Indicator
blog comments powered by Disqus
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Person:Mary Jackson (197)
Mary Jackson
d.
m. 7 May 1724
1. Elizabeth Jackson1724 -
2. Mary Jackson1727 -
3. Joseph Jackson1731 -
4. John Jackson, Jr.1733 - 1771
5. Sarah Jackson1735 -
6. Phebe Jackson1737 - 1816
7. Jemima Jackson1739 -
8. Rebecca Jackson1742 - 1762
9. Hannah Jackson1743 -
10. James Jackson1746 - 1826
m. 28 12m 1750/1751
1. James ShotwellABT 1752 -
Facts and Events
Name Mary Jackson
Gender Female
Birth? 22 1m (Mar) 1727/1728 Essex (Union since 1857) Co., New Jersey
Alt Marriage 28 Dec 1741 Woodbridge, Middlesex, New Jerseyto Abraham Shotwell
Marriage 28 12m 1750/1751 Woodbridge, Middlesex, New Jerseyto Abraham Shotwell
Alt Death? AFT 7 Aug 1775 Woodbridge, Middlesex Co., New Jersey
Death? Y
William Henry Roll has that Abraham Shotwell married Mary Jackson who was born 22 Jan 1727/1728 in Union, NJ. His source is: Title: Essex County, New Jersey Quaker RecordsQuaker Records: Rahway & Plainfield Monthly Meetings Essex County, New JerseyAuthor: Cox, John, Jr.Publication: Ancestry.com Essex County, New Jersey Quaker Records. [database online] Provo, UT: Ancestry.com, 2001. Electronic reproduction of Cox, John, Jr., comp.Quaker Records: Rahway & Plainfield Monthly Meetings Essex County, New Jersey.<http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/inddbs/4575.htm>
Martie Carreon, Shotwell descendant, has that Mary was b 22 Mar 1728 in Woodbridge, NJ and gives her death date as 'after 7 Aug 1775 when she is mentioned in her husband's will (East Jersey Wills L:300-" Her source is "Mayflower Families through 5 Generations, Desc of the Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth, Mass. Dec. 1620, Vol II, Part III, Edward Doty; His desc through sons Isaac and Joseph and daughter Mary". Peter B. Hill, Compiler, Pub Gen Soc of Mayflower Desc 2000.
Mary's parents moved "to the wilderness of Morris County, New Jersey, May 31, 1722". And her father's forge was sold there at Sheriffs Sale in 1753. So it has been assumed by some that all of John Jackson and Sarah Doty's children were born in Morris County, NJ.
In 1739 Morris County was set off from Hunterdon County, and named after the new governor. Jackson's Forge, up to this time, had been in Hunterdon County.
References
1. (b)Walker-Danielson-Bateman-Rogers Genealogy (/b)http:/awtc.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi question op=GET&db=batemanp&id=I2774.
2. email from Martie Carreon <martie56@gmail.com>.
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Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I would like to register a .com domain but it appears it is already taken. However, there is no webpage at all. I get this: http://who.bluerazor.com/whois.aspx?domain=ryansoft.com&prog_id=bluerazor.
Can I somehow buy that domain? How can I get the name of the company who registered the domain? How much do you think he could ask me?
share|improve this question
6 Answers
up vote 5 down vote accepted
You can usually find the owner with a whois lookup -- go www.whois.net. You can buy the domain if the owner wants to sell it, and the owner can ask you whatever he wants -- there's no standard amount. But if he's not using it he makes no money from keeping it, so he has an incentive to sell.
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Even though the domain of your choice has been purchased by someone, and if parked you can find the person and start bidding. If he is interested with your offer he will sell you the domain. This process can be done at www.sedo.com.
To find who owns the domain you can use a whois lookup. As Christian said, domain parkers will buy a domain with smart keywords for $10, and they will sell it for huge amount which starts from minimum of $250 and may even exceed to any cost.
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You can't because they have registered it through a third party company (who is officially the owner).
You can try to contact RYANSOFT.COM@domainsbyproxy.com, but i guess you'll not get an answer.
I don't think this domain is worth much, but usually domain grabbers aks for something starting at 500$.
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• Can I somehow buy that domain? Probably, depends what is the domain. Some are cheap, some are expensive.
• How can I get the owner? Whois is you friend. If the contact information is missing in whois you can hope to contact via proxy email. If it is missing then probably the owner is not willing to sell.
• How much do you think he could ask me? - How much a is the price of a car? $100-$1000000
share|improve this answer
If you want to register a domain name that has already been registered you can back order it. There are many providers providing back order services. If you do back order it, it means the person failed to renew it.
Additionally, you can find the whois details by using one of the many free tools available. You just enter the domain name, and you can find all the details about the domain. Using these details you can contact the owner. Before asking him for a value, you can appraise the domain name by using many sites. By knowing the value of the domain you can bargain with the owner.
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I have done a whois lookup for RYANSOFT.COM in this site WhoisXY.com.Here the company information gets hided because the company registered their domain name under privacy registeration so you can't find the domain owner details.Privacy registration means hiding personal information in the whoissearch.
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Correction
Correction: Clinical response to discontinuation of anti-TNF therapy in patients with ankylosing spondylitis after 3 years of continuous treatment with infliximab
Xenofon Baraliakos1, Joachim Listing2, Jan Brandt1, Angela Zink2, Rieke Alten3, Gerd Burmester4, Erika Gromnica-Ihle5, Herbert Kellner6, Matthias Schneider7, Helmut Sörensen8, Hennig Zeidler9, Martin Rudwaleit10, Joachim Sieper10 and Juergen Braun1*
Author Affiliations
1 Rheumazentrum Ruhrgebiet, Herne, Ruhr University Bochum, Germany
2 German Rheumatism Research Center, Berlin, Germany
3 Schlosspark Clinic, Berlin, Germany
4 Charité, University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Germany
5 Berlin-Buch Hospital, Berlin, Germany
6 Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
7 Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
8 Private Praxis, Berlin, Germany
9 Medical University of Hannover, Hanover, Germany
10 Charité, Medical University of Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Department of Rheumatology, Germany
For all author emails, please log on.
Arthritis Research & Therapy 2005, 7:113 doi:10.1186/ar1750
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at:
Published:23 March 2005
© 2005 BioMed Central Ltd
Correction
After publication of this work [1], we noted that we inadvertently failed to include the complete list of all coauthors. The full list of authors has now been added and the Authors' contributions and Competing interests section modified accordingly.
Competing interests
Dr Braun and Dr Sieper have held consultancies and received research honoraria, speaker's honoraria and grants/research support from Centocor, Schering-Plough, Essex Pharma, Wyeth and Abbott. Dr Zeidler has received speaker's honoraria from Essex Pharma. Dr Burmester has held consultancies for Centocor, Essex Pharma, Wyeth and Abbott; has received honoraria from Centocor, Essex Pharma, Wyeth and Abbott; has been a member of a speaker's bureau for Centocor, Essex Pharma, Wyeth and Abbott; and has received grants/research support from Centocor, Essex Pharma and Abbott. The other authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Authors' contributions
XB: Preparation of data analysis, preparation of the manuscript and study coordination; JL, AZ: Data analysis and statistical evaluation; JB, MR: Monitoring and investigation of the patients and study coordination; RA, GB, EG-I, HK, MS, HS, HZ: clinical investigation; JS: Investigator, writing of the manuscript; JB: Idea, writing of the manuscript, prinicipal investigator and responsible for the study.
References
1. Baraliakos X, Listing J, Brandt J, Rudwaleit M, Sieper , Braun J: Clinical response to withdrawal of anti-TNF therapy in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS) after 3 years of continuous treatment with Infliximab.
Arthritis Res Ther 2005, 7:R439-R444. PubMed Abstract | BioMed Central Full Text
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Photocatalytic degradation of Vat Yellow 4 using UV/TiO2
S K Kavitha Singaravelan, Dr P N Palanisamy
Abstract
The photocatalytic degradation of an anthraquinone dye Vat Yellow 4 in aqueous solution with TiO2-P25 (Degussa) as photocatalyst in slurry form has been investigated under solar irradiation and UV irradiation. The study on the effect of various photocatalysts on the degradation reveals that TiO2 is the best catalyst in comparison to other commercial photocatalysts. The effect of operational parameters such as catalyst loading and initial dye concentration on the decolourisation and degradation under UV irradiation in TiO2 suspension has been investigated to find out the optimum conditions. The decolourisation and degradation kinetics was found to follow first-order kinetics. A study on the effect of electron acceptors on photo oxidation reveals that both decolourisation and degradation increase in the presence of the electron acceptors such as H2O2, (NH4)2S2O8 and KBrO3 up to an optimum dosage beyond which the enhancement effect is negligible. The effect of the presence of inorganic additives on the degradation was studied and it was found to decrease the degradation.
Key words: Photocatalytic degradation, UV, TiO2, Vat yellow 4.
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Modern Applied Science ISSN 1913-1844 (Print) ISSN 1913-1852 (Online)
Copyright © Canadian Center of Science and Education
To make sure that you can receive messages from us, please add the 'ccsenet.org' domain to your e-mail 'safe list'. If you do not receive e-mail in your 'inbox', check your 'bulk mail' or 'junk mail' folders.
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Error!
Success!
Nuget 1.5 released
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kicks
Nuget 1.5 released (Unpublished)
Nuget 1.5 released! Highlights include: Project Templates with Preinstalled NuGet Packages; Explicit Assembly References; Added ability to exclude files in the NuSpec; Removing packages using the dialog prompts to remove dependencies; Support for Proxies that require authentication; Support for Repositories that require authentication; Performance improvements to the NuGet.org repository; Solution dialog project filtering; Package Release Notes;
Kicked By:
Drop Kicked By:
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American Indian Laws and PoliciesEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
United States American Indian Research Laws and Policies
Contents
American Policies Towards Native Americans
The policies of European settlers who settled North America towards native Americans has changed significantly over time. Laws have been passed and policies established with the intent to aid the American Indians or to move them out of the way of the "progress" of the non-Indian population. Some of the laws have supposedly created rights for the American Indian population, either as a body or as individuals. Some of these laws specified the recording of information about individual members of tribes. Some required Indians to give up their association with their native groups before they were allowed certain rights and thus recorded in records outside the designation as American Indians.
Policy Periods
• 1st Contact to 1830 -- Intermingling or Conversion
• 1830-1850 -- Removal
• 1850-1887 -- Reservation
• 1887-1934 -- Allotment
• 1934-1970 -- Termination or Assimilation
• 1970-Present -- Self-Determination
Laws, Court Cases, and Historical Events
Some of the significant general laws passed by the federal government of the United States which have affected the records of the American Indians include the following. Of course, the treaties between the government and the individual tribes also had a great impact upon the relationships between the specific tribe and the government, and also influenced the records kept.
1787 - The Northwest Ordinance
This ordinance stated that Indians were to be treated with the "utmost good faith" and specified that "their lands and property shall never be taken away from them without their consent." As settlers pushed forward into occupied Indian territory, however, they received military protection. As governor of Indiana William Henry Harrison threatened, bribed and purposely intoxicated Indians. He was opposed by Tecumseh who began to organize an Indian Confederation. In 1811 and 1812 Harrison fought and defeated Tecumseh at the battle of Tippecanoe.
1819 - The purchase of Florida
For years Indians had fled south to Florida to escape American authorities. There the Spanish were powerless to control the Indians where a new tribe was formed called the Seminoles. The Seminoles, comprised of both native Americans and escaped slaves began to raid American settlements and then escape back into Spanish territory. In 1818 Andrew Jackson led a raid on Florida, captured two Spanish forts and crushed the Seminoles. Fearing the loss of their territory without compensation the Spanish sold Florida to the United States whereupon the Seminoles were swiftly moved to a reservation in central Florida.
1828 - Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia
In 1828 the Cherokee, a "civilized" tribe who had lived in peace working as farmers, building houses and roads found gold on their land. As a result white settlers moved in and the State of Georgia claimed jurisdiction over the Cherokee. The Cherokee sued claiming they were independent from Georgia. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee. The victory was short lived, however, as President Andrew Jackson in response to the Courts decision is reputed to have said, "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it." Instead the federal government removed the Indians to Oklahoma.
1830 - Indian Removal Act
The Indian Removal Act authorized the President to negotiate treaties to remove the remaining Eastern Indians to lands west of the Mississippi . Under Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, most of the tribes remaining east of the Mississippi were removed in a series of migrations, some voluntary and some forced. By the late 1840's almost all native Americans had been moved to lands west of the Mississippi. Census records prior to the removal of some tribes were made. Muster lists or removal rolls of those removed by the United States Army also were created for some of the removals.
1860 - 1890's - Plains Indians Wars
During this period Americans and plains Indians clashed as Americans attempted to force Indians onto reservations. The battles are highlighted by the Battle of Little Bighorn, where Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and his regiment of 250 where all killed by approximately 4500 Sioux and Cheyenne warriors and the battle at Wounded Knee where thousands of Cheyenne men, women and children were slaughtered by the American Calvary. Wounded Knee represented the end of any real armed resistance on the part of the Native American.
1884 - The Indian Census Act
An act passed by the United States Congress on July 4, 1884 (23 Stat. 980) required the superintendents or agents of the Office of Indian Affairs on each reservation to record information about individuals living on each reservation. The data on the rolls vary to some extent, but usually given are the English and/or Indian name of the person, roll number, age or date of birth, sex, and relationship to head of family. Beginning in 1930, the rolls also show the degree of Indian blood, marital status, ward status, place of residence, and sometimes other information. There is not a census for every reservation or group of Indians for every year. Only persons who maintained a formal affiliation with a tribe under federal supervision are listed on these census rolls. The resulting records cover 1885 to 1940.
1887 - The Dawes or General Allotment Act
The General Allotment Act, also known as the Dawes Act (24 Stat. 388-391), provided for the following:
1. Each Indian family head was to be allotted a 160 acre farm out of reservation lands.
2. Each new land owner who abandoned tribal practices and adopted the "habits of civilized life" would be granted American citizenship.
3. "Surplus" reservation lands would be made available to sell to white settlers.
The Dawes Act may have been well intentioned, but much of the lands assigned was poor and difficult to farm. As a reult, the "surplus" land provision caused the Indians to lose approximately 90 million out of 140 acres of reservation land.
This act was responsible for the creation of several types of records, however, including the allotment records, heirship files, the Register of Families, and other supporting documents, many of which are very valuable in the tracing of American Indian ancestry.
1924 - Indian Citizenship Act
The Indian Citizenship Act, also known as the Snyder Act, (43 Stat. 253) granted American citizenship to all Indians born in the United States. About 2/3 of the Indian population had already acquired citizenship through other means, but this granted that status to the rest.
1934 - Wheeler-Howard or Indian Reorganization Act
The Indian Reorganization Act provided for the following:
1. Ended land allotments and returned unsold lands to the Indians.
2. Authorized tribes to form corporations and launch businesses.
3. Provided for elected tribal councils with significant powers. This represented a reversal from previous policy and the restoration of tribal power.
1946 - Indian Claims Commission Act
This act provided a means for Indian Tribes to file claims against the federal government. The intent was to allow a five-year window of time for this type of claim. At the conclusion of that time, the tribes would give up their right to bring up that grievance again.
Such claims might have included for alleged wrongs suffered between the time of the Revolution and 1946. In most cases, individual tribal members receiving any of the awarded judgments would have been required to prove their relationship to a member of the tribe alive at the time of the event which was the cause of the claim.
The Commission was adjourned in 1978 by Public Law 94-465, which terminated the Commission and transferred its pending docket of 170 cases to the United States Court of Claims on September 30, 1978. By the time of the Commission's final report, it had awarded $818,172,606.64 in judgments and had completed 546 dockets.
1953 - Termination Policy, formalized by House Concurrent Resolution 108
This was a new sharply different policy that ended the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and all of the programs that went with it. It divided tribal property among the tribes members thus subjecting them to taxation. It also curtailed tribal self government and relocated many Indians to the cities where jobs were available. The Termination policy also ended federal responsibility and social services - education, health and welfare, to the Indians.
1974 - Iroquois Nation vs. The State of New York
Claiming they have been using certain lands since 1805 Indians sue and win in federal court. The federal government is forced to be responsive to their treaty claims.
1975 - Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975
President Richard Milhouse Nixon recommends self determination for Indians. Indian tribes were once again brought under federal funding with the promise that federal control would be lessened.
1980's - Autonomy
Several Indian nations, most notably in Connecticut and New York, sue to gain autonomy (independence) on tribal reservation land. Indians win these cases paving the way for the creation of gambling operations on reservation land. Today there are casinos on several reservations providing millions of dollars of income for those tribes.
Bibliography
• Cohen, Felix S. "Handbook of Federal Indian Law." Washington, DC:United States Government Printing Office, 1945. Second Printing. Available online.
• Kappler, Charles J. Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. 7 volumes. WorldCat 74490963; FHL book 970.1 K142i. Available online.
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• This page was last modified on 6 May 2012, at 11:11.
• This page has been accessed 1,535 times.
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GlobalVoices in Learn more »
Maghreb: UN Western Sahara Envoy Holds Talks with Polisario
This post also available in:
Malagasy · Maghreb: Nifampiresaka tamin’I Polisario ny solotenan’ny firenena mikambana mpiandraikitra an’i Sahara andrefana.
Français · Sahara Occidental : L'envoyé spécial de l'ONU rencontre le Front Polisario
Yesterday, Christopher Ross, the UN Special Envoy to the disputed Western Sahara, arrived in Algeria to hold talks with the Polisario Front, according to AFPDaily Maghreb reported on the meeting, stating:
Ross was in a “listening position” while meeting Morocco's Foreign Minister Taieb Fassi Fihri and senior officials of the royal consultative council for Saharan affairs (CORCAS), an informed source said.
The Polisario Front independence movement has disputed Morocco's claim to the territory since the north African kingdom annexed it after the withdrawal of Spanish settlers in the mid-1970s.
Ross arrived in Rabat on Wednesday after officials at UN headquarters in New York warned against great expectations of a first mission on which the new envoy was to sound out a chance of resuming negotiations.
alle
, writing for the new blog, Maghreb Politics Review, commented on the event as well:
It is his first trip to see the parties to the conflict, and he impressed early on by speaking to Aljazeera TV in fluent Arabic — although what he said was “no comments”. For some reason, that feels illustrative of the whole Western Sahara issue.
van kaas, commenting on the blog post, said:
Ross will arrive in the camps for Sahrawi refugees today and he will probably be asked to demand information from Moroccan authorities about the disappeared Saharawis. This item should have been dealt with long time ago, and this longstanding complaint is one of the failures of van Walsum, the former SESGUNWS.
Sahara Occidental also wrote:
Mr. Ross has been received by the people and leaders in the Sahraoui refugee camps. Mr. Ross said he came to find a political acceptable solution to both parties ( Morocco and the Polisario Front), which would allow the Sahraoui people to determine their future.
Tindouf home for over thirty years some 165,000 Sahraoui refugees, according to official Sahraoui figures.
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GlobalVoices in Learn more »
China: Africans Protest a Suspicious Death in Police Custody
This post also available in:
বাংলা · চীন: পুলিশী হেফাজতে সন্দেহজনক মৃত্যুতে আফ্রিকান বিক্ষোভ
Español · China: los africanos protestan por una muerte sospechosa en custodia policial
Français · Chine : La communauté africaine manifeste suite à une mort suspecte lors d'une garde à vue
Hundreds of Africans recently took to the street in Guangzhou's Sanyuanli District the day after the suspicious death of a fellow African while in police custody. The protesters demand the police to return the dead body to the African community for an independent autopsy.
It's estimated that there are as many as 200,000 Africans residing in Guangzhou. As a result of the ongoing nationwide campaign “to clean up foreign trash”, many Africans have been unable to renew their visas and have become illegal residents in China. The tension between Africans and police in Guangzhou has peaked in the so-called “chocolate city”, and the Nigerian community has now openly demanded that the Nigerian government set up a consulate in Guangzhou to “eliminate harassment”.
According to a Guangzhou police media briefing yesterday (June 19, 2012) [zh], a conflict between a taxi driver and an African passenger over the taxi fare took place on June 18 at around 1pm. Both persons were brought to the police station for further investigation. At around 5pm the same day, the African fell into a coma and died soon after.
An autopsy report found no signs of bodily injury, however Cam from TheNanfang.com interviewed a 26-year-old Nigerian resident of Guangzhou, Matouvu, who gives a different account of the taxi fare conflict and the Tuesday protest.
Protester holding a placard which reads “Give us the dead body!!!”. Image via Facebook User Konchog Yeshe.
The African community has rejected the police report and demanded the dead body be returned so an independent autopsy can be arranged.
Chinese public opinion toward the protest is very diversified. Some are sympathetic to the protesters, while some are highly discriminative toward the African community. Below is a selection of some typical comments from one Weibo news thread [zh]:
@碧水涢天0712：本国人经常无故死于派出所，最终不了了之。用同样的方式对待外国人，人家却不和中国人一样吃你这一套。
@碧水涢天0712：Our fellow countryman often die unnaturally in police stations and there usually isn't any investigation. Now you do the same thing to foreigners, of course they will not react like Chinese and accept such practice.
@我拍死砖家：这就是纵容的结果！多年前，我在广东生活，亲眼见过很多黑人在我们 的国土上竟然胡作非为、肆无忌惮，我曾对朋友说：总有一天会养虎为患的。
@我拍死砖家：This is the result of indulgence! Many years ago, I lived in Guangzhou. I saw so many acts of misbehaving committed by black people. I told my friends that we're just feeding the tigers to bite us.
@黄猫sips：这下花几百亿买的的中非友好破裂了
@黄猫sips：The Sino-African friendship that we bought with billions of yuan is now ruined.
@HeAvEn-Ko：真喺要管制下D黑人喺廣州的勢力先得。越嚟越多黑人喺廣州太危險。
@HeAvEn-Ko：we need to contain the black people in Guangzhou. The city is becoming more and more dangerous.
@隔世情缘franch：作为广交会发展的副产物，黑人在广州满大街都是。一直以来，我们与黑人兄弟相称，但他们背后却是若干非洲联合国成员国，涉及到对非洲的大笔支援和投资。牵连到在非洲庞大中方人员的安危！此事件如果真扩大到外交事件，影响不可小觑。前不久查非洲黑人非法居留，马上尼日利亚华人就遭殃，前车之鉴
@隔世情缘franch：The number of black people in Guangzhou is a by-product of Guangzhou's Canton Fair trade exhibition. We're used to calling them brothers. They come from United Nation member states in Africa. We have provided a lot of aid to Africa and have a lot invested there. [Sino-African relations] will affect the security of overseas Chinese. If the incident turns into a diplomatic issue, it could have huge impact on China. Earlier on, when we started cracking down on illegal African residents here, overseas Chinese in Nigeria became the target of attacks. We have to be careful.
@阿笑儿_汤抖森中毒ing：手段不硬起来，黑人区只会越来越庞大。非法入境都遣送回国呗，至于非洲，别只去当金主，没有武力安保，黑人只会抢劫华人，如同宰肥羊一般，就欺负你软，你打得他疼了，让他知道厉害他才会听话。中国一个常任理事国，每年定时去非洲撒钱，还要看这些非洲国家脸色，哼哼，够失败，因为一开始方法就用错了
@阿笑儿_汤抖森中毒ing：If we don't resort to a hard-handed policy, the black people district will continue to expand. Send all the illegal residents back home. We should not just invest in Africa. If we don't have our own security forces, black people will mob Chinese like slaughtering sheep. Beat them up till they feel pain so that they will behave. As a permanent member of the United Nations, China spends a lot of money in Africa every year, so how come we still need to please them? We've been using the wrong approach since the very beginning and now we've become the loser.
@风过痕留：我希望黑人全部都离开中国，中国不需要黑人基因
@风过痕留：I wish all black people would leave China. China does not need their genes.
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GlobalVoices in Learn more »
Bolivia: 2012 Census Initial Data
This post also available in:
Español · Bolivia: Primeros datos del censo 2012
Bolivian President Evo Morales announced the initial official data from the Census of Population and Housing 2012, carried out last November. According to the results, Bolivia has a population of 10.3, with the two most populated departaments being Santa and y La Paz, each with 2.7 million people. Netizens are commenting on Twitter using hastags #CensoBo [es] and #Censo2012 [es].
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Mikhail Larchanka
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I have engineer-electromechanic hight education. I work as journalist for liberal newspaper “Bobrujski kurier” (Belarus) and TV Belsat (poland) since 2004 and 2006 correspondingly.
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Latest posts by Mikhail Larchanka
4 July 2009
Belarus: A Holiday, Sort Of
Mikhail Larchanka reviews what some Belarusian bloggers write about Belarus' three Independence Day holidays, including the official one, which took place on July 3.
3 July 2009
Belarus: President Pardons Emanuel Zeltser
On June 30, a U.S. Congress delegation visited Minsk to meet with Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko. During this meeting, members of the U.S. delegation asked the president to pardon Emanuel Zeltser, an American lawyer who, in August 2008, was "sentenced to three years in prison on charges of 'attempted industrial espionage' and the use of fake documents." Lukashenko said he could do it and signed the pardon later that day.
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« Vernacular Photography: Archaeology & Retro-Futurism | Main | Found Art (Tribeca): Unmonumental 53 »
August 04, 2008
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Poll: Your open source guru-ness
(2 votes)
How long have you been interested in open source?
Forever, since before it was called “open source”
12.7% (28 votes)
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3.6% (8 votes)
The opensouce.com community is growing fast, and we're trying to figure out who we are and what we care about. The more we know about ourselves, the more relevant our content and discussions will be.
These polls aren't scientific, but they will give us a useful snapshot of of our growing community, so we can plan better for the future.
Feel free to tell us more about you in the comments.
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I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in pursuit of justice is no virtue. Goldwater, Barry
This quote is about liberty · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
A bit about Goldwater, Barry ...
Barry Morris Goldwater (January 1, 1909 May 29, 1998) was a United States politician and a founding figure in the modern conservative movement in the USA as well as being a major inspiration for many of his youthful followers to join the libertarian movement. Goldwater personified the shift in balance in American culture from the Northeast to the West. A five-term United States Senator from Arizona (1953-1965, 1969-87), he was the Republican Party candidate for the U.S. President in the 1964 election which he lost to Lyndon B. Johnson.
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What frightens us most in a madman is his sane conversation. France, Anatole
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Anatole France (April 16, 1844 October 12, 1924) was the pen name of French author Jacques Anatole Franois Thibault. He was born in Paris, France, and died in Tours, Indre-et-Loire, France. In addition to being a celebrated author, Anatole was also documented to have a brain volume just two-thirds the normal size.
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
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Punk
From RationalWiki
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A punk with a can of cider.
Punk is a term referring primarily to a youth subculture movement which emerged in the 1970s in New York City and London, England, although the term is used more loosely to denote many subsequent punk subcultures and subgenres. The original punk movement was a reaction to the commercial aspects of music and dissatisfaction with society as a whole, and as such it had a heavy focus on anarchism and rejection of authority.
Contents
[edit] Origin of the term
Music critics had already applied the term "punk rock" as early as the middle 1960s to some garage rock bands, and applied it again in the early 1970s to Iggy and the Stooges and the New York Dolls. In this sense, "punk" was used as a slang term for inferior or amateur art, though Lester Bangs in particular applied it as a mark of approbation. When the Sex Pistols and the Ramones brought punk into its own as a distinct subculture and music style, the term stuck. However, a "punk" is also prison and street slang for somebody who is weaker who falls under the wing of a stronger person for protection, often a young homosexual who exchanges sexual favors for protection, and is also street slang for a young outlaw in general (as in "go ahead make my day punk"); it is possible the term was adopted with this meaning in mind as an anti-establishment statement.
[edit] Aspects of the punk movement
[edit] Clothing and fashion
Typical punks wore ripped jeans or plaid trousers with boots, leather jackets, loose fitting or tight t-shirts. The typical punk haircut is a mohawk, or mohican, in which hair at the sides of the head is completely shaved while the hair on top of the head was left alone, or hair was otherwise spiked up with gel and / or soap. Facial piercings were also a popular part of the punk movement, and one aspect of it which made getting through airport security very difficult for all parties involved.
One aspect of some of the more outrageous "costumes" was to enable disaffected British youths to remain on the dole, since no potential employer in their right mind would hire a creature so-attired.
It should be noted that punk fashion was and is not limited to any of these aspects of dress.
[edit] Music
Punk music, in which the punk movement was rooted, was characterised by a drum kit, bass guitar, electric distorted guitar and vocalist, with fast paced songs and snarling, shouting lyrics speaking out against authority and other things of that nature. Songs typically consisted of a few chords being smashed out on guitar and were seldom longer than three minutes.
Original punk bands from the 1970s included Siouxsie and the Banshees, The Sex Pistols, The Ramones, The Clash, The Damned, and The Dead Kennedys, who experienced a mass underground following in the 1980s. Some music historians trace punk's origin to late 1960s/early 1970s bands from the New York and Detroit scenes such as the Velvet Underground, the New York Dolls, Iggy and the Stooges, and the MC5, although punk became a media sensation especially in the U.K. after the arrival of the Sex Pistols.
[edit] Politics
Early New York punk bands such as the Ramones did not tend to write political songs, although their angst-filled lyrics did explore controversial subjects such as solvent abuse, prostitution, Nazism and casual violence. It was the Sex Pistols who most firmly associated the punk scene (at least in the UK) with nihilism and anarchy, most famously in the songs "Anarchy in the UK" (1976) and "God Save the Queen" (1977). Additionally, The Clash became known for their left wing political songs, which were, arguably, more coherent and focused than the Pistols' more destructive anti-establishment anthems. Punk, like most other musical genres, began to embody a means of catharsis which could be used by anyone who wished to express themselves musically.
The nature of punk rock was such that it appealed to a very broad audience, whose political tendencies were not universally alike, thus punk ideology gradually became a cross section of the political spectrum, which does not exclude wingnuts. For example, the "Oi!" subculture (a working-class oriented punk movement) came to be associated with white nationalism. Over the years, there have also been a number of punk bands (e.g Skrewdriver, The Dentists and the Ventz) which explicitly promoted Nazi politics, hence the name "Nazi Punks".[1] Despite the presence of racist punk bands, very few of the punk movement's defining bands were overtly racist. In fact, many of the defining bands of the 1970s punk scene in the UK (such as The Clash) had strong Reggae and Ska influences and close rapport with prominent Black artists, with whom they saw common cause. Moreover, fans of "Nazi Punk" bands are often looked down upon by other punks, as shown by the Dead Kennedys song "Nazi Punks Fuck Off" (1981).
[edit] Selling out
The original punk movement was an outcry against rules, regulations, privilege and authority, and as such punk was originally an "underground" movement, in which bands played not for financial gain, but to register disgust with the established order. Punk bands that signed to major record companies rather than remaining independent or unsigned were regarded by many die-hard punk fans as "sell-outs". This has led to the claim today that the idea of punk and the punk movement is "dead", due to the lack of a strong underground punk movement reminiscent of the '70s. Some teenagers today can be seen sporting badges reading "Punk's Not Dead," on their shoulder bags, although die-hard punks would most likely disagree with this.
Some veteran punks (and numerous people you see commenting on YouTube videos of new age "punk" bands) from the original 1970s outfits reject the idea of punk today in bands that claim punk-ness but say and do everything which suggests otherwise. The best example today is the band Green Day, which gained mainstream popularity in 1994 with their album Dookie. After signing to a major record label, many original fans regarded them as sellouts, and after a new surge of popularity due to 2004's American Idiot, this view again came to light, particularly as they continued to claim to be "punk", despite expensive video shoots, tarting themselves up before shows with eyeliner, and the actual music digressing from original punk themes, leading to John Lydon (a/k/a Johnny Rotten) of the Sex Pistols and PiL calling them a "wank outfit".[2]
[edit] New Wave
Many bands emerged simultaneously with the arrival of early punk, sharing the punks' energy and DIY underground origins but not their nihilism or anger, and musically borrowing from a broad range of styles like glam, progressive rock, 1960s pop, funk, surf, and even disco and metal. At first the press lumped them in with punk but they soon got their own description, "new wave". Such artists included Talking Heads, Devo, John Otway, the Fabulous Poodles, Blondie, the Dickies, the Brains, Television, Elvis Costello, and the Boomtown Rats. Some early British punks, most notably The Clash and Gang of Four, expanded their repertoire in response and likewise became more new wave than punk. New wave became a catch-all term inclusive of everything from the most obscure punk to some rather commercial rock outfits like the Cars and Tom Petty, and all points in between. Eventually new wave became commercialized with the help of MTV to the point that it was more or less synonymous with early 1980s pop, in such groups as Duran Duran, Human League, Missing Persons, Men At Work, the Fixx and so on, to the chagrin of true punks. At that point, the term "new wave" fell out of favor as it was hardly "new" anymore, the less commercial new wave acts were re-framed as "alternative" and found a home on college radio, and punk once again arose as a separate scene re-affirming its anti-commercial roots.
[edit] Hardcore punk
The demise of the original punk scene and the commercialization of new wave did not deter punk for long. In the early 1980s a new punk scene arose, trying to be louder, faster, angrier, and more nihilistic than the original punk scene. Labelled "hardcore punk" or simply "hardcore", these bands included Black Flag, Dead Kennedys, Fear, the Circle Jerks, Minor Threat, Bad Brains, Agnostic Front, etc. in the U.S., while the U.K. saw a new and explicitly leftist political punk scene in such bands as the Crass and the Exploited. Sub-subcultures arose within the hardcore scene, such as the anti-drug and anti-alcohol straight edge movement.
Hardcore is today usually remembered as simply "punk" rather than as a distinct "hardcore punk" scene. While the scene shunned commericalization, related genres emerged by the late 1980s, influenced by both hardcore and metal, which were openly commercial: thrash metal (Metallica, Megadeth) is one example. Grunge is another example, making a purported anti-commercial stance (along with angst and "slacker" posturing in general, in the form of "I suck, everything's my fault, I'm a creep, nobody cares, I'm so depressed" type lyrics) their commercial selling point, which pretty much made it impossible for any genuine punk expression after that point to be seen as anything but posturing. A few like Kurt Cobain couldn't handle the cognitive dissonance, the rest made a lot of money and paved the way for pop-punk bands like Green Day. See the "Selling out" section above. There was also a splitting of punk during the 1990s into various obscure micro-sub-genres along with the related arguments over how many bands can fit on the head of a pin, much as is also the case with heavy metal: metalcore, grindcore, vegan straight edge, riot grrrl, Celtic punk, noise, cowpunk, and dozens of others. A few of the more notable are detailed below.
[edit] Street Punk
Modern hardcore has also merged with early Oi! influences to form what is known as "street punk." Street punk includes such bands as The Casualties, The Krum Bums, and Defiance. Street punks are sometimes dismissed as being "Fashion punks" by detractors for heavily emphasizing the "punk" looks of mohawks, spiked and studded jackets, etc. As a movement, however, street punk usually focuses on DIY and working-class causes.
[edit] Cyberpunk
Cyberpunk is generally considered a science fiction genre although some have embraced it as a lifestyle. Typically it focuses on the computer hacker (the malicious type) as the main protagonist/anti-hero. Often a hero will have several computers and monitors and will use their computer skills to break passwords, rob banks, or blow things up with a keystroke. For examples of cyberpunk read pretty much anything by William Gibson (whose Neuromancer basically codified the genre) or Philip K. Dick, or watch the Matrix.[3] The basic point of Cyberpunk is the use of information technology in an attempt to subvert "the system." It also is heavily associated with techno music. Few real life crackers probably consider themselves cyberpunks. Some elements of cyberpunk can be seen and heard in the videos by the 1980's band Sigue Sigue Sputnik.
[edit] Steampunk
Steampunk is a sub-type of Cyberpunk, although instead of computers it relies on the use of Victorian technology. Typically they focus on anachronistic uses of technology, like analogue computer laptops or airships. Steampunks will often wear neo-Victorian clothing and combine it with modern punk aesthetics. Some will go so far as to build contraptions that actually work. Their calling card is a pair of brass goggles. Isambard Kingdom Brunel is not amused.
[edit] Otherpunk
Based on the steampunk analogy, a few other genres have emerged. The first was arguably "gothic-punk", the name given by White Wolf Game Studios to the supernatural dystopian setting of their World of Darkness properties. Recent years have seen the addition of dieselpunk (something of an Indiana Jones aesthetic, based on the technology of the 20s through the 50s), and cowpunk (similar to steampunk, but a little further back and based on the American Old West).
A short-lived branch of 1980's punk rock was "Funnypunk", which mixed humor with the raucous music. Bands in this genre included Screeching Weasel and Adrenalin O.D.
[edit] Why Punk had to happen
See the main article on this topic: Fun:Why Punk had to happen
[edit] See also
[edit] Footnotes
1. See Oi! at Wikipedia.
2. From this interview
3. Or listen to that Billy Idol album. Just kidding.
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Good News Community Church
Info Map
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Location
4797 Ridge Road West, Spencerport NY, 14559
Service Times
Sunday School: 9:30AM
Sunday Worship: 10:30AM
Office Hours
M-W-F: 9:00AM to 12:00PM
Phone
585 352 0533
Accessible
Yes - Wheelchair
Website
http://www.goodnewscommunitychurch.net
Good News Community Church is a nondenominational Christian church located on Ridge Road West between Manitou Road and Union Street in Parma.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
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6271.0 - Labour Force, Australia - Data on Floppy Disk, Nov 2003
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Contains time series data corresponding to 6202.0.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
8710.5 - Housing Motivations and Intentions, Western Australia, Oct 2005
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 21/04/2006 First Issue
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ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
This publication contains results from the State Supplementary Survey conducted in Western Australia (WA) in October 2005. It presents information on the motivators that affect Western Australians in the choice of their current dwelling (and location of that dwelling) and their intentions regarding their future choice of housing. Some characteristics regarding their previous dwelling were also collected.
Data items collected on behalf of the household include current dwelling structure and tenure, number of bedrooms, total household income, whether the dwelling was part of a retirement village or group housing complex, whether modifications had been carried out for the elderly or people with a disability, and type of modification. Data items regarding previous dwellings, housing motivations and housing intentions were answered on behalf of only one person who was randomly selected from the household.
ABOUT THE SURVEY
The survey was conducted as a supplement to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Monthly Population Survey (MPS). Please refer to the Explanatory Notes for further details about this survey.
Inquiries
For further information about these and related statistics, contact the National Information and Referral Service on 1300 135 070 or Carolann Hoad on Perth (08) 9360 5947.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
OVERVIEW
Dwelling type and dwelling tenure
In October 2005, 85% (1,235,700 persons) of all persons aged 18 years and over in Western Australia (1,459,800 persons) were living in a separate house. A further 9% were living in a semi-detached row, terrace house or townhouse and 6% were in a flat, unit or apartment. Persons living in separate houses most commonly either owned or were purchasing their home (82%). In comparison, persons living in other types of dwellings were most commonly renting (57%).
Current region of residence
Around a third of persons living in each of the statistical regions that comprise the Perth Metropolitan area lived in a home that was fully owned. A smaller proportion of those living in the Central Metropolitan statistical region were purchasing their homes (30%) compared with those living in the other regions (between 40% and 43%). The Central Metropolitan statistical region had the highest proportion of private renters (30%) compared with the other regions, South West Metropolitan having the lowest proportion (17%).
By tenure type, similar proportions of those living in the two regions which comprise the Balance of WA (Lower Western WA and Remainder WA) owned (40% and 38%), were purchasing (36% and 37%), were privately renting (18% and 17%) and were publicly renting (4% and 5%) their homes. Maps showing the statistical regions are included in Appendices 2 and 3.
Length of time in current dwelling
Just over a third (35%) of persons had lived in their current dwelling for ten years or more. Of these, the majority (64%) owned their home and a further 31% were purchasing their home. Of the 29% of persons who had lived in their current dwelling for less than two years, almost half (49%) were privately renting their homes, a further 33% were purchasing and 14% owned their home. A fifth of persons had lived in their current dwelling for between two and less than five years with the majority purchasing their homes (55%).
Household composition
The proportions of persons living in separate houses ranged from 96% of those in couple with children households to 59% of those persons living alone. Over a third of persons living alone fully owned their homes (37%), a further 31% were privately renting and a fifth (22%) were purchasing their home. The majority of persons living in couple only households lived in a dwelling that was fully owned (51%), followed by almost a third in a dwelling that was being purchased (30%). Persons living in couple with children households were most likely to be living in a dwelling which was being purchased (58%), with a further 27% living in dwellings which were fully owned. Around a third of persons living in lone parent with children households were living in dwellings that were fully owned (27%), being purchased (33%) and privately rented (30%).
Seniors household
Just over one-quarter (27%) of persons in WA were living in a seniors household (where at least one usual resident was aged 60 years or over). The majority of these were living in a dwelling that was fully owned (68%) compared with only 23% of persons living in fully owned dwellings in non-seniors households.
Housing for persons aged 55 years and over
Households where at least one usual resident was aged 55 years or over may live in a retirement village or group housing complex. At the time of the survey, 36,100 persons were living in this type of housing (7% of all persons aged 55 years and over) in WA.
Dwelling modifications
Some 97,600 persons in WA (7%) lived in a dwelling that had modifications carried out for the elderly or people with a disability. Of those, 80% had installed hand-grab rails, almost a third had made changes to the layout of the toilet, bathroom or laundry (31%) and almost a quarter had installed access ramps or step free entrances (23%).
Annual household income
Some 38% of persons in WA were living in a household where the total annual income was between $40,000 to less than $90,000 (551,300 persons), 30% where it was $90,000 or more (436,400 persons) and 28% where it was less than $40,000 (412,700 persons). Persons in households earning less than $40,000, and in households earning between $40,000 to less than $90,000 had higher levels of home ownership (fully owned) compared with those earning $90,000 or more (45% and 32% respectively compared with 29%).
Across all annual household income ranges, the majority of persons in WA were living in three or four bedroom dwellings (82%). The proportion of persons with a household annual income of less than $40,000 declined with each additional bedroom, from 77% of those in bedsit or one bedroom dwellings, to 14% of those in five or more bedroom dwellings. Just over half of persons living in five or more bedroom dwellings (51%) were members of households earning $90,000 or more per year.
Dwelling status at time of purchase
Almost two thirds of persons living in dwellings which were being purchased or fully owned moved into an established home at time of purchase (63%). This compares with 31% who built their current dwelling and only 6% who purchased a newly-built dwelling. The highest proportion of newly-built dwelling purchasers were couple only households (41%).
RECENT MOVERS
Selected characteristics
Approximately two-thirds (944,600 persons) of all persons in WA (aged 18 years and over) had moved into their current dwelling less than ten years ago. Of these, most had moved from within WA (846,800 persons).
Most recent movers living in the Perth Metropolitan area had previously lived in Perth (16% in the same suburb and 68% elsewhere in Perth), 10% had lived interstate or overseas and 6% had lived elsewhere in WA. These proportions were similar for each of the metropolitan statistical regions.
Of those recent movers currently living in the balance of WA, 77% had previously lived in the Balance of WA (42% in the same town or locality and 36% elsewhere in the Balance of WA), 17% had lived in Perth and 6% had lived interstate or overseas. These proportions were similar for the Lower Western WA and Remainder WA regions.
For those recent movers who had moved within WA only, additional information was collected regarding their previous dwelling. The majority of recent movers' current dwelling tenure type was being purchased (392,200 persons). Of these, a similar proportion had moved from a previous dwelling which was also being purchased (43%) or from a dwelling which was privately rented (38%).
The next largest group of recent movers were privately renting their current dwelling (238,100 persons). The majority of these had moved from another privately rented dwelling (64%) although more than one quarter had been living in a dwelling that was fully owned or being purchased (29%).
Some 166,400 recent movers fully owned their current dwelling. Of these, more than half had moved from a previous dwelling that was also fully owned (56%), close to one quarter had moved from a privately rented dwelling (23%) and almost one fifth had moved from a dwelling that was being purchased (18%).
Three quarters of the 30,700 recent movers who were publicly renting their current dwelling, previously lived in a dwelling that was rented (39% privately and 37% publicly).
More than a third of persons (34% or 291,500 persons) cited a change in family or personal circumstances as a reason for moving. The most common change was getting married or moving in with a partner (24%) with similar proportions quoting an increase in household size (15%), the breakdown of a marriage or relationship (15%) and to be independent (14%).
Choice of current location
Recent movers were asked the reasons why they chose to live in their current location (935,000 persons). They could provide more than one reason. The most common reasons given were a 'quiet location' (43%), 'close to family or friends' (42%) and 'familiarity with area' (41%). Other common reasons given were 'access to facilities and services such as schools or shops' (41%) and 'safe neighbourhood' (40%). More than one-third (35%) of persons in WA stated 'suitable price range' as a financial reason for the choice of their current dwelling location.
Choice of current dwelling
Recent movers were also asked why they chose their current dwelling (935,200 persons). They could provide more than one reason. The most common reasons given for choosing the current dwelling were 'appearance and layout' (57%) and 'larger residence' (57%). Almost half (45%) of persons in WA stated 'suitable price range' as a financial reason for the choice of their current dwelling.
FUTURE MOVERS
Selected characteristics
One quarter of all persons in WA (aged 18 years and over) plan to move within the next three years (360,800 persons). Most future movers intended to remain in WA (255,700 persons) with only 6% intending to move interstate or overseas. Almost one quarter (23%) did not know the location of their future dwelling.
Most future movers currently living in the Perth Metropolitan area intended to stay in Perth (19% in the same suburb and 44% elsewhere in Perth), 7% intended to move interstate or overseas and 4% intended to move elsewhere in WA.
Of those future movers currently living in the balance of WA, 71% intended to stay in the Balance of WA (43% in the same town or locality and 28% elsewhere in the Balance of WA). These proportions were similar for the Lower Western WA and Remainder WA regions.
Almost half of future movers had lived in their current dwelling for less than two years (48%), around one fifth for two to less than five years and another fifth for ten years or more (21% and 20% respectively). The remaining 10% had lived in their current dwelling for five to less than ten years. More than half (54%) of those intending to move expected to do so within the next twelve months, 22% within the next two years and 17% within the next three years.
Most future movers were currently living in a separate house (289,000 persons or 80% of all movers). Some 44% of future movers were currently living in a dwelling that was privately rented, a further 30% in a dwelling that was being purchased and 21% in a dwelling that was fully owned.
Of those future movers intending to stay in WA (including some who were undecided of the location of their future dwelling) (338,500 persons), almost two-thirds were intending to purchase their future dwelling (64%). A further 23% of these intended to rent their future dwelling and 9% were undecided on their future dwelling tenure.
There were 92,300 future movers who were currently renting and intended to purchase their future home. Of these, 88% stated that home ownership was their main reason for intending to move.
Almost three quarters of future movers intended their future dwelling to be a separate house (72%). A further 11% were undecided as to which type of dwelling they will live in.
Most future movers would prefer their future dwelling to have either three bedrooms (39%) or four bedrooms (38%).
Households where at least one usual resident was aged 55 years or over may live in a retirement village or group housing complex (where residency is restricted to people aged 55 and over). Of these, 85% did not intend to move to this type of housing (67,700 persons).
Choice of future location
Future movers were asked the reasons why they intend to live in their preferred future location (255,700 persons). They could provide more than one reason. The most common reasons given for choosing the preferred future location were 'familiarity with area' (55%), 'central location' (49%), 'better lifestyle' (48%) and 'access to facilities and services' (48%).
Some 42% of future movers stated 'suitable price range' as a financial reason for the choice of their preferred future dwelling location.
Choice of future dwelling
Future movers were also asked the reasons why they intend to choose their preferred future dwelling (255,700 persons). They could provide more than one reason. The most common reasons given for choosing the preferred future dwelling were 'appearance and layout' (70%) and 'it was a separate house' (68%). Other common reasons given were 'better quality residence' (53%) and 'low maintenance' (51%).
Half of future movers (49%) stated 'suitable price range' as a financial reason for the choice of their preferred future dwelling.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Image copyright: © Australian War Memorial licensed copyright
ID number
P04504.007
Photographer
Parker, David Dare
Object type
Colour - Film original transparency (positive) 35mm
Date made
c September 1999
Copyright holder
Parker, David Dare
Copying provision
Copy provided for personal non-commercial use
Copyright details
David Dare Parker, PO Box 491, Inglewood, WA 6932, Australia; email: ddpphoto@ozemail.com.au
Collection
Photograph
Description
Major General (Maj Gen) Peter Cosgrove on the wharf at Dili, accompanied by his bodyguard Corporal Kirsty Hearn. Behind him is HMAS Jervis Bay. Maj Gen Cosgrove is commander of the International Force in East Timor (INTERFET). As such, he is responsible for the largest Australian overseas deployment since the Vietnam War, and forces from 22 countries.
Permalink: http://www.awm.gov.au/collection/P04504.007
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This article is part of the supplement: 2006 International Workshop on Multiscale Biological Imaging, Data Mining and Informatics
Research
High performance computing environment for multidimensional image analysis
A Ravishankar Rao*, Guillermo A Cecchi and Marcelo Magnasco
BMC Cell Biology 2007, 8(Suppl 1):S9 doi:10.1186/1471-2121-8-S1-S9
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Research article
Neuromelanin is an immune stimulator for dendritic cells in vitro
Uwe Oberländer1, Katrien Pletinckx1, Anja Döhler1, Nora Müller1, Manfred B Lutz1, Thomas Arzberger2, Peter Riederer3, Manfred Gerlach4, Eleni Koutsilieri1 and Carsten Scheller1*
Author Affiliations
1 University of Würzburg, Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, Würzburg, Germany
2 University of Munich, Institute of Neuropathology, Munich, Germany
3 University of Würzburg, Clinical Neurochemistry (National Parkinson Foundation Center of Excellence Research Laboratory), Clinic and Policlinic of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Würzburg, Germany
4 University of Würzburg, Laboratory of Clinical Neurobiology, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Würzburg, Germany
For all author emails, please log on.
BMC Neuroscience 2011, 12:116 doi:10.1186/1471-2202-12-116
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2202/12/116
Received:14 September 2011
Accepted:15 November 2011
Published:15 November 2011
© 2011 Oberländer et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized at the cellular level by a destruction of neuromelanin (NM)-containing dopaminergic cells and a profound reduction in striatal dopamine. It has been shown recently that anti-melanin antibodies are increased in sera of Parkinson patients, suggesting that NM may act as an autoantigen. In this study we tested whether NM is being recognized by dendritic cells (DCs), the major cell type for inducing T- and B-cell responses in vivo. This recognition of NM by DCs is a prerequisite to trigger an adaptive autoimmune response directed against NM-associated structures.
Results
Murine DCs were treated with NM of substantia nigra (SN) from human subjects or with synthetic dopamine melanin (DAM). DCs effectively phagocytized NM and subsequently developed a mature phenotype (CD86high/MHCIIhigh). NM-activated DCs secreted the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α. In addition, they potently triggered T cell proliferation in a mixed lymphocyte reaction, showing that DC activation was functional to induce a primary T cell response. In contrast, DAM, which lacks the protein and lipid components of NM but mimics the dopamine-melanin backbone of NM, had only very little effect on DC phenotype and function.
Conclusions
NM is recognized by DCs in vitro and triggers their maturation. If operative in vivo, this would allow the DC-mediated transport and presentation of SN antigens to the adaptive immune system, leading to autoimmmunity in susceptible individuals. Our data provide a rationale for an autoimmune-based pathomechanism of PD with NM as the initial trigger.
Background
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized at the cellular level by a destruction especially of neuromelanin (NM)-containing dopaminergic cells and a profound reduction in striatal dopamine. NM accumulates in the cytoplasm of dopaminergic neurons starting within the first 3-5 years after birth [1-3]. NM concentration increases with age and its optical density has been shown to increase until 60 years of life [4]. In patients with juvenile PD as well as with idiopathic and MPTP-induced PD, NM also accumulates in the extracellular space of substantia nigra (SN) [5-7].
Exracellular NM does not behave passively. Both protective and toxic effects have been reported (reviewed by Zecca [8,9]). The protective role is most notably through its ability to trap free radicals and toxins [8]. Toxic effects of NM are mainly due to NM highly-complexed with iron [10,11]. In vitro NM activates microglia by triggering NK-κB activation and the release of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 [12]. When injected into the brains of rats, human NM triggers neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration [13,14], suggesting a proinflammatory role for NM.
The primary etiological factor for PD is still unknown. Several hypotheses have been proposed [15-18]. Autoimmune processes in PD have been suggested previously [19,20]. Autoantibodies directed at neuronal structures have been found in sera of PD patients [21-25]. In an interesting study brains of PD patients exhibited an IgG binding on dopamine neurons, which was positively correlated with the number of HLA positive microglia [26]. Moreover, in the same study the low affinity activating IgG receptor FcγRIII was expressed on cells morphologically resembling lymphocytes. In a recent publication by Double et al., sera from subjects with clinical PD were found to display significantly enhanced IgG-levels specific for melanin derived from catecholamines, a structural component of NM [16]. Moreover, complement binding to NM in brains from PD patients supports the idea of immunologic clearance of NM in PD [7]. These data suggest the possibility of a specific autoimmune response against NM in PD patients.
Dendritic cells (DC) are professional antigen-presenting cells able to initiate primary T-cell mediated immune responses [27]. In a so-called immature state their main function is the uptake and processing of antigens. Once they become activated (either by proinflammatory cytokines or pathogens), DCs migrate into the draining lymph nodes (LN) to present the antigen to naïve T- and B-cells [27]. If T- or B-cells specific for this antigen enter the LN, the cells become primed to exert their effector functions once they re-encounter the antigen in the peripheral tissue. In contrast, microglia are tissue-resident cells that are not able to migrate into lymphoid tissues to start an adaptive immune response. They are specialized to present antigens to already activated, infiltrating T-cells. Hence, a de novo initiation of an adaptive immune response against an immunogen within the brain requires DC activation, whereas microglia activation is in this context a downstream event in order to direct the T- and B- cell response to the site where the antigen is located. DCs are spare in the healthy CNS. However, they do accumulate in the CNS parenchyma in neuroinflammation and CNS autoimmune disease following monocyte invasion, from which they differentiate [28-33].
In this study we hypothesize that extracellular NM may stimulate DC maturation and thereby promote NM-associated antigen presentation in an autoimmunogenic context. This would reflect the initiating step of an autoagressive activity against antigens from SN. Therefore, we investigated whether NM can be recognized and taken up by DCs and subsequently explored the capability of NM to mature/activate these cells phenotypically and functionally for T cell activation. Using synthetic dopamine melanin (DAM), we investigated the role of the domanine melanin "backbone" found in NM in DC activation.
Results
Dendritic cells phagocytose NM and DAM
In order to assess whether DCs recognize NM as a potential antigen we coincubated DCs with NM and studied phagocytosis by differential interference contrast microscopy. NM was visible as small black granules of 0.5-5 μm size (Figure 1). After 24 hours of co-incubation with DCs NM colocalized with DCs in the culture plate (Figure 1). A z-stack analysis revealed that NM granules were not just attached to the cell surface but were indeed internalized by DCs (Figure 1D). Similarly, DCs also phagocytosed DAM (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Dendritic cells (DC) phagocytose neuromelanin (NM). Cells were cultured for 48 h in the absence (A, C) or presence (B, D) of neuromelanin (NM) and analyzed by differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy. A, B: Overview of cultures. C, D: z-stack analysis of a single DC from bottom to top. Z-stack distances were 0.70-0.80 μm.
Figure 2. Dendritic cells (DC) phagocytose synthetic dopamine melanin (DAM). Cells were cultured for 48 h in the absence (A) or presence (B) of DAM. Differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy with z-stack analysis of DCs from bottom to top. Z-stack distances were 1.5 μm.
DCs mature in response to NM
Phagocytosis of NM resulted within 48 h in maturation of DCs measured by the upregulation of the cell surface molecules MHCII and CD86. Whereas only 13% of the DC population displayed a mature phenotype in the absence of additives in the culture medium, the amount of mature DCs increased to 66.8% following contact with NM (Figure 3A, C and 3E; Bonferroni post hoc test, p < 0.001). DAM triggered comparably lower DC activation (31.6%) compared to NM (Figure 3B and 3E; p < 0.001) but still significantly elevated compared to medium alone (p < 0.01). As a positive control, DCs were treated with LPS (Figure 3D and 3E), a strong activator of DCs. LPS-activation in the experiments displayed in this manuscript should only be regarded qualitatively (instead of quantitatively), as the amount of LPS used in these experiments is in no relation whatsoever to the amount of NM or DAM, except for the fact that it was titrated in order to provoke a response. We therefore did not apply statistical analysis comparing the magnitude of the LPS response with other treatments.
Figure 3. Neuromelanin triggers dendritic cell (DC) maturation. Flow cytometric analysis of DC maturation by staining with anti-CD86/anti-MHCII antibodies. A: medium-treated DCs (untreated). B: DAM-treated DCs. C: NM-treated DCs. D: positive control (LPS-treated DCs). A-D: representative experiments from triplicates. E: Illustration of the amount of mature DCs from triplicates (data as mean ± S.E.M.; statistical analysis with one-way ANOVA using Bonferroni multiple comparison as post test; n.s. = non specific (p > 0.05), * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).
NM generates a functional activation of DCs
Following 48 h exposure to NM, DCs released significantly higher amounts of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6 compared to cells treated with medium alone (p < 0.01 and < 0.001, respectively), demonstrating that NM-triggered DC maturation generated functional cells (Figure 4A, B). No additional cytokine release compared to cells treated with medium-alone was detected in cells treated with DAM.
Figure 4. NM-mediated dendritic cell (DC) activation is functional and independent of the melanin backbone. A, B: DCs were cultured for 48 h in the presence of medium alone, DAM, NM, or LPS (positive control). The amount of proinflammatory cytokines in the cell culture supernatants was determined by ELISA. A: TNF-α. B: IL-6. C: DCs treated for 48 h with medium alone, DAM, NM or LPS (positive control) were cocultured with allogenic T cells. A-C: Data from 2 independent experiments with triplicates and quadruplicates as mean ± S.E.M.; statistical analysis with one-way ANOVA using Bonferroni multiple comparison as post test; n.s. = non specific (p > 0.05), * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001).
In order to test whether NM-stimulated DCs can activate T cell proliferation (a necessary event in the translation of a DC signal into a T cell response), we performed a mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) in which T cells isolated from allogenic donor mice were cocultured with NM- or DAM-treated DCs. As depicted in Figure 4C, NM-treated DCs were able to trigger a proliferative T cell response (p < 0.001 compared to untreated cells). In contrast to the effects triggered by NM, no T cell proliferation could be detected following incubation with DAM.
The experiments displayed in Figure 4 not only demonstrate that NM-triggered DC activation generates completely functional DCs (cells that are able to migrate to the lymph nodes and present antigens to T cells and that also have the capacity to trigger proliferative T cell responses), but also narrows the number of NM-compounds that could actually be the trigger of it: As synthetic DAM, which lacks many of the compounds found in NM (lipids, proteins) failed to triggered any cytokine or proliferative response at all, the dopamine melanine itself is probably not the stimulus for these events. However, the dopamine melanine "backbone" of NM could play an important role in efficient uptake of NM by DCs, as we observed that DAM alone is being recognized and phagocytosed very efficiently by DCs (Figure 2).
NM preparations are free of endotoxin contamination
DCs are very sensitive towards LPS (which for this reason was used as a positive control in the experiments depicted above). In order to exclude a potential endotoxin contamination of the DAM and NM preparations used in our experiments, we tested the DAM- and NM-suspensions for LPS using a commercially available LAL assay. No traces of LPS were detected in the DAM- and NM-suspensions used for our experiments (Figure 5). These results suggest that the DC-stimulating effects are intrinsic for NM and were not caused by a potential contamination with endotoxin.
Figure 5. Negative test of LPS contamination. The DAM- and NM-preparations used in this study were tested with an endpoint chromogenic LAL-assay for LPS contamination at a concentration of 50μg/ml and analyzed at a wavelength of 405 nm. LPS standards with a concentration range between 0.1-1.0 EU/ml were tested positive, whereas the DAM and NM-preparations were tested negative for LPS.
Discussion
Our in vitro study shows that a) extracellular NM is being phagocytosed by DCs and b) NM triggers maturation and functional activation of these cells. If operative in vivo, this would inevitably cause a transport of extracellular NM from the brain into cervical lymph nodes, resulting in a presentation of NM to naïve T- and B-cells in a highly immunogenic context. This may eventually lead to the development of an autoimmune disease directed at NM-associated antigens. Our study therefore offers a first evidence for a NM-driven autoimmune-based pathogenesis of PD with NM as the initial trigger of a DC-mediated autoantigen presentation.
Although an autoimmune-based pathogenesis of PD that targets NM has yet to be conclusively demonstrated in vivo, a number of previous findings can now be put into a broader perspective: Sera from subjects with clinical PD display enhanced IgG-levels to catecholeamine-based melanins, the structural basis of the NM present in the pigmented neurons of the human SN [16], indicating an immune response directed against NM itself. In line with this, opsonization of NM with C1q - a complement factor involved in the classical complement pathway that recognizes antigen-bound IgG and IgM - has been shown on the surface of extracellular NM in post-mortem brains of PD-patients [7]. Alternatively (or additionally), DC-phagocytosis of NM loaded with resident peptides or proteins (the high affinity of NM to peptides has been shown before [34]) may initiate the presentation of formerly-unrecognized autoantigens to T- and B-cells in a "Trojan Horse way", triggering an adaptive autoimmune response directed at proteins primarily unrelated to NM. In this regard Orr et al. found in post-mortem sections from PD patients - but not from age-matched controls - IgG antibodies directed at pigmented dopamine neurons and auto-IgG binding colocalized with immunostaining for Lewy bodies [26].
Mature DCs loaded with autoantigens have been shown to be able to induce autoimmunity against the loaded antigen in mice [35]. Although DCs seem to be rare in the healthy brain, myeloid-derived DCs infiltrate the brain during neuroinflammation [28-33] so that DCs are likely to encounter extracellular NM also in vivo.
Our data indicate that the DC-activating properties of NM are conferred by its peptide or lipid components (but not by the dopamine melanine backbone). Although the primary repertoire of endogenous lipids and peptides is unlikely to be able to activate DCs, oxidative modifications of endogenous molecules are being discussed to confer DC-maturating activity by an "altered-self" mechanism [36]. Such DC-maturating activity has already been described for oxidized lipophosphatidylcholine (LPC) found in low-density lipoprotein (LDL), which potently triggers DC maturation and activation [37,38]. In a similar way, oxidized protein or lipid contents of NM could have triggered DC maturation in our assay system. In line with this, post-mortem studies with brains from PD patients revealed increased lipid-peroxidation in SN [10,39].
Our findings that NM activates DCs are in line with previous reports that NM can activate microglia both in vitro [14] and in vivo when injected into the rat brain [13,14]. Microglia and DCs are both myeloid antigen presenting cells that are closely related, albeit they fulfill completely different but also cooperative functions during an immune response. Whereas activated DCs will leave the tissue and transport the antigen to the lymph nodes in order to initiate an adaptive immune response, activated microglia reside in the tissue and present the antigen to DC-primed infiltrating T cells in order to direct the immune response to the tissue in which the antigen was found. Therefore, combining the results of the former study on microglia with our results opens a new autoimmune scenario: NM not only causes local inflammation (activation of microglia) but may also trigger an adaptive immune response directed at NM itself via activation of DCs. Our findings therefore add a potential third characteristic to NM in relation to PD: whereas NM has previously been discussed to be either neuroprotective or neurotoxic (and the inflammatory activity of NM on microglia would be a neurotoxic characteristic in the broadest sense) our findings suggest that it might also be considered as an initial trigger for an adaptive autoimmune response.
Conclusions
Our data suggest that extracellular NM may be the initial trigger for an adaptive autoimmune response relevant for PD via activation of DCs. Whatever the antigen(s) recognized in an autoimmune etiology of PD may be, our data now offers an explanation for the initial trigger of the autoimmune response against SN-antigens, i.e. the activation of DCs by a substance exclusively found in the affected areas, the NM.
Methods
NM preparation
Human SN tissue was obtained from the "Austrian-German-Brain-Bank" in Würzburg. The use of post mortem human brain tissue was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University Clinics of Würzburg. The SN was dissected from post mortem brains of subjects with no history of neurological, neurodegenerative or psychiatric diseases within 36 h of death on a cool plate (-15°C). Only cases with a macroscopically regular pigmentation of the SN and a post mortem delay of less than 36 h were selected for preparation. The SN was dissected from transversally cut midbrain slices on a cool plate (-15°C). NM was isolated according the method previously published [40]. The prepared NM was resuspended in PBS at a concentration of 5 mg/ml by pipetting.
Dopamine melanin (DAM) synthesis
Synthetic dopamine melanin (DAM), a widely used model of human NM (see for example, [41]) was produced by incubation for 2 weeks of 1 mM dopamine hydrochloride with 0.1 mM cupric sulfate pentahydrate in phosphate buffered saline (pH 7.4). The resulting solid oxidation product was then washed in distilled water and centrifuged four times before being lyophilized. DAM was sonicated in phosphate-buffered saline to produce a suspension of fine, homogenous granules at a concentration of 1 mg/ml. All chemicals were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, Germany.
Confocal Microscopy
Cells were seeded onto μ-slide VI (ibidi, Germany). Images were obtained using a Zeiss 510 Meta confocal Microscope (Zeiss, Germany) with a 63 × objective (NA1.4). Z-stack analysis was performed with imaging software SP3.2 (Zeiss, Germany).
Animals
C57BL/6 (Charles River/Wiga, Sulzfeld, Germany) and BALB/c mice (house bred) were kept under SPF (specific-pathogen free conditions) in our facilities. 4-12 weeks old female mice were sacrificed by cervical dislocation in order to isolate bone marrow and lymph nodes, respectively.
Bone marrow and lymph node isolation
Femurs and tibiae from C57BL/6 mice were removed and purified from the surrounding muscle tissue by rubbing with Kleenex tissues. Thereafter intact bones were left in 70% ethanol for 2-5 min for desinfection and washed with PBS. Then both ends were cut with scissors and the marrow was flushed out with PBS using a syringe with 0.45 mm diameter needle. Cell clusters were dissociated by vigorous pipetting and cells were washed with PBS. 1-1.5 × 107 leukocytes were obtained per femur or tibia.
Lymph nodes from BALB/c-mice were removed and a single cell suspension was prepared by grinding the lymph nodes between the rough ends of two sterile slides. The lymphocytes were filtered through a 70 μm Falcon Cell Strain (BD Biosciences, Germany).
Generation of bone-marrow DCs
DCs were generated from bone marrow of mice as described previously with some modifications [42]. Briefly, bone marrow cells were cultured in 100 mm bacteriological petri dishes (Greiner bio-one, Germany) with R10 (RPMI-1640 supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum, penicillin (100 U/ml), streptomycin (100μg/ml), L-glutamin (2 mM), and 2-mecraptoethanol (50μM, Sigma-Aldrich, Germany)). All media components were obtained from PAA, Germany.
At day 0 bone marrow cells were seeded at 3 × 106 cells per dish in 10 ml R10 medium containing 10% GM-CSF supernatant from a cell line transfected with the murine GM-CSF gene [43]. At day 3 and 6 another 10 ml R10 medium containing 10% GM-CSF supernatant was added to the plates. At day 8 cells were used for experiments.
Treatment of DCs with NM, DAM and LPS
If not indicated otherwise, DCs were treated for 48 h with NM, DAM at a final concentration of 50μg/ml or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at 1μg/ml (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany) or left untreated in a 24 well plate with 106 cells/well. NM- and DAM suspensions used in DC stimulation experiments were checked for endotoxin contamination and found negative (cutoff was 0.1 EU/ml; endpoint chromogenic Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay, Lonza, Germany).
Flow cytometry
DCs were characterized by flow cytometry. 1 × 105 cells were stained with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies directed at CD86 (coupled to APC) and MHCII (coupled to PE) (both BD Biosciences, Germany) at pre-titrated concentrations at 4°C for 60 minutes. Cells were fixed with 2% formalin and analyzed using a FACSCalibur (BD Biosciences, Germany). Cell debris was excluded from analysis by FSC-SSC gating. Quadrants were set according to staining patterns with isotype-control antibodies (all antibodies from BD Biosciences, Germany). Flow cytometry data was analyzed using FlowJo software (Tree Star Inc., OR, USA).
ELISA
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 concentrations were determined from supernatans of NM- or LPS-treated or untreated DCs using the respective OptEIA Kits (BD Biosciences, Germany) according to the instructions of the manufacturer.
Allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR)
DCs from C57BL/6 mice were treated with NM, LPS or left untreated for 48 h. At day 3, DCs were coincubated with lymphocytes isolated from BALB/c lymph nodes in triplicate cultures (96 well) at 3 × 105 cells/well and a ratio of 1:1. At day 3, cells were pulsed with 1 μCi/well [3H]methyl-thymidine (Amersham Biosciences, Switzerland) over night for 16 h. The plates were harvested onto glassfiber filtermats with an Tomtec harvester and filters counted in a 1450 Microplate Counter (Wallac, Turku, Finland).
Test of endotoxin contamination
The NM-preparation used for the experiments depicted in this manuscript was tested for potential contamination with endotoxin using a chromogenic Limulus amebocytes lysate (LAL) assay according to the instructions of the manufacturer (Lonza, Germany). Briefly, 50μl of NM sample (100 μg/ml), LPS standards (0.1-1.0 EU/ml) or endotoxin-free water were mixed with 100 μl of LAL and incubated for 10 min at 37°C. Substrate solution was added and samples were incubated for an additional 6 min at 37°C. Enzyme reaction was stopped with diluted sulfuric acid and chromogen absorption was measured in a plate photometer at a wavelength of 405 nm. To account for NM-intrinsic absorption at 405 nm, a turbidity control with 100 μg/ml NM without LAL (volume compensated with water) was measured and the value was subtracted from NM-sample absorption at 405 nm.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism software for Macintosh (version 4.0 c). Data are expressed as mean ± S.E.M.. For comparison of values between different treatment groups, one-way ANOVA was used together with Bonferroni multiple comparison as post test; p > 0.05 was regarded as non specific, p < 0.05 was attributed with *, p < 0.01 was attributed with **, and p < 0.001 was attributed with ***.
List of abbreviations
Parkinson's disease (PD), neuromelanin (NM), dendritic cells (DCs), dopamine melanin (DAM), substantia nigra (SN), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), major histocompatibility complex (MHC), differential interference contrast (DIC)
Authors' contributions
UO carried out treatment of DCs with NM, DAM and LPS and performed immunological charactertization of the response of DCs to NM including the MLR. KP and AD carried out bone marrow and lymph node isolation and generation of bone-marrow DCs. NM performed confocal microscopy. MBL participated in study design, supervized DC preparation and helped to draft the manuscript. TA, PR and MG participated in coordination and design of the study and helped to draft the manuscript. EK and CS conceived of the study, participated in all steps of the work and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements and Funding
The study was supported by grants from the "Verein zur Durchführung Neurowissenschaftlicher Tagungen e.V" and the DFG through an SFB581 project for AD and MBL. We thank Thomas Elpel for the preparation of NM and DAM. Publication costs were covered by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft http://www.dfg.de and the University of Würzburg http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de by the funding programme "Open Access Publishing." The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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Wishlist Functionality Makes a Great Online Marketing Tool
Posted by prussakov under Online Marketing
From http://www.amnavigator.com 108 days ago
Made Hot by: BizWise on January 30, 2013 5:48 pm
The Internet has turned the classic definition of the word around, turning it into "a list of desired items the compiler MAY obtain via putting it together and sharing with friends." Are you using wish lists yet? Chances are that more than 50% of the people who read this question, don't (missing out on a great marketing opportunity)...
However, that wishlist functionality makes a great online marketing tool. Ask Amazon!
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Socio-economic Analysis of Subsistence Farming Practices in South-western Nigeria
Olawamiwa Reuben Adeniyi
Abstract
Limited knowledge is available regarding how the subsistence-oriented agricultural production in Nigeria is practiced in order to provide policy guides for its future development. This study focused on the cropping patterns, enterprise combination and the nature of costs and returns on subsistence farming practices with a view to determining the major variables affecting the farm’s economic performance. Data analyzed were obtained from farm survey covering the two major vegetation zones in south western Nigeria. Frequency tables, correlation matrix and regression were used as analytical tools. Results showed that subsistence farming is not absolutely un-profitable but for the fact that farmers operate at sub-optimal levels. Farmers believed that farming was profitable by their subjective evaluation and because it satisfies their subsistence needs. Organized and guided programmes of increasing farm size; reducing labour cost and improving farming techniques could serve as saviours to enhance income on subsistence farms.
Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.5539/sar.v2n1p104
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Sustainable Agriculture Research ISSN 1927-050X (Print) ISSN 1927-0518 (Online)
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"warc_url": "http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/corine-land-cover-2006-by-country/kosovo"
}
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Theory of the Earth: Part 2 (historical)
Theory of the Earth: Part 2 (historical)
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Cutler J. Cleveland
Title: Theory of the Earth
Author: James Hutton
Published in: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. I, Part II, pp.209-304, plates I and II.
Edition Used: Edinburgh: Printed for J. Dickson, Bookseller to the Royal Society. Sold in London by T. Cadell, in the Strand.
First published: 1788
Part II: An Investigation of the Natural Operations employed in consolidating the Strata of the Globe
THERE are just two ways in which porous or spongy bodies can be consolidated, and by which substances may be formed into masses of a natural shape and regular structure; the one of these is simple congelation from a fluid state, by means of cold; the other is accretion; and this includes a separatory operation, as well as that by which the solid body is to be produced. But, in whichever of these ways solidity is to be procured, it must be brought about by first inducing fluidity, either immediately by the action of heat, or mediately with the assistance of a solvent, that is, but the operation of solution.
THUS, fire and water may be considered as the general agents in this operation which we would explore. We are, therefore, to consider well, what may be the consequences of consolidation by the one or other of those agents; and what may be their several powers with respect to this operation.
IF we are not informed in this branch of science, we may gaze without instruction upon the most convincing proofs of what we want to attain. If our knowledge is imperfect, we may form erroneous principles, and deceive ourselves in reasoning with regard to those works of nature, which are wisely calculated for our instruction.
THE strata, formed at the bottom of the sea, are to be considered as having been consolidated, either by aqueous solution and crystallization, or by the effect of heat and fusion. If it is in the first of these two ways that the solid strata of the globe have attained to their present state, there will be a certain uniformity observable in the effects; and there will be general laws, by which this operation must have been conducted. Therefore, knowing those general laws, and making just observations with regard to the natural appearances of those consolidated masses, a philosopher, in his closet, should be able to determine, what may, and what may not have been transacted in the bowels of the earth , or below the bottom of the ocean.
LET us now endeavour to ascertain what may have been the power of water, acting under fixed circumstances, operating upon known substances, and conducting to a certain end.
THE action of water upon all different substances is an operation with which we are familiar. We have it in our power to apply water in different degrees of heat for the solution of bodies, and under various degrees of compression; consequently, there is no reason to conclude any thing mysterious in the operations of the globe, which are to be performed by means of water, unless an immense compressing power should alter the nature of those operations. But compression alters the relation of evaporation only with regard to heat, or it changes the degree of heat which water may be made to contain; consequently, we are to look for no occult quality in water acting upon bodies at the bottom of the deepest ocean, more than what can be observed in experiments which we have it in our power to try.
WITH regard again to the effect of time. Though the continuance of time may do much in those operations which are extremely slow, where no changes, to our observation, had appeared to take place; yet, where it is not in the nature of things to produce the change in question, the unlimited course of time would be no more effectual, than the moment by which we measure events in our observations.
WATER being the general medium in which bodies collected at the bottom of the sea are always contained, if those masses of collected matter are to be consolidated by solution, it must be by the dissolution of those bodies in that water as a menstruum, and by the concretion or crystallization of this dissolved matter, that the spaces, first occupied by water in those masses, are afterwards to be filled with a hard and solid substance; but without some other power, by which the water contained in those cavities and endless labyrinths of the strata, should be separated in proportion as it had performed its task, it is inconceivable how those masses, however changed from the state of their first subsidence, should be absolutely consolidated, without a particle of fluid water in their composition.
BESIDES this difficulty of having the water separated from the porous masses which are to be consolidated, there is another with which, upon this supposition, we have to struggle. This is, From whence should come the matter with which the numberless cavities in those masses are to be filled?
THE water in the cavities and interstices of those bodies composing strata, must be in a stagnating state; consequently, it can only act upon the surfaces of those cavities which are to be filled up. But with what are they to be filled? Not with water; they are full of this already: Not with the substance of the bodies which contain that water; this would be only to make one cavity in order to fill up another. If, therefore, the cavities of the strata are to be filled with solid matter, but means of water, there must be made to pass through those porous masses, water impregnated with some other substances in a dissolved state; and the aqueous menstruum must be made to separate from the dissolved substance, and to deposit the same in those cavities through which the solution moves.
BY such a supposition as this, we might perhaps explain a partial consolidation of those strata; but this is a supposition, of which the case under consideration does not admit; for in the present case, which is that of materials accumulated at the bottom of the ocean, there is not proper means for separating the dissolved matter from the water included in those enormous masses; nor are there any means by which a circulation in those masses may be formed. In this case, therefore, where the means are not naturally in the supposition, a philosopher, who is to explain the phaenomenon by the natural operation of water in this situation, must not have recourse to another agent, still more powerful, to assist his supposition, which cannot be admitted.
THUS, it will appear, that, to consolidate strata formed at the bottom of the sea, in the manner now considered, operations are required unnatural to this place; consequently , not to be supposed in order to support a hypothesis.
BUT now, instead of enquiring how far water may be supposed instrumental in the consolidation of the strata which were originally of loose texture, we are to consider how far there may be appearances in those consolidated bodies, by which it might be concluded, whether or not the present state of their consolidation has been actually brought about by means of that agent.
IF water had been the menstruum by which the consolidating matter was introduced into the interstices of strata, masses of those bodies could only be found consolidated with such substances as water is capable of dissolving; and these substances would be found only in such a state as the simple separation of the dissolving water might produce.
IN this case, the consolidation of strata would be extremely limited; for we cannot allow more power to water than we find it has in nature; nor are we to imagine to ourselves unlimited powers in bodies, on purpose to explain those appearances, by which we should be made to know the powers of nature. Let us, therefore, attend, with every possible circumspection, to the appearances of those bodies, by means of which we are to investigate the principles of mineralogy, and know the laws of nature.
THE question now before us concerns the consolidating substances of strata. Are these such as will correspond to the dissolving power of water, and to the state in which those substances might be left by the separation of their menstruum? No; far, far from this supposition is the conclusion that necessarily follows from natural appearances.
WE have strata consolidated by calcareous spar, a thing perfectly distinguishable from the stalactical concretion of calcareous earth, in consequence of aqueous solution. We have strata made solid by the formation of fluor, a substance not soluble, so far as we know, by water. We have strata consolidated with sulphureous and bituminous substances, which do not correspond to the solution of water. We have strata consolidated with siliceous matter, in a state totally different from that under which it has been observed, on certain occasions, to be deposited by water. We have strata consolidated by feldspar, a substance insoluble in water. We have strata consolidated by almost all the various metallic substances, with their almost endless mixtures and sulphureous compositions; that is to say, we find, perhaps, every different substance introduced into the interstices of strata which had been formed by subsidence at the bottom of the sea.
IF it is by means of water that those interstices have been filled with those materials, water must be, like fire, an universal solvent, or cause of fluidity, and we must change entirely our opinion of water in relation to its chemical character. But there is no necessity thus to violate our chemical principles, in order to explain certain natural appearances; more especially if those appearances may be explained in another manner, consistently with the known laws of nature.
IF, again, it is by means of heat and fusion that the loose and porous structure of strata shall be supposed to have been consolidated, then every difficulty which had occurred in reasoning upon the power or agency of water is at once removed. The loose and discontinuous body of a stratum may be closed by means of softness and compression; the porous structure of the materials may be consolidated, in a similar manner, by the fusion of their substance; and foreign matter may be introduced into the open structure of strata, in form of steam or exhalation, as well as in the fluid state of fusion; consequently, heat is an agent competent for the consolidation of strata, which water alone is not. If, therefore, such an agent could be found acting in the natural place of strata, we must pronounce it proper to bring about that end.
THE examination of nature gives countenance to this supposition, so far as strata are found consolidated by every species of substance, and almost every possible mixture of those different substances; consequently, however difficulty it may appear to have this application of heat, for the purpose of consolidating strata formed at the bottom of the ocean, we cannot, from natural appearances, suppose any other cause, as having actually produced the effects which are now examined.
THIS question, with regard to the means of consolidating the strata of the globe, is, to natural history, of the greatest importance; and it is essential in the theory now proposed to be given of the mineral system. It would, therefore, require to be discussed with some degree of precision, in examining the particulars; but of these, there is so great a field, and the subject is so complicated in its nature, that volumes might be written upon particular branches only, without exhausting what might be said upon the subject; because the evidence, though strong in many particulars, is chiefly to be enforced by a multitude of facts, conspiring, in a diversity of ways, to point out one truth, and by the impossibility of reconciling all these facts, except by means of one supposition.
BUT, as it is necessary to give some proof of that which is to be a principle in our reasoning afterwards, I shall now endeavour to generalize the subject as much as possible, in order to answer that end, and, at the same time, to point out the particular method of enquiry.
THERE are to be found, among the various strata of the globe, bodies formed of two different kinds of substances, siliceous bodies, and those which may be termed sulphureous. With one or other, or both of those two substances, every different consolidated stratum of the globe will be found so intimately mixed, or closely connected, that it must be concluded, by whatever cause those bodies of siliceous and sulphureous matter had been changed from a fluid to a concreted state, the strata must have been similarly affected by the same cause.
THESE two species of bodies, therefore, the siliceous and the sulphureous, may now be examined, in relation to the causes of their concretion, with a view to determine, what has been the general concreting or consolidating power, which has operated universally in the globe; and particularly to shew, it has not been by means of any fluid solution, that strata in general have been consolidated, or that those particular substances have been crystallized and concreted.
SILICEOUS matter, physically speaking, is not soluble in water; that is to say, in no manner of way have we been enabled to learn, that water has the power of dissolving this matter.
MANY other substances, which are so little soluble in water, that their solubility could not be otherwise detected of themselves, are made to appear soluble by means of siliceous matter; such is fel-spar, one of the component parts of rock-granite.
FELD-SPAR is a compound of siliceous, argillaceous, and calcareous earth, intimately united together. This compound siliceous body being, for ages, exposed to the weather, the calcareous part of it is dissolved, and the siliceous part is left in form of a soft white earth. But whether this dissolution is performed by pure water, or by means also of an acid, may perhaps be questioned. This, however, is certain, that we must consider siliceous substances as insoluble in water.
THE water of Giezer in Iceland undoubtedly contains this substance in solution; but there is no reason to believe, that it is here dissolved by any other than natural means; that is, an alkaline substance, by which siliceous bodies may be rendered soluble in water.
IT may be, therefore, asserted, that no siliceous body having the hardness of flint, nor any crystallization of that substance, has ever been formed, except by fusion. If, by any art, this substance shall be dissolved in simple water, or made to crystallize from any solution, in that case, the assertion which has been here made may be denied. But where there is not the vestige of any proof, to authorise the supposition of flinty matter being dissolved by water, or crystallized from that solution, such an hypothesis cannot be admitted, in opposition to general and evident appearances.
BESIDES this proof for the fusion of siliceous bodies, which is indirect, arising from the indissolubility of that substance in water, there is another, which is more direct, being founded upon appearances which are plainly inconsistent with any other supposition, except that of simple fluidity induced by heat. The proof I mean is, the penetration of many bodies with a flinty substance, which, according to every collateral circumstance, must have been performed by the flinty matter in a simply fluid state, and not in a state of dissolution by a solvent.
THESE are flinty bodies perfectly insulated in strata both of chalk and sand. It requires but inspection to be convinced. It is not possible that flinty matter could be conveyed into the middle of those strata, by a menstruum in which it was dissolved, and thus deposited in that place, without the smallest trace of deposition in the surrounding parts.
BUT, besides this argument taken from what does not appear, the actual form in which those flinty masses are found, demonstrates, first, That they have been introduced among those strata in a fluid state, by injection from some other place. 2dly, That they have been dispersed in a variety of ways among those strata, then deeply immersed at the bottom of the sea; and, lastly, That they have been there congealed from the state of fusion, and have remained in that situation, while those strata have been removed from the bottom of the ocean to the surface of the present land.
TO describe those particular appearances would draw this paper beyond the bounds of an essay. We must, therefore, refer those who would enquire more minutely into the subject, to examine the chalk-countries of France and England, in which the flint is found variously formed; the sand-hills interspersed among those chalk-countries, which have been also injected by melted flint; and the pudding-stone of England, which I have not seen in its natural situation. More particularly, I would recommend an examination of the insulated masses of stone, found in the sand-hills by the city of Brussels; a stone which is formed by an injection of flint among sand, similar to that which, in a body of gravel, had formed the pudding-stone of England. [Accurate descriptions of those appearances, with drawings, would be, to natural history, a valuable acquisition].
ALL these examples would require to be examined upon the spot, as a great part of the proof for the fusion of the flinty substances, arises, in my opinion, from the form in which those bodies are found, and the state of the surrounding parts. But there are specimens brought from many different places, which contain, in themselves, the most evident marks of this injection of the flinty substance in a fluid state. These are pieces of fossil wood, penetrated with a siliceous substance, which are brought from England, Germany, and Lochneagh in Ireland.
IT appears from these specimens, that there has sometimes been a prior penetration of the body of wood, either with irony matter, or calcareous substance. Sometimes, again, which is the case with that of Lochneagh, there does not seem to have been any penetration of those two substances. The injected flint appears to have penetrated the body of this wood, immersed at the bottom of the sea, under an immense compression of water. This appears from the wood being penetrated partially, some parts not being penetrated at all.
NOW, in the limits between those two parts, we have the most convincing proof, that it had been flint in a simple fluid state which had penetrated the wood, and not in a state of solution.
First, BECAUSE, however little of the wood is left unpenetrated, the division is always distinct between the injected part of that which is not penetrated by the fluid flint. In this case, the flinty matter has proceeded a certain length, which is marked, and no farther; and, beyond this boundary, there is no partial impregnation, nor a gradation of the flintifying operation, as must have been the case if siliceous matter had been deposited from a solution. 2dly, The termination of the flinty impregnation has assumed such a form, precisely, as would naturally happen from a fluid flint penetrating that body.
IN other specimens of this mineralizing operation, fossil wood, penetrated, more of less, with ferruginous and calcareous substances, has been afterwards penetrated with a flinty substance. In this case, with whatever different substances the woody body shall be supposed to have been penetrated in a state of solution by water, the regular structure of the plant would still have remained, with its vacuities variously filled with the petrifying substances, separated from the aqueous menstruum, and deposited in the vascular structure of the wood.
THERE cannot be a doubt with regard to the truth of this proposition; for as it is, we frequently find parts of the consolidated wood, with the vascular structure remaining perfectly in the natural shape and situation; but if it had been by aqueous solution that the wood had been penetrated and consolidated, all the parts of that body would be found in the same natural shape and situation.
THIS, however, is far from being the case; for while, in some parts, the vascular structure is preserved entire, it is also evident, that, in general, the woody structure is variously broken and dissolved by the fusion and crystallization of the flint. There are so many and such various convincing examples of this, that, to attempt to describe them, would be to exceed the bounds prescribed for this dissertation; but such specimens are in my possession, ready for the inspection of any person who may desire to study the subject.
WE may now proceed to consider sulphureous substances, with regard to their solubility in water, and to the part which these bodies have acted in consolidating the strata of the globe.
THE sulphureous substances here meant to be considered, are substances not soluble in water, so far as we know, but fusible by heat, and inflammable by means of heat and vital air. These substances are of two kinds; the one more simple, the other more compound.
THE most simple kind is composed of two different substances, viz. phlogiston, with acid or metallic substances; from which result, on the one hand, sulphur, and, on the other, metals, both properly so called. The more compound sort, again, is oily matter, produced by vegetables, and forming bituminous bodies.
THE first of these is found naturally combined with almost all metallic substances, which are then said to be mineralized with sulphur. Now, it is well known, that this mineralizing operation is performed by means of heat or fusion; and there is no person skilled in chemistry that will pretend to say, this may be done by aqueous solution. The combination of iron and sulphur, for example, may easily be performed by fusion; but, by aqueous solution, this particular combination is again resolved, and forms an acido-metallic, that is, a vitriolic substance, after the phlogiston (which refuses aqueous solution) has been separated from the composition, by means of the joint operation of vital air.
THE variety of these sulphureo-metallic substances, in point of composition, is almost indefinite; but, unless they were all soluble in water, this could not have happened by the action of that solvent. If we shall allow any one of those bodies to have been formed by the fluidity of heat, they must all have been formed in the same manner; for there is such a chain of connection among those bodies in the mineral regions, that they must all have been composed, either, on the one hand, by aqueous solution, or, on the other, by means of heat and fusion.
HERE, for example, are crystallized together in one mass, first, Pyrites, containing sulphur, iron copper; 2dly, Blend, a composition of iron, sulphur, and calamine; 3rdly, Galena, consisting of lead and sulphur; 4thly, Marmor metallicum, being the terra ponderosa, saturated with the vitriolic acid; a substance insoluble in water; 5thly, Fluor, a saturation of calcareous earth, with a peculiar acid, called the acid of spar, also insoluble in water; 6thly, Calcareous spar, of different kinds, being calcareous earth saturated with fixed air, and something besides, which forms a variety in this substance; lastly, Siliceous substances, or Quartz crystals. All these bodies, each possessing its proper shape, are mixed in such a manner as it would be endless to describe, but which may be expressed in general by saying, that they are mutually contained in, and contain each other.
UNLESS, therefore, every one of these different substances may be dissolved in water, and crystallized from it, it is in vain to look for the explanation of these appearances in the operations of nature, by the means of aqueous solution.
ON the other hand, heat being capable of rendering all these substances liquid, they may be, with the greatest simplicity, transported from one place to another; and they may be made to concrete altogether, at the same time, and distinctly separate in any place. Hence, for the explanation of those natural appearances, which are so general, no further conditions are required, than the supposition of a sufficient intensity of subterraneous fire or heat, and a sufficient degree of compression upon those bodies, which are to be subjected to that violent heat, without calcination or change. But, so far as this supposition is not gratuitous, the appearances of nature will be thus explained.
I SHALL only mention one specimen, which must appear most decisive of the question. It is, I believe, from an Hungarian mine. In this specimen, petro-silex, pyrites, and cinnabar, are so mixed together, and crystallized upon each other, that it is impossible to conceive any one of those bodies to have had its fluidity and concretion from a cause which had not affected the other two. Now, let those who would deny the fusion of this siliceous body explain how water could dissolved these three different bodies, and deposit them in their present shape. If, on the contrary, they have not the least shadow of reason for such gratuitous supposition, the present argument must be admitted in its full force.
SULPHUR and metals are commonly found combined in the mineral regions. But this rule is not universal; for they are also frequently in a separate state. There is not, perhaps, a metal, among the great number which are now discovered, that may not be found native, as they are called, or in their metallic state.
METALLIC substances are also thus found in some proportion to the disposition of the particular metals, to resist the mineralizing operations, and to their facility of being metallized by fire and fusion. Gold, which refuses to be mineralized with sulphur, is found generally in its native state. Iron, again, which is so easily mineralized and scorified, is seldom found its malleable state. The other metals are all found more of less mineralized, though some of them but rarely in the native state.
BESIDES being found with circumstances thus corresponding to the natural facility, or to the impediments attending the metallization of those different calces, the native metals are also found in such a shape, and with such marks, as can only agree with the fusion of those bodies; that is to say, those appearances are perfectly irreconcileable with any manner of solution and precipitation.
FOR the truth of this assertion, among a thousand other examples, I appeal to that famous mass of native iron, discovered by Mr PALLAS, in Siberia. This mass being so well known to all the mineralists of Europe, any comment upon its shape and structure will be unnecessary[1].
WE come now to the second species of inflammable bodies called oily or bituminous. These substances are also found variously mixed with mineral bodies, as well as forming strata of themselves; they are, therefore, a proper subject for a particular examination.
IN the process of vegetation, there are produced oily and resinous substances; and from the collection of these substances at the bottom of the ocean, there are formed strata, which have been variously changed, in consequence of the effects of that heat, according as the distillation of the more volatile parts of those bodies has been suffered to proceed.
IN order to understand this, it must be considered that, while immersed in water, and under insuperable compression, the vegetable, oily, and resinous substances, would appear to be unalterable by heat; and it is only in proportion as certain chemical separations take place, that these inflammable bodies are changed in their substance by the application of heat. Now, the most general change of this kind is in consequence of evaporation, or the distillation of their more volatile parts, by which oily substances become bituminous, and bituminous substances become coaly.
THERE is here a gradation which may best understood by comparing the extremes.
ON the one hand, we know by experiment, that oily and bituminous substances can be melted and partly changed into vapour by heat, and that they become harder and denser, in proportion as the more volatile parts have evaporated from them. On the other hand, coaly substances are destitute of fusibility and volatility, in proportion as they have been exposed to greater degrees of heat, and to other circumstances favourable to the dissipation of their more volatile and fluid parts.
IF, therefore, in mineral bodies, we find the two extreme states of this combustible substance, and also the intermediate states, we must either conclude, that this particular operation of heat has been thus actually employed in nature, or we must explain those appearances by some other means, in as satisfactory a manner, and so as shall be consistent with other appearances.
IN this case, it will avail nothing to have recourse to the false analogy of water dissolving and crystallizing salts, which has been so much employed for the explanation of other mineral appearances. The operation here in question is of a different nature, and necessarily requires both the powers of heat and proper conditions for evaporation.
THEREFORE, in order to decide the point, with regard to what is the power in nature by which mineral bodies have become solid, we have but to find bituminous substance in the most complete state of coal, intimately connected with some other substance, which is more generally found consolidating the strata, and assisting in the concretion of mineral substances. But I have in my possession the most undoubted proof of this kind. It is a mineral vein, or cavity, in which are blended together coal of the most fixed kind, quartz and marmor metallicum. Nor is this all; for the specimen now referred to is contained in a rock of this kind, which every naturalist now-a-days will allow to have congealed from a fluid state of fusion. I have also similar specimens from the same place, in which the coal is not of that fixed and infusible kind, which burns without flame or smoak, but is bituminous or inflammable coal.
WE have hitherto been resting the argument upon a single point, for the sake of simplicity or clearness, not for want of those circumstances which shall be found to corroborate the theory. The strata of fossil coal are found in almost every intermediate state, as well as in those of bitumen and charcoal. Of the one kind is that fossil coal which melts or becomes fluid upon receiving heat; of the other, is that species of coal, found both in Wales and Scotland, which is perfectly infusible in the fire, and burns like coaks, without flame or smoak. The one species abounds in oily matter, the other has been distilled by heat, until it has become a caput mortuum, or perfect coal.
THE more volatile parts of these bituminous bodies are found in their separate state on some occasions. There is a stratum of limestone in Fifeshire near Raith, which, though but slightly tinged with a black colour, contains bituminous matter, like pitch, in many cavities, which are lined with calcareous spar crystallized. I have a specimen of such a cavity, in which the bitumen is in sphericles, or rounded drops, immersed in the calcareous spar.
NOW, it is to be observed, that, if the cavity in the solid limestone or marble, which is lined with calcareous crystals containing pyrites, had been thus encrusted by means of the filtration of water, this water must have dissolved calcareous spar, pyrites and bitumen. But these natural appearances would not even be explained by this dissolution and supposed filtration of those substances. There is also required, first, a cause for the separation of those different substances, form the aqueous menstruum in which they had been dissolved: 2dly, An explanation of the way in which a dissolved bitumen should be formed into round hard bodies of the most solid structure; and, lastly, Some probable means for this complicated operation being performed, below the bottom of the ocean, in the close cavity of a marble stratum.
THUS, the additional proof, from the facts relating to the bituminous substances, conspiring with that from the phaenomena of other bodies, affords the strongest corroboration of this opinion, that the various concretions found in the internal parts of strata have not been occasioned by means of aqueous solution, but by the power of heat and operation of simple fusion, preparing those different substances to concrete and crystallize in cooling.
THE arguments which have been now employed for proving that strata have been consolidated by the power of heat, or by the means of fusion, have been drawn chiefly from the insoluble nature of those consolidating substances in relation to water, which is the only general menstruum that can be allowed for the mineral regions. But there are found in the mineral kingdom, many solid masses of sal gem, which is a soluble substance. It may be now enquired, how far these masses, which are not unfrequent in the earth, tend either to confirm the present theory, or, on the contrary, to give countenance to that which supposes water the chief instrument in consolidating strata.
THE formation of salt at the bottom of the sea, without the assistance of subterranean fire, is not a thing unsupposable, as at first sight it might be. Let us but suppose a rock place across the gut of Gibraltar, (a case nowise unnatural), and the bottom of the Mediterranean would be certainly filled with salt, because the evaporation from the surface of that sea exceeds the measure of its supply.
BUT strata of salt, formed in this manner at the bottom of the sea, are as far from being consolidated by means of aqueous solution, as a bed of sand in the same situation; and we cannot explain the consolidation of such a stratum of salt by means of water, without supposing subterranean heat employed, to evaporate the brine which would successively occupy the interstices of the saline crystals. But this, it may be observed, is equally departing from the natural operation of water, as the means for consolidating the sediment of the ocean, as if we were to suppose the same thing done by heat and fusion. For the question is not, if subterranean heat be of sufficient intensity for the purpose of consolidating strata by the fusion of their substances; the question, is whether it be by means of this agent, subterranean heat, or by water alone, without the operation of a melting heat, that those materials have been variously consolidated.
THE example now under consideration, consolidated mineral salt, will serve to throw some light upon the subject; for as it is to be shewn, that this body of salt had been consolidated by perfect fusion, and not by means of aqueous solution, the consolidation of strata of dissoluble substances, by the operation of a melting heat, will meet with all that confirmation which the consistency of natural appearances can give.
THE rock salt in Cheshire lies in strata of red marl. It is horizontal in its direction. I do not know its thickness, but it is dug thirty or forty feet deep. The body of this rock is perfectly solid, and the salt, in many places, pure, colourless and transparent, breaking with a sparry cubical structure. But the greatest part is tinged by the admixture of the marl, and that in various degrees, from the slightest tinge of red, to the most perfect opacity. Thus, the rock appears as if it had been a mass of fluid salt, in which had been floating a quantity of marly substance, not uniformly mixed, but every where separating and subsiding from the pure saline substance.
THERE is also to be observed a certain regularity in this separation of the tinging from the colourless substance, which, at a proper distance, gives to the perpendicular section of the rock a distinguishable figure in its structure. Then looking at this appearance near the bottom of the rock, it, at first, presented me with the figure of regular stratification; but, upon examining the whole mass of rock, I found, that it was only towards the bottom that this stratified appearance took place; and that, at the top of the rock, the most beautiful and regular figure was to be observed; but a figure the most opposite to that of stratification. It was all composed of concentric circles; and these appeared to be the section of a mass, composed altogether of concentric spheres, like those beautiful systems of configuration which agates so frequently present us with in miniature. In about eight or ten feet from the top, the circles growing large, were blended together, and gradually lost their regular appearance, until, at a greater depth, they again appeared in resemblance of a stratification.
THIS regular arrangement of the floating marly substance in the body of salt, which is that of the structure of a coated pebble, or that of concentric spheres, is altogether inexplicable upon any other supposition, than the perfect fluidity or fusion of the salt, and the attractions and repulsions of the contained substances. It is in vain to look, in the operations of solution and evaporation, for that which nothing but perfect fluidity or fusion can explain.
THIS example of a mineral salt congealed from a melted state, may be confirmed from another which I have from Dr BLACK, who suggested it to me. It is an alkaline salt, found in a mineral state, and described in the Philosophical Transactions, anno 1771. But to understand this specimen, something must be premised with regard to the nature of fossil alkali.
THE fossil alkali crystallizes from a dissolved state, in combining itself with a large portion of the water, in the manner of alum; and, in this case, the water is essential to the constitution of that transparent crystalline body; for, upon the evaporation of the water, the transparent salt loses its solidity, and becomes a white powder. If, instead of being gently dried, the crystalline salt is suddenly exposed to a sufficient degree of heat, that is, somewhat more than boiling water, it enters into the state of aqueous fusion, and it boils, in emitting the water by means of which it had been crystallized in the cold, and rendered fluid in that heated state. It is not possible to crystallize this alkaline salt from a dissolved state, without the combination of that quantity of water, nor to separate that water without destroying its crystalline state.
BUT in this mineral specimen, we have a solid crystalline salt, with a structure which, upon fracture, appears to be sparry and radiated, something resembling that of zeolite. It contains no water in its crystallization, but melts in a sufficient heat, without any aqueous fusion. Therefore, this salt must have been in a fluid state of fusion, immediately before its congelation and crystallization.
IT would be endless to give examples of particular facts, so many are the different natural appearances that occur, attended with a variety of different circumstances.
THERE is one, however, which is peculiarly distinct, admits of sufficiently accurate description, and contains circumstances from which conclusions may be drawn with clearness. This is the iron-stone, which is commonly found among the argillaceous strata, attendant upon fossil coal, both in Scotland and in England.
THIS stone is generally found among the bituminous schistus, or black argillaceous strata, either in separate masses of various shapes and sizes, or forming of itself strata with are more or less continuous in their direction among the schistus or argillaceous beds.
THIS mineral contains in general from 40 to 50 per cent. of iron, and it loses near one third of its weight in calcination. Before calcination it is of a gray colour, is not penetrable by water, and takes a polish. In this state, therefore, it is perfectly solid; but being calcined, it becomes red, porous, and tender.
THE fact to be proved with regard to these iron-stones is this, That they have acquired their solid state from fusion, and not in concreting from any aqueous solution.
TO abridge this disquisition, no argument is to be taken from contingent circumstances, (which, however, are often found here as well as in the case of marbles); such only are to be employed as are general to the subject, and arise necessarily from the nature of the operation.
IT will be proper to describe a species of these stones, which is remarkably regular in its form. It is that found at Aberlady in East Lothian.
THE form of these iron-stones is that of an oblate or much compressed sphere, and the size from two or three inches diameter to more than a foot. In the circular or horizontal section, they present the most elegant septarium; and, from the examination of this particular structure, the following conclusions may be drawn.
First, THAT the septa have been formed by the uniform contraction of the internal parts of the stone, the volume of the central parts diminishing more than that of the circumference; by this means, the separations of the stone diminish, in a progression from the centre towards the circumference.
2d, THAT there are only two ways in which the septa must have received the spar with which they are filled, more or less, either, first, By insinuation into the cavity of the septa after these were formed; or, 2dly, By separation from the substance of the stone, at the same time that the septa were forming.
FIG. I. Section of an iron-stone septarium, cut horizontally, as it lies in its bed.
FIG. 2. Another septarium, cut both horizontally and perpendicularly.
FIG. 3. Part of a septarium, the divisions of which are more in straight lines. All these three are of the same dimensions with the specimens. FIG. 4. Part of Fig. 3. representing the portion included within a, b, c, d, which is magnified, in order to show the crystallised cavity of the speta.
(Source: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh)
WERE the first supposition true, appearances would be observable, shewing that the sparry substance had been admitted, either through the porous structure of the stone, or through proper apertures communicating from without. Now, if either one or other of these had been the case, and that the stone had been consolidated from no other cause than concretion from a dissolved state, that particular structure of the stone, by means of which the spar had been admitted, must appear at present upon an accurate examination.
THIS, however, is not the case, and we may rest the argument here. The septa reach not the circumference; the surface of the stone is solid and uniform in every part; and there is not any appearance of the spar in the argillaceous bed around the stone.
IT, therefore, necessarily follows, that the contraction of the iron-stone, in order to form septa, and the filling of these cavities with spar, had proceeded pari passu; and that this operation must have been brought about by means of fusion, or by congelation from a state of simple fluidity and expansion.
IT is only further to be observed, that all the arguments which have been already employed, concerning mineral concretions from a simply fluid state, or that of fusion, here take place. I have septaria of this kind, in which, besides pyrites, iron-ore, calcareous spar, and another that is ferruginous and compound, there is contained siliceous crystals; a case which is not so common. I have them also attended with circumstances of concretion and crystallization, which, besides being extremely rare, are equally curious and interesting.
THERE is one fact more which is well worth our attention, being one of those which are so general in the mineral regions. It is the crystallizations which are found in the close cavities of the most solid bodies.
NOTHING is more common than this appearance. Cavities are everywhere found closely lined with crystallization, of every different substance which may be supposed in those places. These concretions are well known to naturalists, and form part of the beautiful specimens which are preserved in the cabinets of collectors, and which the German mineralists have termed Drusen. I shall only particularize one species, which may be described upon principle, and therefore may be a proper subject on which to reason, for ascertaining the order of production in certain bodies. This body, which we are now to examine, is of the agate species.
WE have now been considering the means employed by nature in consolidating strata which were originally of an open structure; but in perfectly solid strata, we find bodies of agate, which have evidently been formed in that place where they now are found. This fact, however, is not still that of which we are now particularly to enquire; for this, of which we are to treat, concerns only a cavity within this agate; now, whatever may have been the origin of the agate itself, we are to shew, from what appears within its cavity, that the crystallizations which are found in this place had arisen from a simply fluid state, and not from that of any manner of solution.
THE agates now in question are those of the coated kind, so frequent in this country, called pebbles. Many of these are filled with a siliceous crystallization, which evidently proceeds from the circumferences towards the centre. Many of them, again, are hollow. Those cavities are variously lined with crystallized substances; and these are the object of the present examination.
BUT before describing what is found within, it is necessary to attend to this particular circumstance, that the cavity is perfectly inclosed with many solid coats, impervious to air or water, but particularly with the external cortical part, which is extremely hard, takes the highest polish, and is of the most perfect solidity, admitting the passage of nothing but light and heat.
WITHIN these cavities, we find, first, The coat of crystals with which this cavity is always lines; and this is general to all substances concreting, in similar circumstances, from a state of fusion; for when thus at liberty they naturally crystallize. 2dly, We have frequently a subsequent crystallization, set upon the first, and more or less immersed in it. 3dly, There is also sometimes a third crystallization, superincumbent on the second, and in like manner as the second is on the first. I shall mention some particulars.
I HAVE one specimen, in which the primary crystals are siliceous, the secondary thin foliaceous crystals of deep red but transparent iron-ore, forming elegant figures, that have the form of roses. The tertiary crystallization is a frosting of small siliceous crystals upon the edges of the foliaceous crystals.
IN other specimens, there is first a lining of colourless siliceous crystals, then another lining of amethystine crystals, and sometimes within that, fuliginous crystals. Upon these fuliginous and amethystine crystals are many sphericles or hemispheres of red compact iron-ore, like haematites.
IN others, again, the primary crystals are siliceous, and the secondary calcareous. Of this kind, I have one which has, upon the calcareous crystals, beautiful transparent siliceous crystals, and iron-sphericles upon these.
Lastly, I HAVE an agate formed of various red and white coats, and beautifully figured. The cavity within the coated part of the pebble is filled up without vacuity, first, with colourless siliceous crystals; secondly, with fuliginous crystals; and, lastly, with white or colourless calcareous spar. But between the spar and crystals there are many sphericles, seemingly of iron, half sunk into each of these two different substances.
FROM these facts, I may now be allowed to draw the following conclusions:
First, THAT concretion had proceeded from the surface of the agate body inwards. This necessarily follows from the nature of those figured bodies, the figures of the external coats always determining the shape of those within, and never, contrarily, those within affecting those without.
2dly, THAT when the agate was formed, the cavity then contained everything which now is found within it, and nothing more.
3dly, THAT the contained substances must have been in a fluid state, in order to their crystallizing.
Lastly, THAT as this fluid state had not been the effect of solution in a menstruum, it must have been fluidity from heat and fusion.
THERE are in jaspers and agates many other appearances, from whence this last conclusion may be formed with great certainty and precision; but it is hoped, that what has been now given may suffice for establishing that proposition without any doubt.
IT must not here be objected, that there are frequently found siliceous crystals and amethysts containing water; and that it is impossible to confine water even in melted glass. It is true, that here, at the surface of the earth, melted glass cannot, in ordinary circumstances, be made to receive and inclose condensed water; but let us only suppose a sufficient degree of compression in the body of melted glass, and we can easily imagine it to receive and confine water, as well as any other substance. But if, even in our operations, water, by means of compression, may be made to endure the heat of red hot iron without being converted into vapour, what may not the power of nature be able to perform? The place of mineral operations is not on the surface of the earth; and we are not to limit nature with our imbecility, or estimate the powers of nature by the measure of our own.
TO conclude this long chemico-mineral disquisition, I have specimens in which the mixture of calcareous, siliceous and metallic substances, in almost every species of concretion which is to be found in mineral bodies, may be observed, and in which there is exhibited, in miniature, almost every species of mineral transaction, which, in nature, is found upon a scale of grandeur and magnificence. They are nodules contained in the whinstone, porphyry, or basaltes of the Calton-hill, by Edinburgh; a body which is to be afterwards examined, when it will be found to have flowed, and to have been in fusion, by the operation of subterranean heat.
THIS evidence, though most conclusive with regard to the application of subterranean heat, as the means employed in bringing into fusion all the different substances with which strata may be found consolidated, is not directly a proof that strata had been consolidated by the fusion of their proper substance. It was necessary to see the general nature of the evidence, for the universal application of subterranean heat, in the fusion of every kind of mineral body. Now, that this has been done, we may give examples of strata consolidated without the introduction of foreign matter, merely by the softening or fusion of their own materials.
FOR this purpose, we may consider two different species of strata, such as are perfectly simple in their nature, of the most distinct substances, and whose origin is perfectly understood, consequently, whose subsequent changes may be reasoned upon with certainty and clearness. These are the siliceous and calcareous strata; and these are the two prevailing substances of the globe, all the rest being, in comparison of these, as nothing; for unless it be the bituminous or coal strata, there is hardly any other which does not necessarily contain more or less of one of other of these two substances. If, therefore, it can be shewn, that both of those two general strata have been consolidated by the simple fusion of their substance, no desideratum or doubt will remain, with regard to the nature of that operation which has been transacted at great depths of the earth, places to which all access is denied to mortal eyes.
WE are now to prove, first, That those strata have been consolidated by simple fusion; and, 2dly, That this operation is universal, in relation to the strata of the earth, as having produced all various degrees of solidity or hardness in these bodies.
I SHALL first remark, that a fortuitous collection of hard bodies, such as gravel and sand, can only touch in points and cannot, while in that hard state, be made to correspond so precisely to each other's shape as to consolidate the mass. But if these hard bodies should be softened in their substance, or brought into a certain degree of fusion, they might be adapted mutually to each other, and thus consolidate the open structure of the mass. Therefore, to prove the present point, we have but to exhibit specimens of siliceous and calcareous strata which have been evidently consolidated in this manner.
OF the first kind, great varieties occur in this country. It is, therefore, needless to describe these particularly. They are the consolidated strata of gravel and sand, often containing abundance of feld-spar, and thus graduating into granite; a body, in this respect, perfectly similar to the more regular strata which we now examine.
THE second kind, again, are not so common in this country, unless we consider the shells and coralline bodies in our limestones, as exhibiting the same example, which indeed they do. But I have a specimen of marble from Spain, which may be described, and which will afford the most satisfactory evidence of the fact in question.
THIS Spanish marble may be considered as a species of pudding-stone, being formed of calcareous gravel; a species of marble which, from Mr BOWLES'S Natural History, appears to be very common in Spain. The gravel of which this marble is composed, consists of fragments of other marbles of different kinds. Among these, are different species of oolites marble, some shell marbles, and some composed of a chalky substance, or of undistinguishable parts. But it appears, that all these different marbles had been consolidated or made hard, then broken into fragments, rolled and worn by attrition, and thus collected together, along with some sand or small siliceous bodies, into one mass. Lastly, This compound body is consolidated in such a manner as to give the most distinct evidence, that this had been executed by the operation of heat or simple fusion.
THE proof I have is this, That besides the general conformation of those hard bodies, so as to be perfectly adapted to each other's shape, there is, in some places, a mutual indentation of the different pieces of gravel into each other; an indentation which resembles perfectly that junction of the different bones of the cranium, called sutures, and which must have necessarily required a mixture of those bodies while in a soft or fluid state.
THIS appearance of indentation is, by no means, singular or limited to one particular specimen. I have several specimens of different marbles, in which fine examples of this species of mixture may be perceived. But in this particular case of the Spanish pudding-stone, where the mutual indentation is made between two pieces of hard stone, worn round by attrition, the softening or fusion of these two bodies is not simply rendered probable, but demonstrated.
HAVING thus proved, that those strata had been consolidated by simple fusion, as proposed, we now proceed to shew, that this mineral operation had been not only general, as being found in all regions of the globe, but universal, in consolidating our earth in all the various degrees, from loose and incoherent shells and sand, to the most solid bodies of the siliceous and calcareous substances.
TO exemplify this in the various collections and mixtures of sands, gravels, shells and corals, were endless and superfluous. I shall only take, for an example, one simple homogeneous body, in order to exhibit it in the various degrees of consolidation, from the state of simple incoherent earth to that of the most solid marble. It must be evident that this is chalk; naturally a soft calcareous earth, but which may be also found consolidated in every different degree.
THROUGH the middle of the isle of Wight, there runs a ridge of hills of indurated chalk. This ridge runs from the isle of Wight directly west into Dorsetshire, and goes by Corf-castle towards Dorchester, perhaps beyond that place. The sea has broke through this ridge at the west end of the isle of Wight, where columns of the indurated chalk remain, called the needles; the same appearance being found upon the opposite shore in Dorsetshire.
IN this field of chalk, we find every gradation of that soft earthy substance to the most consolidated body of this indurated ridge, which is not solid marble, but which has lost its chalky property, and has acquired a kind of stony hardness.
WE want only further to see this cretaceous substance in its most indurated and consolidated state; and this we have in the north of Ireland, not far from the Giants Causeway. I have examined cargoes of this limestone brought to the west of Scotland, and find the most perfect evidence of this body having been once a mass of chalk, which is now a solid marble.
THUS, if it is by means of fusion that the strata of the earth have been, in many places, consolidated, we must conclude, that all the degrees of consolidation, which are indefinite, have been brought about by the same means.
NOW, that all the strata of the mineral regions, which are those only now examined, have been consolidated in some degree, is a fact for which no proof can be offered here, but must be submitted to experience and enquiry; so far, however, as they shall be considered as consolidated in any degree, which they certainly are in general, we have investigated the means which had been employed in that mineral operation.
WE have now considered the concretions of particular bodies, and the general consolidation of strata; but it may be alleged, that there is a great part of the solid mass of this earth not properly comprehended among those bodies which have been thus proved to be consolidated by means of fusion. The body here alluded to is granite; a mass which is not generally stratified, and which, being a body perfectly solid, and forming some part in the structure of this earth, deserves to be considered.
THE nature of granite, as a part of the structure of the earth, is too intricate a subject to be here considered, where we only seek to prove the fusion of a substance from the evident marks which are to be observed in a body. We shall, therefore, only now consider one particular species of granite; and if this shall appear to have been in a fluid state of fusion, we may be allowed to extend this property to all the kind.
THE species now to be examined comes from the north country, about four or five miles west from Portsoy, on the road to Huntly. I have not been upon the spot, but am informed that this rock is immediately connected or continuous with the common granite of the country. This indeed appears in the specimens which I have got; for, in some of these, there is to be perceived a gradation from the regular to the irregular sort.
THIS rock may indeed by considered, in some respects, as a porphyry; for it has an evident ground, which is feld-spar, in its sparry state; and it is, in one view, distinctly maculated with quartz, which is transparent, but somewhat dark-coloured.
CONSIDERED as a porphyry, this specimen is no less singular than as a granite. For, instead of a siliceous ground, maculated with the rhombic feld-spar, which is the common state of porphyry, the ground is uniformly crystallized, or a homogeneous regular fel-spar, maculated with the transparent siliceous substance. But as, besides the fel-spar and quartz, which are the constituent parts of the stone, there is also mica, in some places, it may, with propriety, be termed a granite.
Source: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
THE singularity of this specimen consists, not in the nature or proportions of its constituent parts, but in the uniformity of the sparry ground, and the regular shape of the quartz mixture. This siliceous substance, viewed in one direction, or longitudinally, may be considered as columnar, prismatical, or continued in lines running nearly parallel. These columnar bodies of quartz are beautifully impressed with a figure on the sides, where they are in contact with the spar. This figure is that of furrows or channels, which are perfectly parallel, and run across the longitudinal direction of the quartz. This is represented in fig. 4. This striated figure is only seen when, by fracture, the quartz is separated from the contiguous spar.
BUT what I would here more particularly represent is, the transverse section of those longitudinal siliceous bodies. These are seen in fig. 1. 2. and 3. They have not only separately the forms of certain typographic characters, but collectively give the regular lineal appearance of types set in writing.
IT is evident from the inspection of this fossil, that the sparry and siliceous substances had been mixed together in a fluid state; and that the crystallization of the sparry substance, which is rhombic, had determined the regular structure of the quartz, at least in some directions.
THUS, the siliceous substance is to be considered as included in the spar, and as figured according to the laws of crystallization proper to the sparry ground; but the spar is also to be found included in the quartz. IT is not, indeed, always perfectly included or inclosed on all sides; but this is sometimes the case, or it appears so in the section. Fig. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. and 10. are those cases magnified, and represent the different figured quartz inclosing the feld-spar. In one of them, the feld-spar, which is contained within the quartz, contains also a small triangle of quartz, which it incloses. Now, it is not possible to conceive any other way in which those two substances, quartz and feld-spar, could be thus concreted, except by congelation from a fluid state, in which they have been mixed.
THERE is one thing more to be observed with regard to this curious species of granite. It is the different order or arrangement of the crystallization or internal structure of the feld-spar ground, in two contiguous parts of the same mass. This to be perceived in the polished surface of the stone, by means of the reflection of light.
THERE is a certain direction in which, viewing the stone, when the light falls with a proper obliquity, we see a luminous reflection from the internal parts of the stone. This arises from the reflecting surfaces of the sparry structure or minute cracks, all turned in one direction, consequently, giving that luminous appearance only in one point of view.
NOW, all the parts of the stone in which the figured quartz is directed in the same manner, or regularly placed in relation to each other, present that shining appearance to the eye at one time, or in the same point of direction. But there are parts of the mass, which, though immediately contiguous and properly continuous, have a different disposition of the figured quartz; and these two distinguished masses, in the same surface of the polished stone, give to the eye their shining appearance in very different directions. Fig. 3 shows two of those figured and shining masses, in the same plane or polished surface.
IT must be evident, that, as the crystallization of the sparry structure is the figuring cause of the quartz bodies, there must be observed a certain correspondency between those two things, the alinement (if I may be allowed the expression) of the quartz, and the shining of the sparry ground. It must also appear, that, at the time of congelation of the fluid spar, those two contiguous portions had been differently disposed in the crystallization of their substance. This is an observation which I have had frequent opportunities of making, with respect to masses of calcareous spar.
UPON the whole, therefore, whether we shall consider granite as a stratum or as an irregular mass, whether as a collection of several material, or as the separation of substances which had been mixed, there is sufficient evidence of this body having been consolidated by means of fusion, and in no other manner.
WE are thus led to suppose, that the power of heat and operation of fusion must have been employed in consolidating strata of loose materials, which had been collected together and amassed at the bottom of the ocean. It will, therefore, be proper to consider, what are the appearances in consolidated strata that naturally should follow, on the one hand, from fluidity having been, in this manner, introduced by means of heat, and, on the other, from the interstices being filled by means of solution; that so we may compare appearances with the one and other of those two suppositions, in order to know that with which they may be only found consistent.
THE consolidation of strata with every different kind of substance was found to be inconsistent with the supposition, that aqueous solution had been the means employed for this purpose. This appearance, on the contrary, is perfectly consistent with the idea, that the fluidity of these bodies had been the effect of heat; for, whether we suppose the introduction of foreign matter into the porous mass of a stratum for its consolidation, or whether we shall suppose the materials of the mass acquiring a degree of softness, by means of which, together with an immense compression, the porous body might be rendered solid; the power of heat, as the cause of fluidity and vapour, is equally proper and perfectly competent. Here, therefore, appearances are as decidedly in favour of the last supposition, as they had been inconsistent with the first.
BUT if strata have been consolidated by means of aqueous solution, these masses should be found precisely in the same state as when they were originally deposited from the water. The perpendicular section of those masses might shew the compression of the bodies included in them, or of which they are composed; but the horizontal section could not contain any separation of the parts of the stratum from one another.
IF, again, strata have been consolidated by means of heat, acting in such a manner as to soften their substance, then, in cooling, they must have formed rents or separations of their substance, by the unequal degrees of contraction which the contiguous strata may have suffered. Here is a most decisive mark by which the present question must be determined.
THERE is not in nature any appearance more distinct than this of the perpendicular fissures and separations in strata. These are generally known to workmen by the terms of veins or backs and cutters; and there is no consolidated stratum that wants these appearances. Here is, therefore, a clear decision of the question, whether it has been by means of heat, or by means of aqueous solution, that collections of loose bodies at the bottom of the sea have been consolidated into the hardest rocks and most perfect marbles.
ERROR never can be consistent, nor can truth fail of having support from the accurate examination of every circumstance. It is not enough to have found appearances decisive of the question, with regard to the two suppositions which have been now considered. we may farther seek confirmation of that supposition which has been found alone consistent with appearances.
IF it be by means of heat and fusion that strata have been consolidated, then, in proportion to the degree of consolidation they have undergone from their original state, they should, caeteris paribus, abound more with separations in their mass. But this conclusion is found consistent with appearances. A stratum of porous sand-stone does not abound so much with veins and cutters as a similar stratum of marble, or even a similar stratum of stand-stone that is more consolidated. In proportion, therefore, as strata have been consolidated, they are in general intersected with veins and cutters; and in proportion as strata are deep in their perpendicular section, the veins are wide, and placed at greater distances. In like manner, when strata are thin, the veins are many, but proportionally narrow.
IT is thus, upon chemical principles, to be demonstrated, that all the solid strata of the globe have been condensed by means of heat, and hardened from a state of fusion. But this proposition is equally to be maintained from principles which are mechanical. The strata of the globe, besides being formed of earths, are composed of sand, of gravel, and fragments of hard bodies, all which may be considered as, in their nature, simple; but these strata are also found composed of bodies which are not simple, but are fragments of former strata, which had been consolidated, and afterwards were broken and worn by attrition, so as to be made gravel. Strata composed in this manner have been again consolidated; and now the question is, by what means?
IF strata composed of such various bodies had been consolidated, by any manner of concretion, from the fluidity of a dissolution, the hard and solid bodies must be found in their entire state, while the interstices between those constituent parts of the stratum are filled up. No partial fracture can be conceived as introduced into the middle of a solid mass of hard matter, without having been communicated from the surrounding parts. But such partial separations are found in the middle of those hard and solid masses; therefore, this compound body must have been consolidated by other means than that of concretion from a state of solution.
THE Spanish marble already described, as well as many consolidated strata of siliceous gravel, of which I have specimens, afford the clearest evidence of this fact. These hard bodies are perfectly united together, in forming the most solid mass; the contiguous parts of some of the rounded fragments are interlaced together, as has already been observed; and there are partial shrinkings of the mass forming veins, traversing several fragments, but perfectly filled with the sparry substance of the mass, and sometimes with parts of the stone distinctly floating in the transparent body of spar. Now, there is not, besides heat or fusion, any known power in nature by which these effects might be produced. But such effects are general to all consolidated masses, although not always so well illustrated in a cabinet specimen.
THUS we have discovered a truth that is confirmed by every appearance, so far as the nature of the subject now examined admits. We now return to the general operation, of forming continents of those materials which had been deposited at the bottom of the sea.
Notes
1. ^ Since this Dissertation was written, M. DE LA PEYROUSE has discovered a native manganese. The circumstances of this mineral are so well adapted for illustrating the present doctrine, and so well related by M. DE LA PEYROUSE, that I should be wanting to the interest of mineral knowledge, were I not to give here that part of his Memoir.
"LORSQUE je fis insérer dans the journal de physique de l'anneée 1780, au mois de Janvier, une Dissertation contenant la classification des mines de manganèse, je ne connoissois point, à cette epoque, la mine de manganèse native. Elle a la couleur de son régule: elle salit les doigts de la même teinte. Son tissu paroit aussi lamelleux, et les lames semblent affecter une sorte de divergence. Elle a ainsi que lui, l'éclat métalllique; comme lui elle se laisse applatir sous le marteau, et s'exfolie si l'on redouble les coups; mais une circonstance qui est trop frappante pour que je l'omette, c'est la figure de la manganèse native, si prodigieusement conforme à celle du régule, qu'on s'y laisseroit tromper, si la mine n'étoit encore dans sa gangue: figure très-essentielle à observer ici, parce qu'elle est due à la nature même de la manganèse. En effect, pour réduire toutes les mines en général, il faut employer divers flux appropriés. Pour la reduction de la manganèse, bien loin d'user de ce moyen, il faut, au contraire, éloigner tout flux, produire la fusion, par la seule violence et la promptetude du feu. Et telle est la propension naturelle et prodigieuse de la manganèse à la vitrification, qu'on n'a pu parvenir encore à réduire son régule en un seul culot; on trouve dans le creuset plusieurs petits boutons, qui forment autant de culots séparés. Dans la mine de manganèse native, elle n'est point en une seule masse; elle est disposée également en plusieurs culots séparés, et un peu applatis, comme ceux que l'art produit; beaucoup plus gros, à la vérité, parce que les agens de la nature doivent avoir une autre énergie, que ceux de nos laboratoires; et cette ressemblance si exacte, semble devoir vous faire penser que la mine native a été produite par le feu, tout comme son régule. La presence de la chaux argentée de la manganèse, me permettroit de croire que la nature n'a fait que réduire cette chaux. Du reste, cette mine native est très-pure, et ne contient aucune partie attirable à l'aimant. Cette mine, unique jusqu'à ce moment, vient, tout comme les autres manganèse que j'ai décrites, des mines de fer de Sem, dans la vallée de Viedersos, en Comté de Foix." Journal de Physique, Janvier 1786.
Translation: When I had included in the journal of physics for the year 1780, in the month of January, a Dissertation containing the classification of the appearances of managese, I did not know, at that time, the appearance of native manganese. It has the colour of its regulus [metallic remains after smelting ore]; it dirties the fingers with the same colour. Its tissue also appears flaky, and the strips appear to develop a sort of divergence. As well, it has a metallic shine. It can be flattened under a hammer and if one increases the blows it exfoliates. But one feature which is too remarkable for me to omit is that the appearance of native manganese is so amazingly close to that of the regulus that one could be mistaken about them, if the mineral was not still in the layer. This appearance is very important to observe here, because it is due to the very nature of manganese. In fact, to reduce all these minerals in general, it is necessary to use various appropriate fluxes. By contrast, for the reduction of manganese, far from using this method, one must give up all flux, and produce fusion, with only the power and swiftness of fire. And so great is the natural propensity of managanese to vitrify, it has not been possible yet to reduce its regulus in one single residue. One finds in the crucible several small buttons which form like so many separate residues. In appearance, native manganese is not in a single mass. It is spread about equally in several separate residues, and a little flattened, like something produced artificially. It is very much bigger, to be sure, because the agents of nature must have had a different energy than those of our laboratories. And this very precise resemblance apparently makes one think that the native mineral has been produced by fire, just as its regulus. The presence of silvery chalk in the manganese allows me to believe that nature has only reduced this chalk. As to the rest, this native mineral is very pure and does not contain any parts attracted by a magnet. This mineral, unique up to this moment, comes, just like the other manganese which I have described, from the iron mines of Senn, in the valley of Viedersos in the country of Foix." Journal of Physics, January 1786.
This is a chapter from Theory of the Earth (historical).
Previous: Part I: Prospect of the Subject to be treated of. | Table of Contents | Next: Part III: Investigation of the Natural Operations employed in the Production of Land above the Surface of the Sea
Citation
Cutler J. Cleveland (Lead Author);Cutler J. Cleveland (Topic Editor) "Theory of the Earth: Part 2 (historical)". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth July 29, 2008; Last revised Date July 29, 2008; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Theory_of_the_Earth:_Part_2_(historical)>
The Author
Cutler J. Cleveland is Professor of Earth and Environment at Boston University, where he also is on the faculty of the Center for Energy and Environmental Studies. Professor Cleveland is Editor-in-Chief of the Encyclopedia of Energy (Elsevier, 2004), winner of an American Library Association award, the Dictionary of Energy (Elsevier, 2005), Handbook of Energy (Elsevier, forthcoming), and is the Founding Editor-in-Chief of the Encyclopedia of Earth. He is the recipient of the Adelma ... (Full Bio)
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Broomfield, KentEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
England Kent England Kent Parishes
Broomfield St Margaret Kent.jpg
Contents
Parish History
BROOMFIELD (St. Margaret), a parish, in the union of Hollingbourn, hundred of Eyhorne, lathe of Aylesford, W. division of Kent, 6 miles (E. S. E.) from Maidstone. [1]
Broomfield is a village and part of the civil parish of Broomfield and Kingswood in the Maidstone district of Kent, see Broomfield Maidstone Wikipedia
The parish of Leeds and Broomfield is in the Diocese of Canterbury and one of the group of churches in the Hollingbourne and Hucking with Leeds and Broomfield benefice.
The Church of St Margaret, Broomfield Road, Broomfield has been designated as a grade II* listed building British listed building
See Edward Hasted The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent: Volume 5 (1798), pp. 502-505 British History Online Kent Churches website
Resources
Civil Registration
This parish was in the Hollingbourne registration district See Maidstone Registration District
Kent County Council (KCC) has a certificate centre at the Mansion House in Tunbridge Wells which holds all the completed registers for Kent since 1 July 1837 and can supply a certified copy of any Kent birth, death or marriage entry from any register within its custody or a Kent civil partnership registration from the government online database.
The Mansion House
(Certificate Centre)
Grove Hill Road
Tunbridge Wells
Kent TN1 1EP
Birth, marriages and deaths were kept by the government, from July 1837 to the present day. The civil registration article tells more about these records. There are several Internet sites with name lists or indexes. A popular site is FreeBMD.
Church records
Kent Online Parish Clerks (OPC)
Original deposited registers are held at:
Centre for Kentish Studies,County Hall,Maidstone,Kent ME14 1XX
From Spring 2012 material formerly held at
Centre for Kentish Studies,County Hall,Maidstone,Kent ME14 1XX
is available at Kent History and Library Centre see Kent Archives which also enables a search of the catalogue for Kent Archives material deposited at Canterbury Cathedral Archives
Family History Library film numbers
Broomfield
Contributor: Include here information for parish registers, Bishop’s Transcripts, non conformist and other types of church records, such as parish chest records.
Census records
Census returns for Bloomfield 1841-1891
FamilySearch Records includes collections of census indexes which can be searched online for free. In addition FamilySearch Centres offer free access to images of the England and Wales Census through FHC Portal Computers here have access to the Family History Centre Portal page which gives free access to premium family history software and websites that generally charge for subscriptions.
[1] to locate local Family History Centres in UK
[2] to locate outside UK.
Many archives and local history collections in public libraries in England and Wales offer online census searches and also hold microfilm or fiche census returns.
Images of the census for 1841-1891 can be viewed in census collections at Ancestry (fee payable) or Find My Past (fee payable)
The 1851 census of England and Wales attempted to identify religious places of worship in addition to the household survey census returns.
Ancestry UK Census Collection
Find my Past census search 1841-1901
Prior to the 1911 census the household schedule was destroyed and only the enumerator's schedule survives.
The 1911 census of England and Wales was taken on the night of Sunday 2 April 1911 and in addition to households and institutions such as prisons and workhouses, canal boats merchant ships and naval vessels it attempted to include homeless persons. The schedule was completed by an individual and for the first time both this record and the enumerator's schedule were preserved.
Two forms of boycott of the census by women are possible due to frustration at government failure to grant women the universal right to vote in parliamentary and local elections. The schedule either records a protest by failure to complete the form in respect of the women in the household or women are absent due to organisation of groups of women staying away from home for the whole night. Research estimates that several thousand women are not found by census search.
Find my Past 1911 census search
Poor Law Unions
Hollingbourne Poor Law Union, Kent
Probate records
Records of wills, administrations, inventories, indexes, etc. were filed by the court with jurisdiction over this parish. Go to Kent Probate Records to find the name of the court having primary jurisdiction. Scroll down in the article to the section Court Jurisdictions by Parish.
See England, Kent, Wills and Probate (FamilySearch Historical Records)
Local Family History Centre
Maidstone Family History Centre, Kent
Maps and Gazetteers
Maps are a visual look at the locations in England. Gazetteers contain brief summaries about a place.
Web sites
Reference
1. Lewis, Samuel A., A Topographical Dictionary of England(1848), pp. 400-405.
Need additional research help? Contact our research help specialists.
Need wiki, indexing, or website help? Contact our product teams.
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• This page was last modified on 11 April 2013, at 19:59.
• This page has been accessed 277 times.
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file extensions .pwc7 and .wbc
Go4Expert Member
28Sep2009,19:01 #1
what does the file extentsions .pwc7 and .wbc mean?
~ Б0ЯИ Τ0 С0δЭ ~
28Sep2009,19:44 #2
Not sure abt pwc7, but wbc extension can be one of the following :
WinBatch Script File : File extension is used by WinBatch. File contains encoded script.
WebShots File : File extension used by Webshots. File contains picture image.
Source : www.File-Extensions.org
smj01 likes this
Go4Expert Member
28Sep2009,19:59 #3
i love this forum
nothing like: "GOOGLE IT FAGGOT!!!", just help and source for next occasion... nice
Go4Expert Member
29Sep2009,00:35 #4
Thank you so much! I really appreciate the help.
Exile, you're absolutely right. I was on one "techie" website and I asked a question. My response from someone was http://www.nexttimejustf'ingoogleit.com (of course the "F" word was spelled out. Needless to say I don't go to that site anymore.
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"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:e0b97635-da0a-4bc9-8d17-79a0c65b1bce>",
"warc_url": "http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?552"
}
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Bibliography: Wizard's First Rule
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Title: Wizard's First Rule
Author: Terry Goodkind
Year: 1994
Type: NOVEL
Series: Sword of Truth
Series Number: 1
Language: English
Wikipedia Entry: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizard%27s_First_Rule
ISFDB Record Number: 552
User Rating: This title has fewer than 5 votes. VOTE
Current Tags: None Add Tags
Awards:
Publications:
Reviews:
Copyright (c) 1995-2011 Al von Ruff.
ISFDB Engine - Version 4.00 (04/24/06)
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"uncompressed_offset": 536475938,
"url": "www.libreoffice.org/download/?lang=st&type=rpm-x86_64&version=3.6.4",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T14:52:02.000Z",
"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:e0b97635-da0a-4bc9-8d17-79a0c65b1bce>",
"warc_url": "http://www.libreoffice.org/download/?type=rpm-x86_64&lang=st&version=3.6.4"
}
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The free office suite
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LibreOffice Linux - rpm (x86_64), version 3.6.4, Southern Sotho. Not the version you wanted? Change System, Version or Language
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:13843",
"uncompressed_offset": 536480406,
"url": "www.libreoffice.org/download/?lang=ve&type=win-x86&version=3.5.7",
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