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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2009, 6(5), 1597-1608; doi:10.3390/ijerph6051597
Article
Development of the Jackson Heart Study Coordinating Center
Jackson Heart Study, 350 West Woodrow Wilson Drive, Suite 701, Jackson, MS 39213 USA
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Received: 24 February 2009 / Accepted: 27 April 2009 / Published: 6 May 2009
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health: Feature Papers)
Download PDF Full-Text [120 KB, uploaded 6 May 2009 11:41 CEST]
Abstract: The public health burden caused by cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to adversely affect individuals in terms of cost, life expectancy, medical, pharmaceutical and hospital care. This burden has been excessive in the case of African Americans. The objective of this paper is to chronicle the procedures and processes that were implemented in the development of the Jackson Heart Study Coordinating Center. The Jackson Heart Study (JHS) is a population-based investigation of traditional and emerging risk factors that predict progression to CVD among African Americans. In response to the struggle against CVD, the Jackson Heart Study has convened a professional, technical, and administrative staff with specific competence in the operation of a coordinating center to handle the wide variety of areas related to CVD studies. The Jackson Heart Study Coordinating Center (JHSCC) was created to assure validity of the JHS findings and provide the resources necessary to meet comprehensive statistical needs (planning, implementing and monitoring data analysis); data management (designing, implementing and managing data collection and quality control), and administrative support. The JHSCC began with a commitment to support study functions in order to increase participant recruitment, retention and safety, meet regulatory requirements, prepare progress reports, and facilitate effective communication with the community and between all JHS centers. The JHSCC facilitates the efforts of the JHS scientists through the development and implementation of the study protocol. The efforts of the JHSCC have resulted in the successful preparation of scientific reports and manuscripts for publication and presentation of study findings and results. In summary, the JHSCC has emerged as an effective research mechanism that serves as the driving force behind the Jackson Heart Study activities.
Keywords: Jackson Heart Study; Coordinating Center; CVD; African Americans
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Cite This Article
MDPI and ACS Style
Campbell-Jenkins, B.W.; Addison, C.C.; Young, L.; Anugu, P.; Wilson, G.; Sarpong, D. Development of the Jackson Heart Study Coordinating Center. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2009, 6, 1597-1608.
AMA Style
Campbell-Jenkins BW, Addison CC, Young L, Anugu P, Wilson G, Sarpong D. Development of the Jackson Heart Study Coordinating Center. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2009; 6(5):1597-1608.
Chicago/Turabian Style
Campbell-Jenkins, Brenda W.; Addison, Clifton C.; Young, Lavon; Anugu, Pramod; Wilson, Gregory; Sarpong, Daniel. 2009. "Development of the Jackson Heart Study Coordinating Center." Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 6, no. 5: 1597-1608.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health EISSN 1660-4601 Published by MDPI AG, Basel, Switzerland RSS E-Mail Table of Contents Alert
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Minerals 2012, 2(3), 228-243; doi:10.3390/min2030228
Review
Textural Evidence of Episodic Introduction of Metallic Nanoparticles into Bonanza Epithermal Ores
Department of Geology and Geography, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
Received: 28 June 2012; in revised form: 27 July 2012 / Accepted: 3 August 2012 / Published: 14 August 2012
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Economic Minerals)
Download PDF Full-Text [993 KB, uploaded 14 August 2012 10:41 CEST]
Abstract: Tertiary low sulfidation (LS) epithermal deposits in the western USA often show evidence of the former presence of nanoparticle-sized precious-metal and silica phases in the highest grade (bonanza) ores. Here, nanoparticles are defined to have a size less than ~107 m. The ore-mineral textures that formed from aggregation of nanoparticles (or colloids) observed to date in these ores include electrum and naumannite (Ag2Se). Here it is proposed that chalcopyrite also forms nanoparticles in these ores, but sulfide nanoparticles apparently have significantly different physical (surface) properties than the precious-metal phases, and thus exhibit different mineral textures (e.g., no textural evidence of previous chalcopyrite nanoparticles). Textures described here show that nanoparticles of precious-metal phases and silica were episodically and often repeatedly deposited to form the banded bonanza veins typical of many western USA epithermal deposits. Chalcopyrite is the most abundant metal-sulfide mineral in these bonanza ores, and it was also deposited episodically as well, and it appears to replace earlier formed naumannite dendrites. However, this apparent “replacement” texture may just be the result of naumannite dendrite limbs trapping chalcopyrite nanoparticles that later recrystallized to the apparent replacement texture. The episodic and repetitive nature of the metal-depositing events may record periodic “degassing” of magma chambers at depth, where metals are repeatedly delivered to the shallow epithermal environment by “vapor-phase” metal (loid) transport.
Keywords: nanoparticles; epithermal ores; chalcopyrite; ore textures; electrum; dendrites
Article Statistics
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Cite This Article
MDPI and ACS Style
Saunders, J.A. Textural Evidence of Episodic Introduction of Metallic Nanoparticles into Bonanza Epithermal Ores. Minerals 2012, 2, 228-243.
AMA Style
Saunders JA. Textural Evidence of Episodic Introduction of Metallic Nanoparticles into Bonanza Epithermal Ores. Minerals. 2012; 2(3):228-243.
Chicago/Turabian Style
Saunders, James A. 2012. "Textural Evidence of Episodic Introduction of Metallic Nanoparticles into Bonanza Epithermal Ores." Minerals 2, no. 3: 228-243.
Minerals EISSN 2075-163X Published by MDPI AG, Basel, Switzerland RSS E-Mail Table of Contents Alert
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[24] The nations will walk in its light. The kings of the earth bring the glory and honor of the nations into it.
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[5]
The men [of the country], being well acquainted with the nature of these places, and that the estuaries would very well answer the same purpose as rivers, founded cities and other settlements along them the same as along rivers. Of this number are Asta, Nebrissa,1 Onoba,2 Ossonoba, Mænoba, besides many others. The canals which have been cut in various directions are also found useful in the traffic which is carried on between place and place, both amongst the people themselves and with foreigners. The conflux of water at the flood-tides is also valuable, as rendering navigable the isthmuses which separate the different pieces of water, thus making it possible to ferry over from the rivers into the estuaries, and from the estuaries into the rivers. Their trade is wholly carried on with Italy and Rome. The navigation is excellent as far as the Pillars, (excepting perhaps some little difficulties at the Strait,) and equally so on the Mediterranean, where the voyages are very calm, especially to those who keep the high seas. This is a great advantage to merchant-vessels. The winds on the high seas blow regularly; and peace reigns there now, the pirates having been put down, so that in every respect the voyage is facile. Posidonius tells us he observed the singular phenomenon in his journey from Iberia,3 that in this sea, as far as the Gulf of Sardinia, the south-east4 winds blow periodically. And on this account he strove in vain for three whole months to reach Italy, being driven about by the winds against the Gymnesian islands,5 Sardinia, and the opposite coasts of Libya.
1 Lebrixa.
2 Gibraleon.
3 Spain.
4 οἱ εὕποι.
5 Majorca and Minorca.
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CA Technologies Earns Award for Excellence in Customer Support
Printer-friendly versionPDF version
Company Recognized for Consistently Exceeding Customer Expectations
ISLANDIA, N.Y., March 19, 2013 – CA Technologies (NASDAQ: CA) was named a recipient of Omega Management Group Corp.’s NorthFace ScoreBoard AwardSM (NFSB) for customer service excellence in 2012. CA Technologies is a first-time recipient of the award, which is based on an independent analysis of satisfaction surveys from its end users.
Now in its 13th year, the NFSB award is presented annually by the Omega Management Group, industry specialists in the field of customer experience management, to companies that have achieved excellence in customer satisfaction and loyalty during the prior calendar year.
“The NFSB award validates our company-wide commitment to delighting customers,” said Dayton Semerjian, general manager, Global Customer Success and Support, CA Technologies. “We understand that delivering a great customer experience leads to high customer loyalty. Omega’s assessment process, which is based solely on the voice of our customers, confirms that our efforts are having a positive impact on the customer experience.”
In 2012 Omega audited more than 200 projects from more than 55 companies in various industry segments across the world. CA Technologies was recognized for achieving a global support satisfaction rating that places the company in Omega’s Loyalty Zone among organizations that achieve profitable, long-term customer relationships and consistently exceed customer expectations.
The awards presentation will take place during Omega’s annual Symposium for Customer Operations & Relationship Exposition (SCORE) Conference (May 29-31) at the Seaport Hotel in Boston.
About CA Technologies
CA Technologies (NASDAQ: CA) provides IT management solutions that help customers manage and secure complex IT environments to support agile business services. Organizations leverage CA Technologies software and SaaS solutions to accelerate innovation, transform infrastructure and secure data and identities, from the data center to the cloud. Learn more about CA Technologies at www.ca.com.
Follow CA Technologies
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Copyright © 2013 CA. All Rights Reserved. One CA Plaza, Islandia, N.Y. 11749. All other trademarks, trade names, service marks, and logos referenced herein belong to their respective companies.
News Source : CA Technologies Earns Award for Excellence in Customer Support
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CMD sent two reporters to track ALEC in Oklahoma
Click here to help support our future investigations.
Kaitlyn Buss
From SourceWatch
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Learn more about corporations VOTING to rewrite our laws.
Kaitlyn Buss was the Web and New Media Manager for the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC) and is the Public Affairs Manager as of 2011.[1]
To see a complete list of ALEC's staff, visit the the ALEC Staff page.
About ALEC
ALEC is a corporate bill mill. It is not just a lobby or a front group; it is much more powerful than that. Through ALEC, corporations hand state legislators their wishlists to benefit their bottom line. Corporations fund almost all of ALEC's operations. They pay for a seat on ALEC task forces where corporate lobbyists and special interest reps vote with elected officials to approve “model” bills. Learn more at the Center for Media and Democracy's ALECexposed.org, and check out breaking news on our PRWatch.org site.
Background
A 2008 graduate of Hillsdale College, Buss began her career at Philanthropy Roundtable as the Managing Editor of their magazine. After working there for just over one year, she worked five months as Interactive Media Coordinator for FreedomWorks. She then became Web and New Media Manager for ALEC in July 2010.[2]
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References
1. American Legislative Exchange Council. Meet Our Staff. Organizational website. Accessed September 27, 2011.
2. Kaitlyn Buss. LinkedIn business profile. Accessed May 25, 2011.
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“Socialism,” the Tea Partiers, and Slate’s Political Gabfest
by Stephan Kinsella on April 16, 2010
in Libertarian Standard, The
On today’s Slate Political Gabfest the hosts criticized Tea Partiers for misusing the word “socialism.” David Plotz said it’s “stunning” that Tea Partiers would say Obama is leading the country into socialism. After all, the Obamacare legislation benefited corporations such as insurance companies. The hosts accuse the Tea Partiers of basically engaging in equivocation: using the pejorative potency of “socialism” because of its traditional technical meaning but using the word in a looser sense to refer to “big government.”
But of course the Tea Partiers have a point. It is true that socialism in a technical sense has been used to denote economic or political systems in which the means of production are publicly owned–basically, the state owns land and factories, as under communism. But fascism and corporatism can be seen as variants of this basic idea: instead of directly and explicitly owning the means of production, the state indirectly controls such resources by its control and regulation of corporations, who nominally own capital. This was done under fascism in Hitler’s Germany, for example, which was of course socialistic–the word Nazi means “national socialist”. Thus, the Slate Political Gabfest pundits, while a bit condescendingly chastising the Tea Partiers for their naivety, are themselves a bit naive in contrasting fascism from socialism, as if they are totally distinct or opposed.
As I noted in What Libertarianism Is, Austrian economist and libertarian philosopher Hans-Hermann Hoppe, in his treatise A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism (chapters 3–6), provides a systematic analysis of various forms of socialism: Socialism Russian-Style, Socialism Social-Democratic Style, the Socialism of Conservatism, and the Socialism of Social Engineering. In fact, recognizing the common elements of various forms of socialism and their distinction from libertarianism (capitalism), Hoppe incisively defines socialism as “an institutionalized interference with or aggression against private property and private property claims.” Ibid., p. 2 (emphasis added). He goes on:
If … an action is performed that uninvitedly invades or changes the physical integrity of another person’s body and puts this body to a use that is not to this very person’s own liking, this action … is called aggression … Next to the concept of action, property is the most basic category in the social sciences. As a matter of fact, all other concepts to be introduced in this chapter — aggression, contract, capitalism and socialism — are definable in terms of property: aggression being aggression against property, contract being a nonaggressive relationship between property owners, socialism being an institutionalized policy of aggression against property, and capitalism being an institutionalized policy of the recognition of property and contractualism. [pp. 12, 7]
In other words, although the term socialism is usually narrowly restricted to public ownership of the means of production, from a political or ethical standpoint there is nothing special about “capital”; what is important about it is that it is a type of private property. Thus the essence of socialism is simply institutionalized aggression against private property. In this broader sense, any state action that infringes on property rights is socialistic. The Tea Partiers are right to sense the socialism of Obamacare, for it most certainly involves institutionalized, massive, and widespread interference with private property rights–e.g., the taxes that fund it are theft of private property; the economic regulations imposed on businesses and individuals are trespass. Where the Tea Partiers go wrong is in not realizing that Republican and conservative polices are also socialistic in this broader sense–from the drug war to the war in Iraq. (See also Friedman and Socialism.)
Yet again, we have an illustration of the fact that only libertarians oppose the state, aggression, slavery, and socialism in a principled, consistent way.
[TLS]
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Elastin receptor
Jump to: navigation, search
elastin receptor 1, 67kDa
Identifiers
Symbol ELNR1
Entrez 2008
HUGO 3329
Other data
Elastin receptor is the term used to describe a receptor which binds elastin. It is part of the composition of elastic fibers.
External links
• MeSH elastin+receptors
• Hinek A, Wrenn DS, Mecham RP, Barondes SH (1988). "The elastin receptor: a galactoside-binding protein". Science 239 (4847): 1539-41. PMID 2832941.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
8731.1 - Building Approvals, New South Wales and Australian Capital Territory, Mar 2002
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 09/05/2002
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• About this Release
ABOUT THIS RELEASE
Previously: Building Approvals, New South Wales (ISSN: 0158-3263)
Contains monthly data for number of dwelling units (houses, other dwellings, total) and value of residential building approved by sector; number and value of new other residential building approved by type; number and value of non-residential building jobs approved by class of building (e.g. hotels, offices, etc.) and value ranges. Seasonally adjusted and trend estimates for the number of dwelling units and value of buildings approved; quarterly value of building approved in chain volume measures. Summary information for the quarter for Sydney Statistical Division and all Statistical Local Areas. For the Australian Capital Territory, only some of the above information is included.
The frequency of this publication changed from monthly to quarterly after the February 2000 issue.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I'm looking to patent a method/core of my web app. It's actually pretty simple. What's the chance of me getting a patent for it?
share|improve this question
6 Answers
You might want to read Paul Graham's view on it . Truthfully I couldn't read it all because he rambles on for 40 or so paragraphs.
The big take away is:
Patents are not as important as you think they are. An audience is the most important thing... patent or not.
The only real role of patents, for most startups, is as an element of the mating dance with acquirers. There patents do help a little. And so they do encourage innovation indirectly, in that they give more power to startups, which is where, pound for pound, the most innovation happens. But even in the mating dance, patents are of secondary importance. It matters more to make something great and get a lot of users.
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I would only ever take a patent out if I had the money and will to defend it. If it was me, I would devote more time to my making my idea become real instead of spending time patenting my idea.
Good luck.
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If no one has ever done it before, then there is a reasonable chance. The standard of novelty is pretty low...
Whether it is worth it is the more important question.
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You can get a provisional patent for $375 and then say your idea is Patent Pending... then you can present your idea as being 'objectively certified' or such.
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The question is why?
Why do you want to patent it? There are lots of different reasons to patent something.
The Collector
Some people like to collect patents. In this model then the more the better. Perhaps it provides proof to their ego of the uniqueness or value. I was in a prospective clients office and on his wall on wood plaques were all of the patents that he had. Only about 5% of them were anything related to his company. But I notice his CV prominently heralded his patents.
The Validator
For many people and the businesses the presence of patents or patent pending ideas and technology is a validator of their idea, concept or model. Incorporated into marketing the phrase "patent-pending" or "patent #1234567" can support the overall claim of a cutting edge solution. For customers looking for a cutting edge solution this might be a great validator. (For self-motivated validation please refer to "the collector")
The Protector
We are all afraid of having our ideas stolen. Separate the western culture biases of this notion from the tangible reasons that it would be great to be able to claim exclusivity to the uniqueness of ideas and have that be the foundation of wealth-- this site has consistently and properly reinforced that if you have the money to defend a patent -- then it's role as a protector may provide you a limited time window to hold back the onslaught of competitors into your market space.
The Business
There are those business that are in the business of producing patents. They produce them and then license them to people who have found it to be easier to pay royalties than to create their own. These business usually can be found at a Post Office Box. I had an associate that developed a piece of technology that is used by a major corporation in a solution they have. A lawyer at that corporate decided that it was worth paying pennies on a royalty rather than risk the punitive damages later. My friend wasn't greedy, and knew he didn't have the capacity to do something as large with the IP -- so he took the deal. It has now paid for his house, car, boat and annual trips around the world.
So -- independent of the question of can you -- the question is why would you?
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Right now, high.
You can patent almost anything, esp. provisionally. The question is how likely is it to stand up in court. The trend is towards less and more specific software patents. (see articles and blogs related to the "Bilski decision".)
Like a business plan, most investors know there isn't as much value in it as you'd think, but still look for it. As much as some people will say "it's the idea that matters" (and that's true in its obvious way), investors look to see plans and patents in evaluating their likelihood to invest.
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
Are there any good boards for software-related jobs- preferably free? I am trying to find a software marketer; it's either Craigslist (resulting in hundreds of non-targeted emails/resumes) or a paid job board.
Any free job boards that might do the trick? Preferably NY-area, but doesn't have to be location-specific.
Thank you!
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closed as not constructive by Zuly Gonzalez Sep 25 '12 at 14:50
As it currently stands, this question is not a good fit for our Q&A format. We expect answers to be supported by facts, references, or specific expertise, but this question will likely solicit debate, arguments, polling, or extended discussion. If you feel that this question can be improved and possibly reopened, see the FAQ for guidance.
2 Answers
Have a look on the Stackoverflow jobs ;) http://careers.stackoverflow.com/
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Check out AuthenticJobs.com. It's NOT free - but hot damn - do you get good people.
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1. Skip to navigation
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Source link: http://archive.mises.org/5297/mexicos-advanced-auction-on-stolen-goods/
Mexico’s Advanced Auction on Stolen Goods
July 10, 2006 by
On this stand off in Mexico, it is unlikely that bullets or honest ballots would have produced something as enjoyable (or possibly even as socially optimal). The result is a mess for both ruling parties in Mexico, and Mises and Rothbard, far from being democrats in the modern sense, would not be surprised by it. In fact, they surely would have welcomed it, because any event that has the effect of reducing the legitimacy of a state increases the realm of social cooperation. FULL ARTICLE
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monomvn (1.9-4)
0 users
Estimation for multivariate normal and Student-t data with monotone missingness.
http://faculty.chicagobooth.edu/robert.gramacy/monomvn.html
http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/monomvn
Estimation of multivariate normal and student-t data of arbitrary dimension where the pattern of missing data is monotone. Through the use of parsimonious/shrinkage regressions (plsr, pcr, lasso, ridge, etc.), where standard regressions fail, the package can handle a nearly arbitrary amount of missing data. The current version supports maximum likelihood inference and a full Bayesian approach employing scale-mixtures for Gibbs sampling. Monotone data augmentation extends this Bayesian approach to arbitrary missingness patterns. A fully functional standalone interface to the Bayesian lasso (from Park & Casella), Normal-Gamma (from Griffin & Brown), Horseshoe (from Carvalho, Polson, & Scott), and ridge regression with model selection via Reversible Jump, and student-t errors (from Geweke) is also provided
Maintainer: Robert B. Gramacy
Author(s): Robert B. Gramacy <rbgramacy@chicagobooth.edu>
License: LGPL
Uses: lars, MASS, pls, mvtnorm, quadprog
Released 29 days ago.
17 previous versions
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Related packages: bayesm, Hmisc, MCMCpack, MNP, MSBVAR, predbayescor, arm, BACCO, BaM, bark, BAS, bayesGARCH, bayesmix, BayHaz, BAYSTAR, BayesTree, BayesValidate, bayesSurv, BCE, bcp(20 best matches, based on common tags.)
Search for monomvn on google, google scholar, r-help, r-devel.
Visit monomvn on R Graphical Manual.
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Delaware Valley Pennsylvania Genealogy Conference 2008Edit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Saturday, Sep 20 2008, 9am-4pm -- The Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania and the Valley Forge Family History Center are co-sponsoring the Delaware Valley Genealogy Conference entitled "Genealogy...the Basics and Beyond." Class topics include:
• Getting Started
• PAF Program Basics
• Internet Sites
• Message Boards on the Net
• Scanning Records
• National Archives
• Family History Center
• PAF Notes and Sources
• Brick Walls (Panel Discussion)
• Organizing Papers
• Restoring Photos
• Census Records
• Historical Societies
• Military Records
• Eastern European
• German Research
• Collecting Oral Histories
A registration fee of $10 covers syllabus materials and lunch. For more information, see the conference Website.
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• This page was last modified on 1 February 2013, at 16:51.
• This page has been accessed 447 times.
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Monroe County, West VirginiaEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 19:37, 23 May 2012 by Jaburgess (Talk | contribs)
Monroe County, West Virginia
Map
Location in the state of West Virginia
Location of West Virginia in the U.S.
Facts
Founded 1799
County Seat Union
Courthouse
United States West Virginia Monroe County
Contents
County Courthouse
Monroe County Courthouse
Main Street
Union, WV 24983
Phone:304-772-3096
County Clerk has birth and death records from 1853
Marriage and land records from 1799 and probate Records[1]
History
Monroe County, West Virginia
Parent County
1799--Monroe County was created 14 January 1799 from Greenbrier County.
County seat: Union [1]
Boundary Changes
See an interactive map of Monroe County boundary changes.
Record Loss
Places / Localities
Populated Places
Neighboring Counties
Resources
Research Guides
• "A Guide to the Counties of Virginia: Monroe County," The Virginia Genealogist, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1974):295-298. Available at FHL; digital version at New England Ancestors ($).
Cemeteries
Find a Grave Monroe County, West Virginia
Tombstone Transcription Monroe county, West Virginia
Political Graveyard.com - Monroe County, West Virginia
Census
For tips on accessing Monroe County, West Virginia census records online, see: West Virginia Census.
1830 Census Federal Census Index
Court
DNA
DNA has been collected from men claiming descent from the following Kanawha County, (West) Virginia residents. Attempts have not been made to verify the lineages of those tested.
• [Fletcher] Descendant of William Fletcher, b. England, resident of Kanawha and Monroe Counties, Virginia. Y-DNA 12 Marker Test, FTDNA. Genetic signature available online (labelled William Fletcher of Accomac County, Virginia/James Fletcher of Brunswick County, Virginia), courtesy: The Fletcher DNA Project.
Family Histories
It is anticipated that this bibliography will eventually identify all known family histories published about residents of this county. Use this list to:
• Locate publications about direct ancestors
• Find the most updated accounts of an ancestor's family
• Identify publications, to quote Elizabeth Shown Mills, about an ancestor's "FAN Club" [Friends, Associates, and Neighbors]
General
• Blankenship, Gayle King. Virginia Families of Louisa, Hanover and Monroe Counties. Poquoson, Va.: G.K. Blankenship, 1991. FHL 975.5 D2bg
Bibliography
• [Bean] Beane, Fannie B. William Bean of Monroe County and His Descendants. St. Albans, W.Va., 1988.
• [Long] Beane, Fannie B. William Bean of Monroe County and His Descendants. St. Albans, W.Va., 1988.
• [Long] Buchanan, Paul C. "Long Families in Monroe Co. (Then) Virginia," Mountain Empire Genealogical Quarterly, Vol. 8. Pages 146-153.
• [Long] Buchanan, Paul C. and Susie M. Owens. "Henry Long and Some Descendants of Colonial Virginia," The Virginia Genealogist, Vol. 38, No. 2 (Apr.-Jun. 1994):115-126; Vol. 38, No. 3 (Jul.-Sep. 1994):190-200; Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1994):263-273; Vol. 39, No. 1 (Jan.-Mar. 1995):27-31. Digital version at American Ancestors ($). FHL Book 975.5 B2vg v. 38 (1994)-v. 39 (1995).
• [Mann] Malott, Eva, Ada McPhilliamy, and Dick Pence. Digging Our Roots: The Pence Kids. Baltimore, Md.: Gateway Press, 1977. FHL Book 929.273 P372a.
• [Riggins] Burgess, James A. Burgess, Mullins, Browning, Brown and Allied Families. Parsons, W.Va.: McClain Printing Company, 1978. FHL Film 1035668 Item 10; digital version at Family History Archives - free.
• [Tiffany] McIlhany, H.M. Some Virginia Families. Staunton, Va.: Stoneburner & Prufer, 1903, pp. 239-242. 1962 reprint: FHL US/CAN Book 975.5 D2m 1962; digital version at Ancestry ($).
Land
Local Histories
The standard local history of Monroe County, West Virginia is Oren F. Morton's A History of Monroe County (Ruebush-Elkins Co., Dayton, VA, 1916). It is available as a reprint, and is also up at: Google Books.
Maps
Map of 1850 Virginia and West Virginia
Monroe County, West Virginia Map
Maps of Monroe County, West Virginia
Military
Revolutionary War
• A Census of Pensioners for Revolutionary or Military Services: With their Names, Ages, and Places of Residence, as Returned by the Marshalls of the Several Judicial Districts, Under the Act for Taking the Sixth Census]. 1841. Digital versions at U.S. Census Bureau and Google Books et. al. 1967 reprint: FHL Collection 973 X2pc 1840. [See Virginia, Western District, Monroe County on page 135.]
• Rejected or Suspended Applications for Revolutionary War Pensions. Washington, D.C., 1852. Reprinted by Genealogical Publishing Co., Inc., 1969, and 1991. Reprints include "an Added Index to States." FHL Collection 973 M24ur; digital version at Ancestry ($). [Includes veterans from this county; Virginia section begins on page 238.]
War of 1812
Monroe County men served in the 75th Regiment.[2]
Turk, David Scott, The memorialists : an antebellum history of Alleghany, Craig and Monroe counties of West Virginia, 1812-60 (Bowie, Maryland, Heritage Books, c1997) page 168 FHL Book 975.5 H2
Civil War
World War II
Monroe County, West Virginia World War II Casualities Army and Air Force
Naturalization
West Virginia, Naturalization Records, 1814-1991
Newspapers
Probate
Monroe County, West Virginia Will Books 1799 - 1969
Taxation
At first glance, researchers might conclude that Virginia tax lists contain very little family history data, though one soon learns that valuable genealogical conclusions can be drawn from these records, nicknamed "annual censuses," such as: relationships, approximate years of birth, socio-economic status, identification of neighbors, the ability to distinguish between persons of the same name, evidence of land inheritance, years of migration, and years of death.
Virginia began enumerating residents' payments of personal property and land taxes in 1782. These two types of taxation were recorded in separate registers. Personal property tax lists include more names than land tax lists, because they caught more of the population. The Family History Library has an excellent microfilm collection of personal property tax lists from 1782 (or the year the county was organized) well into the late nineteenth century for most counties, but only scattered land tax lists. Microfilm collections at The Library of Virginia include land tax lists for all counties and independent cities for the years 1782 through 1978, as well as personal property tax lists for the years 1782 through 1930 (and every fifth year thereafter). Taxes were not collected in 1808.
Some tax records are available online or in print, though published abstracts often omit useful details found only in the original sources. Statewide indexes can help genealogists identify specific counties where surnames occurred in the past, providing starting points for research.[3][4]
Vital Records
West Virginia Vital Records - Birth - Death - Marriages
Monroe County, West Virginia Marriage Record Indexes
Societies and Libraries
Monroe County Historical Society
P O Box 465
Union, WV 24983
Monroe CountyPublic Library
Family History Centers
Web Sites
Genealogy courses: Learn how to research from an expert in Fun Five Minute Genealogy Videos.
References
1. 1.0 1.1 The Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America,10th ed. (Draper, UT:Everton Publishers, 2002).
2. Stuart Lee Butler, A Guide to Virginia Militia Units in the War of 1812 (Athens, Ga.: Iberian Pub. Co., 1988), 145. FHL Book 975.5 M2bs.
3. "Using Personal Property Tax Records in the Archives at the Library of Virginia," Library of Virginia, http://www.lva.virginia.gov/public/guides/rn3_persprop.htm.
4. "Using Land Tax Records in the Archives at the Library of Virginia," Library of Virginia, http://www.lva.virginia.gov/public/guides/rn1_landtax.pdf.
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For the half-year to 30 June 2013, the IPKat's regular team is supplemented by contributions from guest bloggers Stefano Barazza, Matthias Lamping and Jeff John Roberts.
Two of our regular Kats are currently on blogging sabbaticals. They are Birgit Clark and Catherine Lee.
Tuesday, 5 October 2004
WELDING PATENTS DON'T MEAN WELDED OWNERSHIP
Subscription-only legal information service Lawtel features a fresh patent case, Stanelco Fibre Optics Ltd v Bioprogress Technology Ltd , heard by Patents Court deputy judge Christopher Floyd QC last Friday.
Stanelco sought a declaration that it was entitled to a patent while Bioprogress counterclaimed that it was entitled to the sole or joint ownership of three families of patents and patent applications, plus damages for breach of confidence. The patent applications, in the field of capsule manufacture, involved a technique known as radio frequency (RF) dielectric welding as the method of sealing ingestible capsules made from water-soluble polymers. In 1998 Bioprogress was investigating new methods of sealing capsules made of polymers and approached Stanelco, which was well known for its RF welding capability. After Stanelco welded some samples for Bioprogress, the two companies entered into a non-disclosure agreement relating to the confidentiality of information disclosed by each side. After the parties' relationship broke down, Stanelco filed the three families of patent applications in issue.
On the issue of ownership, the judge ruled as follows:
* Who is the "inventor" of an invention? "Inventor" was defined in s.7(3) of the Patents Act as the "actual deviser" of the invention. Where a person came up with and communicated an idea consisting of all the elements of a claim, even though it was just an idea at that stage, that person would normally at the very least be an inventor of the claim for the purposes of s.7, since "reduction to practice" was not a necessary component of a valid claim to any entitlement.
* Who is the "actual deviser"? Where joint invention and co-ownership was claimed, the Act called for determination of the actual devisers of the inventive concept. That inquiry did not involve any assessment of whether the invention represented a contribution to the art or an inventive contribution to what the other inventor had come up with. If the second worker merely did what was suggested to him by the first worker, he was not taking part in the devising of the invention.
* Who owned the disputed inventions? The core inventive concept was the use of RF welding to weld water soluble polymeric film materials into the shape of capsules, though the second and third families of claims involved additional inventive concepts. Bioprogress originated the idea of a process for making capsules by RF welding water soluble films and was an actual deviser of that invention, although it had not then been reduced to practice. All Stanelco did was what any skilled person would have done by exercising common general knowledge to demonstrate that the idea worked. Thus Bioprogress, not Stanelco, devised the inventive concept of the first family of claims. If what was added by a subsidiary claim did not create a different inventive concept, ownership of the patent based on those claims should not be divided up. Two of the claims in the first family disclosed an additional inventive concept devised by Stanelco, so that the two companies were joint inventors of the subject matter of those claims. The second and third families of claims involved a further inventive concept devised by Stanelco, which was not simply a refinement of the core concept, so that Stanelco but not Bioprogress was the inventor of those claims.
* Was there acquiescence? On the facts Bioprogress had not acquiesced in the making of the patent applications and was not prevented from asserting its claims by estoppel.
On the issue of breach of confidence, Bioprogress' approach to Stanelco had given rise to an obligation of confidence: Bioprogress disclosed the core inventive concept to Stanelco and there had been a misuse of that confidential information, to Bioprogress' detriment, when Stanelco used it as the basis for its own patent applications. The action for breach of confidence accordingly succeeded.
The IPKat likes the restrictive notion of an inventor being the "actual deviser" in an intellectual sense, thus excluding the person who first reduces the invention to practice -- but this must be the actual deviser of the invention as claimed, not the person who just comes up with the bare idea.
Since it's Tuesday, more on welds here and here
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For the half-year to 30 June 2013, the IPKat's regular team is supplemented by contributions from guest bloggers Stefano Barazza, Matthias Lamping and Jeff John Roberts.
Two of our regular Kats are currently on blogging sabbaticals. They are Birgit Clark and Catherine Lee.
Tuesday, 20 March 2007
CD-Wow not such a hit in High Court
Affable legal publisher Nick Gingell (Lawtext) has kept the IPKat au fait with the latest nail in CD-Wow's i-coffin, as evidenced by the BBC's news item here, entitled "Judge rules against cheap CD site".
The High Court (London) has apparently ruled today that Hong Kong-based Music Trading Online was "in substantial breach" of a 2004 court agreement to stop selling in the UK, through its CD-Wow website, albums that had not been put on the market in the European Economic Area by the copyright owners or with their consent. CD-Wow said the judgment "spelled disaster for millions of music fans". The company will be fined in July after an inquiry into how much it owes the record labels which complained of copyright infringement.
The Hong Kong-based retailer is now calling for a full review of copyright law that it claims "serves to line the pockets of the music industry at the expense of the consumer".
Left: Something interesting to do with your CDs
The IPKat notes the demand of Music Online for a full review of copyright law. Why was the company so quiet, he wonders, when for a whole year the Gowers Review was considering pretty well every sensitive nook and cranny of copyright law? Could it be that Music Online was, er, too busy lining its own pockets at the expense of the consumer? Merpel adds, but let's not condone artificial and arguably unjustifiable price differentials between different markets in the developed world: not everyone can go on holiday to the US and come back laden with reasonably-priced CDs - but the European Commission was less than vigorous in addressing that issue.
Earlier IPKat posts here and here
British Music Rights here; IFPI here
European Commission investigates CD price fixing here; The Sound of Silence here
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Code for America opens 2013 application period
Image credits: Code for America
(1 votes)
Does your city need to solve a big civic problem? Cities across the United States can now submit their Code for America applications for 2013. Boston, Philadelphia, and Seattle have just wrapped up their 2011 projects. We're eager to see what happens in Austin, Detroit, Chicago, Honolulu, Macon, New Orleans, Philadelphia, and Santa Cruz in 2012. The application process opened on January 9, and applicants have until the end of March to complete their submissions.
What problems can your city tackle with help from Code for America? How can your city build on other open source projects to make your government more accessible, more efficient, and more engaged with citizens?
Code for America is looking for applicant cities that demonstrate strong leadership. You'll need to maneuver through and overcome bureaucratic obstacles and secure funding to support the project. The project should have a real cost-savings for the city and promote the open source principles of transparency and participation. As with past projects, the final solution to the project should be reusable by other local governments.
If your city is selected, participants will have a great opportunity to collaborate with other cities and open government enthusiasts. All projects are released under an open source license and shared with other organizations. Just like the Change By Us citizen engagement platform, the project code can be used and enhanced by other cities.
Even though we're just entering the new year, it's time to start thinking about how your city can be more open in 2013. See codeforamerica.org/cities for more details and to apply.
Key dates for the 2013 application period
• 1/9/12- Application process opened
• 1/10-3/31/12 - City application period
• 3/31/12 - Deadline for applications
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Toil, feel, think, hope; you will be sure to dream enough before you die, without arranging for it. Sterling, John
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now and then there is a person born who is so unlucky that he runs into accidents which started out to happen to somebody else. Marquis, Don
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Don Marquis (July 29, 1878 - December 29, 1937) was a writer, poet, and artist; best known for creating the characters "Archy" and "Mehitabel". Archy was a cockroach who left poems on Marquis's typewriter by jumping on the keys, and Mehitabel was both a cat and a friend of Archy.
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
Make and then buy your OWN fantastic personalized gift from this quote
Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set. Bacon, Francis
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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Scorch
built by Jeff Clayton
Target Environment Locomotion Method
Indoors 6 Wheels
Sensors / Input Devices Actuators / Output Devices
Sharp IR sensor servo to aim IR sensor
PWM motor control
Control Method Power Source
Autonomous Battery
CPU Type Operating System
PIC Microcontroller None
Programming Lanuage Weight
Assembly N/A
Time to build Cost to build
20 hours about $50
URL for more information
N/A
Comments
Sorted by Robot
<< PreviousNext >>
Sorted by Builder
<< PreviousNext >>
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The aesthetics of folded plates
Files in this item
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aestheticsoffold11heim.pdf 734.8Kb application/pdf
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Item Metadata
Title: The aesthetics of folded plates
Author: Heimsath, Clovis B.
Citation: Heimsath, Clovis B.. (1964). "The aesthetics of folded plates."
Citable link to this page: http://hdl.handle.net/1911/62599
Date: 1964
Rights and Usage
This item appears in the following Collection(s)
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"A REALLY INTELLIGENT INTERVIEWER." -- Lance Henriksen
"QUITE SIMPLY, THE BEST HORROR-THEMED BLOG ON THE NET." -- Joe Maddrey, Nightmares in Red White & Blue
**Find The Vault of Horror on Facebook and Twitter, or download the new mobile app!**
**Check out my other blogs, Standard of the Day, Proof of a Benevolent God and Lots of Pulp!**
Tuesday, June 9, 2009
The Tuesday Top 10: Scariest Superheroes
With horror and comics running a close neck-and-neck throughout my geektastic childhood, it's only natural that I would find a way to combine the two, no? So let's open up those mylar bags, check for spine roll, and page through those four-color pages (careful!) to find the most fear-inducing heroes of all time...
10. Cloak (Marvel)
Driven by a ceaseless hunger to consume life, this guy was always one of those superheroes on the border of bad-guyness. His bizarre symbiotic relationship with Dagger, which saw him absorb the light generated by her body as a way of keeping his hunger in check, only made him that much creepier.
9. Deadman (DC)
A murdered trapeze artist given the power to possess the bodies of others, Boston Brand was a pretty eerie guy, until he opened his mouth and sounded like any one of the guys I grew up with in Brooklyn. Still, any superhero who's actually a ghost has to make this list.
8. The Spectre (DC)
Speaking of ghostly superheroes, The Spectre has always been a favorite of mine. A murdered cop given supernatural powers by God to return to Earth and fight evil in all its forms, this mysterious character dates back all the way to the 1940s, through several incarnations. Let's just ignore the whole Hal Jordan era though, shall we? Thanks.
7. Moon Knight (Marvel)
Laugh if you must, but Moon Knight was one of several horror-themed characters Marvel created during the 1970s that always resonated with me. Returned from the brink of death and granted supernatural powers via ancient Egyptian magic, he's always been one of those heroes who never was quite popular enough to support an ongoing series, despite a strong cult following.
6. Shadowhawk (Image)
How could you not be afraid of a superhero whose modus operandi is to break the spines of criminals, choosing to consign them to a life of paralysis in punishment for their wrongdoings? One of the flagship Image characters, Shadowhawk may go down in history as the most sadistic superhero of all time.
5. Deathlok (Marvel)
Another of those great '70s Marvel characters, Deathlok was a mortally wounded soldier given new life in a post-apocalyptic future thanks to cyborg technology. Too bad the corporation that made him is evil to the core. Deathlok rebels, vowing to stop the very company that gave him new life. Robocop, anyone?
4. Swamp Thing (DC)
While I was always partial to Man-Thing (keep the jokes to yourself, people!), I have to recognize that DC's counterpart is far more well-known, and has had a much greater impact. Not to mention the fact that the great Alan Moore played a large part in turning him into one of the most well-written characters in the DC Universe.
3. Spawn (Image)
Some accused Todd McFarlane of crossing Spider-Man with Dr. Strange to come up with the central character of his Image Comics line, but nevertheless, Spawn is the embodiment of what it means to be a terrifying superhero, like a character straight out of a horror movie. Too bad his own movie bit the big one.
2. Batman (DC)
All hail the one and only Dark Knight. Bruce Wayne created his persona as a way to frighten the "superstitious, cowardly lot" that populated Gotham City's underworld, and he certainly knocked that one out of the park. I always had a tough time reconciling Adam West's goofball TV antics and the smiling buffoon of the Superfriends with the much scarier character I found in the comics, didn't you?
1. Ghost Rider (Marvel)
With all due respect to those who worship at the altar of the Bat (of which I am fervently one), when it comes to terrifying superheroes, the Spirit of Vengeance takes the cake. A biker icon to this day, with his flaming skull, chains and demonic hog, Ghost Rider literally burns the souls of his enemies with terror. It doesn't get much more horrifying than that. Drawing on the powers of hellfire and brimstone, his awesome "penance stare" is perhaps the most feared of all super-abilities. That said, any responses mentioning Nicolas Cage will be met with a swift reprisal...
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Revision history of "Geodata formats"
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Help Wikitravel grow by contributing to an article! Learn how.
São Tomé and Príncipe
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This article or section does not match our manual of style or needs other editing. Please plunge forward, give it your attention and help it improve! Suggested fixes: Listings for individual businesses (including hotels) need to be moved to the appropriate city/region article; the country article should provide an overview including what types of accommodations to expect in the country and what cities/regions visitors should expect to find lodging in.
[[File:|250px|frameless|São Tomé and Príncipe]]
Location
[[File:|250px|frameless]]
Flag
[[File:|108px|frameless]]
Quick Facts
Capital São Tomé
Government republic
Currency dobra (STD)
Area 1,000 sq km
Population 170,372 (July 2002 est.)
Language Portuguese (official)
Religion Christian 80% (Roman Catholic, Evangelical Protestant, Seventh-Day Adventist)
Electricity 220V/50Hz (European plug)
Country code +239
Internet TLD .st
Time Zone UTC
São Tomé and Príncipe [1] (often called just "São Tomé" for short) is a small island nation off the Atlantic coast of Central Africa, located in the Gulf of Guinea, straddling the Equator, west of Gabon. Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late 15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee and cocoa in the 19th century -- all grown with plantation slave labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. Although independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not instituted until the late 1980s, and the first free elections were held in 1991.
[edit] Understand
This small poor island economy has become increasingly dependent on cocoa since independence 34 years ago. However, cocoa production has substantially declined because of drought and mismanagement. The resulting shortage of cocoa for export has created a persistent balance-of-payments problem. São Tomé has to import all fuels, most manufactured goods, consumer goods, and a substantial amount of food. Over the years, it has been unable to service its foreign debt and has had to depend on concessional aid and debt rescheduling. São Tomé benefited from $200 million in debt relief in December 2000 under the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program. São Tomé's success in implementing structural reforms has been rewarded by international donors, who have pledged increased assistance in 2001. Considerable potential exists for development of a tourist industry, and the government has taken steps to expand facilities in recent years. The government also has attempted to reduce price controls and subsidies. São Tomé is also optimistic that substantial petroleum discoveries are forthcoming in its territorial waters in the oil-rich waters of the Gulf of Guinea. Corruption scandals continue to weaken the economy.
[edit] Climate
At sea level, the climate is tropical—hot and humid with average yearly temperatures of about 27 °C (80.6 °F) and little daily variation. The temperature rarely rises beyond 32 °C (89.6 °F). At the interior's higher altitudes, the average yearly temperature is 20 °C (68 °F), and nights are generally cool. Annual rainfall varies from 5,000 mm (196.85 in) on the southwestern slopes to 1,000 mm (39.37 in) in the northern lowlands. The rainy season runs from October to May.
The equator lies immediately south of São Tomé Island, passing through an islet named Ilhéu das Rolas.
[edit] Regions
Map of Sao Tome and Principe
• São Tomé Island (Ilha de São Tomé) - the larger island (and surrounding islets)
• Príncipe Island (Ilha do Príncipe) - the smaller island (and surrounding islets)
[edit] Cities
[edit] Other destinations
[edit] Get in
[edit] Visas
Visas are not issued on arrival without prior arrangements. To get an electronic visa, you need Visa application São Tomé e Príncipe eVisaST [www.smf.st/virtualvisa]. Authorization of Entrance is only one of several ways of allowing entrance into São Tomé e Príncipe according to the point number two of Article 20 of Decree Law n.11/2009. Joint Ministerial Order n. 1, Official Gazette nº117 of October 14th 2011 20€ to Tourist and 60€ to Businnes (in www.smf.st). Local travel agents (e.g. Gold Tours) can process visa application through the ministry in a week if you email the information page of your passport and the application found on their web site. In this case you pay a service fee to the tour operators in addition to US$100 (Oct/09) to immigration on arrival to have a 30 day visa stamped in your passport. Yellow fever vaccination is, in theory, required from everyone arriving at Sao Tome, but this policy does not seem to be enforced, at least for travellers coming from Europe.
As of October 2009, the Sao Tome Embassies in Washington, DC, Lisbon and UN Mission in New York and appear to have been abandoned with all listed phone, fax and e-mail addresses failing. There are honorary consulates in Chicago and Atlanta.
In Europe, an STP visa may be obtained in Brussels: Square Montgomery, 175 Avenue de Tervuren, +32 2 734 89 66. Honorary consulates of Sao Tome in Bremen, Budapest, Coimbra, London, Luxembourg, Madrid, Marsailles, Paris, Porto and Vienna also issue visas. The mission in Budapest (Szasz Karoly u.1., 1027 Budapest, tel: +361 201-3031; fodros.istvan@chello.hu) is a consulate-general, covering all countries of Eastern Europe, including Russia.
There is no STP diplomatic mission in Oceania, but Sao Tome does have an embassy in Taiwan: 3/F, 18 Chi-lin Road, Taipei 104. For travellers arriving from mainland Africa, there is a STP diplomatic mission in Gabon: B.P. 49, Libreville, (241) 72-15-27.
There are few embassies in STP. The embassies with dual accreditation to STP are: Libreville, Gabon (USA); Luanda, Angola (UK); Yaoundé, Cameroon (Canada); & Abuja, Nigeria (Australia). The nearest New Zealand embassy is in Namibia.
[edit] By plane
There is one weekly flight (Thursdays, January 2013) with the Portuguese airline TAP [2] from Lisbon to São Tomé. The national carrier STP Aiways [3] has flights from Lisbon to Sao Tome and back on Tuesdays. Both carriers have additional flights during high travel seasons, such as December/January.
On Tuesdays TAAG Angola Airlines flies to São Tomé from Luanda (flight DT511, [4]). On Thursdays & Sundays, flight DT502 stops in Sao Tome en route to Praia, Cape Verde ([5]).
Africa's Connection STP [6] flies three times a week to Principe and intermittently to Douala and Libreville (January 2013).
A departure tax of €18/person is collected at the airport in cash only.
[edit] By boat
[edit] Get around
There is a bus system on Sao Tome island - mostly hand-me-down buses from Portugal. They are not very useful for tourists as they connect population centers, not tourist sites. You are better off renting a car - with our without a driver/guide. Although the guide/driver is only a minor additional expense, given the small size of the island, reasonable quality (paper and electronic) maps and the modest amount of traffic on the roads, driving yourself makes more sense here than in some other parts of Africa.
[edit] Talk
The official language is Portuguese. It is spoken natively by over half of the population, but basically everyone (95%) can speak it. The other main language is Forro, which is a Portuguese-based creole language spoken natively by 43% of the population and as a second language by just as many (85% in total). So, 95% can speak Portuguese and 85% can speak Forro, but the official language is again purely Portuguese.
As a rule, Portuguese is the main language in the northern part of the São Tomé island, whereas Forro is more common in the south. On the Principe island the main language is Portuguese.
When speaking Portuguese, São Toméans generally use a dialect known as São Toméan Portuguese. It is similar to Brazilian Portuguese in terms of grammar and pronunciation, which is very different from European Portuguese. However, most people are able to switch to European Portuguese and thus neither Portuguese nor Brazilians should have trouble communicating.
English is virtually non-existent in this country. Although it is taught in schools starting from grade 7, given that English-speaking tourists are virtually non-existent and the islands are not well connected to English-speaking Africa, few locals find it worth while learning. You will however have better luck with French, which is taught in schools from grade 5, relatively easy to learn for Portuguese-speakers and is more practical given the commercial links to Francophone Africa.
So, basically, it is essential to know either Portuguese, Forro or French in order to get along. Otherwise, you can hire English-speaking guides or translators fairly cheaply, €15/day or less.
[edit][add listing] See
Sao Tome & Principe were both uninhabited prior to colonization by the Portuguese. Since then, much of the landscape has remained unchanged or, where former plantations once stood, reclaimed by the rainforests. The islands are covered by lush rainforests and with a small population and very few tourists, it remains a veritible tropical paradise.
The interior of Sao Tome island contains Obo National Park [7]. Find a local guide to take you bird-watching, climb 2,024-meter Pico de Sao Tome, trek to a secluded waterfall, or try to spot as many of the island's 109 species of orchids as you can. Waves enter an underwater cave on the south side of Sao Tome island and, with nowhere to go, shoot straight up through the Boca do Inferno (Mouth of Hell) blowhole in an impressive show for visitors. The isolated beaches on Principe are both breathtakingly beautiful and romantic...don't blame yourself for feeling like you're on a deserted island in the South Pacific.
Just offshore are coral reefs with a large diversity of sea life—including a few endemics as the waters between other islands and the mainland reach 2,000 meters! Diving and snorkeling are the ideal ways to explore the underwater side of this paradise, during which you can come face-to-face with dolphins, large green turtles, and a wide array of colorful fish. Experienced and daring divers can even explore underwater caves.
Among the few human-made sights on the islands is Fort São Sebastião. Built in 1575, the fort was refurbished in 2006 and is now the São Tomé National Museum. The fort is absolutely beautiful at night. Essential for every visitor is a tour of one of the islands' colonial-era plantations—roças—which lie in many different states, from centuries-old buildings slowly being overgrown by rainforest to lovingly refurbished ones operating as bed-and-breakfasts. One of the more easily accessible, Monte Café, has a new coffee museum set and, since it is in the mountains, is cool and inviting. The Sao Tome market is, like many in the region, a bustling, colorful experience while photographers will love city's quaint colonial-style architecture.
[edit][add listing] Do
The waters around Sao Tome are clear and rich with life. Consequently, diving, fishing and boat tours provide much to see. One of the few operators that offers these activities is Club Maxel [8]. The forests of both islands lend themselves wonderfully to hiking.
Walk Around. Traffic is light, the sea breeze is cooling, and you can admire the architecture and people. The capitol city of Sao Tome is replete with public art. Painting and carvings by local artists, in addition to old Portuguese statues, can be found throughout the city. Often times you will walk down the street and turn a corner to come up suddenly against a colorful and sprightly painting right in front of you.
Claudio Corallo Chocolate. Tours of his chocolate factory are give on request. He or one of his sons will gleefully describes the shocking inferior stuff that passes for chocolate around the world. Claudio maintains complete control of the chocolate making process, from growing the pods on his own plantation on Principe through to packaging the chocolate in his own vacuum-sealed clean rooms. He gives copious free samples during the demonstration, and sells all his products right there in the demonstration room. Expensive but worth it.
[edit][add listing] Buy
São Tomé and Príncipe uses the Dobra, which is a restricted currency (the import and export of local currency is prohibited). The import of foreign currency is unlimited subject to declaration, and you may export only up to the amount you import. Travelers' cheques are generally not recommended. Although ATMs are as common as anywhere else, as of January 2013, the network does not seem to be connected internationally, so that foreign cards cannot be used to make withdrawals. Therefore, it makes sense to bring in as much cash as you will likely need during your stay (the more expensive hotels do accept foreign credit/debit cards). Euros are used as a virtual second currency (notes only - change is given in Dobras) since the local currency is fixed to the Euro at the rate of 24,500Dbr/€; dollars are sometimes accepted at larger restaurants and shops.
Shopping is limited, but there are a few things worth purchasing, and possibly of export quality:
Coffee. Sao Tome was famous for its coffee. The quality suffered a bit after the newly-independent Sao Tome government broke up the old rocas into sharecropper lots, but given the quality of the volcanic soil the coffee was still great. There has been a recent surge in interest in Sao Tome coffee, mostly due to Claudio Corrallo’s work, but you can walk into any shop in Sao Tome and get great coffee cheap.
Rum. Sao Tome has two rum factories within an easy trip: Gravana, which is sold out of a car repair shop next to the Central Market, and Me-Zochi which is in Trindad behind the church. Prices of a one liter bottle of rum vary from USD 3 – 7 depending on the price of sugar. Gravana rum is dark and sweet, and is best served over ice and savored like a scotch. Me-Zochi rum is also good, but the factory also sells different types of liqueurs made from local fruits. Most of their product is shipped to Europe.
Baskets. Baskets are part and parcel of everyday life in Sao Tome. Therefore they are plentiful and cheap. They are not fancy but have their charm.
Miscellaneous Tourist Stuff. Ossobbo is across from the Fort Sao Sebastiao. The shop features local artisans and products of Sao Tome, from coffee, chocolate, cinnamon and vanilla to carvings, t-shirts and thumb drives. Prices are reasonable, but the best part is the shop is run by the non-profit Sisters of Misericordia; all profits go to the craftsmen or charitable works.
[edit][add listing] Eat
Fish is a staple of the São Toméan diet, often served with breadfruit and mashed, cooked bananas. The variety of fish is wide, including flying fish at certain times of year. Inland, many São Toméans get their protein from buzios, large land snails. Sea snails are also quite common along the coast. In spite of the abject poverty, São Toméans can always count on some sustenance from the wide array of tropical fruits. The hotels in the capital offer European-style fare at European prices.
Café e Companhia. The expat hangout in Sao Tome. This is THE place to let people know you have arrived in country. Café and Companhia is popularly known as “MJs”, after the owner and former manager Maria João. MJ leases the business to a new German manager but makes appearances when she is in country. C & C is known for Thursday night jazz and the “Atomic Penis”.
Sum Secreto. Standard grill fare, but they can handle large groups without a reservation. Service is generally very good, and the meat and fish are excellent. Nothing fancy, but the place is popular because it has that secret something.
Bigodes. Located near the airport, if you decide to wait for your flight here the airport will call to let you know when your flight is boarding. Good lunches and great view.
O Pirata. Located next to the Pestana Hotel, it is one of the few places open on Sunday morning, but one suspects they just party through Saturday night. Good place to nurse a cup of coffee and an omelet and just watch the ocean. A sunken ship is right off the restaurant…hence the name “The Pirate”.
Roça São João dos Angolares. Make reservations as far in advance as possible, but it is worth it. Gourmet meals served as a multiple course prix fixe are worth the extra workout you will need.
• Mionda, Angolares Bay. Down by the Roca Sao Joao and the Angolares bay (1 hr. south of Sao Tome by car), this colorful hut serves exceptional Sao Tome food. The fish is caught by the local Angolan fishermen a few meters from where you sit, and it is prepared with care. The multi-course meals are a delight from start to finish. edit
• Papa Figo, City Center. Billed as a snack bar, they actually serve full meals. You'll see Europeans mix with locals of all classes on the patio here. Burgers, fish, whiskey, and beer. edit
• Padaria Moderna, City Center. Great little bakery to pick up a snack for a few coins. edit
[edit][add listing] Drink
Beer is readily available everywhere, though São Toméans are not known as big drinkers. Local brands include Creolla and Rosema. Inland, palm wine is available very inexpensively from vendors along the road. In the capital, whiskey and other spirits are popular among the elites. Wine, especially Portuguese vinho verde, is popular with fish dishes.
[edit][add listing] Sleep
A small handful of hotels exist in the capital. Near the town of Santana lies an idyllic bed and breakfast with stunning views. Opulent resorts have been built at the very northern and southern extremes of the country, on the small island of Ilheu das Rolas, and at Ilha Bom Bom off the coast of Principe.
In the main city of Sao Tome several small pousadas (B&Bs) can be found. There are three main hotels in the city.
Pestana. The brand new Pestana Hotel is advertised as the only five-star hotel in the capital, and could comfortably be described as a high four-star. The hotel is owned by the Pestana hotel chain from Lisbon. Most rooms have a great view of the ocean, and a full breakfast is included. Good restaurant, great bar, a decent gym and two infinity pools.
[9]
Agosto Neto. This hotel could be described as either a large B&B or a small boutique hotel. This quiet hotel is on a side street a couple of blocks from the Presidential Palace. The hotel is relatively new, spotlessly clean, and will open the kitchen upon request. Full breakfast is included. Internet access in the lobby, and the desk TRIES to speak English. A partner company, Netu Services, rents cars here.
[10]
Miramar. The grand dame of Sao Tome hotels, this place has seen better days. In its heyday you could sit in the lobby and anyone that was important would walk past. The hotel has open wi-fi, so lots of local people still come by. A bit overpriced for what you get. The neighboring Pestana Hotel bought out the elderly German owner last year and is rumored to be converting the Miramar to a conference center.
[11]
Bom Bom Island Resort is a true haven of luxury and calm, offering the ultimate in comfortable and secluded accommodation.
In addition to an ensuite bathroom, air-conditioning and other modern amenities, each bungalow has its own veranda with wonderful views across the green palm fronds and the bay. Bom Bom’s restaurant, bar and marina are located on a tiny islet, which can be reached by crossing the 230-metre wooden walkway. What better location for enjoying a cocktail or a choice of local as well as international delicacies than the outside deck of this restaurant, overlooking the secluded beaches, the bungalows and the marina pier!
[12]
• Club Santana, Santana. About 15-20 minutes south of Sao Tome town, Club Santana commands beautiful views on its coastal hillside perch. The "huts" are self-contained with air con and ensuite, and a little patio out front. The decor is 80's resort style. However, an update is pending. There's a private beach and free wi-fi. There's a resident monkey and some caged birds as well. You must avail yourself of the free boat ride to Ilheu Santana. The same ride would cost you 200 Euro were you to take it from Omali Lodge. 100 Euro+. edit
• Omali Lodge, Ana Chaves Bay, Sao Tome town. Small hotel very close to the airport. It's relatively newer, so the only competition for "niceness" is with Pestana (although when Club Santana finishes their updates they will win hands-down). It's definitely a hang out for middle-aged Europeans. They serve familiar foods, cooked well. Do not ask for the local beer, however. They only serve imports. 100+ Euro. edit
• Hotel Avenida, City Center. Aside from one rude receptionist, the rest of the staff is saintly. Ideal place to meet local movers and shakers as they tote their laptops for wi-fi. Rooms are basic but include air and bathrooms. Good mid-range hotel. 65 Euro +/-. edit
• Roca Sao Joao, 1 hour south of Sao Tome on the coast. Agriturismo. An educational place to stay. Perched on a hill overlooking the bay of Angolares (where the Angolan fishermen live). Very quiet, especially at night when the lights go down. A good hammock spot. No wi-fi here, no TV, no air con. Good food, all organic produce, much of which is grown on the property. 35 Euro +/-. edit
• L'Escapade at Micondo, Praia Micondo. Forty five minutes south of town, this is an old Roca (plantation) run by a French couple who escaped Toulouse several years ago. The Monsieur looks incredibly like a modern-day pirate which helps enhance the illusion that perhaps you've shipwrecked on a desert island. Note that unlike Roca Sao Joao, this plantation no longer produces. It is very quiet. The water they serve there rolls off the adjacent mountain and into your cup. Micondo is a lovely little beach at the foot of the hill, a 7 minute stroll. 35 Euro +/-. edit
[edit] Learn
[edit] Work
[edit] Stay safe
Safety is not an issue in São Tomé and Príncipe, though the roadway traffic is hazardous as in other parts of Africa. Violent crime in public is almost unheard of. However, with an increase in tourism there has been an increase in crime against tourists. Road blocks near Santana have been reported, as well as scams targeting tourists in the main city.
The only dangerous animal in the islands is the black cobra, which can be found in southern and eastern areas of Sao Tome island. Young ones are completely black, adults have yellow-white scales on the front. They are afraid of humans and will normally slither away when you approach. Be alert when hiking and very careful of where you stick your hands. Anti-venom is available at local hospitals. If bitten you need to seek immediate help, preferably within 30-120 minutes. Deaths are rare, though.
[edit] Stay healthy
Malaria was once extremely common on the islands, but an eradication program initiated by the Taiwanese government in 2005 has effectively stamped out malaria in populated areas (deaths have dropped from over 1000/year to zero) [13]. However, visitors should continue taking precautions against mosquito bites (which can transmit other severe illnesses) such as the use of insect repellants and bed netting. Some government agencies in Europe and America still recommend taking prescription anti-malarial drugs as prevention, but these medications can have severe side effects. The rate of malaria infections in nearby, mainland countries is high and there is the potential for isolated outbreaks from infected people/animals arriving from those countries. If you are also visiting the mainland on your journey, keep in mind the length of time before/after visiting malarial regions that you need to take your anti-malaria medication (which can be several weeks).
The rate of HIV/AIDS in STP is between 1-2%, which is relatively low compared with nearby countries. There is a very strong stigma against those infected on the islands and few have ever come out with their diagnosis and in many cases health workers have to deliver medications to their homes in secret because patients are unwilling to be seen in public collecting these medications. Even with the low risk, you should always use protection, such as condoms.
Tap water is safe - at least in the town of Sao Tome - but it is risky to eat raw fruits or vegetables, unless properly cleaned.
[edit] Respect
[edit] Contact
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Difference between revisions of "Fundamentals of flying"
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(Tips As You Pack)
(Security check)
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Then, as you walk to your gate, you and your carry-ons must go through personal security screening. It involves the following basic steps.
Then, as you walk to your gate, you and your carry-ons must go through personal security screening. It involves the following basic steps.
* You must present identification (perhaps except for toddlers) and boarding pass(es) for your flight. Keep your ID and boarding passes with you throughout the process.
* You must present identification (perhaps except for toddlers) and boarding pass(es) for your flight. Keep your ID and boarding passes with you throughout the process.
* You'll be instructed to:
+
* Then to go through the inspection, you'll be instructed to:
** Doff all bulky outer garments (e.g., sweaters, jackets) and (often) your shoes...and place them in a bin/tub going through separate electronic scanning or manual inspection.
** Doff all bulky outer garments (e.g., sweaters, jackets) and (often) your shoes...and place them in a bin/tub going through separate electronic scanning or manual inspection.
** Place all carry-on bags/purses/laptops and the clear bag of liquids in tubs/bins on the line for separate scanning...laptops separated from any case and its accessories. Put the clear bag of liquids on top where it can be easily seen/inspected.
** Place all carry-on bags/purses/laptops and the clear bag of liquids in tubs/bins on the line for separate scanning...laptops separated from any case and its accessories. Put the clear bag of liquids on top where it can be easily seen/inspected.
*** This is your last opportunity to avoid delays, by placing all metal or electronic items (e.g., cell phones, coins, keys) into a bin/tub.
+
*** This is your last opportunity to avoid delays, e.g., place all metal or electronic items (e.g., cell phones, coins, keys) in the bin/tub with your other items.
** Proceed to a nearby point for personal/body screening...electronic and/or manual. Any metal object will generate an alarm. You'll be directed to return to the carry-on scanning line and place "offending" items in a bin/tub for separate screening.
+
** Proceed to a nearby point for simultaneous personal/body screening...electronic and/or manual. '''Any metal object will generate an alarm.''' You'll be directed to return to the carry-on scanning line and place "offending" items you're carrying in a bin/tub for separate screening as above.
If you have '''any kind of metal in your body''' for any reason (e.g., pace-maker, artificial joint, combat wound), be prepared for the alarms as you go through body scanning. Your doctor may help you obtain some form of proof for TSA or other security inspectors. This may avoid an unnecessarily invasive pat-down.
+
If you have '''any kind of metal in your body''' for any reason (e.g., pace-maker, artificial joint, combat wound), be prepared for the alarms as you go through body scanning. Your doctor may help you obtain some form of proof for TSA or other security inspectors. This ''may'' avoid an ''unnecessarily invasive'' pat-down, but otherwise has little import for inspectors.
'''Hints'''. To proactively avoid delays or stoppages at the screening...
'''Hints'''. To proactively avoid delays or stoppages at the screening...
* Don't wear hiking boots or shoes with large metal loops or steel plates in the soles.
* Don't wear hiking boots or shoes with large metal loops or steel plates in the soles.
* Choose footwear that's easy to slip on and off; wear socks to avoid dirt/organisms on the floor.
* Choose footwear that's easy to slip on and off; wear socks to avoid dirt/organisms on the floor.
* Avoid wearing unneeded bulky items you'll have to doff before inspection.
+
* Avoid wearing unneeded, bulky items you'll have to doff before inspection.
* Avoid wearing a metal belt-buckle...or use one that's easy to take off.
* Avoid wearing a metal belt-buckle...or use one that's easy to take off.
* You might put small metal/electronic items in garment pockets or hand-carried luggage.
* You might put small metal/electronic items in garment pockets or hand-carried luggage.
* Remove items that create bulges from trouser/pant pockets...just an unnecessary way to generate inspector questions.
+
* Remove items from trouser/pant pockets that create bulges...just an unnecessary way to generate questions.
* You may be required to show that any electronic device functions. Make sure their batteries are charged and inserted for a brief demonstration.
+
* You may be required to show that any electronic device functions. Make sure their batteries are charged enough and in-place for a brief demonstration as requested.
* You may be subject to a more rigorous security check. Depending on the country and airport, this can be random or based on some suspicion. It can involve luggage search, swabs for explosive chemical traces and/or personal body searches. Officers may offer an information sheet explaining your rights, but the chance of your reaching your plane without submitting to the check is low.
+
* You may be subject to a more rigorous security check. Depending on the country and airport, this can be random or based on some suspicion. It can involve luggage search, swabs for explosive chemical traces and/or personal body searches. Officers may offer an information sheet explaining your rights, but the chance of your reaching your plane without submitting to the check is low.
After body screening, you ''may'' be told to go with a screener to hand inspect your belongings...usually because electronic screening cannot identify an object. Otherwise, go to the end of the "line" electronically screening your luggage, etc., claim your possessions and exit "security" into the "airside" terminal.
+
After body screening, you ''may'' be told to go with a screener to hand inspect your belongings...usually because electronic screening cannot identify an object. Otherwise, go to the end of the "line" for electronically screening your belongings, claim them and exit "security" into the secure/"airside" terminal area.
As you are going through this procedure, try to have someone you know ''keep all belongings in-view'' to avoid loss if someone else picks up a wrong item or tries to steal yours. (Security personnel are focused on keeping the ''terminal'' area secure. They won't notice if someone "lifts" your bag (or something in it) or loose belongings because they don't know to whom it belongs.)
+
As you go through this procedure, try to have someone you know '''keep all belongings in-view''' to avoid loss...if someone else picks up a wrong item or tries to steal yours. (Security personnel are focused on keeping the ''terminal'' area secure. They won't notice if someone "lifts" your bag (or something in it) or loose belongings because they don't know to whom it belongs.)
Depending on the country, '''taking prohibited items to the security checkpoint even by accident may be considered an offense''', and the items concerned are not just subject to confiscation. UK airports may limit their gate security scans to one item per person but with little regard for carry-on size limits; you may need a large, soft bag to hold all carry-on items just for that check; find out before you begin your trip.
+
Depending on the country, '''taking prohibited items to the security checkpoint even by accident may be considered an offense''', and the items concerned are not just subject to confiscation. UK airports may limit their gate security scans to one item per person but with little regard for carry-on size limits; you might need a large, soft bag to hold all carry-on items just for that check; find out before you begin your trip.
Based on perceived threats or improving technologies, details about what's allowed and procedures for scanning may change. Just follow instructions. Some security levels, airlines, or flights going to certain regions, may require additional screening at your gate as you board...usually manual.
Based on perceived threats or improving technologies, details about what's allowed and procedures for scanning may change. Just follow instructions. Some security levels, airlines, or flights going to certain regions, may require additional screening at your gate as you board...usually manual.
'''General notes'''.
'''General notes'''.
* '''Always keep your luggage with you''' until you've checked your large pieces, and carry-ons before and after personal security check. Security officials take unattended items very seriously. If one is found and the owner is not within reach to claim it, it may trigger an alert, resulting in the affected area being "locked-down", and inspection of the suspicious piece of luggage by experts. The result will be serious inconvenience for a lot of people, and for you perhaps fines or the loss of your property (it may even be destroyed).
+
* '''Always keep your luggage with you''', until you've checked your large pieces, and carry-ons before and after personal security check. Security officials take unattended items very seriously. If one is found and the owner is not within reach to claim it, it may trigger an alert, resulting in the entire affected area being "locked-down" for a long time, and inspection of the suspicious piece of luggage by experts. The result will be serious inconvenience for a lot of people, and for you perhaps fines or the loss of your property (it may even be destroyed).
* '''Never make jokes about bombs, weapons, or other security threats'''. There is no room for humor on this topic; rather than relying on their individual subjective judgment, security personnel are required to take any such joke as a serious statement. You will be checked more thoroughly and/or escorted off the premises in some cases. Jokes may even be treated as a criminal offense, with charges filed against you.
* '''Never make jokes about bombs, weapons, or other security threats'''. There is no room for humor on this topic; rather than relying on their individual subjective judgment, security personnel are required to take any such joke as a serious statement. You will be checked more thoroughly and/or escorted off the premises in some cases. Jokes may even be treated as a criminal offense, with charges filed against you.
* At busy airports, you may have to wait in a long queue to pass through security. If so, if you don't think you'll make it through security to the gate in time, if your flight status changes to "Boarding", or (''particularly'') if your name is paged as being late for the flight, tell security staff. They will usually allow you to move to the front of the queue for a prompt security check.
* At busy airports, you may have to wait in a long queue to pass through security. If so, if you don't think you'll make it through security to the gate in time, if your flight status changes to "Boarding", or (''particularly'') if your name is paged as being late for the flight, tell security staff. They will usually allow you to move to the front of the queue for a prompt security check.
Revision as of 20:19, 4 August 2012
passengers onboard a typical commercial airliner
This article is a travel topic
Commercial airplane flight is one of the most common forms of long-distance travel. This is a guide to the standard procedures, rules, and other basics of traveling by air. For some tips to making your flights safer, more comfortable, and more enjoyable, see Tips for flying.
Contents
Planning your trip
If all the following information seems terribly complex, the easiest way to deal with it is to get a travel agent to arrange it for you. You may pay a small premium, but it may be worth it to avoid the hassle of finding and booking the best tickets by yourself for your particular route. Some travel agents can also arrange special requests (meals, baby bassinets, wheelchair assistance, etc) directly with the airline. Moreover, travel agents can advise you of packages that also include accommodations, airport transfers and guided tours hence also saving you some money compared to booking flights alone.
Safety
If your travel is other than routine, consider your well-being throughout your itinerary. This includes at least airline reputation, airport stopovers, destination safety and your basic health.
• Check official government sources for travel warnings. If they or news sources show potential for trouble, check with your agent, airline or airport (e.g., website) about your travel. Whether or not you are a U.S. citizen, you may be interested in the U.S. State Department's travel warnings [1] and those by other relevant governments. Those warnings can affect departures from U.S. or other airports to areas having a warning, and departures from such locales to your country.
• Look at the record of the airline, the aircraft it uses, and airport reputations if flying into smaller airfields or less-developed countries. Also look for flight segments you've been offered under a code-sharing arrangement, where you book on a reputable airline but actually fly on a different one for any part of your trip. You may then be flying an airline or aircraft with a poorer or unknown safety record, or that has baggage capacity less than you may need for your trip.
• Look at crime and other risks (e.g., strikes, political unrest) at your enroute stops or destination(s). They might affect your flight or (more likely) your experience at your destination. Without obsessing over pickpockets, understand destinations or specific locales where travel could be complicated, or where foreigners are not welcome, at risk or often exploited. Then plan accordingly.
If you have health issues, consult your doctor and ensure the airline knows about any condition that might be problematic for flying well before the start of the trip...even before you pay for tickets. Airlines can often help you if you have physical limitations or some medical condition.
No discussion about health or medical matters in this article should be taken as authoritative advice or direction. Always consult your doctor if you have any questions.
Finding cheap tickets
The airlines basic motive is to fly full planes, and to get the maximum revenue it can for each flight; then supply and demand, yield management, and competition take over. The result can be large variations in airfares, depending on the time and date, how far in advance you are purchasing a ticket, the ticket conditions...even the time and day of the week you book and pay for them.
You are likely to pay less for a ticket if you are flexible in your travel times and routes, and you are happy to have restrictions on changes and ticket refunds. Keep in mind:
• Last-minute flights are expensive. Book as early as you can to get the best deals, as the cheap fare classes fill up fast. Also, you have no claim about a special deal until you pay for your ticket(s).
• Monday morning and Friday evening are the most popular times for business people to fly, which increases demand and can limit the available seats.
• Holiday seasons are times of high demand, because everybody else is also on the move. Worldwide biggies include late December to early January (Christmas/New Year and southern summer vacations) and July-August (northern summer vacations), but watch out for local holidays as well, such as the Golden Weeks in China and Japan. However, flights on the actual holiday days, such as Christmas day, are often discounted, as are flights against the peak travel flow.
• Direct/non-stop flights (see box for the difference) from A to B may be expensive, as some people will pay a premium for the convenience and there is little competition. Transferring at point C is a time-consuming hassle, but it can save you a bundle, as there are many options and airlines compete to undercut each other.
• So-called budget airlines may offer attractive ticket costs. But take care with additional fees charged that may greatly reduce the cost advantage that airline may appear to have over others.
In no way should the following mention of certain on-line travel sites be taken as an endorsement of their services, and there are many other sites not mentioned.
The Internet offers opportunities for finding better airfares. Many airlines guarantee the cheapest airfares on their website, and independent agents may charge a fee for their services. Don't buy a fare without checking the price on the airline website as well as through at least a few travel search sites.
• Sites such as Expedia [2] and Travelocity [3] can help you explore your options, but note that these may not show discount airline flights, and they are rather North America-centric, often showing ridiculously inflated (full-fare) prices for travel outside North America.
• Kayak [4] may be an alternative. To find a low-cost/no-frills flight it can be good to check one of the comparison tools, such as e.g. flylowcostairlines.org [5].
• For international travel, you may get the best deals by booking from an agent at the starting point. But try travel search sites such as Momondo and Vayama to understand costs, flight frequencies and routes. If you are a student or under 26, some travel sites and agents are tailored to offering low fares to you.
See also: First and business class travel, Discount airlines, Round the world flights.
Connections
Direct vs. non-stop
In the airline world, a direct flight means that it uses the same plane, but there may still be a stopover along the way — this means that you may have to disembark the plane with your carry-on luggage and, in countries like the US, even go through immigration. Look for a non-stop flight if you want to get from point A to point B in one flight.
Very often, flying from point A to point B involves a connection in point C, where you have to disembark, find your connecting flight and climb on board again. If both the A-C and C-B flights are on the same ticket, the airlines are responsible for broken connections and will (try to) get you on the next flight if you miss your flight. However, if you're booking your flights separately, making the connection is solely your responsibility, and in most cases no refund will be provided from either party when one airline's delay makes you late for the next one.
Major airlines may consider a connection as tight as 35 minutes to be valid, and if you don't have to clear Customs or exit and re-enter secure zones between flights, and the arrival and departure gates are near each other, this may be reasonable. However, you can get unpleasant surprises at unfamiliar airports. For example, your gates could be at opposite ends of the building, or even in separate terminals. If you're traveling through an airport you don't know well and travel time is not critical, consider allowing at least an hour and a half to make each connection, particularly if it involves clearing Customs (in which case two and a half hours is safer). If you are not delayed, you can use this slack time to eat at the airport, where the food is likely better than what you may (or may not!) get in the air.
Many on-line travel arrangers show statistics on how often a given flight arrives on time. Use this information to help you decide whether to risk problems with tight connections, etc. Generally, the last flight of the day into a given destination will be delayed more often than earlier flights, as the airlines use that flight to "sweep" travelers whose inbound connecting flights run late. Of course, the statistics alone won't tell you whether your particular flight is likely to be delayed, but it's still useful data.
With international connecting flights, check to see if the country you will be making a connection at requires a transit visa to go through their airport. Some countries, such as the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom require all passengers to go pass through customs and immigration even if they are just transferring between international flights. Others, such as Hong Kong and Australia will require certain nationalities to obtain a visa even if they plan to remain in the sterile area. You are responsible for procuring all the necessary visas before you fly; request them as early as possible. For more information about using the U.S. as a transit point as well as alternative transit points, see Avoiding a transit of the United States.
Reservations and ticketing
From the moment you first book your flight to the moment you step on the plane, there's a lot going on in the background. The following may be helpful in understanding what is happening especially if you intend to book flights the old school way (i.e. physically going to a carrier's ticketing office or your travel agency).
The first step is to make a reservation for your flight. This is done by contacting the carrier or your travel agent by the phone. No payment is necessary at this point. When making a reservation, the airline will hold a seat for you until a given date, typically a week or so after the reservation. If you do not pay up before the expiration date, the booking will be canceled and somebody else can grab the seat. Reservations can be changed and canceled freely. This is useful if you are awaiting the outcome of certain procedures (e.g. approval of a visa for your destination). You will be given a six character-long alphanumeric code called the passenger name reference or PNR which you may quote when you're ready to purchase the ticket.
• A seat reserved for you will be listed as confirmed in your reservation, and will not be taken away, at least not until the time limit given to you has expired. However, you can't fly yet until you purchase the ticket. You can confirm only a single seat in each direction per ticket.
• If a specific flight is fully booked but you want to try to get on it, you can make a waitlisted reservation. If the waitlist "clears" (somebody else cancels and you get their seat), the waitlisted reservation becomes confirmed and your previously confirmed seats on other flights are canceled. You can usually waitlist multiple flights, but really cheap nonchangeable tickets may not allow any waitlisting at all.
Turning a reservation into an actual ticket is called issuing the ticket or ticketing. An issued ticket must be paid for with cash/credit/debit card or redeemed with frequent flyer points/miles and - depending on ticket type - some or all of the following restrictions may now apply:
• nonchangeable/nonrebookable: you cannot change the flight time and date (at least not without paying a heavy change fee). In cases of rebookable flights, whether there is a rebooking fee or not, you will still need to pay for the fare difference.
• nonendorsable: you cannot fly another airline if your airline has problems (for serious cases like flight cancellations this is usually overruled by local legislation)
• nonrefundable: you cannot get your money back if you don't fly (in North America it might be possible the unused fare may be used as credit for purchasing another ticket after a penalty/administrative fee is deducted if cancelled beforehand; in most other places though the entire fare will very well be forfeited)
• nonreroutable: you cannot change to another route, even if the destination is the same
• nontransferable: you cannot sell the ticket to somebody else
• non mileage accruable: you cannot earn frequent flyer miles on that ticket
• nonupgradable: you cannot upgrade to a more premium class using frequent flyer miles
These various restrictions (or lack thereof) play a large role in determining the price of that ticket. As mentioned in the section finding a cheap ticket, a rule of thumb is that higher prices mean fewer restrictions.
Take note that if you intend to book a flight online (either through the carrier's website or consolidator websites like Travelocity and Expedia), the reservation and ticketing happen at the same time. Hence payment (usually by credit/debit card) or redemption (if using miles) is required immediately. However there are some advantages to booking online:
• these websites are open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week (except for rare occasional maintenance) so you don't have to wait until the next business day to go down to a ticketing office or travel agency to be ticketed for a flight or even make enquiries about available flights/promos
• a service fee is levied by some carriers for ticketing done through phone or in-person booking; you can save yourself this money by using the online facility instead
• a good number of promo fares nowadays are offered exclusively online so check with them
If you are still waitlisted for a flight that you would like to board, or if you would like to take an earlier or later flight than you're booked on, you can try to fly standby. This means simply showing up at the airport check-in counter and asking to be put on the next flight. If there is plenty of space, you'll be checked in right there. However, if the flight is looking full, you will have to wait until the flight is closed (typically 30-60 minutes before departure) and the airline can count how many seats it has left. Don't count on any special ticket savings if you fly standby and conversely, don't count on flying standby if you're ticket is highly restricted.
If you don't check in by closing time, you will be declared a no-show. Your seat can now be given to somebody on standby. The result depends on your ticket restrictions and conditions, which can be either total loss of your fare, or on some flexible tickets you can just book onto the next flight.
Here are other important notes regarding reservations and ticketing:
• While a reservation guarantees you a seat, it does not guarantee the fare that was quoted. Hence the fare at the time of reservation may differ from the one given at the time of ticketing. The fare quoted is only guaranteed if you're ready to book right away.
• Flight restrictions can be draconian — some companies even ban standby changes — so you'll have to pay (sometimes dearly) to make any change; some also do not allow refunds. Check your conditions carefully.
Paper and electronic ticketing
Most airlines today exclusively use electronic tickets (e-tickets). An e-ticket is an electronic record of your booking details which is stored in the airline's computers; you will not receive a paper ticket, which consists of a booklet of flight coupons. In most cases, an itinerary receipt containing your flight details is prepared and e-mailed or printed for your reference. The itinerary receipt contains a unique six-character Passenger Name Record (PNR), which is used to identify your booking.
While an e-ticket itinerary receipt has a lot of the features of a basic itinerary, it has added features such as a ticket number, baggage allowance, computation of the fare and surcharges, mode of payment, etc. It also comes with the conditions of carriage which includes your rights in case something happens to the flights you are booked with.
In theory, an e-ticket allows you to just show a valid ID upon check-in, as your name is all the agent needs to access your flight details. However, for security reasons, some airports require you to show a print-out of the itinerary receipt as proof of your booking before entering the airport and/or upon check-in. In addition, when travelling to another country, immigration authorities often require proof of onward or return travel. So always bring a print-out of the itinerary receipt with you for easy reference.
Due to concerns of credit card fraud, when you purchase e-tickets over the Internet with a credit card, some carriers require you to show the credit card used to purchase the tickets at the airport or their ticketing office for verification. Take note of this especially if the credit card holder is not part of the travelling party - they need to see the credit card, not the authorised signature of the credit card holder. Failure to do so may lead to re-issue of the ticket with the same (or higher) fare, and refund for the original ticket after many weeks or even months (if refundable; refund fees may apply).
In the rare event that you are issued with a paper ticket, you must present it when checking in for your flight. Look after your ticket; you cannot check in without it. If you lose the ticket, expect a lot of paperwork and/or hassles: you may be required to buy another ticket for the flight and have to apply for a refund later, or pay a re-ticketing fee. Not to mention that some jurisdictions will require you to file a police report. Hence if you're afraid of losing or forgetting your paper ticket, request for an e-ticket whenever possible. When you lose or misplace a print-out of the itinerary receipt, you can always freely and easily print another copy out from your email or request the carrier/travel agent to email it to you again.
Health
The following issues and remedies are for those travelers with extra concerns about some conditions. Most people do just fine with a bottle of water, and perhaps a neck pillow and an eye mask for sleeping. For very-long flights, extra measures may be useful...as noted below.
Common issues:
• At high altitude, cabin pressure is much lower than on the ground...often equivalent to 8,000 feet/2700 meters above sea level. This can generate great discomfort if ears or sinuses are clogged, e.g., by allergies or a cold. If congested, and if your doctor has no concern about complications, consider taking a decongestant (anti-histamine optional) an hour or so before departure...an extended release form for a long flight. (If you hope to sleep, note that such potions make some people restless.)
• As any flight descends, most people have some trouble with pressure in their eardrums. That's why babies often cry loudly, having been quiet for the rest of the flight. Pinching your nose, closing your lips and trying to exhale can relieve the pressure.
• Your nasal passages can dry-out during long flights...rendering you slightly more susceptible to airborne infections. Drink plenty of liquids (without alcohol or caffeine), perhaps use a moisturizing nasal spray (e.g., saline solution rather than topical anti-histamine), and consider using a simple face mask on very-long flights to conserve lung and sinus moisture as you breathe.
• Cabin temperature can vary, and for window seats the wall can be quite cool. Consider taking a coat, jacket or newspaper on-board. Wear warm socks, and if in a window seat, put something between you and the wall.
• Contact lenses. On multi-hour flights, you should use re-wetting drops frequently, or consider wearing prescription glasses instead...especially if you hope to sleep. The very-low cabin humidity can cause dry contact complications for your eyes. (As for any trip, take spare contact lenses and/or prescription glasses.)
• Sanitizing wipes can be very useful on-board and in airports...to clean hands, tables, trays, arm rests, and key bathroom surfaces that have heavy use and unknown or (perhaps) neglected cleaning. Choose pre-wetted packets rather than bottled liquid for convenience, and that contain sanitizing ingredients beyond or other than alcohol.
Less common challenges
• If you need oxygen enroute, check with the airline to see if the type you need is feasible; if so, have your doctor, agent and/or airline arrange it well in-advance.
• If anyone in your party is handicapped in other ways (e.g., mobility, vision), you'll want the airline to know in-advance, preferably as you book your flight. With notice, they can make appropriate seat assignments, arrange assistance in the terminal, and notify the cabin crew of your needs.
• If ill (especially with anything that might be contagious), you really shouldn't fly. In the close quarters of a plane, perhaps for hours, with 200 or more people going eventually to countless places, you could start or spread misery, even an epidemic. You should defer travel until you have recovered. If an airline or security agent notices symptoms, you may be interviewed...at worst denied boarding. Good trip insurance can help with the expense of delayed travel.
• If you've had surgery or a plaster cast applied within the last 15 days or so, you'd best avoid flying. Low cabin pressure can cause extremely uncomfortable swelling. Consult your doctor.
• If pregnant, you should consult your doctor for your particular circumstances. [[6]] provides a fair introduction to the issues.
Restrictions and advice for these conditions can vary by airline, flight distances/times, total times to your destination(s), and availability of quality care.
Without your doctor's consultation, even good travel insurance may not cover you, especially if you fail to notify the insurer and airline. The insurer may levy a surcharge for special coverage, or may not cover for premature childbirth, pre- or post-natal complications or medical evacuation. The insurer and some airlines may also require written assurance from your doctor.
Trip Insurance
If your trip starts to gain complexity or substantial cost as you plan it, or you are less than an experienced traveler, you should seriously consider trip insurance. Its cost will basically be determined by your total trip cost, the age of travelers, level of coverage requested for certain problems (e.g., costs of treating sickness or injury, or medical evacuation), and coverage for domestic or international travel. Many insurance sources will cover pre-existing medical conditions if the insurance is purchased within a very few days of booking your trip; they may not if bought later.
Travel experts consistently recommend getting insurance from other than airlines (or cruise lines). They often focus only on the line's responsibilities, while a quality policy will cover your end-to-end trip. You may obtain better rates by buying a policy through or from an association you belong to, e.g., AAA, AA. Savvy, very-frequent travelers often consider long-term (annual) policies; coverage can be equivalent while costing much less per trip.
See travel insurance.
Amending Trip Details and Special Requests
Sometimes trip plans fall through for whatever reason or you may have additional requests (e.g. seating or meal preferences). If you purchased your ticket from a travel agency or a consolidator website (such as Travelocity or Expedia), please contact them or visit their website first before getting in touch with the carrier directly. This is especially the case if you purchased your ticket as part of a package (which includes accommodation and other tours). If you purchased your ticket directly from the carrier (through its ticketing office or website), you may contact them directly or go to their website to manage your booking.
Once you have confirmed your flights, be sure to let the carrier or your travel agent know if you have any special requests. Typical examples include:
• special meals (vegetarian, kosher, medical restrictions, allergies, etc)
• special seats (exit row seats for tall people, bulkhead seats for baby bassinets)
• airport assistance (wheelchair or unaccompanied minor)
You can check to see what meals to expect on Airlinemeals.net [7].
With some airlines, you need to remind the crew about your special meals order at some point before the meals are served, to save them from browsing the passenger list and finding you in the cabin (or even finding your special order after serving you regular meals). Travel agencies have a tendency to lose track of the many requests they get, so if it's really serious it's wise to contact the airline directly and make sure the message has gotten through, and to mention it at check-in. Major airlines support special requests on their web sites.
Important Documents
To board your flight, you'll at least need an airline boarding pass, paper ticket (if you were issued with one), and certainly and some form of government-issued photo identification (perhaps less for toddlers). If your flight (or connecting flight) takes you to other countries, you'll also need a passport ...quite often with an expiration date of at least six months after the date you start the trip and in some cases a visa. Check in-advance with your agent or airline. The credit card used to purchase the tickets may also be required to be presented for verification so bring that as well.
Any authority looking at airline tickets, boarding passes, passports or other identification will examine names carefully...TSA and other security authorities often require that key papers precisely reflect your full name. This applies to all persons in your travel group, e.g., spouse, children. This starts by making sure that whoever books your trip accurately enters each full name on the reservations and later-generated tickets.
Have convincing documentation that all medications belong to you, e.g., labeled bottles, copy of the doctor's prescription. (Take no more than will be needed on your trip.) If any med contains a controlled/narcotic ingredient, make absolutely sure you will not violate any law of any country you'll enter...even as a through flight passenger. This may include having the country's written permission to carry the meds within its borders. Otherwise, the consequences can be severe, e.g., immediate confiscation, possible prison, perhaps execution in a few jurisdictions if quantities are substantial.
And if you bought travel insurance, bring something describing the coverage, policy number and how to contact the insurer wherever you will travel.
Frequent flyers
Many airlines offer a frequent flyer loyalty program, rewarding patrons who fly regularly with them or who fly long distances. The loyalty schemes work on a segments or miles basis: you get rewards after you fly a certain number of trips ('segments') or after the total distance of your flights exceeds a certain amount. Business and first class passengers may receive bonus miles for each journey; sometimes there are available credit card and hotel bonuses for economy class tickets as well. If you are not a member of a frequent flyer program, consider joining one - especially if you travel to an intercontinental destination or plan to take additional trips. You may get something out of it, at the price of having your data profiled and used for advertisement. To join a frequent flyer program, brochures are handed out at the airport, an airline's lounge or an airline's ticket office. Submit them to the ground staff and your frequent flyer number becomes effective immediately. You can also join online. Most frequent flyer programmes don't charge a fee to join but some such as Cathay Pacific's Marco Polo Club do (in exchange for a few perks such as dedicated check-in counters and priority boarding at the base level).
The frequent flyer rewards typically include:
• Free flights and Upgrades. Once you have earned enough miles/points, you can claim a flight and/or an upgrade award. The mileage cost of the award will vary depending on your itinerary. Take note though that although the fare is free, you will still have to shoulder government taxes and surcharges collected at the point-of-ticketing.
• Redemption of free goodies (such as consumer goods and hotel stays) on other non-flight partners.
• If you collect enough points in a year you can become an elite member, which can include additional perks such as check-in at the first/business class counter, early boarding, priority in waitlists, complimentary upgrades, and access to airport lounges. Lounges are also available to holders of some credit cards: Diners Club [8]; GlobeCard Platinum; Master Card; and American Express.
Not all fares are eligible to earn miles so ask the ticketing agent or read the fare rules at the time of booking. You can usually claim miles for flights up to 12 months after you've taken them, as long as you were a member when the flight was taken, but you will need to keep your boarding pass stubs. It's easier to log-in using your frequent flyer number prior to booking.
Currently only Travelgrove's [9] meta search engine is showing the miles that can be earned for each flight. In cooperation with MileBlaster, extras like Credit Card bonuses, Hotel bonuses, special offers are also available, and the results can be ordered by the percentage of the free flight that can be gained by booking the given flight, so it is definitely a good choice for frequent flyers looking to collect enough miles for a free flight.
Your airline of choice may be a member of an airline alliance, which allows you to earn and use your miles on other airlines in the same alliance as well. The big three alliances are Star Alliance [10], oneworld [11] and SkyTeam [12]. With the many frequent flyer programmes out there, it will be ideal to be a member of one programme per alliance at most.
Being a frequent flyer programme of a particular carrier somehow makes it more convenient to make bookings with that carrier. When you log-on using your frequent flyer number and book a flight, your details (such as name, passport details etc.) are automatically filled-in whether the flight is mileage accruable or not.
You may also be able to claim points from other sources. Credit cards affiliated to a program are particularly useful, as you'll typically get miles every time you use them and this can quickly rack up to a free trip per year, but hotel stays, car rentals and even mobile phone bills may garner you points.
Packing
For flying, there are two basic types of luggage: checked and carry-on sometimes referred to "hold" and "hand" luggage, respectively, even "cabin baggage". Checked luggage is usually given to airline staff at check-in time and, after electronic or hand screening, transported by airport crew to temporary storage and loaded into the hold of the aircraft. Luggage limits for both types are discussed below.
Carry-on luggage is taken on board the flight with you. The weight and size limits for it can be very restrictive and can vary by airline (e.g., budget versus major carrier) and size of aircraft. Some may let you carry little more than a few essentials for comfort and small, easily damaged items. There the challenges start.
• Never put high-value or irreplaceable items in your checked luggage. Somehow you need to personally carry all your official/valuable papers, cash/bank cards/passports and high-value items (e.g., jewelry, electronics, Rx or irreplaceable medications) with you. Moreover, emergencies may happen unexpectedly during the course of your journey and in that case you may need immediate access to such resources.
• In some airports, security of checked luggage has been an issue; contents have occasionally been stolen while checked bags await loading on your plane. Such thieves focus entirely on valuables. (See "Locking your bags" below.)
• Understand what liquids you're allowed to carry on-board, e.g., see the TSA 3-1-1 Rule [13], with metric equivalents widely adopted elsewhere. This includes foods made with syrups/gels/pastes, e.g., peanut butter, jams, jellies. If you consider packing such, keep them within the 3-1-1 Rule.
• You may want or need to include some comfort items (discussed below).
• For vacations, you'll likely want a camera, perhaps a laptop. Their support accessories can go in checked bags since not valuable per se.
Fortunately, cameras, laptops, "purses" and outer garments often fall under separate allowances that may give you some relief and packing options, e.g.,:
• You'll probably be allowed to carry on a modest camera bag.
• The purse allowance doesn't specify gender.
• Women can choose one that is rather generous...but not outrageous.
• Men may be allowed a modest shoulder bag or small backpack.
• Some travel-item sellers offer coats and vests with many pockets, able to hold many small items. You may already have one.
All increase what you can carry-on, and (except for budget carriers) probably won't be protested or result in a fee unless you over-do it.
Pressurized containers, explosives, hazardous materials and weapons (or items that look like weapons) are prohibited entirely. For the USA, see the TSA's guide to Transporting Special Items [14]. Note also "Carry-on Contents" below.
So carefully maximize what you can wisely put in checked luggage within weight and size limits set by the airline, minimize your valuables as much as possible, and be cautiously creative about satisfying the rules for carry-on. (More discussion follows.)
Choosing luggage
As you choose any case for travel (at home or at purchase), mind its empty weight, dimensions, ease to carry and apparent durability, e.g., well-made rollers and comfortable handle.
• Lighter cases allow you to pack that much more.
• Very large pieces (even lightweight) tempt packing too much weight or violating size limits.
• Experts recommend large cases with lengths of 25-26 inches to minimize accidental overload when fully-packed. Fixed-shape designs from major brands will be dimensioned to meet standard airline restrictions. Better designs include expansion capabilities on trips when weight or size aren't limited.
• For greatest ease of carrying, you might choose fixed-shape wheeled luggage. Two quality wheels should track well and last the life of the bag. Four wheels eliminate carrying any weight while rolling the case.
• Some luggage makers offer capabilities to pull two wheeled bags in-tandem as one. However, negotiating stairs, escalators, even ramps can be challenging.
• Carry-on luggage must fit in overhead bins or under the seat in front of you. To preserve your foot room (crucial on long flights), you'll want to put as much in the overheads as possible.
• Fixed-shapes from quality brands will be sized precisely to fit "standard" overhead bins, e.g., for large Boeing and Airbus aircraft, up to 22 inch long roll-ons.
• Many flights within Europe and elsewhere use "regional" jets with small overhead bins and little room under seats. The "official" international standard is 20 inches. But even that may not fit in their bins.
• Soft, partially-full bags may fit in smaller or nearly-full bins where fixed-shape luggage can't. Pack them carefully to protect any fragile contents.
How much should I pack?
Once you have booked your flight(s), go to the airline's web site to fully understand its baggage limits and fees. Most legacy US carriers and low-cost carriers outside the US levy fees for checked bags; at least one airline also charges for carry-ons. Fees paid on-line in-advance may be slightly less than when paid at check-in.
Don't take more luggage and contents than you can carry/roll by yourself...to include items needed for infants and small children.
• Airports generally have baggage carts for rent, but you'll need local currency (usually coins) to "rent" one. In some countries (e.g., the United Kingdom), you cannot take these carts through security checkpoints into secure/sterile (airside) areas.
• Some airports offer free carts...more often in areas for arriving flights.
• Nearly all airports and hotels have porters, usually working for tips.
• Elsewhere, you'll likely be entirely on your own. Too many bags or too much weight can become a major burden.
You may be tempted to take as much as you are allowed. But purchases can make your bag(s) overweight when you return...resulting in airline fees beyond those for starting the trip. This can greatly increase the real cost of even the best buys. Some experienced travelers with shopping plans even take and use some presentable but older garments, then donate or discard them before returning home.
Checked luggage is often thrown about in transit. If you have something that might not survive such handling, and it's allowed on-board, carry it on-board. Otherwise, leave it home. Travel insurance often will not cover fragile items broken in checked luggage. Placing a FRAGILE sticker provided by the carrier may not be sufficient to notify the baggage handlers that the contents are actually fragile.
Large Items
If you have a large/long item (e.g., not easily carried on or checked), you'd best leave it home unless essential to your travel, such as sports equipment. If you do check it, there may be additional fees involved and it may be delivered to a special baggage claim area...perhaps some distance from where your regular luggage appears. It may also take extra time to be ready to claim.
Weight and Size Limits
• Carry-on luggage most anywhere: 1 piece (in Europe, maximum weight 7, some airlines 12 kg), maximum size 20x40x55 cm (9x14x22 inches)...in Europe, often 20 inches length.
• Checked luggage on international flights outside the United States: 1 piece, maximum 20 kg (44 lbs).
• Checked luggage on international flights to/from the United States and within the United States: 1 piece, maximum 23 kg or 50 lbs.
Checked Baggage Fees
• If you're traveling domestically in the United States, keep in mind all airlines (apart from low-cost carriers JetBlue and Southwest and a few regional commuter airlines) charge $25 for the first checked bag and $35 for the second one. Originally confined to itineraries wholely within the lower 48 states, bag fees are now assessed on virtually all itineraries that do not cross an ocean: still plan on paying if you're flying to Alaska, Hawaii, Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America and some South American destinations (usually flights to "deep South America" i.e. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile get at least one bag for free.)
• Elite frequent flyers are usually permitted between one and three bags free of charge, depending on airline and tier.
• First and Business Class passengers are allowed three bags for free.
• Air Canada charges checked bag fees on "transborder" flights to or from the United States. Unlike US carriers, they do not assess bag fees on Canadian domestic itineraries, or flights to Mexico, the Caribbean, or other destinations in the Western Hemisphere.
• Some European low cost carriers (e.g. Ryanair) have no free luggage allowance and charge per kilo.
• On any airline, you'll be charged if your bags are over weight or over sized. Low-cost carriers in-particular often have lower limits, higher fees for overages.
Other Concerns
• The smaller "carry-on space" on regional jets may force you to check an item at the counter, gate or aircraft entrance that you can usually carry on-board other aircraft. This creates some risk of theft if it contains valuables.
• If in doubt, check in-advance with your agent or airline about all flights and aircraft types on your itinerary. "Extra" airline fees can sometimes be punitive.
Check the packed weight of each "to-be-checked" case before leaving home; it will likely be different from any previous trip. For follow-on or return flights, you might take a hand-scale with you or ask hotel staff at destination if they have scales.
See also List Of Airline Baggage Limits for further discussion.
Dealing with overweight
For checked luggage, every kilo over the limit is paid as some fixed fee or a percentage of the airfare. This can get very expensive.
• As above, weigh your luggage before you leave home (or, at least, before you approach the airport check-in counter). Once you place your bag on the scales at check-in, some airlines will not allow you to take out contents, and even if they do, it's an embarrassing hassle.
• For carry-on luggage, weight is usually only checked at the check-in counter, if at all. Once you pass the check-in, you'll have to look suspiciously overweight to have your hand luggage checked.
• If you were close to the allowed weights outbound, make sure you wear the same (kinds of) clothes back home. If you go to a tropical isle wearing jeans and jacket, and return wearing flip-flops and shorts, with checked bags holding the heavy clothes, etc., you could have luggage weight problems.
If you know your bags will be definitely overweight but you need to take so much, consult your airline. For a price, it may offer baggage "upgrades" before arrival at the airport for less than excess-baggage fees at the airline counter. Pre-booking excess baggage online can come with discounts.
You might consider shipping luggage as cargo, also known as unaccompanied baggage. Every airport has a company that will arrange this for you, and aggregators like xsbaggage [15] can find one for you. This has its trade-offs:
• Fees charged can be quite high.
• Your bags will be shipped separately...necessarily a few and perhaps several days earlier. Instead of claiming them at your destination airport, you'll have to arrange collection or delivery somewhere else, e.g., pre-arranged with the hotel where you'll stay. For international locations, you may also need to do Customs declarations/claims for your unaccompanied bags, which can be a hassle.
Carry-on Limits/Suggestions
Several countries, including all EU countries and the US, now impose 100ml or 3.4oz limits on liquids, gels and pastes in carry on baggage. This includes aerosols, toothpaste, deodorant/antiperspirant sticks, all drinks (including water), lens cleaner, etc.
• All containers for those liquids must fit in a single clear bag/pouch smaller than 20cm x 20cm or 1 quart. Each container inside must meet the 100ml/3.4oz limit, e.g., a 250ml toothpaste tube with only a small amount of toothpaste left is still not allowed.
• These restrictions are usually enforced at terminal security checks. Some people wanting water on-board take empty bottles through security and fill them with water from air-side drinking fountains.
• When re-entering the US, the same liquid restrictions may apply...perhaps even to "non-Rx" medical items such as contact lens solution. Check with your airline if in doubt.
• Some exceptions are possible, e.g., for medical or baby care items.
• Sanitizing wipes individually sealed in packets are allowed and highly useful in-flight. (Bottled or in packets, sanitizers designed for hands tend to contain large amounts of glycerine to help prevent drying skin. They should not be used on other surfaces...will leave an undesirable residue.)
• Duty free items purchased within the secure area of any airport may be allowed on-board. But be careful of liquids and in-transit aircraft changes where you may have to re-check through security. Under the 3-1-1 rule, large containers of liquids are not allowed through "re-check", even if sealed in a vendor's sack.
Due to new IATA guidelines, the above limits on "liquids, aerosols and gels" for carry-on baggage now apply to all international flights. See TSA [16].
Place all medications and liquids you'll need enroute where they can be easily seen at security check. Ensure all medications are clearly labeled (especially prescriptions) and kept in small bottles wherever possible. Place all liquids not meeting the 3-1-1 Rule in your checked luggage.
Expect to discard all liquids and gels you carry through the security checkpoint that don't meet that country's regulations. Basically similar regulations apply for flights departing the United Kingdom, United States and continental Europe, e.g., more details for the United Kingdom can be found at the Security control section of the official BAA Heathrow (www.baa.com) website.
You may be required to demonstrate the harmlessness of any liquid upon request by security officials.
Pack no sharp or weapon-like objects in carry-on baggage; if seen (likely), they will be confiscated. Even "convincing looking" toy weapons are illegal in some countries.
• This includes pointed scissors, pocket knives, Swiss Army knives, screwdrivers or similar tools, baseball bats, and so on.
• Pack sharp items in your checked bags in ways that don't create risk for baggage inspectors.
• If passing through the USA, check the list of prohibited items from TSA [17].
Food/water: If your flight goes to the United States, Australia, or New Zealand, take no more fresh or un-packaged food than you will eat before you arrive. Those countries have strict rules about bringing-in food. It may be seized, and may generate a major fine. On longer flights there will probably be a meal or snack served (or offered for purchase) anyway. Check at least before boarding, if not sooner.
If you are hypoglycemic, diabetic, or have blood-sugar issues, you might take a few non-perishable packaged snacks. Again, don't count on being able to buy such items at any airport without checking in-advance. If you have a tight connection, you may have no time to then buy what you need enroute...even if a shop has it.
If you feel need for your own bottled water while flying, you might purchase it after you pass through personal security inspection (but check the airport description in-advance to ensure such a shop is available), or you might bring an empty bottle and refill it after security check.
Insecticides. Fifty countries worldwide, including China, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand require that insecticides (usually residual types) be used on planes. If the airline (e.g., Hawaiian Airlines) does not use residual insecticide, the plane may be sprayed in-flight before arrival in those countries. If you might be sensitive to such chemicals, ask in-advance what is used so your doctor can determine if it will affect you.
Amusements. Unless you sleep easily on flights, you might want to keep yourself occupied, especially on long flights. Five "empty" hours may be tolerable, but much longer can go beyond boredom. Some planes have the latest in-flight entertainment systems, recorded music/movies/TV episodes, and on-board games...with all visuals presented on a small-screen TV. Others may have little or nothing. Visit your airline's website or seatguru.com [18] to check. For long flights, some carriers offer earphones...often for a price. If you plan to plug-in your own headphones/earplugs, ensure you have plug adapters. The airline's web site should list permitted electronic devices; on-board, look in the in-flight magazine. Perhaps even better, treat yourself to a good book.
Comfort items (some mentioned elsewhere):
• For warmth, consider a light jacket, vest, wrap or small blanket; if clothing, wear it aboard (won't be counted as a carry-on item) then doff it if not needed. If you have a window seat, have something to keep your legs warm.
• For sleep on longer flights, you might want a neck pillow or something that keeps your head upright.
• For very long flights, savvy flyers bring something to pad the small of their backs (e.g., cushion or roll) and warm slippers.
For your consideration...
• A pair of foam earplugs. Even on short flights, engine noise or restless small child near you can be bothersome. Foam earplugs will reduce the noise level but still allow you to hear instructions in an emergency...or
• If you're a frequent-flyer or going on a very-long flight, consider quality noise- canceling headphones or ear-buds. They can help much more than foam earplugs if you find flight noise irking, or need help to sleep. Choose carefully for long-term comfort.
• Sanitizing wipes: If you'll be using your seat tray, use sanitizing wipes on your tray, armrests and hands. Also use wipes on key surfaces before you use the aircraft bathroom. Several may be needed on long flights.
• Lightweight blanket...many airlines no longer offer them...especially for flights less than 5 hours or so.
• Newspaper...for reading, (and to insulate against the cabin wall if needed).
If you put electronics (e.g., music player, headphones, laptop, cell phone) in your carry-on bag, electronic screening is more likely to generate manual inspection; so pack them to make inspection easy. In most countries, laptops are scanned separately from other carry-ons; you'll have to remove yours from any bag/luggage having other items. Make sure its batteries are charged at least enough to "boot" it up for a simple demonstration.
Most regulations allow you to carry on an umbrella if it fits in your bag, the overhead bin or under your seat. If you must have a type that won't fit, consider putting it in your checked luggage or buying one at your destination.
Airline gate security may confiscate any carry-on items they feel are "suspicious", often without recourse - you'll not be able to put those items in checked baggage because all checked pieces are by then inaccessible...awaiting loading aboard your aircraft.
Tips As You Pack
For contents of your to-be-checked luggage, pack as much as possible in resealable plastic bags (2-5 gallon).
• They will greatly help security inspections and repacking your luggage. And they'll protect contents if your checked luggage are exposed to the elements while waiting to be loaded or offloaded at your aircraft.
• Before you seal them, thoroughly press out all air ("burp them"); otherwise, at altitude the bags will burst.
• They are equally useful returning, plus they keep soiled items separate from other content.
• Use burped and sealed, resealable gallon, liter or quart-size bags for bottled liquids in-case bottles leak during flight.
Place heavy items toward the bottom of any to-be-checked bag (as it stands upright), and avoid putting any heavy item in the same bag with anything fragile. Any content likely to trigger a manual inspection should be placed where it will be quickly seen as the bag is opened.
For significant liquid quantities in your checked luggage (e.g., shampoo), choose rugged screw-capped bottles with tops not designed to pop open...even if you must buy them separately and manually fill them at home. Otherwise, use new/unopened bottles of product still sealed, and tape any pop-open cap tightly to the rest of the container as well as the opening. As above, put such bottles in separate, burped and sealed plastic bags to protect other luggage contents. If you are weight-constrained and can conveniently purchase such items at your destination, consider buying them there rather than packing them.
Never put any kind of unprocessed film in checked luggage. Any existing exposed images, and any ability of the film to be later exposed, will be completely and permanently destroyed by the x-rays used in scanning.
Place identification on both the outside and inside of your bag.
• Rugged, well-attached luggage tags are crucial...at least name, address, phone. Those that have a flap to cover your identity are preferred.
• Place/tape a "sign" of some type on the outside stating where the bag must be delivered (if mis-routed or delayed), e.g., your hotel. Apply it so that it will at least survive the pending flight.
• Copies of your trip itinerary inside the bag (on top of belongings) and in an outside pocket can be important. Pertinent information should include: name, address, telephone number, e-mail address, flight number(s) and date(s) you are traveling, point of departure, aircraft changes, and all enroute and destination airports and hotel(s)/address(es) and dates/times. This information can prove crucial for airlines or others to locate you or forward your luggage if your name tag comes off (called a "tag off") or the "sign" "fails" the trip.
• If packing a box, put your name, address and phone numbers in big block letters and numbers on at least 2 opposite sides, plus a "sign", and an itinerary sheet inside.
If an airline loses bags, it will often lose one rather than all (except for major delays and flight cancellations). So distribute clothes and other necessaries for everyone in your group among all the bags you have...so everyone will have at least something to use. Delayed baggage coming in on a later flight is far more common than truly "lost" baggage (by definition, over 24 hrs.)
• Take a photo of each piece of your checked baggage so you won't have to verbally describe it. This is especially important where language barriers might be a problem. Lost and delayed luggage is more common if you depart from a larger airport than a smaller one. (Size of arrival airport doesn't matter.)
• As a last resort, airlines can search a worldwide database of the contents of bags that have been "misdirected". Based on passenger declarations of contents at lost-luggage offices, they may find your piece. They do not catalog every item inside a bag, so declare one unique, easily-seen item to help the airline see it when opened.
You should consider reinforcing your to-be-checked luggage so it won't break open due to awkward or rough handling. Two ways include:
• Tightly apply brightly-colored straps...some even have locks, but they can complicate security inspections. Ensure any strap-ends are well-secured/tucked-in so they won't be snagged in handling. (The colors will help you recognize checked bags at flight end. Otherwise, customize the outside of your checked luggage with brightly-colored tape/ribbons/etc. so they won't look the same as hundreds of others at luggage claim.)
• In major airports, you may find a luggage-wrapping service. If so, for a fee, they will wrap any piece of luggage in multiple layers of clear, tough plastic sheeting. This occurs before you present it at the airline counter to be checked. So, make sure the added weight of the wrap won't make the item overweight. Also make sure your name tag is clearly visible...very preferably outside the wrap.
If the number of your outbound checked bags doesn't reach the limit, and you know you'll make some purchases, consider packing a soft bag in your checked luggage. You then can use it as an extra checked bag for return to pack "unbreakables" you took with you.
Locking your bags
All bags passing through airports receive either electronic or manual security inspection, perhaps both. If you're not sure about the airports you'll use, consult your agent or airline for details. All checked bags to/from or within the US receive at least electronic scanning at least once.
If to be manually inspected, they must be opened. If locked by other than approved locks (e.g., by TSA for the U.S.), inspectors must cut or break them (and perhaps your zipper-pulls) to get inside.
• "TSA-approved" locks with "TSA keying" are commonly available from travel stores, but they have unpredictable standing outside the U.S. Non-U.S. security officers may be unable to unlock them, and so may break/cut them to inspect contents.
• After manual inspection, bags are re-packed and re-secured by inspectors, with your approved lock, your luggage strap or a strong plastic tie on your zipper-pulls so that later tampering becomes difficult. If tied, you'll need a knife, finger nail clippers, scissors or such to cut the tie after claiming the luggage...put such in an outside pocket of a checked suitcase - the "rules" allow them there.
Consider also that snugly applied luggage straps or wrapping can create enough complexity to deter most thieves, thus reducing need for locks.
Items to wear on-board
In-flight cabin temperatures can be unpredictable and may vary during flight. Experienced flyers dress in layers that they adjust to need for comfort.
• For cabin comfort, you might use a soft jacket for warmth or as a blanket or pillow, especially since such items may not be offered on-board. The cabin wall can get quite cold from outside temperatures; if you have a window seat, you'll need something for insulation against the wall...even a few sheets of newspaper can help remarkably. Warm socks/slipper-socks can be useful especially if you wish to doff your shoes on a long flight.
• To/From Disparate climes
• When leaving a cold country/region for a warm one, consider leaving major winter wear with friends if they'll take you to the airport and pick you up on return; this can also lighten your luggage.
• For travel to a cold region from warm, carry at least a lined jacket; it might be some time before you gain access to warm clothing in your checked baggage.
• Airplane interiors may not be cleaned as frequently as you'd like, especially on budget airlines. If important to you, consider wearing something in-flight that you can doff soon after de-planing, to clean it later.
• If traveling for business, don't put all work wear in checked bags. If any goes missing, you should have one complete outfit between what you wear on-board and your carry-on luggage...to conduct business well-dressed despite trouble with checked bags.
Before you fly
Reconfirming your flight
In general, it is no longer necessary to call the airline to reconfirm flights, as reservation systems are fairly reliable. Instead, just check the reservation online (see the next section) and call the airline only if there are problems.
The main exceptions are when you are flying way off the beaten track on an airline that doesn't (or looks like it doesn't!) do computerized reservations, especially when there won't be another flight for a week. Off the beaten track in Indonesia, for example, it's wise to reconfirm not just once but twice — although you may still get bumped off if a VIP and his harem show up at the last minute.
Checking your reservation
It's always good to double-check that your itinerary is still correct before you fly. Not only can you check that everything is order, but also you can see whether any waitlists have cleared, flight times have changed, your special requests are properly recorded, etc. Most major airlines offer several convenient routes for checking, such as website, smartphone app, and telephone. Check in good time, as in case of flight cancellation or overbooking an earlier flight may still be available. If your carrier makes any changes to the itinerary they or your agent will try to contact you but they may not reach you in time. There are a number of online services that allow you to check reservations; however, you'll have to figure out which reservation system was used to do the booking. This is usually printed at the top of your itinerary, but if all else fails you can always ask the agent.
Note that low-cost carrier flights will not show up in these systems.
In cases of terrible weather (e.g. blizzard, fog) or recent airport closures, it is always advisable to get in touch with your airline before you leave home to see if your flight will push through as scheduled or if it is delayed or cancelled. If your flight is cancelled and you have been put on the waitlist for a future flight, don't come to the airport until you have received confirmation from the airline that you will be able to fly on the flight which you are waitlisted for.
Getting to the airport
Especially in cities which are served by more than 1 airport, you must know the name of the airport and the specific terminal within that airport you are departing out of. Keep in mind that if you arrive at the wrong airport, it can take an hour or so to go to the correct airport. Terminals can also be far away from each other so be sure to be at the right terminal too. The name of the airport as well as the terminal you will use are detailed in the itinerary prepared for you by the airline or travel agency.
When asking the taxi driver to take you to the airport, don't just mention the city name and then the word airport (e.g. London Airport), mention the name of the airport and the terminal (e.g. London Heathrow Airport terminal 5). Keep in mind that an airline may operate from more than 1 terminal, particularly if it has domestic and international flights so telling the taxi driver you want to go to the terminal where a particular airline operates may probably not be enough.
If you are asking for airport limousine/shuttle service, giving the flight number is usually all the telephone operator needs as they know which airline flies out of which terminal.
The same cautions apply if you use rail service to reach your airport. Some airports have such an array of terminals that metro lines, subways or railways may have more than one station.
You need to arrive at airports well before your flight as there are a number of procedures you need to complete before boarding: check in, security check, and perhaps immigration control. Airlines will typically have departure boards (displays) indicating a flight's status. The most important status indicators are Boarding or Go to gate, which is a sign that you should promptly complete check-in and proceed through the security check, and Final call or Last call, which means that you should board the flight as quickly as possible.
Checking in
Check-in is handled by the carrier's ground staff or its representatives. Some airlines allow (or sometimes require) you to check in online, often within 24 hours before scheduled departure, and some no-frills carriers such as Ryanair will even charge you a hefty fee if you fail to do so. Online check in can often be done through the airline's website, or sometimes by smartphone app. Apart from the booking reference or e-ticket number you also identify yourself by frequent-flier or credit card number or by giving personal details. Upon completed check-in you will often be sent a boarding pass to print out by yourself; again, failing to do so may result in surcharges from some low-cost carriers. If you enter the correct information but are denied check-in, your flight may have been cancelled or the reservation modified by the airline; in that case it is wise to contact the airline immediately, preferably before traveling to the airport.
The first thing you will need to do at the airport is check in for your flight. Present your ticket (if you don't have an electronic ticket) and some form of ID (passport if travelling internationally) to airline staff at your flight's designated check-in counter or at common check-in counter, depending on your airline.
You will typically have to queue before check-in: on very full flights and very busy days this alone could take more than an hour, particularly for international flights. There are usually separate, and much shorter, check-in lanes for first, business class passengers, upper tier members of the airline's frequent flyer program (e.g. silver, gold) and sometimes those who checked-in through remote methods (e.g. online check-in). If the queue is long and your flight is leaving within the hour, your flight status is already showing "Go to gate" or you are approaching the check-in deadline for your ticket, let airport staff know as they will often allow you to go to the front of the queue and check in immediately. Sometimes they will specifically ask for passengers for a flight that is about to close to make themselves known so that they can check them in right away, but sometimes they will not. Discount airlines have the strictest check in deadlines and some will not allow you to check in after the deadline even if you made it to the end of the queue in time.
• You may face the same challenges in lines/queues for the personal security screening. If time is short, use the same methods as for check-in to get help.
With some airlines you will receive a boarding pass with a seat assignment, while some do not assign seats. You will need a boarding pass to present to the security staff and later to the gate staff when boarding the flight. At this time, your checked luggage will be weighed, labeled, and handed off to baggage handlers.
Some airports offer curbside check-in, which allows you to check-in your bags before entering the terminal. These are normally available on domestic US flights and do what the standard check-in counters inside do except that they will not issue boarding passes to you. You will have to obtain them inside if you haven't done so from online check-in. Curbside check-in is offered nowadays for a fee levied by the carrier, sometimes on top of prevailing check-in baggage fees. Moreover, tips for the staff are expected.
The check-in staff will print a bar-coded luggage tag once your bags are processed; the longer part of it will be attached to your luggage while the shorter part will be given to you. Keep this, as upon arrival, some airports may require passengers to present these along with their luggage to ensure that the person carrying the luggage is indeed the owner. These luggage tags are also useful if you suspect some of your check-in luggage are missing or similar to other luggage. Before the ticket agent attaches the new luggage tags for your upcoming flight, be sure:
• You've removed any old airline tags.
• Your new tag(s) reflect your destination airport...checked-through as below.
In case your journey for the day involves several flights, you may want to request to have your baggage checked-through. Check-through is when your baggage will be tagged all the way until the last leg of your journey and in most cases, you do not need to claim your baggage in your intermediate stopovers anymore (especially for international-international or domestic-domestic flights on full-service carriers; does not apply to international-domestic connections). You need to inform the check-in staff of the flights which will be covered by check-through for a particular journey as they can't assume that's your preference. However, check-through is not always possible, make sure you inquire of the check-in staff. You may check the section "Making a connection" below and are advised to contact the carriers concerned for more information on when check-through may or may not be possible.
An increasing number of airlines are implementing a self-check-in system at certain airports. In most cases this option is available to passengers with or without check-in bags. These systems involve small kiosks in which you can enter your booking reference, swipe/insert the credit card used to make the booking or swipe/insert your frequent flyer card (if it has a magnetic strip) to access your record and print out a boarding pass for you and your traveling party. You may have the opportunity to change your seats when checking in; in particular, many airlines do not open the exit rows until the day of the flight. In recent times though the self service check-in kiosks of some carriers have been extended to include features that allow passengers to check-in baggage by themselves.
A good number of carriers also offer checking-in via mobile phone either by visiting the mobile website or downloading a specific app on your smartphone. At the end of the process, some carriers may give you the option of being issued a mobile boarding pass depending on your origin and destination, though carriers that offer them usually don't do so for international flights. You don't need to print your mobile boarding pass, just present it to security staff.
As mentioned earlier, if you checked-in via kiosk or online, the airline usually provides a special lane for you where the rest of the check-in process will be expedited. At this counter, please provide the information and documents that were given to and/or requested of you. Some carriers require passengers who used self check-in to proceed to designated check-in counters to have documents verified, even if they do not have check-in bags.
Choosing your seat
A few airlines do not assign seats (e.g., Southwest), but do assign you a boarding group based on how early you confirm your flight on-line within 24 hours of the flight.
As they receive your booking for a specific flight, most airlines will promptly assign you a seat. If so, visit its web-site soon after, and if dissatisfied with the automatic selection, see if you can choose another inter-actively from all available seats on the plane in your cabin class. If you are checking in at the airline's counter with no seat yet assigned, you should ask if a desirable seat is still available.
What's desirable? Different seat types on a plane have advantages over others:
Window seats are popular with many flyers, as they allow you to look out the window, rest your head against it while sleeping and not be disturbed by other passengers. The major downside is that you'll have to clamber over a seatmate or two to go to the bathroom or access any of your carry-ons in the overhead (although most airlines also allow you to stow baggage under the seat in front of you). You may also have slightly less floor space due to the curvature of the plane, and the wall can become quite cool.
Aisle seats are the choice of some road warriors, because they make it easy to get out and off the plane. On long flights, though, it's hard to sleep with people walking by, seatmates climbing over you, and the risk of an elbow being hit by a service trolley. Planes usually disembark row-by-row, so a seat further forward will often get you out at your destination quicker than an aisle seat farther back.
The third possibility is middle seats, which combine the disadvantages of both aisle and window seats without the advantages of either, although taller passengers may still be able to see the view from the window.
On well-equipped aircraft, some seats in each row may have entertainment electronics installed underneath. This can significantly compromise foot room for those seated behind. Poor foot room can be a major annoyance and source of discomfort on long flights. SeatGuru (noted just below) can help you avoid this.
There are some special rows too:
• Exit row seats are located next to the emergency exit rows, and have significantly greater legroom than standard seats. You also have easier access to the aisles regardless of whether you are sitting in an exit or the aisle seat. A disadvantage of these seats is that the tray tables are tucked into the armrests on some aircraft and as a result, you can't lift the armrests. This shouldn't be much of a problem when you have occupants beside you, but if there is none you may want all the space to yourself. In addition, some carriers may require all your hand baggage to go in the overhead compartment if you are in these rows since no other seats are directly in front of you. In theory, passengers in these seats are required to help attendants with the door in an emergency, so you might not be allowed to sit there if you are physically unable to help, if you are deaf or blind, if you are a child or supervising a child or if you are pregnant. Because of the desirability of exit-row seats, some airlines now charge extra for them, using the name "Economy Plus" or similar. If you're very tall you may sometimes get these seats without paying but don't count on it. Ask specifically at check-in and state the reason you want one.
• Bulkhead seats are in the first row of each section and thus have no seat reclining into you. The legroom is different from other seats -- sometimes better but sometimes worse. They're often the only seats that can be outfitted with infant bassinets, so most airlines reserve them for families with small children. You may be able to snag one on check-in (some airlines assign them as regular seats without request) or even at the gate, but then you run the risk of sitting next to a screaming baby for your entire flight. Like exit rows, you have to store all your baggage overhead.
The advantages and disadvantages of various seats on many aircraft can be viewed at SeatGuru -- [23]. Those wishing to avoid airsickness should choose seats over the wings of the aircraft, near the center of gravity. Occupants of those seats tend to feel less turbulence than passengers on window seats.
Passengers who want a bit more elbow room (even in economy class) should choose the last row of window seats on the plane. Due to the curvature of the plane, window seat passengers near the end of the plane may have a tad more elbow room on the window side...sometimes enough to fit a medium-sized totebag. However:
• "Window seats" in the back row may in fact offer nothing more than a blank wall.
• If close to the lavatories or a galley, you may be bothered by passengers or odors.
Overbooking
To volunteer or not to volunteer?
In most cases, if a flight is overbooked airline staff will first ask for volunteers to take another flight. In some cases, volunteers will receive slightly better benefits than persons involuntarily removed from a flight. Such benefits could include more monetary compensation, a bump in class, or a discount granted for a future flight. However, if you are traveling as a group you may be split apart and seated throughout the airplane or even in separate classes on your new flight(s). Additionally, you may be required to make more flights than planned (ie your overbooked flight from Paris to Atlanta may become flights from Paris to New York and New York to Atlanta. If the compensation offered is for future travel, consider if you are flying with that airline in the next 12 months.
Overbooking is the practice of accepting reservations for a flight from more people than can fit on the plane. Almost all airlines overbook their flights, as statistically some percentage of passengers do not show up for the flight.
It does happen, though, that more people check in than can fit on the plane. When this happens, the airline staff will ask passengers to volunteer, either at the checkout counter or after the plane is full, to remain behind and take another flight. If your travel plans are flexible (such as on the homeward leg of your excursion), you may wish to volunteer, to receive the compensation that airlines usually offer to get out of this predicament. If there are no volunteers, passengers will be chosen by the airline to stay behind. "Bumped" passengers are almost always offered passage to their destination by some other route or on a later flight; it is common for airlines to offer a voucher for a substantial discount on a future flight, or even cash, in compensation for the inconvenience. If an overnight stay is required, the airline will usually pay for a hotel and meals during the delay. Your rights are regulated at the country level; some airlines may offer additional compensation (but their policy on this is rarely published). Sometimes they will increase their offer for volunteers if the initial offer does not get enough interest.
If you want to avoid being bumped you should get seat allocation as soon as possible. Sometimes a travel agent can do this when reserving your flight, sometimes you can do it electronically with your reservation or by checking in early on the Internet before arriving at the airport. If you have no seat allocated to you then you are at risk of being bumped at the airport, even if you arrive a long time before other passengers who may already have seats allocated.
Compensation for denied boarding for flights in the European Union is €250 for distances less than 1500 km, €400 for distances between 1500 and 3500 km, and €600 for distances greater than 3500 km (half if the delay is less than 2, 3 or 4 hours, respectively) in addition to an alternative flight or a refund of the ticket [24]. If inquiring by telephone, ask for the current load factor, which is the ratio of reserved seats to capacity. Anything greater than one indicates an overbooked flight, while your chances of boarding as a stand-by passenger decline as the load factor increases.
Meals and Delays
Scheduled meals (if any) will often be timed and typed to complement the time zone of the flight's destination. As a result, first or early servings may not match your departure time. For flights that promise no food during meal hours, consider buying something at the airport (in the secure area); most lines will allow you to carry it on-board.
On-board meals for some airlines may be brought in from one of its base or hub airports rather than from a local source. This takes considerable time. Meals kept too long for any reason may have to be discarded due to safety. Scheduled meals may then be limited to packaged snacks/cookies and drinks...not the fault of the crew.
Flight cancellation/delay
When a flight is cancelled, the reason given is usually some kind of technical or weather-related problem. Sometimes the real reason is that so few passengers have checked in that it is cheaper for the airline to cancel the flight and rebook the passengers on a later flight, or even on another airline. If a flight is cancelled, the airline is obligated to get you on the next available flight to your destination, but interpretations of "next available" vary and, for some low-cost carriers like Ryanair, this may mean a long wait indeed. Unlike with overbooking, passengers are not legally entitled to any compensation except the unplanned expenses of food and hotels. Within the European Union, the same compensations like denied boardings apply, unless you have been informed more than 14 days in advance or the airline claims they're not at fault like weather conditions (which they typically do).
Beware that weather can cause the very strange phenomenon of being denied boarding because of weather for a flight that does depart on-schedule. This is usually caused by weight limits and takes two forms:
1) Predicted weather may make the flight longer, and so increase required reserve fuel. Most planes can't take a full load of passengers and full fuel; if they must fill the tanks more than expected, they might have to leave some people behind.
2) As it gets warmer the takeoff roll increases (the air is less dense and so decreases wing lift as it slightly decreases engine thrust) but the runway doesn't get any longer. If the air temperature gets hot enough, they may have to reduce weight for the plane to get safely in the air.
Occasionally flights are delayed...for many reasons, e.g.:
• The aircraft may have a maintenance problem.
• Weather or other conditions at your destination or an enroute airport may have made one of them unusable.
Airlines never unnecessarily cancel or delay flights...it costs too much, in money, perturbs many other flight schedules, and generates poor public relations. When they do delay or cancel, they usually go to great lengths to arrange seats on another flight, sometimes even on another airline. If a cancellation has been caused by them, they are required by law to pay you certain compensations and/or arrange lodging and/or meals until you can be flown to your destination.
Boarding time
Your boarding ticket specifies Boarding time -- which is when boarding starts (not when it ends). Usually the boarding starts even after the printed time, but for short flights at least 30+ minutes before departure...for international flights on large aircraft, sometimes 45+ minutes.
The gate closes (boarding stops) usually only 10-15 minutes before departure so give yourself plenty of time to get to the gate, especially if the airport is large, you are far away from the gate, or you don't know your way around the airport. Contact your travel agent for advice.
Security check
Aviation security is no laughing matter. Even before the airliner attacks on New York and Washington in 2001, most countries took it very seriously, but since then security regulations have been tightened, and airport security personnel will be very strict in implementing them.
The Process. You'll usually check any luggage with the airline at the ticket counter. It will be at least electronically screened for security as it goes to a holding area to be loaded on your flight.
Then, as you walk to your gate, you and your carry-ons must go through personal security screening. It involves the following basic steps.
• You must present identification (perhaps except for toddlers) and boarding pass(es) for your flight. Keep your ID and boarding passes with you throughout the process.
• Then to go through the inspection, you'll be instructed to:
• Doff all bulky outer garments (e.g., sweaters, jackets) and (often) your shoes...and place them in a bin/tub going through separate electronic scanning or manual inspection.
• Place all carry-on bags/purses/laptops and the clear bag of liquids in tubs/bins on the line for separate scanning...laptops separated from any case and its accessories. Put the clear bag of liquids on top where it can be easily seen/inspected.
• This is your last opportunity to avoid delays, e.g., place all metal or electronic items (e.g., cell phones, coins, keys) in the bin/tub with your other items.
• Proceed to a nearby point for simultaneous personal/body screening...electronic and/or manual. Any metal object will generate an alarm. You'll be directed to return to the carry-on scanning line and place "offending" items you're carrying in a bin/tub for separate screening as above.
If you have any kind of metal in your body for any reason (e.g., pace-maker, artificial joint, combat wound), be prepared for the alarms as you go through body scanning. Your doctor may help you obtain some form of proof for TSA or other security inspectors. This may avoid an unnecessarily invasive pat-down, but otherwise has little import for inspectors.
Hints. To proactively avoid delays or stoppages at the screening...
• Don't wear hiking boots or shoes with large metal loops or steel plates in the soles.
• Choose footwear that's easy to slip on and off; wear socks to avoid dirt/organisms on the floor.
• Avoid wearing unneeded, bulky items you'll have to doff before inspection.
• Avoid wearing a metal belt-buckle...or use one that's easy to take off.
• You might put small metal/electronic items in garment pockets or hand-carried luggage.
• Remove items from trouser/pant pockets that create bulges...just an unnecessary way to generate questions.
• You may be required to show that any electronic device functions. Make sure their batteries are charged enough and in-place for a brief demonstration as requested.
• You may be subject to a more rigorous security check. Depending on the country and airport, this can be random or based on some suspicion. It can involve luggage search, swabs for explosive chemical traces and/or personal body searches. Officers may offer an information sheet explaining your rights, but the chance of your reaching your plane without submitting to the check is low.
After body screening, you may be told to go with a screener to hand inspect your belongings...usually because electronic screening cannot identify an object. Otherwise, go to the end of the "line" for electronically screening your belongings, claim them and exit "security" into the secure/"airside" terminal area.
As you go through this procedure, try to have someone you know keep all belongings in-view to avoid loss...if someone else picks up a wrong item or tries to steal yours. (Security personnel are focused on keeping the terminal area secure. They won't notice if someone "lifts" your bag (or something in it) or loose belongings because they don't know to whom it belongs.)
Depending on the country, taking prohibited items to the security checkpoint even by accident may be considered an offense, and the items concerned are not just subject to confiscation. UK airports may limit their gate security scans to one item per person but with little regard for carry-on size limits; you might need a large, soft bag to hold all carry-on items just for that check; find out before you begin your trip.
Based on perceived threats or improving technologies, details about what's allowed and procedures for scanning may change. Just follow instructions. Some security levels, airlines, or flights going to certain regions, may require additional screening at your gate as you board...usually manual.
General notes.
• Always keep your luggage with you, until you've checked your large pieces, and carry-ons before and after personal security check. Security officials take unattended items very seriously. If one is found and the owner is not within reach to claim it, it may trigger an alert, resulting in the entire affected area being "locked-down" for a long time, and inspection of the suspicious piece of luggage by experts. The result will be serious inconvenience for a lot of people, and for you perhaps fines or the loss of your property (it may even be destroyed).
• Never make jokes about bombs, weapons, or other security threats. There is no room for humor on this topic; rather than relying on their individual subjective judgment, security personnel are required to take any such joke as a serious statement. You will be checked more thoroughly and/or escorted off the premises in some cases. Jokes may even be treated as a criminal offense, with charges filed against you.
• At busy airports, you may have to wait in a long queue to pass through security. If so, if you don't think you'll make it through security to the gate in time, if your flight status changes to "Boarding", or (particularly) if your name is paged as being late for the flight, tell security staff. They will usually allow you to move to the front of the queue for a prompt security check.
Before boarding
After you pass through security you'll usually be able to reach (without more checks) one or more departure areas or wings of the terminal...possibly quite large, some with up to fifty gates. Beyond security, you are in the secure area (finally!), sometimes termed airside. Even casually leaving it will require that you go through security processing again. Lacking any essential papers, you may be in some difficulty.
Secure Area/Airside Depending on the airport, the area may be bare, with a few services, or full of shopping and entertainment. If your schedule means you'll spend some time there, go to your departure airport's website before leaving home to learn which facilities and services you'll have while waiting to board, as well as how to get around the airport. (If you have an extended layover enroute, check on that airport as well.) Prices of items and services tend to be higher than common stores/restaurants. Major airports also offer lounges for frequent flyers, et al.
• If you are a first or business class passenger or an elite member of a frequent flyer program and will wait some time, consider using a lounge associated with your airline. You'll often find refreshments, periodicals, internet access, even showers.
• If not, you may also get lounge access and enjoy its privileges by paying up front or joining programs like PriorityPass which offer pay-per-visit and unlimited visit plans...usually at independent lounges.
• If your flight is long, consider using such a lounge at an enroute or destination airport.
Your flight will have an associated gate number where you'll board. This is indicated in your boarding pass and the overhead monitors.
• Find the gate where you are boarding: be there no later than 30 minutes before the flight's scheduled departure, and preferably a little earlier.
• At the gate, airline staff will check your boarding pass...just as you board, perhaps earlier; they may also want to see photo ID. Once done, you will be counted as being on-board the flight.
While waiting, ensure you miss no change or announcement about your flight, e.g., gate change, delayed departure. This also includes checking the overhead monitors since most airports don't orally announce to the entire terminal when a flight will be about to board. If you miss your flight by not heeding any, you will be responsible for making other travel arrangements, not to mention paying a "no-show" fee before being allowed to travel with that particular carrier again.
Premium passengers (i.e. first/business class and elite members of frequent flyer programmes) as well as passengers needing special assistance will get a chance to board first. The rest of the economy class passengers will board by row number, usually those at the back go first. Board only when your group is called. You don't want to block the aisles so try to estimate if you will board first, middle or last within your group.
Most airlines will attempt to find passengers who are late for boarding, because for security reasons they have to go through the time consuming process of unloading checked baggage if passengers do not board. Usually they will page late passengers by name at least twice before closing the flight. If you hear your name paged, either go to the gate immediately if it's nearby or find airport staff and let them know who you are if you are not yet close to the gate. They can usually get you there before you're locked out of the plane. However, delaying a flight will not make you popular with staff or fellow passengers!
On board
Helping the Cabin Crew
They are not waiters. Their duties require many tasks as they try to make you and all others safe and comfortable while boarding. They ensure that all food and supplies are properly delivered and stowed. But they also scan and help passengers who may be distressed, ill, unable to find seats, find their seats already occupied, behaving combatively, or even on the wrong flight. They do all this as they appear to be just standing around. You can and should help at least in these ways...
• Don't ask them to put your carry-ons in overhead lockers.
• Put your items in those lockers or under the seat in front of yours so they take minimum space, e.g. wheeled luggage wheels-in, not sideways if at all possible (good pieces are designed to fit perfectly in standard overhead bins).
• Close the overhead lockers once they are full.
• Take your seat promptly after you've stored your carry-ons.
• Don't block aisles as others try to reach their seats, nor with any item while in-flight.
• Don't use the call-button unless you need assistance only they can provide.
• Take care with food and liquids as you enter, get seated, eat and drink (best delayed until airborne).
• Make your seat belt visible to them by fastening it over your blanket/jacket/coat especially if you plan to get some shuteye when airborne.
• Follow crew instructions promptly and immediately.
This will free them to do truly essential pre-flight tasks.
Before the flight
• Count the number of seat backs between your seat and the emergency exits, keeping in mind that your nearest exit may be behind you. If you ever need to evacuate an aircraft in an emergency you may need to do it in a darkened cabin that could be full of thick black smoke. If the aisle is full of people you will at least know the number of seats you need to climb over to get out in that one in a million emergency.
• Switch off your mobile phone before you board the plane. Using a phone on board while the aircraft is taxiing, climbing or descending is a violation of air travel safety laws; in some countries switching the phone off is mandatory during the passenger's entire stay in the aircraft. Switching the phones off facilitates clear, effective and essential communication between pilots and the air traffic controllers. The crew will instruct everyone to turn off phones at least before the plane's doors close; if you do not comply you will be escorted off the plane. If you need to make a call while at altitude, your aircraft's telephone carrier partner may provide in-flight service. Consult your in-flight magazine, especially for details on charges...normally no less than $5/minute (plus connection charges) even if you are directly above the place you are calling. SMS on these in-seat handsets may also be available.
• Read the emergency instructions and watch the safety briefing even if you have ridden on the airline before as safety features may vary per aircraft and airline. It may be boring but if an emergency happens you will remember what to do, rather than having to read the safety card then and thereby saving precious time.
• Place anything containing items you'll often use under the seat in front of you to eliminate obstructing the aisle...or if they are small, in the seat pocket facing you. This will minimize disturbance caused to those sitting in aisle seats. If you later need the leg/foot room, and overhead space is available, you can then move there what you no longer need.
• Keep within sight anything you put in overhead bins that contains valuables. Though you may sleep, potential thieves (yes, on flights) usually won't risk your casual glance toward your belongings. Otherwise put them at your feet.
• Once seated, and if you have it, use sanitizer/sanitizing wipes to clean your hands, seat-tray and arm rests.
During flight
Some airlines now offer seatback entertainment consoles, offering movies, music, tv shows, and information on the current location of the airplane.(seen here in a Delta Airlines Boeing 767 between Atlanta and Paris)
• In cases of an open flight in economy class when nobody is beside you, feel free to put-up the armrests (except in exit rows where the armrests can't be lifted) to claim the extra space to yourself.
• Wear your seat belt at all times while seated. More people are injured (a few even killed) by failing to do so than from all other causes of flying injuries. Severe air turbulence can occur without warning even in clear air, and can violently throw you and others about.
• If you are using a coat/jacket or blanket to stay warm, fasten your seat belt on the outside so the cabin stewards can see that you're using it without disturbing you.
• Seat Courtesies: Especially when others are sleeping or eating...
• If you want to lower your seat back, you'll be taking space of any person behind you; so check first, e.g., if they're eating it could otherwise create a mess.
• When getting up from other than the aisle seat, ask seatmates to let you out, and try not to disturb people behind or in front of you.
• Drink lots of water, and avoid caffeine and alcohol. Otherwise you'll dehydrate at a faster pace, which can worsen jet lag and may induce headaches. Don't hesitate to ask the cabin crew for more water, or to walk up to the galley to request more. If sanitation is unknown, ask for bottled water if available.
• Don't sit completely still...your body isn't designed to stay that way for hours.
• Adjust your body position occasionally (you do this in your sleep anyway). On long flights especially...
• Stretch, move your toes in circles, anything you can do in your seat. Some airlines now periodically show video programs showing how to exercise in your seat. Follow them, or do your own thing (or both). By changing position, and moving around a little, you make sure every part of your body gets the circulation it needs, e.g., to avoid deep vein thrombosis (DTV). Consider walking around the aircraft occasionally during very long flights.
• Remove your shoes if convenient. On very long flights, better airlines offer slippers, but you'll also need warm socks.
• With the exception of some private charters, smoking is not allowed on any commercial flight worldwide. Do not smoke at your seat, in the lavatories or tamper with the smoke detectors in the lavatories - at minimum you'll be in trouble with the airline and in some jurisdictions subject to prosecution:
• In the United States federal law prohibits tampering with, disabling, or destroying smoke detectors in aircraft lavatories in fact, it's a felony.
• Ensure that you stow any loose items before landing. Put magazines and books in the seat pocket. Don't leave any lying on an empty seat or loose under your feet. Under heavy braking on landing, even light articles can travel quite far forward. Those items can be difficult to find, and before you find them, they may be accidentally damaged by exiting passengers.
• Always follow the instructions of flight attendants, as well as lighted and posted signs...there for your safety and all others.
• Flight attendants are responsible for your safety, and intensely so trained.
• Do not argue with them. Resolve any conflict you have with their orders on the ground.
• If an "unruly passenger" becomes a serious problem, the captain of the plane may make an unscheduled landing, and the passenger will be taken off the airplane under arrest.
• Flight attendant instructions are often backed by law, e.g., in the US, disobeying a flight attendant is a felony. Short of that, you still face severe fines and costs.
• Mobile phones generally cannot be used in flight, unless they are placed in an aircraft safe mode prior to take-off. One notable exception are the all business class A318's that run between New York JFK and London City Airport for British Airways: mobiles are allowed on this route, but for texting and internet access only - no voice calls.
• Other electronic devices are usually permitted once the aircraft is at cruise and the seatbelt sign is switched off. Rules regarding when and which devices can be used varies by country and airline:
• In Australia and the United States, airlines typically give you a list of categories of devices that cannot be used (cell phones, remote controlled toys, etc...) with anything not falling into those categories being permitted once the seat-belt sign is turned off.
• In Canada, however, aviation law requires a more precautionary approach. No electronic devices are permitted unless a crew member individually checks and authorizes their use.
• Laptops and tablets are almost always permitted as long as you get a flight attendant's OK and any wifi capabilities are disabled. Accessories (external hard drives, mice, keyboards, etc...) are not allowed by law - Air Canada used to specifically mention that in their safety briefings.
• iPods, media players, and game systems are usually fine, but again you must ask first.
• Other devices are at the discretion of the Captain or flight attendants.
• Ireland does not permit the use of any electronics on flights under 90 minutes.
After landing
Making a connection
• When your journey involves multiple time zones, the flight purser will usually announce the local time at your port-of-arrival. The local time at your destination is also available from the flight path/airshow channel of your in-flight entertainment system if your flight is equipped with it. Please adjust your watches to the time announced to avoid confusion with the timetables at the airport, especially if you have a connecting flight.
• Check if you have a boarding pass for your next flight. If you don't, you are not considered checked-in for that flight yet so proceed to a transfer desk immediately to obtain a boarding pass for your next flight. You can avoid this by checking-in online and printing the boarding passes, if your carrier offers these.
• If you came from an international flight and are continuing on to a domestic flight, you will need to clear passport control, possibly claim your luggage (even if it is checked-through to your final destination) and clear customs and eventually check-in your luggage again to ensure its loading into your next flight. If you checked-through your luggage to your final destination, some airports may provide a special lane where you can simply drop-off your luggage instead of doing so at the main departure hall.
• There are a few scenarios when baggage will have to be collected at intermediate stopovers and checked-in as usual for loading onto the next flight. In this case, you will need to undergo the usual visa application, clear formalities (i.e. passport control and customs) if at least the first leg is international. Some of them include the following:
• either your first or next leg involves a low cost carrier
• you booked both flights separately
• you are booked on different carriers for each flight where the carriers have no interline ticketing agreements
• you are transferring from an international to a domestic flight where you need to clear passport control and customs (even if the bags are tagged for the next flight)
• your next flight is at another airport or a terminal with a considerable distance and there are no facilities that make transfer of bags between such terminals feasible
• If your next flight is in a different terminal, go to that terminal first and then doing any eating and shopping you have time for. It may take a long time to cross the airport.
• If your transit point is a large city (eg. London, Tokyo, Toronto, New York, Shanghai, Taipei etc.), you might need to transfer between different airports. Make sure you allow plenty of time to make the transfer, and take into account possible traffic jams, especially if you need to make the transfer during peak hours. Don't forget the appropriate visa for your transit point if it is applicable to your nationality. If you can afford the time, try to book an overnight stay in the city so you don't have to be stressed about making the transfer.
• Even if you have a boarding pass for your next flight and your baggage is checked-through to the next flight, it is usually possible to enter the country of your intermediate stopover, leave the airport and take a city tour. You can take advantage of this provided you have valid and appropriate travel documents for your stopover city (e.g. passport, visa, landing permit if applicable). Another consideration for this is the time between your previous and next flights (a 6-hour or longer layover is advised), traffic situation and distance between the airport and city. While tours are usually organised by operators to take these into account, take note that you are still responsible for making sure that you have enough time to return for your next flight.
• In some cases of a tight connection, especially in Asia, airline staff will be waiting outside the gate holding-up a board with details of your next flight. They will help passengers on a tight connection to make their next flight more quickly. This can happen when both flights were booked at the same time and the airline is aware that passengers on a certain flight are coming from a previous flight that has a tight connection. Please go to those staff.
• Just like in the first leg, regardless of what you need to do between flights, be at your boarding gate at least 30 minutes before your next flight commences.
Direct flights continuing on to another destination
• Depending on the airport or airline, you will have to either stay in the aircraft, wait in a transit or holding area or choose between the aforementioned options.
• If you are asked or choose to stay in the aircraft, remain seated to enable the ground staff to clean the aircraft more quickly.
• If you are asked to stay at the transit area and allowed to explore the airport, please do not stray too far from the gate especially if the terminal is big as you may miss important announcements regarding your flight. Some of these announcements may be broadcasted only at the gate area and not to the entire airport. The ground time of an aircraft is usually less than 2 hours, which may not be enough time to familiarise yourself with a big terminal.
Direct international flights with a domestic leg
In this case, there are 3 main scenarios on when you clear customs and immigration.
• In some countries like China and the United States, you will have to get off at your first stop and pass through customs and immigration there before continuing to your final destination (i.e. If you flight is from Los Angeles to Shanghai via Beijing, you will have to get off at Beijing to pass through customs and immigration).
• In other countries such as Australia and Japan, you pass through customs and immigration only at your final destination (i.e. If your flight is from Hong Kong to Adelaide via Melbourne on one flight number, you will disembark only into the sterile/holding area at Melbourne and go through customs and immigration at Adelaide).
• For flights with a mere re-fueling stopover (e.g. Philippine Airlines flights from the US west coast to Manila via Honolulu/Guam), you will be asked to stay in the aircraft only and not allowed to disembark.
Make sure you follow instructions carefully and ask the ground crew if anything is in doubt. If you leave the secure/sterile/holding area when you're not supposed to, it can be very difficult to get back in.
Reaching your destination
• At baggage claim many bags look similar. Remember to find the marks which distinguish your bag from others, look for the tags you attached, and match the tags the airline attached to them to the tags given to you at check-in to ensure that it is indeed your luggage. Ribbons and stickers on your luggage can both identify it to you, and make sure that someone else doesn't accidentally walk off with your bag.
• If you checked a large or long item, you may find it in the special claim area instead of the regular baggage claim.
• In case your luggage doesn't emerge at baggage claim after some reasonable time, go to the designated lost luggage counters immediately. Present the airline luggage tag which corresponds to the missing luggage given to you at check-in, and be ready to describe what your luggage looks like with as much detail as possible (include colors of the tags/markings/luggage, and especially name tags you applied) to the staff at the counter.
• Do not fail to make this written "claim" before you leave the airport.
• In most countries, the airline has the responsibility for delivering any misplaced/lost, checked luggage to you once it has been found...not just to the airport where it was first discovered missing, but during your travels or at home. By placing a copy of your itinerary (with dates and specific places you'll stay, e.g., hotels) in each piece of checked luggage, you greatly enhance the probability of receiving it while enroute or after your trip.
• If you believe that you left something on board the aircraft, get in touch with your airline or proceed to the designated counter/booth/office at the airport that deals with lost items. Returning to the aircraft yourself is normally not allowed after you enter the terminal.
You'll need some currency usable in that country. Unless you already have it, plan to withdraw some (e.g., using a debit/ATM card) while in the terminal (sometimes not at the very best rates available). You may only immediately need enough for taxi fare and incidental tipping. But consider that fixed fees also charged can amount to a substantial percentage cost for small withdrawals, thus eclipsing any excellent rate you may get for a large withdrawal elsewhere.
Unaccompanied minors
Children flying alone where the airline assumes some duty to care for them are known in airline jargon as unaccompanied minors. The airline will supervise unaccompanied minors, usually putting them in a row down the back of a plane where a flight attendant will check on them during the flight. They will disembark last, and will only be handed over to the person identified on the form you complete when checking in.
Some airlines (mainly discount carriers) will not accept unaccompanied minors, and impose restrictions on the supervision that must be provided to younger children, often that children 12 or under must be accompanied by a guardian 18-years or over.
Some airlines that do accept unaccompanied minors may charge a specific fee for the service, or may charge indirect fees by not allowing online booking, or not allowing child discounts.
Generally a child must be over 5 to be accepted as an unaccompanied minor. Some airlines require all children under 12 to travel this way, while airlines like KLM require it of all children under 15. Usually it remains an option for children until 15 or 17, depending on the airline.
Once a child has reached the age where they do not have to be checked in as an unaccompanied minor they fly the same as any other passenger would.
Other restrictions may be applied by airlines where the flight is not non-stop. Sometimes the minimum age for a connecting flight is 8 years or over. Airlines will never allow unaccompanied minors to transfer between different airports in the same metro area via ground transportation.
If the assigned person does not meet the child from the flight, the airline reserves the right to return the child to the origin immediately at your cost.
This is a guide article. It has good, detailed information covering the entire topic. Plunge forward and help us make it a star!
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
5629.0 - Stocks and Sales, Selected Industries, Australia, Dec 1996
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 03/03/1997
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5629.0 - Stocks and Sales, Selected Industries, Australia
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LIFE TABLES, Australia
A life table is a statistical model used to represent mortality in a population. A life table is generated from age-specific death rates and the resulting values are used to measure mortality, survivorship and life expectancy.
The life tables in this product are based on deaths and population data for 2003–2005.
The life table depicts the mortality experience of a hypothetical group of newborn babies throughout their entire lifetime. It is based on the assumption that this group is subject to the age-specific mortality rates of the reference period. Typically this hypothetical group is 100,000 in size.
The life tables presented in this product contain four life table functions. These functions are:
lx—the number of persons surviving to exact age x;
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Lx—the number of person-years lived within the age interval x to x+1; and
eox—expectation of life at exact age x.
The 2003–2005 life tables were produced by the ABS. The tables differ from those compiled prior to the 1995 edition of Deaths, Australia (cat. no. 3302.0) in a number of important respects. Firstly, they are based on three years of deaths and population data. This is designed to reduce the impact of year-to-year statistical variations, particularly at younger ages where there is a small number of deaths and at very old ages where the population at risk is small. Secondly, the deaths and population data are based on Australian residents who are physically present in Australia over the three-year period; i.e. Australian residents temporarily overseas are excluded. Thirdly, they have been actuarially graduated on the same principles which were used for the quinquennial Australian life tables prepared by the Australian Government Actuary.
Life tables for the states and territories are produced on the same principles as the Australian life tables. For the years 1994–1996 to 1999–2001 these are available in the Demography (cat. nos. 3311.1–8.55.001) set of publications. State and territory life tables for 2000–2002 are available on request. For state and territory life tables from 2001–2003 onwards, please refer to the other electronic products in this series.
Further information on deaths and mortality statistics can be found in the ABS publication Deaths, Australia (cat. no. 3302.0).
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
4102.0 - Australian Social Trends, 2001
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 31/05/2001
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
MEDIA RELEASE
May 31, 2001
Embargoed: 11:30 AM (AEST)
62/2001
Media alert....News diary event....Media alert....
Attention Chiefs of Staff and News Editors
Australian Social Trends to be released 6 June
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) will release the eighth edition of Australian Social Trends (cat. no. 4102.0) on Wednesday 6 June 2001.
Australian Social Trends 2001 profiles Australian society and looks at changes in the nation's social conditions and wellbeing. The publication features 31 articles, within seven chapters, on topics related to population, families, health, education, work, income and housing. These provide an insight into the changing nature of Australian society.
This alert is to aid your planning and research by giving you advance notice of the release of this major publication.
The publication is a source of a wide variety of stories. A full list and synopsis of the articles will be distributed prior to release.
A media release with some summary information will be widely distributed. However please note that the publication will be boxed at the Canberra Press Gallery by request only. The publication will also be available for collection on the day from our State offices in each capital city, again by request.
Members of the media who would like a copy of Australian Social Trends 2001 should contact client.services@abs.gov.au
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
9208.0 - Survey of Motor Vehicle Use, Australia, September 1976
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 08/09/1978
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
• About this Release
ABOUT THIS RELEASE
Comprises estimates, by state or territory of registration or area of operation, for private and commercial vehicles registered for road use with a motor vehicle registration authority, for number of vehicles, total and average kilometres travelled, driver characteristics, vehicle usage, fuel consumption and load carried; as well as statistics on buses, including kilometres travelled by type of bus and main type of service.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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}
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
2914.0 - 2006 Census of Population and Housing - Fact Sheets, 2006
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 03/05/2007
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
PLACE OF USUAL RESIDENCE (PURP)
Usual residence data are Census counts based on where people usually lived at the time of the Census. It provides information on the usually resident population of an area, and on the internal migration patterns at the state/territory and regional levels. The 2006 Census asks three questions on usual residence; where the person usually lives on Census Night, where the person usually lived one year ago and where the person usually lived five years ago.
IN 2001
The 2001 Census was the first Census where usual residence data for Census Night were available at Collection District (CD) level. Previously place of usual residence was only coded to Statistical Local Area (SLA) level. As in the past, if the respondent gave insufficient address information, their SLA of usual residence was imputed. The CD of usual residence was not imputed in these cases, but instead was classified as inadequately described.
Most respondents enumerated at a place other than their usual residence provided sufficient information for their usual residence to be coded to a CD. However, in some cases a code of 'State undefined' or 'Capital City undefined' was allocated and in some cases no response was given.
If there was inadequate information to allocate a code for usual residence, the CD of a parent (if the person is under 15) or spouse (if the person is 15 or older) was allocated. This presumes a parent or spouse was recorded on the census form with their usual residence details completed.
NEW FOR 2006
The Place of Usual Residence (PURP) variable is new for 2006. It is hierarchical and replaces the variables State of Usual Residence Census Night (STEUCP), Statistical Local Area of Usual Residence Census Night (SLAUCP) and Collection District of Usual Residence Census Night (CDUCP) from 2001. It is based on Collection District (CD) of usual residence on Census Night and can be aggregated to higher levels of geography e.g. Statistical Local Area (SLA), Local Government Area (LGA), Postal Area and State/Territory. The 2001 usual residence CD level variable (CDUCP) included categories 'Not stated' and 'Inadequately described'. These categories are not included in the 2006 variable Place of Usual Residence (PURP) as CDs of usual residence are now allocated to all records where usual residence is not stated or is incomplete. The 2006 Census is the first census to impute usual residence at CD level.
USUAL RESIDENCE VARIABLES
The following usual residence variables are available:
• Place of Usual Residence (PURP)
• Place of Usual Residence One Year Ago (PUR1P)
• Place of Usual Residence Five Years Ago (PUR5P).
NET MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE
The information acquired from the answers to the usual residence questions is recorded in the usual residence indicator variables:
• Usual Address Indicator Census Night (UAICP)
• Usual Address One Year Ago Indicator (UAI1P)
• Usual Address Five Years Ago Indicator (UAI5P)
Use of usual residence indicators make it possible to identify the pattern of net movement of people between three dates, i.e. Census Night, one year ago and five years ago.
SLA OF USUAL RESIDENCE ONE OR FIVE YEARS AGO
If no code can be allocated for SLA of usual residence one or five years ago, a code of Not Stated is given. The only exceptions to this are where the person is 16 or younger (for usual residence one year ago) or 20 years or younger (for usual residence five years ago) and there is a parent present with the appropriate SLA coded. The SLA code of the parent is then allocated to the person.
CODING FOR SPECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES
People in transit
On Census Night a number of people were enumerated on long-distance trains, buses or aircraft. These people are coded to a valid spatial CD, as migratory CDs are invalid for place of usual residence. If they gave an address in Australia as their usual residence, they were coded to the CD containing that address.
People on board ships
People who are enumerated aboard ship in Australian waters are coded to a Shipping CD (which cover an area of water, normally a port, which is controlled by a Port Authority). This includes commercial cargo vessels, passenger liners, ocean going passenger/car ferries, and dredges. People enumerated on board commercial vessels between Australian ports are also attributed to Shipping CDs. Foreign crews on ships are excluded from Census enumeration.
People living off-shore
People who are enumerated on off-shore oil-rigs, drilling platforms and the like are coded to Off-Shore CDs. There is one Off-Shore CD for each state and the Northern Territory. Census data from respondents who completed their Census forms in the Australian Antarctic Territory are coded to an additional Off-Shore CD in Tasmania.
People in boarding schools and colleges
Boarders at boarding school or college are coded to the address of the school or college .
People in non-private dwellings
If no adequate response is given for usual residence for persons enumerated in Non-Private Dwellings (e.g. hotels, motels, hospitals) the SLA is imputed.
Visitors to Australia
Persons who live in another country and who are visiting Australia for less than one year, are coded to 'Overseas visitors'.
FAMILY VARIABLES
Family and household structures are based on persons usually resident. Temporarily absent persons are used to classify types of relationships and families existing in a household, but they are not used in the derivation of any other census characteristics or in other census output. If all members of a family are absent from their usual residence, no family records are created for them.
ESTIMATED RESIDENT POPULATION
The Estimated Resident Population (ERP) is the official ABS estimate of the Australian population. Among its many uses, are the determination of the number of representatives from each State (and Territory) to sit in the House of Representatives, and the annual allocation of Commonwealth funds for state governments and local government. The ERP is based on Census of Population and Housing usual residence counts. It is compiled as at 30 June of each census year and updated quarterly between censuses. These intercensal estimates of the resident population are revised each time a population census is conducted.
In compiling 30 June ERP for a census year, three important factors are taken into account:
• Census net underenumeration (or undercount). The level of underenumeration is derived from the Census Post Enumeration Survey which is conducted soon after the Census, and from estimates based on demographic analysis.
• Australian residents who are temporarily overseas on Census Night and are therefore not covered by the Australian Census. The number of such people is obtained from statistics on overseas arrivals and departures.
• The Census does not fall on 30 June. For example, the 2006 Census was held on 8 August. Back-dating of population estimates from 8 August to 30 June is accomplished using data from birth and death registrations, overseas arrivals and departures, and estimates of interstate migration, for the period 1 July to 8 August.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
4430.0 - Disability, Ageing and Carers, Australia: Summary of Findings, 2009 Quality Declaration
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 16/12/2010
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APPENDIX 1 – LIMITATIONS AND RESTRICTIONS
TABLE OF LIMITATIONS, RESTRICTIONS, ACTIVITIES AND TASKS
To identify whether a person has a particular type of limitation or restriction, the SDAC collects information on need for assistance, difficulty experienced, or use of aids or equipment to perform selected tasks. The following table shows the tasks associated with each type of limitation and restriction.
A1
LIMITATION OR RESTRICTION ACTIVITY TASKS
Specific limitation or restriction
Core activity limitations Communication Understanding family or friends
Being understood by family or friends
Understanding strangers
Being understood by strangers
Mobility Getting into or out of a bed or chair
Moving about usual place of residence
Moving about a place away from usual residence
Walking 200 metres
Walking up and down stairs without a handrail
Bending and picking up an object from the floor
Using public transport
Self-care Showering or bathing
Dressing
Eating
Toileting
Bladder or bowel control
Schooling or employment restrictions Schooling Unable to attend school
Attends a special school
Attends special classes at an ordinary school
Needs at least one day a week off school on average
Has difficulty at school
Employment Permanently unable to work
Restricted in the type of work they can or could do
Need, or would need, at least one day a week off work on average
Restricted in the number of hours they can, or could, work
Requires special equipment or modified work environment
Needs ongoing assistance or supervision
Would find it difficult to change jobs or get a preferred job
Needs assistance from a disability job placement program or agency
A2
LIMITATION OR RESTRICTION ACTIVITY TASKS
Without specific limitation or restriction
Other activities Health care Foot care
Taking medications or administering injections
Dressing wounds
Using medical machinery
Manipulating muscles or limbs
Reading or writing Checking bills or bank statements
Writing letters
Filling in forms
Transport Going to places away from the usual place of residence
Household chores Washing
Vacuuming
Dusting
Property maintenance Changing light bulbs, taps, washers or car registration stickers
Making minor home repairs
Mowing lawns, watering, pruning shrubs, light weeding or planting
Removing rubbish
Meal preparation Preparing ingredients
Cooking food
Cognition or emotion Making friendships, interacting with others or maintaining relationships
Coping with feelings or emotions
Decision making or thinking through problems
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
6602.0 - Microdata: Longitudinal Labour Force, Australia, 2008-10 Quality Declaration
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 10/12/2012 First Issue
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
Contents >> Demography
DEMOGRAPHY
<< Previous Section: Survey
INTRODUCTION
The demographic data items identify a person's individual characteristics, such as sex, age and country of birth.
This section contains the following subsection :
Sex [SEX]
Age [AGECE]
Age group [AGECB]
Social marital status [SOCMARCE]
Country of birth (SACC 2011) [COBCE]
Year of arrival [YOACE]
Previous PageNext Page
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Research and Application of Contingency Plan Based on Hospital Network and Information System Security
Xiaoyan Ma, Hao Zou, Yujuan Li
Abstract
Network and information system play irreplaceable roles in hospital daily administration. The system is so huge that any fault during its operation will cause serious consequences to hospital administration and bring immeasurable loss to the hospital; therefore, to set up corresponding contingency plans becomes increasingly important. From the perspective of management, the article puts forward contingency plans in terms of following three aspects: hospital network system, office automation and hospital information system.
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Computer and Information Science ISSN 1913-8989 (Print) ISSN 1913-8997 (Online)
Copyright © Canadian Center of Science and Education
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The Implementation of Portfolio Assessment in Integrated English Course
Jizhen Huang
Abstract
Portfolio assessment is a learner-centered assessment and it is also an assessment for learning. A study with a class of 31 first-year English education majors in 2011–2012 was conducted. The development and implementation of portfolio assessment in the integrated English course was described, and then a survey on the learner’s perception toward the use of the portfolio assessment was conducted. The results showed that student have positive attitude toward the use of the portfolio assessment, the portfolio assessment developed students’ language competence, enhanced their cross-cultural knowledge and promoted their learning autonomy and motivation. Finally the problems in using the portfolio were discussed.
Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.5539/ells.v2n4p15
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English Language and Literature Studies ISSN 1925-4768 (Print) ISSN 1925-4776 (Online)
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"uncompressed_offset": 419625754,
"url": "www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/european-annual-winter-and-summer-temperature-deviations-in-oc-expressed-as-10-year-mean-compared-with-the-1961-1990-average/sendto_form",
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Difference between revisions of "User:Prof braino"
From eLinux.org
Jump to: navigation, search
m (Creating user page for new user.)
Latest revision as of 17:47, 10 February 2013
Prof Braino is the Propforth guy from code.google.com\propforth
Many of my projects involve FORTH on the Parallax Propeller micro controller.
We use Linux on Raspberry Pi and other workstations for build and test automation, and other services
I am also CSQE.
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http://www.fides.org
Africa
2012-11-26
AFRICA/MADAGASCAR -Prisoners: also condemned to chronic malnutrition
Antananarivo (Agenzia Fides) - After the coup in 2009, the economy has plummeted and even the prison system is rapidly deteriorating. In 2008, the European Union allocated $2.5 million to NGOs committed to improving the conditions of detention centers, but these funds will finish by the end of this year and it is unknown if the Ministry of Justice, whose budget was reduced by 40% in 2011, will have money for 2013. Among the most urgent problems to deal with is the emerging chronic malnutrition, which seem to "condemn" Malagasy prisoners in addition to the penalty proceedings.
The report for 2011 on human rights in Madagascar, prepared by the U.S. State Department, showed that this plague affects up to two-thirds of the inmates of some prisons and is for them the most common cause of death. In 2008 the Ministry of Justice had planned an increase of daily rations in prisons, but donors froze aid as a result of the coup, and the budgets of all ministries have been reduced. In July 2012, Médecins du Monde, one of the five NGOs active in 24 prisons in the north of Madagascar financed by the European Union, gave extra rations of Koba - crushed peanuts - and cassava to the malnourished prisoners.
Although the funds for prisons dropped, the number of prisoners continues to increase. The 83 prisons in the country had planned to accommodate 10,319 prisoners, but in reality they are home to 19,870. Overcrowding is often 100%. One can find 150 people in a cell envisaged for 40. In addition to food, very poor sanitary conditions, lack of water for all the prisoners and the challenge against mice is constant. According to Handicap International (HI), in 2012, 80% of prisoners were abandoned by their families, often because the poorest are unable to assist them financially. Over 3/4 of the country's population lives on less than $ 1 per day. The HI has also emphasized the fact that half of the Malagasy prisoners suffer from various forms of mental disorders. In addition, only 47% are convicted, while many spend years waiting for judgment. (AP) (Agenzia Fides 26/11/2012)
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Already facing flak from cross sections of the society for shoddy works and mismanagement, IndoreBRTS is in dock yet again for purchasing diesel buses thereby violating the environmental norms for
On Earth Day, April 22, youth leaders from all over the world, backed up by top litigation lawyers, converged in Bantayan Island, Cebu. Together, they launched a series of socio-political and legal actions to compel to the present generation to take action act on the impacts of climate change.
The Bangladesh Road Transport Corporation is going to launch articulated bus service in Chittagong, Rajshahi, Barisal and Khulna cities on March 26 by putting two buses in service in each of the ci
Bangladesh and Bhutan are likely to finalise the draft agreement on transit between the two countries during the secretary-level meeting to be held in the capital tomorrow.
Bangladesh has finalised the draft of the transit agreement with Bhutan with a provision of providing transit through land, rail, air and waterways and imposing fees and charges for using its infra
After a concerted push from the road transport ministry, the finance ministry has agreed to consider offering concessions to stuck highway projects under the public private partnership (PPP) mode.
Kerala Cabinet granted Rs. 25 crore additionally to the State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) on Wednesday to tide over its financial problems.
With this the total grants to the KSRTC during this financial year rose to Rs. 100 crore, in addition to the original Budget provisions. The Cabinet authorised Chief Minister Oommen Chandy to appoint a one man commission to study the problems related to backwardness of Nadar community.
Shanghai is to introduce 200 new-energy buses in a bid to cut emissions and reduce noise, Xinhua News Agency reported on Feb 20.
Capital Development Authority has given approval for starting Rapid Transit System in the federal capital.
Kochi: The Greater Cochin Development Authority (GCDA) will focus on addressing transport issues in the upcoming budget.
Briefing the media on pre-budget discussions in Kochi on Monday, GCDA chairman N Venugopal said that various transport projects, including the ring road and water transport projects, would be given importance in the budget. GCDA will send a letter to the state government requesting that the development body be made the nodal agency for coordinating various water transport proejcts in Kochi.
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Ryan Hughes - Chronological Bibliography
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Bibliography: The Reference Library (Analog, July 1989)
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Title: The Reference Library (Analog, July 1989)
Author: Tom Easton
Year: 1989
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Bibliography: Tales from the Vulgar Unicorn
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Title: Tales from the Vulgar Unicorn
Editor: Robert Lynn Asprin
Year: 1980
Variant Title of: Tales from the Vulgar Unicorn (by Robert Asprin ) [may list more publications, awards and reviews]
Type: ANTHOLOGY
Series: Thieves' World
Series Number: 2
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Nano Express
Promoting Effect of Layered Titanium Phosphate on the Electrochemical and Photovoltaic Performance of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
Ping Cheng1*, Ruihao Chen1, Junfei Wang1, Jianong Yu1, Tian Lan1, Wanjun Wang1, Haijun Yang1, Haixia Wu1 and Changsheng Deng2*
Author Affiliations
1 National Key Laboratory of Nano/Micro Fabrication Technology, Key Laboratory for Thin Film and Microfabrication of the Ministry of Education, Research Institute of Micro/Nano Science and Technology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, People’s Republic of China
2 State Key Lab of New Ceramics and Fine Processing, Institute of Nuclear & New Energy Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, People’s Republic of China
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Nanoscale Research Letters 2010, 5:1313-1319 doi:10.1007/s11671-010-9644-8
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at:
Received:25 February 2010
Accepted:8 May 2010
Published:20 May 2010
© 2010 The Author(s)
Abstract
We reported a composite electrolyte prepared by incorporating layered α-titanium phosphate (α-TiP) into an iodide-based electrolyte using 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate(EmimBF4) ionic liquid as solvent. The obtained composite electrolyte exhibited excellent electrochemical and photovoltaic properties compared to pure ionic liquid electrolyte. Both the diffusion coefficient of triiodide (I3) in the electrolyte and the charge-transfer reaction at the electrode/electrolyte interface were improved markedly. The mechanism for the enhanced electrochemical properties of the composite electrolyte was discussed. The highest conversion efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) was obtained for the composite electrolyte containing 1wt% α-TiP, with an improvement of 58% in the conversion efficiency than the blank one, which offered a broad prospect for the fabrication of stable DSSCs with a high conversion efficiency.
Keywords:
Diffusion; Charge transfer; Layered α-titanium phosphate; Ionic liquid
Introduction
Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) has attracted considerable attention as a high-efficiency and low-cost alternative to conventional inorganic photovoltaic devices [1]. Generally, DSSC comprises a dye-sensitized nanocrystalline porous TiO2 film immobilized on a transparent conducting oxide (TCO)–coated glass substrate, an electrolyte containing an I/I3 redox couple, and a platinized TCO-coated glass substrate as the counter electrode. When the sensitizer dye absorbs solar energy, electrons are injected rapidly from the excited state of the dye into the conduction band of TiO2. Injected electrons diffuse in TiO2 and reach the outer circuit through the back contact. Oxidized dye molecules are reduced by I in the iodide-based liquid electrolyte via the reaction 3I → I3 + 2e, where I changes to I3 by losing two electrons. At the counter electrode, the reverse reaction takes place, where I3 is reduced to I by gaining two electrons from the counter electrode. In the iodide-based liquid electrolyte, I diffuses from the counter electrode to the dye, and I3 diffuses from the dye to the counter electrode. Among the above reactions, both the charge-transfer process at the Pt/electrolyte interface and the diffusion process of I3 in the electrolyte depend on the properties of the electrolyte. Therefore, the electrolyte plays an important role in the photovoltaic performance of DSSC by affecting the kinetics of electronic or ionic processes [2-4].
Although an impressive 11% light-to-electricity conversion efficiency has been obtained for photovoltaic devices with organic solvent-based electrolytes [5], these volatile organic solvents are of questionable durability due to their evaporation and leaking, especially for DSSC with a flexible matrix. Recently, room temperature ionic liquids have attracted growing attention due to their negligible vapor pressure and high ionic conductivity [6-8]. They had the advantage of keeping their stability for a long time because ionic liquid electrolytes do not evaporate in normal temperature. However, the energy conversion efficiency could not reach that of DSSCs using volatile liquid electrolytes. This was mainly because that the viscosity of the ionic liquids was higher than that of volatile liquid solvents, which resulted in the low diffusion constant of I3 in the electrolyte and the large charge-transfer resistance at the counter electrode/electrolyte interface [9,10].
Recently, many efforts have been made to improve the photovoltaic properties and the stability of DSSC filled with ionic liquid-based electrolyte by adding silica nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanoparticles and titanium dioxide nanoparticles into various ionic liquid electrolytes [11,12]. Wang et al. reported that layered α-zirconium phosphate enhanced the exchange current density and the diffusion coefficient of triiodide in the electrolyte [13]. These striking and significant observations have triggered our interest to explore new layered materials to improve the electrochemical performances of the electrolyte and the photovoltaic characteristics of DSSCs. Crystalline α-titanium phosphate (α-TiP) has a two-dimensional layered structure similar to that of layered α-zirconium phosphate [14]. However, for layered α-TiP, P atoms in the lower sandwich lie along a perpendicular line drawn from the Ti atom of the upper sandwich. This arrangement renders it with larger inter-laminar cavities and a greater ion exchange capacity than α-zirconium phosphate [15]. The enlarged spacing would facilitate the diffusion of I3 in the ionic liquid electrolyte, thus enhancing the photovoltaic performance of DSSC. In addition, α-TiP has the common Ti ions with TiO2 photoanode, which can avoid the possible effect of foreign zirconium ions on the photovoltaic characteristics of DSSC. Here, we firstly reported a composite electrolyte prepared by adding α-titanium phosphate (α-TiP) into 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (EmimBF4) ionic liquid-based electrolyte showing a lower melting point and a higher conductivity [16]. The composite electrolyte exhibited very good electrochemical and photovoltaic properties.
Experimental
Sample Preparation
The synthesis of ionic liquid, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (EmimBF4) was carried out according to methods reported [17] with a molecular structure shown in Scheme 1. Crystalline layered α-TiP (Ti(HPO4)2)) was prepared by the following processes. Under vigorous stirring in the air, 8.5 g tetra-tert-butyl orthotitanate (Ti(OC4H9)4, Beijing Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd) was slowly added to distilled water (50 ml). A white precipitate formed immediately upon addition of the tetra-tert-butyl orthotitanate. The precipitate was filtered and washed three times with distilled water. The filter cake was transferred to a TeflonTM titanium autoclave containing 9.8 g phosphoric acid solution (85 wt%) and 10 ml distilled water and then heated at 150°C for 16 h. The colloids were repeatedly washed with distilled water by centrifuging until the pH value of the solution was above 4. The final α-TiP powders was obtained after drying at 50°C for 24 h, with a yield of more than 90%. The morphology was shown in Fig. 1. The composite electrolytes were prepared by adding 0.5, 1 wt%, 1.5 and 2 wt% layered α-TiP powders relative to the electrolyte into the ionic liquid-based electrolyte (0.3 M LiI and 0.03 M I2 in EmimBF4 solvent) under ultrasonication for 2 h, respectively.
Scheme 1
Molecular structure of EmimBF4 ionic liquid
Figure 1. a SEM morphology and b XRD pattern of layered α-TiP nanoparticles
The setup used for electrochemical measurements was designed to be a symmetric thin-layer cell similar to the literature [4], as shown in Scheme 2. This electrochemical cell consisted of two identical platinized, TCO-coated glass substrates sealed with a Surlyn film (30 μm thick, DuPont), which served as a spacer. The cell was filled with the composite electrolyte with various weight percentage of layered α-TiP. The TCO substrate used was F-doped SnO2 (FTO) with a sheet resistance of 20 ohm/square. All measurements were carried out at room temperature. Dye-sensitized solar cell was composed of a dye-coated TiO2 film (8 μm thick) photoanode, platinized counter electrode, a surlyn spacer (30 μm thick). The TiO2 film was prepared according to the reported process [18]. And the composite electrolyte with various contents of α-TiP was introduced into the space of inter-electrodes through the two holes predrilled on the back of the counter electrode. The TiO2 electrode was dipped into a dry ethanol containing 2.5 × 10−4 M N3 dye at room temperature for 20 h to realize sensitization. The active area of DSSC was 0.194 cm2.
Scheme 2
The electrochemical cell used for the electrochemical measurements
Characterization
Electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) were measured using an IM6/IM6e (Zahner, Germany) electrochemical analyzer in a two-electrode configuration. A 10 mV AC perturbation was applied and the frequency range was 0.01 Hz–100 kHz. The limiting current density was determined by steady-state current–voltage curve of the Pt thin-layer cell. The scan rate was 10 mV/s. Morphology of α-TiP powders was determined by field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, JEOL JSM-6301F). X-ray diffraction (XRD, RIGAKU D/MAX-2400) was used to characterize the crystal structure and interlayer distance of α-TiP crystalline. Photocurrent-voltage curves were recorded using a source meter (Keithley-2400, Keithley Co. Ltd., USA) under an illumination of 100mW/cm2 (globe AM1.5, 1sun) from a Xenon lamp (Oriel) at room temperature.
Results and Discussion
Figure 1a showed the FESEM images of layered α-TiP nanoparticles. It can be seen that the particles were predominantly hexagonal platelet shaped with an average diameter of about 20 nm and an average thickness of about 3 nm. Figure 1b showed wide-angle XRD pattern of layered α-TiP nanoparticles. From the corresponding characteristic 2θ values of the diffraction peaks in Fig. 1b, it was confirmed that the as-prepared sample was identified as α-TiP phase (JCPDS 80-1067).
The Influence of α-TiP on the Charge-Transfer Resistance of Rct
Figure 2 showed the electrochemical impedance spectra of the EmimBF4-based composite electrolytes with various contents of layered α-TiP, measured with the device in Scheme 2 at room temperature. All of the impedance spectra consisted of a semicircle at the high frequency region of the spectra and an inclining line after the arc, which were related to the reaction at Pt/electrolyte interface and the diffusion process of species in the electrolytes, respectively. The equivalent circuit given in Fig. 3 was used for the curve fitting of the impedance spectra. Rs is the ohmic serial resistance that includes both the sheet resistance of the FTO glass and the resistance of electrolyte, Rct and Cdl are the charge-transfer resistance and double-layer capacitance at the Pt/electrolyte interface, respectively, and Zw is the Warburg diffusion impedance. The curve fitting was carried out with Z-view software (Scribner Associate, Inc.). To compensate for the roughness of the electrode surface, constant phase elements(CPE) were used in the model in place of a capacitor keeping the exponent CPE-P quite close to the perfect capacitor value, CPE-P ≈ 1. The fitted results were listed in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the value of Rs for all the electrolytes were almost the same indicating the addition of layered α-TiP had little effect on the ionic conductivity of EmimBF4-based electrolyte. The Rct value decreased markedly with the increase in α-TiP content and a minimum of 13.60Ω was achieved when the α-TiP content was 1wt%. The decrease of Rct value revealed the enhanced electron-transfer reaction in the electrolyte, resulting from less energy loss at the Pt/electrolyte interface for the reduction of I3 to I, which would lead to an improved photovoltaic performance of DSSC. However, further increase in α-TiP content (>1wt%) led to an increase in Rct. Although the value of Zw was correlated to the diffusion coefficients of ions, it could only be used for qualitative analysis due to its small effect on the impedance spectra for the electrolytes with a high viscosity. So the exact diffusion coefficients should be determined from diffusion-limited currents, which were given in the following section.
Figure 2. Nyquist plots of electrochemical cell with various contents of α-TiP: a blank; b 0.5 wt%; c 1 wt%; d 1.5 wt%, and e 2 wt%
Figure 3. Equivalent circuit for the electrochemical cells. Rs: ohmic serial resistance; Rct: charge-transfer resistance; Cdl: capacitance of electrical double layer; Zw: Warburg impedance
Table 1. Fitted parameters of the EmimBF4-based electrolytes with various contents of layered α-TiP
The Influence of Layered α-TiP on the Diffusion Coefficient of I3
Diffusion-limited currents of the thin-layer cells (Scheme 2) filled with the composite electrolytes containing various contents of layered α-TiP were determined by measurements of cyclic voltammograms. Steady-state current could be achieved for all the thin-layer cells. Figure 4 showed a typical steady-state IV curves for the electrolyte without α-TiP. Due to the large excess of I relative to I3, only the diffusion of I3 limited the current [3]. Therefore, diffusion coefficients of I3 ions (DI3) in the electrolytes could be determined from the limiting current density (jlim) by the following equation [19]:
where n is the number of electrons transferred in each reaction (here n = 2), L is the distance between the two electrodes (here L = 30 μm) and CI3 is the concentration of I3 (here CI3 = 0.03 M). The jlim values and the corresponding DI3 values for the iodide-based composite electrolytes with various contents of α-TiP were summarized in Table 2. It could be observed that the diffusion coefficient of I3 was improved by the addition of α-TiP and a maximum of 1.515 mA/cm2 was achieved when the content of α-TiP was 1wt%. Correspondingly, the maximum DI3 of the composite electrolyte was 3.93 × 10−7 cm2/s, which was twice more than the electrolyte without α-TiP. It was interesting that the variational tendency of DI3 with the α-TiP content was very consistent with that of charge-transfer reaction, which indicated that the optimal content of layered α-TiP was 1wt% in this study.
Figure 4. Steady-state IV curves of the electrochemical cell shown in Scheme 2. The electrolyte consisted of 0.3 M LiI, 0.03 M I2 in EmimBF4 solvent without α-TiP
Table 2. Limiting current density (jlim) and diffusion coefficient (DI3) for EmimBF4-based electrolyte with various contents of layered α-TiP
The Mechanism for the Improved Electrochemical Properties
α-TiP crystalline has a two-dimensional layered structure, as shown in Fig. 5a. The layered structure of α-TiP is built up by bonding together the sandwiches through van der Waals forces. In this arrangement, each P atom in the lower sandwich lies along a perpendicular line drawn from the Ti atom of the upper sandwich. This arrangement makes it have larger interlaminar cavities and greater ion exchange capacities than other layered materials, such as α-zirconium phosphate, α-stannum phosphate and clay minerals [13,15,20,21]. Hydrogen ions between the sandwiches could be exchanged by other cations, which would result in the pillared layered structure [22,23].
Figure 5. Molecular structure of pristine (a) and pillared (b) layered α-TiP crystalline
In order to explore the mechanism for the improved electrochemical properties upon the addition of layered α-TiP, XRD experiments were carried out to characterize the interlayer distances of pristine and Emim+ pillared layered α-TiP. Excess EminBF4 ionic liquid was mixed with α-TiP powders under ultrasonication. The obtained suspension was centrifuged to form precipitate, and the filter cake was repeatedly washed with distilled water. After drying at 80°C for 24 h under vacuum, the white powder of pillared α-TiP was obtained. Figure 6 illustrated the low-angle XRD patterns of pristine and pillared layered α-TiP. For pristine α-TiP crystalline (Fig. 6a), the interlayer distance was indicated by the diffraction peak at 2θ = 11.62°, corresponding to (002) plane. For pillared α-TiP, the peak of (002) plane was shifted from 11.62° to 8.38°, corresponding to the change of the interlayer distance from 7.6Å to 10.5Å, which indicated successful pillaring of α-TiP. The increased interlayer distance of 2.9Å was almost equivalent to the size of Emim+ cation, which indicated that Emim+ cations exchanged with H+ ions between the sandwiches of α-TiP crystalline and were intercalated into the interspace of α-TiP to form Emim+ pillared layered α-TiP since Emim+ cation had the larger size than H+ ion, as illustrated in Fig. 6b. Similar result was reported for layered montmorillonite, which was intercalated by Emim+ cations through the ion exchange reaction [24]. It was reported that I3 ions in the solution take symmetrical linear form, with a diameter of about 2.9 Å and a length of about 5.8 Å, respectively [25]. For pristine α-TiP, the diameter of zeolite type cavities between the sandwiches is around 2.6Å [15], which is small for I3 to transport through the interspace between the sandwiches of α-TiP. However, for the Emim+-pillared α-TiP, the interlayer distance is up to 10.5Å, corresponding to the diameter of cavities up to 5.5 Å, which indicates that I3 ions can transport freely in a straight line through the interspace between the sandwiches of α-TiP. The nanochannels between the sandwiches of α-TiP would not only provide a fast diffusion path but also confine the transport direction of I3 ions, both of which could increase the steady-state current, thus the diffusion coefficient. Therefore, the confinement effect [26] by the nanochannels between the sandwiches of layered α-TiP was proposed to be responsible for the enhanced diffusion coefficient of I3 in the electrolyte. At the same time, α-TiP platelets would pile up to form the bridges between the two Pt electrodes. Then, charge transfer could also be partly carried out at the α-TiP/electrolyte interface beside at the Pt electrode/electrolyte interface. The active area of α-TiP/electrolyte interlamellar interface for charge-transfer reaction increased with the increase in α-TiP content due to the formation of more Emim+-pillared layered α-TiP, which resulted in the improved charge-transfer reaction, thus the decreased charge-transfer resistance Rct. In addition, it was reported that the charge-transfer resistance at the Pt electrode/electrolyte interface was inversely proportional to the square root of the I3 concentration around the Pt/electrolyte interface [3]. In this study, the enhanced diffusion of I3 would lead to the higher local I3 concentration around the Pt/electrolyte interface, which also resulted in the decrease of Rct. Therefore, both the increased active area of α-TiP/electrolyte interface and the higher local concentration of I3 around the Pt/electrolyte interface contributed to the enhanced charge-transfer reaction as a function of α-TiP content.
Figure 6. XRD patterns of pristine (a) and Emim+ pillared (b) layered α-TiP
However, when the α-TiP content was above 1wt%, both the diffusion of I3 and charge-transfer reaction were suppressed with the increase in the α-TiP content, which might be explained by the following two aspects. On one hand, excess α-TiP probably exhausted all the Emim+ ions in the electrolyte and no more Emim+-pillared α-TiP could be formed. On the other hand, excess α-TiP powders would increase the viscosity of the electrolyte to some extent. Both the aspects described previously are harmful and would counteract the diffusion of I3 and the charge transfer. Therefore, the optimal content of α-TiP was 1wt% in this study, where the diffusion of I3 and the charge transfer were the most efficient.
The Influence of Layered α-TiP on the Photovoltaic Performance of DSSC
Figure 7 showed the photocurrent-voltage characteristics curves of DSSCs based on the electrolytes with various contents of α-TiP. The corresponding photovoltaic characteristic parameters of DSSCs were summarized in Table 3. The conversion efficiency η was markedly enhanced by the addition of layered α-TiP and the maximum was achieved when the content of α-TiP was 1wt%, where both Jsc and Voc reached their maximum. The improved photocurrent Jsc with increasing α-TiP content was attributed to the improved diffusion coefficient of I3 and the reduced charge-transfer resistance, as described in the previous sections. It has been reported that the relation between open circuit (Voc) of DSSC and concentrations of I3 and oxidized dyes (D+) was expressed as follows [27,28]:
where k1, k2, and I are kinetic constants of recombination of the injected electrons with I3, with oxidized dyes (D+), and incident photon flux, respectively. And n0 is the concentration of accessible electronic states in the conduction band. It was apparent that the open circuit voltage Voc was inversely proportional to k1, k2, CI3− and CD + . Under illumination, I3 ions produced in situ by dye regeneration diffused to the counter electrode. The improved diffusion coefficient of I3 resulted in the decreased local I3 concentration around TiO2 nanoparticles and would slow down the possible charge recombination between the injected electrons and I3 at TiO2/electrolyte interface. According to the equation, the Voc value increased when the recombination kinetic constant of k1 decreased. Therefore, when the content of α-TiP was below 1wt%, the photocurrent Jsc, the open circuit voltage Voc and hence the conversion efficiencyηof DSSC increased with increasing α-TiP content. However, when the content of α-TiP was above 1 wt%, Jsc, Voc and hence η decreased with increasing α-TiP content, which probably resulted from the decreased diffusion coefficient of I3 and the increased charge-transfer resistance.
Figure 7. Photocurrent-voltage characteristic curves of DSSCs with various contents of layered α-TiP
Table 3. Photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on the composite electrolytes with various contents of layered α-TiP
Conclusions
In summary, we reported a composite electrolyte prepared by incorporating layered α-titanium phosphate into EmimBF4-based electrolyte, which exhibited excellent electrochemical and photovoltaic properties. The charge-transfer reaction at the Pt/electrolyte interface and the diffusion coefficient of I3 in the electrolyte were both enhanced markedly, both of which was ascribed to the intercalation behavior of Emim+ cations into layered α-TiP. The confinement effect by the nanochannels between the sandwiches of layered α-TiP was proposed to be responsible for the enhanced diffusion coefficient of I3 in the electrolyte. The increased active area of α-TiP/electrolyte interface and the higher local concentration of I3 around the Pt/electrolyte interface might contribute to the improved charge-transfer reaction. The optimum of 1 wt% α-TiP was obtained for the EmimBF4-based electrolyte, where both the diffusion of I3, the charge-transfer reaction and photoelectric conversion efficiency were the most efficient. These quasi-solid-state electrolytes offer a broad prospect for the application of ionic liquids in DSSC. They will enable the fabrication of flexible, compact, laminated solid-state devices free of leakage and available in various geometries.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge financial support from National Nature Science Foundation of China (50802051), National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (863 Program, 2006AA03Z218) and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (20060400055).
Open Access
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
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COI number [1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjtlWntLc%3D]
PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
10. Kuang DB, Wang P, Ito S, Zakeeruddin SM, Grätzel M:
J. Am. Chem. Soc.. 2006, 128:7732.
COI number [1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XkvVGgur0%3D]
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11. Wang P, Zakeeruddin SM, Comte P, Exnar I, Grätzel M:
J. Am. Chem. Soc.. 2003, 125:1166.
COI number [1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXitVOqtA%3D%3D]
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12. Usui H, Matsui H, Tanabe N, Yanagida S:
J. Photochem Photobiol A. Chem.. 2004, 164:97.
COI number [1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXktFOjsrg%3D]
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13. Wang N, Lin H, Li X, Lin CF, Zhang LZ, Wu J, Dou Y, Li JB:
Electrochem. Commun.. 2006, 8:946.
COI number [1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XlsFGhtLY%3D]
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14. Clearfield A, Costantino U: Comprehensive supramolecular chemistry. Edited by Alberti G, Bein T. Pergamon Press, New York; 1996.
15. Parida KM, Sahu BB, Das DP:
J. Colloid Interface Sci.. 2004, 270:436.
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16. Kawano R, Matsui H, Matsuyama C, Sato A, Susan M, Tanabe N, Watanabe M:
J. Photochem. Photobiol. A. 2004, 164:87.
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17. Matsumoto K, Hagiwara R, Yoshida R, Ito Y, Mazej Z, Benkic P, Zemva B, Tamada O, Yoshino H, Matsubara S:
Dalton Trans.. 2004, 144:96.
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J. Photochem. Photobiol. A-Chem.. 2008, 195:144.
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J. Electrochem. Soc.. 1996, 143:3099.
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20. Amphlett CB: Inorganic ion exchangers. Elsevier, Amsterdam; 1964.
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J. Inorg. Chem.. 1969, 8:431.
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Appl. Catal. A-Gen.. 2007, 324:1.
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Cent. Eur. J. Chem. 2007, 5:516.
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Microporous Mesoporous Mat.. 2006, 96:29.
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J. Synchrotron Radiat.. 2001, 8:674.
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Phys. Rev. Lett.. 2000, 84:915.
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Thin Solid Films. 2004, 451–452:86. Publisher Full Text
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(Dialysis of ADA)
Current revision (16:15, 11 December 2012) (view source)
(Dialysis of ADA)
Line 93: Line 93:
* Fractions 2 and 8 of ADA were transferred to a dialysis tube and submerged in water for one week.
* Fractions 2 and 8 of ADA were transferred to a dialysis tube and submerged in water for one week.
-
NOTE: The remaining period was used to edit formatting for Class Literature Survey
Current revision
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ADA Kinetic Assay Runs
• During the previous lab entry, the molar absorptivities of adenosine and inosine were calculated. Adenosine was found to have a higher molar absorptivity at 235.
• It was concluded from the previous period that the absorption of adenosine should decrease over time. A kinetic assay scan of the reaction containing 2.7 mL of 0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer, 300 μL of 3.07 mM adenosine, and 15 μL of 42 μM ADA was taken. The final concentration for each reagent are 0.0450 M, 0.307 mM, and 0.21 μM, respectively.
• The program was set to Kinetics with the wavelength at 235 for a collection span of 600s.
• In the scan, it can be observed that the absorption of adenosine is not decreasing over time. Instead, the absorption is increasing. Also, the signal for the absorption of adenosine is over 1.
• It was decided that the next measurements, the concentration of adenosine should be decreased by decreasing the volume in th cuvette. This is to ensure that the absorbance is below 1.
• As seen above, decreasing the concentration of adenosine maintained an absorbance below 1. However, the absorbance is still increasing. The addition of 50 μL ADA intensified the increase of absorbance in comparison to the addition of 15 μL ADA.
Volume of ADA (μL) Concentration of ADA (μM) Volume of phosphate buffer (mL) Concentration of phosphate buffer (M) Volume of adenosine (μL) Concentration of adenosine (mM)
150.212.950.0492500.0512
500.702.950.0492500.0512
UV-vis of Adenosine and Inosine
• Due to the inconsistent behavior observed from the data above, it was decided to remeasure the absorbance of adenosine and inosine in the UV-visible spectra. The program was returned to the Spectrum setting. The measurement was adjusted to 400-200 nm.
• The absorbance values are listed below in the table. The calculation for the molar absorptivities of adenosine and inosine are shown below.
For adenosine
• At 235 = 3224.75
• At 265 = 7817.59
For inosine
• At 235 = 7540
• At 265 = 5530
• Running the UV-vis scan for each reagent showed that the increasing trend observed on the ADA kinetic assays was inosine not adenosine. This was verified by recalculating the molar absorptivities. The molar absortivity of inosine at 235 is greater than adenosine. This explains the increase over time since as ADA catalyzes the formation of inosine from adenosine; the catalysis increases the concentration of inosine so as its absorbance.
• The kinetic assay with its corrected information will be continued a week after break.
' adenosine inosine
A2350.0990.754
Molar Absorptivity 2353224.757540
A2650.240.553
Molar Absorptivity 2657817.595530
Dialysis of ADA
• Fractions 2 and 8 of ADA were transferred to a dialysis tube and submerged in water for one week.
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Google AdWords Prefers Not To Use Multiple Match Types For Single Keyword Phrase
Jan 14, 2009 • 8:17 am | (18) by | Filed Under Google AdWords
There is an interesting paid search thread over at WebmasterWorld on the topic of using match types. For newbies, match types basically give you the ability to tell how specific or broad you want Google to match your keywords. So if you want Google to show your ad for the keyword phrase blue widget, and variations of it, like big widget that is blue, you use a specific match type. For more on how match types work, see this help document.
That being said, Google is now recommending that you do not list out multiple match types for keyword phrases. Typically, an advertiser might target several keywords, but be very specific on those keywords. So what Google seems to not want you to do these days is add all of the following to your keyword list, but instead decide to go all broad or all narrow.
Example: 'blue widget' [blue widget] [widget blue] [big blue widgets] and so on
Senior member, bcc1234, said he got word from Google that "they discourage the use of the same keyword with multiple match types." He explained, that "instead of triples of all keywords, they want advertisers to go from "broad" to "narrow" (in their words)." He thinks this makes sense, why?
It actually makes sense to some degree. But I'm guessing they are trying to cut down on the total number of keywords in their system. I imagine with millions of advertisers, and lots of them uploading hundreds of thousands of keywords in dozens of accounts, it really becomes a saleability issue.
Forum discussion at WebmasterWorld.
Previous story: Help Penalize Your Favorite Retailer
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CMD sent two reporters to track ALEC in Oklahoma
Click here to help support our future investigations.
American Airlines
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American Airlines (under parent holding company AMR Corporation) is the largest airline in the U.S., the second being UAL's United Airlines. American Airlines along with sister company American Eagle and a network of regional carriers has 250 destinations in about 40 countries. It also carries air freight including mail. It is part of the Oneworld global marketing alliance which includes British Airways, Cathay Pacific, and Qantas. Headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas the company was founded in 1934. [1] [2]
Contents
Overview
The following is from Yahoo! MultexInvestor.com.
"Incorporated in October 1982, AMR has operations that fall almost entirely in the airline industry. AMR's principal subsidiary, American Airlines, Inc., was founded in 1934. In April 2001, American Airlines, Inc. purchased substantially all of the assets and assumed certain liabilities of Trans World Airlines, Inc. (TWA). At the end of 2001, American (which includes TWA and American Airlines) provided scheduled jet service to more than 161 destinations throughout North America, the Caribbean, Latin America, Europe and the Pacific. American is also a scheduled air freight carrier, providing a full range of freight and mail services to shippers throughout its system.
"AMR Eagle Holding Corporation (AMR Eagle), a wholly owned subsidiary of AMR, owns two regional airlines that do business as American Eagle, American Eagle Airlines, Inc. and Executive Airlines, Inc. (Executive). These two American Eagle carriers provide connecting service from eight of American's high-traffic cities to smaller markets throughout the United States, Canada, the Bahamas and the Caribbean.
"AMR Investment Services, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of AMR, is responsible for the investment and oversight of AMR's defined benefit and defined contribution plans, as well as its short-term investments. It serves as manager of the American AAdvantage Funds, a family of mutual funds with both institutional and retail shareholders, and provides customized fixed income portfolio management services. As of December 31, 2001, AMR Investment Services was responsible for management of approximately $29.9 billion in assets, including direct management of approximately $17.8 billion in short-term fixed-income investments.
"The Company was able to operate only a portion of its scheduled flights for several days after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. When flights were permitted to resume, passenger traffic and yields on the Company's flights were significantly lower than prior to the attacks. As a result, the Company reduced its operating schedule to approximately 80% of the schedule it flew prior to September 11, 2001.
"On November 12, 2001, American Airlines Flight 587 crashed shortly after take-off from John F. Kennedy International Airport en route to Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic. In addition to the loss of life on board the aircraft, there were several fatalities and injuries to persons on the ground, as well as property damage. The National Transportation Safety Board is investigating the accident; a cause has yet to be determined. As a result of the accident, claims have been made against American. It is anticipated these claims will be covered under American's insurance policies.
"Most major air carriers have developed hub-and-spoke systems and schedule patterns in an effort to maximize the revenue potential of their service. American operates five hubs: Dallas/Fort Worth (DFW), Chicago O'Hare, Miami, St. Louis and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Delta Air Lines (Delta) and United Airlines also have hub operations at DFW and Chicago O'Hare, respectively.
"The American Eagle carriers increase the number of markets the Company serves by providing connections to American at American's hubs and certain other major airports. The American Eagle carriers serve smaller markets through Boston, DFW, Chicago, Miami, San Juan, Los Angeles and New York's LaGuardia and John F. Kennedy International Airports.
"In addition to its domestic service, the Company provides international service to the Caribbean, the Bahamas, Canada, Latin America, Europe and the Pacific. The Company's operating revenues from foreign operations were approximately 28% of the Company's total operating revenues in 2001.
"To improve access to each other's markets, various United States and foreign air carriers, including American, have established marketing relationships with other airlines and rail companies. American has code-sharing programs with Aer Lingus, Air Pacific, Alaska Airlines, Asiana Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, EVA Air, Finnair, Gulf Air, Hawaiian Airlines, Iberia, Japan Airlines, LanChile, LOT Polish Airlines, Qantas Airways, SNCF, TACA Group, the TAM Group, TAP Air Portugal, Thalys and Turkish Airlines. American Eagle also has code-sharing programs with Continental Airlines, Delta, Midwest Express and Northwest Airlines, in addition to code-sharing with some of American's codeshare partners.
"In February 1999, American, British Airways, Canadian Airlines International Limited, Cathay Pacific Airways and Qantas Airways formed the global alliance ONEworld. In September 1999, Finnair and Iberia joined these five founding members. Also, in June 2000, Aer Lingus and LanChile joined the ONEworld alliance. Following the acquisition of Canadian by Air Canada, Canadian terminated its membership in ONEworld in June 2000. The ONEworld alliance links the networks of the member carriers to enhance customer service and smooth connections to the destinations served by the alliance, including linking the carriers' frequent flyer programs and access to the carriers' airport lounge facilities.
"On most of its domestic non-stop routes, the Company faces competing service from at least one, and sometimes more than one, major domestic airline, including Alaska Airlines, America West Airlines, Continental Airlines (Continental), Delta, Northwest Airlines (Northwest), Southwest Airlines, United and US Airways, and their affiliated regional carriers."
Political contributions
The American Airlines PAC gave $276,200 to federal candidates in the 2006 election - 28% to Democrats and 72% to Republicans. [3]
Lobbying
The company spent $3,680,136 for lobbying in 2006. In-house lobbyists as well as 14 lobbying firms were used, some of which were Wexler and Walker Public Policy Associates, Cassidy & Associates, Venable, and OB-C Group. [4]
Personnel
Key executives and 2006 pay: [5] Options
exercised
Gerard J. Arpey, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer $581,000 $481,000
Thomas W. Horton, Chief Financial Officer $456,000 $0
Daniel P. Garton, Executive Vice President $512,000 $706,000
Gary F. Kennedy, Chief Compliance Officer $472,000 $966,000
Robert W. Reding, Senior Vice President of Technical Operations of American Airlines Inc $457,000 $997,000
Selected board members: [6]
Officers and Directors from Reuters.
Contact details
4333 Amon Carter Blvd.
Fort Worth, TX 76155
Phone: 817-963-1234
Fax: 817-967-9641
Web: http://www.aa.com
Resources and articles
Related Sourcewatch articles
References
1. AMR Profile, Hoovers, accessed July 2007.
2. AMR Profile, Yahoo Finance, accessed July 2007.
3. 2006 PAC Summary Data, Open Secrets, accessed July 2007.
4. AMR/American Airlines lobbying expenses, Open Secrets, accessed September 2007.
5. AMR Key Executives, Yahoo Finance, accessed September 2007.
6. Board of Directors, AMR, accessed July 2007.
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Family:Christopher Morey and Elizabeth Ring (1)
Watchers
Facts and Events
Marriage[1] 6 Dec 1795 Kinderhook, COLUMBIA, New York, United States
Children
BirthDeath
1.
6 Apr 1845
References
1. FamilySearch: Unidentified database - please replace source when identified, Secondary quality.
Groom's Name: Christophel Morey
Bride's Name: Elisabeth Ring
Marriage Date: 06 Dec 1795 Marriage Place: Reformed Dutch Church, Kinderhook, Columbia, New York
Indexing Project (Batch) Number: M51101-1 System Origin: New_York-ODM Source Film Number: 534198
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Clinical neuropsychology
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Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical psychology that specialises in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with brain injury or neurocognitive deficits.
Typically, a clinical neuropsychologist will hold an advanced degree in clinical psychology (in most countries, this requires a doctorate level qualification: Ph.D., Psy.D., or M.D.) and will have completed further studies in neuropsychology, or in some countries, neurology.
In the USA, a neuropsychologist is a clinical psychologist, who, in addition to completing a Doctoral Degree in Psychology, also completes a Clinical Internship (1 year) and specialized post-Doctoral training in Clinical Neuropsychology. Such post-Doctoral training (i.e. Fellowship/Residency) currently ranges from 2 to 4 years. Neuropsychologists use models of brain-behavior relationships to determine whether expected neurobehavioral function has changed to a degree that is consistent with impairment. Such relationships are demonstrated through the interpretation of performance that is derived from a variety of specialized assessment procedures. Thus, the domain of neuropsychologists is expressed brain function: for example, reasoning/problem-solving, learning/recall processes, selective attention/concentration processes, perception, sensation, language processes, controlled/directed movement processes. Serial neuropsychological examinations may be used to monitor deteriorating neurobehavioral performance (as with dementing disorders) or to monitor improving neurobehavioral function (as during the recovery after an acquired brain injury or in response to pharmacological or surgical intervention).
What distinguishes a clinical neuropsychologist from other clinical psychologists is an extensive knowledge of the brain, including an understanding of areas such as: neuroanatomy, neurobiology, psychopharmacology, neurological illness or injury, the use of neuropsychological tests to accurately assess cognitive deficits, and the management, treatment and rehabiliation of brain injured and neurocognitively impaired patients.
Clinical neuropsychologists perform a number of tasks, usually within a clinical setting. They are often involved in conducting neuropsychological assessments to assess a person's cognitive skills, usually after some sort of brain injury or neurological impairment. This may be for the purposes of planning treatments, to determine someone's neurocognitive functioning or mental capacity (often done for presentation as evidence in court cases or legal proceedings) or to detect changes over time.
A clinical neuropsychologist's typical caseload may include people with traumatic brain injury (TBI), cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) such as stroke and aneurysm ruptures, brain tumors, encephalitis, epilepsy/seizure disorders, dementias, mental illnesses (e.g. schizophrenia), and a wide range of developmental disorders, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities, autism and Tourette's syndrome.
Clinical neuropsychologists' training has included methods of psychotherapy and counseling. They can also provide therapeutic services to patients in need of education and emotional support concerning their neurological injuries or illness.
Many clinical neuropsychologists are employed by medical schools and hospitals, especially neurology, psychiatry, and rehabilitation facilities. Some work in private practice. They are frequently active in teaching at the university level and conducting research into a wide range of issues concerning human brain-behavior relationships. Some clinical neuropsychologists are also employed by pharmaceutical companies to help develop and test neuropsychological assessment tools for use in clinical trials.
The practice of cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry involves studying the cognitive effects of injury or illness to understand normal psychological function. Because of their day-to-day contact with people with brain impairment, many clinical neuropsychologists are active in these research fields.
See also
Further reading
• Broks, P. (2003) Into the Silent Land: Travels in Neuropsychology. ISBN
• Halligan, P.W., Kischka, U, & Marshall, J.C. (Eds.) (2003) Handbook of Clinical Neuropsychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN
• Lezak, M.D. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
• Snyder, P.J, Nussbaum, P.D., & Robins, D.L. (Eds.) (2005) Clinical Neuropsychology: A Pocket Handbook for Assessment, Second Edition. American Psychological Association. ISBNde:Klinische Neuropsychologie
it:Neuropsicologia clinica lt:Klinikinė neuropsichologija
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Right-facing Distillery Bazaar on
Chelydra Cove (Lacerta Archipelago)
Meridian Ocean
Proprietorship
Owner Cleaver-West
Erected April 2008
Lagerhead is a distillery bazaar on Chelydra Cove on the Meridian Ocean. Prior to the ocean merge in early 2012, the building was located on the Malachite Ocean.
Arr! This article about a building in Puzzle Pirates be a stub. Ye can help YPPedia by expanding it.
Puzzle Pirates™ © 2001-2012 Three Rings Design, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Terms · Privacy · Affiliates
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
1367.5 - Western Australian Statistical Indicators, Jun 2009
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 22/07/2009
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
CONTENTS
Expanded contents
Statistical summary
Includes: Western Australia statistical summary
Population and social trends
Includes: Population growth, Family formation, Causes of death
Employment and earnings
Includes: Labour Force Status, Industry of employment, Occupation of employment, Employees and hours worked by industry, Employees and hours worked by occupation, Average weekly earnings
State accounts
Includes: State Final Demand
Prices
Includes: Consumer Price Index, Wage Price Index, House Price Indexes, Price indexes of materials used in building
Consumption
Includes: Retail, New motor vehicle sales
International merchandise trade
Includes: Exports, Imports
Investment and finance
Includes: Private new capital expenditure, Lending finance commitments, Housing finance commitments
Construction
Includes: Building approvals, Building activity
Mining and energy
Includes: Mineral exploration, Mineral production, Energy production
Tourism
Includes: Short-term arrivals on holiday, Short-term departures on holiday
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
1307.4 - South Australian Economic Indicators, Jan 1996
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 01/03/1996
Past Releases
First Release
• First Issue: Apr 1993
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
We're a software startup with annual revenue in the ballpark of half a million. We're completely bootstrapped, and have no current plans to take funding. We currently have 4 employees. We're looking to hire two new developers as we shift our focus to a new complementary product - one senior back-end web developer and one junior front-end web developer. The back-end position is much harder for us to fill. Both will be paid about market rates. No benefits.
I'm new to equity incentives. How should we plan to tackle this? What percentages for each? Is issuing options better than stocks? How do we go about setting a strike price? How big of an option pool should we set aside? Any advice on vesting periods or clauses to include? We're based in Canada, if that makes a difference. Thanks!
share|improve this question
3 Answers
Fred Wilson have written well about this here.
As with everything, it depends.
If you look at the valley companies, commonly a stock option pool of around 5-10% pre Series A is set aside, and is supposed to last during the lifetime of the company (up until M&A or IPO). Out of this, stock options reach couples of percentages, or even more with key executives, usually around percentages for extremely key specialists, and tenths of percents or less for "ordinary" staff.
Important things to know about this is;
a) VC's or investors will want you to set aside this stock option pool BEFORE they invest. This means that your dilution actually increases.
b) It's stock options, not stock. A stock option is the right to buy stock in the future (a defined window) for a pre-set price. The idea that this set price will be preferable to the valuation of the company.
c) If you're not a likely M&A or IPO-style company (what Jason Calacanis refers to as a Life-style business, watch this video) stock is pretty much useless. Ok, that may be very harsh, but in reality, the idea for non-founders to own stock is that it will become liquid (tradeable for money) in the future. Before the company is sold or IPO'ed, the stock isn't useful. Small companies don't pay dividends on stock (they prefer to grow), and shareholders agreements prevent stock owners from selling the stock to anyone.
share|improve this answer
I would suggest reading theres articles on whether a job offer is a good deal, we dont pay you to work here, we pay you so you can work here and cult creation for startups
You should speak to an accountant about what the tax implications are for your employees (it would be quite the demotivator if they have to pay a bunch of tax on stock they cant sell)! Whats your reasoning behind offering equity? Do your current employees all have equity? What is the vision for the business/is equity appropriate?
Its a good idea for you vesting schedule to have a 12 month cliff (ie you get nothing until you have been working there for 12 months) and can take about 3 years to get the full amount of equity, with some clauses around accelerated vesting on events like sale/change of ceo/termination under certain conditions.
Make sure you shareholders agreement has clauses for removing owners if they are detrimental to the business as unlike employees you cant fire owners if its not in the shareholders agreement.
share|improve this answer
Fred Wilson's formulas are a great start.
Please take a look at the following 6 min video on the top 11 things to consider when rolling out equity at a start up. www.bit.ly/i3UIqL
I have also put together a presentation here: Equity Comp - Who and How much to give? http://slidesha.re/9U2hwh
Equity Compensation is not a great DIY project. The rules are complex. You must have a company valuation (done by someone who knows how to comply with ITC 409A). You must understand both the short and long-term impact of whatever you design and grant.
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Please read: Security Issue on AMO
66
NOTE: Further investigation has revealed that all versions of Sothink Web Video Downloader are malware free. For more, read our update.
Issue
Two experimental add-ons, Version 4.0 of Sothink Web Video Downloader and all versions of Master Filer were found to contain Trojan code aimed at Windows users. Version 4.0 of Sothink Web Video Downloader contained Win32.LdPinch.gen, and Master Filer contained Win32.Bifrose.32.Bifrose Trojan. Both add-ons have been disabled on AMO.
Impact to users
If a user installs one of these infected add-ons, the trojan would be executed when Firefox starts and the host computer would be infected by the trojan. Uninstalling these add-ons does not remove the trojan from a user’s system. Users with either of these add-ons should uninstall them immediately. Since uninstalling these extensions does not remove the trojan from a user’s system, an antivirus program should be used to scan and remove any infections.
Status
This vulnerability is known to affect Firefox on Windows only, if either Master Filer or Version 4.0 of Sothink Web Video Downloader are installed. Versions of Sothink Web Video Downloader greater than 4.0 are not infected. Master Filer was downloaded approximately 600 times between September 2009 and January 2010. Version 4.0 of Sothink Web Video Downloader was downloaded approximately 4,000 times between February 2008 and May 2008. Master Filer was removed from AMO on January 25, 2010 and Version 4.0 of Sothink Web Video Downloader was removed from AMO on February 2, 2010. AMO performs a malware check on all add-ons uploaded to the site, and blocks add-ons that are detected as such. This scanning tool failed to detect the Trojan in Master Filer. Two additional malware detection tools have been added to the validation chain and all add-ons were rescanned, which revealed the additional Trojan in Version 4.0 of Sothink Web Video Downloader. No other instances of malware have been discovered.
Credit
This issue was originally reported by CatThief.
Antivirus Software
Here is a list of antivirus programs known to detect the trojans found in the affected add-ons.
Antiy-AVL
Avast
AVG
GData
Ikarus
K7AntiVirus
McAfee
Norman
VBA32
Tags:
Categories: general
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Wikia
SRD:Dodge
Talk0
9,499pages on
this wiki
Redirected from Dodge (SRD Feat)
This material is published under the OGL
Dodge [General]Edit
PrerequisiteEdit
Dex 13.
BenefitEdit
During your action, you designate an opponent and receive a +1 dodge bonus to Armor Class against attacks from that opponent. You can select a new opponent on any action.
A condition that makes you lose your Dexterity bonus to Armor Class (if any) also makes you lose dodge bonuses. Also, dodge bonuses stack with each other, unlike most other types of bonuses.
SpecialEdit
A fighter may select Dodge as one of his fighter bonus feats.
Back to Main PageSystem Reference DocumentFeats
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See all photos >
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Difference between revisions of "Android Events"
From eLinux.org
Jump to: navigation, search
(Google Events)
(Add Category Events)
Line 40: Line 40:
[[Category:Android]]
[[Category:Android]]
+
[[Category:Events]]
Revision as of 13:11, 13 May 2011
The only events I know of (as of Jan 2010) with Android content are:
Contents
Google Events
Linux events
Android Builders Summit
This is a new event (in 2011) for Android systems developers. This includes developers who are porting Android to new hardware, working on the Android kernel or low-level infrastructure, or otherwise working on Android itself (not on Android application development).
Regional events
General
• Android Developer's Conference - March 7-9, 2011
• This seems to be the first full-blown Android developer event, covering mostly application development, but also some system talks
Other Conferences
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RPi Documentation
From eLinux.org
Revision as of 11:07, 27 March 2012 by Meltwater (Talk | contribs)
Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
Back to the Hub.
Resources:
Hardware & Peripherals:
Hardware and Hardware History.
Low-level Peripherals and Expansion Boards.
Screens, Cases and Other Peripherals.
Software & OS Distributions:
Software and Distributions
Documentation:
Documentation Page
Frambozenier.org Documentation Project Datasheets
Note: All datasheets, documents and Trademarks remain the property of their respective owners.
Published Datasheets
User Guides
Raspberry Pi Model A/Model B Layout Diagram
Hardware / Software Datasheets
Raspberry Pi Processor Broadcom System-On-Chip:
BCM2835 ARM Peripherals - (BCM2835 datasheet errata)
ARM 11 CPU Core:
(ARM1176JZF-S)
Model B LAN Chip:
(LAN9512) Data Brief | (LAN9512) Datasheet)
Mechanical Data
Production Boards (2012 Q1):
none available yet
Beta Boards:
Gert's Beta Boards Mechanical Data
Schematics
Production Boards (2012 Q1):
none available yet
Beta Boards:
Beta Board PCB Layers Screenshot
Beta Board PCB Layers Screenshot, labelled version
Additional Published Information
Power Supply Details:
Detailed explanation of the Beta board power supply
Preliminary power supply schematic, Beta board
Documentation Projects
Frambozenier.org Datasheets:
Frambozenier.org Documentation Project Datasheets - Selection of detailed datasheets on the Raspberry Pi (developed on the wiki, reviewed then published).
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United StatesEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 19:12, 21 January 2012 by Evancol (Talk | contribs)
Getting started with United States research
Numerous articles are available on FamilySearch Wiki to help you get started in family history. This portal will provide links to articles about general research topics.
Principles of Family History Research
1. Identify What You Know
2. Decide What You Want to Learn
3. Select Records to Search
4. Obtain and Search the Records
5. Use the Information
States
Click on a state to go to that state's page:
Research Strategies
Research Tools
Wiki articles describing online collections are found at:
Help Wanted
Interested in editing or adding to the Wiki? The United States page, the state pages, and the county pages need you! Here are some simple ways you can add information other researchers need!
• Add links to digitized state and county histories. A large collection of such histories is Brigham Young University's Family History Archives. A shortcut to searching it for local histories is on the BYU-FHL Digital Books Collection page.
• Want your name in lights? The United States Maps needs a major overhaul, and as soon as it's done I'd like to put it on the Featured Content section of this page. The current United States Maps article, was written years ago with printed sources in mind. Today roughly 80% of a genealogist's needs for U.S. maps can be met by using a few incredible, free Websites. If you'd like to overhaul this page, have at it! For ideas, see the United States Maps discussion page.
Territories and Federal District
Former Territories
News
more...
Topics
Did You Know?
The Research Forums have been closed. For a limited time the United States Research forum will be available in read-only mode.
Genealogy courses: Learn how to research from an expert in United States courses.
Need additional research help? Contact our research help specialists.
Need wiki, indexing, or website help? Contact our product teams.
Did you find this article helpful?
You're invited to explain your rating on the discussion page (you must be signed in).
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GlobalVoices in Learn more »
Syria Protests 2011/12
This post also available in:
Español · Protestas en Siria 2011
Ελληνικά · Διαδηλώσεις στη Συρία 2011
Dansk · Protester i Syrien 2011
عربي · ثورة سوريا 2011
Magyar · Tüntetések Szíriában 2011-2012
日本語 · シリア騒乱 2011/12
Français · La révolution en Syrie 2011 - 2013
Support for Syrian protests, Brussels, Belgium. Flickr: gwenflickr (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0).
Table of Contents
Initially inspired by revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia, protests in Syria have gained momentum since March 15, 2011 (a first call for protests on February 5 drew only a small crowd). Thousands have protested against the government of President Bashar Al-Assad in Damascus, Aleppo and several other cities – and dozens have been arrested – but the heart of the protests is currently in southern city Daraa. On March 18, news that 15 children had been arrested for writing anti-regime graffiti sparked a demonstration that led to security forces killing at least three people. In subsequent protests in Daraa, at least 37 more have been killed (some reports say as many as 150 may have died). The most extensive nationwide protests since the beginning of the uprisings were on March 25 on what is now referred to as the “Friday of Dignity” (at least 24 deaths reported so far).
Please contact Global Voices Middle East and North Africa Editor Amira Al Hussaini if you have links or story ideas, or want to add to this page's resource list.
What we do: Global Voices bloggers from the Middle East report on how citizens use the Internet and social media to make their voices heard, often translating from Arabic. Check back for further developments to this page.
Featured Global Voices Posts – Syria Protests 2011/12
Back to Contents
2012
31 Oct – Syria Destruction in Photos
10 Oct – Arab World: The Plight of Syrian Refugee Girls
19 Sep – Syria: Happy Birthday Bashar?
10 Sep – Egypt: Going Hungry to Draw Attention to the Plight of Syrians
29 Aug – Save Syria's Threatened Heritage Sites
24 Aug – Syria: You are an Embarrassment to the Revolution
23 Aug – Lebanon: It's Back to Kidnapping Time
16 Aug – Syria: #InMySyria the Streets Will Be Full of Freedom
14 Aug – Saudi Arabia: Defending the Virtue of Syrian Women?
08 Aug – Syria: Military Intervention or Civil War?
06 Aug – Syria: “I Tweeted Prime Minister Riad HIjab's Defection First”
27 Jul – Jordan: The Fate of Syrian Refugees
26 Jul – Syria: Weapons and Combat Tutorials Online
20 Jul – Syria: Videos Document a Sharply Escalating Conflict
19 Jul – Iran: “If Bashar Gets Killed, the Iranian Regime Will Call Him a Martyr”
17 Jul – Syria/Turkey: Syrian Refugees Protest Water Shortages at Kilis Camp
15 Jul – Syria: Palestinians and the Syrian Revolution
18 Jun – Syria: Regime Assailants Kill Blogger's Mother
29 May – Syria: Ambassadors Expelled in Protest at Houla Massacre
28 May – Syria: Houla Massacre Creates International Outcry
28 Apr – Syria: Television “Confession” of Activist Ali Mahmoud Othman
03 Apr – Syria: Ali Mahmoud Othman, the “Eyes of Baba Amr”, Detained
26 Mar – Syria: A Year On, From Beirut With Love
18 Mar – Brazil: Solidarity March for Syrian Revolution
18 Mar – Syria: When Assad Falls
15 Mar – Syria: “The Day We Knew What It Meant to Be Syrian”
14 Mar – Syria: Crackdown Against Journalists Continues
13 Mar – Syria: Campaign to Stop One Year of Bloodshed
02 Mar – World: Global March Against the Syrian Dictator
28 Feb – Syria: Injured French Journalist Edith Bouviez Still Trapped in Besieged Homs
28 Feb – Syria: Homage to American Journalist Marie Colvin Killed in Homs
22 Feb – Syria: Shock and Disbelief Over Murder of Journalists
18 Feb – Syria: Razan Ghazzawi and Female Colleagues Freed
17 Feb – Syria: Razan Ghazzawi Arrested … Again
08 Feb – Tunisia: Decision to Expel Syrian Ambassador Sparks Heated Debate
06 Feb – Syria: “Revolution + Blood – Oil = Veto”
05 Feb – China: Veto of UN Security Council Draft Resolution on Syria Draws Praise and Grief
10 Jan – Syria: Netizens Angered by Assad's Speech
07 Jan – Syria: The Struggle for Freedom and the End of Silence
07 Jan – Syria: Damascus “Suicide Attack” and State TV Fabrications
December 2011
21 Dec – Syria: A Christmas Massacre
18 Dec – Syria: Blogger Razan Ghazzawi is FREE!
13 Dec – Syria: Razan Ghazzawi Charged, Bloggers Continue Campaign
04 Dec – Syria: Free Razan Ghazzawi
November 2011
12 Nov – Syria: Virtual Sit-In Garners Global Support
12 Nov – Syria: Arab League Suspends Syria's Membership
09 Nov – Global Campaigns in Solidarity with Syria Keep Growing
October 2011
29 Oct – Egypt: Another Bloody Week in Syria
26 Oct – Syria: Blogger Hussein Gharir “Missing”
06 Oct – Tunisia: Arab Bloggers Discuss the Situation in Syria
02 Oct – Yemen: Friday of Victory for Syria and Yemen
September 2011
25 Sep – Syria: Official Websites Under Anonymous Attack
05 Sep – Lebanon: What Will be the Fate of Lebanese Prisoners in Syria?
August 2011
21 Aug – Arab World: “Assad, You are Next After Gaddafi!”
11 Aug – Syria: World Cities Rally Against and For Bashar
07 Aug – Syria: Death Toll Mounts as Ramadan Massacre Continues
05 Aug – Lebanon: Protest Against Syrian Regime Attacked by Loyalists
02 Aug – Syria: Can Tweets Prevent a Massacre?
July 2011
31 Jul – Syria: Tanks Enter Hama on Eve of Ramadan
09 Jul – Syria: Bloggers Rally for Anas Maarawi
05 Jul – Syria: Did Man Film Himself Getting Shot by Sniper?
June 2011
29 Jun – Spain: Hundreds Protest Against the Syrian Regime
27 Jun – Syria: Black Comedy of the Revolution
26 Jun – Syria: The Revolution and the Economy
24 Jun – Syria: Blogging Day for Syria
23 Jun – Syria: “It Feels as if Syria is Two Countries – With Two Different Realities”
23 Jun – Syria: “We Support Bashar and Want the World to Leave us Alone”
20 Jun – Syria: Protests Break Out Following Assad Speech
18 Jun – Syria: Al Assad's Cousin Quits Business for Charity Work
15 Jun – Syria: 2.3km Flag at Pro-Government Rally in Damascus
15 Jun – Syria: Crackdown Continues Despite International Outcry
13 Jun – Syria: Lesbian Blogger Amina is a Married American Man
09 Jun – Syria: True Identity of Arrested Blogger Questioned
06 Jun – Syria: ‘Gay Girl in Damascus’ Seized
03 Jun – Syria: Protesting for the Future of Children
03 Jun – Syria: Reports of Internet Blackout
02 Jun – Syria: Opposition Drafts Declaration in Antalya
May 2011
06 May – Syria: Reports of Telecom Disruptions as Protests Rage
06 May – Jordan: “Bring Raad Home” from Syria
April 2011
29 Apr – Syria: The Revolution Continues (Video)
26 Apr – Egypt: Protesting for Syria
23 Apr – Syria: Blog Interview with Opposition Activist Ammar Abdulhamid
22 Apr – Syria: The People Want to Overthrow the Regime
20 Apr – Syria: Homs Protests Attract Thousands (Video)
19 Apr – Syria: Emergency Law Lifted as Protests Continue
06 Apr – Syria: Bread and Propaganda
03 Apr – Syria: Two Returned Home Safely, Khaled El Ghayesh Still Missing
March 2011
30 Mar – Syria: Reactions to President Assad's Speech
29 Mar – Syria: Complexity Behind the Protests
26 Mar – Syria: Egyptian-American Tweep Accused of Spying
26 Mar – Iran: Syrians Protest “Neither Iran Nor Hezbollah!”
26 Mar – Syria: Protesters Demolish Symbols of the Regime
25 Mar – Syria: ‘Friday of Dignity’ Protests Erupt Countrywide
23 Mar – Syria: Citizen Videos Show Horror in Daraa
23 Mar – Syria: Reports of Mass Killings, and a Blogger and a Journalist Disappear
21 Mar – Syria: Protests Continue to Gain Momentum
17 Mar – Syria: Protests for Release of Political Prisoners, 38 Detained
18 Mar – Syria: Protests Across the Country, 6 Reported Killed in Dara'a
February 2011
08 Feb – Syria: Facebook and YouTube Unblocked, Among Others
04 Feb – Syria: No-Show for ‘Day of Anger’
01 Feb – Arab World: A Revolution Time-Table
Resources
Back to Contents
Twitter
Hashtags: #Syria | #Daraa | #March15
Websites
Back to Contents
World regions
Countries
Languages
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An unofficial blog that watches Google's attempts to move your operating system online.
Send your tips to gostips@gmail.com.
January 9, 2008
RescueTime, Attention Monitoring Tool
What would you get by combining Google Web History with Google Analytics? An application that shows where do you spend most of your time on the web using beautiful charts.
RescueTime takes this idea, but also tracks the usage of desktop applications. "RescueTime is a web-based time management and analytics tool for information workers who want to be more productive. [It] doesn't record what apps or sites you have open, but rather what app or site you are paying attention to!"
RescueTime installs a desktop client (available for Windows and Mac) that monitors the web sites you visit and the software you use. The data is sent to a web application that processes it and displays statistics. For now, you can only see the domains, subdomains and apps sorted by the time spent and details for each item, but it would be interesting to see information about navigation paths and individual web pages.
If you don't like the application or you're concerned about your privacy, RescueTime lets you delete your data. It also makes it clear in the FAQ that the application only monitors "the names of the apps and sites you use and the times that you use them."
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AN EVALUATION OF EXTREME WAVE CLIMATE AT KEAHOLE POINT, HAWAII
Charles L. Bretschneider, Richard E. Rocheleau
Abstract
An evaluation of extreme wave climate was made for Keahole Point, Hawaii. This evaluation was based on three separate sources of wave data and five methods of statistical evaluations. The three sources of data include (1) wave hindcasts data of 10 severe storms between 1947- 1961 by Marine Advisors (1963), (2) wave hindcast data of 11 severe storms between 1947-1965 by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Honolulu District, and (3) shipboard wave observations of the U.S. Navy reports. Figure 5 shows SSMO area No. 1 for south and southwest of the islands and SSMO areas Nos. 2 and 3 for north of the islands. The five methods of statistical extrapolations for extreme events include: (1) Gumbel's (1958) first asymptotic distribution, (2) Weibull distribution (1961), and (3,4,&5) semilog, log normal and normal distributions. The three most widely used distribution functions are: (1) Gumbel's (1958), (2) log normal (see Jasper, 1956), and (3) Weibull (1961), given in order as to the author's preference. The statistical extrapolations for Keahole Point, Hawaii, are given in Table 9 and Figure 9. Only Gumbel's (1958) distribution was applied to the north shore as shown in Table 8. Based on Gumbel's distribution function, the results of the wave hindcasts statistics on the average (50 year recurrence interval) indicate that (1) the Marine Advisors (1963) wave hindcasts are about 25 percent higher than the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers wave hindcasts and (2) the U.S. Navy SSMO observations and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers wave hindcasts are in closest agreement. Shipboard wave observations have always been subjected to questions. However, various authors have correlated instrumentally measured and observed wave observations. A summary of these correlations are given in Table 6. No correction was made to the statistical analysis of the SSMO data.
Keywords
extreme wave climate; wave climate; Keahole Point; Hawaii
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
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User:Amanda L Smith
From OpenWetWare
Revision as of 15:51, 3 July 2012 by Amanda L Smith (Talk | contribs)
(diff) ←Older revision | Current revision (diff) | Newer revision→ (diff)
Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
Contact Info
Amanda L Smith (an artistic interpretation)
I work in the Lidstrom Lab at the University of Washington with Janet B. Matsen.
Education
• in progress, PhD Chemical Engineering, University of Washington
• 2010, MS Chemical Engineering, University of Washington
• 2008, BS Bioengineering, Rice University
Research interests
1. Metabolic Engineering/Synthetic Biology
2. Biochemicals and biofuels
but I also think these other topics are very cool...
1. Human microbiota research
Publications
1. Martínez I, Lee A, Bennett GN, and San KY. . pmid:21681980. PubMed HubMed [Paper1]
Useful links
Personal tools
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"warc_url": "http://openwetware.org/wiki/IGEM:China_workshop/Presenters"
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IGEM:China workshop/Presenters
From OpenWetWare
Jump to: navigation, search
Christina D. Smolke
Assistant Professor of Chemical Engineering, Caltech
Her topic includes:
1) Antiswitch-mediated regulation of gene expression / programmable ligand controlled riboregulators of eukaryotic gene expression
2) Metabolic engineering
For more information on Dr.Smolke, please refer to her lab website:
Drew Endy
Assistant Professor, Biological Engineering Division, M.I.T
His topic includes:
1) Standardized parts for synthetic biology
2) Abstraction hierarchy for biological engineering
For more information on Dr. Endy, please refer to his lab website:
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Quotation added by staff
Why not add this quote to your bookmarks?
It's no rest to be idle. Peel, Paul
This quote is about rest · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
Make and then buy your OWN fantastic personalized gift from this quote
Rhymes, meters, stanza forms, etc., are like servants. If the master is fair enough to win their affection and firm enough to command their respect, the result is an orderly happy household. If he is too tyrannical, they give notice; if he lacks authority, they become slovenly, impertinent, drunk and dishonest. Auden, W. H.
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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There is a period near the beginning of every man's life when he has little to cling to except his unmanageable dream, little to support him except good health, and nowhere to go but all over the place. White, Elwyn Brooks
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A selection of more great products and gifts!
212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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Skip to content
Internet moderitis: New disease in mental health
There is a new profession in the internet era, the so called Internet content reviewer. They check all the submissions and uploads on huge social networking sites, review tens of thousands of pictures and make sure only legal content is being uploaded to these communities. It seems a new disease is starting to spread: moderitis. Here is a New York Times piece on the topic:
Ricky Bess spends eight hours a day in front of a computer near Orlando, Fla., viewing some of the worst depravities harbored on the Internet. He has seen photographs of graphic gang killings, animal abuse and twisted forms of pornography. One recent sighting was a photo of two teenage boys gleefully pointing guns at another boy, who is crying.
YouTube, a division of Google, is an exception. If a user indicates a video is inappropriate, software scans the image looking for warning signs of clips that are breaking the site’s rules or the law. Flagged videos are then sent for manual review by YouTube-employed content moderators who, because of the nature of the work, are given only yearlong contracts and access to counseling services, according to Victoria Grand, a YouTube spokeswoman.
Photo: Stephen Mally for The New York Times
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Pokémon Diamond and Pearl/Pokémon Mansion
From StrategyWiki, the video game walkthrough and strategy guide wiki
Jump to: navigation, search
Though this is a good place to visit the first time around, it will be even better later on, after you beat the Elite Four. This place has the works of a good location: rich trainers, items to grab, and a good spot for catching wild Pokémon.
Contents
[edit] Items
• TM87: Swagger
• Great Ball
[edit] Trainers
Note that all cash earnings are with the Amulet Coin.
• Gentleman Jeremy
Pokémon Type Level Cash Earned(After Elite Four)
Chatot Normal/Flying 60 24,000
• Socialite Reina
Pokémon Type Level(After Elite Four) Cash Earned(After Elite Four)
Roselia Grass/Poison 60 24,000
• Rich Boy Jason
Pokémon Type Level Cash Earned
Luxio Electric 19 6,080
• Lady Melissa
Pokémon Type Level(After Elite Four) Cash Earned(After Elite Four)
Lopunny Normal 40,60 12,800, 19,200
[edit] Inside the Mansion
[edit] Before the Elite Four
You can visit two main places inside the mansion: the owner's room and the Trophy Garden. Head to the right and go in the first room to get to the owner's room. In the it you can find the TM containing Swagger. Talk to the owner and he will brag about his mansion.
You can also visit the Trophy Garden, a place to catch wild Pokémon. You can reach it by going straight after you enter the mansion. Here you will find the following Pokémon:
Pokémon Type Levels
Staravia Normal/Flying 15-17
Roselia Grass/Poison 14-17
Kricketune Bug 14-17
Pikachu Electric 16-18
Pichu Electric 14-16
You can also visit the maid's rooms to get a Soothe Bell (from one of the maids) and a Burn Heal (found in a trash can).
[edit] After the Elite Four
After you beat the Elite Four, the only thing new is rare Pokémon in the Trophy Garden. Visit the owner once a day to find out what type of rare Pokémon can be found. The following is a list of some of the Pokémon that can be found:
Name Type
Chansey Normal
Mime Jr. Psychic
Bonsly Rock
Castform Normal
Happiny Normal
Eevee Normal
Meowth Normal
Porygon Normal
Plusle Electric
Minun Electric
These Pokémon have a rare chance of appearing. The last two Pokémon Backlot mentions are the only ones that can be found; the third Pokémon replaces the first one.
Social networking
Personal tools
Namespaces
Variants
Views
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
6401.0 - Consumer Price Index, Australia, Jun 2007
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 25/07/2007
Future Releases
• Next Issue: Jun 2013 expected for release on 24/07/2013
Past Releases
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Catalogue Number
1319.0 - Australian Housing in Brief, 1998
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 31/03/1998
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
• About this Release
ABOUT THIS RELEASE
Previously: ISSN: 1321-1617
Condensed information on housing-related topics - tenure type, dwelling structure, housing costs, type of household, number of bedrooms, building approvals, value of dwellings, housing finance, house price indexes and housing interest rates.
Note: Brochure
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
ABS Home>Topics @ a Glance > Environment & Energy
Topics @ a Glance - Environment
Using Environment and Energy Statistics
Most ABS environment and energy publications include sections such as explanatory notes, glossary of terms, lists of abbreviations and comments on data quality, which are designed to help users interpret and understand the statistics contained in that particular publication.
Further information to assist in the accurate use of ABS statistics includes:
The Directory of Statistical Sources
ABS Methods, Classifications, Concepts & Standards
ABS Training
© Commonwealth of Australia 2008
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Difference between revisions of "CELF PM Requirements 2006"
From eLinux.org
Jump to: navigation, search
(Need more creativity on the prediction problem)
(Spellcheck)
(4 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown)
Line 96: Line 96:
control input for policies?
control input for policies?
* more platform metric API's
+
* more platform metric APIs
:* fan
:* fan
:* thermal static
:* thermal static
Line 104: Line 104:
:* battery rate of change
:* battery rate of change
* more system / OS load metric API's
+
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The OS should be aware of trigger points for HW protection points, where the HW
The OS should be aware of trigger points for HW protection points, where the HW
will shut off power and loose user data. If the platform is approaching one of
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will shut off power and lose user data. If the platform is approaching one of
these triggers, and the OS can throttle itself to avoid loss of data this would
these triggers, and the OS can throttle itself to avoid loss of data this would
be a good thing.
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==== Notes from the Power Management Summit ====
==== Notes from the Power Management Summit ====
[attachment:PMsummit2006.ppt Mark's requirements slides, presented at the Summit]
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[[Image:PM summit 2006.ppt]] Mark's requirements slides presented at the Summit
[attachment:PmSummitFallOut.ppt Mark's action plan from the Summit]
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[[Image:Pm Summit FallOut.ppt]] Mark's action plan from the Summit
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[[Category:Power Management]]
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[[Category:2006]]
Latest revision as of 21:54, 27 October 2011
Contents
CELF PM Requirements draft for 2006
Please edit this page and / or send comments to mark.gross@intel.com
The current draft CELF PM requirements document is http://elinux.org/images//8/83/Pdf.gif CELF PM Requirements 2006 http://elinux.org/images/d/da/Info_circle.png
Forward
This is a "wiki-ized" version of a draft requirements document. The goal of this page is to enable easy participation in providing additional input and ideas.
For those items that are not well defined or clear, a call for the PM working group to fill in details will go out on the mailing list. If we cannot get enough substance behind such requirements where I can defend them to the developer community I will not include them from the formal PDF requirements document. I strongly encourage people to insert comments and ideas into this wiki. Especially where there are capabilities or features needed by developers!
The cut off date for closing items getting into the more formal PDF document is April 1.
Introduction
This document presents the requirements for Linux Power Management from the perspective of Consumer Electronics device developers. The requirements vary from well defined feature requests to calls for analysis, benchmarking tools and methods. Some items call for investigation that are too preliminary to be considered requirements.
CE products have additional, and different, power management needs as compared to laptop computers. It is important to communicate these additional needs to the OS developer community. This document is to define the needs such that the OS developers can understand these needs.
Goals for this requirements document
• Capture the PM issues CE/embedded developers are facing.
• Provide exposure to the community of these issues.
• Encourage idea exchange and feature development
• Derive CELF PM requirements in PDF format.
• where possible define new work with enough specificity that new projects could be started up by CELF PMWG members and the community at large.
Introduction to CE Power management
Power management for CE devices is a bit different from power management for desktop, servers or even laptop computer, even though there is a overlap. The differences tend to come from application specific areas.
• CE devices tend to be application specific. They are designed to do only a few things well. Such as play back video or provide the UI for a PDA or cell phone. They are constrained to running only core applications at all costs to the point that if the device cannot execute its function, then it might as well power off completely.
• CE devices can have thermal constraints not common to other platforms. Hand held devices cannot allow high skin temperatures. Burning the user's hands is not good ergonomics. It should be kept in mind that some computer components, e.g. CPU's, can get hot very quickly but take a long time to cool off.
• CE devices can have different performance value systems compared to laptops and servers. For instance the time it takes to launch a non-critical task may have latencies that would be unacceptable on a laptop or server, and yet is not a problem for a CE application. Conversely latencies that would be acceptable for a laptop operation could be way out of operational or usability limits for a CE application. It all depends on the application the CE device is implementing.
Partitioning of requirements
The requirements identified to date fall into the following categories:
• Interface (kernel and user mode)
• Platform Throttling
• Process / OS Throttling
• Low power kernel processing
• Sleep state support
• System load prediction
• Measurement and benchmark
• New ideas to consider
The following sections will explore each of these categories and provide specific requirements or issues that could be investigated further.
Interface (kernel and user mode)
There is also a huge difference in control logic for clock/voltage scaling between PC's and CE devices. In PCs CPU frequency is often scaled independently from the rest of the system. In embedded world this is hardly the case. CPU frequency is often synchronous with the bus frequency. A number of peripherals connected to the bus can derive frequencies from the bus clock and therefore may need to be reprogrammed in case the bus frequency is changed (all of this as part of the CPU frequency change). Besides there can be several masters on the bus (CPUs, DMAs, etc). In such systems scaling a CPU clock has huge influence on the system performance and should be used with care. Such decisions should be based on much more information than simply idle time on one of the CPUs. Needless to say that apart from CPU frequency scaling, embedded system often scale the bus frequency to squeeze the energy consumption even further. In practice, there numerous dependencies between different clocks and voltages in the system, which are typically known to the system designer only.
It is important to bring some structure in this chaos by providing a generalizing API/framework. PowerOP from Todd looks like a first attempt in the right direction. However, more needs to come. Sorting out the system dependencies and expressing them in a generalized way is one of the most critical requirements to PM in CE domain.
Application specific PM is another aspect. Again here, the system designer is responsible for estimating the workload and performance requirements of main applications on the system components. As this knowledge is not explicitly present in the system, the PM results in guessing strategies (such as idle time monitoring). Whereas for PC with many applications, heuristic strategies are the only way to go for PM. In embedded world the fine-tuning of applications is a normal practice.
Therefore it seems affordable that if application can share explicitly some information to help PM subsystem to improve the "guessing" accuracy. The requirement on providing interfaces from PM framework to applications to grasp their performance requirements and/or monitor their real-time activity is very important too.
(i.e. MPlayer telling about the video playback performance not only to the user but also directly to the PM subsystem via a standard interface to maintain optimum PM and not drop frames).
Kernel and user mode API's ACPI independent
Most CE platforms do not include ACPI platform firmware interfaces. It is important that efforts be taken to make sure that power management API's do not explicitly or implicitly assume ACPI support of behavior.
Without this it becomes difficult to reuse power management solutions across platforms and architectures.
Throttling controls
• more platform throttling API's (freq, memory bus speed, IO speed, fan, peripherals)
• PowerOP?
• more system / OS throttling API's
• more cpufreq governors
More metric APIs
Today we only sample idle time, what other things could be sampled and used as control input for policies?
• more platform metric APIs
• fan
• thermal static
• thermal rate of change
• power load
• battery static
• battery rate of change
• more system / OS load metric APIs
• fork latency
• ave time spent in TASK_UNINTERRUPTIBLE for specific tasks
• application WFI (Wait For Interrupt) scheduling latency
• scheduler load
• lock contention
• dead line head room
• other stuff?
Platform Throttling
Today we have basic CPU throttling. CPUFREQ is an OK framework for this but we need more and analogous infrastructure for throttling other parts of the platform. Additionally we only have 4 basic governors, user, max performance, min performance, and 2 idle time controlled CPU frequency switching policies.
There are not a lot of architecture specific implementations of ACPI-like features for non-ACPI architectures. The implementation of the platform capabilities within ACPI on CE hardware is non-trivial. It would be good to get more support for proper platform power scaling on such non-ACPI capable architectures and sub-architectures.
CPUFREQ needs more governor options
There should be more governors.
• RT deadline governor
• UI responsiveness governor
• Thermal
• Fan control
CPUFREQ extended to core voltage control
Today CPUFREQ is very clock speed centric. For many systems one can control both core frequency and voltage. For some systems changing core voltage is a more expensive operation than changing frequency. To enable effective CPU frequency and core voltage control we need to extend the design of CPUFREQ to include the notion of target voltage.
SMP CPU throttling
After you have throttled the hardware back and you have more than one core under utilized. It may be useful to change the idle processing on those cores such that they enter higher latency idle states, and avoid scheduling tasks / sending interrupts to those cores.
Sometimes you cannot just shut off CPU's. But you can not schedule work on them, and use specific CPU instructions that are hi-latency and lower power than the normal idle process.
Memory bus throttling
Need policy architecture for memory bus throttling.
Could CPUFREQ be extended or generalized for this?
Memory speed throttling
Both DPM and the recently introduced powerop code have the concept of an operating point, which can tie bus/memory clock speed to a corresponding CPU clock frequency.
IO bus throttling
Need policy architecture for for IO bus Could CPUFREQ be extended or generalized for this?
Throttling Arbitrary Power Parameters Outside CPUFREQ
Another proposal, given the provisional name PowerOP, creates a new machine-level API that manages arbitrary hardware power/performance parameters. This API can be used by both cpufreq and by other power management mechanisms that wish to explicitly manage additional parameters, usually for embedded systems. cpufreq would then call the PowerOP layer to effect changes to hardware registers, etc. in response to changes in the "cpu speed" abstraction that cpufreq manages. Embedded power policy stacks, such as DPM, would also call this layer in response to changes in interfaces used by those stacks (usually lower-level abstractions, perhaps directly exposing the hardware registers).
This would allow both cpufreq and other power management software to share the same hardware-specific code, assuming there continues to be a place for both types of PM interfaces, one for desktop/laptop/server systems and one for embedded systems.
The linux-pm community has also discussed adding comprehensive power policy management frameworks that could subsume the functionality that was discussed for PowerOP.
Peripheral throttling
Device power management provides one solution for peripheral power control. This will be useful for user mode governors.
Support for the maximal throttling of powering off the peripheral is also needed.
Need policy architecture for platform device and peripheral throttling Could CPUFREQ be extended or generalized for this?
Temperature based throttling
Many portable devices are made for human touch. Usability needs for preventing the device from overheating and to prevent burning the user's hands is needed. Platform vendors will be including temperature sensors in these devices, and the OS and application will need to have some policies in place to use it.
More policy interfaces than CPUFreq
Yet another CPUFREQ like thing? Or something else? Could CPUFREQ be extended or generalized for this?
This could involve the policy interface that DPM exposes, a new kernel-side policy manager, an altogether new, user-side policy manager. Systems integrators and OEMs have often had to write their own "resource managers" on top of their platform OS. Would it be possible to come up with something similar for embedded systems running Linux? There are already some of the building blocks in DPM and the software suspend code.
Non-ACPI architecture specific power control
For platforms that cannot afford the overhead of adding ACPI platform firmware / BIOS support for power management, there is a need for the architecture and sub architecture support of more or less equivalent capabilities. For example, the task of throttling the CPU frequency on some platforms without breaking the serial port connection, violating some constraints with memory controllers or interface specification to parts on the CE platform can be a significant challenge.
ACPI and platform firmware / BIOS take care of this type of stuff for developers underneath the OS on most Laptop, Desktop and server platforms from Intel. However; for CE devices there is very little support available in the arch and sub-arch kernel tree's.
Define Platform Power API that needs to be exported for non-ACPI architectures
I need CELF support in defining these. I'm ok with stating a requirement for an API definition but I'm not going to define the API.
Example Implementation of API for ARM sub-Arch
Need to get a platform vendor to put up effort to implement this type of thing.
Example Implementation of API of arch X
There is more than just ARM out there. Need PMWG members to step up and define these guys.
Process / OS Throttling
Sometimes its not enough to throttle the platform. Throttling the work load is the next level of control. Support for process level throttling is needed to in order to take power management to the next level and provide systems that will maintain thermal and battery constraints.
The OS should be aware of trigger points for HW protection points, where the HW will shut off power and lose user data. If the platform is approaching one of these triggers, and the OS can throttle itself to avoid loss of data this would be a good thing.
Rate limit interrupts
Sometimes hardware or drivers can have bugs in them that result in interrupt storms that result in interrupt processing consuming 100% of the CPU. When these happen, the system will not get an opportunity to execute any policy logic. For handheld devices such an event could result in skin temperatures outside of an acceptable range triggering a HW shut down. It could also result in a deep discharge of the battery such that it damages some battery technologies.
It would be good to have some type of protection in the OS for such things.
Process controlled based on power states
The idea is to provide a background thread policy that would be kept out of the run state as a function of PM state. For instance, my laptop sometimes runs updatedb cron jobs for me when it's on battery, and it would be better if the updatedb process would just sleep until I re-tether my system to the wall.
I could see this type of thing applied to thermal throttling too. My daughter's laptop gets quite hot when she has some web pages opened (flash banner adds burning mips). It would be interesting to throttle such threads in the scheduler.
• Policies for tethered vs. un-tethered
• Policies for thermal control (e.g. keep the fan from starting up by not running some cron job.)
• Scheduler policy classes that schedule tasks based on some TBD policy manager Run levels tied to PM policy
Asymmetric Suspend Resume
The ability to suspend a system under one power state and resume it under different conditions and selectively resume the suspended processes. One user scenario is the following: the system is tethered running at full power and more or less operating assuming it had unlimited battery. The user suspends, and takes the device to a coffee shop or airplane and resumes. This time under battery power. It would be a cool thing to selectively only resume processes that are required to run when under battery. The selection criterion for resume could include IP address, or MAC of current DHCP server, and powered state (AC / Battery).
SMP process throttling
Some multi-core systems must throttle both cores symmetrically. This means that if your work load is low enough to not need the other core, the most you can do is to simply not send any interrupts to it and to avoid scheduling any tasks to run on it.
Doing this effectively from a PM governor (say a CPUFREQ governor) posses some interesting challenges in coupling scheduler behavior to PM design.
Lower power kernel processing
The kernel does a lot of book keeping and processing on its own as a result of design choices for things like process accounting, scheduler design for CPU bound multi-processing, and other things. This area of PM requirements focuses on reducing the number of instructions the kernel does over time, as well as things that happen in the kernel that get in the way of putting the CE platform into a possible lower power state for longer times.
One thing to keep in mind is the for CE platforms and applications it is sometimes acceptable to violate POSIX.
Low power idle
Many platforms provide hardware support for different types of idle states. It would be good to have standardized ways for extending the type of idle processing dynamically.
Runtime selection of idle states
For ACPI platforms this can be related to C states, but for non-ACPI platforms the lower power idle states need to be entered by the OS explicitly
It would be good to enable some type of policy framework for controlling which platform idle states are entered from idle. (CPUFREQ-like thing?)
Tick-less idle
When in a high latency lower power idle state its not helpful to have the timer interrupt wake up the CPU to do nothing useful.
Variable Scheduling Timeouts (VST)
This is more general than tick less idle as it goes farther to remove the periodic timer ticks from the scheduler design all together.
Reducing Tick Overhead
The timer tick processing is getting bloated for CE applications where each instruction results in power lose. Efforts to minimize the work done by the kernel when processing timer ticks would help a lot for CE and embedded applications.
It would be acceptable to the CE and embedded application developers to sacrifice some POSIX compatibility for this. Of course such an implementation would require compile time switches.
Sleep state support
• Need both suspend to RAM and suspend to disk
• Generalized suspend /resume implementations that can be easily extended to suspend to flash.
• Robust suspend /resume operations
• Need to define quality metric and test cases for suspend resume and drive community toward such goals
• Video recovery (VGA platforms only / set top box)
• Better debug logging for suspend / resume success and failure
• Low latency suspend / resume control
• Resume takes a long time to the initial resume, and then even longer before the OS stops thrashing about.
• The resume thrash costs battery
• The resume thrash breaks audio play back for a significant amount to time.
• Suspend / Resume benchmark and testing
Need quality and performance benchmarks against suspend / resume implementations to be run on a regular bases
• could we mimic Intel's performance benchmarking effort?
More sleep states
A number of CPUs and ASSPs currently used in mobile devices support different sleep states, although often the software support to exploit these in not available. Typically, a CPU has a low power mode that can be entered when the OS idle loop/idle task runs and that is exited by an interrupt. The latency associated with this "wait for interrupt" (WFI) state is low; no state saving is required and the OS can resume from where it left off. More recent CPUs have included support for other sleep states that are in-between WFI and the "system suspend" state in which power to the CPU is removed and external RAM is used to save/restore state. For example, the ARM11 family introduced a "dormant" power state, in which power is removed from the CPU core but not its cache RAMs, enabling a faster "warm start". TI's OMAP family of ASSPs include a number of sleep states, where progressively more and more of the device is powered down. ASSPs often include a "System Controller" that manages clocks and power gating, providing a number of clocking regimes, for example:
• Off - system suspended
• Crystal oscillator - CPU runs, limited range of peripherals available,
• (probably) no SDRAM available
• Main oscillator - CPU, more peripherals, SDRAM available
• PLL - maximum performance, system devices available
The system may also permit frequency/voltage scaling within one of these clocking regimes - this is the area that CPUfreq and other proprietary software is aiming to tackle.
A question arising here would be: "how does the OS know what peripherals it can use and what can it do in a given clocking regime?" Maybe for a mobile device it would be acceptable not to run Linux at all in the crystal oscillator mode but keep this for boot-up and for the times when a minimal amount of CPU activity is required. This could be when the device is on but not in active use:
• a cell-phone powered on but not in a call, for example.
One possibility could be to define additional power management states, for example, PM_SUSPEND_DORMANT and manage them through the existing Linux power management framework. However, as mention above, some clocking regimes might not be sufficient for us to run Linux!
Suspend to Flash
Sony is interested in this, and has done some work in this area. It would give all the benefits of Suspend to RAM with the added advantage of being able to remove power from external RAM too. A project within Samsung has looked at using NAND Flash as a swap device, to make use of existing Suspend to Disk code.
Suspend to RAM
There is support for this in some platforms - for example, Intel PXA and TI OMAP family parts. Power can be removed from the CPU when it is in a sleep mode because its state has previously been saved to external memory (usually SDRAM). The SDRAM itself is in a self-refresh mode. Exit from sleep is via a warm reset.
All suspend mechanisms rely on the Linux power management framework (see kernel/power/pm.c) with architecture- and platform-specific code underneath.
System load prediction
The ability to predict system throughput and latency capability and needs is one of the largest gaps for the implementation of good power management designs today.
Today we only use the kstat data to monitor idle Could we do better if we knew:
• Process contention for locks
• Size of task list
• CPU event counters
• Number of tasks in run state
• Number of tasks waiting on IO
• Number of niced tasks
• Number of RT tasks
• RT processing deadline times
• Latency from interrupt to process schedule (UI event)
• Interrupt rates
• average time of key tasks spent in TASK_UNINTERRUPTIBLE state
Need more ideas to be discussed.
Measurement and benchmark
Technology/Physics background
Power Dissipation Elements in CMOS Circuits
Power Reduction Methods
Power Management
PM measuring methodology definition
How to measure power
• Understand the trade offs WRT where power is measured
• Warn about issues with some test configurations.
• How to measure battery life
• Understanding of differences in battery technologies
PM benchmark work loads
• well defined target platforms
• well defined work loads
• Good PM robustness benchmark
• Suspend/resume latency benchmark
• Regular PM benchmark reporting
New ideas to consider
Example PM solutions
Formal control theory applied
More formal control theory analysis and design applied to the PM implementations. Today most of the PM solutions are heuristic and not designed from a control theory point of view. SISO vs. PID Control Theory
Continuous controls supported by policy managers
Today the controls are all discrete operating points. Some CE vendors have requested continuous control designs.
Need more creativity on the prediction problem
We don't do a good job of predicting what the system load will be next jiffy, we only measure what it was last jiffy.
Notes from the Power Management Summit
File:PM summit 2006.ppt Mark's requirements slides presented at the Summit
File:Pm Summit FallOut.ppt Mark's action plan from the Summit
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Rate This Article
Average: 4/5
Victoria Nile
Rivers:
Victoria Nile
Murchison Falls at Murchison Falls National Park. Source: Boschlech
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: C Michael Hogan
The Victoria Nile is a 260 mile section of the White Nile (one of the two major tributaries of the Nile River) beginning at northern shore of Lake Victoria and ending at Lake Albert in northwest Uganda.
Regional setting of the White Nile.
Rivers and lakes of Uganda. Source: Ezeu
The Victoria Nile as it exits Lake Victoria and passes through Nalubaale (Owens) Dam. Source: Robert Simmon/NASA
The Albert Nile as it flows from Lake Albert. The Victoria Nile can be seen flowing into Lake Albert from the center bottom of the image. North is to the lower right. Source: NASA (image taken from International Space Station)
Until the 1950s, the Victoria Nile began as it flowed out of Lake Victoria over Rippon Falls west of Jinja. Rippon Falls are now submerged as a result of the building of Nalubaale (Owens) Dam in the mid-1950s and thus, the river is now considered to begin at that secondary point.
About 70 miles north of Lake Victoria the river widens and slows, becoming the large and shallow Lake Kyoga, which also receives water from eastern Uganda and the Kafu River from the west. This slow moving lake is fringed with swamps and is less than 12 feet (4 meters) deep in most places. Lake Kyoga and the surrounding basin dominate central Uganda. Extensions of Lake Kyoga include Lake Kwania, Lake Bugondo, and Lake Opeta. These "finger lakes" are surrounded by swampland during rainy seasons. All lakes in the Lake Kyoga Basin are shallow, usually reaching a depth of only eight or nine meters, and Lake Opeta forms a separate lake during dry seasons.
When the river exits Lake Kyoga 50 miles northwest from its entry point, the Victoria Nile turns from an easterly direction to the north, northwest, and north again, before turning east toward Lake Albert. The river passes through a number of rapids and falls. Most striking is Murchison Falls, 20 miles east of Lake Albert. Here, the river narrows, and at one point is reduced to a width of merely 20 feet (six meters) and cascades 400 feet (120 meters) in three stages .
The Victoria Nile enters Lake Albert along the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, near its northern end, where the next section of the Nile, the Albert Nile begins. The lake also receives the flow of several other rivers, most notably the Semliki River at its southern end. Lake Albert lies at the northern end of the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the Great Rift System.
See Also
References
• Sir William Willcocks, Hugh John Llewellyn Beadnell. 1904. The Nile in 1904 (Google eBook) E.& F.N. Spon, limited, 225 pages
• Julian Rzóska. 1976. The Nile: biology of an ancient river 417 pages
Citation
Peter Saundry (Lead Author);C Michael Hogan (Topic Editor) "Victoria Nile". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth June 30, 2009; Last revised Date March 13, 2012; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Victoria_Nile?topic=78166>
The Author
Stewardship Committee The Encyclopedia of Earth Dr. Peter Saundry is the Executive Director of the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE), a nonpartisan organization working to improve the scientific basis of environmental decision making. The NCSE works closely with the many communities that create and use environmental knowledge to make and shape environmental decisions, including academic, scientific, environmental, and business organizations, as well as federal, state ... (Full Bio)
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http://www.fides.org
America
2012-04-03
AMERICA/CUBA - Good Friday as a public holiday and a Cardinal Ortega’s message broadcast on national television
Havana (Agenzia Fides) - With the churches that were overflowing with people, the Cubans began Holy Week in a more relaxed climate. Not only the announcement that Friday will be a public holiday on the island was made, but it was also announced that Cardinal Jaime Ortega, Archbishop of Havana, will present the message of Good Friday in a program broadcast on national television, something unheard of for Cuba in the last 40 years.
In Latin America, despite the days before Easter is a holiday period in many countries, Friday is characterized by a great religious fervor. On this day of great importance the message is focused on the last words spoken by Jesus on the cross. Thus, in all Latin American countries, the Bishops and parish priests are preparing themselves very well for this message, aware of the importance of this moment and the large amount of people who listen to it, through radio and television.
The announcement of a message broadcast on television on behalf of the Cardinal Archbishop of Havana on Good Friday follows the decision of Raul Castro’s government to declare Good Friday as a public holiday, April 6, in response to a request made by Pope Benedict XVI in his recent apostolic Visit, from March 26 to 28. (CE) (Agenzia Fides 03/04/2012)
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Leviathan
From Grand Theft Wiki
Jump to: navigation, search
A Leviathan helicopter at the Verdant Meadows airstrip.
The Leviathan is an amphibious helicopter that appears Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.
Description
Based on the UH-3 Sea King, the Leviathan is the second largest helicopter on the game and has the ability to land on water thanks to its boat-shaped hull. It is very slow and sluggish, slowly ascends, and strangely has the same rotor sound as the Hunter, Cargobob and Raindance. Its name comes from the mythological creature of the same name.
The Leviathan is used in the mission Up, Up and Away! in which the helicopter has a crane with a magnet attached to the bottom that can be used to lift vehicles. There is no way to obtain any helicopter with a magnet like this outside of this mission, but some mods may enable the Leviathan to have a magnet crane attached to it. The Leviathan from this mission can be saved, but its magnet will not be saved in the garage. Once completing the mission, a Leviathan will spawn at Verdant Meadows, but it does not come with a magnet.
It is also seen in the mission Interdiction to drop a package, and Carl has to protect it from the two FBI choppers that give chase.
Trivia
• Like most other aircraft in GTA San Andreas, the Leviathan plays K-DST by default.
Locations
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Vadodara:The Socialist Unity Centre of India (SUCI) has demanded that Gujarat be declared drought affected and has urged Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to visit the drought-affected areas of Gujarat
Monsanto study says crop in four Gujarat districts showed susceptibility to pest
The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) is learnt to have received a report confirming pink bollworm developing resistance to Bt cotton in four districts in Gujarat. The apex regulator of genetically modified (GM) crops is likely to consider these findings by Monsanto and Mahyco scientists in its next meeting.
It could not have been more poignant than this when a sea of humanity in the heart of the rain-starved Saurashtra region in Gujarat took a pledge here on Sunday to conserve water by adopting drip irrigation on a massive scale and check the mining of groundwater.
A staggering 1.25 lakh people from across 4,800 villages of the State’s largest region that often falls prey to drought-like situations gathered on the bone-dry catchment of the Bhadar dam to decide to conserve water and appeal to the State and Central governments to speed up solutions to their water woes.
Rajkot: The people’s movement to express resentment against the Supreme Court verdict on transfer of Gir’s lions to Madhya Pradesh (MP) continues to gather steam.
A postcard campaign against the move has been launched in Amreli by members of Gir Nature Youth Club that was founded by slain RTI activist Amit Jethva. “We have launched the campaign to voice our anger against the court’s decision. We are receiving a good response from the people who are joining the campaign in large numbers.
Citizens Must Not Lower Guard Yet, Maintain Caution: Experts
Ahmedabad: The death toll due to swine flu in the state reached a staggering 180 on Tuesday, with the maximum casualties recorded in Rajkot, Ahmedabad, Kutch, Jamnagar and Bhavnagar.
Officials claimed the deaths and number of swineflucaseshave gradually gone down in the past few weeks, raising hopes that the worst might be over with the onset of summer. However, Tuesday’s unseasonal rains have brought back fear in the hearts of the citizens.
Rajkot: A number of eligible bachelors in the drought-struck Dedan village near Amreli are ruing their luck.
New Delhi: Union agriculture ministry has declared 17 districts of Gujarat consisting 132 talukas as drought-affected.
In a reply to Rajya Sabha MP Parimal Nathwani, union minister of water resources Harish Ravat stated that the districts include Ahmedabad, Jamnagar, Amreli, Anand, Banaskantha, Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Gandhinagar, Junagadh, Kheda, Kutch, Mehsana, Patan, Porbandar, Rajkot, Surendranagar and Vadodara. The minister also stated that, water being a state subject, planning, and execution and funding of water resources projects was within the purview of respective state governments.
The Union Government has declared 17 districts in Gujarat as drought-affected, Rajya Sabha MP Parimal Nathwani has said.
Swine flu cases have reached epidemic proportions in Gujarat with 121 deaths, most of them females between 15 and 45 years of age, during the past two-and-a-half months.
Besides, at least 652 people have been detected positive for H1N1 virus. In comparison, only 30 deaths were reported last year out of 101 cases that were reported.
Environmentalists say EIL is not qualified to conduct study, want report to be reviewed by an independent experts panel
Environmental experts and activists, who have alleged that Engineers India Limited (EIL) is not qualified and accredited as yet to conduct an environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the Mithivirdi nuclear power plant in Gujarat’s Saurashtra region, have found serious gaps in the EIA report itself in its present form. They have demanded that the EIA presented by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) as submitted by EIL should be reviewed by an independent experts committee.
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Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2003, 4(3), 64-92; doi:10.3390/i4030064
Article
Review on DFT and ab initio Calculations of Scalar Coupling Constants
Instituto de Química Médica, C.S.I.C., Juan de la Cierva, 3, E-28006 Madrid, Spain
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Received: 24 May 2002 / Accepted: 17 July 2002 / Published: 25 February 2003
Download PDF Full-Text [213 KB, uploaded 28 August 2008 16:06 CEST]
Abstract: The present review summarizes the information available on the ab initio calculations of spin-spin nuclear coupling constants through hydrogen bonds or in van der Waals complexes. It also reports the sources of experimental data on nhJXY scalar couplings.
Keywords: Coupling constants; supermolecules; hydrogen bonds; van der Waals complexes
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MDPI and ACS Style
Alkorta, I.; Elguero, J. Review on DFT and ab initio Calculations of Scalar Coupling Constants. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2003, 4, 64-92.
AMA Style
Alkorta I, Elguero J. Review on DFT and ab initio Calculations of Scalar Coupling Constants. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2003; 4(3):64-92.
Chicago/Turabian Style
Alkorta, Ibon; Elguero, José. 2003. "Review on DFT and ab initio Calculations of Scalar Coupling Constants." Int. J. Mol. Sci. 4, no. 3: 64-92.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. EISSN 1422-0067 Published by MDPI AG, Basel, Switzerland RSS E-Mail Table of Contents Alert
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Sensors 2012, 12(9), 11505-11526; doi:10.3390/s120911505
Review
Recent Advances in Paper-Based Sensors
1 CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering, P.O. Box 218, Lindfield, NSW 2070, Australia 2 School of Chemistry, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Received: 16 July 2012; in revised form: 13 August 2012 / Accepted: 14 August 2012 / Published: 24 August 2012
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
Download PDF Full-Text [684 KB, uploaded 24 August 2012 12:20 CEST]
Abstract: Paper-based sensors are a new alternative technology for fabricating simple, low-cost, portable and disposable analytical devices for many application areas including clinical diagnosis, food quality control and environmental monitoring. The unique properties of paper which allow passive liquid transport and compatibility with chemicals/biochemicals are the main advantages of using paper as a sensing platform. Depending on the main goal to be achieved in paper-based sensors, the fabrication methods and the analysis techniques can be tuned to fulfill the needs of the end-user. Current paper-based sensors are focused on microfluidic delivery of solution to the detection site whereas more advanced designs involve complex 3-D geometries based on the same microfluidic principles. Although paper-based sensors are very promising, they still suffer from certain limitations such as accuracy and sensitivity. However, it is anticipated that in the future, with advances in fabrication and analytical techniques, that there will be more new and innovative developments in paper-based sensors. These sensors could better meet the current objectives of a viable low-cost and portable device in addition to offering high sensitivity and selectivity, and multiple analyte discrimination. This paper is a review of recent advances in paper-based sensors and covers the following topics: existing fabrication techniques, analytical methods and application areas. Finally, the present challenges and future outlooks are discussed.
Keywords: paper; sensor; device; microfluidics; lab-on-a-chip; diagnostics; analytical
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MDPI and ACS Style
Liana, D.D.; Raguse, B.; Gooding, J.J.; Chow, E. Recent Advances in Paper-Based Sensors. Sensors 2012, 12, 11505-11526.
AMA Style
Liana DD, Raguse B, Gooding JJ, Chow E. Recent Advances in Paper-Based Sensors. Sensors. 2012; 12(9):11505-11526.
Chicago/Turabian Style
Liana, Devi D.; Raguse, Burkhard; Gooding, J. Justin; Chow, Edith. 2012. "Recent Advances in Paper-Based Sensors." Sensors 12, no. 9: 11505-11526.
Sensors EISSN 1424-8220 Published by MDPI AG, Basel, Switzerland RSS E-Mail Table of Contents Alert
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[283] And now the king of Assyria invaded all Syria and Phoenicia in a hostile manner. The name of this king is also set down in the archives of Tyre, for he made an expedition against Tyre in the reign of Eluleus; and Menander attests to it, who, when he wrote his Chronology, and translated the archives of Tyre into the Greek language, gives us the following history: "One whose name was Eluleus reigned thirty-six years; this king, upon the revolt of the Citteans, sailed to them, and reduced them again to a submission. Against these did the king of Assyria send an army, and in a hostile manner overrun all Phoenicia, but soon made peace with them all, and returned back; but Sidon, and Ace, and Palsetyrus revolted; and many other cities there were which delivered themselves up to the king of Assyria. Accordingly, when the Tyrians would not submit to him, the king returned, and fell upon them again, while the Phoenicians had furnished him with threescore ships, and eight hundred men to row them; and when the Tyrians had come upon them in twelve ships, and the enemy's ships were dispersed, they took five hundred men prisoners, and the reputation of all the citizens of Tyre was thereby increased; but the king of Assyria returned, and placed guards at their rivers and aqueducts, who should hinder the Tyrians from drawing water. This continued for five years; and still the Tyrians bore the siege, and drank of the water they had out of the wells they dug." And this is what is written in the Tyrian archives concerning Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria.
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PROPOSITION 6.
If a rational straight line be cut in extreme and mean ratio, each of the segments is the irrational straight line called apotome.
Let AB be a rational straight line, let it be cut in extreme and mean ratio at C, and let AC be the greater segment; I say that each of the straight lines AC, CB is the irrational straight line called apotome.
For let BA be produced, and let AD be made half of BA.
Since then the straight line AB has been cut in extreme and mean ratio, and to the greater segment AC is added AD which is half of AB, therefore the square on CD is five times the square on DA. [XIII. 1]
Therefore the square on CD has to the square on DA the ratio which a number has to a number; therefore the square on CD is commensurable with the square on DA. [X. 6]
But the square on DA is rational, for DA is rational, being half of AB which is rational; therefore the square on CD is also rational; [X. Def. 4] therefore CD is also rational.
And, since the square on CD has not to the square on DA the ratio which a square number has to a square number, therefore CD is incommensurable in length with DA; [X. 9] therefore CD, DA are rational straight lines commensurable in square only; therefore AC is an apotome. [X. 73]
Again, since AB has been cut in extreme and mean ratio, and AC is the greater segment, therefore the rectangle AB, BC is equal to the square on AC. [VI. Def. 3, VI. 17]
Therefore the square on the apotome AC, if applied to the rational straight line AB, produces BC as breadth.
But the square on an apotome, if applied to a rational straight line, produces as breadth a first apotome; [X. 97] therefore CB is a first apotome.
And CA was also proved to be an apotome.
Therefore etc. Q. E. D.
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Place:Duhamel, Alberta, Canada
Watchers
NameDuhamel
TypeCommunity
Located inAlberta, Canada
source: Family History Library Catalog
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
Duhamel is a hamlet in the central Alberta, Canada within Camrose County. It is located on Highway 21, approximately southeast of Edmonton and southwest of Camrose, Duhamel's closest major trading centre.
Early history
the text in this section is copied from an article in Wikipedia
Research Tips
This page uses content from the English Wikipedia. The original content was at Duhamel, Alberta. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with WeRelate, the content of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License.
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RSS is Eating Me Alive (Almost)
Robert Scoble talks about bandwidth costs of RSS and cites it as a reason more and more sites are not giving full text RSS feeds. I was wondering what it cost me, so I looked at my server logs for yesterday. I have about 800 unique IP addresses grabbing my RSS feed each day. That amounted to about 6000 GETs of which roughly 4200 returned a 304 (not modified). So, around 2/3rds of the hits to my feed return 0 bytes. I don't return a full text feed, so its only around 25K. That works out to over 1GB per month of data transfer just from my RSS feed. Having a full text RSS feed could increase that by 3 to 3GB per month. That's pretty substantial given that I'm serving one lonely RSS feed for one insignificant blog. Here's Scoble's math. Sam Ruby weighs in on the proper use of HTTP.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
4307.0 - Apparent Consumption of Tea and Coffee, Australia, 1971-72
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 17/10/1972
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
• About this Release
Contains statistics relating to the apparent consumption of tea and coffee in Australia.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I have a company that will be selling software online, and I'd like for customers to be able to pay online and then just click on a "Download Now" button and download the software automatically, without me or someone else from the company having to email the software program to the person.
Is there a site or device that I could use to do this?
Thank you!
share|improve this question
8 Answers
up vote 6 down vote accepted
This is a good question, but I think you shouldn't limit the download of your app.
Why you shouldn't limit the download of your app
The reason you shouldn't limit the download of your app is that if you do you'll increase the amount of stolen credit cards being used to purchase your program. Thieves will be thieves. Limiting your app to "paying" customers won't stop a thief from buying 5000 stolen credit cards for $10 and running through the list until they get one that works.
If you have the download readily available then it will be fly paper for the thieves; they'll try to steal your app through normal reverse engineering means. You'll get less orders from stolen credit cards, thus you'll save money on the inevitable chargebacks once the victim realized they've had their credit card number stolen. Plus, hiding your software behind a private link is a hassle for legit users. Don't piss off your customers.
If you're keeping the download link private for renewal purposes (e.g. they can only update for a year), then you're better off solving this with licensing. The way you can do it in LimeLM is by using custom license features -- we have a full example that shows how to limit updates via licensing.
How to deliver product keys to your users
Delivering the product to your user (whether a download location or a product key) is dependent on a couple of factors:
1. The licensing you use
2. The payment platform you use
Most payment providers have ways of calling a script on your website to let you know a sale has been made. For example, using PayPal's IPN (Instant Payment Notification) can call a script on your website and from that script you can generate a serial then send your new customer an email with the product download site and serial number.
We actually have a full PayPal payment example written for PHP and ASP.NET (C# and VB.NET) that automates the entire process. It uses the PayPal IPN alongside our LimeLM web API to process the order, generate the product key on the fly, then email the user. So a user can start using the fully registered version of your software seconds after their order is processed.
If you update your question with the payment platform you use then we can point you to the right API or example code to use.
Lastly, if you're determined to keep your installer to customers only (even despite my advice not to), then you can do it with a simple script. Just pass the new customer's product key as a parameter to a script. For example: http://example.com/latest-installer.php?pkey=ABCD-EFGH-IJKL-MNOP-QRSTU
Here's an ASP.NET C# snippet of what the script would look like:
//TODO: verify the product key is valid, if not show an error and bail out
//if the pkey is valid, deliver the latest installer:
Response.Clear();
// download the file and bail
Response.AddHeader("Content-Description", "File Transfer");
Response.ContentType = "application/octet-stream";
Response.AddHeader("Content-Disposition", "attachment; filename=" + Path.GetFileName(installerFile));
Response.AddHeader("Content-Transfer-Encoding", "binary");
Response.AddHeader("Expires", "0");
Response.AddHeader("Cache-Control", "must-revalidate, post-check=0, pre-check=0");
Response.AddHeader("Pragma", "public");
Response.AddHeader("Content-Length", new FileInfo(installerFile).Length.ToString());
// output the file
Response.WriteFile(installerFile);
Response.End();
Here's what the same snippet would look like in PHP:
//TODO: verify the product key is valid, if not show an error and bail out
//if the pkey is valid, deliver the latest installer:
header('Content-Description: File Transfer');
header('Content-Type: application/octet-stream');
header('Content-Disposition: attachment; filename='.$installerFilename.';');
header('Content-Transfer-Encoding: binary');
header('Expires: 0');
header('Cache-Control: must-revalidate, post-check=0, pre-check=0');
header('Pragma: public');
header('Content-Length: ' . filesize($installerFullPath));
ob_clean();
flush();
readfile($installerFullPath);
exit;
share|improve this answer
There are companies that provide this service; sorry I can't personally recommend any beyond a Google search.
You can ask the question on Stackoverflow.com to get technical expertise.
Your software can require a key that you provide in an email without sending the entire app.
You can create a hidden page on your site with the download link.
Ideally, you send an email with a GUID that is a parameter on a page that has to be verified with the client record. After the client connects to this page, you can set a flag on the record that prevents them from accessing this page again.
If someone can download a file and install on their computer, what is to prevent them from giving the file to someone else for free? EReader uses the credit card number of the buyer to register a book. Not too many people would want to give this out to people they want to use the software for free.
share|improve this answer
There are plenty of licensing services and products that will do this. You can also write your own - I made a PayPal payment interface script that did exactly what you are asking about.
I would not recommend writing your own though - it is a hassle and there are better things to spend your time and efforts on.
share|improve this answer
I automatized the process with Plimus in our of my companies.
I used a custom solution in the past, but only because I got high volume in transaction, and I was able to save a lot in transaction costs. Don't do it unless you have at least 20K a month in revenues.
There are many others such as SWReg, ShareIt or RegSoft.
Check this page for a comparison.
share|improve this answer
I would recommend PayPro, an end-to-end eCommerce solution that is optimized to sell software online. PayPro offers a variety of payment options for online shoppers. Your order pages can be completely customized to match your website design and make customers feel confident while purchasing. Confirmation emails can be also customized and include a link to download a product – it is sent automatically after purchase is successfully completed. PayPro provides a reliable fraud detection system preventing fraudulent orders without impeding valid orders. They have friendly and very responsive support for vendors and shoppers.
share|improve this answer
I use DPD. They provide functionality to deliver activation keys so will be suitable for software.
E-junkie is a popular option but I had a problem with getting discounts working with them, and their user interface is subpar.
share|improve this answer
I have a simple technique that we use for secure PDFs. You put the file in a directory that is not browse-able from the general internet traffic. You then grant your web app permission to pull the file and then resend the file to the browser. If they are not authenticated the way you want, they can't reach that download.
Of course, I think some sort of "key system" where one download can only be installed X times might also be helpful.
share|improve this answer
If you try to secure the download, how can you stop duplication. My answer was to limit the licence. Let them copy the software all they want, but lock down the usage. I used the rainbow technologies dongle. The updates were simple and unfettered while the licence was tied to the hardware.
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Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I run a mobile game company with my partner, we publish to the Android market and iOS app store. That's all we do, we don't offer consulting services and we don't work with/for anyone else. Would it be beneficial to get Errors and Omissions Insurance for our company? Would we even need it?
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3 Answers
No, it would be silly for you to purchase insurance. If somebody, outside your personal network, has approached you to buy some, they are likely a salesman and are just trying to make a commission.
As you grow, people will begin telling you that you need all this corporate mumbo jumbo. Just ignore them. It's a ridiculous expense to incur for a mobile game company in its growth stages.
Wait until you're making a decent amount of cash to pay for insurance, if at all.
Read: Anything You Want -Derek Sivers
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show 1 more comment
Whether being sued for frivolous claims or not, the simple fact is that defending your company from these allegations can be very expensive. E&O as well as D&O insurance will pay for your defence. If you simply think of your insurance premium as an attorney retainer you'll be much better off understanding the huge benefits of having coverage vs. being on your own.
Especially in today's high litigation world, copyright claims are common and getting a good E&O as well as D&O policy would be prudent for any company to get.
It is not that expensive in relation to time and money spent defending from a law suit out of pocket.
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You need some form of insurance for sure. Whether it be Errors or Omissions or not, I could not tell you. I would suggest you talk to a lawyer, and then take their recommendation to a reputable insurance agent to fill your needs.
With software, there's always the possibility of having some sort of liability to your users, no matter how strict your TOS, or your SLA is, there's always a way for them to come after you. Keeping this in mind, you should do everything you can to protect your personal assets against these situations.
In addition to insurance, I would strongly urge you to register as an LLC, or similar business entity so that you will not be personally connected with your businesses liabilities. This covers debt, product, and professional liabilities. Unless of course your pledge personal assets to a bank for financing, or you do not handle your money correctly, and 'pierce the corporate veil'. Again, talk to a lawyer to find out what business entity best suites your company's needs.
Good luck.
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Editorial
The quest for the Holy Grail: a disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug
Francis Berenbaum
Author Affiliations
Department of Rheumatology, APHP Saint-Antoine Hospital, 184 rue du faubourg Saint-Antoine, 75012 Paris, France
UMR 7079 CNRS, Physiology and Physiopathology Laboratory, University Paris 6, Quai St-Bernard, Paris, 75252 Cedex 5, France
Arthritis Research & Therapy 2007, 9:111 doi:10.1186/ar2335
See related research by Krzeski et al., http://arthritis-research.com/content/9/5/R109
Published: 10 December 2007
Abstract
The unfortunate story of the matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor PG116800, which had no effect on the osteoarthritic process but had unexpected side effects, highlights the following. First, reality does not always match the theory. Second, cell biology data must be interpreted within the context of a specific environment. Third, the specificity of an enzyme inhibitor is always relative. Finally, a critical evaluation of the benefit/risk ratio of a drug must be carefully conducted and checked before and after launch. Well designed post-marketing surveillance is mandatory.
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Ask Your Question
3
Paste unformatted text default option
asked 2012-03-09 03:28:20 +0200
undoIT
31 1 3 4
http://couponsdealuxe.com...
updated 2013-02-24 16:14:38 +0200
manj_k
5622 4 31 48
Is there any way to set Paste Special (Unformatted text) as the default option when using Ctrl Shift V to paste in Calc, Writer etc? I have read that it is possible to create a macro and then assign a keyboard shortcut to it. I'm just wondering if there is a configuration option to toggle pasting formatted text to unformatted text as the default so that a paste special prompt isn't displayed every time I paste some formatted text.
Alternatively, is there a way to set the import options to a default so that there isn't a prompt for import options after pressing Ctrl V to paste?
delete close flag offensive retag edit
6 Answers
Sort by » oldest newest most voted
6
answered 2012-03-18 17:22:43 +0200
manj_k
5622 4 31 48
updated 2012-03-18 17:27:21 +0200
My favorite shortcut key for 'Paste unformatted text' is 'Ctrl+U', assigned to that macro:
sub paste_unformatted
rem ----------------------------------------------------------------------
rem define variables
dim document as object
dim dispatcher as object
rem ----------------------------------------------------------------------
rem get access to the document
document = ThisComponent.CurrentController.Frame
dispatcher = createUnoService("com.sun.star.frame.DispatchHelper")
rem ----------------------------------------------------------------------
dim args1(0) as new com.sun.star.beans.PropertyValue
args1(0).Name = "SelectedFormat"
args1(0).Value = 1
dispatcher.executeDispatch(document, ".uno:ClipboardFormatItems", "", 0, args1())
end sub
You may create this macro as follows:
(1) Record macro
Ctrl+Shift+V > U > Enter
Stop recording
(2) [New window: LibreOffice Basic Macros]
Type 'Macro name' (e.g.): 'paste_unformatted' > Save
(3) Tools > Customize > Keyboard > Functions > Category > LibreOffice Macros > user > Standard > Module1
Function > 'paste_unformatted'
Shortcut keys > Ctrl+U > Modify > OK
link delete flag offensive edit
2
answered 2012-04-25 07:45:01 +0200
Robert Reese
21 1 2
Actually, it is quite easy. Just follow these steps (on the PC version 3.5, at least):
1. Click on Tools
2. Click on Customize...
3. Click on the Keyboard tab at the top
4. To the RIGHT of the Shortcut Keys box, click on LibreOffice
5. Below the Shortcut Keys box, find the Functions box, then find and click on Edit
6. In the next box, the Function box, find and click on Paste Unformatted Text
7. In the Shortcut Keys box above, find and click once on Ctrl+V
8. On the RIGHT, click the button titled Modify
9. Optional: Click the Save... button and save your keyboard configuration so you can import in into another computer or if you reinstall LibreOffice
10. Click the OK button at the bottom to finish.
That's it! :)
HTH, Robert~
link delete flag offensive edit
1
answered 2012-09-14 07:07:06 +0200
howdystranger
11 1 2
http://www.howdystranger....
updated 2012-09-14 07:09:04 +0200
"In Writer text documents, you can press Ctrl+Alt+Shift+V to paste the contents of the clipboard as unformatted text. " http://help.libreoffice.org/Common/Pasting_Contents_in_Special_Formats
Doesn't exactly deal with defaults, but perhaps useful in the meanwhile!
link delete flag offensive edit
0
answered 2012-11-02 06:24:53 +0200
usha
1
i did same paste special, but it doesn't work. the formula is still on active. ideally after paste special formula should not reflect.
link delete flag offensive edit
0
answered 2012-03-09 17:15:06 +0200
jofilho
503 2 10
Unfortunately, these options are not so configurable and you'll need a macro to do what you wanting.
link delete flag offensive edit
0
answered 2012-03-09 18:20:24 +0200
Florian Reisinger
209 4 16
http://flosmind.wordpress...
I don't know how to make a makro, but it should do the follwing (German UI...): Press: ALT + B + H Press: ENTER Press: ENTER
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Asked: 2012-03-09 03:28:20 +0200
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Last updated: Nov 02 '12
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A Case Study of New Teachers’ Role Identity in China
Xuan Dong
Abstract
In the context of social expectation and identification, it is worthy of studying the construction of new teacher’s role identity. As a case study, this paper adopted the methods of observation, interview, and open-ended questionnaire to examine a new teacher’s daily life in schooling context. It has been found that the new teacher’s role-identity differs greatly from social expectation. It is concluded that the role awareness and role behavior of the new teacher are, to some extent, conflicted, expecially in the understanding and identification of a teacher and his own career development. This conflict should be reflected and given more emphasis in the teachers’ continuing education and training.
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
International Education Studies ISSN 1913-9020 (Print), ISSN 1913-9039 (Online)
Copyright © Canadian Center of Science and Education
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You are here: Home » Content
The content in Connexions comes in two formats: modules, which are like small "knowledge chunks," and collections, groups of modules structured into books or course notes, or for other uses. Our open license allows for free use and reuse of all our content.
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Vevey Confections
Info
Search:
This entry refers to a departed business that has closed or left town.
All information here is for historical reference only.
Phone
(530)792-0726
Web site
http://www.veveyconfections.com - Now a cybersquatter site!
Run by Gabriella Engelhard, this small outfit made all the awesome chocolate truffles that you may find at Mishka's and Common Grounds coffee shops. She also made other desserts and wedding cakes. There was no retail store but you could order by phone.
If you want similar tasty tasty confections, she now works for Konditorei.
Truffle Flavors
This is a Wiki Spot wiki. Wiki Spot is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization that helps communities collaborate via wikis.
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Deaths and Burials Vital Record Index Collections (FamilySearch Historical Records)Edit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Contents
Record Description
These collections are electronic indexes comprised of the following:
• Indexed church records
• Civil registrations
• The Internet indexing project sponsored by the LDS Church
The Vital Record Indexes are not necessarily intended to index any specific set of records. This index is not complete for any particular place or region.
Sometimes we identify a set of entries for a locality and record type that form their own collection. When these are identified and pulled together into the new “complete” collection (usually with images), the entries are removed from the Vital Records Index collection.
Record Content
The key genealogical facts found in death or burial index entries may include:
• Name of the deceased
• Gender
• Names of the parents
• Name of the spouse (if married)
• Death or burial date
• Death or burial place
• Family History Library microfilm and item numbers for the source materials.
How to Use the Record
To begin your search it is helpful to know the name of your ancestor and some other identifying information such as the date or place of the event.
Search the Collection
Fill in the requested information in the initial search page. This search will return a list of possible matches. Compare the information about the ancestors in the list to what you already know about your ancestors to determine if this is the correct family or person. You may need to compare the information about more than one person to find your ancestor. Remember this is only an index, not the original records.
For tips about searching on-line collections see the on-line video at FamilySearch Search Tips.
Using the Information
When you have located your ancestor’s record, carefully evaluate each piece of information given. Print or download a copy of the record, or extract the genealogical information needed. These pieces of information may lead you to the original source that was indexed.
Tips to Keep in Mind
• The records are very brief, so it is easy to confuse individuals in the index. In addition, an individual may be listed multiple times with slight spelling variations of their name.
• You may need to compare the information of more than one family or person to determine if any of the individuals in this collection are part of your family.
• Additional searches of the index may be necessary to identify children, siblings, parents, and other relatives.
• When looking for a person who had a common name, look at all the entries for the name before deciding which is correct.
• Be aware that, as with any index, transcription errors may occur.
• Information submitted by private individuals is available in the "Trees" section of FamilySearch.
• Church records and civil registration were official sources and are some of the most reliable sources of family history information.
Unable to Find Your Ancestor?
• Check for variant spellings of the names.
• Look for a different index. Local genealogical and historical societies often have indexes to local records.
• Search the records of nearby states or countries.
• Search the Family History Library Catalog to see if other records for this place are available.
Indexing Project (Batch) Numbers
Individual indexing projects were given a unique number called a batch number. The batch numbers listed in this index are links. Clicking on the batch number will display an alphabetical list of all the index entries in that batch.
Finding the Original Source for an Entry in This Collection
Each entry in this index includes a source film number. You may find additional information by searching the film. These film numbers are Family History Library Catalog numbers. To find more information about a specific FHL film number, search for it in the Family History Library Catalog.
Related Deaths and Burials Vital Record Index Collections
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Contributions to This Article
We welcome user additions to FamilySearch Historical Records wiki articles. Guidelines are available to help you make changes. Thank you for any contributions you may provide. If you would like to get more involved join the WikiProject FamilySearch Records.
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• This page was last modified on 5 September 2012, at 18:09.
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Research
MicroRNA targets in Drosophila
Anton J Enright1, Bino John1, Ulrike Gaul2, Thomas Tuschl3, Chris Sander1* and Debora S Marks4*
Author Affiliations
1 Computational Biology Center, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
2 Laboratory of Developmental Neurogenetics, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
3 Laboratory of RNA Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
4 Columbia Genome Center, Russ Berrie Pavilion, 1150 St. Nicholas Avenue, New York, NY 10032, USA
For all author emails, please log on.
Genome Biology 2003, 5:R1 doi:10.1186/gb-2003-5-1-r1
A previous version of this manuscript was made available before peer review at http://genomebiology.com/2003/4/11/P8
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://genomebiology.com/2003/5/1/R1
Received:13 October 2003
Revisions received:14 November 2003
Accepted:21 November 2003
Published:12 December 2003
© 2003 Enright et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copying and redistribution of this article are permitted in all media for any purpose, provided this notice is preserved along with the article's original URL.
Abstract
Background
The recent discoveries of microRNA (miRNA) genes and characterization of the first few target genes regulated by miRNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster have set the stage for elucidation of a novel network of regulatory control. We present a computational method for whole-genome prediction of miRNA target genes. The method is validated using known examples. For each miRNA, target genes are selected on the basis of three properties: sequence complementarity using a position-weighted local alignment algorithm, free energies of RNA-RNA duplexes, and conservation of target sites in related genomes. Application to the D. melanogaster, Drosophila pseudoobscura and Anopheles gambiae genomes identifies several hundred target genes potentially regulated by one or more known miRNAs.
Results
These potential targets are rich in genes that are expressed at specific developmental stages and that are involved in cell fate specification, morphogenesis and the coordination of developmental processes, as well as genes that are active in the mature nervous system. High-ranking target genes are enriched in transcription factors two-fold and include genes already known to be under translational regulation. Our results reaffirm the thesis that miRNAs have an important role in establishing the complex spatial and temporal patterns of gene activity necessary for the orderly progression of development and suggest additional roles in the function of the mature organism. In addition the results point the way to directed experiments to determine miRNA functions.
Conclusions
The emerging combinatorics of miRNA target sites in the 3' untranslated regions of messenger RNAs are reminiscent of transcriptional regulation in promoter regions of DNA, with both one-to-many and many-to-one relationships between regulator and target. Typically, more than one miRNA regulates one message, indicative of cooperative translational control. Conversely, one miRNA may have several target genes, reflecting target multiplicity. As a guide to focused experiments, we provide detailed online information about likely target genes and binding sites in their untranslated regions, organized by miRNA or by gene and ranked by likelihood of match. The target prediction algorithm is freely available and can be applied to whole genome sequences using identified miRNA sequences.
Introduction
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a novel class of gene products that repress mRNA translation or mediate mRNA degradation in a sequence-specific manner in animals and plants [1-4]. To date, several hundred different miRNAs have been identified from various organisms and their sequences are archived and accessible at the RFAM miRNA registry website [5,6]. Currently, this database contains 21 miRNAs from Arabidopsis thaliana, 48 from Caenorhabditis briggsae, 106 from C. elegans, 73 from D. melanogaster, 122 from Mus musculus, and 130 from Homo sapiens.
With few exceptions, the target genes and the mechanism of target suppression are currently unknown because reliable experimental methods for comprehensively identifying the miRNA targets have yet to be developed. Founding members of the miRNA family, lin-4 and let-7 in C. elegans, have a central role as key regulators of developmental timing through cell fate decisions [7,8]. Because these miRNA genes are also conserved in other animals and mammals [9,10], it is not surprising to find that homologous genes, which were initially identified by genetic interaction, also possess conserved miRNA binding sites [11]. In insects, the bantam miRNA has been found to regulate cell proliferation and cell death by targeting the apoptosis gene hid (wrinkled) [12]. D. melanogaster miR-14 has been implicated in fat metabolism and stress resistance as well as cell death, however the precise target genes of this miRNA have not been identified [13]. The identification of animal miRNA targets is computationally difficult because animal miRNAs are relatively short and are only partially complementary to their mRNA targets, possibly because of additional interactions involving RNA binding proteins. As a result, it is challenging to define an algorithm and thresholds to predict reliably such target sites.
In contrast to animal miRNAs, some plant miRNA targets are more readily identified because of near-perfect complementarity to their target sequence [14]. Many of these plant mRNA targets encode transcription factors that regulate morphogenesis [15-19]. As a consequence of near-perfect complementarity, plant miRNAs predominantly act as small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) guiding destruction of their mRNA target, though some have also been found to behave like animal miRNAs. In addition, up to this point, plant miRNA target sites are predominantly found within the protein-coding segment of the target mRNAs [14], while animal miRNAs appear to primarily target the 3' untranslated region (UTR) [4,12,20-25].
The miRNA and siRNA pathways overlap at several points. Both siRNAs and miRNAs are processed from double-stranded RNA precursors requiring dsRNA-specific RNase III enzymes [26-30]. By an unknown molecular mechanism, the excised small RNAs become associated with Argonaute member proteins to form an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) that is able to target near-perfect complementary RNAs for degradation or for the control of translation [31-34]. In animal systems, it was shown that the introduction of a certain number of mismatches at centrally located positions allows for a switch from targeted mRNA degradation to translational repression [35,36]. In general, however, mutations in siRNAs typically abolish gene silencing without switching to translational repression [37]. Intriguingly though, siRNA-guided cleavage activity can be detected with sometimes distantly-related complementary sequences when siRNA specificity is evaluated at a genome-wide level [38].
About 10% of the miRNAs identified in invertebrates are also conserved in mammals, indicating that the regulatory function of these genes is likely to be conserved cross-species. Since miRNA-containing species have been separated by hundreds of millions of years of evolution, it is striking that many 22 nucleotide miRNAs do not exhibit stronger sequence divergence. This absence of sequence-evolution in many miRNAs suggests that these miRNAs have more than one target site and that evolution by compensatory base-pair changes has become extremely unlikely. Therefore, a miRNA may regulate few or many genes depending on its apparent birth date. It is also conceivable that additional evolutionary constraints, such as the presence of certain protein-binding sites within the miRNA-targeted mRNAs, are conferring specificity to these small RNA regulated processes.
In order to address the question of miRNA target identification in animals, we have developed a computational method to detect miRNA targets. This approach ranks the likelihood of each gene to be a miRNA target and conversely for each miRNA to target a gene (Figure 1). The target prediction method relies on the maintenance of evolutionary relationships between miRNAs and their targets, using three completely sequenced insect genomes (D. melanogaster, D. pseudoobscura and A. gambiae). We identify distinct networks of miRNA-mediated gene regulation such as the control of cell fate, morphogenesis and nervous system function, which appear to be preferentially targeted by miRNAs [39].
Figure 1. Algorithm and analysis pipeline. Source data consisting of (a) miRNAs and (b) 3' UTRs are processed initially by (c) the miRanda algorithm, which searches for complementarity matches between miRNAs and 3' UTRs using dynamic programming alignment (Phase 1) and thermodynamic calculation (Phase 2). (d) All results are then post-processed by first filtering out results not consistently conserved according to target sequence similarity with D. pseudoobscura and A. gambiae (Phase 3), then by sorting and ranking all remaining results. (e) Finally, all miRNA target gene predictions are annotated using data from FlyBase and stored for further analysis.
Target prediction
Every gene in D. melanogaster is a potential target for one or more of the characterized D. melanogaster miRNAs [40-43]. Reliable identification of miRNA targets is qualitatively different from standard sequence similarity analysis and requires new methods. In traditional sequence analysis, one tries to assess the likelihood of a hypothesis, for example, whether similarity between two sequences is due to common ancestry and continuity of functional constraints or a chance occurrence. Here, however, we aim to assess the likelihood of an actual physical interaction between two molecular species with phenotypic consequences, and have to assume that the interacting molecular species are present in the cell at the same time and at sufficient effective concentrations to facilitate the interaction. One of these species is a mature miRNA, the other a full length and translation-competent mRNA, or, in this study, its 3' UTR. The analysis is complicated by the fact that the sequence of the miRNA is small (approximately 22 nucleotide) and that the interaction may be substantially affected by a protein complex, that is, the interaction is probably not simple hybridization by optimal base pairing. To address these difficulties, at least in part, we have developed a three-phase method (miRanda) for target site identification from sequence information (Figure 1). The three phases are as follows: sequence-matching to assess first whether two sequences are complementary and possibly bind; free energy calculation (thermodynamics) to estimate the energetics of this physical interaction; and evolutionary conservation as an informational filter. We have validated this method using experimentally verified target genes (and target sites) from the literature [4,20-25] and against a randomized background model (see Materials and methods).
Sequence match
Using each of the 73 available D. melanogaster miRNAs as probes, we scan the 3' UTRs of 9,805 D. melanogaster genes for possible complementarity matches using a dynamic programming algorithm. For the remaining genes of D. melanogaster, accurate 3' UTR sequences were not available. The algorithm takes into account G-U wobble pairs, allows moderate insertions and deletions and, importantly, uses a weighting scheme that rewards complementarity at the 5' end of the miRNA, as observed in known miRNA:target-mRNA duplexes. In addition, we have applied position-specific empirically defined rules (see Materials and methods). The result is a score (S) for each detected complementarity match between a miRNA and a potential target gene.
Free energy calculation
For each match, the free energy (ΔG) of optimal strand-strand interaction between miRNA and UTR is calculated using the Vienna package [44]. We cannot, however, take into account the energy of interaction with possible protein components, as these details are at present largely unknown [2].
Evolutionary conservation
Given imperfect rules for sequence pairing and energy estimation, the conservation of predicted miRNA-target pairs in closely-related species is an important additional criterion for this analysis. Given the surprisingly high level of sequence conservation of miRNAs across phyla [9,45], we assume that the set of miRNAs in D. melanogaster is shared identically with D. pseudoobscura and A. gambiae. We only consider a miRNA target pair to be conserved across species if the following three criteria are met: a specific miRNA independently matches orthologous UTRs in both species; sequences of detected target sites in both species exhibit more than a specified threshold of nucleotide identity (ID) with each other; and the positions of both target sites are equivalent according to a cross-species UTR alignment [46] (see Materials and methods).
For this three-phase assessment of miRNA-target matches, we use cut-off values that provide a balance between false positives and false negatives, by inspection of known targets (see Materials and methods). The thresholds for sequence conservation (≥80% identity for D. pseudoobscura and ≥60% identity for A. gambiae) were chosen after extensive analysis of alignments between D. melanogaster, D. pseudoobscura and A. gambiae 3' UTR sequences. To maximize predictive power, we have kept the number of adjustable parameters and cutoffs as small as possible (see Materials and methods).
We take into account potential many-to-one relationships between miRNAs and their target genes using an additive scoring scheme. This system allocates a score to a miRNA (or multiple miRNAs) and target gene by summing over all scores for all conserved target sites detected for that pair (see Materials and methods). All predictions are then sorted and ranked according to this scheme. This means that miRNA target predictions with high scores or multiple detected sites, or both, are ranked preferentially. Finally, for each miRNA, the ten highest scoring target genes are selected for further analysis. These represent our highest quality target predictions for each miRNA, and, as such, are suitable for experimental validation, although lower-ranked predictions are also available (see Additional data files).
Validation using known miRNA targets
Application of our target prediction method to experimentally verified targets serves as initial validation. However, as the method was developed using known target sites as a guide [4,12,20-25], independent validation and refinement of the method will depend on future experiments.
The method correctly identifies nine of the ten currently characterized target genes (Table 1) for the miRNAs lin-4 and let-7 in C. elegans and bantam in D. melanogaster. At this threshold level, the details (position and base pairing as reported by others) of most target sites are largely reproduced, together with interesting alternative target sites on the known target genes. This comparison is only partially conclusive, as not all reported target sites on known target genes have been individually verified by experiment. The missed duplex between the lin-4 miRNA and its reported target gene (lin-14) (Table 1) contains an unusually long loop structure in the target sequence, which cannot easily be detected without adversely affecting the rate of false positive detection. In conclusion, we not only detect the majority of known miRNA targets, but the rankings obtained from our additive scoring scheme for these targets are also consistently high (Table 1). For example, the two target genes of the let-7 miRNA (hbl-1 and lin-41) are detected as the number 1 and number 2 ranked genes hit respectively, from a scan against 1,014 C. elegans 3' UTR sequences.
Table 1. Validation of prediction method on experimentally verified miRNA targets
We also perform control calculations by running multiple trials using randomized miRNA sequences (see Materials and methods). A simple estimate of the rate of false positive results from applying the same fixed match, energy and conservation thresholds to target sites using actual and randomized miRNA sequences and assuming that all above-threshold target sites using random sequences are not biologically meaningful. The estimated rate of false positives is (R-/R+), where R- is the total number of above-threshold hits for randomized miRNA sequences and R+ is the total number of above-threshold hits for the actual miRNAs. The overall estimate is a false positive rate of 35% (Table 2). Interestingly, target genes for actual miRNAs with two or more conserved sites occur 11 times more frequently than for randomized miRNAs, representing a much lower false positive rate of 9% (Table 2). This apparent increase in reliability for predictions with multiple sites per target gene may be related to cooperativity of miRNA-target interactions.
Table 2. Whole genome comparison of real versus randomized miRNAs against the complete genomes of D. melanogaster and D. pseudoobscura
Finally, we test whether specific functional classes of miRNA target genes are highly over-represented among the predicted miRNAs compared to random expectation (Table 3). For each GO molecular function class [47] we count the number of conserved targets detected for actual miRNAs and for the sequence-randomized miRNAs. Statistical significance of over-represented classes is measured by a Z-score (see Materials and methods). These results indicate that some functional classes (for example, translational regulators and apoptosis regulators) are significantly enhanced among miRNA target gene predictions.
Table 3. Functional analysis of actual versus random miRNAs
Results
Potential miRNA targets
We report 535 potential target genes for the 73 known D. melanogaster miRNAs in decreasing order of match score for sites in detected 3' UTR targets. All results are available online [39]. All of these targets have passed the filters for free energy estimates, and conservation of target site sequence and position between D. melanogaster and D. pseudoobscura (see Materials and methods).
Of these predicted target genes in D. melanogaster, 264 have some functional annotation [48,49], while 231 have more than one predicted target interaction site. Results obtained from our random model suggest that 3' UTRs with more than one predicted target site for a given miRNA are more reliable than those with a single site. For this reason, the most promising candidates for target validation experiments may be the 231 target genes with multiple miRNA target sites. In general, cooperative binding of miRNAs to a single target gene can involve multiple hits by one or several distinct miRNAs. Specific examples are: The eye pigmentation gene brown (bw) is hit by the miRNAs bantam (three sites) and miR-314 (two sites); the apoptosis gene hid/wrinkled (W) is hit by bantam (two sites), miR-309 and miR-286; and the eye development gene seven-up (svp) is hit by miR-33 (two sites), miR-124, miR-277 and miR-312.
Given the strong conservation of miRNA sequences between D. melanogaster and A. gambiae [42], we searched for a subset of the above targets also conserved in the 3' UTRs of A. gambiae genes using the same procedure (Figure 1). In this way, we find 150 potential targets in corresponding A. gambiae genes. Of these, some 40% exhibit target site conservation of more than 60% identity to the corresponding D. melanogaster site. Notable examples are Scr (miR-10), netrin-B (miR-184, miR-284), sticks and stones (miR-282; two hits), and VACht (miR-9) (notation is: target gene (miRNA)).
Given the availability of an essentially complete set of protein coding genes and (perhaps) nearly all miRNAs in D. melanogaster, one can identify both biological processes and molecular functions predicted to be preferentially targeted by miRNAs. Processes we find to be over-represented by detected miRNA targets include: transcriptional control, translational control, cell-adhesion, enzyme regulation and apoptosis regulation (Figure 2). Separate groups of miRNAs appear to be specific to particular functional classes of target genes: for example, a group of seven miRNAs, miR-281, miR-311, miR-79, miR-92, miR-305, miR-131 and miR-31a, enriched two to four times in target genes in larval development; a group of five, bantam, miR-286, miR-309, miR-14 and miR-306, enriched three to six times in targets implicated in death or cell death; and the group bantam, miR-286 and the miR-2/miR-13 family, enriched five to six times in genes involved in regulation of apoptosis. A group of nine miRNAs is also two to three times enriched in genes involved in pattern specification. Overall, target genes annotated as transcription factors are detected twice as frequently as expected by chance (21% of annotated identified target genes, compared to 9.5% of all annotated FlyBase [50] genes). Translation factors are increased four times over expectation (miR-318, miR-304, miR-276b). This may represent a more general control mechanism for miRNA regulation of translation, in addition to the specific control of translation of individual target genes.
Figure 2. Functional map of miRNAs and their target genes. Left axis: selected over-represented FlyBase [49] derived GO [87] classifications from the 'molecular function' hierarchy. Bottom axis: ordered list of the 73 miRNAs. Each cell in the matrix is color-coded according to the degree of over-representation (right axis) for a miRNA hitting a specific functional class. For example, a bright red box indicates that a given miRNA hits six to eight times more targets in a particular class then one would expect by chance. The matrix is built by two-dimensional hierarchical clustering after normalization for classes that are over-represented in FlyBase annotations as a whole.
Investigating possible connections between genomic location and function, we analyzed 12 clusters of miRNAs in the D. melanogaster genome the members of which are potentially co-expressed, for example, let-7, miR-125 and miR-100 [40-43]. Contrary to expectation, we did not find any obvious links between genomic location and predicted target gene. One possible exception is the link between the position of three of the five copies of the miR-2 family in the intron of the gene spitz (involved in growth) and one of its top target genes, reaper (involved in cell death).
The well-characterized miRNA let-7 (in C. elegans) has two annotated top ten targets: tamo and lar. The gene tamo is thought to be required for the nuclear import of the NF-κB homolog Dorsal and recent work has connected it to the expression of a small RNA regulated by ecdysone [51,52]. We do not predict hunchback as a target of let-7 in D. melanogaster, given the thresholds and parameters used, although some below-threshold hits do appear to be conserved in D. pseudoobscura. Instead, we predict miR-12 and miR-184 to have a stronger effect on hunchback.
Many genes involved in the maternal genetic system, determining germ cell fate and anterior-posterior polarity of the egg, are well known to be translationally regulated. We clearly predict the following subset of these genes to be miRNA targets: germ cell less, bicoid, hunchback, caudal, staufen, arrest (bruno-1) and bruno-2. In addition, although the genes oskar and nanos are not top-ten ranked predictions, oskar has two conserved target sites (miR-3, miR-6), ranked below the top-ten hits for these miRNAs, and nanos has five strongly predicted target sites for miR-9c (three) and miR-263b (two), but below the 80% conservation threshold. Taken together, these data may indicate that this system is at least partially under miRNA regulation. We detail below three more biological processes predicted to be subject to miRNA regulation.
Hox genes and body axis specification
A multi-tiered hierarchy of transcription factors establishes the morphological segmentation and diversification of the anterior-posterior body axis of the Drosophila embryo [53]. The Hox genes (lab, pb, Dfd, Scr, Antp, Ubx, abd-A and Abd-B) play a key role in diversification by switching the fates of embryonic segments between alternative developmental pathways [54]. The genes are organized in two separate clusters on chromosome 3R, the Antennapedia (lab, pb, Dfd, Scr, Antp) and Bithorax (Ubx, abd-A, Abd-B) complexes. Both the genes and their relative order within the complexes are conserved in vertebrates [55].
Our predictions indicate that five of the eight Hox genes are regulated by miRNAs (Table 4). The 3' UTR of Scr is a potential target of miR-10, which is located within the Antennapedia complex between Dfd and Scr (and similarly, near the homologs of Dfd (hox4) in the Hox gene clusters of A. gambiae, Tribolium castaneum, zebrafish, pufferfish, mouse and human [56]). Scr is also a strong target for bantam, the miRNA associated with the apoptosis gene hid [12], and for miR-125, the putative Drosophila homolog of the miRNA lin-4 in C. elegans. Another strong target match for miR-125 is ftz, which is involved in the regulation of Hox genes and lies within the Hox cluster between Scr and Antp. All three of the Bithorax complex genes are likely to be regulated by multiple miRNAs. Interestingly, abd-A and Abd-B are both targeted by miR-iab-4-3-p, which is located within the complex between abd-A and Abd-B.
Table 4. Potential miRNA targets of Hox cluster genes and their regulators
Aside from the Hox genes themselves, several other regulators of Hox gene function also appear to be miRNA targets. These include members of the trithorax activator (trx, trr) and the Polycomb (Pc) repressor groups, which control the spatial patterns of Hox gene expression by maintaining chromatin structure [57], and homothorax (hth), which is required for the nuclear translocation of the Hox cofactor extradenticle [58].
Ecdysone signaling and developmental timing
Ecdysone signaling triggers and coordinates many of the developmental transitions in the life cycle of Drosophila. Ecdysone pulses occur during embryonic, the three larval instar, prepupal, pupal and adult stages and regulate numerous physiological processes including morphogenetic cell shape changes, differentiation and death [59-62]. The regulation of these diverse processes by ecdysone is achieved through a complex genetic hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy is the ecdysone receptor (EcR), a member of the nuclear hormone receptor family; it regulates the expression of different sets of transcription factors, including the zinc finger proteins of the Broad-Complex and many other nuclear hormone receptors, which in turn control key regulators of the different physiological processes.
Our predictions show many potential miRNA targets at several levels of the ecdysone cascade. These include EcR and several of the downstream transcription factors and co-factors (for example, br, E71, E74, E93, crol, fkh) [63-66]. Interestingly, broad (br), whose expression is exquisitely timed and differentially controlled in different tissues, has seven alternate splice forms with five different 3' UTRs. All five 3' UTRs contain high-ranking predicted targets for miRNA regulation (Table 5). The fact that three miRNAs control different splice forms in varying combinations supports the analogy made to transcriptional regulation for describing the combinatorial mechanisms to achieve specificity and redundancy in targeting genes.
Table 5. Potential miRNA targets of ecdysone induction
In addition to the core transcription factors of the ecdysone cascade, several of its effector pathways are likely to be directly targeted by miRNAs. These include genes in morphogenetic/stress signaling (aop, msn, slpr, hep), biogenesis (rab6) and the cell death pathway (hid, rpr, parcas, Rep2) [67-69]. They also include several miRNAs target genes that are involved in the biosynthesis of ecdysone (woc, CypP450s) and of other hormones triggering developmental transitions (amon/ETH, Eh) [70,71]. Despite their synchronous expression with ecdysone pulses in late larvae and pre-pupae [9], let-7 and miR-125 are not prominently targeting the core factors of the ecdysone cascade.
Development and function of the nervous system
We predict a large number of miRNA target genes that are involved in cell fate decisions in the developing nervous system. In particular, we predict several miRNA target genes within components of the Notch pathway, which regulates the early decision between the neuronal and the ectodermal fate [72,73]. These include Notch ligands and factors regulating their stability (Ser, neur), as well as factors that bind to Notch (dx) or modify its sensitivity to ligands (sca, gp150, fng). They also include genes of the E(spl) complex (CG8328, CG8346) and of the Brd complex (Tom) [74]. Genes in these two complexes are known to share motifs for translational regulation in their 3' UTR (Bearded- and K-box), some of which have previously been predicted to be miRNA target sites [75]. In addition, our predicted miRNA target genes include factors involved in the asymmetric cell division of neuroblasts (insc, par 6) and transcription factors regulating different aspects of neuronal differentiation (Dr, jim, Lyra, nerfin, SoxN, svp, unc4).
The establishment of neural connectivity is a complex morphogenetic process comprising the growth and guidance of axons and dendrites, and the formation of synapses. Many miRNAs target these processes at several different levels (Figure 3; Table 6). These targets include a remarkably large number of secreted and transmembrane factors known to mediate axon guidance decisions (netrin A and B, Slit; Drl, Dscam, Eph, PTPs, Robos, Semas; FasI, beatIV) [76-78] (Table 6). All these factors are conserved and have similar axon guidance functions in vertebrates. Interestingly, netrin1 and robo are also predicted miRNA target genes in vertebrates (our unpublished observations), suggesting that translational control is an important conserved aspect of the regulation of axon guidance factors.
Figure 3. Representation of 3' UTRs for potential miRNA target genes involved in axon guidance. Each individual conserved hit between a miRNA and a target gene is marked by an annotated triangle on a conservation plot (D. melanogaster versus D. pseudoobscura) for that UTR. Red triangles indicate target site locations that are illustrated in more detail (alignment and secondary structure) below. Multiple target sites on a 3' UTR for one or more miRNAs are not uncommon and reflect cooperative regulation of transcription.
Table 6. Potential miRNA targets of the axon guidance pathway
In addition to these cell surface factors, miRNAs target the cellular machinery that effects cell shape change and adhesion, including regulators and components of the cytoskeleton (for example, dock, trio, RhoGAPs, Rho1, Abl, tricornered, wasp, Sop2, nesprin, Khc-73, gamma-tubulin) and of the cell junctions (for example, crumbs, dlt, mbc, skiff).
Many of the developmental factors are re-employed in the mature nervous system to control synaptic function by effecting morphogenetic changes in synapse size, shape or strength. Additional miRNA target genes that are active in the mature nervous system include neurotransmitter receptors, ion channels and pumps (clumsy, DopR, nAChr; Hk, Shaker), as well as factors involved in neurotransmitter transport and synaptic release (SerT, vAChT, Eaat1; Cirl, Rab3, Sap47, unc13) [79].
Why would translational regulation by miRNAs feature so prominently in the development and function of the nervous system? The distances between the nucleus and dendrites/axon projections are relatively large, making nuclear regulation difficult. Furthermore, differential gene activity between and even within compartments (for example, between different portions of a growth cone or different branches of a dendritic tree) is crucial for neuronal function. Therefore, translational control near the site of action is a more efficient means of modulating gene activity than transcriptional control. For axon guidance, it has been shown that the relative abundance of adhesion molecules and chemotropic receptors on the surface of the growth cone is post-transcriptionally regulated in response to external cues presented by intermediate targets. Regulation by miRNAs would thus provide an excellent additional mechanism of post-transcriptional control.
Discussion
The precise rules and energetics for pairing between a miRNA and its mRNA target sites, with probable involvement of a protein complex, are not known and cannot easily be deduced from the few experimentally proven examples. Therefore, any computational methods for the identification of potential miRNA target sites are at risk of having a substantial rate of false positives and false negatives. Based on analysis of the known examples, we have biased our method toward stronger matches at the 5' end of the miRNA, and used energy calculation plus conservation of target site sequence to provide our current best estimate of biologically functional matches. Overall, we find that conservation is a crucial filter and reduces the rate of prediction error.
Our results suggest that miRNAs target the control of gene activity at multiple levels, specifically transcription, translation and protein degradation, in other words, that miRNAs act as meta-regulators of expression control. Among biological processes, we find that the most prominent targets include signal transduction and transcription control in cell fating and developmental timing decisions, as well as morphogenetic processes such as axon guidance. These processes share the need for the precise definition of boundaries of gene activity in space and time. Our findings therefore support and expand earlier work on the role of miRNAs in developmental processes [42,80]. In addition, we predict that miRNAs also play an important role in controlling gene activity in the mature nervous system.
As miRNA and mRNA have to be present simultaneously at minimum levels in the same cellular compartment for a biologically meaningful interaction, more precise expression data as a function, for example, of developmental stage [42], will be extremely useful and will be incorporated in future versions of target prediction methods. Similarly, further work will include the analysis of potential target sites in coding regions and 5' UTRs, as well as conservation and adaptation of target sites in many species.
This genome-wide scan for potential miRNA target genes gives us a first glimpse of the complexity of the emerging network of regulatory interactions involving small RNAs (see Additional data). Both multiplicity (one miRNA targets several genes) and cooperativity (one gene is targeted by several distinct miRNAs) appear to be general features for many miRNAs, as already apparent with the discovery of the targets for lin-4 and let-7. The analogy of these many-to-one and one-to-many relationships to those of transcription factors and promoter regions is tempting and elucidation of the network of regulation by miRNAs will make a major contribution to cellular systems biology. In the meantime, we would not be surprised if experiments focusing on target candidates filtered in this way have a high rate of success and help to unravel the biology of regulation by miRNA-mRNA interaction.
Materials and methods
MiRNA sequences
An initial set of D. melanogaster miRNA sequences was built using the RFAM miRNA database [45]. Mature miRNA sequences were placed in a FASTA formatted sequence file. In total, the final file contained 73 unique miRNA sequences. All sequences used for this analysis are available from RFAM and as supplementary material [39].
3' UTR sequences
Sequences for D. melanogaster 3' UTRs were obtained from the Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project (BDGP). In total, 3' UTR sequences were available for 14,287 transcripts, representing 9,805 individual D. melanogaster genes. A corresponding set of D. pseudoobscura 3' UTR sequences was then built from the March 2003 first freeze of the D. pseudoobscura genome project at Baylor College of Medicine. Each D. melanogaster 3' UTR was mapped to D. pseudoobscura contigs by searching both the actual D. melanogaster 3' UTR sequence, using NCBI BLASTn [81], and the peptide sequence of each gene, using NCBI tBLASTn [81], against D. pseudoobscura contigs [81]. Results from these two scans were then used to identify candidate 2,000 bp regions of D. pseudoobscura contigs, within which we believe an orthologous D. pseudoobscura 3' UTR is present. The AVID [46] alignment tool was used to align the real D. melanogaster 3' UTR and a candidate D. pseudoobscura region. Finally, this alignment was used to trim each candidate region, leaving the predicted D. pseudoobscura 3' UTR. In total 12,416 transcripts and 8,282 genes from D. pseudoobscura were mapped to orthologous D. melanogaster UTRs in this fashion. The Ensembl database [47] Application Programming Interface was used to construct A. gambiae predicted 3' UTRs by taking 2,000 bp downstream from the last exon of each transcript. Orthology mappings between A. gambiae and D. melanogaster UTRs were then obtained by searching all Ensembl A. gambiae peptides against all D. melanogaster peptides using BLASTp. In total 9,823 A. gambiae genes were mapped to D. melanogaster genes in this manner.
MiRanda scanning algorithm
The miRanda algorithm is similar to the Smith-Waterman algorithm [82], however, instead of building alignments based on matching nucleotides (A-A or U-U, for example), it scores based on the complementarity of nucleotides (A=U or G≡C). The scoring matrix used for this analysis also allows G=U 'wobble' pairs, which are important for the accurate detection of RNA:RNA duplexes [44]. Complementarity parameters at individual alignment positions are: +5 for G≡C, +5 for A=U, +2 for G=U and -3 for all other nucleotide pairs. The algorithm uses affine penalties (linear in the length of a gap after an initial opening penalty) for gap-opening (-8) and gap-extension (-2). In addition, following observation of known target sites, complementarity scores (positive and negative values) at the first eleven positions are multiplied by a scaling factor (here set at 2.0), so as to reflect the observed 5'-3' asymmetry. Finally, the following four empirical rules are applied, with positions counted starting at the 5' end of the miRNA: no mismatches at positions 2 to 4; fewer than five mismatches between positions 3-12; at least one mismatch between positions 9 and L-5 (where L is total alignment length); and fewer than two mismatches in the last five positions of the alignment. With these parameters, the dynamic programming algorithm optimizes the complementarity score between a miRNA sequence and an mRNA sequence (typically a 3' UTR), summed over all aligned positions, and finds all non-overlapping hybridization alignments in decreasing order of complementarity score down to some cutoff value (default value 80). The detection of sub-optimal alignments follows heuristics previously used in sequence alignment [81,83].
In order to estimate the thermodynamic properties of a predicted duplex, the algorithm uses folding routines from the Vienna 1.3 RNA secondary structure programming library (RNAlib) [44]. The expanded thermodynamic parameters used [83] are more computationally intensive than the initial scan, but allow potential hybridization sites to be scored according their respective folding energies. The miRNA sequence and 3' UTR sequence from a hybridization alignment are joined into a single sequence with an eight base sequence linker containing artificial 'X' bases that cannot base pair. This strand-linker-strand configuration assumes the phase space entropy of strand-strand association is constant for all miRNA-target matches [44,83]. The minimum energy of this structure with the last matching base pair (from initial sequence alignment) constrained is then calculated using RNAlib.
Conservation of target sites
All miRNA sequences are scanned against the 3' UTR datasets of D. melanogaster, D. pseudoobscura and A. gambiae. The thresholds used for hit detection are: initial Smith-Waterman hybridization alignments must have S ≥ 80, and the minimum energy of the duplex structure ΔG ≤ -14 kcal/mol. Each hit between a miRNA and a UTR sequence is then scored according to the total energy and total score of all hits between those two sequences. Hits are deemed to be conserved in D. pseudoobscura or A. gambiae if a target site equivalent to that detected in a D. melanogaster UTR can be found in the orthologous D pseudoobscura or A. gambiae UTR at the same position in the UTR alignments. Our definition of equivalence between target sites is that their sequences are more than 80% identical for D. pseudoobscura and 60% identical for A. gambiae. All results from the scan are then ranked and sorted according to total score of conserved target sites detected. For each miRNA, the ten highest ranked genes are selected as its candidate target genes in this way. Multiple miRNAs binding the same site on a target gene are resolved using a greedy algorithm that assigns the highest scoring and lowest free energy miRNA target duplex to each potential site so that different miRNA target sites cannot overlap.
Validation
For the initial validation, 3' UTR sequences for C. elegans and C. briggsae were obtained, if possible, from UTRdb [84]. If unavailable, UTR sequences were estimated by taking 2,000 bp of flanking nucleotide sequence downstream of the last exon of the gene in question using the Ensembl database [48].
Randomized test
Control sequences for the randomized experiment were constructed by assembling 100 sets of 73 miRNAs each generated by random shuffling of each D. melanogaster miRNA. Each of these sets of 73 randomized miRNAs was independently searched against all D. melanogaster and D. pseudoobscura 3' UTRs as in the reference experiment. Results and counts were then averaged over all 100 random sets, and were compared with the results of the actual miRNA scan. For the functional analysis, GO classes for known D. melanogaster genes were obtained from FlyBase and conserved hits for the real and random miRNAs for each class are counted. The Z-scores are generated from the actual miRNA counts, averaged random miRNA counts and their standard deviations.
Note that recent work by Stark et al. [85] and also by Rajewski and Socci [86] addresses similar issues to those described in this work.
Additional data files
The following files are available with this article and at [39]: a supplementary target functional plot (GO biological process; Additional data file 1); a supplementary target:miRNA network graph (Additional data file 2); an Excel table of the top 10 miRNA target predictions by miRNA (Additional data file 3); and an Excel table of the top 10 miRNA target predictions by gene (Additional data file 4). Additional data files of top 20, 30, and 40 both by microRNA and by gene and the source code of the core miRanda algorithm are available at [39].
Additional data file 1. A supplementary target functional plot
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Additional data file 2. A supplementary target:miRNA network graph
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Additional data file 3. An Excel table of the top 10 miRNA target predictions by miRNA
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Additional data file 4. An Excel table of the top 10 miRNA target predictions by gene
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Acknowledgements
We thank Gary Bader, Boris Reva, Carl Thummel and Mihaela Zavolan for interesting discussions and also Rebecca Ward, Ulrich Unnerstall and Kerstin Dose for support and assistance.
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ygay5mvsv5uwo4npplyss5hc5rojtato
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GlobalVoices in Learn more »
Algerian Rulers and Contemporary Performance Arts
This post also available in:
Español · Los gobernantes argelinos y las artes escénicas contemporáneas
Français · Les dirigeants algériens, ces artistes méconnus
Ελληνικά · Ηγέτες της Αλγερίας και παραστάσεις σύγχρονης τέχνης
Algerian blogger MnarviDZ writes:
The Algerian rulers are actually artists who invented the art of time stretching and we, the Algerian people, are all taking part in their performance. And as contemporary art doesn’t care much about beauty, happiness and stuff like this, the rulers chose to make their performance feel ugly, and this is why we are not enjoying it much. These rulers do take this art to its limits because we’re forced to watch (and endure) their art work forever.
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6mlwuq2nin66osxywc26zbv3rntjxoqf
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Modify
Opened 3 years ago
Closed 3 years ago
Last modified 3 years ago
#4037 closed enhancement (fixed)
[PATCH] LiveGps: Frequent position updates leech too much CPU on low-end devices
Reported by: casualwalker Owned by: casualwalker
Priority: normal Component: Plugin
Version: Keywords:
Cc:
Description
LiveGps Plugin redraws the screen each time it receives a new set of data from GPSD, which is about once per second.
When JOSM runs on a low-end device (such as a netbook), JOSM reacts very sluggish to user-input, as all CPU power is consumed by frequent updates.
Proposed solution:
• LiveGPS suppresses update events, until a minimal amount of time has elapsed, by default this is set to 5 sec.
• This interval can be configures in a config value named "livegps.refreshinterval" (in milliseconds).
This was already mentioned in the Wiki, although this is not the right place...
http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/index.php/JOSM/Plugins/LiveGPS#TODOs
I already implemented this feature, it even worked outside ;-)
Patches will follow, as soon as I clean up the code a bit.
Attachments (2)
Patch_LiveGpsSuppressor.java (3.4 KB) - added by casualwalker 3 years ago.
Patch File LiveGpsSuppressor.java
Patch_LiveGpsAcquirer.java (17.6 KB) - added by casualwalker 3 years ago.
Patch for LiveGpsAcquirer.java
Download all attachments as: .zip
Change History (8)
comment:1 Changed 3 years ago by casualwalker
• Owner changed from team to casualwalker
comment:2 Changed 3 years ago by casualwalker
• Status changed from new to assigned
Changed 3 years ago by casualwalker
Changed 3 years ago by casualwalker
comment:3 Changed 3 years ago by casualwalker
• Resolution set to fixed
• Status changed from assigned to closed
comment:4 Changed 3 years ago by stoecker
• Resolution fixed deleted
• Status changed from closed to reopened
• Summary changed from LiveGps: Frequent position updates leech too much CPU on low-end devices to [PATCH] LiveGps: Frequent position updates leech too much CPU on low-end devices
comment:5 Changed 3 years ago by stoecker
• Resolution set to fixed
• Status changed from reopened to closed
comment:6 Changed 3 years ago by casualwalker
Modify Ticket
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p2cbxz6w5uaj7wsirscvurunazlcvuay
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Quotation added by staff
Why not add this quote to your bookmarks?
Where no hope is left, is left no fear. Milton, John
Excerpt from Poetical Works · This quote is about hope · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
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John Milton (December 9, 1608 November 8, 1674) was an English poet, best-known for his epic poem Paradise Lost.
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2024-06-03T21:29:47.544Z
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2013-05-18T06:35:14.000Z
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dtnr2vmxxd3gazdlpu2qeg2unaw3adwk
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"warc_url": "http://quotationsbook.com/quote/4843/"
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cccc_CC-MAIN-2013-20
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Quotation added by staff
Why not add this quote to your bookmarks?
Books are lighthouses erected in the great sea of time. Whipple, Edwin P.
This quote is about books - reading · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
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