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Monday, January 30, 2006
Mansoor Ijaz: Iran has nuclear bomb
Middle East Newsline:
Iran was said to have acquired a nuclear bomb.
A leading U.S. nuclear proliferation expert said Teheran obtained an atomic bomb about a decade ago from the nuclear black market. The expert said Iran sought to produce additional nuclear weapons through technology from Pakistan and other countries.
"The one functional device Iran has," Mansoor Ijaz, a U.S. nuclear scientist, said, "is the result of clandestine transfers from Pakistan's rogue black market nuclear scientist, Abdul Qadeer Khan, who sold the Iranians antiquated but highly effective Chinese bomb designs and parts, including spherical shell casings, spherical Krytron detonation switches and empirical software testing modules."
On Saturday, Iran threatened to launch a missile strike against the West. The commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, Maj. Gen. Rahim Safavi, said Teheran could retaliate with the Shihab-3 intermediate-range missile against what he termed was British efforts to foment unrest in western Iran.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
5368.0 - International Trade in Goods and Services, Australia, May 2011 Quality Declaration
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 05/07/2011
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
ABBREVIATIONS
$b billion (thousand million) dollars
$m million dollars
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
ANZSIC Australian and New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification
APEC Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation
ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations
BEC Classification by Broad Economic Categories
BoPBEC Balance of Payments Broad Economic Categories
EMS Environmental Management Survey
f.o.b. free on board
n.e.s. not elsewhere specified
n.i.e. not included elsewhere
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
SAR Special Administrative Region
SITC Standard International Trade Classification
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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(March 1993)
Marvel, 1988 Series
< Previous Issue |
| Next Issue >
add scan of indicia
statement of ownership for Wolverine (1988 series) #67 [Direct Edition]
The image has a size of 595 x 1379 pixels. Click on the image to view it in full.
replace scan of statement of ownership / delete scan of statement of ownership
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Personal tools
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You are here: Home / Data and maps / Maps and graphs / Nitrate concentrations in rivers between 1992 and 2010 in different sea regions of Europe.
Nitrate concentrations in rivers between 1992 and 2010 in different sea regions of Europe.
Created : Sep 23, 2012 Last modified : Nov 29, 2012 11:42 AM
Topics: ,
The sea region data series are calculated as the average of annual mean data from river monitoring stations in each sea region. The data thus represents rivers or river basins draining into that particular sea. Only complete series after inter/extrapolation are included (see indicator specification). The number of river monitoring stations included per sea region is given in parentheses.
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Arctic Ocean (13)
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Greater North Sea (364)
Mediterranean Sea (210)
European Environment Agency (EEA)
Kongens Nytorv 6
1050 Copenhagen K
Denmark
Phone: +45 3336 7100
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ECE497 Project Remote Web Cam Viewer
From eLinux.org
Revision as of 05:55, 8 November 2012 by Draneaw (Talk | contribs)
Jump to: navigation, search
Embedded Linux Class by Mark A. Yoder
Team members: Alexander W. Drane, John Lobdel
Contents
Grading Template
I'm using the following template to grade. Each slot is 10 points. 0 = Missing, 5=OK, 10=Wow!
00 Executive Summary
00 Installation Instructions
00 User Instructions
00 Highlights
00 Theory of Operation
00 Work Breakdown
00 Future Work
00 Conclusions
00 Demo
00 Late
Comments: I'm looking forward to seeing this.
Score: 10/100
(Inline Comment)
Executive Summary
The goal of this project is to create a way to utilize the webcam of a remote Beagle Board XM via a web browser without having to install software on the user's computer. Then using this as a base software we will create a program that can cycle through multiple webcams on the XM board.
Give two sentences telling what works.
Give two sentences telling what isn't working.
End with a two sentence conclusion.
The sentence count is approximate and only to give an idea of the expected length.
Installation Instructions
Give step by step instructions on how to install your project on the SPEd2 image.
• Include your github path as a link like this: https://github.com/MarkAYoder/gitLearn.
• Include any additional packages installed via opkg.
• Include kernel mods.
• If there is extra hardware needed, include links to where it can be obtained.
User Instructions
Preliminary: host$: node core.js
Highlights
Here is where you brag about what your project can do.
Include a YouTube demo.
Theory of Operation
Give a high level overview of the structure of your software. Are you using GStreamer? Show a diagram of the pipeline. Are you running multiple tasks? Show what they do and how they interact.
Work Breakdown
List the major tasks in your project and who did what.
Also list here what doesn't work yet and when you think it will be finished and who is finishing it.
Future Work
Suggest addition things that could be done with this project.
Conclusions
Give some concluding thoughts about the project. Suggest some future additions that could make it even more interesting.
Embedded Linux Class by Mark A. Yoder
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Stanly County, North CarolinaEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 21:14, 28 March 2012 by Jaburgess (Talk | contribs)
Stanly County, North Carolina
Map
Location in the state of North Carolina
Location of North Carolina in the U.S.
Facts
Founded 1841
County Seat Albemarle
Courthouse
Adopt-a-wiki page
This page adopted by:
NCGenWeb Project
who welcome you to contribute.
County Coordinator
Stanly Co. NCGenWeb
Adopt a page today
United States North Carolina Stanly County
Contents
County Courthouse
Stanly Count North Carolina
201 S 2nd St
Laurinburg, NC 28352
910-277-2577
Reg of Deeds hs m & land rec
Clk Sup Ct pas pro rec
Stanly created from Montgomery 11 Jan 1841
History
Parent County
1841--Stanly County was created from Montgomery County.
County seat: Albemarle [1]
Boundary Changes
Record Loss
Some of the early records are missing.
Places/Localities
Populated Places
Neighboring Counties
Resources
Cemeteries
Church
Court
Land
Local Histories
Maps
Military
Civil War
Civil War Confederate units - Brief history, counties where recruited, etc.
Newspapers
Probate
Taxation
Vital Records
Societies and Libraries
Family History Centers
Web Sites
• USGenWeb project. May have maps, name indexes, history or other information for this county. Select the state, then the county.
• Family History Library Catalog
References
1. The Handybook for Genealogists: United States of America,10th ed. (Draper, UT:Everton Publishers, 2002).
Need additional research help? Contact our research help specialists.
Need wiki, indexing, or website help? Contact our product teams.
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You're invited to explain your rating on the discussion page (you must be signed in).
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You are here:
Carnarvon Basin
Related Links
Petroleum System Charts (NCB)
Two petroleum systems are recognised in the Northern Carnarvon Basin where the Upper Jurassic Dingo Claystone and Triassic Locker Shale - Mungaroo formations are effective source rocks.
The petroleum system charts for the Exmouth, Barrow and Dampier Sub-basins show that almost all of the oil and gas accumulations are reservoired within Upper Triassic, Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sandstones beneath the regional Early Cretaceous seal.
Contact:
Petroleum enquiries
Updated: 1 July 2008
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how to setup usb disk internet connection
Light Poster
25Dec2010,20:02 #1
Hi to all
i have a problem with setup the usb disk internet connection in my linux system i use fedora 13, and its name is Hwauei
anyone can help me ....
i will be so much thanks for everyone will replay to me
waiting replays
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}
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About this Journal Submit a Manuscript Table of Contents
ISRN Botany
Volume 2012 (2012), Article ID 103892, 15 pages
doi:10.5402/2012/103892
Review Article
Highlights in Seagrasses’ Phylogeny, Physiology, and Metabolism: What Makes Them Special?
Institute of Botany, Leibniz University Hannover, Herrenhäuser Straße 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany
Received 1 October 2012; Accepted 20 November 2012
Academic Editors: M. Kwaaitaal and I. Zarra
Copyright © 2012 Jutta Papenbrock. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
The marine seagrasses form an ecological and therefore paraphyletic group of marine hydrophilus angiosperms which evolved three to four times from land plants towards an aquatic and marine existence. Their taxonomy is not yet solved on the species level and below due to their reduced morphology. So far also molecular data did not completely solve the phylogenetic relationships. Thus, this group challenges a new definition for what a species is. Also their physiology is not well understood due to difficult experimental in situ and in vitro conditions. There remain several open questions concerning how seagrasses adapted secondarily to the marine environment. Here probably exciting adaptation solutions will be detected. Physiological adaptations seem to be more important than morphological ones. Seagrasses contain several compounds in their secondary metabolism in which they differ from terrestrial plants and also not known from other taxonomic groups. Some of these compounds might be of interest for commercial purposes. Therefore their metabolite contents constitute another treasure of the ocean. This paper gives an introduction into some of the most interesting aspects from phylogenetical, physiological, and metabolic points of view.
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Publication Listing
You are not logged in. If you create a free account and sign in, you will be able to customize what is displayed.
Cover art supplied by Visco
Contents (view Concise Listing)
Verification Status
Reference Status
Primary Verified by Swfritter on 2008-11-08 12:32:03
Clute/Nicholls Marked N/A by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Clute/Grant Marked N/A by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Contento1 (anth/coll) Marked N/A by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Locus1 Marked N/A by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Reginald1 Marked N/A by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Reginald3 Marked N/A by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Tuck Verified by Bluesman on 2012-05-17 15:45:00
Miller/Contento Verified by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Bleiler1 (Gernsback) Marked N/A by Alvonruff on 2006-12-08 05:16:07
Currey Not Verified
Primary (Transient) Not Verified
Bleiler78 Not Verified
OCLC/Worldcat Not Verified
Primary2 Verified by Hauck on 2011-09-25 05:03:16
Primary3 Verified by Teddybear on 2012-03-23 15:14:05
Primary4 Not Verified
Primary5 Not Verified
Copyright (c) 1995-2011 Al von Ruff.
ISFDB Engine - Version 4.00 (04/24/06)
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Spooky House
From the Super Mario Wiki
Jump to: navigation, search
Mario and Donkey Kong battling outside the Spooky House.
Spooky House is a place in Mario vs. Donkey Kong. The place is also the fourth main world of the game found in a haunted mansion. In the boss battle against Donkey Kong in the Spooky House Mario must pick-up the Shy Guys that Donkey Kong throws and hurl them back at him.
[edit] Enemies
Personal tools
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"warc_url": "http://www.ohloh.net/p/tortoisesvn/contributors/13660143798155"
}
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High Activity
Contributors : xingyu.wang@gmail.com
Analyzed 4 days ago based on code collected 4 days ago.
Activity on TortoiseSVN by xingyu.wang@gmail.com
All-time Commits: 1
12-Month Commits: 0
30-Day Commits: 0
Overall Kudo Rank:
First Commit: 28-Oct-2010
Last Commit: 28-Oct-2010
Names in SCM: xingyu.wang@gmail.com
Commit history:
Recent Kudos...
... for TortoiseSVN given by:
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Copyright © 2013 Black Duck Software, Inc. and its contributors, Some Rights Reserved. Unless otherwise marked, this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License . Ohloh ® and the Ohloh logo are trademarks of Black Duck Software, Inc. in the United States and/or other jurisdictions. All other trademarks are the property of their respective holders.
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{
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"url": "www.werelate.org/wiki/Person:Katie_Starlight_%281%29",
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"warc_url": "http://www.werelate.org/wiki/Person:Katie_Starlight_(1)"
}
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Person:Katie Starlight (1)
Watchers
Katie Starlight
Facts and Events
Name Katie Starlight
Gender Female
Birth? 1893 Alberta, Canada
Census[2] 1906 Calgary, Alberta, CanadaSarcee Indian Reserve
Census[1] 1911 Calgary, Alberta, CanadaSarcee Reserve
References
1. Canada. 1911 Census of Canada. (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Library and Archives Canada).
Census Place: , Calgary, Alberta; Page: 1; Family No: 5.
2. Canada. Census and Statistics Office. Census of the Northwest Provinces, 1906.
Census Place: 29, Calgary, Alberta; Page: 5; Family No: 71.
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"url": "yourretailhelper.blogspot.com/2011/08/aeropostale-ps-from-aeropostale-30-off.html",
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}
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Looking for a Store/Retail Deal? Search here.
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Thursday, August 11, 2011
Aeropostale & PS from Aeropostale 30% Off Friends & Family Sale Exp 8/14
Aeropostale and PS from Aeropostale are having their Friends & Family Sale now through August 14th. Get 30% off your purchase in-store or online.
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1 reputation
bio website
location on the server farm
age
visits member for 2 years, 8 months
seen Sep 20 '10 at 17:38
stats profile views 0
Hi, I'm not really a person.
I'm a background process that helps keep this site clean!
I do things like
• Randomly poke old unanswered questions every hour so they get some attention
• Own community questions and answers so nobody gets unnecessary reputation from them
• Own downvotes on spam/evil posts that get permanently deleted
• Own suggested edits from anonymous users
This user has not answered any questions
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2,232 Votes Cast
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473 up 1,002 question 53 20 1
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Wikia
Changes: SRD:Two-Weapon Defense
Edit
Back to page
(Changes references from (Endhaven) to (Endhaven Supplmenet))
m (1 revision: More SRD/format)
Latest revision as of 02:37, August 12, 2009
This material is published under the OGL
Two-Weapon Defense [General]Edit
PrerequisitesEdit
Dex 15, Two-Weapon Fighting.
BenefitEdit
When wielding a double weapon or two weapons (not including natural weapons or unarmed strikes), you gain a +1 shield bonus to your AC.
When you are fighting defensively or using the total defense action, this shield bonus increases to +2.
SpecialEdit
A fighter may select Two-Weapon Defense as one of his fighter bonus feats.
Back to Main PageSystem Reference DocumentFeats
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User:Jrspruitt
From eLinux.org
Revision as of 00:11, 4 July 2011 by Jrspruitt (Talk | contribs)
(diff) ← Older revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)
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Name: Jason Pruitt
Email: jrspruitt(gmail.com)
Blog
Project Pages
I'm a hobbyist, I enjoy building and reverse engineering. I'm more of a programmer than an EE, but love turning on the soldering iron, and getting my hands dirty.
My experience includes Python, C18, C#, PHP, MySQL, Linux and Windows XP, and PIC micros. I've done a few LCD projects, graphic and character, I'm also involved in hacking the Leapfrog Explorer and Didj. I really enjoy reverse engineering, it is a very fun puzzle, but also thoroughly enjoy taking raw materials and creating a working thing out of them. One of my favorite aspects is data protocols, I find the digital communication an interesting subject.
I've only been involved since 2008 or so in the hardware aspect of things, so I'm still new and constantly learning.
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Quotation added by staff
Why not add this quote to your bookmarks?
You may live in an imperfect world but the frontiers are not closed and the doors are not all shut. Maltz, Maxwell
This quote is about adversity · Search on Google Books to find all references and sources for this quotation.
A bit about Maltz, Maxwell ...
Maxwell Maltz (1899-1975) was a cosmetic surgeon who developed Psycho-Cybernetics, a system of ideas that can be employed to improve one's self image and in turn lead a more successful and fulfilling life. He wrote several books, among which Psycho-Cybernetics was a long-time bestseller that undoubtedly influenced many subsequent self-help teachers.
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
Make and then buy your OWN fantastic personalized gift from this quote
The production of too many useful things results in too many useless people. Marx, Karl
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
Click here to buy this »
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SCP-298
rating: +26+x
Item #: SCP-298
Object Class: Safe
Special Containment Procedures: SCP-298 is to remain disassembled at all times when experimentation is not being performed. To prevent theft and incorporation of pieces of SCP-298 into other devices, each piece has been stamped with an individualized serial number, as well as a [DATA EXPUNGED] to aid in reacquiring lost parts as well as to prevent the introduction of counterfeit components replacing original components of SCP-298.
Description: SCP-298 is a chamber organ of indeterminate manufacture. It is believed to have been created sometime in the 1400s, in the then Holy Roman Empire. As per all pipe organs created before 1450, it has no stop controls. It is unknown if SCP-298 has possessed the unexplained physical effects from playing it for the duration of its existence, or if an unknown event altered it at some time in the past.
When played, SCP-298 induces the blood within human subjects to slowly expel itself from the subjects' bodies while simultaneously assuming the consistency of fibrous matter such as cellulose. SCP-298 has not been observed to affect the blood of subjects standing within a semi-circular arc of thirty (30) degrees with a radius of two (2) meters behind the keyboard of the organ. While this effect is taking place, surviving subjects report being paralyzed by a tremendous physical force. The effect of SCP-298 only lasts while the organ is being played. These effects prove fatal in most cases, correlated closely with the duration that SCP-298 is played. Those affected by SCP-298 show symptoms of shock consistent with blood loss or hypertension.
It has been determined that the mechanism of effect of SCP-298 is purely sonic in nature. Though in physical proximity to SCP-298 while it was being played, subjects placed within a soundproofed chamber were completely unaffected by the device. Experimentation with active noise control has not yet been able to completely neutralize the effect of SCP-298. The most advanced noise control systems have reduced the effects to limited hypertension as well as feelings of intense pain and pressure as reported by experimental subjects.
High-fidelity recordings of the tones emitted by SCP-298 do not replicate the effects of SCP-298. It appears there is an additional sonic component of the SCP which has not yet been discovered which provides for the physical transformation of the blood.
Examination of the physical, chemical, and elemental composition of the altered blood has yielded some data. The blood expelled from the body retains its ability to absorb oxygen. In an oxygen-deprived environment, the blood assumes a dark brown color. In a vacuum environment, the hemoglobin deoxygenates, and assumes a purple color. Upon introduction of sufficient oxygen, the color change to bright red is nearly instantaneous. These effects are entirely consistent with the chemical properties of normal blood. Further analytic chemistry has, for the most part, been able to determine that the altered blood is identical to regular blood in terms of its chemistry.
In terms of physical properties, however, blood affected by SCP-298 is a completely different material. It possesses extraordinary elastic properties. Stress experiments to date have not yet reached the yield limit. None of the observed deformations of the altered blood material displayed any degree of inelasticity. It has required an extraordinary amount of force to cause the tendrils of altered blood material to break. The greatest successes in this area have been achieved by actions altering the chemical composition of the blood (i.e. such as burning). Blood affected by SCP-298 will remain at a temperature of near 38 degrees C (100 degrees F) for the duration of the phenomena.
Further changes to physical properties are inconsistent and appear to be somewhat related to the specific audible tones emitted by SCP-298. The changes are not permanent — if the organ has not been played for 47 seconds, any altered blood returns to a liquid state. The appearance that the altered blood takes once it expels itself from the body has been likened to leafless trees.
Placing components of SCP-298 in other organs such that they become a working piece of the other organ will cause this organ to generate effects related to SCP-298. Though not as dramatic a physical transformation, affected organs have been able to generate spontaneous bleeding in test subjects as well as increased viscosity in blood. This generally includes the player as well.
Over time, some of the original components of SCP-298 have required maintenance and replacement. Replacement of individual components with suitable replications do not seem to affect the functioning of the mechanism as a whole. Though this effect is not immediately observed in the replacement parts, over time replacement parts will acquire the ability to generate effects when played in organs otherwise unrelated to SCP-298.
SCP-298 will affect blood drawn from humans before they are exposed to its effects so long as such blood is near human body temperature. As such, further research with human subjects is to be suspended. Further tests into the physical properties of the altered blood can be continued with blood harvested from volunteers.
Addenda:
298a: The pieces of SCP-298 are not to be destroyed. Further research into the extraphysical mechanism behind the sudden change in the physical properties of the blood of humans must be undertaken. The benefit of being able to replicate the mechanism of the transformation of the physical properties of common substances could revolutionize industry and construction.
298b: No. The pending request to use the Foundation's sensitive interferometer on research with 298 has been denied. While I do not wish to denigrate the research wing of our group, I really think you guys need to glance at the bottom line of some of the things you request. 298 is just not important enough to warrant the expense.
O5-██
Unless otherwise stated, the content of this page is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
8731.2 - Building Approvals, Victoria, Jun 1996
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 06/08/1996
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
• About this Release
Monthly; ISSN:1031-1998; Number of dwelling units and value of residential buildings approved (houses and other residential by type) for private sector and public sector; value of alterations and additions to residential buildings and value of non-residential building by class of building (eg. hotels, offices, etc.) approved. Number of dual occupancy dwelling units approved. Includes some data for Melbourne Statistical Division and the rest of Victoria, and statistical division, and by statistical local area. Constant price and seasonally adjusted data and trend estimates are included for selected series, together with a reliability analysis of contemporary trend estimates.
This publication has been converted from older electronic formats and does not necessarily have the same appearance and functionality as later releases.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
Celebrating the International Year of Statistics 2013
ABS Home > Statistics > By Release Date
8731.4 - Building Approvals, South Australia, Aug 1995
Previous ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 29/09/1995
Page tools: Print Page Print All RSS Search this Product
• About this Release
Monthly; ISSN:0810-4743; Number of dwelling units and value of residential buildings (houses and other residential) approved for private and public sectors, value of alterations and additions to residential buildings and value of non-residential building by class of building (eg. hotels, offices, etc.) approved. Value of building approved at average 1989-90 prices and seasonally adjusted and trend estimates of number of dwelling units approved. Includes some information for selected statistical local areas and number and value of houses approved by material of outer walls.
This publication has been converted from older electronic formats and does not necessarily have the same appearance and functionality as later releases.
© Commonwealth of Australia 2013
Unless otherwise noted, content on this website is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Australia Licence together with any terms, conditions and exclusions as set out in the website Copyright notice. For permission to do anything beyond the scope of this licence and copyright terms contact us.
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Database
Fungal Secretome Database: Integrated platform for annotation of fungal secretomes
Jaeyoung Choi1,2,3, Jongsun Park1,2,3,4, Donghan Kim1,2,3, Kyongyong Jung1,2,3, Seogchan Kang6 and Yong-Hwan Lee1,2,3,4,5*
Author Affiliations
1 Fungal Bioinformatics Laboratory, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Korea
2 Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Korea
3 Center for Fungal Pathogenesis, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Korea
4 Center for Fungal Genetic Resources, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Korea
5 Center for Agricultural Biomaterials, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Korea
6 Department of Plant Pathology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
For all author emails, please log on.
BMC Genomics 2010, 11:105 doi:10.1186/1471-2164-11-105
Published: 11 February 2010
Abstract
Background
Fungi secrete various proteins that have diverse functions. Prediction of secretory proteins using only one program is unsatisfactory. To enhance prediction accuracy, we constructed Fungal Secretome Database (FSD).
Description
A three-layer hierarchical identification rule based on nine prediction programs was used to identify putative secretory proteins in 158 fungal/oomycete genomes (208,883 proteins, 15.21% of the total proteome). The presence of putative effectors containing known host targeting signals such as RXLX [EDQ] and RXLR was investigated, presenting the degree of bias along with the species. The FSD's user-friendly interface provides summaries of prediction results and diverse web-based analysis functions through Favorite, a personalized repository.
Conclusions
The FSD can serve as an integrated platform supporting researches on secretory proteins in the fungal kingdom. All data and functions described in this study can be accessed on the FSD web site at http://fsd.snu.ac.kr/ webcite.
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Research article
Transcriptome sequencing and microarray development for the Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum: genomic tools for environmental monitoring
Massimo Milan1,2*, Alessandro Coppe3, Richard Reinhardt4, Leonor M Cancela5, Ricardo B Leite5, Carlos Saavedra6, Claudio Ciofi2, Guido Chelazzi2, Tomaso Patarnello1, Stefania Bortoluzzi3 and Luca Bargelloni1
Author Affiliations
1 Department of Public Health, Comparative Pathology, and Veterinary Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Padova, Viale dell'Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Italy
2 Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Florence, 50125 Florence, Italy
3 Biology Department, University of Padova, Via G. Colombo 3, I-35131 Padova, Italy
4 Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Ihnestraße 63-73, 14195 Berlin, Germany
5 CCMAR/University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal
6 Instituto de Acuicultura de Torre la Sal (IATS), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC), 12595 Ribera de Cabanes, Castellon, Spain
For all author emails, please log on.
BMC Genomics 2011, 12:234 doi:10.1186/1471-2164-12-234
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2164/12/234
Received:19 November 2010
Accepted:12 May 2011
Published:12 May 2011
© 2011 Milan et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Background
The Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum, is one of the major aquaculture species in the world and a potential sentinel organism for monitoring the status of marine ecosystems. However, genomic resources for R. philippinarum are still extremely limited. Global analysis of gene expression profiles is increasingly used to evaluate the biological effects of various environmental stressors on aquatic animals under either artificial conditions or in the wild. Here, we report on the development of a transcriptomic platform for global gene expression profiling in the Manila clam.
Results
A normalized cDNA library representing a mixture of adult tissues was sequenced using a ultra high-throughput sequencing technology (Roche 454). A database consisting of 32,606 unique transcripts was constructed, 9,747 (30%) of which could be annotated by similarity. An oligo-DNA microarray platform was designed and applied to profile gene expression of digestive gland and gills. Functional annotation of differentially expressed genes between different tissues was performed by enrichment analysis. Expression of Natural Antisense Transcripts (NAT) analysis was also performed and bi-directional transcription appears a common phenomenon in the R. philippinarum transcriptome. A preliminary study on clam samples collected in a highly polluted area of the Venice Lagoon demonstrated the applicability of genomic tools to environmental monitoring.
Conclusions
The transcriptomic platform developed for the Manila clam confirmed the high level of reproducibility of current microarray technology. Next-generation sequencing provided a good representation of the clam transcriptome. Despite the known limitations in transcript annotation and sequence coverage for non model species, sufficient information was obtained to identify a large set of genes potentially involved in cellular response to environmental stress.
Background
The Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum (Adams & Reeve, 1850) is a bivalve mollusc of the family Veneridae native to the Indo-Pacific region. Because of its commercial value as seafood, this species has been introduced to other regions, where it has become permanently established. In Europe it was first imported in 1972 in France. Additional introductions occurred from Oregon to the United Kingdom, followed by numerous transfers within European waters for aquaculture purposes (Portugal, Ireland, Spain, and Italy). Natural reproduction of introduced individuals favored geographical expansion into the wild, particularly in Italy, France, Spain and Ireland where the Manila clam proved to be more resistant and grew faster than the endemic carpet-shell clam, R. decussatus. Consequently, R. philippinarum displaced its autochthonous congeneric species in most areas, and now represents the most important species for commercial clam landings in Europe. Globally, harvest of R. philippinarum has experienced a dramatic increase in the last 20 years, currently representing one of the major aquacultured species in the world (3.36 million metric tons in 2008). China is by far the leading producer (97.4% of total annual production) while Italy has a smaller but yet conspicuous production of over 65,000 tonnes per year [1].
Despite the relevance of Manila clam landings in world aquaculture, genomic resources for R. philippinarum are still extremely limited [2]. A small set of genetic markers is available [3] and only 5,707 transcripts has been sequenced and are already available on GENBANK. Although R. philippinarum is considered a robust species, capable of adapting to a wide range of environments, infectious diseases, chronic parasitic (e.g. Perkinsus -like microorganisms) and bacterial (e.g. brown ring bacterial disease) infections, it has been suffering mass mortality that have caused severe production losses in different areas (European Atlantic waters, Yellow Sea) [1]. The impact of infections is often aggravated under particular environmental conditions, such as extreme temperatures or limited availability of oxygen or nutrients. However, massive mortalities are rarely explained by a single parameter. An understanding of the interactions among different biotic and abiotic factors influencing survival is therefore a high priority for clam aquaculture. Functional genomics, or more specifically physiological genomics, i.e. a global analysis of transcriptome responses to different conditions, offers unprecedented opportunities to achieve such a goal. For instance, a genomic analysis was recently used to investigate summer mortality in the Pacific oyster [4]. To this end, the development of transcriptomic tools for the Manila clam is the first necessary step.
A second and possibly more important application of global gene expression profiling in R. philippinarum is environmental monitoring. Genomic technologies are increasingly used to evaluate the biological effects of various chemical pollutants on aquatic animals under either controlled conditions or in natural environments (e.g. [5,6]). While several hurdles remain to be overcome, the outlook for eco-toxicogenomics is extremely promising [7]. A sessile, filter-feeding organism living in the seafloor sediment, R. philippinarum represents an excellent "sentinel" species to assess the quality of marine environment. Two recent studies correlating different biochemical, cellular, and organismal markers with levels of pollutants in the sediment [8] or accumulated in the animals [9] support this view. However, a limited set of multiple biomarkers is usually employed in most of the studies. Therefore, a transcriptomic approach could provide a much broader analysis of different biological processes allowing for an integrated description of responses to xenobiotics [5,6].
The aim of the present study was to fill the gap in transcriptome sequence data available for the Manila clam and to develop a reliable and informative platform for global gene expression profiling, to be then applied to environmental monitoring. To this end, next-generation sequencing was coupled with a technology, in situ synthesized oligo array, which has provided a robust and flexible microarray platform in other species using conventional Sanger sequencing [10-18].
To date, 454 mollusc data are available only for Mytilus galloprovincialis and Bathymodiolus azoricus [19,20], and to our knowledge, this is the first report of an oligo DNA microarray developed using ultra-high throughput pyrosequencing in a mollusc species. A free web-accessible database including extensive transcript annotation and a blast search option was also developed in support of the gene expression platform.
In order to assess the feasibility of this newly developed R.philippinarum microarray to toxicogenomics, a preliminary investigation has been performed by profiling gene expression in gills and digestive glands of clams sampled in the industrial area of Marghera, a highly polluted site of the Venice Lagoon, compared to animals sampled in a clean area of the lagoon of Venice.
Results and Discussion
Next-generation sequencing and hybrid contig assembly
Starting from a total of 463,424 sequences (see Methods), a first run of hybrid assembly grouped 191,624 reads (41%) into 40,477 contigs. The resulting assembled sequences and the remaining singletons were then used as input for a second MIRA run (see methods) of assembly in order to produce meta-contigs from a fraction of partially redundant contigs obtained by the first run. This approach produced a set of 32,606 contigs. Summary statistics of the ESTs generated for R. philippinarum and their assembly are reported in Table 1. Figure 1 shows the distribution of sequence length and the relationship between length and average quality for the 32,606 contigs. All Roche 454 FLX reads have been deposited in GenBank (GenBank:SRR058508.1-SRR058508.457717).
Table 1. Summary of generated Ruditapes philippinarum ESTs and assembly results with statistics describing different properties of transcriptome contig sequences available in Ruditapes philippinarum Database (compgen.bio.unipd.it/RuphiBase)
Figure 1. Sequence length and average quality. Distribution of sequence length and relationship between sequences length and average quality for the set of 32,606 contigs.
Transcriptome annotation
Putative identities of assembled contigs and meta-contigs were obtained by running Blastx and Blastn similarity searches on several protein and nucleotide databases (see Additional file 1). Of 32,606 unique sequences, 7,907 (24%) showed at least one significant match (e < 10-5) in the NCBI non-redundant protein database. The use of Blast2GO software allowed the association of one or more GO terms to 6,867 R. philippinarum data base entries. Of these, 2,788 were linked to "Biological Process" (BP) GO entries, 2,880 to "Cellular Component" (CC) entries, and 3,141 to "Molecular Function" (MF) entries. Unique GO terms represented in R. philippinarum entries were 1,515 for BP, 380 for CC, and 655 for MF. A simplified view of these GO terms using a "Generic GO Slim" showed 46 BP, 30 CC, and 34 MF classes (see Additional File 2).
Additional file 1. Summary of Blastx (E-value < 10-3) and Blastn (E-value < 10-5) similarity searches on several protein and nucleotide databases for R.philippinarum transcripts annotation.
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Additional file 2. GO terms associated to R. philippinarum transcripts represented in the microarray using "Generic GO slim" in Blast2GO software. Details about "Biological process", "Molecular function" and "Cellular component" GO terms.
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In addition to the annotation with Blast2GO, Blast searches against UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot database, UniProtKB/TrEMBL database and 26 different species-specific data bases (see Additiona file 1) were implemented in order to further increase the number of putatively annotated R. philippinarum contigs (see Methods for details). This approach provided a significant match for additional 1,840 transcripts, which showed no previous correspondence with either the NCBI non-redundant protein or nucleotide database, and brought the final number of clam entries associated with a known protein or transcript to 9,747 (30%).
RuphiBase, a Ruditapes philippinarum database
All 32,606 contig sequences as well as different layers of results for data analysis are available through RuphiBase [21], a free web-accessible database implemented using MySQL and Django web framework. RuphiBase is centered on contig sequence and annotation, and can be searched by contig ID and key word match on different textual fields. Moreover, it allows the user to conduct a local BLAST search on the fly against the transcripts database, in order to identify one or more transcripts significantly similar to a given query sequence. Indeed, massive and customizable data retrieval is provided by a browsing system. For each contig, a gene-like entry shows different data and bioinformatic analyses results according to the scheme detailed below:
Contig information. For each contig, identified by an ID and a preliminary description, the FASTA sequence is given, along with an informative contig description, which is defined by the Blast2GO natural language text mining functionality, applied to BLAST hits description. The best hit is used when a BLAST2GO description is unavailable.
Assembly. The list of reads belonging to the contig is given together with two FASTA files which include all read sequences, contig with reads and ESTs sequences and ACE format multiple alignment of the contig with reads and ESTs.
Gene Ontology. GO terms associated to each transcript are given for BP, MF, and CC, with hyper-link to the GO database.
BLAST results. BLAST results, for both nucleotide and protein database searches, are shown in a dedicated section in the classic BLAST output format. These results are hyperlinked to external databases, and include the list of alignment descriptions and details about the pairwise alignments of each transcript with the corresponding BLAST hits.
Microarray quality assessment
A total of seven microarray experiments (three biological replicates for gills and four for the digestive gland) were carried out. After data extraction, hybridization success for each probe was inferred if flag "glsFound" values was equal to 1 (see Methods). Across all experiments, only 131 probes (0.3%) never showed a signal higher than the background, while 19,360 probes (46%) were always successful and 37,379 (88%) were successful in at least four experiments.
To evaluate the repeatability of the array results, microarray data for the digestive gland (four biological replicates, each replicate consisting of a pool of five individuals) were normalized. The degree of mutual agreement between replicates was assessed by estimating the Pearson correlation coefficients (r) on the entire set of expression values. Pairwise comparisons of replicate experiments showed correlation coefficients with r > 0.99 and were always significant (p-value < 0.01) (see Table 2), confirming a good reproducibility of the microarray platform. Normalized fluorescence data for these comparisons have been deposited in the GEO database [22] under accession numbers GEO:GSE24050. The Manila clam microarray platform is characterized also by the presence of two duplicated probes, at different coordinates on the same array, for a total of 2,000 annotated transcripts. The variability between two identical probes for the same transcript was evaluated using the ratio between the two probe intensity levels (fold-change, FC) as a measure of signal difference. This ratio is expected to assume a value around 1. In Figure 2 each box plot describes the distribution of observed fold-changes between Probe_1 and Probe_2 for each array experiment in the digestive gland and gills pools. This is symmetrical, centered around 1 and equal across all the experiments. Concordance of hybridization signal for probe pairs was confirmed by estimating Pearson correlation coefficients between Probe_1 and Probe_2 for each gene across seven experiments. The correlation coefficient was always greater than 0.95 and highly significant (p < 0.0001) (data not shown).
Table 2. Correlation coefficients on the entire set of expression values across biological replicates (**p-value < 0.01)
Figure 2. Correlation between Probe_1 and Probe_2. Distribution of observed fold-changes between Probe_1 and Probe_2 for each array experiment in the digestive gland (DG) and gill (GI) pools (P).
Comparison of gene expression in the digestive gland and gills
Fluorescence data microarray experiments of three biological replicates consisting of pooled digestive glands and three pools of gills sampled in Alberoni, a clean area in the Venice Lagoon, were normalized and used to identify genes that were differentially expressed in different tissues.
Digestive glands and gills were chosen because of their relevant role on detoxification of xenobiotics as well as filtration of suspended matter and as defense barrier, respectively. These are cellular/organismal processes crucial in the response to chemical pollutants and/or pathogens exposure. Processed data were deposited in the GEO database [22] under accession number GSE24101. A two-unpaired class Significance Analysis of Microarray (SAM) test was carried out on normalized data, enforcing a False Discovery Rate (FDR) of 3%. A list of 10,159 significant probes, corresponding to 8,512 unique transcripts, was obtained. A total of 2,880 transcripts were up-regulated in pooled samples of digestive gland compared to gills with a FC ranging from 3 to 23,550, while a total of 7,279 transcripts was up-regulated in the gills compared to the digestive gland with a FC ranging from 3 to 18,200. A putative annotation could be obtained for 3,491 genes that were differentially expressed in the two tissues (see Additional file 3). A more systematic functional interpretation of the set of differentially expressed genes was obtained by an enrichment analysis using the Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) software [23] with two alternative strategies. In the first case, R. philippinarum entries were matched to human Ensembl Gene IDs, while in the second strategy R. philippinarum entries were associated with zebrafish Ensembl Gene IDs (see Methods). Human or zebrafish IDs corresponding to differentially expressed Manila clam transcripts and to all genes represented on the array were then used to define a "gene list" and a "background" in DAVID, respectively. This allows functional annotation of differentially expressed genes through enrichment analyses based on an integrated biological knowledgebase, containing over 40 annotation categories. The second strategy allowed the assignment of a putative homologue to a larger number of clam transcripts. In total, 406 genes up-regulated in the digestive gland and 660 genes up-regulated in the gills found a corresponding functional annotation in DAVID. Enrichment analysis for up-regulated transcripts in the digestive gland showed 5 KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathways, 20 Biological Process (BP) terms, 5 Cellular Component (CC) terms, and 16 Molecular Function (MF) terms to be significantly over-represented (see Table 3). Enriched gene sets were involved in typical liver and pancreas metabolic processes such as cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of xenobiotics, retinol metabolism and glutathione metabolism. The digestive gland of molluscs is also called "hepatopancreas" and integrates functions that are liver- and pancreas-specific in vertebrates. A notch signaling pathway was found among enriched KEGG pathways, although with a low statistical significance value (P = 0.09). This pathway has a role in timely cell lineage specification of both endocrine and exocrine pancreas.
Additional file 3. Lists of annotated differentially expressed genes in digestive gland compared to gills. Score, Fold change, q-value and annotation on several protein and nucleotide database were also reported.
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Table 3. GO terms significantly represented among up-regulated genes in digestive gland compared to gills tissue
Enrichment analysis on genes that were up-regulated in gills showed 10 KEGG pathway terms, 36 BP-GO terms, 35 CC-GO terms and 11 MF-GO terms, all significantly over-represented (see table 4). Genes over-expressed in the gills were involved in different cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration. Two signaling pathways, Wnt and JAK-STAT, appeared to be significantly over-represented. The Wnt signaling pathway, with 13 genes over-expressed in gills, describes a complex network of proteins with a broad role in embryogenesis as well as in several cell processes of adult animals. The JAK-STAT signaling pathway transduces information from various chemical signals outside the cell to transcriptional regulation and it is involved in a wide array of cell activities. Other significant pathways, RIG-I-like receptor, NOD-like receptor, and Toll-like receptor signaling suggest a relevant role of immune response for the gills. This is supported by the large amount of hemocytes present in the gills and the presence of lectins and lysozyme among differentially expressed genes (data not shown). Enrichment in genes involved in blood vessel and vascular development is expected in a highly vascularized tissue as the gills, while over-representation of microtubule-associated proteins might reflect the importance of cytoskeletal structures in gill epithelia.
Table 4. Biological Process (BP), Cellular Component (CC), KEGG pathways (KP) and Molecular Function (MF) significantly represented by at least 10 genes up-regulated in gills compared to digestive gland
Strand orientation and antisense transcripts
As already mentioned, a great majority of probes showed a higher-than-background signal in four or more experiments, and nearly all of them in at least one. Since for 16,052 transcripts two probes with opposite orientation were designed, bi-directional transcription appears a common phenomenon in the clam transcriptome. In fact, it is now clear that animal genomes are transcribed on both strands [24-26] and it is not to be excluded that part of the analyzed transcripts has a functional role [27]. In order to further explore this issue, microarray data for digestive glands and gills were analysed by examining sense-antisense probe pairs. After the exclusion of probes with missing data, absolute mean fluorescence signal values (f) obtained across biological replicates after normalization were divided into four classes (f < 10, 10 < = f < 100, 100 < = f < 1000, f < = 1000). Class assignment was conducted by considering the mean fluorescence value of the probe showing the lower signal for each pair comparison. Likewise, Fold Change (FC) between sense and antisense probes for each probe pair was assigned to four classes (FC < 1.5, 1.5 < = FC < 3, 3 < = FC < 10, FC > = 10). Our results showed that 75% and 73.5% of probe-pairs had a signal ratio >3 in the gills and digestive gland, respectively, and 60% reported a signal ratio >10 in both tissues (see Table 5). This suggested a prevalent strand-orientation for the majority of transcribed regions in the clam genome. On the other hand, the absolute fluorescence for the "minor" strand was greater than 100 for 1,267 (8.8%) and 985 (6.5%) probe-pairs in the gills and digestive gland, respectively. In addition, a signal ratio < 3 and a minimum of fluorescence >100 was recorded for 223 (1.6%) probe-pairs in the gills and 151 (1%) probe-pairs in the digestive gland. These results suggested that natural antisense transcripts (NATs) may be present in the clam transcriptome. Natural antisense transcripts have been originally identified by searching for EST collections, and appear to be widespread across species, although at different frequencies [28]. Various putative functions have been proposed for NATs [29]. For instance, an important role in the production of endogenous siRNAs is increasingly recognized [30]. A relevant question is whether NAT transcription is correlated, either positively or negatively, with the expression of their sense counterpart or it is independent of it. This was evaluated by analyzing gene/transcripts represented with both sense and antisense probes pairs with SAM, in order to identify those that were differentially expressed in gills and digestive glands (see Table 6). Setting a threshold for FC to 1.5 and enforcing a relatively stringent FDR (< 0.01), for 688 genes both probes presented a significant q value. Of these, 658 showed concordant direction in sense/antisense regulation, while for 30 genes the two probes were up-regulated in the gills and the digestive gland, respectively. Under a less stringent FDR (< 0.1), 3,042 probe-pairs resulted differentially regulated, with a proportion of paired probes expressed in opposite directions (0.05) similar to the one observed above (0.04)..
Table 5. Comparison between sense and antisense probes for each probe pair
Table 6. Gene/transcripts represented with both sense and antisense probe pairs differentially expressed between gills and digestive gland (FC threshold set to 1.5)
Clam genomic markers for environmental monitoring
A wide array of biochemical, cellular, and whole-organism markers have been applied to evaluate the biological effects of different types of pollutants in aquatic animals and to assess the status of marine ecosystems [31,32]. For instance, over-expression of metallothioneins (MTs) has been associated with exposure to heavy metals, inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) with organophosphorous, pesticide exposure, and induction of Vitellogenin (Vg) proteins (egg-yolk precursors) with the presence of xenoestrogens (endocrine-disruptors).
In the R. philippinarum platform developed in this study at least four transcripts (ruditapes_c21946, ruditapes_c30181, ruditapes_c7664, ruditapes_c12315) that appear to be AChE precursors and ten different expressed sequences (ruditapes_lrc32058, ruditapes_lrc32676, ruditapes2_c61, ruditapes2_c830, ruditapes2_lrc2117, ruditapes2_lrc4331, ruditapes2_lrc4377, ruditapes2_lrc4388, ruditapes2_lrc5136, ruditapes2_lrc5747) coding for a putative metallothionein were incorporated into the microarray. Finally, a transcript (ruditapes_c16240) showing a significant match with invertebrate Vg proteins was also included. It is worth mentioning that the lack of a specific anti-Vg antibody for many species impairs direct measure of such biomarker, and only indirect estimates of Vg concentration can be obtained using an alkali-labile phosphate (ALP) assay.
At the cellular level, loss of lysosomal membrane integrity has been observed as a consequence of oxidative stress induced by several class of chemicals. Reduced lysosomal membrane stability is also linked to increased autophagy [33]. To which extent these biochemical and cellular markers might be mirrored by gene expression markers present in RuphiBase based on GO-CC annotation, 73 lysosomal proteins including several cathepsins and other hydrolases could be found in the current clam transcriptome. Of note is a putative homolog (ruditapes_c23093) for Autophagic Transcript 12 (ATG12), an ubiquitin-like modifier necessary for macroautophagy, while several RuphiBase entries match with p14/ROBLD3, which is part of a protein complex that recruits mTOR (Mammalian Target Of Rapamycin), a key negative regulator of autophagy, to the lysosome membrane [34]. Further studies may be conducted to test whether chemical pollutants affecting lysosomal stability can induce alterations in expression levels of lysosomal and/or autophagy-related proteins. Indeed, tributyltin chloride has recently been shown to inhibit mTOR in neuronal cells [35].
A separate discussion is required for GSTs, which constitute a large protein family [36], with a pivotal role in detoxification of xeno-compounds. These enzymes, involved in the conjugation of reduced glutathione to electrophilic centers on a wide variety of substrates, contribute to the detoxification of endogenous compounds (e.g. peroxidised lipids) as well as xenobiotics, and an increased GST activity has been observed after exposure to a broad set of pollutants. A total of 118 RuphiBase entries were annotated as putative GSTs of different subfamilies. Apart from four microsomal GSTs, putative cytosolic GSTs were divided into five subfamilies: 61 GST-σ, 21 GST-θ, 11 GST-π, 7 GST-μ, 4 GST-ω and 10 unclassified GST isoforms. Comparison of clam transcripts against single-species complete transcriptomes revealed the highest number of matches (69) with zebrafish., 33 α-like GSTs, 7 GST-μ, and 29 GST-π isoforms were identified. Human-clam comparison returned only 36 matches, although subfamily classification was more complex with 6 GST-μ, 10 GST-π, 1 GST-ξ, 15 GST-θ and 4 GST-ω isoforms. To further explore the incongruence between different annotations, we conducted a detailed analysis of the 29 GST-π isoforms classified on the basis of similarity against zebrafish. Eight transcripts showed an open reading frame (ORF) encoding a putative complete coding sequence for GST, while four transcripts presented an ORF encoding a partial GST coding sequence. The remaining sequences (17) contained either partial or complete GST coding sequences with reading frames interrupted by stop codons. Comparative sequence analysis revealed that these frame-shifts were always due to insertions/deletions (indels) within short homopolymeric stretches, a known problem with 454 pyrosequencing technology [37]. A phylogenetic tree was then reconstructed (see Figure 3) using the eight complete RuphiBase GSTs together with the best matching protein from GenBank as well as from human and zebrafish putative homologs (see Methods). It is clear that the classification based on comparison with zebrafish is incorrect, hiding two groups of sequences, one belonging to the σ subfamily, the other containing bona fide GST-π proteins. Using Blast results, the remaining 21 partial and/or interrupted ORFs were assigned to one GST sequence present in the tree in Figure 3, to obtain a classification of all 29 sequences originally assigned to the π subfamily. A tree-like representation is better suited to analyze and display the evolution of protein families or sub-families including a large number of multiple gene copies. The gene genealogy in Figure 3 is just an example of what is expected in case of a significant multiplicity is observed, as is the case of the the subset of GST-encoding transcripts analyzed here. To which extent different GST sequences reflect the presence of distinct GST loci in the clam genome? Pairwise comparison of best matching clam sequences across 29 GST-encoding transcripts (average length 742 bp, range 286-1130 bp) showed that one third of sequence differences (145 out of 14,042 surveyed bp, average 1%, range 0-3%) was due to indels, a likely consequence of sequencing errors, but the majority (269, average 1.9% range 0.1-11%) are nucleotide replacements, which are much less frequently observed with 454 pyrosequencing technology. For 15 sequences the closest match has 1% sequence divergence, for 11 more than 2%. Therefore, although part of the observed sequence diversity might be explained as different alleles of single GST loci, a substantial number of GST isoforms appear to be encoded by different genes. It should also be reminded here that this is a conservative estimate because in most comparisons only a fragment of the total sequence for each transcript, generally the one encompassing the coding region, was aligned (average 79%, range 33-100%). A similar problem of classification affects 21 sequences assigned to the θ GST subfamily, with 18 transcripts finding a Pleuronectes platessa (plaice) θ GST as their best match in SwissProt. This plaice θ GST has been recently re-assigned to a novel GST class, ρ [38]. Therefore, most clam sequences attributed to the θ class might actually belong to this specific GST protein group, similar to the only putative θ GST from a mollusk species isolated so far [39]. On the other hand, the remaining three sequences matched either a mammalian or a avian θ GST protein and might represent the first evidence of molluscan θ GSTs.
Figure 3. Unrooted phylogenetic tree showing the relationships between published and unpuplished GST from R. philippinarum database (bold). Sequences are defined by two-letter species abbreviation followed by the GST symbol (pi or sigma) whenever possible. Bootstrap values are assigned to each interior branch. Values less than 50% are not shown. Genbank or Ensembl accession numbers are as follows: Hs_sigma (ENS:ENSP00000295256), HD_sigma (GenBank::AB026603.1), RP_A (GenBank:ACU832161), Mv (GenBank:ADB91399), Cfa (GenBank:ACL80138), MM_pi1 (GenBank:ABV29188), MM_pi_2 (GenBank:ABV29187), Dp (GenBank:ABP73387), Cfl1_pi (GenBank:ABO47816), Cfli2_pi (GenBank:AAX20374), Le_pi (GenBank:ABV44413), Hs_pi (ENS:ENSP00000381607), Dr_pi1 (ENS:ENSDARP00000004830), Dr_pi2 (ENS:ENDARP000000744422), Me1_pi (GenBank: AAF35893), Me_2pi (GenBank:AAS60226), Mg_pi1 (GenBank: AAM91994), Cc_pi (GenBank:ACJ03598), Cp_pi (GenBank:ADM88875), Ut_pi (GenBank:AAX20373), RP_pi (GenBank:ACM16805).
A correct classification of GST proteins is often difficult [36], but it is mostly important when correlating the expression of different GST-encoding genes with exposure to specific groups of environmental pollutants, as the various GST classes show diverse substrate specificities, catalytic properties, and tissue distribution.
Gene expression profiling of Manila clam sampled in a polluted area of the Venice lagoon
The Venice lagoon, the largest in the Mediterranean sea, is characterized by the presence of complex mixtures of xenobiotics, derived from both industrial and domestic effluents, which reach higher concentrations in specific areas, mainly close to the industrial zone of Marghera. Gene expression profiles of digestive glands and gills from Manila clams harvested in a cleaner area (Alberoni) of the Venice lagoon were compared to the corresponding tissues of clams sampled within the industrial area. This area shows high levels of contamination with different xenobiotics, as confirmed in various studies [40] and it is currently restricted for clam harvesting.
For each tissue and comparison, raw and normalized fluorescence have been deposited in the GEO data base [22] under accession number GEO:GSE27194. A two-unpaired class SAM test was carried out separately for digestive glands and gills on normalized data, enforcing a False Discovery Rate (FDR) of 10% and Fold Change (FC) of 1.5.
Comparison of expression profiles between the two areas revealed a remarkably large number of differentially expressed transcripts in both tissues, respectively 1,127 in the digestive gland and 2,432 in the gills. A limited set of transcripts (99) showed differential expression in both tissues. Fold-change differences varied from -174- to 1,446-fold in the gills, with a prevalence for up-regulated transcripts (1,412) compared to down-regulated ones (1,020) in samples collected in the industrial area. This trend is reversed for transcripts displaying the strongest signal, as 93 probes showed FC > 5 (13 with FC > 10), whereas 120 ones presented FC < -5 (22 with FC > 10). In the digestive gland, FC ranged between -30- and 62-fold. A significant bias toward up-regulated transcripts (852, 75% of all differentially expressed sequences, binomial test p < 0.00001) was observed in animals sampled in the industrial area, a bias that was even stronger for transcripts showing FC larger than ± 5-fold (94 with FC > 5, 26 with FC < -5; binomial test p < 0.000001).
Putative annotations were obtained respectively for 321 digestive gland- and 830 gills-specific transcripts by comparison against the NCBI protein non redundant database. When using the zebrafish transcriptome as a reference, respectively 247 (digestive gland) and 730 (gills) differentially expressed sequences could be associated with one D. rerio Ensembl Gene IDs (see Addition file 4).
In a comparison between natural population samples different environmental and/or physiological factors can influence gene expression profiles. The objective of the present study was to assess the role of chronic exposure to high levels of chemical pollution. To control for the effects of other factors, histological examination of collected animals was carried out showing similar sex ratio (1:1), comparable levels of parasitic contamination, average size (12.3 gr vs 14 gr), and reproductive stage (data not shown). Water temperature and salinity showed no significant differences between the two analyzed areas. Indeed, the temperature and salinity recorded at the time of sampling were 18°C and 32 ‰ and 20°C and 34‰ in Marghera and Alberoni respectively. Likewise, it seems quite difficult that strong genetic differentiation occurs at a such a small geographic scale (few kilometres), in the presence of a planktonic larval phase and a sustained water circulation within the Venice lagoon. Although evidence on population genetics for the Manila clam is limited, it has been shown that no genetic structure was present across four population samples in the Adriatic Sea, including the Venice lagoon [41].
Systematic functional annotation of differentially expressed transcripts, carried out through enrichment analysis in DAVID (see Methods) confirmed a putative role of pollution in the regulation of gene expression in the examined samples, especially in the digestive gland. This organ has been generally associated with response to pollutants, particularly with detoxification of xenobiotics. Three significantly enriched GO_BP terms (see Table 7), response to organic substances (GO:0010033), to cadmium ion (GO:0046686), and to methylmercury (GO:0051597), two enriched KEGG pathways, drug metabolism (dre00982) and metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450 (dre00980), support the evidence that the digestive gland is responsible for detoxification of environmental pollutants and suggests it as a target organ for the detection/identification of biomarkers of pollution. Manual annotation of significant transcripts identified additional genes in the digestive gland with a known role in the response to environmental pollution.
Table 7. GO terms significantly over-represented, among genes differentially expressed, between Alberoni and Marghera samples, in both gills and digestive gland
Four transcripts encoding MTs (ruditapes2_lrc4377, ruditapes_lrc32058, ruditapes2_c830, ruditapes2_lrc4331) and two encoding sulfotransferase (SULT) (ruditapes_c20565, ruditapes_c28883) (see Additional file 4) are over-expressed in samples from the industrial zone. MTs provide protection against metal toxicity, are involved in the regulation of physiological metals (Zn and Cu) and provide protection against oxidative stress. MTs can be induced either by essential metals (Cu and Zn) or non-essential ones (Cd, Ag and Hg) in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Increased levels of MTs after experimental exposure to high Cu concentrations had been already reported in the digestive gland of R. philippinarum [42], while higher MT protein expression had been found in clams collected at sites nearby the industrial zone of Marghera [43-45].
Additional file 4. List of significant probes identified by SAM analysis by comparison of digestive gland and gills of Manila clam sampled in Alberoni and Marghera. Significant probes in common between both tissue were also reported. Down-regulated genes in Marghera samples are highlighted in green while over expressed genes are highlighted in red. For each transcript, fold change, q-value, annotation and homologs zebrafish Ensembl Gene IDs (ENDARP and ENDARG) are reported.
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SULTs, a family of phase II detoxification enzymes, are involved in the homeostasis of endogenous compounds as well as in the protection against xenobiotics. It is well known that sulfated products of environmental xenobiotics are more water-soluble and easily excreted from the body. Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) exposed to Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) showed a marked induction of phenol-type sulfotransferase enzyme activity [46]. In addition, SULT1 was up-regulated in Gadus morhua male sampled in two contaminated sites of western Norway [47]. Although these genes play a documented role in the defense from chemicals [48], to our knowledge they have never been proposed as biomarkers in bivalve species.
AChE enzymatic activity is inhibited in response to organophosphate insecticides and exposure to other pollutants. Eight different clam transcripts encoding a peptide with putative cholinesterase activity are represented in the R. philippinarum microarray.
In the present study, an AChE-encoding gene (ruditapes_c12315) was over-expressed in both gills and digestive glands of clams sampled in Marghera. A similar finding has been already reported by Somnuek et al. (2009) [49], who demonstrated up-regulation of AChE gene expression in hybrid catfish exposed to chlorpyrifos and proposed this gene as biomarker for detecting the effects of organophosphate insecticides. The apparently opposite transcriptional response on AChE gene expression likely represents a compensatory modification to counteract inhibition of enzyme activity after xenobiotic exposure.
Several GST-coding transcripts were also found up-regulated in samples collected in the polluted area. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) catalyses the conjugation of reduced glutathione to electrophilic centers on a wide variety of substrates. This activity detoxifies endogenous compounds (e.g. peroxidised lipids) as well as xenobiotics and an increased of GSTs activity has been observed after exposure to a broad set of xenobiotics.
GST-coding genes that are over-expressed in clams sampled in Marghera either in the gills or in the digestive gland are different, except for a single transcript, which is up-regulated in both tissues (Table 8). Tissue-specific expression and sensitivity to dose/type of chemicals has been already reported in bivalves [50,51], suggesting a complex regulation of these effectors in the response to toxicants. Results obtained in the present study show also that various GST classes/isoforms are putatively involved in response to toxicants and emphasize the need for a proper classification of GST-coding genes. Five classes of cytosolic GSTs are differentially regulated together with a microsomal isoform in samples from the industrial area. Of special interest are two distinct genes, both encoding a GST-θ isoform. As mentioned previously GSTs belonging to the θ class have never been isolated in molluscs, and GSTθs apparently represent a numerically minor component of the GST arsenal in the Manila clam (3 putative θ isoforms among over 100 GST-encoding transcripts), yet two GSTθ-like genes showed marked up-regulation in putatively contaminated samples of the same species (see Table 8). GST-like activity is one of the most relevant biochemical parameters that are measured in environmental studies on chemical pollution, commonly using 1-choloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) as a substrate [52,53]. GST-θ enzymes, however, have a peculiar substrate specificity. GST- θ1 KO mice showed no difference for in vivo processing of CDNB, while GST-activity against other substrates [1,2-epoxy-3-(p-nitrophenoxy) propane (EPNP), dichloromethane (DCM), and 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea (BCNU)] was significantly lower after GST- θ 1 gene deletion. The results reported in the present study suggest that measuring GST-like enzymatic activity might not completely represent that complex GST-based response to toxicants in bivalves. Accurate characterization of GST-encoding genes in species that are used for environmental monitoring coupled with transcriptome analysis could provide a more precise analysis of such a response, differentiating tissue-specificity and disentangling GST isoform diversity.
Table 8. Up-regulated GST coding transcripts found up-regulated in samples collected in the polluted area of Marghera
Conclusions
Whole-transcriptome analysis holds the promise to shed light on the genetic mechanisms underlying cellular and organismal response to physiological and pathological conditions (environmental stress, infections, chemical pollution). This is of particular importance for improved shellfish aquaculture and for cost-effective environmental monitoring. The aim of the present paper was to lay the foundations for transcriptomics in the Manila clam. To which extent this goal has been achieved? As demonstrated in previous studies [54], the use of next-generation sequencing technology yielded a number of expressed sequences unattainable until only recently. In our study, sequence assembly, annotation and development of a dedicated database resulted in a searchable, functionally annotated transcriptome for R. philippinarum (RuphiBase), which was then used to design a species-specific in-situ synthesized oligo microarray. This genomic platform has proven to provide reliable and highly reproducible results for global gene expression profiling [10-18]. Moreover, validation of the clam oligo microarray showed tissue-specific expression profiles and highly significant correlations across biological replicates. The current version of RuphiBase appears to offer already a good representation of the clam transcriptome, as shown by the broad array of potential markers of response to xenobiotics. Of particular relevance is the large number (>100) of GST-encoding transcripts observed in the Manila clam, which suggested a potential relationship between filter-feeding behaviour, ability to cope with high levels of pollution and availability of a wide array of detoxifying enzymes. The possible use of this microarray platform for toxicogenomic studies has been also demonstrated by comparative analysis of digestive glands and gills pool of Manila clam sampled in areas with different levels of chemical pollution of the Venice Lagoon.
On the other hand, despite the use of ultra-high throughput sequencing on normalized cDNA libraries constructed from all adult tissues, representation of the clam transcriptome is still incomplete. For instance, the signaling pathway for autophagy consists of at least 18 different components [55], yet only one of these, ATG12, a protein involved in autophagic vescicle assembly, was identified. The problem of incomplete representation of protein-coding transcripts will likely be solved in the near future, when reduction of sequencing costs and an increase in sequencing throughput will allow a much deeper sequence coverage even for non-model species transcriptomes. A more difficult issue to solve is the limited percentage of clam transcripts that can be matched against a known protein-coding gene. The large phylogenetic distance of the phylum Mollusca from other metazoan model species (e.g. Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans, Danio rerio, Mus musculus, Homo sapiens) greatly reduces the power of a comparative approach for functional annotation. The only molluscan genome sequenced so far is that of L. gigantea, a gasteropod snail, which is functionally and evolutionarily distant from the class Bivalvia.
To conclude on a positive note, the next "call on (genomic) stage" is for the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. For this bivalve mollusk species, a high quality draft genome sequence is expected in 2011 thanks to the efforts of the Oyster Genome Consortium. Furthermore, worldwide aquaculture production of oysters amounts to over 4 million metric tons. The economic importance of the Pacific oyster has fuelled a large number of studies on the ecology, physiology, immunology, and genetics of C. gigas populations, and the possibility of targeted gene knock down has been recently demonstrated [56]. The opportunity of having a bivalve model species available would allow a more accurate genome annotation for other important molluscs such as the Manila clam.
Methods
Sampling, cDNA library costruction and sequencing
Samples of R. philippinarum were bought in a local market in Faro. In order to improve RNA representatively, clams were stressed by submitting them to quick changes of temperature and salinity prior to be sacrificed. Total RNA was extracted from all tissues of 20 individuals using the acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform method [57].
Two libraries were constructed, one using a mixture of adult tissues and a second one using gonadal tissues and 2 to 4 mm long larvae.
A cDNA library was constructed using equal amounts of RNA and normalized for sequencing. The SMART (Switching Mechanism At 5' end of RNA Template) kit from BD Biosciences Clontech was used to construct the cDNA libraries which were later normalised using the duplex-specific nuclease (DSN) method [58].
Approximately 15 μg of normalized cDNA were used for sequencing library construction at the Max Planck Institute, following procedures described in [59]. Sequencing was performed using GS FLX Titanium series reagents and using one single region on a Genome Sequencer FLX instrument. Bases were called with 454 software by processing the pyroluminescence intensity for each bead-containing well in each nucleotide incorporation. Reads were trimmed to remove adapter sequences.
Contigs assembly
A total of 457,717 sequence reads were produced using Roche 454 FLX technology from the normalized cDNA library constructed using a mixture of adult tissues (see above). The same library was previously used to obtain 2,866 ESTs with Sanger sequencing. An additional set of 2,790 ESTs was available from a second normalized cDNA library (whole larvae and adult gonads). In addition, 51 mRNA sequences available in NCBI (as to 11th November 2009) for R. philippinarum were available.
454 Sequence reads and all previously ESTs accessible in the NCBI database were then assembled into contigs, representing putative transcripts, by using a custom procedure based on two runs of MIRA3 assembly [60] and quality-based filtering. All contigs obtained with the first run of hybrid assembly were used for a second run to eliminate contig redundancy. Threshold values on contigs length and sequence quality were then applied to obtain a final set of contigs representing R. philippinarum transcripts.
Transcripts annotation
The Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) was used to perform annotation of R. philippinarum contigs. Batch Blast similarity searches for the entire set of contigs were locally conducted against NCBI (National Centre for Biotechnology Information) amino acidic non redundant (nr) database (release of October 4 2009) using Blastx option. Alignments with an E-value of at most 1 E-3 were considered significant and up to 20 hits per contig were taken into account.
To improve the number of annotated contigs five different approaches were attempted (see Additional file 1): i) blastx searches (cut off e-value of < 1.0 E-3) against protein database UniProtKB/SwissProt and UniProtKB/TrEMBL [61], ii) blastx (cut off e-value of < 1.0 E-3) and blastn (cut off e-value of < 1.0 E-5) searches against proteins and high quality draft trascriptomes of Danio rerio, Gasterosteus aculeatus, Oryzias latipes, Takifugu rubripes, Tetraodon nigroviridis, Homo sapiens, Drosophila melanogaster available on Ensembl Genome Browser (release 56) [62], iii) blastx (cut off e-value of < 1.0 E-3) and blastn (cut off e-value of < 1.0 E-5) searches against proteins, transcripts and assembly scaffolds of Lottia gigantea v1.0 database [63], iv) blastn search (cut off e-value of < 1.0 E-5) against D. rerio, L. gigantea, O. latipes, T. rubripes, Salmo salar, H. sapiens, Oncorhynchus mykiss databases stored in NCBI UniGene database [64], v) blastn search (cut off e-value of < 1.0 E-5) against Crassostrea gigas transcripts database [65] and Argopecten irradians EST database [66].
The Gene Ontology (GO) terms associations for "Biological process", "Molecular function" and "Cellular component" were performed using Blastx algorithm against the NCBI amino acid nr database implemented in Blast2GO software [67]. The "Generic GO slim" [68] set of the CateGOrizer program [69] was used to have an overview of the gene ontology content by simplifying the results of the GO annotation.
DNA microarray design
Probe design started with selection of target sequences to be represented onto the R. philippinarum microarray. All annotated entries (9,747) were included. Non annotated transcripts were considered only if sequence length was ≥400 bp and average Phred sequence quality was ≥30, yielding 24,291 target sequences. As most sequence reads were obtained from a non directional cDNA library, sense strand orientation was inferred putatively from that of homologuous protein sequences of other species (see Methods).
One probe for annotated transcripts with known orientation was designed to construct a high-density oligo-DNA microarray, while two probes with both orientations were designed for contigs with ambiguous orientation. The same strategy was applied to unknown unique transcripts. For 8,239 contigs, the putative orientation was unambiguous across different databases and a single sense probe was designed. Two probes with opposite orientation (sense and antisense) were designed for a fraction of clam annotated transcripts (1,508 contigs) with ambiguous putative orientation and for non annotated sequences (14,544). Probe design was carried out using the Agilent eArray interface [70], which applies proprietary prediction algorithms to design 60 mer oligo-probes. Microarrays were synthesized in situ using the Agilent ink-jet technology with a 4 × 44 K format. Each array included default positive and negative controls.
A total of 40,332 out of 40,343 (99.9%) probes, representing 24,281 R. philippinarum transcripts were successfully obtained. Of these, 2,000 probes designed on known-orientation transcripts, were synthesized in duplicate on the array in order to test for "reproducibility-within-array". The percentage of annotated transcripts represented on the microarray was 40.1%. Probe sequences and other details on the microarray platform can be found in the GEO database [22] under accession number GEO:GPL10900.
Sample collection, RNA extraction, labeling and hybridization
The common bivalves R. philippinarum were collected during autumn 2009 in two different areas of Venice Lagoon characterized by different levels of environmental pollutants: Marghera and Alberoni (see Additional file 5).
Additional file 5. Sampling site in the Lagoon of Venice. Map of the Venice Lagoon showing Manila clam sampling sites.
Format: JPEG Size: 410KB Download file
Digestive gland and gills were dissected from 20 Manila clamsfor each sampling area. Four and three independent pools, for digestive gland and gills respectively, each consisting of 5 digestive gland or gills, were created.
Total RNA was extracted from pooled tissue samples using the RNAeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) following the manufacturer's instructions. RNA concentration was determined using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer, NanoDrop® ND-1000 (NanoDrop Technologies, Wilmington, USA). RNA integrity and quality was finally estimated on an Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA).
Sample labeling and hybridization were performed according to the Agilent One-Color Microarray-Based Gene Expression Analysis protocol. Briefly, for each pool 200 ng of total RNA were linearly amplified and labeled with Cy3-dCTP. A mixture of 10 different viral poly-adenilated RNAs (Agilent Spike-In Mix) was added to each RNA sample before amplification and labeling, to monitor microarray analysis work-flow. Labeled cRNA was purified with Qiagen RNAeasy Mini Kit, and sample concentration and specific activity (pmol Cy3/μg cRNA) were measured in a NanoDrop® ND-1000 spectrophotometer. A total of 1,650 ng of labeled cRNA was prepared for fragmentation adding 11 μl 10X Blocking Agent and 2.2 μl of 25X Fragmentation Buffer, heated at 60°C for 30 min, and finally diluted by addition with 55 μl 2X GE Hybridization buffer. A volume of 100 μl of hybridization solution was then dispensed in the gasket slide and assembled to the microarray slide (each slide containing four arrays). Slides were incubated for 17 h at 65°C in an Agilent Hybridization Oven, subsequently removed from the hybridization chamber, quickly submerged in GE Wash Buffer 1 to disassembly the slides and then washed in GE Wash Buffer 1 for approximately 1 minute followed by one additional wash in pre-warmed (37°C) GE Wash Buffer 2.
Data acquisition and analysis
Hybridized slides were scanned at 5 μm resolution using an Agilent G2565BA DNA microarray scanner. Default settings were modified to scan the same slide twice at two different sensitivity levels (XDR Hi 100% and XDR Lo 10%). The two linked images generated were analyzed together and data were extracted and background subtracted using the standard procedures contained in the Agilent Feature Extraction (FE) Software version 9.5.1. The software returns a series of spot quality measures in order to evaluate the goodness and the reliability of spot intensity estimates. All control features (positive, negative, etc.), except for Spike-in (Spike-in Viral RNAs), were excluded from subsequent analyses. Spike-in control intensities were used to identify the best normalization procedure for each dataset. After normalization, spike intensities are expected to be uniform across the experiments of a given dataset. Normalization procedures were performed using R statistical software [71]. Quantile normalization always outperformed cyclic lowess and quantile-normalized data were used in all subsequent analyses.
Statistical tests implemented in the program Significance Analysis of Microarray (SAM) [72] were used to identify differentially expressed genes between digestive gland and gill tissues. The same approach was used to identify differentially expressed genes in both digestive glands and gills between MA and AL sampled individuals.
Pearson correlation coefficients were estimated within and among arrays with Statgraphics Centurion XVI to evaluate repeatability and precision of the obtained microarray data.
Functional enrichment of differentially expressed genes
Functional annotation analysis of differentially expressed genes was performed using the DAVID (Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery) web-server [23].
Functional annotation of differentially expressed genes between gills and digestive glands was achieved using DAVID software. "Biological process", "Molecular function" and "Cellular component" annotation was carried out by setting gene count = 10 and ease = 0.05. KEGG pathway analysis was then performed with gene count = 4 and ease = 0.05. David analyses of differentially expressed genes between Manila clam tissues sampled in Alberoni and Marghera were performed by setting gene count = 2 and ease = 0.1 Since DAVID databases contain functional annotation data for a limited number of species, it was necessary to link R. philippinarum transcripts with sequence identifiers that could be recognized in DAVID (Ensembl Human Gene IDs and Ensembl Zebrafish Gene IDs). This was carried out through dedicated Blast searches implemented as follows: i) blastx and blastn options were both used to search significant matches of the Manila clam sequences directly against human Ensembl proteins and transcripts respectively, ii) a first search was performed using either blastn or blastx against all zebrafish Ensembl proteins. Finally, Homo sapiens Ensembl Gene IDs were obtained from the corresponding Ensembl protein entries using the BIOMART data mining tool [73].
Evolutionary analyses
Evolutionary analyses were performed to determine patterns of divergence of the GST genes in R. philippinarum and to define putative orthology between GST genes in different species. Protein sequences of GST domains were aligned using TCoffee [74] applying default settings, while GBlock [75] was used to eliminate poorly aligned positions and divergent regions prior to phylogenetic analysis.
GST sequences described from Homo sapiens, Haliotis discus, Unio timidus, Cristaria plicata, Mytilus edulis, Mytilus galloprovincialis, Danio rerio, Dreissena polymorpha, Chlamys farreri, Corbicula fluminea, Mercenaria, mercenaria, Laternula elliptica, Mactra veneriformis, Cipangopaludina cathayensis were included in the alignment.
Phylogenetic trees were inferred by the maximum likelihood (ML) method [76] using the Phyml 2.4.4 program [77]. Non-parametric bootstrap resamplings were performed to evaluate the robustness of tree topology.
Authors' contributions
LB, MM, CC, TM, GC, RL, LC and CS conceived and designed the project. RR produced the EST sequences. SB and AC conceived and constructed the database. MM carried out probe design and editing, and performed microarray experiments. MM and LB executed all statistical analyses. MM performed functional annotation analyses. LB and MM wrote the manuscript. All listed authors edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Lino Pavan for providing access to the samples and TINAMENOR S.A. for providing clam larvae. This work was partially supported by a grant from European Union-funded Network of Excellence "Marine Genomics Europe". CS wishes to acknowledge additional funding from the Ministry of Education and Science (Spain) through grant AGL2007-60049. MM had a PhD scholarship from the University of Florence, Italy. RL was recipient of PhD fellowship SFRH/BD/30112/2006, from the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT) and LC and RL acknowledge a grant from FCT project ISOPERK (PTDC/CVT/72083/2006). We thank also two anonymous reviewers for their useful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
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(3) Transcendental Transneptunianism: Occasionally Sumana has transcendental experiences associated with revelations about the universe. Incredibly, I always manage to ruin these experiences by making some bonehead remark. I can't remember any of these remarks verbatim, but I have no trouble thinking them up and saying them when the need arises. I'd like to not do that next time because it really brings the transcendental party to a halt with a loud record-scratch sound.
I do know the source of these remarks: they stem from the eternal conflict between two philosophes in my mind. These are the hippy-dippy Carl Sagan atheist who says "You don't need God to have a good time, man; look at all the wonder in the natural universe!", and the cranky Richard Dawkins atheist who says "The wonder is all in your brain, you pothead! Not distributed throughout the universe!"
The Carl Sagan philosophe was formed in a transcendental experience I had when I was six years old. You know those charts that go on the walls in elementary school classrooms? Instead of putting a few of them on the walls, my kindergarten teacher, Jim Murchison, bought an enormous number of them. He punched holes in them and turned them into a huge flip chart. Every day or two he would flip over a sheet and reveal the new topic of discussion. One day he flipped over a sheet and I saw the solar system.
I'd surely been to the Griffith Observatory before then, but somehow I hadn't seen any pictures of the planets before this reveal. Jupiter, in particular, blew me away. Seeing drawings of the planets triggered my first and biggest transcendental experience. Since I always ruin Sumana's transcendental experiences it's only fair that I should ruin my own. Jupiter isn't transcendental; it just looks really creepy. It's a planet, a gasball.
What's more, the universe does not contain a magical kind of thing called a "planet". Planetness is a social construct. The solar system is not the sun and nine planets, as depicted on the flip chart of my youth. It's a fusing gasball, four non-fusing gasballs, a few million rockballs, a few billion snowballs, and a big dust cloud.
Recently, the International Astronomical Union decided to make a proper scientific definition out of the social construct "planet". This used to seem easy and even superfluous, but in recent years it's become clear that to judge every object in the solar system by a uniform standard of planetness, you must make a hard decision. Either Pluto is not a planet, or there are lots of Kuiper Belt objects which are planets on the same criteria as Pluto. These planets are very distant, mostly undiscovered, and not very interesting once discovered. There might be hundreds of these tiny boring planets. So the IAU created a definition that excludes these objects, including Pluto.
It's not nice to fool Mother Nature, but it's even less nice to naturalize Mother Social Construct. People are used to the planets being the non-fusing gasballs, four of the biggest rockballs, and Pluto. A lot of people got mad at what they viewed as a bunch of eggheads usurping their social construct. And now the eggheads are arguing amongst themselves about the definition. It's a huge mess.
The real problem with this definition is that, to get the "right" result, the IAU restricted the definition to apply only to our solar system. It's the Bush v. Gore of scientific definitions! They had to do this because extrasolar systems perform instant reductio on any attempt to turn "planet" into an objective concept. There are too many weird things in the universe. It would have been simpler if they'd just enumerated by fiat the eight things in our solar system that are "real" planets.
Astronomers have found things like two non-fusing gasballs orbiting each other in interstellar space. Are they planets? Only if we decide to call them "planets". What they are is big non-fusing gasballs that orbit each other. A gasball can have natural starness, but it cannot have natural planetness, any more than (as Michael Shermer says) it can have natural meaningness. This is what social constructs are for.
I personally don't care if Pluto is called a planet or not. My money is still on "alien disco ball". But if we must have a definition of planetness, it should recognize the inevitable subjectivity. If you don't do this, you need an artificial ban on discussing what might make an extrasolar object a "planet". Because sooner or later the smart-aleck universe will toss you a planet that doesn't meets the technical criteria, or (less likely) a non-planet that does. Then you have to tweak the definition and it's like adding epicycles to the Ptolemaic model of the solar system.
[Main]
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You are here: Home / Data and maps / Indicators / Overview of the European energy system / Overview of the European energy system (ENER 036) - Assessment published Mar 2013
Overview of the European energy system (ENER 036) - Assessment published Mar 2013
Created : Jan 11, 2013 Published : Mar 20, 2013 Last modified : Mar 27, 2013 11:34 AM
Topics: ,
Generic metadata
Topics:
Energy (Primary topic)
Tags:
ENER036 | primary energy | energy | energy consumption | ENER
DPSIR: Driving force
Typology: N/A
Indicator codes
• ENER 036
Dynamic
Temporal coverage:
1990, 2005, 2010
Contents
Key policy question: Is the European energy system becoming more efficient?
Key messages
The EU27 is still heavily dependent on fossil fuels, and it accounts for 76.4 % of primary energy consumption whereas renewables accounted only for 9.8 %. The share of fossil fuels (coal, lignite, oil and natural gas) in gross inland consumption of the EU-27 declined slightly from 83.1 % in 1990 to 76.4 % in 2010.
The EU’s dependence on imports of fossil fuels (gas, solid fuels and oil)[1] from non-EU countries has remained relatively stable between 2005 and 2010. In 2010 EU-27 imported 53.8 % of its total gross inland energy consumption. Oil imports are the highest and accounted for 58.6 % of total GIEC, followed by gas then solid fuels which accounted for 28.8 % and 12.6 % of total GIEC.
In 2010 only 71.5 % of the total primary energy consumption in the EU-27 reached the end users. Between 1990 and 2010, energy losses in transformation and distribution have slowly declined from 29.2 % to 28.5 %.
The average energy efficiency of conventional thermal electricity and heat production of conventional thermal power stations and district heating plants in the EU-27 improved over the period 1990 and 2010 by 5.1 percentage points to reach 51.2% in 2010. The main increase was seen between 1990 and 2005 with an increase of 7.0 percentage points (from 45.4% in 1990 to 52.3% in 2005). The improvement until 2005 was due to the closure of old inefficient plants, improvements in existing technologies, often combined with a switch from coal power plants to more efficient combined cycle gas-turbines. Between 2005 and 2010, there was a slight fall in efficiency of electricity and heat production from conventional thermal power plants and district heating plants of 1.1 percentage points (from 52.3% in 2005 to 51.2% in 2010) because of lower heat production.
Overview of the energy system in 2010
• In 2010 only 71.5 % of the total primary energy consumption in the EU-27 reached end users. Distribution, energy-sector’s own consumption of energy and conversion losses represented 28.5 % of which 5 % resulted from energy consumption by the energy sector.
• The EU27 is still heavily dependent on fossil fuels (see ENER 26), and it accounts for 76.4 % of primary energy consumption whereas renewables accounted only for 9.8 %. It is interesting to see that over 65 % total petroleum products in the EU27 after transformation in refineries are those refined in the EU27 originating from indigenous production and imported crude oil, rather than imported petroleum products. Subsequently 340 Mtoe of these petroleum products are exported outside the EU27.
• A high proportion of the fossil fuels used in the EU27 in 2010 were imported from outside the EU. Net import accounted for 91 %, 62 % and 39 % of gross inland consumptions of oil, gas and solid fuels.
• The high dependency on oil arises as a result of high consumption in the transport sector which is still very dependent on petrol and diesel. Increasing concerns for climate change leading to policies shifting fuel use in the transport sector has led to electricity (15.1 Mtoe) and renewables (13.3 Mtoe) consumption in transport, but these are yet to make a significant contribution (see ENER 16). The other sector where oil is the most dominant fuel is in the non-energy use sector where oil is used for example as lubricants. On the other hand, oil only accounts for a small proportion of the transformation input into power stations[2] (ENER 38).
• Nuclear heat accounts for 44.2 % of transformational input into power stations (excluding CHPs and district heating), followed by coal (24.9 %), natural gas (15.4 %) then renewables (13.5 %). In power stations, during the transformation of the energy into electricity, 58 % of fuel input is lost as conversion losses. Conversion losses are declining in the EU27 as power station efficiencies and electricity generation from renewables increases (see ENER 19 and 38). As for wind, hydro and solar PV, electricity is the primary energy form of energy so there are no associated conversion losses. The overall % of energy lost to conversion losses from electricity generation can also decrease if the % of electricity generated from CHPs increases. In 2010, conversion losses from CHPs were much less than power stations (33 %), just over 20 % of transformation output of electricity was from CHPs.
• In terms of consumption, industries consumed the highest amount of electricity, but only slightly more than domestic and other final consumers (which includes services sector) (ENER 16). Following conversion losses in transformation plants, further losses of electricity occur from distribution and consumption in the energy industry which accounts for (41.2 Mtoe or 14.5 % of electricity available for consumption). In 2010, net import of electricity was minimal (0.3 Mtoe).
• Conversion efficiencies of CHPs are higher than in power stations because the heat produced is also consumed as useful energy. In the EU27, heat is also generated from district heating plants in certain countries and the overall heat consumed from CHPs and district heating plants in 2010 was 62.8 Mtoe. Gas accounts for the highest proportion of fuel going into district heating plants (46 %).
• The largest consumer of gas in 2010 was the domestic sector (119.0 Mtoe) followed by industries (84.7 Mtoe) (see ENER 16) whereas for coal, the largest consumers are electricity generation plants (power stations and CHPs). Coal and gas are also input fuels for other transformation plants which produce manufactured fuels.
[1] Definitions are provided in the meta data. The Gross Inland Energy Consumption does not include bunkers.
[2] See ‘Methodology and assumptions used for the Sankey diagram’ for definitions of components that make up power stations.
Summaries the overall picture of the energy system in the EU (Mtoe)
Note: The figure is a Sankey diagram which shows the composition of the primary energy entering the energy system of the EU-27 in 2010, and where this primary energy was used, either as losses or as consumption by specific sectors of the economy.
Data source:
Downloads and more info
Key assessment
Key assessment: conversion, transmission and distribution losses in the European energy production system
• The average energy efficiency of electricity and heat production from conventional thermal power stations and district heating plants in the EU-27 improved over the period 1990 and 2010 by 5.1 percentage points to reach 51.2% in 2010 (49.6 % excluding district heating). The main increase was seen between 1990 and 2005 with an increase of 7.0 percentage points (from 45.4% in 1990 to 52.3% in 2005). Between 2005 and 2010, there was slight fall in efficiency of electricity and heat production from conventional thermal power plants and district heating plants of 1.1 percentage points (from 52.3% in 2005 to 51.2% in 2010) because of lower heat production. Efficiency fell significantly in 2007 to 49.4% (first time efficiency fell below 50% since 2002) The drop in 2007 is due to increased electrical energy output from conventional thermal power stations in UK, Germany and Turkey (see also ENER 19).
• The efficiency trend for only public thermal power plants is similar, increasing in most EU-27 countries during 1990-2010, resulting in a net efficiency of 50.4% in 2010 (48.6% excluding district heating). Between 1990 and 2005, the average energy efficiency of public thermal power plants increased by 5.7 percentage points (from 44.6% in 1990 to 50.3% in 2005). Since 2005, the improvement in energy efficiency of public thermal power plants has been much slower, (0.1 percentage points). Autoproducers have higher energy efficiency in general because they are often designed to be more suitable for the heat and electricity demand on a location. Between 1990 and 2005 the average energy efficiency of autoproducers increased by 16.0 percentage points (from 50.6% in 1990 to 66.6% in 2005). There was a fall in efficiency between 2005 and 2010 by 8.8 percentage points (from 66.6% in 2005 to 57.9% in 2010) due to the fall in the output of derived heat (see also ENER 19).
• The improvement in efficiency of conventional thermal electricity and heat production in the last twenty years has resulted primarily from technological developments. The increased use of combined cycle gas turbine plants (CCGT) has been an important factor in improving efficiency in the EU-15 Member States during the 90’s. Increased use of CHPs has also contributed to the increasing efficiency of electricity production. The rate of change in efficiency during this time period and the existing efficiency of conventional thermal electricity and heat production varies significantly between the European countries (see ENER 19).
• Between 1990 and 2010, energy losses in transformation and distribution have slowly declined from 29.2 % to 28.5 %. Transformation losses represented 22.0% of EU-27 primary energy consumption in 2010. In addition to direct generation efficiency, these losses also depend on the fuel mix (e.g. direct production of electricity from renewables, excluding biomass and municipal waste[1], is not subject to transformation losses in the same way as fossil fuels are), the level of electricity imports and the share of nuclear power[2] (see also ENER 13).
• Around 1.5% of primary energy is lost in distribution. This is a slight increase in comparison to 1990, where distribution losses were equal to 1.4%. Distribution losses include losses in gas and heat distribution, in electricity transmission and distribution, and in coal transport.
• In 2010, the energy supply sector itself consumed 5.0% of primary energy as part of its internal operations level which remained fairly constant since 1990. In addition, around 6.3% of primary energy products (in particular oil) are used directly as feedstocks (primarily in the petrochemical sector) rather than for energy purposes.
• The efficiency of the energy system (the ratio of final energy consumption to primary energy available for end-users) varies considerably across Member States. Energy available for final consumption ranges from 92.8 % for Luxembourg to 48.7 % for Estonia .The low level of losses in Luxembourg reflects a significant degree of electricity imports from other countries (which means that the transformation losses involved in its production are not counted in the country of final use) as well as the fact that a significant amount of electricity comes from high efficiency gas-fired power plants with the remaining demand covered from hydro and other renewables. In Estonia on the other hand, the main technologies used for power generation are low efficiency steam technology thermal power plants running primarily on oil-shale, which explains why more than 50% of the primary energy is lost. In Norway, in 2010, 94 % of the electricity was generated by hydropower (excluding pumped hydro). In Eurostat statistics the conversion efficiency used for hydropower is 100% which explains the high efficiency for Norway (79.7 % of energy available for end users).
• Losses from distribution are, on average, the smallest overall, but still subject to sizeable variation between Member States (from 0.2% of primary energy supply for Luxembourg to 4.9% for Denmark). Countries with a high amount of district heating tend to have higher overall distribution losses. This is because losses in heat distribution networks can be sizeable (in the order of 5%-25%). Network (i.e. distribution) losses primarily depend on factors such as network design, operation and maintenance, but also on population density of the country. Systems are more efficient when power lines to large consumers are as direct as possible to reduce the number of transformation steps (as these can account for almost half of network losses - Leonardo Energy, 2008). Increasing use of distributed generation may be one way to reduce such losses
[1] If the municipal waste is used for direct utilisation of heat (or in CHP plants), the efficiency can be high in the order of 90%. If the waste however is used for only electricity production, the efficiency is only about 30%. However, these plants are valued primarily because they offer an alternative for waste disposal so efficiency is not the main goal.
[2] In the statistics recorded by Eurostat the ratio of primary energy to electricity production from nuclear is fixed at 1/3.
Specific policy question: Is the European energy system decarbonising?
Specific assessment
Key assessment: energy mix in gross inland consumption and conventional power plants
• The share of fossil fuels (coal, lignite, oil and natural gas) in gross inland consumption of the EU-27 declined slightly from 83.1 % in 1990 to 76.4 % in 2010. During this period, the share of renewables in gross inland consumption increased by 5.5 points, from 4.3 % in 1990 to 9.8 % in 2010 (see also ENER29) while the share of energy consumption from nuclear increased from 12.3 % (1990) to 13.5% (2010) (see also ENER13).
• In absolute terms, consumption of almost all fuels grew in 2010 following the fall between 2008 and 2009. Consumption of renewables grew the most (12.7 %), fossil fuels increased by 2.4 %% and nuclear by 2.5%, only the consumption of oil decreased in 2010 (by 1.0 %).
• For the non-EU EEA member states, the gross inland energy consumption increased rapidly during 1990-2010 (+ 70.% or 2.7%/year on average), mainly because of Turkey (+3.6%/year), and the growth did not stop in 2004 as observed in the EU, however, even in Turkey the consumption decreased in 2009 with the economic crisis (-0.2 %). Turkey represents now 62% of the total gross inland energy consumption of non-EU EEA member states[1] (up from 53% in 1990). The shares by fuel in 2010 in non EU-EEA are quite different from the EU average: nuclear represents a much higher share in the EU-27 (13.5% compared to 4.2% in non EU-EEA), while renewables have a greater diffusion in non EU-EEA (18.6% in non EU-EEA compared to 9.8 % in EU-27). The share of fossil fuels is however almost identical (76-77%).
• Fuel input into conventional thermal power plants fell until 1993 (EEA, 2012), largely due to the economic restructuring in the new Member States. Between 1993 and 2007, a growth of 21 % was observed, but since 2007 fuel input decreased by 8 % to just above its level in 1990. The increase in fuel combustion during 1993-2007 is primarily as a result of increasing electricity consumption (31.7 %). Since 2007, electricity consumption in the EU-27 has stabilised (ENER16) whereas average energy efficiency of conventional thermal electricity and heat production of conventional thermal power stations and district heating plants (ENER-19) and electricity generated from renewables (ENER-30) has continued to increase. This has led to the fall in the fossil fuel input into conventional thermal power plants.
• Efficiency of conventional thermal power plants has improved significantly since 1990, however overall fuel input into can be reduced by increasing the efficiency further. Combined heat and power (CHP) plants that utilise a greater portion of the available heat (e.g. directly for space heating or industrial steam) can reach even higher overall efficiencies of 80-90%. Given the current average efficiency and fuel mix in 2010, if conventional thermal power plants in the EU-27 were to further improve their efficiency to an average of 75 %, 400 MtCO2 can be saved (by comparison, the Kyoto commitment for the EU-15 is about 340 MtCO2).
• Despite the fact that more than half of the fuel inputs into conventional thermal power plants (electricity-only plants, heat-only plants and combined heat and power plants) are solid fossil fuels still (52.5 %), the share of solid fuels have declined significantly since 1990 (71 %). Liquid fuel use has also declined from 14 % in 1990 to 4 % in 2010. They have been replaced by increased use of gas and biomass. In absolute terms, gas and biomass input have increased by 164 % and 636 % respectively as a result of increased use of combined cycle gas turbine plants (CCGT) and environmental legislations affecting the economics of fuel use. These fuels tend to have a lower implied average emissions factor than liquid and solid fuels, thus CO2 emissions per TJ of fuel burnt has fallen 8 % since 1990.
[1] Not including Iceland because data post 2006 is not available in Eurostat.
Specific policy question: Are we reducing the imports of fossil fuels?
EU27 net imports of gas, oil, solid fuels and the sum of these, as a % of fuel-specific gross inland energy consumption
Note: All products is the sum of net import of solid fuels, gas and total petroleum products as a % of total gross inland consumption of all products.
Data source:
Downloads and more info
Specific assessment
Key assessment: fossil fuel import dependency
• The EU’s energy system remains highly dependent on imported fossil fuels (see ENER 26). The EU’s dependence on imports of fossil fuels (gas, solid fuels and oil)[1] from non-EU countries has remained very stable between 2005 and 2010, with 52.5 % the lowest and 54.6% the highest dependency (as a share of total gross inland energy consumption) (see Figure 2). However, the EU27 relies much more on imported fuels compared to levels in 1990 when 45 % of gross inland consumption of all products was from imported fossil fuels. 72 % of the increase in import dependency during this time period arises as a result of the increase in imported gas.
• Oil imports are the highest and in 2010, net oil imports accounted for 91 % of oil-based gross inland consumption, the majority of the imported oil is crude oil which is then refined in the EU rather than already refined petroleum products (Figure 1). For gas, 62 % of the gross inland consumption was from net imports. Reliance on imported solid fuel is significantly less and only 39 % of gross inland consumption of solid fuels was from net imports.
• Oil imports are the highest and accounted for 59.3 % of total net fossil fuel imports, followed by gas then slid fuels which accounted for 29.1 % and 11.6 % of total fossil fuel import respectively. The share of oil as a percentage of total fossil fuels imported has fallen since 1990 when it accounted for 71 %. This has been as a result of a steep increase in the net import of gas resulting from the increased demand from the electricity generation sector (see ENER 38).
• There is a large trade volume of petroleum products in the EU27. In 2010, 314.7 Mtoe petroleum products were imported in EU27 countries, equivalent to 51.0% of total oil-based gross inland consumption. In the same year, 291.3 Mtoe was exported. The resulting net import of petroleum products in EU27 from countries outside EU27 was equivalent to 23.4 Mtoe in 2010 (see Figure 1).
• In addition to fossil fuels, Europe imports uranium for its nuclear power industry which accounts for about 30% of the world's nuclear power generation. The EU industry has the capacity for uranium enrichment and fuel fabrication, but is dependent on imported uranium (see also ENER13). The situation is however better (from diversity of supply point of view) than for most fossil fuels, due to the wide distribution of uranium around the globe, in geopolitically stable areas. In 2010, 28% of uranium delivered to utilities in EU27 originated from Russia, 16% from Kazakhstan, 12% from Australia and 11% from Canada.
• Biomass imports in EU27 are small. In 2010, net imports as share of total primary biomass supply amounted to 4.9 % and 9.0 % of total imports (IEA, 2010).
• The net dependence on fuel imports varies significantly between Member States. This reflects differences in the availability of indigenous fossil resources and renewables (see ENER 26 and ENER29). In addition, the level of crude oil import reflects the availability of refining capacity and direct production of final products (for self-consumption or export) versus direct import of these final products (Wood Mackenzie, 2007). In some cases (for example Lithuania) this leads to high import dependence as a share of primary energy of 149% in 2010 (some refined products are exported). Conversely, for other countries there is limited or no refining capacity (for example in the case of Luxembourg) and hence only final products are imported.
[1] Definitions are provided in the meta data.
Data sources
More information about this indicator
See this indicator specification for more details.
Contacts and ownership
EEA Contact Info
Anca-Diana Barbu
Ownership
EEA Management Plan
2012 2.8.1 (note: EEA internal system)
Dates
First draft created: 2013/01/11 13:10:42.095803 GMT+1
Publish date: 2013-03-20T17:56:54+02:00
Last modified: 2013/03/27 11:34:8.505598 GMT+1
European Environment Agency (EEA)
Kongens Nytorv 6
1050 Copenhagen K
Denmark
Phone: +45 3336 7100
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Beringia lowland tundra
Ecoregions:
Beringia lowland tundra
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Mark McGinley
Nunivak Island, Alaska, USA. (Source: Photograph by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
The Beringia lowland tundra ecoregion is formed by three major disjunct areas along the Bering Sea coast of Alaska from the base of the Alaska Peninsula to Kotzebue Sound, as well as one smaller area on the east side of St. Lawrence Island and St. Matthew Island. The ecoregion is characterized by low, flat, or gently rolling terrain, wet soils, and resulting predominance of wet and mesic graminoid herbaceous vegetation. In better drained areas, especially in the somewhat more rolling portions of the section surrounding Bristol Bay, dwarf shrub communities occur interspersed with the wet herbaceous tundra, dominated by sedges, including Eriophorum angustoifolium and Carex spp. Dwarf shrub vegetation is usually dominated by ericaceous species, including crowberry (Empetrum nigrum). In some limited areas of favorable soil drainage and microclimate, stands of black and white spruce (Picea mariana, P. glauca) occur, with understories of alder (Alnus spp.), willow (Salix spp.), and dwarf birch (Betula spp.). Lakes and ponds cover 15-25 percent of the surface area, and wetlands cover between 55 percent (southern portions) to 78 percent (northern portions) of the region.
The region experiences a climate that is transitional between maritime and continental influences. Average annual precipitation varies widely, ranging from 250 millimeters (mm) in Kotzbue Sound to 860 mm near Bristol Bay. Mean daily minimum temperatures in winter range from -25°C in the northern parts to -10°C along the Alaska Peninsula. Summer high temperatures can reach 18°C. In the Koetzebue Sound and the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta areas, soils are shallow to permafrost and consist mostly of Histic Pergelic Cryoquepts and Pergelic Cryofibrists. In the more southerly and better drained Bristol Bay area, the permafrost table is deep to discontinuous and somewhat more developed soil profiles can occur. All but the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta was covered in Pleistocene glaciation.
Biological Distinctiveness
The abundance of surface water makes this ecoregion excellent habitat for waterfowl, and the tidal flats of the coast provide an abundance of habitat for shorebirds. Many species of birds depend on the habitats of this ecoregion for the majority, if not all, of their nesting habitat. These include the Arctic loon (Gavia artica), Canada geese (Branta canadensis), bristle-thighed curlew (Numenius tahitiensis), dovekies (Alle alle), McKay's buntings (Plectrophenax hyperboreus), and white wagtails (Motacilla alba). The highest densities of nesting tundra swans, the majority of the world's emperor swans, and 50 percent of the world's black brant (Branta bernicla) are supported by the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta alone. This delta is the most expansive area of highly productive waterfowl nesting habitat in Alaska, and among the most significant on earth. Izembek Lagoon, on the Alaska Peninsula, is the most important migratory staging area for black brant in Alaska. St. Lawrence and St. Matthew Islands also support large seabird colonies. St. Lawrence Island colonies support approximately 2,000,000 seabirds, including the largest murre (Uria spp.) colonies in the eastern Bering Sea.
Mammals include river otters (Lontra canadensis), short-tailed and least weasels (Mustela erminea and M. nivalis), brown bear (Ursus arctos horribilis), moose (Alces alces), and caribou (Rangifer spp.). Populations of all top-level predators are intact, and brown bears reach extraordinary natural densities in the Katmai and Lake Iliamna areas. All five species of North American Pacific salmon are native here, and Bristol Bay supports the largest run of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in the world.
Conservation Status
Caribou (''Rangifer tarandus''), Bristol Bay, Alaska, USA. (Source: Photograph by Annette Helms)
Habitat Loss and Degradation
The Beringia Lowland Tundra is almost entirely intact. Human disturbance consists of small permanent and seasonal settlements, mostly along rivers and coasts. These communities depend on subsistence fishing and on hunting of marine mammals (seals, whales), caribou, moose, and birds. For the most part, the terrestrial impacts of these settlements are local and slight.
Remaining Blocks of Intact Habitat
The largest blocks of intact habitat include the Ahklun Mountains and the Bendeleben Mountains, which contain diverse habitat types.
Degree of Fragmentation
This ecoregion is naturally fragmented into three large mainland areas and numerous islands. The southernmost block of habitat around the Ahklun Mountains is relatively unfragmented. The norrthernmost block is still mostly intact but is becoming trisected by roads and is increasingly impacted by mining. This area has the potential to be much more fragmented in the future.
Degree of Protection
This ecoregion is represented by several protected areas. Those in the Seward Penninsula/Kotzebue area include:
• Bering Land Bridge National Park - western Alaska
• Selawik National Wildlife Refuge - western Alaska
• The Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta is contained completely within the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge.
Protected areas of the ecoregion surrounding Bristol Bay and on the Alaska Peninsula include:
• Togiak National Wildlife Refuge - western Alaska
• Egegik, Pilot Point, Cinder River, Pt. Moller State Critical Habitat Areas - western Alaska
• Izembek National Wildlife Refuge - western Alaska
• Alaska Peninsula National Wildlife Refuge - western Alaska
• Becharof National Wildlife Refuge - western Alaska
• Katmai National Park and Preserve - western Alaska
Finally, a number of islands scattered throughout the ecoregion, especially St. Matthew Island, are included as units of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.
Types and Severity of Threats
Currently, waterfowl harvests are managed by USFWS, through co-management agreements with Native communities, and through international treaty. Although there is some potential for unsustainable waterfowl harvests from local communities, the harvests are at present well managed and represent less of a threat than habitat destruction in wintering areas for nesting waterfowl.
Commercial fishing is a significant presence, and can affect not only the marine ecosystem but the many terrestrial species that rely on the abundant fish runs each year. Salmon fisheries in the area are generally well-managed to ensure sufficient spawning stock returns to the rivers. As with any commercial fishery, there is a concern with overharvesting, particularly of weak stocks in years of generally abundant returns.
Suite of Priority Activities to Enhance Biodiversity Conservation
The biggest gap in the protected areas of this ecoregion are in the Nushagak River Valley and along the west side of the Alaska Peninsula.
Conservation Partners
• Alaska Marine Conservation Council
• National Audubon Society - Alaska-Hawaii Regional Office
• The Nature Conservancy - Alaska
Additional Information on this Ecoregion
Disclaimer: This article contains certain information that was originally published by the World Wildlife Fund. Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth have edited its content and added new information. The use of information from the World Wildlife Fund should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content.
Citation
World Wildlife Fund (Lead Author);Mark McGinley (Topic Editor) "Beringia lowland tundra". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth August 21, 2008; Last revised Date August 23, 2012; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Beringia_lowland_tundra?topic=49597>
The Author
Known worldwide by its panda logo, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) leads international efforts to protect endangered species and their habitats. Now in its fifth decade, WWF works in more than 100 countries around the globe to conserve the diversity of life on Earth. With nearly 1.2 million members in the U.S. and another 4 million worldwide, WWF is the world's largest privately financed conservation organization. WWF directs its conservation efforts toward three global goals: 1) saving endangered ... (Full Bio)
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Nuclear power reactor
Nuclear power reactor
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Cutler J. Cleveland
This EOE article is adapted from an information paper published by the World Nuclear Association (WNA). WNA information papers are frequently updated, so for greater detail or more up to date numbers, please see the latest version on WNA website (link at end of article).
Introduction
A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of certain elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make steam to generate electricity. In a research reactor the main purpose is to utilize the actual neutrons produced in the core. In most naval reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for propulsion for a ship or submarine.
A nuclear power facility.
The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for most types of reactors. The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the fuel is harnessed as heat in either a gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam is used to drive the turbines which produce electricity (as in most fossil fuel plants).
There are several components common to most types of reactors:
• Fuel: Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.
• Moderator: This is material which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.
• Control rods: These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. (Secondary shutdown systems involve adding other neutron absorbers, usually as a fluid, to the system.)
• Coolant: A liquid or gas circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in boiling water reactorss, there is secondary coolant circuit where the steam is made. (see also later section on primary coolant characteristics.)
• Pressure vessel or pressure tubes: Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the coolant through the moderator.
• Steam generator: Part of the cooling system where the heat from the reactor is used to make steam for the turbine.
• Containment: The structure around the reactor core which is designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of radiation in case of any malfunction inside. It is typically a meter-thick concrete and steel structure.
There are several different types of reactors as indicated in the following table.
Nuclear power plants in commercial operation
Reactor type Main Countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) US, France, Japan, Russia, China
265 251.6 enriched UO2 water water
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) US, Japan, Sweden 94 86.4 enriched UO2 water water
Gas-cooled Reactor (Magnox & AGR) UK 18
10.8 natural U (metal), enriched UO2 CO2 graphite
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor "CANDU" (PHWR) Canada 44 24.3 natural UO2 heavy water heavy water
Light Water Graphite Reactor (RBMK) Russia 12 12.3enriched UO2 water graphite
Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR) Japan, France, Russia 4 1.0PuO2 and UO2 liquid sodium none
other
Russia 4 0.05 enriched UO2 water graphite
TOTAL 439 384.6
GWe = capacity in thousands of megawatts.
Source: Nuclear Engineering International Handbook 2008
Most reactors need to be shut down for refuelling, so that the pressure vessel can be opened up. In this case, refuelling is at intervals of 1-2 years, when a quarter to a third of the fuel assemblies are replaced with fresh ones. The CANDU and RBMK types have pressure tubes (rather than a pressure vessel enclosing the reactor core) and can be refuelled under load by disconnecting individual pressure tubes.
If graphite or heavy water is used as moderator, it is possible to run a power reactor on natural instead of enriched uranium. Natural uranium has the same elemental composition as when it was mined (0.7% uranium-235 (235U), over 99.2% uranium-238 (238238U)), whereas enriched uranium has the proportion of the fissile isotope 235U increased by a process called enrichment, commonly to 3.5 - 5.0%. In this case, the moderator can be ordinary water, and such reactors are collectively called light water reactors. Because the light water absorbs neutrons as well as slowing them, it is less efficient as a moderator than heavy water or graphite.
Practically all fuel is ceramic uranium oxide (UO2 with a melting point of 2800°C) and most is enriched. The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm diameter and 1.5 cm long) are typically arranged in a long zirconium alloy (zircaloy) tube to form a fuel rod, the zirconium being hard, corrosion-resistant and permeable to neutrons . Numerous rods form a fuel assembly, which is an open lattice and can be lifted into and out of the reactor core. In the most common reactors these are about 3.5 to 4 meters long.
In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going. Usually this is beryllium mixed with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. Alpha particles from the decay cause a release of neutrons from the beryllium as it turns to carbon-12. Restarting a reactor with some used fuel may not require this, as there may be enough neutrons to achieve criticality when control rods are removed.
Burnable poisons are often used, especially in boiling water reactors (BWRs), in fuel or coolant to even out the performance of the reactor over the time from when fresh fuel is loaded to the time of refuelling. These are neutron absorbers which decay under neutron exposure, compensating for the progressive build-up of neutron absorbers in the fuel as it is burned. The best known is gadolinium, a vital ingredient of fuel in naval reactors that are very inconvenient to refuel, compelling the design of reactors capable of running more than a decade between refuellings.
In fission, most of the neutrons are released promptly, but some are delayed. These are crucial in enabling a chain reacting system (or reactor) to be controllable and to be able to be held precisely critical.
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
Figure 1: Pressurized Water Reactor
Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) are the most common type of nuclear reactor, with over 230 in use for power generation and several hundred more employed for naval propulsion. The design of PWRs originated for use as a submarine power plant. PWRs use ordinary water as both coolant and moderator. The design is distinguished by having a primary cooling circuit, which flows through the core of the reactor under very high pressure, and a secondary circuit in which steam is generated to drive a turbine.
A PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in the core, and a large reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies containing 80-100 tonnes of uranium.
Water in the reactor core reaches about 325°C; hence, it must be kept under about 150 times atmospheric pressure to prevent it from boiling. Pressure is maintained by steam in a pressurizer (see diagram). In the primary cooling circuit, the water is also the moderator—if any of it were converted to steam, the fission reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of the safety features of PWRs. The secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary circuit.
The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water boils in the heat exchangers, which are thus steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity, and is then condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Figure 2: Boiling Water Reactor
The design of boiling water reactors (BWRs) is similar to that of the PWR, except that there is only a single circuit in which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so that it boils in the core at about 285°C. The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of the water in the top part of the core in steam form, equipping the reactor with less moderating effect and thus efficiency.
The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then directly to the turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit. Since the water around the core of a reactor is always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, the turbine must be shielded and radiological protection provided during maintenance. The cost of this tends to balance the savings due to the simpler design. Most of the radioactivity in the water is very short-lived, so the turbine hall can be entered soon after the reactor is shut down.
A BWR fuel assembly comprises 90-100 fuel rods, and there are up to 750 assemblies in a reactor core, holding up to 140 tonnes of uranium. The secondary control system involves restricting water flow through the core so that more steam in the top part reduces moderation.
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR or CANDU)
Figure 3: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
The PHWR reactor design has been developed since the 1950s in Canada as the CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium), and more recently also in India. It uses natural uranium oxide (0.7% 235U) as fuel, thus requiring a more efficient moderator, in this case heavy water (deuterium oxide, D2O).
The moderator is in a large tank called a calandria, penetrated by several hundred horizontal pressure tubes that form channels for the fuel, cooled by a flow of heavy water under high pressure in the primary cooling circuit, reaching 290°C. As in the PWR, the primary coolant generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines. The pressure tube is designed so that the reactor can be refuelled progressively without shutting down, by isolating individual pressure tubes from the cooling circuit.
A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half-meter-long fuel rods (ceramic fuel pellets in zircaloy tubes) along with a support structure, with 12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel channel. Control rods penetrate the calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system involves adding gadolinium to the moderator. The heavy water moderator circulating through the body of the calandria vessel also yields some heat (though this circuit is not shown in the diagram in Figure 3.
Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)
Figure 4: Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor
Advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGRs) are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite moderators and carbon dioxide (CO2) as a coolant. AGRs are fuelled with uranium oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in stainless steel tubes. The carbon dioxide circulates through the core, reaching 650°C, and then past steam generator tubes outside the core, but still inside the concrete and steel pressure vessel. Control rods penetrate the moderator and a secondary shutdown system involves injecting nitrogen into the coolant.
The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor, also graphite-moderated and CO2-cooled, and two of these are still operating in the UK. They use natural uranium fuel in metal form.
Light Water Graphite-moderated Reactor (RBMK)
RBMK (high-power channel reactor, reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalniy), is a Soviet design developed from plutonium production reactors. RBMKs employ long (7 meter) vertical pressure tubes running through a graphite moderator, and is cooled by water that is allowed to boil in the core at 290°C, much as in a BWR. Fuel is low-enriched uranium oxide made up into fuel assemblies 3.5 meters long. With moderation largely due to the fixed graphite, excess boiling simply reduces the cooling and neutron absorbtion without inhibiting the fission reaction, and problems due to positive feedback can arise, which is why they have never been built outside the Soviet Union.
Advanced reactors
Several generations of reactors are commonly distinguished. Generation I reactors were developed in 1950-60s and relatively few are still running today. They typically ran on natural uranium fuel and were graphite-moderated. Generation II reactors are typified by the present U.S. fleet and are the most in operation elsewhere. They typically use enriched uranium fuel and are mostly cooled and moderated by water. Generation III are the Advanced Reactors, the first few of which are in operation in Japan with others under construction or ready to be ordered. They are developments of the second generation designs equipped with enhanced safety features.
Generation IV nuclear reactors are still on the drawing board and will not be operational before 2020 at the earliest, probably later. They will tend to have closed fuel cycles and burn the long-lived actinides now forming part of spent fuel, so that fission products are the only high-level waste. Many will be fast neutron reactors.
More than a dozen Generation III advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development. Some are evolutionary from the PWR, BWR and CANDU designs, some are more radical departures. The former include the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, two of which are now operating with others under construction. The best-known innovative design is the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor, using helium as coolant, at very high temperature, to drive a turbine directly.
Considering the closed fuel cycle, Generation I-III reactors recycle plutonium (and possibly uranium), while Generation IV designs are expected to have full actinide recycling capability.
Fast neutron reactors
Fast neutron reactors (only one in commercial service) do not have a moderator and utilize fast neutrons, generating power from plutonium while making more from the 238U isotope in or around the fuel. While fast neutron reactors get more than 60 times as much energy from the original uranium compared with normal reactors, they are expensive to build. Further development of them is likely in the next decade.
Floating nuclear power plants
Apart from over 200 nuclear reactors powering various kinds of ships, Rosatom in Russia has set up a subsidiary to supply floating nuclear power plants ranging in size from 70 to 600 MWe. These will be mounted in pairson a large barge, which will be permanently moored where it is needed to supply power and possibly some desalination to a shore settlement or industrial complex. The first will have two 40 MWe reactors based on those in icebreakers and will operate at Severodvinsk, in the Archangel region. Five of the next seven will be used by Gazprom for offshore oil and gas field development and for operations on the Kola and Yamal peninsulas. One is for Pevek on the Chukotka peninsula, another for Kamchatka region, both in the far east of the country. Further far east sites being considered are Yakutia and Taimyr. Electricity cost is expected to be much lower than from present alternatives.
The Russian KLT-40S is a reactor well proven in icebreakers and now proposed for wider use in desalination and, on barges, for remote area power supply. Here a 150 MWt unit produces 35 MWe (gross) as well as up to 35 MW of heat for desalination or district heating. These are designed to run 3-4 years between refuelling and it is envisaged that they will be operated in pairs to allow for outages, with on-board refuelling capability and used fuel storage. At the end of a 12-year operating cycle the whole plant is taken to a central facility for overhaul and removal of used fuel. Two units will be mounted on a 20,000 tonne barge. A larger Russian factory-built and barge-mounted reactor is the VBER-150, of 350 MW thermal, 110 MWe. The larger VBER-300 PWR is a 325 MWe unit, originally envisaged in pairs as a floating nuclear power plant, displacing 49,000 tonnes. As a cogeneration plant it is rated at 200 MWe and 1900 GJ/hr.
Lifetime of nuclear reactors.
Most of today's nuclear plants which were originally designed for 30 or 40-year operating lives. However, with major investments in systems, structures and components lives can be extended, and in several countries there are active programs to extend operating lives. In the USA most of the more than one hundred reactors are expected to be granted licence extensions from 40 to 60 years. This justifies significant capital expenditure in upgrading systems and components, including building in extra performance margins.
Some components simply wear out, corrode or degrade to a low level of efficiency. These need to be replaced. Steam generators are the most prominent and expensive of these, and many have been replaced after about 30 years where the reactor otherwise has the prospect of running for 60 years. This is essentially an economic decision. Lesser components are more straightforward to replace as they age. In Candu reactors, pressure tube replacement has been undertaken on some plants after about 30 years operation.
A second issue is that of obsolescence. For instance, older reactors have analogue instrument and control systems. Thirdly, the properties of materials may degrade with age, particularly with heat and neutron irradiation. In respect to all these aspects, investment is needed to maintain reliability and safety. Also, periodic safety reviews are undertaken on older plants in line with international safety conventions and principles to ensure that safety margins are maintained.
See also section on aging, in Safety of nuclear power reactors article.
Primary coolants
The advent of some of the designs mentioned above provides opportunity to review the various primary coolants used in nuclear reactors:
Water or heavy water must be maintained at very high pressure (1000-2200 psi, 7-15 MPa) to enable it to function above 100ºC, as in present reactors. This has a major influence on reactor engineering. However, supercritical water around 25 MPa can give 45% thermal efficiency - as at some fossil-fuel power plants today with outlet temperatures of 600ºC, and at ultra supercritical levels (30+ MPa) 50% may be attained.
Helium must be used at similar pressure (1000-2000 psi, 7-14 MPa) to maintain sufficient density for efficient operation. Again, there are engineering implications, but it can be used in the Brayton cycle to drive a turbine directly.
Carbon dioxide was used in early British reactors and their AGRs. It is denser than helium and thus likely to give better thermal conversion efficiency. There is now interest in supercritical CO2 for the Brayton cycle.
Sodium, as normally used in fast neutron reactors, melts at 98ºC and boils at 883ºC at atmospheric pressure, so despite the need to keep it dry the engineering required to contain it is relatively modest. However, normally water/steam is used in the secondary circuit to drive a turbine (Rankine cycle) at lower thermal efficiency than the Brayton cycle.
Lead or lead-bismuth are capable of higher temperature operation. They are transparent to neutrons, aiding efficiency, and do not react with water. However, they are corrosive of fuel cladding and steels, and Pb-Bi yields Po activation products. Pb-Bi melts at 125ºC and boils at 1670ºC, Pb melts at 327ºC and boils at 1737ºC. In 1998 Russia declassified a lot of research information derived from its experience with submarine reactors, and US interest in using Pb/Pb-Bi for small reactors has increased subsequently.
Molten fluoride salt boils at 1400ºC at atmospheric pressure, so allows several options for use of the heat, including using helium in a secondary Brayton cycle with thermal efficiencies of 48% at 750°C to 59% at 1000°C, or manufacture of hydrogen.
Low-pressure liquid coolants allow all their heat to be delivered at high temperatures, since the temperature drop in heat exchangers is less than with gas coolants. Also, with a good margin between operating and boiling temperatures, passive cooling for decay heat is readily achieved.
The removal of passive decay heat is a vital feature of primary cooling systems, beyond heat transfer to do work. When the fission process stops, fission product decay continues and a substantial amount of heat is added to the core. At the moment of shutdown, this is about 6% of the full power level, but it quickly drops to about 1% as the short-lived fission products decay. This heat could melt the core of a light water reactor unless it is reliably dissipated. Typically some kind of convection flow is relied upon.
See also article on cooling power plants.
Primitive reactors
The world's oldest known nuclear reactors operated at what is now Oklo in Gabon, West Africa. About 2 billion years ago, at least 17 natural nuclear reactors achieved criticality in a rich deposit of uranium ore. Each operated at about 20 kW thermal. At that time, the concentration of 235U in all natural uranium was 3.7 percent instead of 0.7 percent as at present. 235U decays much faster than 238U, whose half-life is about the same as the age of the Earth. These natural chain reactions, started spontaneously by the presence of water acting as a moderator, continued for about 2 million years before finally dying away.
During this long reaction period, about 5.4 tonnes of fission products as well as 1.5 tonnes of plutonium together with other transuranic elements were generated in the orebody. The initial radioactive products have long since decayed into stable elements but close study of the amount and location of these has shown that there was little movement of radioactive wastes during and after the nuclear reactions. Thus, plutonium and the other transuranics remained immobile.
Further Reading
Citation
World Nuclear Association, Ian Hore-Lacy (Lead Author);Cutler J. Cleveland (Topic Editor) "Nuclear power reactor". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth December 6, 2009; Last revised Date December 6, 2009; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Nuclear_power_reactor>
The Authors
The World Nuclear Association is the global private-sector organization that seeks to promote the peaceful worldwide use of nuclear power as a sustainable energy resource for the coming centuries. Specifically, the WNA is concerned with nuclear power generation and all aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle, including mining, conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication, plant manufacture, transport, and the safe disposition of spent fuel.The WNA serves its Members by facilitating their interaction on te ... (Full Bio)
Ian Hore-Lacy is Director for Public Communications at the World Nuclear Association, an international trade association based in London, and has been involved with studying uranium and nuclear power since 1995. His function is primarily focused on public information on nuclear power via the World Wide Web. He is a former biology teacher who joined the mining industry as an environmental scientist in 1974, with CRA (now Rio Tinto). He is author of Nuclear Electricity, the expanded eighth editi ... (Full Bio)
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Blount County, North CarolinaEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 22:44, 31 December 2010 by Murphynw (Talk | contribs)
(diff) ← Older revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)
See Blount County, Tennessee for further information about Blount County, North Carolina.
From 1784 to 1788 Blount County was claimed by the abortive, short-lived State of Franklin.
In 1789 North Carolina ratified the Constitution, was admitted the union, and ceded her westernmost counties to the United States. The United States used these counties to create the Southwest Territory. This territory became the State of Tennessee in 1796.
Blount County was part of these western counties now in Tennessee.
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Forensics Wiki:Copyrights
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Solve the Death | Feb. 12, 2010
Know what you can do.
10Feb2010,18:09 #1
2 guys are in a dessert, 1 is dead and one is alive. The one that is alive's backpack is empty, the one that is dead's backpack is full. How did he die?
**HINT**
The other guy did not kill him.
The other guy is sad about his friend's death.
Go4Expert Founder
12Feb2010,16:25 #2
Approved.
Skilled contributor
12Feb2010,18:47 #3
The person who died didn't use his backpack in such a hot environment while the survivng guy survived using his backpack...
Skilled contributor
12Feb2010,18:50 #4
the another ans cud be that the dead guy died of carrying the heavy load of backpack in hot dessert..Whereas, the survivng guy had to carry zero load..
Go4Expert Member
13Feb2010,18:08 #5
bec. they would both die he gave his backpack on the other so that 1 would survive
Know what you can do.
16Feb2010,17:17 #6
Can I give the answer?
Know what you can do.
16Feb2010,17:17 #7
They went skydiving and the other guy's parachute did not open.
Go4Expert Member
16Feb2010,18:32 #8
nz answer out of topic
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About this Journal Submit a Manuscript Table of Contents
Advances in Physical Chemistry
Volume 2011 (2011), Article ID 541375, 14 pages
doi:10.1155/2011/541375
Research Article
Invariant Graphical Method for Electron-Atom Scattering Coupled-Channel Equations
1School of Physics, The University of Western Australia, WA 6009, Australia
2Institute of Theoretical Physics, Curtin University of Technology, WA 6102, Australia
Received 9 September 2010; Revised 28 December 2010; Accepted 13 January 2011
Academic Editor: Wybren Buma
Copyright © 2011 J. B. Wang and A. T. Stelbovics. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
We present application examples of a graphical method for the efficient construction of potential matrix elements in quantum physics or quantum chemistry. The simplicity and power of this method are illustrated through several examples. In particular, a complete set of potential matrix elements for electron-lithium scattering are derived for the first time using this method, which removes the frozen core approximation adopted by previous studies. This method can be readily adapted to study other many-body quantum systems.
1. Introduction
The fundamental problem encountered by a theoretician working in the field of quantum physics or quantum chemistry is to evaluate the so-called observables to certain precision. Here, is the wave function of the system under investigation, and is the operator representing the physical quantity one needs to evaluate. This seemingly easy task encounters many obstacles, one of which is the complexity of the physical structure of a composite system. For example, there are several electrons and nuclei interacting with each other in an atomic or molecular system. Even though the exact form of such interactions is well known, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain accurate solutions from the corresponding Schrödinger or Dirac equation.
However, most physical systems have symmetry properties that influence their dynamics and structures in a way independent of the detailed interactions. A good example is the motion of a particle in a central field. The symmetry of the interaction leads to the conservation of angular momentum that is independent of the detailed form of the interaction potential . Angular momentum theory deals with rotational symmetries of a composite system. In classical physics, angular momentum treatments are straightforward following the simple manipulation rules of vectors. In the quantum world, not only the magnitude of angular momenta is quantized, but also their spatial orientations.
Angular momentum calculations in quantum theory prove to be most laborious, especially when many-body systems or complicated operators are involved. Furthermore, the final expressions are often incomprehensible even for experienced researchers in the field. Unless one derives the equations himself by a painstakingly tedious procedure, one cannot really tell where the phases and the - symbols come from. It is also quickly apparent, once one begins to derive the complete reduced potential matrix-elements for systems beyond four electrons, that the expressions become rapidly intractable to algebraic derivation by conventional methods. The problems are simply due to the vast number of Clebsch-Gordan coefficients that comprise the expressions, each of which is summed over several angular momentum labels. In addition, there are many pages of practical formulas that one often needs in order to perform these calculations, such as those listed in the appendixes of Brink and Satchler [1].
In view of these difficulties, we started to search for a method that is transparent, free of the incomprehensible phases, makes minimal use of formulas, and leads easily to a correct final expression. We will demonstrate in this paper that the invariant graphical method initiated by Danos and Fano [2] meets all the above criteria. We will then apply this method to derive the reduced matrix elements of selected electron-atom interaction potentials, which are not available mainly due to the difficulties mentioned above. This method can be readily adapted to study other many-body systems such as two-photon double ionization of atoms [3, 4], two-nucleon knockout reactions [5], spin networks [6], and entangled spin-1/2 qubits [7, 8].
A central point to this method is the concept that most physical quantities are invariant, that is, they are independent of the coordinate system one chooses for their description. This is the case for energies, cross-sections, and transition probabilities. In other words, these quantities are scalar quantities and have zero angular momentum. Consequently, the tensors they may contain would couple to a total of zero angular momentum. We will demonstrate, in the next section, that angular momentum calculations become much simpler once we take this invariance into account. Atomic units are used throughout this paper.
2. Elements of the Invariant Graphical Method
In the invariant graphical method, there is only one basic graph (Figure 1(a)) for angular momentum coupling and recoupling. The essential elements are the horizontal lines, each representing a tensor with a given angular momentum labeled above the line. Here, tensors are used to represent all quantities including wave functions, operators, amplitudes, and so forth. In this way, a scalar quantity is a tensor of rank zero. A vector is a tensor of rank one and so on. As an example, the state with angular momentum can be represented by a tensor of the rank . This graph provides the basic transformation associated with four angular momenta to rearrange them into a different coupling scheme. The transformation is represented by a recoupling box, mathematically associated with a square 9- symbol such that where is represented by . The square 9- symbol is related to the Wigner 9- coefficients by where .
Figure 1: (a) Basic recoupling transformation graph; (b) recoupling of three tensors.
This basic graph is the key building block of this method. All possible recoupling transformation can be performed based upon this graph. For example, the recoupling of three angular momenta can be derived using the graph illustrated in Figure 1(b) as In this method, there is no need to use 6- symbols, which carry extra phases and normalization constants that can lead to tedious book-keeping and are prone to errors. There is also no need to remember the many sum rules, which are required to eliminate unnecessary summation indexes in other conventional methods.
3. Applications
Coupled-channel equations have been used extensively in the description of electron-atom scattering. Their application has been particularly successful in the so-called convergent close-coupling approach (CCC) implemented by Bray and Stelbovics [9] and subsequently extended to other atoms with one or two valence electrons outside an inert core [10, 11, 13]. To perform such calculations, one requires the reduced matrix elements of the coupled-channel potentials, which we denote by with representing the complete set of quantum numbers specifying a particular configuration of the system under study. For electron scattering from an -electron target, the coupled-channel reduced matrix elements have the following structure which includes both the direct and exchange terms. Here, is the permutation operator, is the system energy, subscript 0 denotes the incoming electron, and subscripts 1- denote the target electrons. Using the explicitly antisymmetrized target states, the reduced matrix elements can be simplified to Each of these terms will be derived explicitly for e-He and e-Li scattering in Sections 3.2 and 3.3.
By employing the invariant graphical method, we will derive a complete set of direct and exchange potential matrix elements for electron-atom scattering, which are beyond the frozen core approximation adopted by Wu et al. [12], Fursa and Bray [13], Bray et al. [10, 16], and Zhang et al. [14].
3.1. Two-Electron System
To illustrate the use of the invariant graphical method, we first consider the direct Coulomb matrix elements for a two-electron system, that is, , which was also discussed in detail in Danos and Fano [2]. The complete coupling and recoupling graph is shown in Figure 2. As described earlier, each line in the figure represents a tensor with a given angular momentum indicated by the label above the line. The joining of two lines into one line represents coupling of their angular momenta. Recoupling into a different tensor set is indicated by a transformation box and needs to be carried out until each component of the graph is expressible in terms of single-particle matrix elements (e.g., the end boxes and in this case). The invariance of such a triple product provides a means of eliminating unnecessary intermediate indexes. For example, it demands that the coupling of and must give rise to a tensor with angular momentum instead of an arbitrary index. It also helps in identifying the most direct and economical recoupling scheme. We first expand the two-body Coulomb potential into its multipole components where . The corresponding final expression can then be directly read off from Figure 2 as where and is the regular spherical harmonic tensor. This definition is introduced to avoid unnecessary phases entering the coupling and recoupling scheme.
Figure 2: Recoupling graph for (7).
Each square 9- symbol in (7) corresponds to a recoupling box in Figure 2. The end-box represents an invariant matrix element containing three spherical harmonic tensors written as , which equals For numerical computation purposes, (7) can be treated as a final expression. Nevertheless, further simplification can be made considering the many zeros in the 9- symbols. This leads to the well-known result (see, e.g, [15])
3.2. Electron-He Scattering (A Three-Electron System)
As a second more complicated example, we will derive the momentum-space direct and exchange matrix elements for a three-electron system, such as electron scattering from a helium atom. The general configuration of the system can be represented by , where , , and are, respectively, the linear, orbital angular and spin momentum of the incoming electron, and are the angular momenta of the target electrons, and are the spin momenta of the target electrons, and are the total orbit angular and spin momentum of the target atom, and and are the total orbit angular and spin momentum of the entire system. Note that the linear radial integral part of the direct and exchange elements is straightforward to work out and has the general form of where are the target atomic orbitals with quantum numbers and , and is the th partial wave of the projectile electron. The coupling and recoupling graph for the direct and exchange potential spin part is shown in Figure 3 and those for the orbital part are shown in Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. The corresponding final expressions can then be directly read off from the figures as Minor simplification of (11)–(15) gives rise to the same expressions presented in [11], where the conventional algebraic approach was used. However, we emphasize that the invariant graphical method is so much simpler with the derivation completed by drawing the diagrams.
Figure 3: Recoupling graph of the spin tensors for (11)–(15).
Figure 4: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (11).
Figure 5: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (12).
Figure 6: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (13).
Figure 7: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (14).
Figure 8: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (15).
3.3. Electron-Li Scattering (A Four-Electron System)
Derivations for these momentum-space potentials have been previously given for e-H [9], for e-Li [11], for e-Na [16], and for e-He [16], all using the conventional algebraic approach. The frozen core approximation was adopted for e-Li and e-Na in these studies, which could be the main reason for the small discrepancies between the theoretical calculations and experiments [10]. With the enormous success of quantum scattering theories in describing scattering from one- and two-electron targets, one is naturally seeking to perform calculations with more complex systems and free of approximations. However, such an extension has been proven to be extremely tedious and in some cases even intractable. In the following, we derive a complete set of direct and exchange matrix elements for electron-Lithium scattering (previously not available) using the invariant graphical method. In this way, we are able to remove the frozen core approximation adopted by Bray et al. [10, 16] and Zhang et al. [14]. Again, the linear radial integral part of the direct and exchange elements is straightforward to work out and has the general form of The corresponding coupling and recoupling graphs are shown in Figures 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15, and the results are as the following:
Figure 9: Recoupling graph of the spin tensors for (17)–(22).
Figure 10: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (17).
Figure 11: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (18).
Figure 12: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (19).
Figure 13: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (20).
Figure 14: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (21).
Figure 15: Recoupling graph of the orbit tensors for (22).
4. Conclusions
The invariant graphical method developed by Danos and Fano [2] is very powerful. The complex manipulation of angular momenta is reduced to the drawing of a compact graph, from which the final expressions can be readily read off. The procedure is transparent and simple to apply. It avoids writing out the intermediate expansions, yields immediately the selection rules for intermediate angular momenta, and helps in finding the most direct and economical intermediate recoupling. It also requires a minimal use of rules in comparison with pages of formulas involved in other conventional methods.
Acknowledgments
J. B. Wang would like to thank H. Y. Wu for cross-checking the phases in (11) using the conventional algebraic method. The authors also acknowledge support from The University of Western Australia, Murdoch University, and Curtin University of Technology.
References
1. D. M. Brink and G. R. Satchler, Angular Momentum, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1993.
2. M. Danos and U. Fano, “Graphical analysis of angular momentum for collision products,” Physics Report, vol. 304, no. 4, pp. 155–227, 1998.
3. A. S. Kheifets, “Sequential two-photon double ionization of noble gas atoms,” Journal of Physics B, vol. 40, no. 22, pp. F313–F318, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
4. A. S. Kheifets, “Photoelectron angular correlation pattern in sequential two-photon double ionization of neon,” Journal of Physics B, vol. 42, no. 13, Article ID 134016, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
5. E. C. Simpson, J. A. Tostevin, D. Bazin, and A. Gade, “Longitudinal momentum distributions of the reaction residues following fast two-nucleon knockout reactions,” Physical Review C, vol. 79, no. 6, Article ID 064621, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
6. V. Aquilanti, A. C. P. Bitencourt, C. Da, A. Marzuoli, and M. Ragni, “Combinatorics of angular momentum recoupling theory: spin networks, their asymptotics and applications,” Theoretical Chemistry Accounts, vol. 123, no. 3-4, pp. 237–247, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
7. J. Suzuki, G. N. M. Tabia, and B. G. Englert, “Symmetric construction of reference-frame-free qudits,” Physical Review A, vol. 78, no. 5, Article ID 052328, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
8. A. Maser, U. Schilling, T. Bastin, E. Solano, C. Thiel, and J. Von Zanthier, “Generation of total angular momentum eigenstates in remote qubits,” Physical Review A, vol. 79, no. 3, Article ID 033833, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
9. I. Bray and A. T. Stelbovics, “Convergent close-coupling calculations of electron-hydrogen scattering,” Physical Review A, vol. 46, no. 11, pp. 6995–7011, 1992. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
10. I. Bray, J. Beck, and C. Plottke, “Spin-resolved electron-impact ionization of lithium,” Journal of Physics B, vol. 32, no. 17, pp. 4309–4320, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
11. D. V. Fursa and I. Bray, “Calculation of electron-helium scattering,” Physical Review A, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 1279–1297, 1995. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
12. H. Wu, I. Bray, D. V. Fursa, and A. T. Stelbovics, “Convergent close-coupling calculations of positron-helium scattering at intermediate to high energies,” Journal of Physics B, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 1165–1172, 2004.
13. D. V. Fursa and I. Bray, “Electron-impact ionization of the helium metastable 2 S state,” Journal of Physics B, vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 1663–1671, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
14. X. Zhang, C. T. Whelan, and H. R. J. Walters, “Electron impact ionization of lithium-spin asymmetry of the triple differential cross section,” Journal of Physics B, vol. 25, pp. L457–L462, 1992.
15. R. D. Cowan, The Theory of Atomic Structure and Spectra, University of California Press, Berkeley, Calif, USA, 1981.
16. I. Bray, “Convergent close-coupling method for the calculation of electron scattering on hydrogenlike targets,” Physical Review A, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 1066–1082, 1994. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
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Bibliography: Leo Rising
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Title: Leo Rising
Author: Richard Matheson
Year: 1972
Type: SHORTFICTION
Storylen: shortfiction
Language: English
ISFDB Record Number: 1233577
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One Marijuana Case Costs Tax Payers About $65,000
February 4, 2011
By
but since getting intoxicated is a sin, we must punish the evil doers until we are all broke Generic Levitra Online Pharmacy | Buy Levitra | Cheap Levitra | Order Generic Levitra Online without Prescription and penniless.
Follow the compounding costs in the case of one James P. Fowler:
Of course, prosecuting Mr. Fowler’s evil deeds isn’t the only ridiculous law that costs epic sums of money.
Take the new Generic cheapest pills without prescription federal law that locks up people for 5 years if they point a laser pointer at an airplane for example.
There are over 4000 “crimes” in the federal code books that range from the serious to the ridiculous.
Of course, in a free society, a crime is not a crime unless there is a victim that can articulate damages before an arbitrator of the law. The State is always an illegitimate victim, because as we can see in the video, the only real victims in this case were the tax payers.
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Compare Projects
General
Project Activity Not Available Very Low
Ohloh Data Quality Updated about 2 years ago Updated 2 days ago
Homepage open.omnium.net.au www.efrontlearning.net
Project License GPL-2.0+ CPAL-1.0
Estimated Cost $1,499,880.00 $15,811,026.00
All Time Statistics
Contributors (All Time)
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Commits (All Time)
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Initial Commit over 5 years ago over 3 years ago
Most Recent Commit over 4 years ago 4 months ago
12 Month Statistics
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Commits (Past 12 Months) No Data 25 commits
Files Modified No Data 1,362 files
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Copyright © 2013 Black Duck Software, Inc. and its contributors, Some Rights Reserved. Unless otherwise marked, this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License . Ohloh ® and the Ohloh logo are trademarks of Black Duck Software, Inc. in the United States and/or other jurisdictions. All other trademarks are the property of their respective holders.
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TOP10 chemically competent cells
From OpenWetWare
(Difference between revisions)
Jump to: navigation, search
(5x Ligation Adjustment Buffer)
Line 73: Line 73:
* MnCl<sub>2</sub> 100 mM (100 ml/l of a 1 M solution)
* MnCl<sub>2</sub> 100 mM (100 ml/l of a 1 M solution)
* Glycerol 46.8% (468 ml/liter)
* Glycerol 46.8% (468 ml/liter)
-
* pH adjustment with 2.3% of a 10% acetic acid solution (23 ml/liter)
+
* pH adjustment with 2.3% of a 10% acetic acid solution (12.8ml/liter)
+
** Previous protocol indicated amount of acetic acid added should be 23 ml/liter but that amount was found to be 2X too much per tests on 1.23.07 --[[User:Meaganl|Meaganl]] 15:50, 25 January 2007 (EST)
* water to 1 liter
* water to 1 liter
* autoclave or sterile filter
* autoclave or sterile filter
* Test pH adjustment by mixing 4 parts ligation buffer + 1 part 5x ligation adjustment buffer and checking pH to be 6.3 - 6.5
* Test pH adjustment by mixing 4 parts ligation buffer + 1 part 5x ligation adjustment buffer and checking pH to be 6.3 - 6.5
-
==References==
==References==
Revision as of 16:50, 25 January 2007
This protocol is a variant of the Hanahan protocol [1] using CCMB80 buffer for DH10B, TOP10 and MachI strains. It builds on Example 2 of the Bloom05 patent as well. This protocol has been tested on TOP10, MachI and BL21(DE3) cells. See Bacterial Transformation for a more general discussion of other techniques. The Jesse '464 patent describes using this buffer for DH5α cells. The Bloom04 patent describes the use of essentially the same protocol for the Invitrogen Mach 1 cells.
Contents
Preparing glassware and media
Detergent is a major inhibitor of competent cell growth and transformation. Glass and plastic must be detergent free for these protocols. The easiest way to do this is to avoid washing glassware, and simply rinse it out. Autoclaving glassware filled 3/4 with DI water is an effective way to remove most detergent residue. Media and buffers should be prepared in detergent free glassware and cultures grown up in detergent free glassware.
Preparing seed stocks
• streak TOP10 cells on an SOB plate and grow for single colonies at 23 C
• room temperature works well
• Pick single colonies into 2 ml of SOB medium and shake overnight at 23 C
• room temperature works well
• Add glycerol to 15%
• Aliquot 1 ml samples to Nunc cryotubes
• Place tubes into a zip lock bag, immerse bag into a dry ice/ethanol bath for 5 minutes
• This step may not be necessary
• Place in -80 freezer indefinitely.
Preparing competent cells
• Inoculate 250 ml of SOB medium with 1 ml vial of seed stock and grow at 20 C to an OD of 0.3
• This takes approximately 16 hours.
• Controlling the temperature makes this a more reproducible process, but is not essential.
• Room temperature will work. You can adjust this temperature somewhat to fit your schedule
• Aim for lower, not higher OD if you can't hit this mark
• Centrifuge at 3000g / 4C for 10 minutes in a flat bottom centrifuge bottle.
• Flat bottom centrifuge tubes make the fragile cells much easier to resuspend
• It is often easier to resuspend pellets by mixing before adding large amounts of buffer
• Gently resuspend in 80 ml of ice cold CCMB80 buffer
• sometimes this is less than completely gentle. It still works.
• Incubate on ice 20 minutes
• Centrifuge again at 4C and resuspend in 20 ml of ice cold CCMB80 buffer.
• Incubate on ice for 20 minutes
• Aliquot to chilled screw top 2 ml vials or 50 μl into chilled microtiter plates
• Store at -80C indefinitely.
• Flash freezing does not appear to be necessary
• Test competence (see below)
• Good cells should yield around 100 - 400 colonies
CCMB80 buffer
• 10 mM KOAc pH 7.0 (10 ml of a 1M stock/l)
• 80 mM CaCl2.2H2O (11.8 g/l)
• 20 mM MnCl2.4H2O (4.0 g/l)
• 10 mM MgCl2.6H2O (2.0 g/l)
• 10% glycerol (100 ml/l)
• adjust pH DOWN to 6.4 with 0.1N HCl if necessary
• adjusting pH up will precipitate manganese dioxide from Mn containing solutions.
• sterile filter and store at 4C
• slight dark precipitate appears not to affect its function
Measurement of competence
• Transform 50 μl of cells with 1 μl of standard pUC19 plasmid (Invitrogen)
• This is at 10 pg/μl or 10-5 μg
• Hold on ice 0.5 hours
• Heat shock 60 sec at 42C
• Add 250 μl SOC
• Incubate at 37 C for 1 hour in 2 ml centrifuge tubes rotated
• using 2ml centrifuge tubes for transformation and regrowth works well because the small volumes flow well when rotated, increasing aeration.
• For our plasmids (pSB1AC3, pSB1AT3) which are chloramphenicol and tetracycline resistant, we find growing for 2 hours yields many more colonies
• Ampicillin and kanamycin appear to do fine with 1 hour growth
• Plate 20 μl on AMP plates using 3.5 mm glass beads
• Transformation efficiency is 15 x colony count x 105
• There is anecdotal evidence that refreezing partially used cell aliquots dramatically reduces transformation efficiency.
5x Ligation Adjustment Buffer
• Intended to be mixed with ligation reactions to adjust buffer composition to be near the CCMB80 buffer
• KOAc 40 mM (40 ml/liter of 1 M KOAc solution, pH 7.0)
• CaCl2 400 mM (200 ml/l of a 2 M solution)
• MnCl2 100 mM (100 ml/l of a 1 M solution)
• Glycerol 46.8% (468 ml/liter)
• pH adjustment with 2.3% of a 10% acetic acid solution (12.8ml/liter)
• Previous protocol indicated amount of acetic acid added should be 23 ml/liter but that amount was found to be 2X too much per tests on 1.23.07 --Meaganl 15:50, 25 January 2007 (EST)
• water to 1 liter
• autoclave or sterile filter
• Test pH adjustment by mixing 4 parts ligation buffer + 1 part 5x ligation adjustment buffer and checking pH to be 6.3 - 6.5
References
1. Hanahan D, Jessee J, and Bloom FR. . pmid:1943786. PubMed HubMed [Hanahan91]
2. US Patent 6,709,852 Media:pat6709852.pdf [Bloom04]
3. US Patent 6,855,494 Media:pat6855494.pdf [Bloom05]
4. US Patent 6,960,464 Media:pat6960464.pdf [Jesse05]
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BLAST
From OpenWetWare
Jump to: navigation, search
Basic Local Alignment Search Tool, or BLAST, is an algorithm for comparing biological sequences, such as the amino-acid sequences of different proteins or the DNA sequences. A BLAST search enables a researcher to compare a query sequence with a library or database of sequences, and identify library sequences that resemble the query sequence above a certain threshold. For example, following the discovery of a previously unknown gene in the mouse, a scientist will typically perform a BLAST search of the human genome to see if human beings carry a similar gene; BLAST will identify sequences in the human genome that resemble the mouse gene based on similarity of sequence.
BLAST is one of the most widely used bioinformatics programs, probably because it addresses a fundamental problem and the algorithm emphasizes speed over sensitivity. This emphasis on speed is vital to making the algorithm practical on the huge genome databases currently available, although subsequent algorithms can be even faster.
-- from Wikipedia entry on BLAST
Contents
Software
BLAST standalones can be downloaded from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST/download.shtml
A non-command line version, called wwwblast can also be setup so that BLAST of custom databases can be undertaken by using an internet browser.
Scoring Matrices
ftp://ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/blast/matrices/
• BLOSUM62 is the usual scoring matrix used for amino acid sequences
Parsing of Output
BioPython, BioPerl, and BioJava have modules that extraordinarily simplify BLAST parsing in a variety of formats. A HOWTO on BLAST parsing in BioPerl illustrates the power of scripting this parsing.
More information @OpenWetWare
Parallel BLAST
MPI-BLAST is quite good, but not very robust.
Databases
See ftp://ftp.ncbi.nih.gov/blast/db/
References
• Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, Myers EW, and Lipman DJ. Basic local alignment search tool. J Mol Biol 1990 Oct 5; 215(3) 403-10. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1990.9999 pmid:2231712.
• Altschul SF, Madden TL, Schaffer AA, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Miller W, and Lipman DJ. Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acids Res 1997 Sep 1; 25(17) 3389-402. pmid:9254694.
• McGinnis S and Madden TL. BLAST: at the core of a powerful and diverse set of sequence analysis tools. Nucleic Acids Res 2004 Jul 1; 32(Web Server issue) W20-5. doi:10.1093/nar/gkh435 pmid:15215342.
• Korf I, Yandell M, and Bedell J, BLAST O'Reilly & Associates, 2003.
External Links
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Smolke:Protocols/Yeast plasmid prep
From OpenWetWare
Jump to: navigation, search
Home Contact Internal Protocols Lab Members Publications Research
Contents
Overview
Designed to prep plasmids from yeast. Generally used to recover plasmids after screening a library. Produces low concentration DNA, suitable for PCR or transformation into E. coli but not direct sequencing. We tried using the Zymo yeast prep kit and had similar results (enough DNA to transform, but not to sequence).
Procedure
Materials
• SDS/NaOH. Make fresh each time.
• 10mM Tris, pH 7.5
• 1mM EDTA, pH 8.0
• 3% SDS
• 200mM NaOH
• TE/NaOAc
• 10mM Tris, pH 7.5
• 1mM EDTA, pH 8.0
• 600mM NaOAc, pH 5.2
• Phenol/Chloroform
• 100% Ethanol
• 3M Sodium Acetate, pH 5.2
Method
• Grow an overnight culture in appropriate media
• Pellet 1.5mL cells (5 minutes, 6000g works fine)
• Resuspend in 100uL SDS/NaOH
• Leave at RT for 15 minutes with occasional agitation
• Add 100uL TE/NaOAc, mix well
• Add 200uL phenol/chloroform, vortex, spin 5 minutes at max speed
• Remove supernatant, add 2x volume 100% EtOH, 1/10th volume 3M NaOAc
• Leave at -20C for >30 minutes
• Spin >10 minutes at 4C, max speed
• Remove supernatant, wash with 70% EtOH, respin
• Remove supernatant, air dry
• Resuspend in 20uL buffer or water
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FOSDEM
FOSDEM Conference
February 4-5, 2012
Brussels, Belgium
FOSDEM is the biggest free and non-commercial event organized by and for the community. Its goal is to provide Free and Open Source developers a place to meet to:
• get in touch with other developers and projects;
• be informed about the latest developments in the Free Software and Open Source world;
• attend interesting talks and presentations held in large conference rooms by Free Software and Open Source project leaders and committers on various topics; and
• to promote the development and the benefits of Free Software and Open Source solutions.
OW2 has submitted a presentation for the DevRoom Open Source Cloud and Virtualization based on the CompatibleOne cloud project "Open Cloud Interoperability with CompatibleOne ". More details to come soon.
See more about FOSDEM: http://fosdem.org/2012/
See more about CompatibleOne: http://compatibleone.org/
Created by Catherine Nuel on 2012/01/05 14:00
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Dev
Developer tools documentation
Subversion
Apache Ant
Apache Ivy
Apache Maven 2
OW2 XWiki
OW2 JOnAS
Apache Felix
iPOJO
iPOJO is a component model for OSGi-based applications. iPOJO is flexible and extensible. It could be adapted in a lot of application context (including applications with small memory footprints) by customizing/extending container.
JUnit4OSGi
JUnit4OSGi is a test framework executing JUnit tests on an OSGi runtime. JUnit4OSGi provides a JUnit++ environment specialized for OSGi, several runners and a maven plugin.
Sequoia
OW2 Forge
Bamboo
Sonar
"Sonar is a code quality management platform, dedicated to continuously analyze and measure technical quality, from the projects portfolio to the class method"
Open Source License Checker
tool for inspection and analysis of lisence information from open source packages
FOSSology
facilitate the study of Free and Open Source Software by providing free data analysis tools
IzPack (Java packager)
Findbugs
uses static analysis to look for bugs in Java code
JFreeChart
GWT Extended Components
SOA4D (Service-Oriented Architecture for Devices)
Interesting projects for Aspire management
Wink
Convenient tool to create screencasts of demonstrations. Wink requires only a 20 minutes practice to be productive.
Tags:
Created by stephane ribas on 2009/05/13 10:05
SpotLight
Webinar Program
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Source:Johnson, Indiana, United States. Cemetery Records of Johnson County, Indiana
Watchers
Source Cemetery records of Johnson County, Indiana
Author Hougham, Ruth Trout
Daughters of the American Revolution. Alexander Hamilton Chapter (Indiana)
Hougham, Robert Bradley
Coverage
Place Johnson, Indiana, United States
Shelby, Indiana, United States
Subject Cemetery records
Publication information
Type Miscellaneous
Publisher Allen County Public Library
Date issued 1986
Place issued Ft. Wayne, Indiana
Citation
Hougham, Ruth Trout; Daughters of the American Revolution. Alexander Hamilton Chapter (Indiana); and Robert Bradley Hougham. Cemetery records of Johnson County, Indiana. (Ft. Wayne, Indiana: Allen County Public Library, 1986).
Repositories
Family History Centerhttp://www.familysearch.org/eng/library/fhlcatal..Family history center
Usage Tips
May be ordered through the nearest Family History Center.
FHL film numbers
• 572097 Item 1
• 849926 Item 2
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Multi-level Frontier based Topic-specific Crawler Design with Improved URL Ordering
Akilandeswari Jeyapal, Gopalan Palanisamy
Abstract
The rapid growth of World Wide Web has urged the development of retrieval tools like search engines. Topic specific crawlers are best suited for the users looking for results on a particular subject. In this paper, a novel design of a topic specific web crawler based on multi-agent system is presented. The architecture proposed employs two types of agents: retrieval and coordinator agents. Coordinator agent is responsible for disseminating URLs from crawling frontiers to individual retrieval agents. The URL frontier is modeled as multi-level queues to implement tunneling and is populated with URLs by a rule based engine. The coordinator agent dynamically assigns URLs to retrieval agents to avoid downloading non productive and duplicate Web pages. The empirical results clearly depict the advantage of using multi-level frontier queues in terms of harvest ratio, time, and downloading highly relevant Web pages.
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Computer and Information Science ISSN 1913-8989 (Print) ISSN 1913-8997 (Online)
Copyright © Canadian Center of Science and Education
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You are here: Home » Content
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You are here: Home » Content » Business models and marketing: Chapter summary
About: Business models and marketing: Chapter summary
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Name: Business models and marketing: Chapter summary
ID: m35357
Language: English (en)
Summary:
Business Fundamentals was developed by the Global Text Project, which is working to create open-content electronic textbooks that are freely available on the website http://globaltext.terry.uga.edu. Distribution is also possible via paper, CD, DVD, and via this collaboration, through Connexions. The goal is to make textbooks available to the many who cannot afford them. For more information on getting involved with the Global Text Project or Connexions email us at drexel@uga.edu and dcwill@cnx.org.
Editors: Salvador Treviño and Carlos Ruy Martinez (ITESM, Monterrey Campus, Mexico)
Contributors: Carlos Alberto Alanis, Gaspar Rivera, Jorge Echeagaray, Jose de Jesus Montes, Juana Monica Garcia, Ramiro Robles, and Roberto Sanchez
Subject: Business
Keywords: business models, entrepreneur, global text project, marketing
License: Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY 3.0
Authors: Global Text Project (drexel@uga.edu)
Copyright Holders: Global Text Project (drexel@uga.edu)
Maintainers: Global Text Project (drexel@uga.edu), Jared Adler (jca2@rice.edu), Marisa Drexel (drexel@uga.edu), Daniel Williamson (dcwill@cnx.org), Dr. Donald J. McCubbrey (gtp-l@mailman.rice.edu)
Editors: Dr. Donald J. McCubbrey (gtp-l@mailman.rice.edu)
Latest version: 1.4 (history)
First publication date: Aug 9, 2010 1:26 pm -0500
Last revision to module: Oct 6, 2010 1:05 pm -0500
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Version History
Version: 1.4 Oct 6, 2010 1:05 pm -0500 by Jared Adler
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Version: 1.3 Oct 4, 2010 12:48 pm -0500 by Jared Adler
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Version: 1.2 Sep 21, 2010 12:46 pm -0500 by Jared Adler
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Version: 1.1 Sep 14, 2010 2:55 pm -0500 by Daniel Williamson
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How to Cite and Attribute This Content
The following citation styles comply with the attribution requirements for the license (CC-BY 3.0) of this work:
American Chemical Society (ACS) Style Guide:
GTP. Business models and marketing: Chapter summary, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/m35357/1.4/, Oct 6, 2010.
American Medical Assocation (AMA) Manual of Style:
GTP. Business models and marketing: Chapter summary [Connexions Web site]. October 6, 2010. Available at: http://cnx.org/content/m35357/1.4/.
American Psychological Assocation (APA) Publication Manual:
GTP. (2010, October 6). Business models and marketing: Chapter summary. Retrieved from the Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/m35357/1.4/
Chicago Manual of Style (Bibliography):
GTP. "Business models and marketing: Chapter summary." Connexions. October 6, 2010. http://cnx.org/content/m35357/1.4/.
Chicago Manual of Style (Note):
GTP, "Business models and marketing: Chapter summary," Connexions, October 6, 2010, http://cnx.org/content/m35357/1.4/.
Chicago Manual of Style (Reference, in Author-Date style):
GTP. 2010. Business models and marketing: Chapter summary. Connexions, October 6, 2010. http://cnx.org/content/m35357/1.4/.
Modern Languages Association (MLA) Style Manual:
GTP. Business models and marketing: Chapter summary. Connexions. 6 Oct. 2010 <http://cnx.org/content/m35357/1.4/>.
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Tag Archives: Teacher Preparation
Are Teacher Preparation Programs Dangerously Irrelevant? [guest post]
Seann Dikkers [Guest Blogger]
In my first year of teaching a veteran leaned over during a particularly dry workshop and said blandly, “If you spend a whole day in these things and walk away with even one idea, it was worth the day… Today is not our day.” Cynical? Yes, but true. After 15 years as a teacher and principal this veteran’s words came back to me twice a year during professional development (PD) workshops. For good PD the wisdom was decidedly more uplifting.
Yet, there has to be a better way. Doesn’t there?
Now I’m knee deep in research on new media technologies for learning at the University of Wisconsin – Madison under Kurt Squire and Richard Halverson; both of whom argue that there are better ways. As much evidence as we muster, (in support of new models for leading and educating for learning), those in the system must embrace new practices for any changes to occur. In other words leadership matters and teaching matters as much as (or more) than GamingMatters (shameless self promotion) or any relevant new ideas for education.
Many studies seek to inform practice by examining experts in a field. In this post, I want to share some of the preliminary findings in the 21st Century Teaching Project (21CTP) – a study of teacher professional development trajectories toward the integration of new media technology.
I’ll edit the study details a bit: This is a ‘best practice’ style qualitative study after Dan McAdams’ methodology. Phase one: find out relevant practices. Phase two: quantify them in a larger sample to see if they hold water. 39 of the nation’s award winning teachers (TotY, PAEMST, ING, AMF) and authors make up the data set. If these are the teachers we choose to recognize as excellent, then we should listen to what they have to say about their PD – especially when there are consistent messages emerging.
So what do they say?
The next five blog entries will cover five findings that popped out of the data from the 21st Century Teaching Project (21CTP).
21CTP Theme 1: Teacher Training
In the initial interviews the participants kept telling me, with a conspiratorial tone, that their training wasn’t like most teachers, ”It’s a rather unorthodox journey”, said one. Then, one after another, they shared stories that all converged one one point. Traditional teacher education was at best – irrelevant; and at worst detrimental to being an outstanding teacher today.
“I don’t care what school you go to, it really doesn’t prepare you for what you are going to do in a classroom”.
One author/teacher has yet to get an official license to teach, another accidentally dropped out of high school, another manipulated the system to use certain technology regardless of the class content, and it went on. Each felt their story was unique – yet there was this common thread that was worth pursuing in the larger study with new questions:
Were you trained to teach in a teacher education program? What training most equipped you to teach like you do?
The results were striking. Stop for a moment and consider the following numbers from 39 of our award winning teachers.
• 10% credit their primary training to a traditional four year certification program.
• 21% credit their primary training to a hobby, game, or interest.
• 33% credit their primary training to another job/profession.
• 36% credit their primary training to another field of study.
• Only 31% completed a traditional four year certification program.
• 46% were employed in other fields or left the teaching profession for a time.
• 67% were trained in other fields of practice before getting a certificate in a 1-2 year program.
• Only 10%, or 4 of 39, affirmed that their official ‘teacher training’ was relevant to their current practice. The rest were inspired elsewhere.
There were no patterns on what these other field/professions were other than that they covered the gambit: Medicine, Aviation, Acting, Mortuary Work, Rock-n-Roll, Journalism, etc. etc. Commonly, these teachers felt their training in that field was what actually influenced their teaching.
Ironically, those that are being recognized as excellent teachers, were largely not trained as such. Moreover, they largely went out of their way to make sure the world would know it.
So what does this say to educational leadership?
Do we want more 21st century teachers? The most innovative teachers are drawing on experiences and skill sets they developed outside of education.
Later I’ll show results that 21st Century skills are a key part of what they are bringing into the classroom, while traditional education programs still reduce “technology training” to the use of an over-head or interactive whiteboard. The following posts will uplift the sources that positively affect teacher training.
Immediately, a few things… this data would suggest if you want to employ innovative creative teachers, you may want to consider:
1) Interview non-traditional candidates; those with other training, lifelong learners with avid hobby interests, avid readers, and yes, computer gamers. These seem to be better predictors of potential among the sample set.
2) Refine your interview protocol to uncover these interests outside of the profession. What do you do for fun? What other interests do you have? Have you ever worked outside of education? Where?
3) Encourage workshops and training outside of education and validate those experiences with modified accreditation. NASA led summer workshops for teachers that were brought up by three of the candidates – none of them were high school science teachers and two of them went on to get flying licenses.
4) When a teacher leaves to work in another profession, this may not be the end of their teaching career. It may be the beginning of an adventure that will return to teach in coming years and win awards for excellence. Stay in touch with teachers that have left to work elsewhere. Encourage them and keep the door open.
5) We can’t assume that teacher training is actually doing so. When the local prep program is redesigning, participate and vocalize what skills today’s teachers need. Ask for the things that worked for our nation’s ‘best’. Demand that professors are modeling new media pedagogical practices, out-of-field training, student teaching for every course, design work, and community building.
6) Finally, when planning your school’s professional development time, consider experiences over content area. I’ll speak more in future posts on the specifics that were useful to my participants. For now, weight 2-3 day workshops, conferences, curriculum connected technology, and buffet style PD considerably more than guest speakers, mandatory training, and mass technology purchases for the staff (drop-in tech).
More on those in the next post.
Best,
Seann
gamingmatter.com
Switch to our mobile site
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{
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"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:57536",
"uncompressed_offset": 54716431,
"url": "developer.android.com/training/basics/firstapp/index.html",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T19:24:45.000Z",
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"warc_url": "http://developer.android.com/training/basics/firstapp/index.html"
}
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to top
Building Your First App
Dependencies and prerequisites
Welcome to Android application development!
This class teaches you how to build your first Android app. You’ll learn how to create an Android project and run a debuggable version of the app. You'll also learn some fundamentals of Android app design, including how to build a simple user interface and handle user input.
Before you start this class, be sure you have your development environment set up. You need to:
1. Download the Android SDK.
2. Install the ADT plugin for Eclipse (if you’ll use the Eclipse IDE).
3. Download the latest SDK tools and platforms using the SDK Manager.
If you haven't already done these tasks, start by downloading the Android SDK and following the install steps. Once you've finished the setup, you're ready to begin this class.
This class uses a tutorial format that incrementally builds a small Android app that teaches you some fundamental concepts about Android development, so it's important that you follow each step.
Start the first lesson ›
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Czech Republic Censuses (FamilySearch Historical Records)Edit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
This article describes a collection of historical records available at FamilySearch.org.
Contents
Title in the Language of The Records
Tschechische Republik, Volkzählungen, 1843-1921
Česká republika Sčítání lidu, 1843-1921
Record Description
This collection will cover censuses between 1843 and 1921 for the Czech Republic.
The first records published will include only those for Northwestern Bohemia housed in the State Regional Archives of Litoměřice. Censuses for Northwestern Bohemia includes the regions of Liberec and Ústí nad Labem, which cover the okres of Česká Lípa, Jablonec nad Nisou, Liberec, Semily, Chomutov, Děčín, Litoměřice, Louny, Most, Teplice, and Ústí nad Labem. More records will be added as they become available.
For a list of records by date or locality currently published in this collection, select the Browse link from the collection landing page.
Citation for This Collection
The following citation refers to the original source of the information published in FamilySearch.org Historical Record collections. Sources include the author, custodian, publisher and archive for the original records.
"Czech Republic, Censuses, 1843-1921." Images. FamilySearch. http://FamilySearch.org : accessed 2013. Citing Bureau of Statistics. Statni Oblastni archiv v Litoměřice.
The State Regional Archives of Litomerice is an administrative body under the Czech Ministry of the Interior. Its jurisdiction covers the geographic area of the Usti and Liberec Regions in Northern Bohemia.
Suggested citation format for a record in this collection.
Record Content
These population records usually contain the following information:
• House number
• Head of household
• Names of members of the household (including servants)
• Ages, occupations, religions
• Relationships to head of household
• Some also give date and place of birth.
How to Use the Records
To browse this collection you will need to follow this series of links:
⇒Select the "Browse" link in the initial search page
⇒Select the "Okres (District)"
⇒Select the "Místo (Place)"
⇒ Select the "Rok sčítání (Census year")
⇒Select the "Archivní čísla (Archive number)" which takes you to the images.
Look at the images one by one comparing the information with what you already know about your ancestors to determine which one is your ancestor. You may need to compare the information about more than one person to make this determination.
The census records link families together into family groups and greatly supplement the research process. They are extremely valuable in locating birthplaces, and determining ages, and relationships and lead to primary vital records sources, making them very valuable for pedigree links. Each census is important by itself, but each should also be used with church records and other censuses. A census can provide you with names and ages of family members, which can then be used to calculate birth or marriage dates. It can provide the county and town where your ancestor lived, people living with (or gone from) the family, and relatives that may have lived nearby. The census may identify persons for whom other records do not exist.
When you have located your ancestor in the census, carefully evaluate each piece of information about them. These pieces of information may give you new biographical details that can lead you to other records about your ancestors.
For example:
• Use the age listed to determine an approximate birth date. This date along with the place of birth can help you find a birth record. Birth records often list biographical and marital details about the parents and close relatives outside of the immediate family.
• Birth places can tell you former residences and can help to establish a migration pattern for the family.
• Use the race information to find records related to that ethnicity such as records of the Freedman’s Bureau or Indian censuses.
• Use the naturalization information to find their naturalization papers in the county court records. It can also help you locate immigration records such as a passenger list which would usually be kept records at the port of entry into the United States.
• If they are subject to military service, they may have military files in the State or National Archives.
• Occupations listed can lead you to employment records or other types of records such as school records; children’s occupations are often listed as “at school.”
It is often helpful to extract the information on all families with the same surname in the same general area. If the surname is uncommon, it is likely that those living in the same area were related.
Be sure to extract all families before you look at other records. The relationships given will help you to organize family groups. The family groupings will help you identify related families when you discover additional information in other records.
Some other helpful tips to keep in mind are:
• Married family members may have lived nearby but in a separate household so you may want to search an entire town, neighboring towns, or even a county.
• You may be able to identify an earlier generation if elderly parents were living with or close by a married child.
• You may be able to identify a younger generation if a young married couple still lived with one of their sets of parents.
• Additional searches may be needed to locate all members of a particular family in the census.
• The census may identify persons for whom other records do not exist.
Known Issues with This Collection
Problems with this collection?
See a list of known issues, workarounds, tips, restrictions, future fixes, news and other helpful information.
For a full list of all known issues associated with this collection see the attached Wiki article. If you encounter additional problems, please email them to support@familysearch.org. Please include the full path to the link and a description of the problem in your e-mail. Your assistance will help ensure that future reworks will be considered.
Related Websites
Related Wiki Articles
Contributions to This Article
We welcome user additions to FamilySearch Historical Records wiki articles. Guidelines are available to help you make changes. Thank you for any contributions you may provide. If you would like to get more involved join the WikiProject FamilySearch Records.
Citing FamilySearch Historical Collections
When you copy information from a record, you should list where you found the information. This will help you or others to find the record again. It is also good to keep track of records where you did not find information, including the names of the people you looked for in the records.
A suggested format for keeping track of records that you have searched is found in the wiki article Help:How to Cite FamilySearch Collections.
Citation Example for a Record Found in This Collection
"Czech Republic, Censuses, 1843-1921," images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org: accessed 12 July 2012), Libochovice > Slatina > 1921224103010-1296-001-089 > Image 2 of 206 Images, Rozalie Dlouhie; citing Census Records,Libochovičtí Židé v minulosti a současné památky na ně, Zentner, Jakub Václav.
Need additional research help? Contact our research help specialists.
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• This page was last modified on 5 March 2013, at 17:55.
• This page has been accessed 13,448 times.
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Alton Illinois Family History CenterEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 04:09, 31 January 2013 by VasquezJL (Talk | contribs)
This article describes the services and resources available at a Family History Center, a branch facility of the Family History Library.
Contents
Center Contacts and Hours
Location & Map:
Phone: 618-466-4352
E-mail: il_alton@ldsmail.net
Open Hours:
• Tuesday: 6pm to 9pm
• Wednesday: 6pm to 9pm
• Thursday: 6pm to 9pm
• First Saturday of each month from 9am to 12pm
Holiday Schedule:
• Closed 2 weeks for Christmas break.
• Closed first Saturday in April and October.
Center Resources
Collections
Databases and Software
• FHC Portal: This center has access to the Family History Center Portal page which gives free access in the center to premium family history software and websites that generally charge for subscriptions.
Need additional research help? Contact our research help specialists.
Need wiki, indexing, or website help? Contact our product teams.
Did you find this article helpful?
You're invited to explain your rating on the discussion page (you must be signed in).
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"warc_url": "http://ficly.com/stories/9531"
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Falling…
Author: Abstract Kicking it at the University of Oklahoma. I like writing, science, almost all forms of music (literally), creating constructed languages, graphic/visual arts, and a good book. I will not hesitate in saying I am a Christia... Read Bio
The three of them strung a fluorescent yellow rope between them, each one bearing a box of the precious medicine. They trudged in the midst of the miry snow, unsure as to which way was up. The compass was, for the most part, a loss, having taken critical damage in the crash. They were able to obtain a vague sense of the way north, the needle oscillating back and forth between two values. It was by no means the pinnacle of precision, but it was better than nothing.
The trio had been walking in nigh zero-visibility conditions, making their way forward inch by inch, for the better part of seven hours when the sky, already forebodingly dark, almost completely voided all its color. The wind increased tenfold.
A wall of turbulent air currents came barreling towards the men. Helpless, the force plowed straight through them.
Instantly, they were airborne, the three of them twisted and gyrated along their common safety thread. They felt the sensation of falling…
View this story's details
Inspired by
The wind protested through the compromised fuselage of the plane. Craig rubbed his head, steadying his Arctic-proofed tundra jacket. “M...
Regrouping by Abstract
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{
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GlobalVoices in Learn more »
“Should Women Be Pretty?”
This post also available in:
Español · "Las mujeres, ¿deben ser bellas?"
বাংলা · "নারীদের কি সুন্দরী হওয়া উচিত?"
Ελληνικά · "Θα πρέπει να 'ναι όμορφες οι γυναίκες;"
Français · "Les femmes doivent-elles être jolies ?"
That's the question raised by Nathy2310 from Costa Rica on her blog post “Women, should they be pretty?” and writes [es]:
Today I want to tell all those women who criticize other females’ bodies: THAT'S ENOUGH!!!
Stop demanding women to have svelte bodies, magazine women bodies, stop watching them with male eyes.
She even admits having behaved like that herself and reflects that “beauty trascends the looks”.
World regions
Countries
Languages
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Modify
Opened 4 years ago
Closed 4 years ago
Last modified 4 years ago
#2541 closed defect (duplicate)
Upload trace fail with a stack trace for WhereamI+ traces
Reported by: ramilehti Owned by: team
Priority: major Component: Plugin
Version: latest Keywords: upload fail stack trace
Cc:
Description
When trying to upload a trace using the upload trace plugin and a trace created by WhereAmI
http://www.symbianos.org/projects_mapping
I get the following stack trace.
java.lang.ClassCastException: java.lang.Float cannot be cast to java.lang.String
at org.openstreetmap.josm.io.GpxWriter.writeAttr(GpxWriter.java:70)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.io.GpxWriter.wayPoint(GpxWriter.java:238)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.io.GpxWriter.writeTracks(GpxWriter.java:156)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.io.GpxWriter.write(GpxWriter.java:54)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.plugins.DirectUpload.UploadDataGui.writeGpxFile(UploadDataGui.java:424)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.plugins.DirectUpload.UploadDataGui.upload(UploadDataGui.java:183)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.plugins.DirectUpload.UploadDataGui.access$300(UploadDataGui.java:56)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.plugins.DirectUpload.UploadDataGui$1.realRun(UploadDataGui.java:380)
at org.openstreetmap.josm.gui.PleaseWaitRunnable.run(PleaseWaitRunnable.java:101)
at java.util.concurrent.ThreadPoolExecutor$Worker.runTask(ThreadPoolExecutor.java:886)
at java.util.concurrent.ThreadPoolExecutor$Worker.run(ThreadPoolExecutor.java:908)
at java.lang.Thread.run(Thread.java:619)
Tracks created by Nokia Sports Tracker for example work.
You will find attached one such trace.
Attachments (1)
wami-20090430-00.gpx (31.1 KB) - added by ramilehti 4 years ago.
Download all attachments as: .zip
Change History (3)
Changed 4 years ago by ramilehti
comment:1 Changed 4 years ago by stoecker
• Resolution set to duplicate
• Status changed from new to closed
comment:2 Changed 4 years ago by stoecker
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as closed .
as The resolution will be set. Next status will be 'closed'.
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Note: See TracTickets for help on using tickets.
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{
"content_type": "text/html",
"provenance": "cccc-CC-MAIN-2013-20-0000.json.gz:57611",
"uncompressed_offset": 172937628,
"url": "opensource.com/education/10/10/productively-lost-cape-town-posse-goes-south-africa",
"warc_date": "2013-11-22T19:24:45.000Z",
"warc_filename": "<urn:uuid:2a8f1a33-f01d-4ce3-bcd4-63ce2fbcea04>",
"warc_url": "http://opensource.com/education/10/10/productively-lost-cape-town-posse-goes-south-africa"
}
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Productively lost in Cape Town: POSSE goes South Africa
Image credits: DArcy Norman
(2 votes)
What can you do with a boardroom, a projector, and a wifi access point? A movie night, you say? Nope. Just a few tools is all it took to get Mel Chua and Jan Wildeboer (from Red Hat) and Pierros Papadeas (from Fedora) together with local organizer Michael Adeyeye from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology. The event? A week-long workshop on the principles of open source communities and how to employ these in university-level teaching--in Cape Town, South Africa.
They were able to use the newly redesigned curriculum for the first time, immersing professors from three different universities in the technical and social dynamics of open source communities. Their first lesson in open source practices was about the various means of communication: IRC, mailing lists, wikis, and collaborative text editing using etherpad and gobby were a few that come to mind. Or, as Mel Chua put it in her summary of the first day of POSSE: The ability to be “productively lost” in a FOSS project cannot be obtained through sheer increase in technical skill alone; the ability to communicate within a project’s culture is a crucial skill.
After Monday's crash course on communication, blog posts started to pour from participants. They may have gotten "lost," but they found their voices.
Day 2 focused on another major aspect of open source communities: version control systems. Diffing, patching, and committing might be confusing to the uninitiated, but when taught alongside a version control system such as GIT and immediately applied to an actual project--such as Fedora's Transifex-based website translations or Sugar Labs' Sugar on a Stick documentation project--participants quickly grasped how simple tools could enable decentralized collaboration between thousands of participants at an amazing rate.
Some of the best things that happen at a POSSE are unplanned. This time out, for instance, technical issues with an attendee's laptop on day 3 got turned into a lesson on how to file bug reports . Over lunch on the same day, attendees and instructors ended up discussing the big picture: ways to directly improve the open source presence in South Africa and in its universities. They came up with concrete project proposals such as Fedora mirrors, packaging, and translations and are moving forward with a growth plan for more POSSEs in Africa. And they did (literally) work on the big picture: a collaboratively drawn image of the future of FOSS in Africa on the classroom whiteboard.
POSSE whiteboard image from http://kabaso.com/?p=21
As the week ended, POSSE came full circle. Participants had made their way back around to the first day's lesson of communication and the concept of being "productively lost." They reflected on how to integrate their new knowledge back into their institutional context.
Attendee Michael Graaf from the University of Cape Town realized that his "project (facilitation of a GSM interface for the ces.org.za website), which hardly involves any coding (but lots of documentation, as well as a field test), could still become 'open source'" and is "Productively Lost Indeed"--a full POSSE experience.
We look forward to hearing stories from these POSSE alumni as they venture out with their students into open source communities in the coming semesters.
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Marcus Tullius Cicero (January 3, 106 BC - December 7, 43 BC) was an orator, statesman, political theorist, lawyer and philosopher of Ancient Rome. He is considered by many to be amongst the greatest of the Latin orators and prose writers.
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
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Who’ll make the All Star team?
RedsArmyAdmin December 11, 2009 Uncategorized 15 Comments
I'm going to try not to make too much of the insane early All Star voting returns. And I'm going to avoid my "let's get everyone in green into the All Star" game thoughts… just for a moment. Right now, I think there are three Boston Celtics who will be playing in Dallas in February.
Paul Pierce: Right now, Kevin Garnett has more votes than all the other Celtics combined. But despite that, I think he'll get passed once the mainstream media starts talking about who should make it, and people really start looking at the stats. Plus, Chris Bosh will probably go on a very public crusade for All Star votes… which will have some kind of influence. So, assuming that, I think the only member of the Big 3 that will go to the All Star game this time around is Paul Pierce.
Pierce's production has dropped a little as he has allowed the rest of the team to find its groove. But Paul has proven during the Celtics recent struggles that he can, and will, take over when needed. He's 5th among Eastern Conference in scoring right now, even with the recent stretch of low outputs, so there's statistical justification. And there's no way the All Star game will go off without one of the Big 3 on there… so Paul gets the nod
Rajon Rondo: We saw last night why he's an All Star. Not only does he deserve to be on the team, he deserves to start. Dwyane Wade is a runaway leader among guards, and deservedly so. But you can't tell me that Vince Carter, even with his 20.1 ppg, is playing better than Rondo. Carter is scoring well, but he's shooting 41%.
Meanwhile, Rondo is the engine that makes the Celtics go. But let's not make this a Rondo vs. Carter debate. Even if VC gets voted in, there's no way Rajon Rondo gets left off this team. Can you imagine what kind of passes this kid will make with all those great players around him?
Oh yeah… we can… because he's already making them. Rondo's in.
After the jump, the Celtics 3rd All Star
Photo by Streeter Lecka/Getty Images
Kendrick Perkins: Dwight Howard should get every vote for starting center. That much we know. But there isn't a center on that list that I'd rather have after Dwight, than Kendrick Perkins (Al Horford, by the way, should be on the Forwards list).
Perk leads the entire NBA in shooting. He's regarded as one of the league's best low post defenders. Despite picking fouls on some of his picks, he's now being recognized at one of the league's best at setting screens and getting guys open.
Perk is a true center. And, for what it's worth, he might be the only guy in the league who can check Dwight Howard 1-on-1. Perk deserves to be on this team as much as any other. Considering the field, I think he'll make it.
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Nate will join the Celtics Friday
Chuck - Red's Army February 18, 2010 Uncategorized 3 Comments
Via Boston.com:
“Nate is one of the great athletes in the league and he brings a
dynamic scorer to our team,” said Danny Ainge, Celtics President of
Basketball Operations said in a release. “We have been seeking a second
ball handler capable of penetrating the defense and we believe that he
provides that. We love Nate’s ability to pressure the ball defensively
and we think he can add to our defense as well as our offense.”
Robinson is expected to be in uniform Friday against the Portland
Trail Blazers. Not sure if Marcus Landry, who actually had a solid
rookie season in New York, has a future with the Celtics. He may be
worth taking a look at because the Celtics have two open roster spots
because they traded three players and acquired two.
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Help Wikitravel grow by contributing to an article! Learn how.
Norfolk (Virginia)
From Wikitravel
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Norfolk [1] is in the metro area called Hampton Roads, in the state of Virginia. It is a port city with a large Navy and shipping presence. Neighboring cities are Virginia Beach, Chesapeake and Portsmouth.
[edit] Understand
Norfolk has always been a Navy town. The world's largest naval base is located here. But it is also known as a major cultural center, with world-class museums, opera, symphony, ballet and a vibrant arts community. It hosts a growing university, Old Dominion University (ODU) and world renowned hospitals. In the last ten years or so, downtown area has experienced a major resurgence, with gourmet restaurants, shopping and attractions.
Town Point Park is a waterfront park area right downtown that hosts several festivals and events throughout the year. A new cruise terminal was just built in 2007 making Norfolk one of the top cruise ports in the country. Granby Street is the main downtown thoroughfare, lined with restaurants and bars.
Ghent is a historic district adjacent to downtown. Filled with historic homes, tree-lined streets and beautiful old churches, it is a good mix of residential and business. Colley Avenue and 21st Street are the main shopping and dining areas, with dozens of locally-owned boutiques, shops, antique stores, restaurants and bars. The Naro theater on Colley Avenue is the region's sole movie theater with indie flicks.
Ocean View is Norfolk's beach community, and features relatively uncrowded beaches on the Chesapeake Bay. During the '50s and '60s, Ocean View was in its prime and was a major beach destination for families and sailors. During the following decades, the beach community fell into a bit of a slump, succumbing to crime. The last five years, the city has been turning things around and now Ocean View is on its way to becoming one of the region's most sought after neighborhoods.
[edit] Get in
[edit] By plane
• Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport (IATA: PHF), [3]. Another option which may save you money, is located approximately 20 minutes north of the city in Newport News, VA.
[edit] By Train
As of late, Amtrak has expanded into Hampton Roads and is offering train service to Norfolk and Virginia Beach from various locations in Virginia. Its worth considering given traffic. You can check times and purchase directly through Amtrak here:[4]
[edit] By car
Hampton Roads is only second in the state to the suburbs of Washington, D.C. such as Fairfax County and other outlying areas for horrendous traffic especially during the summer season when many tourists throughout the United States and Canada flock to the beaches of Virginia Beach and the Outer Banks in North Carolina. Be aware of the alternative of I-664/Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel instead of the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel, where back ups can be as long as thirty minutes.
Route 460 is an alternative to the heavily used I-64 route. 460 extends from Petersburg, VA (just south of Richmond, VA) to Chesapeake (a suburb city to the Hampton Roads area) and you can easily connect from 460 onto the major beltway at the I-664 and I-64 interchange.
Interstate 64 will bring you to Norfolk from points west.
[edit] By boat
Passenger ferry from Portsmouth.
There is also a boat taxi that will take you around the Norfolk and Portsmouth waterfronts. It is 7 dollars per person. Call 757-439-8294 and he will pick you up wherever you want!
[edit] Get around
The HRT or Hampton Roads Transit is one of the ways to get around, although the buses are usually not exactly on schedule.
The Hampton Roads Transit Trolley Tour is a good way to see the city and get your bearings. The NET electric buses cover the downtown and are free.
Norfolk is in the process of building a starter light-rail line extending from the Newtown area at the Norfolk/Virginia Beach border to Downtown Norfolk and Sentara Hospital by the Midtown Tunnel. The line is expected to be operational by May of 2011.
If you must drive around the city, a good map and/or a local with knowledge of the roads is an absolute necessity. Stay on interstates for as long as possible, for once you leave, any signage is the responsibility of the city, not VDOT, and it shows. If you directions tell you to follow US 58, US 460 or state route 337 through the city, be prepared for a nerve-wracking drive. Directional signage (i.e., US 460 east, turn left) is virtually non-existent, and what signage does exist is more often than not inadequate or even incorrect. If there is a difference between signage and a map, the map is correct. Routes can and do change direction and shoot off onto side streets at a moment's notice, often without any signage advising travelers as to which road to follow. It is much easier than you might think to miss a turn and end up in a dangerous area.
[edit][add listing] See
• Chrysler Museum of Art [5]
• Naval Station Tour [6]- A 45-minute tour conducted by Naval personnel. See aircraft carriers and other huge ships.
• Nauticus - National Maritime Center
• Spirit of Norfolk cruise / tour
• Virginia Zoo [7]
• The MacArthur Memorial, MacArthur Square Norfolk, VA 23510 (Park in the mall and cross the street, heading south.), 757.441.2965, [8]. Closed on Mondays. Tuesdays - Saturday 10-17.00, Sundays 11-17.00. Memorial and Museum of General MacArthur. edit
• Hermitage Museum and Gardens, 7637 North Shore Road Norfolk, Virginia 23505, 757-423-2052, [9]. Closed Wednesdays and Thursdays. 10-17.00 Monday - Saturday. 13.00-17.00 Sundays. Norfolk's pride. Has a huge garden and exhibitions of art work. Adults $5. Students (with id) $3.00. Young people (6-18 years of age) $2.00.. edit
• Norfolk Botanical Gardens, 6700 Azalea Garden Rd., Norfolk, VA 23518, 757.441.5830, [10]. April-October 15th: 9-19.00. October 16th-March: 9-17.00. Another landmark in Norfolk. Offers numerous tours by season and has all sorts of activities. Events change by season. The Botanical Gardens is pretty impressive in size and variety. It should be on the list of any visitor to the area. Members: FREE. Adults: $9. Seniors and Military: $8. Young People (3-18 years of age): $7. Very Young People (2 and under, with Adult): FREE. Website has a coupon for $1 off.. edit
[edit][add listing] Do
Take a cruise from Norfolk [11] to Bermuda or the Caribbean. Ships depart from the downtown waterfront. Go on a 2 hour cruise around the Norfolk Naval Base. A guide will give a little bit of area history and describe some of the ships as you cruise past.
• The NARO Expanded Cinema, 1507 Colley Ave Norfolk VA, 23517, 757-625-6276, [12]. Features major and independent films. The Rocky Horror Picture Show, is a local favorite. The theatre itself, however, is one of the most iconic symbols of Colley Avenue, having first opened in 1936. edit
• Downton Norfolk Restaurant Week, Locations Vary, [13]. Restaurant week is a great way to try the best offerings of the local restaurants. The price is typically for a 2 or 3 course meal at participating venues. Please check the website frequently as this is not year round. $20-$30 Dinners. edit
• Ghent Bar Tour, [14]. For a small fee (which goes to charity)you get to see the most prominent bars in the Ghent area. Special discounts if you pay online and if you are the designated driver. This is a seasonal event and times vary, please consult the website for further info. $20-$30. edit
• Stockley Gardens Art Festival, Stockley Gardens Park, Ghent, Norfolk, Va, [15]. Spring and Winter. An fun way to spend the day while enjoying the park. All sorts of artist display their art for the general viewing of the public. FREE. edit
• ODU Sport Events, [16]. Check out one of the many sporting events of the local university, ODU. Their football and basketball teams are well worth watching and are growing in prestige. edit
• O'Connor Brewing Company, 521 West 25th Street, Norfolk, Va 23517, 757.623.BEER (2337), [17]. Thur & Fri 16-19.00, Sat 14.00-19.00. Norfolk's only brewery produces several different styles of beer and offers tours, which are to be booked in advance. Tour $10. edit
• Ocean View Beach, Ocean View, Norfolk, VA. Enjoy the Chesapeake Bay at Ocean View on the furthest northern end of Norfolk. Its not the most friendly area at night but perfectly acceptable during the day. edit
• Ocean View Fishing Pier, 400 West Ocean View Ave, Norfolk, Va 23503, (757) 583-6000, [18]. The Ocean View Fishing Pier is, well, a pier that people fish off of. It hosts a restaurant and tackle shop. To go all the way out on the pier (which stretches out pretty far), costs $1 and the right to fish starts around $8. As always check the website for prices before venturing out. The best time to visit is at night so one can see the lights of the bridges that connect to the two tunnels. edit
[edit][add listing] Buy
There are several main shopping areas in Norfolk.
Downtown, the MacArthur Center is one of the best malls in the area and has a variety of great shops, like Pottery Barn, Coach, Williams & Sonoma, an Apple store, JCrew, EQ3, H&M, a beautiful Barnes & Noble academic superstore, etc. The mall is anchored by Nordstrom and Dillard's. There are a few shops and art galleries on Granby Street, but not many. Also downtown is the D'Art Center, which features a large selection of local art. Waterside used to be a popular shopping area, but there are several empty spots now and retailers are suffering. There are a few kiosks, with everything from fake designer sunglasses to caricatures. There are a few other stores, including souvenir shops and a dollar store.
Ghent is a popular shopping area for locally-owned boutiques and antique stores. 21st Street and Colley Avenue are the main thoroughfares, but there are plenty of unique stores on the surrounding streets. The Palace Shoppes on 21st Street and Palace Station on Debree have some great little stores, including an adorable pet boutique call Wet Noses and a chic women's clothing store, NYFO. There are also quite a few antique stores around Ghent and throughout Norfolk.
The signature symbol of Norfolk is the mermaid, and there are several stores that sell unique mermaid sculptures, pins, jewelry and more.
[edit][add listing] Eat
• Doumar's in Ghent on Monticello Avenue is known as the birthplace of the ice cream cone. The vintage drive-thru still remains, as well as Al Doumar himself who checks up on the restaurant even at his old age. Try an ice cream cone or banana shake.
• Todd Jurich's Bistro [19] casual elegance, an upscale restaurant two blocks from waterside(they do not require suit and tie). They have a four diamond award for their food and an award of excellence from Wine Spectator. For a deal, Todd's Bistro appears on every one of Norfolk's Restaurant Week[20].
• Cracker's Little Bar Bistro, 821 W 21 St (Ghent Area), +1 757 640-0200, [21]. Daily 5PM-2AM. This tiny joint serves amazing tapas (appetizer-sized plates) and a wide variety of fun martinis. There's only about 7 tables in the entire place, plus bar seating. If you go, I suggest going right at 5PM, else you can't be sure you'll be seated right away. Two people can try a bunch of different tapas (try the filet with mashed potatoes), have a few martinis, leave a great tip, and spend less than $50. $4-9 per plate.
• O'Sulivan's Wharf[22] is the best place to get the local flavor. It's self-dubbed as "A locals locale..." It's located at W 43rd and Colley Ave, with a beautiful view of Knitting Mill Creek.
• Vintage Kitchen located at the bottom of the Dominion Tower has been voted one of the best restaurants in the entire region. The chef-owned eatery specializes in using ingredients local to Virginia, such as Smithfield ham, peanuts, strawberries, cheeses and vegetables from local farmers.
• A.W. Shucks is tucked behind a mini-mall Ghent, but it is a popular restaurant and watering hole with great burgers, seafood and beer selection.
• Machismo's is a small burrito restaurant in the Freemason area of Norfolk, adjacent to downtown. Fresh ingredients are loaded into a monster burrito. It can get pretty crowded for lunch.
• No Frill Bar and Grill on Spotswood Ave in Ghent features inexpensive, yet delicious American cuisine with numerous vegetarian options and a good selection of alcoholic beverages.
• Azar’s Café & Market Ghent located at 21st and Colley Ave in Ghent serves all your Mediterranean favorites with vegetarian and vegan options. Enjoy a quick lunch or sit-down dinner and then hit up their well-stocked market. Be sure to check out their Saturday night belly dancing.
[edit][add listing] Drink
Three sections of Norfolk have concentrations of bars and nightclubs: Ghent, Granby Street, and the Waterside Festival Marketplace. Ghent is the most laid-back and hip, Granby Street is a trendy place for dates, and the Waterside is the wild place for the kids. Just follow the noise. As in the rest of Virginia, there technically are no "bars" but rather "restaurants that happen to have alcohol". Noting this, most places in Norfolk that sell food have a bar like atmosphere as the night approaches.
• The Tap House, 931 W 21st St, Norfolk, VA 23517, (757) 627-9172. 16.00-2.00. One of the best selections of beer in VA. Preferred by the locals. Nice atmosphere and the friendly staff. Frequently hosts bands performing a variety of music. edit
• The Birch, 1231 West Olney Road Norfolk, VA 23507, 757-962-5400, [23]. Very extensive selection of beer, if not the most extensive in the whole state. Its a bar for a good time or serious conversation. Has growlers to go. edit
[edit] LGBT nightlife
A popular local lesbian bar is the Hershee Bar at 6117 Sewells Point Rd, +1 757 853-9842, [24].
[edit][add listing] Sleep
Budget
Norfolk's good hotels are clustered downtown and near the airport.
• Norfolk Airport Hilton, 1500 N Military Hwy, [25]. 248 deluxe guest rooms. 15 meeting rooms. 3 restaurants.
• Norfolk/Portsmouth Virginia Hawthorn Hotel Suites, 506 Dinwiddie St, [26].
• Ramada Norfolk Airport, 1450 N Military Hwy, +1 757 466-7474, [27].
• Ramada Limited Norfolk, 515 N Military Hwy, +1 757 461-1880, [28].
• Sheraton Norfolk Waterside, 777 Waterside Dr (Downtown), [29]. The only downtown hotel on the waterfront. Connected to the Waterside Festival Marketplace. Moderate walk to the cruise terminal. Request a water view.
• Newport News Marriott at City Center, 740 Town Center Drive, +1 757 873-9299, [30]. edit
• Norfolk Waterside Marriott, 235 E Main St, +1 757 627-4200, [31]. checkin: 4PM; checkout: 11AM. Set in the heart of the historic district, this award-winning Norfolk hotel is just steps away from the vibrant, revitalized waterfront. edit
• Norfolk Marriott Chesapeake, 725 Woodlake Dr, +1 757 523-1500, [32]. checkin: 3PM; checkout: noon. edit
[edit] Stay safe
In recent history, Norfolk has had a fair, if not startling, amount of crime. However Norfolk has turned itself around...somewhat. Its pretty obvious as to which areas are safe and which are not.
As in all cities, crime happens. However in Norfolk its pretty clear to the traveler as to which areas that should be in and which they should not. Downtown Norfolk has had a few incidents over the years, so proceed with caution. The Ghent and West Ghent areas are generally safe, however they encompass several side streets that visitors probably shouldn't wander at night. Finally, the Ocean View area should be not be explored at night.
As with most places in the rest of the USA, the phone number of 911 is used to contact emergency services. The Norfolk Police Department can be contacted at (757) 441-5610, if not an emergency. Finally, the Virginia State Police Department can be contacted via (804) 674-2000.
[edit] Contact
[edit] Cope
[edit] Consulates
[edit] Get out
Routes through Norfolk
RichmondHampton W S Virginia BeachChesapeake
GreenvilleChesapeake SW NE Virginia BeachSalisbury
This is a usable article. It has information for getting in as well as some complete entries for restaurants and hotels. An adventurous person could use this article, but please plunge forward and help it grow!
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Population: 4 908100 (01 January 2010)
Population density: 12/km2 as a national average, ranging from close to 3900 /km2 in city centres, to close to 1500/km2 in cities and villages and 3/km2 in the rest of the country.
System of government: Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy
Member of: UN, NATO, the Council of Europe, the European Economic Area Agreement (EEA) and the Nordic Council.
Norway has a long rugged coastline which stretches over 2.500 km, broken by fjords and thousands of islands. Norway is also a mountainous country with many glaciers and some of the highest waterfalls in the world. The mountains draw Arctic terrestrial species all the way from the north to the southern part of the country.
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Northern New Guinea montane rain forests
Northern New Guinea montane rain forests
This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Mark McGinley
Introduction
The inaccessible, isolated mountain ranges of the Northern New Guinea montane rain forests, surrounded by tropical lowland forest, are home to unique vertebrate species found nowhere else on Earth. Some portions of this ecoregion are poorly known. In fact, the Foya Mountains, a significant piece of upland east of the Mamberamo River, have no record of visitation of any kind before 1979. Because of their isolation, they are relatively intact.
Location and General Description
Arfak Mountains, 2400 m, Irian Jaya, Indonesia. (Photograph by WWF-Canon/Ian Craven)
This ecoregion is composed of the isolated montane forests (more than 1,000 meters (m)) of the Van Rees (to 1,430 m) and Gauttier (Foya) (to 2,193 m), Cyclops (to 2,158 m), Denake, Bewani (to 2,000 m), Torricelli (to 1,650 m), Prince Alexander (to 1,240 m), and Adelbert Ranges (to 1,718 m) in Irian Jaya, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (PNG). These isolated mountain ranges are all on the northern side of the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea. The climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet, which is characteristic of this part of Melanesia, located in the western Pacific Ocean north of Australia. Northern New Guinea is a very active tectonic area with a complex geologic history. The geology of this mountainous ecoregion is a mixture of metamorphic and Pliocene fine-grained terrestrial and marine sediments.
The vegetation of this ecoregion is generally tropical montane rain forest. Although they are subject to variable climates and topography, montane forests are smaller-crowned and have even more canopies than lowland hill forest. Tree densities can be high, and the shrub density is also high. Predominant canopy trees include Nothofagus, Lauraceae, Cunoniaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Lithocarpus, Castanopsis, Syzygium, Illex, and southern conifers. Nothofagus and Araucaria may grow in pure, dense stands. The levels of Myrtaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, and conifers increase with altitude. The conifers generally found above 2,000 m include Dacrycarpus, Podocarpus, Phyllocladus, and Papuacedrus in the canopy and emergent layer.
The open forests of the Cyclops Mountains, perhaps the most well-studied of the ranges, are dominated by Kania, Metrrosideros, and Xanthmyrtus, with Lithocarpus and Nothofagus at higher altitudes. Above 1,400 m, conifers (Phyllocladus, Papuacedrus, Dacrydium) dominate, with Podocarpus and Rapanea. At an elevation of 1,200 m, the Foya Mountains to the west are dominated by Araucaria cunninghammii, Podocarpus neriifolius, Agathis labillardieri, Calophyllum, and Palaquium. The Torricelli, Bewani, and Prince Alexander ranges consist of limestone and montane forest.
Biodiversity Features
Tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene sp.) in the Cylops Mountains, Irian Jaya, Indonesia. (Photograph by WWF-Canon/Ronald Petocz)
Overall richness and endemism are low to moderate when compared with those of other ecoregions in Indo-Malaysia. There are fifty-one mammal species in the ecoregion, with six species that are endemic or near endemic (Table 1). The mammalian fauna consists of a wide variety of tropical Australasian marsupials, including tree kangaroos, and a glider. The Cyclops long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus attenboroughi) was considered endangered before it was split from the Papuan echidna (Zaglossus bruijnii), and presumably would still be considered so because it is a focal prey item for humans. The northern glider (Petaurus abidi) is found nowhere else on Earth. The highlands of the north coastal ranges also harbor Scott's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus scottae), reputed to be the largest and most threatened native forest mammal in PNG.
Table 1. Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species.
Family Species
Tachyglossidae Zaglossus attenboroughi*
Perorictidae Echymipera clara
Petauridae Petaurus abidi*
Macropodidae Dendrolagus scottae*
Muridae Paraleptomys rufilatus
Muridae Xenuromys barbatus
An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.
This area also provides habitat for a number of isolated and taxonomically distinct bird populations. The avifauna of the ecoregion has a clear Australasian flavor, including representatives of several Australasian families including Ptilonorhynchidae, Eopsaltridae, Meliphagidae, and Paradisaeidae. This ecoregion includes all of the North Papuan Mountains Endemic Bird Area (EBA) and portions of the Adelbert and Huon ranges EBA (the Adelbert Mountains) and the North Papuan lowlands EBA (the Van Rees Mountains). The ecoregion contains twelve endemic or near-endemic birds (Table 2). The North Papuan mountains EBA contains five restricted-range birds, including three found nowhere else on Earth. The Adelbert Range contains three restricted-range bird species. It shares Wahnes's parotia (Parotia wahnesi) and the olive-streaked honeyeater (Ptiloprora guisei) with the mountains of the Huon Peninsula, but the fire-maned bowerbird (Sericulus bakeri) is found nowhere else on Earth but this ecoregion. The rarest bird species in PNG, fire-maned bowerbird has the most circumscribed geographic range known for any species on mainland PNG. Both the fire-maned bowerbird and Wahnes's parotia (Parotia wahnesi) are considered vulnerable.
Table 2. Endemic and Near-Endemic Bird Species.
Family Common Name Species
Rallidae Mayr's forest-rail Rallina mayri*
Ptilonorhynchidae Golden-fronted bowerbird Amblyornis flavifrons*
Ptilonorhynchidae Fire-maned bowerbird Sericulus bakeri*
Meliphagidae Mayr's honeyeater Ptiloprora mayri*
Meliphagidae Rufous-backed honeyeater Ptiloprora guisei
Meliphagidae Cinnamon-browed honeyeater Melidectes ochromelas
Eopsaltriidae Smoky robin Peneothello cryptoleucus
Eopsaltriidae Green-backed robin Pachycephalopsis hattamensis
Cinclosomatidae Brown-capped jewel-babbler Ptilorrhoa geislerorum
Paradisaeidae Greater melampitta Melampitta gigantea
Paradisaeidae Carola's parotia Parotia carolae
Paradisaeidae Wahnes's parotia Parotia wahnesi
An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.
Within this ecoregion, the Torricelli Range has one endemic butterfly species, making it a center of butterfly endemicity on the island of New Guinea.
Several Centres of Plant Diversity correspond with the various ranges of this ecoregion, including the Mamberamo-Pegunungan Jayawijay (Van Rees and Gauttier) and Cagar Alam Pegunungan Cyclops in Irian Jaya, the Torricelli Mountains-Bewani Mountains-Prince Alexander Range in PNG, and the Adlebert Range in PNG. The Torricelli, Bewani, and Prince Alexander ranges have a flora that is estimated to exceed 2,000 species and includes the only endemic fern genus on New Guinea (Rheopteris cheesmannii).
Several endemic plants have been collected in the Cyclops Mountains, but in general the flora of this ecoregion is very poorly known. Ultrabasic formations are present in the Makanoi Range forests.
Current Status
Much of the topography of this ecoregion is too steep for traditional logging activities, and the majority of the ecoregion is safe because of its inaccessibility. Twenty-six percent of the ecoregion is covered by five protected areas, mostly in Irian Jaya, although almost half of the ecoregion is in PNG (Table 3).
Table 3. WCMC Protected Areas That Overlap with the Ecoregion.
Protected Area Area (km2) IUCN Category
Unnamed [AA0115] 1,510 ?
Mamberamo-Pegunungan Foya [AA0115] 2,110 IV
Peg. Cycloop 210 I
Teluk Yotefa 90 IV
Mt. Menawa 2,150 ?
Total 6,070
Ecoregion numbers of protected areas that overlap with additional ecoregions are listed in brackets.
Types and Severity of Threats
The threats to this ecoregion include the potential for commercial logging if it becomes economically viable. The Cyclops Mountains are quite close to the main population center of Irian Jaya, Jayapura, however, and these hill forests are at risk from the town and a transmigration settlement in the area.
Justification of Ecoregion Delineation
Blyth's Hornbill (Aceros plicatus), Irian Jaya, Indonesia. (Photograph by WWF-Canon/Ian Craven)
Using Whitmore's map of the vegetation of Malesia and MacKinnon's reconstruction of the original vegetation, we delineated the large areas of distinct habitat types as ecoregions. The tropical lowland moist and freshwater swamp forests to the north of the Central Cordillera were placed in the Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp forests, and the montane forests in the Northern New Guinea montane rain forests. This ecoregion corresponds to MacKinnon's biounits P3e and P3j. Udvardy placed these ecoregions in the Papuan biogeographic province of the Oceanian Realm.
Additional information on this ecoregion
Disclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains information that was originally published by, the World Wildlife Fund. Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth may have edited its content or added new information. The use of information from the World Wildlife Fund should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content.
Citation
World Wildlife Fund (Lead Author);Mark McGinley (Topic Editor) "Northern New Guinea montane rain forests". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth August 26, 2008; Last revised Date August 26, 2008; Retrieved May 18, 2013 <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Northern_New_Guinea_montane_rain_forests>
The Author
Known worldwide by its panda logo, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) leads international efforts to protect endangered species and their habitats. Now in its fifth decade, WWF works in more than 100 countries around the globe to conserve the diversity of life on Earth. With nearly 1.2 million members in the U.S. and another 4 million worldwide, WWF is the world's largest privately financed conservation organization. WWF directs its conservation efforts toward three global goals: 1) saving endangered ... (Full Bio)
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July 31 2012
How the New Zero Emissions Legislation in California Affects Air Quality Monitoring in Mammoth Lakes, California
California has the worst air quality in the nation, boasting 10 out of the 25 cities most polluted by short-term particle pollution. In an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) unanimously approved new emissions rules for cars and light trucks on January 31, 2012. The mandate requires an increase in contemporary zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) sold in the state from 4% to 15% by 2025. ZEVs include battery-electric, fuel-cell cars, and plug-in hybrids.
Mitsubishi i Miev Prototype and i Miev Sport Air concept
The new legislation doesn’t just promote marketing for sustainable choices in automobiles; the long term goals of the policy include:
Air quality is an issue in rural areas like Mammoth Lakes, CA just as it is in large metropolitan areas or concentrated urban centers like Istanbul and Los Angeles, CA. The Town of Mammoth Lakes, in coordination with the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District (GBUAPCD), continually monitors the local air quality. Air quality worsens during the winter months when surface inversions are more common. An inversion in the air temperature keeps cooler air closer to the earth’s surface while the warm air rises. The warm air above the cool air acts as a lid, trapping pollutants from cars and wood stoves. Weather conditions, which contribute to poor air quality, include calm winds, clear skies, and long nights.
In a community such as Mammoth Lakes, CA, which endures long winter seasons and experiences tourist influxes of up to 30,000 visitors at a time, air quality is an important issue. Furthermore, the Town of Mammoth Lakes has restricted the installation of any new wood or pellet stoves that are not EPA Phase II certified. Community organizations have even secured grant-funding to replace hundreds of old wood stoves free of charge on a first-come-first-serve basis. The effort to promote EPA certified wood stoves, along with CARB’s new ZEVs initiative, will greatly impact air quality in the Eastern Sierras.
Do you think the government should require dealerships to provide the option of zero-emissions vehicles? Does it take government intervention to promote air quality policy at the consumer level? What community or environmental non-profit approaches to improve air quality do you know of?
Credits: Images and data linked to sources.
Patricia Kent
Patricia Kent wrote for The GRID between October 2011 and October 2012. During this time she was a graduate student in Community & Regional Planning with a concentration in Latin American Studies at the University of New Mexico. She was also a recent transplant to Mammoth Lakes, CA. Her interests ranged from political theory and public policy to sustainable tourism. A strong advocate for participatory planning practices, her studies focused on community capacity building and economic development. She believed in fostering entrepreneurship in communities. Currently, Patricia is working on economic sustainability policies that benefit both the preservation of the Eastern Sierras as well as the ever-increasing tourist population.
More Posts - Website - Twitter - Facebook
This entry was posted on Tuesday, July 31st, 2012 at 1:23 pm and is filed under Community/Economic Development, Energy, Engineering, Environment, Environmental Design, Environmental Non-Profit, Government/Politics, Technology. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can leave a response, or trackback from your own site.
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Person:Margaret Writer (1)
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Margaret Writer
Facts and Events
Name Margaret Writer
Gender Female
Birth? New York, United States
She married (first) Mr. Rundle, and after his death (second) Mr. Wagoner.[1]
References
1. Ruttenber, Edward Manning, and Lewis H Clark. History of Orange County, New York: with illustrations and biographical sketches of many of its pioneers and prominent men. (Philadelphia: Everts & Peck, 1881), 506.
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Source:Logan, Virginia, United States. 1850 U.S. Census Population Schedule
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Source 1850 U.S. Census Population Schedule
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Place Logan, West Virginia, United States
Year range 1850 - 1850
Subject Census records
Publication information
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Logan, West Virginia, United States. 1850 U.S. Census Population Schedule.
General Tips
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Logan County was in Virginia at the time. West Virginia 1850 census category is for convenience. County place page is in West Virginia for compliance with the "1900 rule".
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Australian Bureau of Statistics
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1136.0 - A Directory of Education and Training Statistics, 2009
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THE HEALTH AND WELFARE OF AUSTRALIA'S ABORIGINAL AND TORRES STRAIT ISLANDER PEOPLES
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National Centre for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Statistics
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Source link: http://archive.mises.org/8971/slash-and-burn/
Slash and Burn
November 18, 2008 by
There is more talk about another stimulus package to help save the economy. Word from Washington predicts that a package that includes extended unemployment benefits, food stamps, and another tax rebate check will pass in a forthcoming lame duck session of Congress. All of these remedies actually make the patient sicker, but there is a way for Washington to really stimulate the economy. FULL ARTICLE
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Ask Your Question
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Frozen sheets don't always save..
asked 2012-09-21 11:57:34 +0200
Cool
1 1 1
updated 2013-01-31 06:06:45 +0200
qubit
5693 3 48 41
When I freeze rows/columns and save a spreadsheet it doesn't save the frozen rows/columns.. When I open it a few days later or on another PC the freeze is gone..
Anyone else having this?
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answered 2012-09-23 19:07:34 +0200
Timon
1506 5 13
As far as I see, you do not provide any additional information. Maybe for you it would be easier to report a bug https://bugs.freedesktop.org/enter_bug.cgi?product=LibreOffice with detailed description, LibO and OS versions, example files and screenshots (if available)
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TeraStation larger disks
From NAS-Central Buffalo - The Linkstation Wiki
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m (Changing the Partition Sizes)
m (Setting up 2TB RAID5 Arrays)
Line 96: Line 96:
mkfs.xfs -f /dev/hd?3
mkfs.xfs -f /dev/hd?3
style command.
style command.
+
* Repeat repartitioning and formatting the new partition for each of the four disks
* Use the Web GUI to create the RAID5 partition and any wanted shares.
* Use the Web GUI to create the RAID5 partition and any wanted shares.
Revision as of 17:47, 23 February 2009
This article is about upgrading a PPC based TeraStation to use Hard Disks larger than 500Gb.
Contents
Background
It is now possible to get IDE disks up to 750Gb in size, and SATA disks up to 1.5Tb in size. Larger disks may become available in the future. Many users would like to be able to use such disks to upgrade their TeraStations capacity.
It is also possible to use disks larger than 750Gb on an IDE based system via a SATA/IDE converter, although you have to make sure you get one small enough to fit into the available space. The ones tested were obtained via eBay, and consisted of a small PCB that was the same size as the back of a 3.5" drive with a SATA connector on one side and an IDE socket on the other as shown below:
The board plugged into the back of the drive and simply converted the connectors from SATA to IDE and there was just enough clearance inside the case to fit the power and IDE cables. For large disks a SATA drive plus a converter is normally cheaper than the equivalent size IDE drive, so this is attractive from a price point of view.
The systems that are currently covered by this article include all the original PPC based TeraStation Models:
• Original TeraStation
• TeraStation Home Server
• TeraStation Pro v1
These all come with a Linux 2.4 Kernel. This version of Linux has a limitation where a single file system cannot exceed 2Tb. As Buffalo have assumed that normal use is to use a RAID array treating all 4 disks as a single file system the largest disks that is supported by the standard Buffalo firmware is 500Gb. This article covers techniques for using disks larger than this (albeit with some restrictions).
The following ARM based TeraStation models are not covered:
• Terastation Live
• TeraStation Pro v2
These systems come with a Linux 2.6 kernel. This does not suffer from the limit of 2Tb in a single file system. Although there is no reason to suspect that the instructions described in this article would not work they should not be required as the standard Buffalo firmware should handle larger disks without issues.
Approach
If the use of RAID5 arrays matters to you, then you are limited to a total of 2Tb (i.e. using 750Gb drives).
There are 2 approaches discussed here. One allows for disks up to 750Gb in use to be used and still maintain the RAID5 array capability. The instructions on how to set up a TeraStation to support a 2Tb array and once this has been done to be completely compatible with the standard Buffalo firmware are in the section on Setting up 2TB RAID5 Arrays.
The other approach that has been used is to forgo the use of RAID arrays for the data areas, and instead use them as single independent disks. This means that the 2Tb limit imposed by the 2.4 linux kernel applies at the individual drive level and not at the RAID array level. Using this approach means that the theoretical limit on a TeraStation is increased to 8Tb (4 x 2Tb), and that would need 2Tb drives which are not currently available.
Advantages
• You can use drives larger than the 500Gb maximum supported by the standard Buffalo firmware.
• You can use mixed drive sizes, thus allowing for incremental upgrades in capacity of the system.
• A single drive failure only loses any data associated with that drive.
• Recovering the system back to a fully working state after a drive failure is simple.
• The Buffalo provided firmware continues to be used as the basis of the system
• The Buffalo browser based GUI can still be used to manage nearly all aspects of the system such as users and groups.
• You can use linux soft-links to give you a single "view" of all 4 drives. This is means that the sytem will look a bit like it is running with a single drive, although in practise all 4 drives will have their free space managed independently.
• The Buffalo supplied media servers continue to function and can deliver media from from all 4 drives.
• The software upgrades available from the itimpi website can still be used with the system.
• Buffalo firmware upgrades can still be used (although at this late date it is unlikely that they will provide new ones for these models as they have been superseded by the ARM based models).
Disadvantages
• RAID arrays cannot be used for the Data part of the hard disks (although one is still used for the System area). This means that you are not protected against a single drive failure. You therefore need to decide on a suitable back-up strategy to take account of this. If this matters to you then the approach described in this article cannot be used.
• You have to use a telnet enabled firmware release rather than the standard Buffalo supplied ones. Many might consider this to be an advantage rather than a disadvantage!
• Manual steps are required to recover from a disk failure - you cannot use the Buffalo GUI to achieve this. However as these are the same steps as are required to set the system up in the first place this will probably not be an issue.
Telnet Enabled Firmware
TeraStations internally run the Linux operating system. Buffalo hide this from the average user providing the system "packaged" and with a browser based GUI to control and configure iy. Telnet enabled firmware allows users to log in using a telnet client to control and manipulate the system at the Linux command line level.
This allows users to do things like:
• Configure the system at a more detailed level than allowed for by the Buffalo GUI.
• Upgrade components of the underlying software to newer versions with additional feature and/or bug fixes included.
• Install new applications to extend the functionality of the Terastation.
• In the event of any problems being encountered allow for a level of access that gives more chance of recovering user data without loss.
The changes described in this article require the use of a telnet enabled release. Hopefully the instructions provided are detailed enough that users can carry out the steps provided without needing much linux knowledge.
The standard software supplied with buffalo PPC based TeraStations does not provide for telnet access. Telnet enabled releases of firmware corresponding to virtually all Buffalo firmware releases can be found at itimpi's website. These are identical in functionality to the corresponding Buffalo firmware releases - the modification to add telent functionality being trivial. This means they will have exactly the same bugs (if any) as are found in the Buffalo releases.
The itimpi firmware releases are the ones that have been used while preparing this article. Firmware from other sources should work fine as long as it is telnet enabled.
To use telnet you need a telnet client. A rudimentary one is included with Windows which you can invoked by typing a command of the following form into the Windows Run box:
telnet TeraStation_address
A freeware one called PuTTY is recommended as a much better alternative. In addition to the standard telnet protocol PuTTY also supports the more secure SSH variant (although additional components need installing at the TeraStation end to support this).
TIP: If you already have a telnet enabled version of the firmware installed and you want to continue to use that version then you can run the Firmware updater in Debug mode and elect to not rewrite the linux kernel or boot image in flash, but merely update the hard disk. This is slightly safer as the flash chips have been known to fail.
Setting up 2TB RAID5 Arrays
For some people the use of RAID5 is important. This section covers how to set up a 2TB RAID5 array using 750Gb drives. Larger arrays are not possible due to the 2Tb limit on a single file system imposed by the 2.4 kernel.
The steps involved are:
• You need to use a telnet enabled version of the firmware.
• Start with 4 unpartitioned 750Gb drives and flash the firmware to get the basic setup as described in the section above on Starting With New Disks. This will not use a signifcant part of the available space and if a RAID5 array is set up it would be around 1.6Tb in size.
• Use the Web GUI to remove any shares and RAID arrays.
• Use the approach described above for Changing the Partition Sizes on each of the four disks. First delete the existing partitions 3 and 4. Then create a new partition 3 on each disk that must not exceed 715, 816,238 1K blocks - you may have to experiment a bit to work out what the start and end tracks need to be. Allocate partition 4 to use the remainder of the disk. Then set the type for partitions 3 and 4 to be 'fd'. As an example on a Seagate 750Gb drive this works out as follows:
Disk /dev/hdg: 255 heads, 63 sectors, 91201 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 bytes
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/hdg1 1 48 385528+ fd Linux raid autodetect
/dev/hdg2 49 65 136552+ 82 Linux swap
/dev/hdg3 66 89180 715816237+ fd Linux raid autodetect
/dev/hdg4 89181 91201 16233682+ fd Linux raid autodetect
• Format the new data partitions using the
mkfs.xfs -f /dev/hd?3
style command.
• Repeat repartitioning and formatting the new partition for each of the four disks
• Use the Web GUI to create the RAID5 partition and any wanted shares.
You should now be in operation with a RAID5 array with 2Tb useable space.
Setting up for Larger Disks
Preparing the Disks
Most users will tend to run with their system either in RAID5 mode or SPANNING (jbod) mode. To use larger disks in the manner described in this article the first thing is to get your system in the state where there are no RAID arrays defined in the Buffalo Web GUI, and all 4 drives are being used independently. This will destroy any existing data so ensure that you have your data backed up first. If you already have your system set up to use the four drives independently then this section can be skipped.
Note that you could do this AFTER you have carried out the step mentioned below on Perparing the Data Partitions - the order of these two steps is not critical.
Starting with a Running System
Most people will already have a running system, and in this case it is easier to get your system running in a mode where it can accept larger disks, but initially using the drives already installed. If this is the case and your TeraStation is already in a running state then:
• Ensure that you have backed up your data, if not you will lose it.
• Go into the Web GUI and select Disk Management. If this shows that you are already running with separate disks (Disk1 to Disk4) then you are already in a state where individual drives can be changed so there is nothing else to do.
• If (as is normally the case) this shows that you are running using a RAID array then click on RAID Array 1 which will take you to a screen which has a button labelled Delete RAID Array. A Dialog block is displayed asking you if are Sure You Want to continue and warning you that doing so will delete all your data. Select OK. You will now be taken to a screen where you need to enter a displayed number to confirm the delete (on many firmware releases this screen will be in Japanese). All you have to do is enter this number and then press the left-hand button to Apply the change. While the Array is being deleted (which takes several minutes) all other access to the TeraStation will be prohibited. On completion you will be returned to the Disk Management screen, and this time RAID Array 1 will show as "Not Configured".
• Most people run their teraStations with only RAID Array 1 configured. If you are running with RAID Array2 configured as well then repeat the above step for RAID Array 2.
• Now select the Home option, and you will be returned to the home page of the Web GUI. You will see that all 4 drives are now listed with their space used individually itemised.
• If you want to change any of the disks at this point then follow the instructions for Upgrading/Changing a Single Drive.
Starting with new Disks
It is perfectly feasible to start with a brand new set of disks, rather than with a running system. You are more likely to use this approach if you are considering upgrading all the disks at the same time. The alternative is to convert the system as described above, and then Upgrade a Single disk at a time as described later.
Initializing the Disks
If you are starting from scratch with a new set of hard disks then the first thing to do is to get the Buffalo software onto the system:
• Install the 4 drives you want to use. If they are IDE drives make sure the jumpers on them are set to make them the Master/Single drive. If you are going to use a mix of drive sizes then it is recommended that they are installed in ascending size (i.e. Drive 1 is the smallest). This may not be critical but that is what has been tested.
• Flash the TeraStation with the firmware release of your choice. This must be a telnet enabled variant of the firmware.
• You will be given warnings about the partition structure being wrong and the disks about to be formatted. OK these to continue. You will see that the Disk I/O lights on the TeraStation all start flashing. You will almost certainly get a message from the firmware nupdater program about a timeout waiting for a response. Quit the firmware updater at this point. The disk I/O lights will continue flashing on the TeraStation. Wait until this finishes (which could take several hours).
• Flash the TeraStation again - this time it should complete without error.
• Go into the Web GUI and delete any shares that have been set up.
• You will almost certainly find that array1 hs been setup to be a "SPANNING" array. Select this array and then the option to delete the array. You will now be given a screen in Japanese where you have to enter a displayed number for confirmation. Enter this number and then press the left-hand button. This will delete the array, and you will see your disks displayed as independent drives. Do not worry at this point if the capacities displayed are wrong.
Changing the Partition Sizes
The next thing is to get the partitions set up correctly to use all the available disk space. To do this:
• Telnet into the system. Any telnet client will do, but the recommended one if you are using Windows is PuTTY (which is freeware). Login with a user with root privileges. If using the telent software from the itimpi web site this will be the "myroot" user - initially with a blank password (it is recommended that you immediately set a password using the 'passwd' command.
• Try the 'df' command and you will see that it shows you all 4 disks but not using their full capacity.
• Unmount the 4 file systems containing the data partitions using command of the form
umount /mnt/mountname
where mountname is the appropriate name from the output of the df command.
• Repartition each of the four disks with the disk partitioning software using a command of the form
mfdisk -c /dev/xxx
where xxx is one of hda/hdc/hde/hdg for the 4 disks in an Original or Home Server machine or sda/sdb/sdc/sdd for the Pro model
• You can get a menu of available commands in the mfdisk program by pressing 'm'. You may want at this point to select the 'p' option to show the current partitions that have been set up by the Buffalo firmware at the initialization stage.
• Use the 'd' command to delete partions 4 and 3.
• use the 'n' command to create new primary partitions 3 and 4. For partition 3 use the default for the start position, but for the end position type in a value one less than the value displayed as the default. For partition 4 use the defaults for start and end track. It is possible partition 4 is not needed, but the Buffalo firmware sets it up, and the above approach of giving it one track minimizes the wasted space
• Use the 't' command on partitions 1, 3 and 4 to change the type to 'fd' and partition 2 to '82'. It is not clear if this is really required, but those are the partition types the Buffalo firmware sets so it is better to be safe than sorry.
• As an example after making these changes on a 1.5TB Seagate drive and then using the 'p' command to print the current settings gives the following:
Disk /dev/sda: 255 heads, 63 sectors, 182401 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 bytes
Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/sda1 1 48 385528+ fd Linux raid autodetect
/dev/sda2 49 65 136552+ 82 Linux swap
/dev/sda3 66 182400 1464605887+ fd Linux raid autodetect
/dev/sda4 182401 182401 8032+ fd Linux raid autodetect
• Write out the changes using the 'w' command.
• Format the data partition using the command
mkfs.xfs -f /dev/xxx3
where xxx is one of hda/hdc/hde/hdg for the 4 disks in an Original or Home Server machine or sda/sdb/sdc/sdd for the Pro model
• Repeat this for each of the four drives varying the last part of the device name as indicated earlier for each drive
• Reboot the system
• Go into the web GUI and you should now see all 4 drives listed with their correct capacity.
Setting up the Shares
It has been found that sometimes there is configuration information about shares left behind despite the fact that the drives have been changed. You therefore need to make sure that your share configuration is correct for the new mode of running.
There are some idiosyncaracies of the Buffalo software that you need to be aware of when setting up your shares:
• The system does not seem to like shares of the same name set up on more than one drive.
• Any folders that are at the root of the mounted file system will automatically be added as shares when the system next reboots, and will be given a description of TeraStation Folder.
On that basis following approach is recommended
• Use the Web GUI to look at the shares and delete any existing shares that are no longer needed. Normally the steps above will have deleted any existing shares, so initially there are no shares listed.
• Set up a share on each of the 4 disks. The suggestion is to simply use share names of the form share? where ? represents that drive number. If you do not need it, unselect the option for the Recycle Bin as this can take up a lot of space as files are deleted.
• You can optionally also set up further shares at this point. The "Single Drive View" approach mentioned in the next step does not require this as everything is accessed via the shares on Disk 1.
Setting up a Single Drive view
At the client end it is more convenient to treat the TeraStation as a single drive rather that 4 separate drives. This can be achieved using the approach given below. It is recommended that you put the commands to create these links into a separate file (e.g. CreateLinks.sh) which is set to be executable so that you can re-set them up again later using a command such as
sh ./CreateLinks.sh
The best place to keep this file is probably in the home folder for the 'root' user (/root) as this is where you are initially located when you log in via telnet. As this is part of the System partition which is replicated on all 4 drives, it will remain available if you change one of the drives.
If you use the commands:
chmod 777 CreateLinks.sh
ln -s /root/CreateLinks.sh /mnt/disk1/share1/CreateLinks.sh
You will be able to also see this file at the base of the share. It can then be edited from Windows which most people will find easier than using the Linux level editors such as vi. Make sure you use an editor that can handle Unix style end-of-lines (e.g. TextPad). The standard Windows editors such as Notepad and Wordpad will not do.
You are likely to want to tune the commands mentioned here to suit your specific requirements.
A sample shell script incorporating these ideas is given that may be suitable with minimal modification for most users.
Drive Mapping
• Telnet into the TeraStation using a user with root priveleges (e.g. myroot)
• Issue the following command:
chmod 777 /mnt/disk?
This ensures all users will have full read/write access to each of the data partitions.
• Create a folder on the disk1 share into which you intend to put disk1 content
mkdir /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1 #Create the content folder
chmod /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1 #Set global access permissions
• You are now going to use a set of commands to set up symbolic links between drive 1 and the other drives.
• Set up a link from Drive 1 to the others. If using the default share this would be commands of the form:
ln -s /dev/disk2/share2 /dev/disk1/share1/_disk2
ln -s /dev/disk3/share3 /dev/disk1/share1/_disk3
ln -s /dev/disk4/share4 /dev/disk1/share1/_disk4
• Open up the share from your client (e.g. your PC) and you will see the _disk1, _disk2, _disk3, _disk4 folders which can be clicked on to take you into the drive specific content in a transparent manner.
Folder Mapping
You may want to use a further level of symbolic mapping at folders within the share. As an example say you have created a folder called TV on disk 1, and you want to have folders that at the share level (drive 1) look like this:
TV
Series1
Series2
Series3
but you want some of the series of to really be on drives other than drive 1. You could create a TV folder via the _disk2, etc links set up earlier and then by setting up the following symbolic links you would get the view that you wanted:
ln -s /mnt/disk1/share1/TV/Series2 /mnt/disk2/share2/TV/Series2
ln -s /mnt/disk1/share1/TV/Series2 /mnt/disk2/share2/TV/Series2
Note that if you want to use spaces or any other special character in any of the above commands they need to be escaped (e.g. entered as '\ '. Typing in all these 'ln'commandsd can be a bit laborious and error prone, so you may prefer to isntead get the machine to do a lot of the work as shown in the sample script below
TIP: If your symbolic links do not show up in Samba then you have probably got one of the following wrong:
• The symbolic link points to a none-existent folder.
• The permissions on the file/folder do not allow Samba users to access the file
Copying/Moving Files
You may at times want to copy or move files between the different drives to balance out usage. If you do this, it is MUCH faster to do it via linux cp/mv commands rather than to try to do it via Windows shares.
The only downside to is that the files will end up owned by root. However the Sample script contains some chmod/chown/chgrp commands that are currently commented out that can be used for resetting the owner and access permissions. You may want to uncomment these by removing the leading '#'.
Sample Script
The following is a reasonably comprehensive sample script that is uses the ideas mentioned above. It is quite likely to be suitable almost unmodifed for many users. You should examine it to check that it meets your requirements.
It makes the following assumptions:
• You have used the suggested name of CreateLinks.sh for the script file.
• You have used the default share name of 'share?' on each drive where ? is equvaelnt to the drive number
• You want all disk specific media files to appear under the _diskn style folders
• You want all symbolic links to appear in the TV folder of drive 1, and this is the only content in this folder. This is the folder that is configured for the media server to use.
• The 'TV' folder on Drive 1 and the relevant '_diskn' folders to hold disk specific content are created if they do not already exist.
• Permissions are set on all files on the share that will allow anyone to access them.
#!/bin/sh
# Script to support "Single View" mode.
# (Make all drives visible from Disk 1)
# First Make this file visible from the share for easy editing
if [ -f /mnt/disk1/share1/CreateLinks.sh ]
then
rm -f /mnt/disk1/share1/CreateLinks.sh
fi
chmod 777 CreateLinks.sh
chown nobody CreateLinks.sh
chgrp nogroup CreateLinks.sh
ln -s /root/CreateLinks.sh /mnt/disk1/share1/CreateLinks.sh
# Now set up folders to tell apart files by disk
# Disk 1 folder
if ! [ -d /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1 ]
then
mkdir /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1
chmod 777 /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1
chown nobody /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1
chgrp nogroup /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1
echo "/mnt/disk1/share1/_disk1 folder created"
fi
# Symbolic Links to other disks
rm -f /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk2
rm -f /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk3
rm -f /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk4
chmod 777 /mnt/disk?
ln -s /mnt/disk2/share2 /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk2
ln -s /mnt/disk3/share3 /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk3
ln -s /mnt/disk4/share4 /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk4
chmod -R 777 /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk?
chown -R nobody /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk?
chgrp -R nogroup /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk?
# Now Individual TV Series as symbolic links within Disk 1 TV Folder
# (this is then defined to PCast as the Media folder)
# Create Soft-Linbks folder if does not already exist
if ! [ -d /mnt/disk1/share1/TV ]
then
mkdir /mnt/disk1/share1/TV
chmod 777 /mnt/disk1/share1/TV
chown nobody /mnt/disk1/share1/TV
chgrp nogroup /mnt/disk1/share1/TV
echo "/mnt/disk1/share1/TV folder created"
fi
# Remove all existing soft links
rm -fr /mnt/disk1/share1/TV/*
# Recreate soft links
for disk in /mnt/disk1/share1/_disk?
do
ls $disk | while read folder
do
# Include checks on folders (optional)
# if [ -d "$disk/$folder" ]
# then
ln -s "$disk/$folder" "/mnt/disk1/share1/TV/$folder"
# Change permissions (probably not really needed)
# chmod 777 "$disk/$folder"
# chown -R nobody "$disk/$folder"
# chgrp -R nogroup "$disk/$folder"
# fi
done
done
This script is simply re-run any time you add new folders to the _disk? folders. Only top level folders need this - sub-folders do not.
This script could also be added as a start-up script if so desired so that it is automatically run every time the system is restarted.
Changing/Upgrading a Single Drive
It is quite likely that at some point you will need to change a drive. This could be because a drive has failed or because you are intending to replace one of the existing drives with a larger drive.
The steps are as follows:
• If you are changing a drive for one of a different capacity then make sure that you have first backed up any data first. This could be to another drive on the same TeraStation as only the drive you are about to change is affected.
• Prepare the drive as for a new system making sure any jumpers are set correctly and there are no partitions already present on the drive.
• Put the new drive into the TeraStation.
• Start up the TeraStation. It should come up normally, but the TeraStation will be showing a flashing red light for the mnew drive at this point.
• Telnet into the TeraStation using a user with root privileges.
• Use the command
df
You will see that the disk you have just added is not shown as a mounted filesystem.
• Use the mfdisk utility as described earlier to set up the partitions. This time you will also have to set up partions 1 and 2 as well as 3 and 4. Partitions 1 and 2 must be at least as large as these partitions on the other disk (you can safely use the mfdisk -c /dev/xxx style command to look at these as long as you do not write out any changes).
• Format the data partition using a command of the form:
mkfs.xfs -f /dev/xxx3
where xxx is one of hda/hdc/hde/hdg for the 4 disks in an Original or Home Server machine or sda/sdb/sdc/sdd for the Pro model
• Prepare Partition 2 on the new disk to be used as swap space using the command
mkswap /dev/xxx2
• You now need to make sure that partion 1 of this disk is added back to the RAID0 array covering all 4 disks that is used to hold system files. You can look at the details of this array using the command
mdadm --detail /dev/md0
If the disk is not reported as faulty, removed then you may need to issue the following commands:
mdadm /dev/md0 -f /dev/xxx1
mdadm /dev/md0 -r /dev/xxx1
where xxx is one of hda/hdc/hde/hdg for the 4 disks in an Original or Home Server machine or sda/sdb/sdc/sdd for the Pro model.
• Make sure that the system partition is part of the system partition RAID0 array (/dev/md0) by using a command of he form:
mdadm /dev/md0 -a /dev/xxx1
This command marks adds the new drive to the array and starts rebuilding its contents.. If you now look at the array status you will see it has 4 drives again, and that the new drive is marked as being "recovered". Wait for this to complete
• Mount the new data partition on the drive, the flashing red light on the drive will go out and it should be ready to use. Alternatively if you reboot the system, the new drive will be automatically mounted as part of the booting process.
Flashing with new Firmware versions
The tests done show that it should be possible to flash a TeraStation setup as described in this article without any issues. However caution should be taken as this is a none-standard setup and this cannot be guaranteed to be true in all cases.
If you attempt a flash upgrade on a system that has been setup as described in this article and the firmware updater program gives any warnings about invalid partition structure or wants to format any of the disks you should abandon the firmware update as otherwise you will almost certainly lose data.
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Forest Road Assessment in Ulu Muda Forest Reserve, Kedah, Malaysia
Mohd Hasmadi I, Kamaruzaman J., Muhamad Azizon J
Abstract
For the last few decades, forest road construction for forest harvesting in the tropical forest has been shown to cause considerable damage to the soil physical properties, forest environment and watershed areas. These effects can be minimized through implementation of proper harvesting procedure in the use of harvesting machines and forest road specification guideline. Forest road specification is important as technical guideline that must be comply by any loggers in order to construct forest roads. The road constructions that meet the outlined specification were potential to minimize the damage of forest roads and increase the efficiency in forest product output, while reducing harvesting cost. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the effectiveness of feeder road construction in compliance to the Forest Road Specifications 1999 as outlined by the Forest Department of Peninsular Malaysia. Systematic samplings were conducted along 14.5 km of feeder road where an observation and measurements has been taken at every 500 m points visited. A total of 30 samples were taken which incorporate dimensions of road specification elements for each point such as road cross section, vertical alignment, horizontal alignment, road failure and earth work. The comparison data was collected to determine whether the failure is due or not to the specification. Result presented that the total length of the road failure in the study area was 551.4 m or 3.8% out of 14.5 km. The types of the road failure were classified into five categories that were surface failure, surface run-off, wheel track, drainage failure and landslide. The major failure occurred on the feeder roads was surface failure, which represent about 38.2%. Reasons of non-compliance are ascertained and several recommendations were given to reduce the damage of feeder road.
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Modern Applied Science ISSN 1913-1844 (Print) ISSN 1913-1852 (Online)
Copyright © Canadian Center of Science and Education
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Connexions
Sections
You are here: Home » Content » Herb Mears, 1923-1999
About: Herb Mears, 1923-1999
Module by: Sarah Reynolds. E-mail the author
View the content: Herb Mears, 1923-1999
Metadata
Name: Herb Mears, 1923-1999
ID: m16156
Language: English (en)
Summary: Interview with Herb Mears, conducted by Sarah C. Reynolds.
Subject: Arts
Keywords: Arts, Houston, Reynolds, Texas
Document Type: -//CNX//DTD CNXML 0.5 plus MathML//EN
License: Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY 2.0
Authors: Sarah Reynolds (sr@sallyreynolds.com)
Copyright Holders: Sarah Reynolds (sr@sallyreynolds.com)
Maintainers: Frederick Moody (fred.moody@rice.edu)
Editors: Frederick Moody (fred.moody@rice.edu)
Latest version: 1.1 (history)
First publication date: Apr 19, 2008 2:25 pm -0500
Last revision to module: Apr 29, 2008 6:40 pm -0500
Downloads
PDF: m16156_1.1.pdf PDF file, for viewing content offline and printing. Learn more.
XML: m16156_1.1.cnxml XML that defines the structure and contents of the module, minus any included media files. Can be reimported in the editing interface. Learn more.
Version History
Version: 1.1 Apr 29, 2008 6:40 pm -0500 by Frederick Moody
Changes:
Roles updated.
How to Reuse and Attribute This Content
If you derive a copy of this content using a Connexions account and publish your version, proper attribution of the original work will be automatically done for you.
If you reuse this work elsewhere, in order to comply with the attribution requirements of the license (CC-BY 2.0), you must include
• the authors' names: Sarah Reynolds
• the title of the work: Herb Mears, 1923-1999
• the Connexions URL where the work can be found: http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/
See the citation section below for examples you can copy.
How to Cite and Attribute This Content
The following citation styles comply with the attribution requirements for the license (CC-BY 2.0) of this work:
American Chemical Society (ACS) Style Guide:
Reynolds, S. Herb Mears, 1923-1999, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/, Apr 29, 2008.
American Medical Assocation (AMA) Manual of Style:
Reynolds S. Herb Mears, 1923-1999 [Connexions Web site]. April 29, 2008. Available at: http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/.
American Psychological Assocation (APA) Publication Manual:
Reynolds, S. (2008, April 29). Herb Mears, 1923-1999. Retrieved from the Connexions Web site: http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/
Chicago Manual of Style (Bibliography):
Reynolds, Sarah. "Herb Mears, 1923-1999." Connexions. April 29, 2008. http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/.
Chicago Manual of Style (Note):
Sarah Reynolds, "Herb Mears, 1923-1999," Connexions, April 29, 2008, http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/.
Chicago Manual of Style (Reference, in Author-Date style):
Reynolds, S. 2008. Herb Mears, 1923-1999. Connexions, April 29, 2008. http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/.
Modern Languages Association (MLA) Style Manual:
Reynolds, Sarah. Herb Mears, 1923-1999. Connexions. 29 Apr. 2008 <http://cnx.org/content/m16156/1.1/>.
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Grants to Land Companies and RailroadsEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
Revision as of 23:55, 13 September 2011 by Larry0011 (Talk | contribs)
(diff) ← Older revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)
United States Land and Property
Land Companies
To encourage settlement of large tracts of land, many colonies and states allowed land speculators, often organized as land companies, to purchase large tracts of land for resale to settlers. Records of these transactions may be difficult to obtain. They may have remained in private possession, or have been deposited in a state, local, or private archives or historical society. Some have also been published. The Family History Library has copies of some of these records (especially the published sources) such as the Susquehannah Company Papers. Land company records are generally listed in the Place Search of the Family History Library Catalog under [STATE] - LAND AND PROPERTY.[1]
Railroads
Starting in the 1850s state governments offerred land grants as an incentive to several railroad builders in Illinois and Wisconsin. In 1862 the federal government offerred land grants for building transcontinental railroads. The expectation was the railroads would quickly sell the land to settlers to raise the money to pay for the building of the railroad. However, in practice government conditions usually prevented, and railroads often chose not to sell the land. Instead, railroads usually used their land grants as collateral to obtain loans (bonds or government sponsored mortgages). Railroad land grants rarely resulted in records that are useful to genealogists.[2] When the railroads sold or transferred parts of their land grants to individuals those sales were usually recorded in the appropriate county land office.
Different railroads had different land grant rules. The most well-known form of railroad land grant was made in a checkerboard pattern along the line of the first tracks (see illustration). In 1862 the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads were orginally promised ten miles of checkerboard land on each side of the tracks, but to help meet expenses, ten was changed to twenty miles on each side in 1864. Because of the checkerboard pattern twenty miles would result in ten railroad blocks on each side of the tracks, and the federal government would keep most of the non-railroad blocks of land. The 1864 law also gave the railroad the mineral rights to their land as well. If a railroad failed to meet certain requirements such as a completion deadline these land grants could be forfeited.[3]
References
1. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. United States Research Outline, "Land and Property." Salt Lake City, Utah: Intellectual Reserve, Inc., 1988, 2002. NOTE: All of the information from the original research outline has been imported into this Wiki site and is being updated as time permits.
2. Wade E. Hone, Land and Property Research in the United States (Salt Lake City: Ancestry, 1997), 153.
3. Terry Cox, "Railroad Land Grants Explained" in Collectible Stocks and Bonds from North American Railroads: Guide with Prices, 2nd ed. at http://www.coxrail.com/land-grants.htm (accessed 8 July 2009).
Need additional research help? Contact our research help specialists.
Need wiki, indexing, or website help? Contact our product teams.
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SEICHE IN PORTS
A.S. Apte, G. Marcou
Abstract
In his thesis Prof. John S. McHewn has given an account of experiments on seiche in port models. Though the fundamental causes of seiche in harbours and ports are more or less known, we have little knowledge of the harbour dimensions for which a particular seiche is likely to occur. A systematic study was therefore initiated by Prof. McNown and our work described in this paper may be considered as its continuation.
Keywords
seiche; ports; wave period
Full Text: PDF
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
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20.109(S08)
From OpenWetWare
(Difference between revisions)
Jump to: navigation, search
Line 10: Line 10:
'''Oral Presentation Instructor:''' [[User:Atissa | Atissa Banuazizi]]
'''Oral Presentation Instructor:''' [[User:Atissa | Atissa Banuazizi]]
-
'''TAs:''' [[Luis Alvarez]],[[User:Molurinde | Mobalaji Olurinde]], [[User: DWeingeist| David Weingeist]]
+
'''TAs:''' [[Bahar Edrissi]],[[Victor Lelyveld]], [[User: DWeingeist| David Weingeist]]
'''Lecture:''' T/R 11-12 (13-3101)
'''Lecture:''' T/R 11-12 (13-3101)
Revision as of 16:17, 17 August 2007
20.109(S08): Laboratory Fundamentals of Biological Engineering
Home People Schedule Spring 2008 Assignments Lab Basics OWW Basics
DNA Engineering Protein Engineering Biomaterials Engineering
Spring 2008
Instructors: Bevin Engelward, Alan Jasanoff, and Agi Stachowiak
Writing Instructor: Neal Lerner
Oral Presentation Instructor: Atissa Banuazizi
TAs: Bahar Edrissi,Victor Lelyveld, David Weingeist
Lecture: T/R 11-12 (13-3101) Lab: T/R 1-5 or W/F 1-5 (13-3095)
Welcome to 20.109! For many of you this will be the first time in a research lab and for others it will not, but it is our goal to make this class a useful and fun introduction to experiments and techniques in biological engineering. There is not time enough to show you everything you’ll need to know if you go on to do research, but after taking this class you should feel confident and familiar with some fundamental experimental approaches and lab protocols. You will develop good habits at the bench, ones that will increase the likelihood of success in your work and ensure the health and safety of you and those around you. By the end of the semester, you should also be aware of good scientific practice, having had some experience with report writing, notebook keeping and publicly presenting your data. All of us involved in teaching 20.109 hope you will find it a satisfying challenge and an exciting experience that has lasting value.
Announcements
• You can find old announcements here
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AnnaKYoung's bookmarks
"Immature love says: I love you because I need you. Mature love says: I need you because I love you."
Fromm, Erich on love
225 fans of this quote
"Seek not to change the world, but choose to change your mind about the world."
A Course In Miracles on change
94 fans of this quote
"Excellence is an art won by training and habituation. We do not act rightly because we have virtue or excellence, but we rather have those because we have acted rightly. We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit."
Aristotle on excellence
29 fans of this quote
Anna's quote collection
I'm female and made my book on 7th August 2007.
My book as a pdf
My feed
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tcanny's bookmarks
"Like all weak men he laid an exaggerated stress on not changing one's mind."
Maugham, W. Somerset on obstinacy
5 fans of this quote
This quotation can be viewed in the context of a book
"Age is not important unless you're a cheese."
Hayes, Helen on age and aging
4 fans of this quote
"The only argument against losing faith is that you also lose hope – and generally charity."
Chesterton, Gilbert K. on faith
"I believe in Christianity as I believe in the rising sun; not because I see it, but by it I can see all else."
Lewis, C. S. on christians and christianity
17 fans of this quote
"The young leading the young, is like the blind leading the blind; they will both fall into the ditch. "
Stanhope, Philip Dormer on uncategorised
"As long as men still feel they are nothing without a call to duty, they will look for a place in the world where they find themselves excellent at something. One of those places is, and has always been, battle."
Owen, Walter on war
"They have given us into the hand of new unhappy lords. Lords without anger and honor, who dare not carry their swords. They fight by shuffling papers; they have bright dead alien eyes; They look at our labor and laughter as a tired man looks at flies."
Chesterton, Gilbert K. on oppression
"Stupidity is a force unto itself."
Proverb, Latin on stupidity
3 fans of this quote
"If you kill enough of them, they stop fighting."
LeMay, Curtis on war
"To summarize the summary, people are a problem."
Adams, Douglas on
6 fans of this quote
"If everyone is thinking alike then somebody isn't thinking."
Patton, George S. on thoughts and thinking
4 fans of this quote
"There is no time of life past learning something."
Ambrose, St. on learning
3 fans of this quote
"He that speaks much, is much mistaken."
Franklin, Benjamin on speakers and speaking
4 fans of this quote
"A just cause is not ruined by a few mistakes."
Dostoevsky, Fyodor on purpose
6 fans of this quote
"Love bears it out even to the edge of doom."
Shakespeare, William on love
13 fans of this quote
"That so few now dare to be eccentric, marks the chief danger of the time."
Mill, John Stuart on individuality
4 fans of this quote
This quotation can be viewed in the context of a book
"What ever crushes individuality is despotism, no matter what name it is called."
Mill, John Stuart on individuality
"The worth of a State, in the long run, is the worth of the individuals composing it -- a State which dwarfs its men, in order that they may be more docile instruments in its hands even for beneficial purposes -- will find that with small men no great thing can really be accomplished."
Mill, John Stuart on state
"One person with a belief is equal to a force of ninety-nine who have only interests."
Mill, John Stuart on belief
5 fans of this quote
"Fear only two: God, and the man who has no fear of God."
Proverb, Hasidic on fear
6 fans of this quote
"Industry is fortunes right hand, and frugality its left."
Ray, John on work
"A tragic situation exists precisely when virtue does not triumph but when it is still felt that man is nobler than the forces which destroy him."
Orwell, George on tragedies
7 fans of this quote
"One sword keeps another in the sheath."
Herbert, George on peace
"O, but man, proud man! Drest in a little brief authority; Most ingorant of what he's most assur'd, His glassy essence,-like an angry ape, Plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven, As make the angels weep;"
Shakespeare, William on ignorance
3 fans of this quote
"Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider."
Bacon, Francis on books - reading
10 fans of this quote
"The purpose of fighting is to win. There is no possible victory in defense. The sword is more important than the shield and skill is more important than either. The final weapon is the brain. All else is supplemental."
Steinbeck, John on war
"Hope, the best comfort of our imperfect condition."
Gibbon, Edward on
"Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the morning and Shame sits with us at night."
Wilde, Oscar on despair
9 fans of this quote
This quotation can be viewed in the context of a book
"The problem is not Republican principles. The problem is unprincipled Republicans."
Rachel, Alfonzo on politics
"Americanism means the virtues of courage, honor, justice, truth, sincerity, and hardihoodthe virtues that made America. The things that will destroy America are prosperity-at-any-price, peace-at-any-price, safety-first instead of duty-first, the love of soft living and the get-rich-quick theory of life. "
Roosevelt, Theodore on uncategorised
"Reconciliation should be accompanied by justice, otherwise it will not last. While we all hope for peace it shouldn't be peace at any cost but peace based on principle, on justice."
Aquino, Maria Corazon on justice
"Peace if possible, but truth at any rate."
Luther, Martin on truth
3 fans of this quote
"Despair is the only genuine atheism."
Paul, Jean on despair
4 fans of this quote
"People sleep peaceably in their beds at night only because rough men stand ready to do violence on their behalf."
Orwell, George on
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So the most restless vagabond finally longs to return to his native land and finds in his little cottage, at the breast of his wife, in the circle of his children, in the labor of supporting them, the bliss he sought in vain in the great world. - Goethe, The Sufferings of Young Werther (tr. Harry Steinhauer)
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You have to believe in God before you can say there are things that man was not meant to know. I don't think there's anything man wasn't meant to know. There are just some stupid things that people shouldn't do. Cronenberg, David
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It's easy! Just pick the product you like and click-through to buy it from trusted partners of Quotations Book. We hope you like these personalized gifts as much as we do.
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Anger is never without an argument, but seldom with a good one. Halifax, Edward F.
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212 - The Extra Degree
The one extra degree makes the difference. This simple analogy reflects the ultimate definition of excellence. Because it's the one extra degree of effort, in business and life, that can separate the good from the great. This powerful book by S.L. Parker and Mac Anderson gives great examples, great quotes and great stories to illustrate the 212° concept. A warning - once you read it, it will be hard to forget. Your company will have a target for everything you do ... 212°
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Quotes by Lasch, Christopher
Christopher Lasch (June 1, 1932, Omaha, Nebraska - February 14, 1994, Pittsford, New York) a well-known American historian and social critic. He studied at Harvard and Columbia and was a professor of history at the University of Rochester since 1970..
"Information, usually seen as the precondition of debate, is better understood as its by-product."
Lasch, Christopher on debate
"Knowledge is what we get when an observer, preferably a scientifically trained observer, provides us with a copy of reality that we can all recognize."
Lasch, Christopher on knowledge
"The job of the press is to encourage debate, not to supply the public with information."
Lasch, Christopher on media
"It is a tribute to the peculiar horror of contemporary life that it makes the worst features of earlier times -- the stupefaction of the masses, the obsessed and driven lives of the bourgeoisie -- seem attractive by comparison."
Lasch, Christopher on modern and modernism
"A society that has made nostalgia a marketable commodity on the cultural exchange quickly repudiates the suggestion that life in the past was in any important way better than life today."
Lasch, Christopher on nostalgia
"Today Americans are overcome not by the sense of endless possibility but by the banality of the social order they have erected against it."
Lasch, Christopher on possibilities
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Posts: 3 | Thanked: 0 times | Joined on Aug 2012
#1
Hey guys,
So as this is my first post I obviously have come here with a problem
My n9, which I bought in may, has taken to display a white/grey screen.
At first I noticed this with the clock that appears when the phone is locked. The screen would flicker white, but was fine when unlocked.
So I turned the clock off (so when I lock the phone I dont see the time anymore) and continued using the phone for a month/2 months.
Until yesterday.
I was charging my phone and saw that the screen was flickering white again like before. (with out the clock being on)
So I turned the phone on, and now 95% of the screen is a
white/grey colour. With only the top notification bar visible, so I can see battery, mobile network, time etc.
The strange thing is, is that when booting I see the nokia logo for a split second before the white takes over. And there is a very faint outline of the icons on the homescreen if you look hard enough.
So my question(s) is, has anyone come across this before? Failing that, would it be worth a reflash? Or am I in RMA territory?
I'll update with a picture of the problem too.
Moderator | Posts: 5,845 | Thanked: 5,278 times | Joined on Nov 2011
#2
While i await your picture, my first thoughts are that your screen has been damaged either with water, moisture etc or some physical damage on it...
I don't think a reflash would solve the issue but you may want to try a reflash first refer to the comprehensive flashing guide: http://talk.maemo.org/showthread.php?t=82693
If the reflash still gives the same result you are having hardware issues...
Posts: 3 | Thanked: 0 times | Joined on Aug 2012
#3
Thanks for the quick response
Instead of being just a white block, its flickering now (this just started)
I've gone one better and got video instead, http://youtu.be/KNFxxmWiq3s
Regarding damage, I havent dropped it, or got it near any liquids. It started with the lock clock a while ago but only now migrated to the whole phone.
Moderator | Posts: 5,845 | Thanked: 5,278 times | Joined on Nov 2011
#4
well you can try a reflash as that would give you a better idea on if it can be a software issue but IMO after watching the youtube video, its a hardware issue with your OLED screen...
Posts: 42 | Thanked: 9 times | Joined on Jan 2012
#5
yeah you need a new phone asap
Posts: 88 | Thanked: 34 times | Joined on Oct 2010
#6
For cases like this I have three pieces of Nokia N9
Posts: 3 | Thanked: 0 times | Joined on Aug 2012
#7
Oh well, to the RMA fun time party I go
Thanks guys.
Posts: 95 | Thanked: 22 times | Joined on Jun 2012
#8
Sure looks like a hardware issue. The flickering can be caused by insufficient power supply to the LCD.
You could try to open the phone (relatively easy, check the vids on YT), disconnect the ribbon cables and re-attach them.
This issue can be caused by the Graphics card as well (thou I doubt it), so don't jump to buy a new screen.
Reminder: if you attempt to open the phone, power it off before.
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Help Wikitravel grow by contributing to an article! Learn how.
Bohemian Paradise
From Wikitravel
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The Bohemian Paradise (Czech: Český Ráj) is a protected landscape area located in North Bohemia, Czech Republic. It provides numerous options for hiking and biking through the environment.
[edit] Understand
[edit] History
Bohemian Paradise (Český ráj) earned its name in the nineteenth century due to its picturesque landscape in the foothills of the Giant Mountains, and its many castles and chateaus build in beautiful areas with sandstone rocks. In 1955 it was made the first Natural Protected Landscape Area in former Czechoslovakia. It has been very popular tourist destination since the beginning of 20th century.
In 2005, the original Protected Landscape Area of Bohemian Paradise was extended with the establishment of Bohemian Paradise Geopark, which now cover more than 700 square km. European Geoparks Network was established as a voluntary organization in 2000. The main objective of the EG Network is multilateral cooperation in the protection of geological heritage, education, support of geotourism and strategies for sustainable development of the participating territories. European Geoparks Network members are also associated in the Global Network of Geoparks, which is supported by UNESCO. Bohemian Paradise Geopark is the very first territory of this kind in Czech Republic. Geopark task is to show the unique geological heritage and the relationship between nature and our existence. Geopark denotes the importance of geological processes on human society and informs us how to responsibly use natural resources. It popularizes geology and propagates the historical, cultural and environmental qualities of nature and landscape to public. Geoparks promote all resources of the region, including the genius loci of many picturesque sceneries, the beauty of unique locations, the wealth of cultural heritage, traditional crafts, regional agricultural products and interesting local cuisine. Bohemian Paradise Geopark was again approved by UNESCO and also declared the first Czech National Geopark in 2010.
[edit] Landscape
Bohemian Paradise is an area with a very interesting geological evolution. The geology has provided the foundation for the rich natural diversity of the region, for human settlement, agriculture, and commerce. There are only few places in the world where you can find such a wide variety of geological phenomena and where its diversity play such an important role in shaping the environment. All places are suitable for excursions for all who wish to enjoy the pleasures and excitements of geotourism and they are interesting and accessible even for people with minimal geological knowledge.
The distinctive sandstone formations of Bohemian Paradise were created as sea sediments of the Cretaceous Period. The landscape was later formed by volcanic activity, which also produced many of the precious stones for which the region is also famous. There is a long tradition in jewellery production, especially using famous Czech Garnets: cutting and setting precious stones, and engraving gemstones (glyptic).
• Kozákov hill. the highest peak of Bohemian Paradise is a part of Ještěd-Kozákov ridge. It was created by uplifting along the Lusatian Fault 5 million years ago and it consists of Paleozoic phyllites, rocks of Carboniferous and Permian Ages, Cretaceous sandstones, and Tertiary basalt. A body of amygdaloidal melaphyres in the Votrubec´s quarry gives the evidence of volcanic activity in the Late Paleozoic Era. Various types of quartz, agate, jasper, chalcedony, zeolites, and more crystallized in the cavities of the melaphyre. Stones from Kozákov were used already by prehistoric hunters. A tourist lodge with restaurant is on the top of the hill, with a new 40 m high publicly available lookout tower offering wonderful view of the Bohemian paradise landscape. edit
• Bozkov Dolomite Caves. These beautiful karst Caves reaching a depth of 43 m and length of 1100 m, which are publicly available in a length of 350 m, were created by erosion from water leaking in irregular calcareous dolomite body with dimensions of 400 x 300 m and thickness more than 100 m. The deepest permanently flooded areas form the largest publicly accessible underground lake in Czech Republic. The structure of its underground galleries is determined by later tectonic disturbances intersecting the dolomite body. edit
• Bartošova pec and Ondříkovice karst system. Bartošova pec lies at the bottom of 40 m deep valley of Vazovecký stream, hollowed in calcareous rocks of the Bohemian Cretaceous Basin. The stream, fed by rainwater, runs through the cave with the length of 225 m. Ondříkovice slide (subsidence), immersion in Roudný, and Bezednice pool (name means Bottomless) are all interconnected in a unique karst system consisting of a large labyrinth of interconnected karst phenomena such as sinkholes, springs and drafts, where beautiful clear water of Vazovecky stream flows partially on the surface in cascades and also hidden under ground. The area was declared a protected natural monument in 1996. edit
[edit] Fauna
Apart from the main areas of PLA Bohemian Paradise, the Jizera and Kamenice rivers valleys belong the sites of European Natura 2000 network of highly protected areas. Most of the landscape is protected according to uniform principles to ensure the diversity of fauna, flora and habitat types that are most valuable, most endangered, rare or reduced in their presence to a particular region (endemic).
A small fish Vranka Obecná (Cottus gobio) with completely stunted gas bladder, moving among the rocks across the river bottom in typical “jumps” live at the bottom of the clean mountain streams and rivers. The Jizera River is inhabited by trout (Salmo trutta morpha fario) and rainbow trout, there are also rarely eel (Anguilla anguilla) and river lamprey (Lampetra fluviatilis) present here. Rivers, streams, natural pools, and their surroundings are inhabited by the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra), non-venomous grass snake (Natrix natrix), Toad (Bufo Bufo), and the birds such as Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis), Dipper (Cinclus cinclus), White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) and mammalian such as water shrew (Neomys fodiens), which all are bound to water habitats. The black stork (Ciconia nigra) appears in the Bítouchov area on the Rieger´s Path in recent years. The meadows are inhabited with papillons e.g. (Papilio machaon), and small lizards of Lacerta agilis, and Anguis fragilis specimen in sunny parts of the rocky hillsides, also the Balea perversa live here.
Forest vegetation on the slopes of the valleys are inhabited by black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius), kinglet bird (Regulus ignicapillus), nuthatch (Sita europaea), warbler (Sylvia atricapilla), wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), Prunella modularis, and Phylloscopus sibilatrix. Merlin (Falco subbuteo), tawny owl (Strix aluco), wood pigeon (Columba palumbus), and spotted flycatcher (Muscicapa striata), live in the forests. Rocky areas serve as home for swift bird (Apus apus), redstart bird (Phoenicurus ochruros), sparrowhawk (Accipiter nissus), kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), and great owl (Bubo bubo). Also raven (Corvus corax) can be spotted often.
Other common forest dwellers are mammals, such as squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris), shrew (Apodemus sylvaticus), hare (Lepus europaeus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), and roebuck (Capreolus capreolus), occasionaly moufflon (Ovis musimon) and wild pig (Sus scrofa).
[edit] Flora
A substantial portion of the area is covered by forest vegetation represented mainly by pines with the minority of oak and beech, and less by other deciduous trees. Other parts include meadows and river valleys.
Forests are predominantly consisting of beech (Fagus sylvatica), maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) sycamore (Platanus hispanica), birch (Betula pendula), linden tree (Tilia platyphyllos), white fir (Abies alba), oak (Quercus robur), and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). Spruce monocultures (Picea abies) grow in minor areas, for example the immediate vicinity of Rieger's path. Many rocky areas of Bohemian Paradise are covered by pine forest (Pinus sylvestris).
Jizera river serves as a corridor to the descent of mountain and piedmont species to lower altitudes, while the thermophilic plants are spreading upriver. The area is a home to many flowers, for example Saxifraga decipiens, subsp. Steinmanii, Vincetoxicum hirundinaria, Campanula rotundifolia, Digitalis grandiflora, Silene vulgarit, Polypodium vulgare, and Asplenium virose are present at the rocky slopes of the Jizera river canyon.
[edit] Climate
Mildly temperate climate of Central Europe offers hot days (max. around +35 ºC = 95 ºF) suitable for sun-bathing and watersports during summers and a lot of snow and good weather conditions for skiing during winters (max. around -20 ºC = -4 ºF).
[edit][add listing] See
[edit] Rock formations
• Apolena rocks. Nature Reserve Apolena is situated near castle Trosky east of the village Troskovice. Rock towers were separated by erosion after fracturing of the sandstone basin. The eruption of the nearby volcano 17 million years ago, and also falling of individual blocks of rock on the hillside of Libuň furrow influenced it. Rock massive and standalone rock towers from the softer sandstone are a good habitat for rock nesting birds such as kestrel, eagle owl, and Jackdaw. Cleftcave Sklepy, the largest in the PLA Bohemian Paradise, which is the home for eleven species of bats, is hidden among the rocks. edit
• Besedice rocks. Ridge and plateau with Besedice rocks together with downslope to the Jizera consists of two levels of rock walls, where the rock mazes Kalich and Chléviště can be found. There is a cave of Vaclav Sadovsky from Sloupno and many beautiful lookouts to view the valley of Maloskalsko. The rock block Kalich lies in the middle of five rocky canyons and hides a rocky altar with an engraved cup and year 1634. There is an extract from The Testament of Comenius, verses from The Bible and verses of a Franciscan monk J. Vitásek inscribed in the stone. An educative trail, which introduces the most important places, goes through the area. edit
• Borecké Rocks. They are located on the hill Bor (360 m above sea) 1 km west of the village Rovensko p. Troskami. An elongated hill is bordered with rugged sandstone wall with alcoves, ledges, cavities, and caves. The sandstone rocks of Borek include a number of interesting rock formations, such as blocks, columns, caves and various minor forms of weathering such as honeycombs and ironstones. The upper plateau is covered by pines, whose age is about 120 years. Shallow sandy soils and hard sandstone bedrock caused the vegetation to grow flat tops, slightly stunted. edit
• Hruboskalsko. Hruboskalsko rock area consist of a distinctive up to 60 m high sandstone towers with poetic names such as Bandleader, Conductor's baton, Lighthouse, Dragon's Tooth, and Dragon's Tower, which became legendary for several generations of climbers. Honeycombs, ledges, rock windows, gates, caves and tunnels developed in many of the Hruboskalsko sandstone rock towers. Many lookouts offer a wonderful view of the area, the best known is called Virgin Mary above the Dragon rocks with castle Trosky in the distance. The deep canyon situated below the castle Hrubá Skála is the most visited, where leads a 65 m long shallow rock corridor called Mouse hole. edit
• Klokočské and Betlémské rocks. Rock area Klokočí consist of an asymmetrical ridge of Late Cretaceous sandstone blocks with the total length of approx. 1600 m with a large number of variously sized cavities. The vegetation includes pine forest with fragments of beech. The largest sandstone cave of Bohemian Paradise called Postojna is located here, in which the traces of the oldest settlements in the area were found. Rocky outcrops of Klokočí offer many attractive lookouts with magnificent panoramic views of the northern and south-eastern part of the Bohemian Paradise including Kozákov hill. The ruins of the castle Rotštejn lies towards the southern edge of Klokočské rocks. edit
• Maloskalská Drábovna. The sandstone plateau located between the villages Borek, Křížky, Záborčí, and Voděrady is divided by shallow valleys and canyons into several parts, which are bordered around the edges by rock outcrops. One marked trail leads from the town Turnov around Dlask farm, another one leads roughly north-south direction along the axis of the rocky area. The lookouts showing Suché rocks, castle Frýdštejn, and the Jizera valley are excellent here. The average height of the rocks is around 10 meters. Rock wall in Hradek exceptionally reach up to 20 meters. Deep overhangs are common at the foot of the rocks. Suitable conditions for the emergence of rock resembling the shape of mushrooms are to be found in central and southern parts of the rocks. edit
• Měsíční Valley. The ravine of Měsíční valley is situated in sloping layers of Korycany formation along the Lusatian fault in the foothills of Kozákov near the village Vesec. The local quarry is still occasionally used. Sandstone layers sloping to the west are exposed here. The thickness of the sandstone layers reaches up to 7.1 m. The 30 m high canyon walls are closing together and end in the formation called Vrata. Slender rocky pinnacles and caves, some of them of pseudokarst origin, such as Babí pec and Kudrnáčova pec, and others created by human hands accompany the main rocky canyon. A rich paleontological discoveries such as Ichnofossils were made in the area. edit
• Prachovské Rocks. Tourists favorite rocky area represents the remnants of a sandstone plateau with deep gorges and valleys, where nature created a unique sculpture with tall, significantly extended rock towers. The area is rather small in terms of size, but its rock formations, gorges, ravines, hollows, and locations of prehistoric finds are abundant. It is protected as a nature reserve since 1933. The most interesting parts of the rocks are easily accessible on safe tourist marked paths and many beautiful lookouts provide a complete overview of Prachov rocks area. edit
• Příhrazské rocks. Nature reserve with a characteristic complex of rock formations line the sandstone upland plateau Mužský near the town Mnichovo Hradiště. Most of its rocks are located on the edge of the canyon valley. There are 178 sandstone towers, from which the bizarre rock formation called Kobyla is the most known. The remnants of the rock castle Drábské světničky with the rock-hewn chapel called Hynšta hides in the rocks. A substantial portion of the area is covered by forest vegetation represented mainly by pines with the minority of oak and beech, and less by other deciduous trees. edit
• Suché Rocks. Originally horizontal Cretaceous sandstones were erected to almost vertical position by tectonic activity in Tertiary Period. Significant ridge with its length of 1 km is towering above Malá Skála village and it is divided into 20 rock towers, some of which reach heights of up to 80 m. Coarse-grained and partially conglomerated sandstones are variously siliphicated and ferruginizated along the fault plane. The occurrence of tectonic mirrors, strongly siliphicated tectonic ribs and a dense grid of quartz veins is unique. Suché rock, also called Cantor´s organ, are a popular tourist destination, especially among rock climbers. edit
• Kozinec by Železný Brod. The rock wall of white quartzite is located at Záskalí in Železný Brod (at the end of the road to the left, about 200 metres behind the town swimming-pool). The rock formation is a good example of frost weathering of the Ice Age, when the „sea“ of broken stones and rock wall had formed here. Its eastern part is stretched more than 50 metres, and it is only 2 metres wide in some places. The quartzite wall reaches the height about 20 metres in its western part. edit
• Rieger´s Path. River Jizera is about 200 m deep, a canyon-like valley north from the town Semily. Bare rocks give the evidence of hundreds millions of years long history. Resistant types of rocks remained forming the rock cliffs, surrounded with areas called the „sea“ of broken stones, sometimes descending to the river stream. There is a trail with a spring of A. Stašek with clean water, and several lookouts showing the river valley. A rocky canyon is hollowed-out in albitic granite massif, which rises to a height of 40 m above Jizera river on the side of Rieger´s Path near Bítouchov. That´s where the pedestrian gallery, 77 meters long and hanging on a rock 5.5 meters above the river level was built. edit
[edit] Volcanites in Bohemian Paradise
Hvězda
The abandoned quarry Hvězda with the length of its wall about 170 m and a height of up to 25 m, located on Mt. Staropacká about 2 km from the town Stará Paka, is known as deposit of many precious stones. The deposits of pyroclastic rocks of phreatomagmatic eruption of maar volcano are exposed in this place. Massive amygdaloidal andesitoids and several types of irregular red-brown lenticular positions of tuffites and its agglomerates are present there. Almonds are somewhere plentiful, rare elsewhere, their size range from the cavities with millimeter dimensions to 15 cm in diameter. Moss chalcedony, agate, geodes, and calcite are to be found there usually.
Kozákov
The highest peak of Bohemian Paradise is a part of Ještěd-Kozákov ridge. It was created by uplifting along the Lusatian Fault 5 million years ago and it consists of Paleozoic phyllites, rocks of Carboniferous and Permian Ages, Cretaceous sandstones, and Tertiary basalt. A body of amygdaloidal melaphyres in the Votrubec´s quarry gives the evidence of volcanic activity in the Late Paleozoic Era. Various types of quartz, agate, jasper, chalcedony, zeolites, and more crystallized in the cavities of the melaphyre. Stones from Kozákov were used already by prehistoric hunters. A tourist lodge with restaurant is on the top of the hill, with a new 40 m high publicly available lookout tower offering wonderful view of the Bohemian paradise landscape.
Magmatic gushes at the northern slope of Kozákov hill
The youngest volcanic activity took place here in the Tertiary period. Basaltic rocks cover the northern slope of the hill. Tephres, which appear at the beginning and in the middle of the volcanic activity, represent only about 5% of the mass produced. Columnar structure is a typical characteristic of igneous rocks that cooled near the surface. The columns of basaltic rocks lined up like organ pipes or presented in fan-like shapes are located on the northern slope. Volcanic bombs can be found on the top of Kozákov as well as in the former volcano crater at Prackov. Green olivine stones are mostly present in the basaltic rocks.
Mužský (463 m)
Basalt hill, of similar origin as Trosky, stands in the middle of a sandstone plateau lying in the southwestern part of the Bohemian Paradise about 2.5 km northeast from the town of Mnichovo Hradiště. The highest peak of Příhrazy platform is the basaltic remnant of the magma-supplying vein of former volcano. Gravitational collapse, supported by historical mining was the cause of a small cave in basalt. The plateau is divided by canyons into five parts called Hrada, Mužský, Příhrazské rocks, cliffs and rocks at the Drhleny, and rocks near castle Valečov. The area was inhabited already in the Neolithic Age. A beautiful view of the landscape around is available from the bare top of Mužský hill. A memorial of the fallen soldiers was built here in 1866. Village of Mužský located below the hill has been announced a historical reserve due to its original character.
Strážník
Hill Strážník is quite famous and perhaps the only site in Europe, where the Star Quartz can be found. The origin of local unique radial star-shaped quartz is linked to the hydrothermal vein pervading through the melaphyre in the southeastern part of the top platform, called "Boroví". Weathering processes such as erosion, frost and slope sliding in the past caused the distribution of star quartz down the slopes. The maximum reported diameter of radial aggregates was 10cm. Nowadays, the site where the star quartz was found was covered with soil - to prevent further collecting - it was declared natural preserve in 1963.
Zebín
Hill Zebín is one of the landmarks near the town of Jičín. A marshy landscape with shallow lakes was here about 17 million years ago. Then a hot magma penetrated into it, which was fractured into small fragments due to the reaction caused by its contact with water. However, the strength of the eruption has not increased much. That´s how the tuff cone was created, which was later filled with magma through the dike vein and a lake of lava formed in it. Abandoned quarry lying on the hillside reveals the structure of a scoria cone volcano remnants. A Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene was built in 17th century on the top of the hill.
Zlámaniny near Nová Paka
Sedimentary rocks of Kumburk formation – Štikov arcoses 300 millions years old are shown on the wall of the abandoned quarry. Arcoses are distinctly horizontal and cross-bedded with fluvial channels. There are three silicified wood of Dadoxylon type embedded in various directions and levels inside north wall of the quarry. The biggest of them is about 75 centimetres thick in diameter. Sub vertical dike of Miocene basalt rock with maximal thickness of 1 metre intrudes on the east wall of the quarry. Small basalt bed of breccia structure with typical hexagonal seclusiveness occurs near the bottom of the quarry, it is probably the remnant of volcanic dike channel.
[edit] Castles, chateaus and castle ruins
Bohemian Paradise Geopark encompasses many castles and chateaus, often build in attractive locations on sandstone rocks. Some of the castles and palaces are in excellent conditions and they are offering an exhibitions of their historical interieurs with original furnishings and equipment, other are left as romantic ruins in the wild nature, suitable for a family trip.
Frýdštejn castle ruin
Well-preserved ruins of the castle rises above the valley of the Jizera River, dominated by the castle's highest tower which is its best conserved part. It is 15 meters high with a diameter of 9 meters and its walls are two meters thick. Frýdštejn was built during the 14th century. A number of small rooms, including a chapel, was carved directly into the rock. The owners of the castle superseded several times. The castle has lost its function after the sale in 1556, and it has been uninhabited since the late 16th century. Today the castle is owned by the municipality of Frýdštejn. Open: May to October 10:00 to 5:00 p.m.
Hrubá Skála Chateau
Chateau Hrubá Skála was built on a sandstone rock on the site of a former medieval castle rock, which was established by Hynek of Wallenstein. The castle was first mentioned as the property of Wallenstein dynasty in the charter of 1353. It was rebuilt into a Renaissance chateau in the mid-16th century and later rebuilt in Neo-gothic style during the Romantism period. Chateau currently serves as hotel and offers a variety of unique dining experiences at restaurants and other representative rooms of the castle.
Hrubý Rohozec Chateau
Today´s Chateau Hrubý Rohozec was founded as a gothic castle around 1280. Later it was architecturally modified in the Renaissance, Baroque, and Empire style, which is now the most noticeable. Two libraries, dining room and green salon have been preserved with the original equipment to present date. The chateau exposition is arranged in cooperation with the Prague Museum of Decorative Arts. The castle is surrounded by park with a collection of stone masonry of the Romantic period. Open: October and April: weekends and holidays 9:00 to 4:00 p.m. May - September: Tue – Sun 9:00 - 17:00
Humprecht Chateau
Humprecht, designed by Carlo Lurago, was built as a small hunting lodge by Humprecht Černín John the Earl of Chudenice in the years 1667-1672. A banquet hall, library and black kitchen can be visited in basement, the women's and men's rooms with original furnishings and ladies' dressing rooms with a small picture gallery are in upper floor. Open: April and October, weekends, holidays: 9 to 3:30 p.m. May: Tue - Sun 9 to 4:30 p.m. June-August: Tue - Sun 9 – 5 p.m. Sept.: Tue - Sun 9 – 4 p.m.
Kost castle
Castle stands on a sandstone rock in the intersection of three valleys - Plakánek, Prokop´s, and Černý Pond. It was founded with its characteristic massive so-called White Tower in the late 14th century. Massive reconstruction of the castle has been done in the mid-20th century. At present, the castle belongs to the Kinsky family property. Open: April: Wed - Sun 9 – 4 p.m. May, June: Tue - Sun 9 – 5 p.m. July, August: daily 9 – 6 p.m. September: Tue - Sun 9 – 5 p.m. October: Wed - Sun 9 – 4 p.m.
Kozlov (Chlum) castle ruin
Rock castle Kozlov was built on several sandstone blocks at Chlum hill (358 m above sea level) above village Podháj. Only few remnants of the castle survived until present: small rooms carved into the rock, defensive moats and castle well. Mortises for the wooden parts of the castle are well visible in the rocks. The castle used particular natural rock formations as defense walls, which were extended by wooden fortifications. There are many interesting rocky outcrops around the castle area. The lookout of Karel Vaclav Rais is near the castle.
Kumburk castle ruin
Kumburk castle was founded around the year 1300 at the latest. The phase of the castle flourish immediately preceded the Hussite riots in 15th century. Castle´s outer fortifications were demolished in the 17th century, the castle itself was deserted and dilapidated. Kumburk stands on the former lava lake, which emerged when magma filled the crater created by an explosion caused by contact of hot magma with water-saturated sediments about 17 million years ago. Basaltic columns, which are arranged in the shape of an inverted fan below the castle remind us of that volcanic event.
Mnichovo Hradiště Chateau
Chateau is a magnificent example of Baroque residence. It was designed by architect Canevalle who started generous reconstruction of the former Renaissance chateau in 1696.The castle art gallery, Golden Cabinet, and the chapel with rich decorations were built after 1730. The castle rooms shows excellent examples of Baroque interior design. Opening hours: April, October: Sat, Sun and holidays 8:45 to 3 p.m., May, June, September: Tue - Sun 8:45 to 4 p.m., July, August: Tue - Sun 8:45 to 5 p.m..
Rotštejn castle ruin
The remains of a gothic castle lies in the Nature reserve Klokočské rock, which was established in 1985 on an area of 228.13 hectares. The sandstones form about 2 km long rock wall with several standalone rock pinnacles above village Klokočí. Rotštejn was founded by Markvarts family in 14th century, and it was abandoned in the early 16th century. Open: from Easter to the end of May: sat 10:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., sun 10:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m., June-August: Mon - Fri 10 – 4:30 p.m., Sat 10 – 5 p.m. Sun 10 – 4 p.m. Sept - Oct: Sat 10 – 5 p.m Sun 10 – 4 p.m.
Sychrov Chateau
The Neo-Gothic chateau served as residence of the Rohan family of French origin. The palace rooms are equipped with original furniture, paintings and other accessories, most of the rooms also have splendid carvings. The chateau interiors are open to the public, including its large park. Open: January-March: 10 – 2 p.m., April: 9 - 3:30 p.m., May-August: 9 – 4:30 p.m., September-October: 9 – 3:30 p.m., November-December: 10 – 2 p.m.
Trosky castle ruin
The hill Trosky (488 m above sea) represents the remnants of volcanic scoria cone. The original volcano, which broke with the explosion through sandstone about 17,5 million years ago, was worn down by erosion over time. Only two highly resistant basaltic towers remained exposed, which are the remnants of conduit that once filled the vents inside the scoria and ash cones. The thicker one is called Baba and thinner is called Panna. The famous ruins are the remains of castle built here in 14th century. Opening hours: April and October: Saturday, Sunday and holidays 8:30 to 4:00 p.m., May-August: Tuesday - Sunday 8:30 to 5:30 p.m., September: Tuesday - Sunday 8:30 to 4:00 p.m..
Valdštejn castle
The oldest castle in the Bohemian Paradise was built around the 1260. Its residential function ended in late 15th century and the castle was abandoned. Ruined castle raised to a new glory with the efforts of Wallenstein family, who rebuilt it into a remarkable pilgrimage site with a unique genius loci in the 18th century. The new owners of Lex of Aehrenthal made castle available to the public and they finished the romantic adaptations of old residence into famous landmark in the 19th century. Open: daily, April and October: Saturday, Sunday and holidays: 9 to 5:30 p.m., May-September: 9 to 5:30 p.m.
Valečov castle ruin
Originally wooden castle was built on the rocks by family of Valečov after 1300. It was burned down by Henry Wartenberg after Hussite wars in 1439. A stone palace was built in the first half of the 15th century, another floor was added in next century. The castle later served as administrative center and the nobility did not live here anymore, it was noticed as abandoned in 1652. Since 1994 the castle is owned by the municipality Bosen. Open: November-February: Sat, Sun 10 – 5 p.m., March, April: Sat, Sun and holidays 10 – 5 p.m., May, September: Mon-Sun 9 – 5 p.m., July, August: daily 9 – 5 p.m.
Vranov - Pantheon castle
Rock castle Vranov also known as Pantheon with its length of almost 400 m is considered the most complicated rock castle in Bohemia. The form of the castle was determined by the sandstone cliffs, in which it was built before 1425. It was abandoned during the 16th century. Later modifications transformed the ruins of the castle into a romantic monument available to public called the Pantheon. Reconstruction was completed in summer 1826, when a chapel was built high above the Jizera valley. Open: April, May, September, October: Sat, Sun 9 a.m. to 6 p.m., June-August: daily 9:a.m. to 6 p.m..
Zbiroh castle ruin
Zbiroh castle was founded in the early 14th century high above the village Rakousy, where the Jizera river creates a great meander. Zbiroh is noticed in the written documents of king Wenceslas IV. , when it belonged to a prominent bohemian magnate Markvart of Wartenberg. During the long years of anarchy and chaos in the country after the Hussite wars, the castle Zbiroh along with other castles in this area become the outpost for robbers and bandit troops, therefore the army demolished it in 1442 and about 1458 is mentioned already as abandoned. Only remnants of walls and vaults carved into the rock remains us of the former castle today.
[edit] Get in
The bigest towns of Bohemian Paradise are Turnov, Jičín, Nová Paka, Semily, and Železný Brod. They are connected with Prague, Liberec, Mladá Boleslav, and Hradec Králové by trains and buses, which run usually about every 2 hours. The fastest travel by car is on the motorway R10 (E65) about 80 km in the north-east direction from Prague to Liberec through Mladá Boleslav and Turnov. Another road E442 (R35) leads across Bohemian Paradise from Hradec Králové through Jičín to Turnov and continues to Liberec.
Buses from Prague to Turnov, Železný Brod, Jičín, Nová Paka, and other places in Bohemian Paradise departs from the bus station Florenc (subway line B and C in the center of Prague) and from the station Prague Černý Most (subway end-station at line B). All towns in the Bohemian Paradise Geopark´s territory are well accessible by regularly departing bus lines connecting them with Prague, Liberec, Hradec Králové and Pardubice.
A seasonal tourist buses provide the transport across the main sites in Geopark during the main summer season, which cover the main pedestrian and biking paths, and railway stations. Actual tourist bus timetables are available at tourist information centers, at bus stops, and on websites www.cesky-raj.info [1] and www.bohemian-paradise.info [2].
Bohemian Paradise can be accessed by train along the route No. 231 from Prague to Nymburk and the route No. 61, which continues to Jičín. Another main railway No. 41 leads to Geopark from Hradec Králové through Jičín to Turnov. Another mail railway with several tunnels through the foothills of the Giant Mountains line the route No. 30 from Pardubice to Liberec through the towns of Stará Paka, Železný Brod and Turnov, which is the main rail hub in the Bohemian Paradise. It takes about 2 hours by bus or 2,5 hours by train from Prague through Mladá Boleslav to Turnov and it costs about 130-150 Kč.
For actual timetable check the online Czech bus/train timetable [3].
[edit] Fees/Permits
Traveling across the Geopark area is free. Some of the castles and chateaus require small entrance fees, when you want visit their interiors and see their exhibitions.
Bozkov Dolomite Caves can be accessed only with a small entrance fee and a guide available there during opening hours.
Municipal museums and Art Galleries in the area of Geopark have their own individual admission fees.
[edit] Get around
Bohemian Paradise area is covered with a dense network of marked bike trails that pass through the most interesting places of Geopark. Many of the trails can be traveled on skis during winter.
Some of Geopark's trails are not suitable for anything except walking. There are numerous different colour-coded tourist marked trails which provide hikes as short as one hour or as long as an entire day. Some sections of the trails across rocky areas may include steep stairs, but most of them are safe even for families with small children.
Jizera River has good conditions for canoeing. Also rivers Kamenice and Oleška are navigable in the spring.
[edit][add listing] Do
Sandstone rock formations
Twenty minutes of hiking along almost any of the marked trails from the bus or railway stop will bring you to the stunning sandstone formations of Bohemian Paradise. These can be admired from the bottom of the valleys or from numerous lookouts along the trails atop the rock formations.
[edit] Leisure activities
Walking along the Geopark trails
The area of Bohemian Paradise Geopark is covered by colour-coded marked trails for tourists, which guide across the main interesting parts and which also connect the places with nearest bus and railway stations, and parking places in towns and villages of Geopark. New educative trails for geotourists are installed with geotags at the main sites, which can provide you with additional multimedia information available to your mobile devices with internet connection about interesting gelogical, archaeological, and other various interesting phenomena of the Bohemian Paradise landscape.
Biking and inline skating
Bohemian Paradise area is covered with a dense network of bike trails that pass through the most interesting places of Geopark. A new network of trails for biking and in-line skating through nature called Greenway Jizera was built along the Jizera river in the picturesque valleys and meanders leading from Semily through Železný Brod, Malá Skála and Rakousy as far as to Dolánky valley below the chateau Hrubý Rohozec in Turnov.
Water Sports
Jizera River has good conditions for canoeing. Also rivers Kamenice and Oleška are navigable in the spring. Upper parts of Jizera are suitable for experienced paddlers, while the Jizera near Turnov is quieter and easier for anyone. Many natural lakes and rivers in the area of Geopark offer refreshment during hot summer days. Some of towns in Geopark have municipal public swimming pools or aqua-centers. The quarry at Nová Rumchalpa is the base place for divers.
Skiing
Many sites can be visited on skis during winter. When snow conditions are good, there are beautiful trails through Želejovské valley, Žehrovka valley, along the Golden path of Bohemian Paradise or on the ridge trail from Kozákov to Hamštejn. Downhill skiing is possible in these locations: Frydstejn: 1 lift, 600 m slope. Koberovy, TJ Koberovy: 1 lift, 350m slope. Kozákov, TJ Chuchelna: 1 lift, 500m slope. Líšný, TJ Líšný: 1 elevator. Lomnice n. P., V Popelkách: 1 lift, 300m slope. Tabor: 1 lift, 450m slope. Semily ski resort Nad Nádražím: 1 lift, 350m slope. Turnov: ski resort Struhy: 1 lift, 300m slope with lights.
Rock climbing
Bohemian Paradise offers many excellent opportunities for rock climbers. Sandstone rocks are protected, and therefore all the rules must be respected! Detailed information is available at information centers, on Internet etc., conditions may vary for different rock areas.
Paragliding and kiting
Kozákov hill has become very popular place for fans of paraglide-flying and kiting. There are three starting points (west, south and north) on its top. Landing place at an altitude of 484 m is marked by wind sleeves. Pilot courses and tandem flights are held here, in which the control is left to an experienced glider pilot, while the only thing you care about is a wonderful view of the Trosky castle and surrounding landscape, with no sign of engine noise, just a beautiful feeling of flight.
[edit][add listing] Buy
Restaurants, pubs, supermarkets and shops are available in main towns Turnov, Jičín, Semily, Nová Paka, and Železný Brod and also in many smaller villages along the main tourist paths. Most of the castles and chateau sites offer refreshment and souvenir shops, the biggest Chateau Sychrov [4] and Chateau Hrubá Skála [5] have their own restaurants.
[edit][add listing] Eat
[edit][add listing] Drink
[edit] Lodging
Accommodation is available in many hotels in towns Turnov, Jičín, Semily, and Železný Brod and in many villages in Geopark. More information can be found on webpages:
List of accomodation in Bohemian Paradise [6]
Turnov:
Hotel Karel IV. [7]
Hotel Paradis [8]
Hotel Korunní Princ [9]
Pension Svatý Jan [10]
Jičín:
Hotel U Krále [11]
Nová Paka:
Hotel Štikov [12]
Skokovy:
Pension Ráj Skokovy [13]
Many private pensions offer accommodation in the area. Český Ráj is also near enough to Prague that it can be done as a day trip.
[edit] Camping
Wild camping is not allowed in the protected areas of Geopark and in its sandstone caves. However, there are many public camping places available in the area of Bohemian Paradise, for example the most famous Autocamp Sedmihorky which lies about 6 kilometers far from Turnov in the direction to Jičín and Hradec Králové (road E442) at the central part of Hruboskalsko, just below the chateau Hrubá Skála.
Another campsites in Bohemian Paradise can be found on webpages: www.czech-camping.com [14], www.czech-camping.com [15] or www.ceskyraj.info [16].
[edit] Backcountry
[edit] Stay safe
[edit] Get out
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Research article
Prevalence and risk factors for vaginal Candida colonization in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes
Ella M de Leon1, Scott J Jacober2, Jack D Sobel2 and Betsy Foxman1*
Author Affiliations
1 Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
2 Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
For all author emails, please log on.
BMC Infectious Diseases 2002, 2:1 doi:10.1186/1471-2334-2-1
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2334/2/1
Received:6 November 2001
Accepted:30 January 2002
Published:30 January 2002
© 2002 de Leon et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article: verbatim copying and redistribution of this article are permitted in all media for any purpose, provided this notice is preserved along with the article's original URL.
Abstract
Background
Diabetes mellitus increases the rate of vaginal colonization and infection with Candida species
Methods
We surveyed women with diabetes receiving care at either an urban or suburban diabetes clinic to examine the relationship between vaginal Candida colonization, diabetes type and duration, and HbA1c level. 101 participants completed the self-administered questionnaire and self-collected a vaginal swab for Candida culture. Candida colonization was similar by age and race.
Results
Type 1 diabetics were three times as likely as type 2 diabetics to be colonized with any Candida species (OR = 3.4; 95% CI: 1.03, 11.41; p = 0.04); even after adjusting for abnormal HbA1c, which had an independent effect (OR = 1.4; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.76; p = 0.02). Recent antibiotic use (OR = 4.5; 95% CI: 1.18, 16.79; p = 0.03), lifetime history of chlamydia (OR = 5.8; 95% CI: 1.09, 30.54; p = 0.04), and performing oral sex during the past 2 weeks (OR = 4.9; 95% CI:0.84, 28.27; p = 0.08) were also associated with Candida carriage after adjusting for diabetic type and abnormal HbA1c. C. albicans was isolated from the majority of colonized type 1 participants (56%), while C. glabrata was the most common isolate among colonized type 2 participants (54%).
Conclusions
Improving glucose control and possibly modifying sexual behavior may reduce risk of Candida colonization, and potentially symptomatic infection, among women with diabetes.
Keywords:
Diabetes; Candida; Vaginitis
Background
Diabetes mellitus predisposes individuals to bacterial and fungal infections, including those caused by Candida species. Many investigators have suggested that vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) occurs more frequently in diabetics [1-8]. Further, chronic recurring VVC may be a marker of diabetes [9]. Several studies report increased rates of asymptomatic vaginal carriage rates of Candida species and incidence of symptomatic infection in diabetic women, but results are inconsistent [5,10-14]. While some show no increase in carriage of vaginal Candida[5], those demonstrating increased Candida carriage in female diabetes patients do not examine the effect of glucose control or diabetes type [12,14]. However, in vitro studies demonstrating impaired host response directed against Candida in diabetics support the idea of increased rates of Candida colonization among diabetics [4,6,7]. Whether diabetes leads to more symptomatic and/or more recurrent VVC episodes is a subject of controversy.
Potential risk factors for VVC include diabetes type, severity, and degree of glucose control.[26-30] In addition to diabetes mellitus, a number of VVC risk factors have been identified, including African-American heritage [15-17], previous history of VVC [15], higher education degree, intermediate age, oral contraceptive pills [3,10,16,18], use of commercially available solutions for cleansing of external genitalia or vaginal douching, frequent sexual intercourse [17,19,10], sexual behavior (age at first intercourse, frequency of oral-genital contact) [20], contraception devices (diaphragm, vaginal contraceptive sponge, intrauterine device), and antibiotics [3,15,19]. Whether these factors increase risk ofCandida colonization or symptomatic infection following colonization, or both, is unknown, however, it should be emphasized that a prerequisite for symptomatic vaginitis is vaginal colonization.
Few studies have addressed the relationship between Candida colonization, VVC, and diabetes; none we are aware of have examined the role of behavioral VVC risk factors for colonization among persons with diabetes. To evaluate the relationship between Candida colonization and hypothesized risk factors for vulvovaginal candidiasis colonization in diabetics, we conducted a cross-sectional study among female diabetes patients receiving care at one of two diabetes clinics. We describe the associations between Candida colonization, sociodemographics, health behaviors, diabetes type, diabetes severity, and Hemoglobin A1c level among women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
Methods
Study population
Female diabetes patients seen at an outpatient academic diabetes practice of Wayne State University Division of Endocrinology, Department of Internal Medicine, were eligible for study. The practice included an urban (University Health Center, Detroit, MI) clinic and a suburban clinic (Hechtman Clinic, Bingham Farms, MI). Patients were diagnosed with type 1 and type 2 diabetes on clinical presentation by a board certified endocrinologist. Potential participants were approached in the clinic waiting room and consent obtained. As an incentive for participation, subjects were rewarded with video rental gift certificates (value $5). Participants consented to a medical record review which included abstraction of total glycated hemoglobin levels obtained at the enrollment visit, completed a self-administered questionnaire and self-collected a vaginal swab. The questionnaire addressed the following variables: sociodemographic (age, race, marital status, insurance status, highest education completed, occupation); diabetes duration, type, severity, and abnormal glucose level; lifetime history of physician diagnosed VVC episodes; recent antibiotic use, by type; sexual history; health behaviors. For the diabetes section we used questions from the Diabetes Care Profile, an instrument developed and validated by the Michigan Diabetes Research and Training Center [21,22]. The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Boards at the University of Michigan and Wayne State University.
Of 155 women approached, 105 (67.7%) consented. One woman was ineligible because her vaginal sample was lost. Two women decided to stop participating during the study; one did not understand the questionnaire, while the other felt the questionnaire was too intrusive, leaving a final sample size of 101 participants.
Laboratory methods
All vaginal specimens were cultured for yeast. Specimens were placed on plates with media selective for Candida growth (Sabouraud's dextrose agar). Suspected mixed samples, as determined by colony type and microscopic characteristics, were placed on plates with media showing species-specific colony color change (Chromagar, CHROMagar, Paris, France). C. albicans and C. glabrata were identified by chlamydospore and germ tube tests; all other species were identified by carbohydrate assimilation tests (API-20C AUX).
Data analysis
We described the distributions of hypothesized variables among participants, using simple descriptive statistics, and the associations between hypothesized risk factors and Candida colonization using odds ratios (OR) and Cornfield 95% confidence intervals (CI). After a detailed stratified analysis, to assess confounding and effect modification, we fit a logistic regression model for Candida carriage. We calculated ORS and 95% CIs for the bivariate analyses using EpiInfo [23]; all other analyses and data management were done using SAS [24]. Several variables strongly associated with Candida colonization had small numbers of missing values, particularly for oral sex (13%) and douching (9%) (others did not exceed 5%). In this case, for the multivariate analyses, we inferred that a missing response was equivalent to a negative response. If we are wrong in this inference, the resulting estimates will be biased towards the null hypothesis of no effect. Excluding the missing responses from the relevant analyses only modestly changed the point estimates.
Results
Demographic characteristics by clinic
Fifty-nine participants were recruited from UHC; forty-two were recruited from Hechtman. Mean age among UHC participants was 52.3 years, while mean age among Hechtman participants was 50.0 years (p = 0.5). The clinics varied greatly, however, in participant ethnicity. Forty of fifty-nine (67.8%) UHC participants were of African American descent. By contrast, eight of 42 (19.0%) Hechtman participants were of African American descent.
Diabetes characteristics
Most participants had type 2 diabetes (62/101 = 61%). By clinic, type 2 was more common among UHC participants (69%), but was equally distributed among Hechtman participants.
Total glycated hemoglobin levels measured at the time of the enrollment visit were abstracted from patient's charts. We assessed glycemia by transforming total glycated hemoglobin levels to hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) values using a linear regression formula [25]. For the Wayne State University patient population, a value of HbA1c > 6.4% is abnormal. This cutpoint was determined by standard clinical laboratory comparison methods and verification of the reference interval [26-30]. The mean HbA1c for our study population was 7.91, with a range of 4.4–15.7. Overall, only 20 of 101 participants (19.8%) had normal HbA1c at time of enrollment. Type 1 subjects had a higher proportion of abnormal levels (92.3%) than type 2 subjects (72.6%) (p = 0.02).
Correlates of Candida colonization
29 of 101 (28.7%) participants were colonized with Candida species. 2 of the 29 (6.9%) were colonized with two Candida species. The most common species were C. albicans (12/29 = 41.4%) and C. glabrata (11/29 = 37.9%). C. albicans predominated among women with type 1 (9/16 colonized or 56%) and C. glabrata among women with Type 2 (7/13 colonized or 54%). We identified one isolate of C. parapsilosis, C. guilliermondii, and Trichosporon beigelli.
Type 1 patients were more likely to be colonized with Candida than type 2 patients (OR = 2.6; 95% CI: 0.99, 6.98; p = 0.03) (Table 1). Women with abnormal HbA1c were almost three times more likely to be colonized with Candida than those with normal HBA1c, but this association was not statistically significant (OR = 2.7; 95% CI: 0.68, 15.39; p = 0.13). No statistically significant association was detected between Candida colonization and duration of diabetes, although those who were colonized in each diabetic type tended to have longer duration of diabetes (mean duration diabetes, colonized v. not: type 1: 15.7 v. 20.2 y, p = 0.34; type 2: 9.8 v. 16.1 y, p = 0.28). Average duration of diabetes among colonized women did not differ by type (type 1: 20.2 v. type 2: 16.1; p = 0.53).
Table 1. Association of Candida colonization with host characteristics among 101 women with diabetes recruited from urban and suburban clinics (2000)
Age, race, marital status, education, and employment were not significantly associated with Candida colonization (Table 1). Antibiotic use in the past 2 weeks, lifetime history of chlamydia, douching, and report of both performing and receiving oral sex in the last two weeks were strongly associated with Candida colonization, whereas vaginal-penile sex had only a modest and not statistically significant assocation with Candida colonization. When stratified by oral sex, there was no association between vaginal sex and colonization status. However, the effect of oral sex remained after stratification by vaginal sex.
Multivariate Analyses
To simultaneously adjust for variables independently associated with Candida colonization in the crude analyses, we fit a logistic regression model predicting Candida carriage (Table 2). Because of the small sample size, we created a base model including age, diabetes type, abnormal HbA1c, recent antibiotic use, and performing oral sex. We assumed for this analysis that those who did not respond to questions about oral sex did not engage in oral sex. Receiving oral sex was not associated after adjustment for performing oral sex (OR = 1.07; 95 % CI: 0.12, 9.42, p = 0.95) and thus was excluded from the base model. Other variables associated in the bivariate analyses were added one at a time to the base model. After adjustment, older age, having type 1 diabetes, an abnormal HbA1c level, and report of antibiotic use during the previous 2 weeks were statistically significantly associated with Candida colonization. Performing oral sex was associated with an almost fivefold increase in colonization, but the association was not statistically significant (p = 0.08). When added individually to the base model, lifetime history of chlamydia (OR = 5.8; 95% CI: 10.9, 30.54) but not douching (OR = 2.2; 95 % CI: 0.68, 7.00) remained strongly associated with colonization. Four participants positive for Candida also had a previous chlamydia diagnosis and reported douching. When entered simultaneously into the model, the estimates were unstable, thus, they were entered separately. Douching and history of chlamydia were also strongly associated with performing oral sex; adding each of these variables reduced the parameter estimate and statistical significance of the association with performing oral sex. Pregnancy history had no association with colonization after adjustment (OR = 0.97; 95% CI:0.26, 3.66).
Table 2. Logistic regression models predicting Candida colonization among 101 women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes (2000)
Discussion
Among women with diabetes, Candida carriage increased with older age, type 1 diabetes, abnormal HbA1c level, oral antibiotic use in the previous two weeks, and ever history of chlamydia. Other VVC risk factors, including African American descent, lifetime history of VVC, higher education, oral contraceptive use, and frequency of vaginal intercourse were not significantly associated with Candida colonization after adjustment for other variables. These data suggest that behavioral factors, as well as HbA1c, are important determinants of Candida colonization among women with diabetes.
Women with type 1 diabetes had higher Candida colonization rates than those with type 2, even after adjusting for age, behavioral factors and HbA1c. One possible explanation is difference in duration of Candida carriage: women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes may be equally likely to acquire Candida, but those with type 1 may be less able to clear it. Similar to previous reports, C. albicans was isolated from the majority of colonized type 1 participants, while C. glabrata was the most common isolate in type 2 participants, but our numbers are small [1]. Whether this is due to diabetes type or reflects different distributions of Candida species by age or both is uncertain.
The observation that hyperglycemia in type 1 diabetes increases risk for Candida colonization is consistent with previous reports [1,5,6,31]. A New Zealand study of 124 women with type 1 diabetes found 7 of 7 women with elevated glycated hemoglobin reported vaginal symptoms for the previous year, compared with 60% overall [10]. Hyperglycemia limits neutrophil function among persons with type 1 diabetes, including neutrophils' ability to phagocytose and kill Candida organisms. With the oxidative killing ability of neutrophils hindered, diabetics may not be able to clear pathogens as well as non-diabetics [1,6,7,31]. Hyperglycemic individuals may also have increased risk for Candida colonization because their secretions contain glucose, which can serve as nutrients for Candida organisms. Sobel and colleagues reported a fucose (6-deoxy-galactose) vaginal epithelial cell receptor that aids in adhesion of Candida to vaginal epithelial cells [32]. Since fucose contains an isomer of glucose and acts as one form of receptor site for Candida adhesion, it is possible that increased Candida colonization is proportional to glucose level. Receptor avidity may be a reflection of increased glucose levels in the blood and tissues. Glycemia, however, does not fully explain the observed increased risk of Candida colonization.
We found a borderline significant association with performing oral sex associated with an almost five-fold increase in vaginal colonization with Candida. Receiving but not performing oral sex has been previously reported as a risk factor for VVC [15]. Oral sex may facilitate transmission of yeast, as Candida often colonizes the oral cavity [15,33]. Diabetics may be more likely to carry Candida in the oral cavity than their sex partner; thus, performing oral sex on their sex partner prior to vaginal intercourse may serve to inoculate the vaginal cavity. Douching has also been previously associated with Candida colonization [17,19,20]. The practice is hypothesized to disrupt vaginal flora; vaginal symptoms may also lead a women to douche so the direction of effect is unclear. The association we observed with chlamydia is probably a marker of sexual behavior rather than a causal factor; for example, women who reported a history of chlamydia were more likely to douche and to report engaging in oral sex, although it is possible that chlamydia carriage adversely affects the vaginal flora increasing the chance of Candida colonization. Recent antibiotic use is a well-described correlate of symptomatic Candida vaginitis [3,15-18,34]. While asymptomatic infection is not equivalent to disease, antibiotic use may act to alter the vaginal microenvironment to facilitate Candida colonization in the same way it is hypothesized to promote VVC.
Women aged 45 years and older in our study were more likely to be colonized with Candida species. We are unaware of colonization studies in women of comparable age; most have emphasized women of childbearing age [8,35,36]. Whether our observation is a real finding or a reflection of our age distribution (18–84) or unknown selection biases which led to inclusion in our study requires further investigation. However, incidence of symptomatic infection is higher in younger (18–44) women [15].
This study is small and was intended to be hypothesis generating. The study population is in no way representative of all females with diabetes, although the age and racial distribution of participants reflected that of the participating clinics. Although it is possible that women with a history of symptomatic infection might have been more likely to participate, we have no reason to believe that women differentially participated by both symptomatic history and other variables under study which would have biased our results. Further, as women were unaware of whether they carried Candida at the time of completing the questionnaire, it seems unlikely that a differential recall of behaviors among colonized and non-colonized might have occurred. A final concern is that Candida colonization, while the first step toward VVC, is not equivalent to symptomatic infection. Larger, more definitive studies, which include a non-diabetic control group and prospective follow-up, are planned.
Conclusions
We found strong, statistically significant associations between vaginal Candida colonization and antibiotic use, lifetime history of chlamydia, diabetes type and HbA1c level and a borderline significant association with performing oral sex. More non-albicans species were observed among women with type 2 diabetes. Improving glucose control and possibly modifying sexual behavior may reduce risk of Candida colonization, and potentially symptomatic infection, among women with diabetes.
Competing interests
None declared.
References
1. Bohannon NJV: Treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis in patients with diabetes.
Diabetes Care 1998, 21:451-456. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
2. McCormack WM, Starko KM, Zinner SH: Symptoms associated with vaginal colonization with yeast.
Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988, 158:31-33. PubMed Abstract
3. Reed BD: Risk factors for Candida vulvovaginitis.
Obstet Gynecol Surv 1992, 47:551-560. PubMed Abstract
4. Segal E, Soroka A, Schechter A: Correlative relationship between adherence of Candida albicans to human vaginal epithelial cells in vitro and candidal vaginitis.
Sabouraudia: J Med Vet Mycol 1984, 22:191-200.
5. Williams DN, Knight AH, King H, Harris DM: The microbial flora of the vagina and its relationship to bacteriuria in diabetic and non-diabetic women.
Br J Urol 1975, 47:453-457. PubMed Abstract
6. Wilson RM, Reeves WG: Neutrophil phagocytosis and killing in insulin-dependent diabetes.
Clin Exp Immunol 1986, 63:478-484. PubMed Abstract
7. Wilson RM, Tomlinson DR, Reeves WG: Neutrophil sorbitol production impairs oxidative killing in diabetics.
Diabetic Medicine 1987, 4:37-40. PubMed Abstract
8. Zdolsek B, Hellberg D, Fröman G, Nilsson S, Mårdh PA: Vaginal microbiological flora and sexually transmitted diseases in women with recurrent or current vulvo vaginal candidiasis.
Infection 1995, 23:81-84. PubMed Abstract
9. Sobel JD: vaginitis.
New England Journal of Medicine 1997, 337:1896-1903. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
10. Gibb D, Hockey S, Brown L, Lunt H: Vaginal symptoms and insulin dependent diabetes mellitus.
N Z Med J 1995, 108:252-253. PubMed Abstract
11. Peer AK, Hoosen AA, Seedat MA, Van Den Ende J, Oman MAK: Vaginal yeast infections in diabetic women.
S Afr Med J 1993, 83:727-729. PubMed Abstract
12. Rahman T, Khan IH, Begum J: High vaginal swab, routine microscopy and culture sensitivity in diabetic and non-diabetic, a comparative retrospective study of five years.
Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 1990, 45:212-214.
13. Rowe BR, Logan MN, Farrell I, Barnett AH: Is candidiasis the true cause of vulvovaginal irritation in women with diabetes mellitus?
J Clin Pathol 1990, 43:644-645. PubMed Abstract
14. Sonck CE, Somersalo O: The yeast flora of the anogenital region in diabetic girls.
Arch Dermatol 1963, 88:214-220.
15. Foxman B, Barlow R, d'Arcy H, Gillepsie B, Sobel JD: Candida vaginitis: estimated incidence and associated costs.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2000, 27:230-235. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
16. Geiger AM, Foxman B: Risk factors for vulvovaginal candidiasis: a case control study among university students.
Epidemiol 1998, 7:182-187.
17. Geiger AM, Foxman B, Gillespie B: The epidemiology of vulvovaginal candidiasis among university students.
Am J Public Health 1995, 85:1146-1148. PubMed Abstract
18. Foxman B: The epidemiology of vulvovaginal candidiasis: risk factors.
Am J Public Health 1990, 80:329-331. PubMed Abstract
19. Sobel JD: Candidal vulvovaginitis.
Clin Obstet Gynecol 1993, 36:153-65. PubMed Abstract
20. Spinillo A, Pizzoli G, Colonna L, Nicola S, De Seta F, Guaschino S: Epidemiologic characteristics of women with idiopathic recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis.
Obstet Gynecol 1993, 81:721-727. PubMed Abstract
21. Fitzgerald JT, Davis WK, Connell CM, Hess GE, Funnell MM, Hiss RG: Development and validation of the Diabetes Care Profile.
Evaluation & the Health Professions 1996, 19:208-230. PubMed Abstract
22. Fitzgerald JT, Anderson RM, Gruppen LD, Davis WK, Aman LC, Jacober SJ, Grunberger G: The reliability of the Diabetes Care Profile for African Americans.
Evaluation & the Health Professions 1998, 21:52-65. PubMed Abstract
23. Dean AG, Dean JA, Burton AH, Dicker RC: EpiInfo, Version 6: a word processing, database and statistics program for epidemiology on microcomputers.
Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A. 1999.
24. The SAS System for Windows v 6.12.
Cary: The SAS Institute, Inc., 1996.
25. Little RR, Wiedmeyer HM, England JD, Wilke AL, Rohlfing CL, Wians FH Jr, Jacobson JM, Zellmer V, Goldstein DE: Interlaboratory standardization of measurements of glycohemoglobins.
Clin Chem 1992, 38:2472-8. PubMed Abstract
26. Wayne PA (Ed): Clinical Laboratory Technical Procedure Manuals Thired Edition. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards; 1996.
27. Wayne PA (Ed): Evaluation of Precision Performance of Clinical Chemistry Devices, Approved Guideline. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards,; 1999.
28. Wayne PA (Ed): Evaluation of the Linearity of Quantitative Analytical Methods, Proposed Guideline. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards; 1986.
29. Wayne PA (Ed): Method Comparison and Bias Estimation Using Patient Samples, Approved Guideline. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards; 1995.
30. Wayne PA (Ed): Preliminary Evaluation of Quantitative Clinical Laboratory Methods, Approved Guildeline. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards; 1998.
31. Rayfield EJ, Ault MJ, Keusch GT, Brothers MJ, Nechemias C, Smith H: Infection and diabetes: the case for glucose control.
Am J Med 1982, 72:439-450. PubMed Abstract
32. Sobel JD, Myers PG, Kaye D, Levison ME: Adherence of Candida albicans to human vaginal and buccal epithelial cells.
J Infect Dis 1980, 143:76-82.
33. Otero L, Palacio V, Carreño F, Méndez F, Vázquez F: Vulvovaginal candidiaisis in female sex workers.
Internatl J STD & AIDS 1998, 9:526-530. Publisher Full Text
34. Sobel JD: Vaginal infections in adult women.
Med Clinics N Am 1990, 74:1573-1602.
35. Cotch MF, Hillier SL, Gibbs RS, Eschenbach DA: Epidemiology and outcomes associated with moderate to heavy Candida colonization during pregnantcy.
Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998, 178:374-380. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
36. Leegaard M: The incidence of Candida albicans in the vagina of "healthy young women".
Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1984, 63:83-85.
Pre-publication history
The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2334/2/1/prepub
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Research article
Deferiprone targets aconitase: Implication for Friedreich's ataxia treatment
Sergio Goncalves, Vincent Paupe, Emmanuel P Dassa and Pierre Rustin*
Author Affiliations
Inserm, U676, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, F-75019 France and Université Paris 7, Faculté de Médecine Denis Diderot, IFR02, Paris, France
For all author emails, please log on.
BMC Neurology 2008, 8:20 doi:10.1186/1471-2377-8-20
Published: 16 June 2008
Abstract
Background
Friedreich ataxia is a neurological disease originating from an iron-sulfur cluster enzyme deficiency due to impaired iron handling in the mitochondrion, aconitase being particularly affected. As a mean to counteract disease progression, it has been suggested to chelate free mitochondrial iron. Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in this strategy because of availability of deferiprone, a chelator preferentially targeting mitochondrial iron.
Method
Control and Friedreich's ataxia patient cultured skin fibroblasts, frataxin-depleted neuroblastoma-derived cells (SK-N-AS) were studied for their response to iron chelation, with a particular attention paid to iron-sensitive aconitase activity.
Results
We found that a direct consequence of chelating mitochondrial free iron in various cell systems is a concentration and time dependent loss of aconitase activity. Impairing aconitase activity was shown to precede decreased cell proliferation.
Conclusion
We conclude that, if chelating excessive mitochondrial iron may be beneficial at some stage of the disease, great attention should be paid to not fully deplete mitochondrial iron store in order to avoid undesirable consequences.
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Talk:Kernel dynamic memory analysis
From eLinux.org
Revision as of 21:40, 7 October 2012 by Ezequiel (Talk | contribs)
Jump to: navigation, search
Contents
2012-10-05
Here is some feedback from testing on 2012-10-05:
These items are not in any order
Install issue
There's no 'install' mechanism for the tool, and the tool depends visualize_mem_tree.py being on the python path or in the same directory as the trace_analyze.py script. I tried hard-linking trace_analyze to a private 'bin' directory, but got a python error doing this. Using a symlink worked OK. If visualize_mem_tree.py is not used separately, it might be worth considering integrating everything into a single script. (or not - I'm not sure).
Answer
trace_analyze and visualize_mem_tree are now merged. (should we add an 'install' mechanism anyway?)
Extra rings
The chart for my kernel shows some unexpected rings. Specifically, I'm building in /home/tbird/work/mem/build/panda-torvalds My chart has an inner ring of 'build' (showing 100% of memory), a second ring of 'panda-torvalds' (showing 100% of memory), then a third ring where directories start to get broken out.
See this chart:
Is this correct?
Answer
Fixed
Overlapping annotations
The annotations showing the name and size of the ring segments overlap sometimes, making some of them difficult or impossible to read. See above chart.
Availability to show plot interactively
The tool by default produces a png in the current directory. It would be nice to be able to control the output format and location, or allow the user to directly enter matplotlibs interactive viewer. (i.e. pylab.show()).
Problem with absolute paths
I tried using the tool with an absolute path, and it had problems:
$ trace_analyze.py -k /home/tbird/work/mem/build/panda-torvalds/
No trace log file specified: will report on static size only
Reading symbol map at /home/tbird/work/mem/build/panda-torvalds
Creating tree from compiled symbols at /home/tbird/work/mem/build/panda-torvalds
readelf: Error: 'home/tbird/work/mem/build/panda-torvalds/.tmp_kallsyms1.o': No such file
readelf: Error: 'home/tbird/work/mem/build/panda-torvalds/.tmp_kallsyms2.o': No such file
... [lots more 'No such file' errors]
Answer
Fixed
Description of how to get trace
The instructions should includes steps for how to get the trace for the dynamic analysis. It looks like a comprehensive section is started in Documentation/memory_accounting section 3.2.1, so maybe this feedback is premature. Maybe a few short steps on the wiki page for people to get their first trace would be good.
Here's what I did:
• cloned git repository from https://github.com/ezequielgarcia/kmem-probe-framework
• built kernel
• generated first chart:
• $ trace_analyze.py -k ../../build/panda-torvalds -r -a static
• $ trace_analyze.py -k ../../build/panda-torvalds -r -a static -b fs
• check that kernel config has CONFIG_FTRACE=y
• If not, set and rebuild kernel
• adjust kernel command line to add tracing of kmem events
• Add: "trace_buf_size=10000000 trace_event=kmem:kmalloc,kmem:kmem_cache_alloc,kmem:kfree,kmem:kmem_cache_free" to kernel command line
• boot kernel
• mount debugfs:
$ mount -t debugfs none /debug
• capture trace data:
$ cat /debug/tracing/trace >/tmp/kmem.log
• move to host:
$ ttc cp target:/tmp/kmem.log .
• generate more charts
• $ trace_analyze.py -k ../../build/panda-torvalds -k kmem.log -r -a current ; mv linux.png linux-current.png
• $ trace_analyze.py -k ../../build/panda-torvalds -k kmem.log -r -a current -b fs ; mv fs.png fs-current.png
Note: Make sure you do a 'make clean' if you reconfigure and rebuild the kernel, before running trace_analyze.py again.
sub-sub-dirs doesn't work
I don't know if it's intended to work or not, but I tried to get a ring chart for a sub-sub-directory, and it didn't work
$ trace_analyze.py -a static -k ../../build/panda-torvalds/ -b fs/ubifs
No trace log file specified: will report on static size only
Reading symbol map at ../../build/panda-torvalds
Creating tree from compiled symbols at ../../build/panda-torvalds/fs/ubifs
[WARNING] Duplicate data entry! __func__.25429
[WARNING] Duplicate data entry! __func__.25886
...[some lines omitted]
[WARNING] Duplicate data entry! __func__.26112
Cleaning tree
..
build
panda-torvalds
fs
ubifs
tnc_misc.o
lprops.o
scan.o
... [ some lines omitted]
tnc_commit.o
io.o
dir.o
debug.o
ioctl.o
sb.o
orphan.o
log.o
[WARNING] Can't find first branch 'fs/ubifs'
Creating ringchart file at fs/ubifs.png
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "/a/home/tbird/bin/trace_analyze.py", line 654, in <module>
main()
File "/a/home/tbird/bin/trace_analyze.py", line 651, in main
visualize_mem_tree(tree, opts.attr, filename)
File "/a/home/tbird/work/tiny/tools/kmem-probe-framework/post-process/visualize_mem_tree.py", line 148, in visualize_mem_tree
rings = create_child_rings(tree, size_attr=size_attr)
File "/a/home/tbird/work/tiny/tools/kmem-probe-framework/post-process/visualize_mem_tree.py", line 98, in create_child_rings
max_size = getattr(tree.size(), size_attr)()
AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'size'
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FamilySearch Wiki:Look and feel and navigationEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
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Hancock County, Illinois CourthouseEdit This Page
From FamilySearch Wiki
United States Illinois Hancock County Courthouse
The county records in Illinois are typically kept in the following offices:
County Clerk keeps birth, marriage and death records
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The office of record may sometimes change depending on the size of the county, but a quick phone call will help you find the correct office.
Courthouse
Hancock County Courthouse
500 Main Street
Carthage, Illinois 62321
County Clerk and Recorder
Address
500 Main Street, Room 7
Carthage, Illinois 62321
Mailing Address
Hancock County Clerk
P.O. Box 39
Carthage, Illinois 62321
Telephone: (217) 357-3911
Toll free: 1-888-307-2442
Hours: 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. Weekdays except holidays
Circuit Clerk
Telephone: (217) 357-2616
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Bibliography: The Sword of Rhiannon
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Title: The Sword of Rhiannon
Author: Leigh Brackett
Year: 1953
Type: NOVEL
Series: Mars [2]
Language: English
ISFDB Record Number: 1067
Note: One source (Locus) give this as an expansion of "Sea-Kings of Mars", while others (Tuck, Clute & Nicholls) gives it as a variant title.
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Nano Express
Dependence of the electrical and optical properties on growth interruption in AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs resonant tunneling diodes
Yang Zhang1,2*, Min Guan2, Xingfang Liu2 and Yiping Zeng2
Author Affiliations
1 Key Laboratory of Semiconductor Materials Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P. O. Box 912, Beijing, 100083, People's Republic of China
2 Material Science Center, Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Science, P. O. Box 912, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China
For all author emails, please log on.
Nanoscale Research Letters 2011, 6:603 doi:10.1186/1556-276X-6-603
The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.nanoscalereslett.com/content/6/1/603
Received:8 September 2011
Accepted:23 November 2011
Published:23 November 2011
© 2011 Zhang et al; licensee Springer.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Abstract
The dependence of interface roughness of pseudomorphic AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs resonant tunneling diodes [RTDs] grown by molecular beam epitaxy on interruption time was studied by current-voltage [I-V] characteristics, photoluminescence [PL] spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy [TEM]. We have observed that a splitting in the quantum-well PL due to island formation in the quantum well is sensitive to growth interruption at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces. TEM images also show flatter interfaces with a few islands which only occur by applying an optimum value of interruption time. The symmetry of I-V characteristics of RTDs with PL and TEM results is consistent because tunneling current is highly dependent on barrier thickness and interface roughness.
Keywords:
resonant tunneling diode; I-V characteristics; molecular beam epitaxy
Introduction
The terahertz [THz] frequency range is receiving considerable attention recently due to various applications. Resonant tunneling diodes [RTDs] have been considered as one of the promising candidates [1-3] for the compact and coherent solid-state THz source at room temperature. Similar to all other quantum-effect devices, one of the most challenging tasks in fabricating RTDs is the control of interface roughness in the quantum-well region. Interface roughness has often been discussed as a factor in determining current through RTDs. Monolayer [ML] fluctuations in tunnel barrier thickness are expected to be important because it is necessary to use tunnel barriers only a few ML thick to obtain the high-peak current densities required for high-speed devices. There have been many theoretical discussions on the importance of surface roughness and interface scattering mechanisms that contribute to peak and valley currents in (In, Ga)As/AlGaAs RTDs and AlSb/InAs RITDs [4-6]. On the experimental sides, there have been reports aimed at linking barrier roughness measured by scanning tunneling microscopy or photoluminescence [PL] spectrum [7,8]. Therefore, a deeper understanding of the structural imperfections in RTDs grown by molecular beam epitaxy [MBE] and their effects on the electrical characteristics of RTDs is needed in order to reproducibly obtain such RTDs.
In this paper, we report the interface roughness and electrical characteristics of pseudomorphic AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs RTDs' dependence on growth interruption. Though the electrical properties showed anomalous growth interruption dependence, we found an optimum growth condition for increasing the current-voltage [I-V] characteristics' symmetry of RTDs. We also examined the relation between electrical properties and structural imperfections in RTDs. The competition relationship in a PL-integrated intensity of excitonic transitions reveals that the PL spectrum is sensitive to quantum-well-width fluctuation. In addition, transmission electron microscopy [TEM] images also show flatter AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces with a few islands which only occur by applying an optimum value of interruption time.
Experiment
The epitaxial structure of the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs RTDs was grown by the solid-source MBE system (Veeco, New York, NY, USA) on a (100)-oriented semi-insulating, 3-inch InP substrate. The layer structure from the top of the RTDs is as follows: cap n+-In0.53Ga0.47As/collector n+-In0.53Ga0.47As/spacer In0.53Ga0.47As/barrier AlAs/well In0.53Ga0.47As/sub-well InAs/well In0.53Ga0.47As/barrier AlAs/spacer In0.53Ga0.47As/emitter n+-In0.53Ga0.47As/buffer n+-In0.53Ga0.47As. Figure 1 shows the schematic cross section of an RTD. An InAs sub-well thinner than the estimated critical thickness was inserted between the middle of the In0.53Ga0.47As well layer to lower the well energy level. The substrate temperature during the growth of the In0.53Ga0.47As layers and AlAs barrier layers was maintained at 480°C. However, the substrate temperature was lowered to 420°C when the InAs sub-well layer was grown. This growth temperature of sub-well InAs is appropriate for InAs grown on the In0.53Ga0.47As well. By adjusting growth interruptions of 10, 25, 40, 50, and 60 s at the In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs interfaces, we could investigate the dependence of interface roughness on interruption time; in order to simplify the influence of other growth interruptions on In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs interfaces, all samples on the interface of In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs adopted the same interruption time of 40 s.
Figure 1. Schematic cross section of an AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs RTD.
RTD devices with contact areas (collector) ranging from 2 × 2 μm2 to 10 × 10 μm2, defined using electron beam and conventional UV-line lithography techniques, were fabricated by wet-etching and lift-off processes in a microwave-compatible, two-step mesa technology. Devices were covered with Si3N4 as a passivation layer. Ohmic contacts were made using Ti/Pt/Au for the top and bottom contacts. In that case, the devices were connected to low-loss transmission lines by means of air-bridge interconnection which largely reduced parasitic capacitance. A scanning electron microscopy [SEM] of a representative device is shown in Figure 2. As clearly shown, one 2-μm-thick air bridge interconnects the top mesa and the pad. The DC I-V characteristics of RTDs were measured in the negative differential resistance region with a KEITHLEY4200 semiconductor parameter analyzer (KEITHLEY, Cleveland, OH, USA) at room temperature. The PL measurements were performed at 77 K with an Ar-ion (514.5 nm) laser as the excitation source and a liquid nitrogen-cooled InSb detector for receiving the PL signal. TEM observations were carried out using a JEM-2010 (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan) operated at 200 KV with a resolution of 0.19 nm.
Figure 2. SEM photograph of a fabricated AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs RTD-based InP substrate.
Results and discussion
Figure 3 shows the typical I-V characteristics of RTDs of 6 × 6-μm2 contact areas with growth interruptions of 10, 40, and 60 s at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces with an AlAs barrier thickness of 2.73 nm. Here, a positive bias means that the top of the mesa was biased positively with respect to the substrate, and a negative bias is the reverse. Figure 3b shows the symmetric I-V characteristics with a peak current density of 9.8 KA/cm2 and a peak-to-valley ratio of 16. However, as the growth interruption decreases, the I-V characteristics become asymmetric, where Ip in the negative bias decreases. In Figure 3a, Ip in the positive bias is 1.5 times larger than that in the negative bias. Figure 3c shows the little asymmetric I-V characteristics, where Ip in the positive bias increases and Ip in the negative bias decreases relative to those in Figure 3b.
Figure 3. I-V characteristics of RTDs with growth interruptions. (a) 10, (b) 40, and (c) 60 s.
The dependence of I-V asymmetry on growth interruption with an AlAs barrier thickness of 2.73 nm and 6 × 6-μm2 contact areas is shown in Figure 4, in which the degree of asymmetry was defined as (Ip+ - Ip-)/2(Ip+ + Ip-), where Ip+ and Ip- are the peak currents in the positive and negative biases, respectively. As we can see in Figure 4, the degree of asymmetry decreases quickly with the increment of interruption time. However, when the interruption time exceeds 40 s at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interface, the degree of asymmetry rises again. As shown in Figure 4, I-V asymmetry is very sensitive to interruption time. Therefore, to improve I-V symmetry, the interruption time at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces should be enhanced by at least 30 s. An interruption time longer than 40 s should be adopted according to our experiment.
Figure 4. I-V asymmetry dependence on growth interruption. I-V asymmetry dependence on growth interruption at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces with an AlAs barrier thickness of 2.73 nm.
Figure 5 reveals I-V asymmetry dependence on an AlAs barrier thickness of 1.6 ~ 2.73 nm with an interruption time of 40 s at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces. As we can see in Figure 5, with the increment of the AlAs barrier thickness, I-V asymmetry has been effectively dropped. The possible origins of the asymmetry in the I-V characteristics are mainly the fluctuation of the AlAs barrier around the well-structure layer and asymmetry in the interface roughness [9]. Although the barrier thickness changes from 1.6 to 2.73 nm, the tunneling current will cause changes in magnitude. However, the I-V characteristics' asymmetry with a thinner barrier is greater than that with a thicker barrier. Therefore, to improve I-V symmetry, the growth of RTD with a thinner barrier should be done by other methods to facilitate a smooth interface of the barrier, such as a migration-enhanced epitaxy.
Figure 5. I-V asymmetry dependence with an AlAs barrier thickness of 1.6 ~ 2.73 nm. I-V asymmetry dependence with an AlAs barrier thickness of 1.6 ~ 2.73 nm and an interruption time of 40 s at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces.
Figure 6 shows representative PL spectra from three of the samples with interruption times of 10, 40, and 60 s at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces. Obviously, the existence of multiple PL peaks and the ratio of their integrated intensity [IPL] of luminescence are strongly dependent on interruption time at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces. In Figure 6a, c, with interruption times of 10 and 60 s, respectively, the PL spectra are dominated by two luminescence peaks, in which low-energy peak A is at about 755 mev and peak B is at 805 mev, while there is only a luminescence peak B (804.7 mev) with an interruption time of 40 s in Figure 6b. All three cases show similar spectra in that there is a high-energy peak B at 805 mev which mainly originates from the first electron and heavy-hole radiation recombination in quantum well [QW], while the low-energy peak A is probably caused by interface roughness of QW in the atomic layer scale. It is important to note that the full width at half maximum [FWHM] value for an interruption time of 40 s is 18.4 mev which is the narrowest FWHM value in the three samples of the high-energy peak B at 77 K.
Figure 6. PL spectra of RTDs with interruption times. (a) 10, (b) 40, and (c) 60 s.
With respect to the study of PL spectra of different interruption times at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces, we present the following explanation and discussion: (1) In contrast to high-energy peak B, the presence of peak A and the ratio of IPL (A) and IPL (B) are more sensitive to interruption time at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces; however, the interruption time is closely related to interface roughness [10]. These phenomena could be explained by considering AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interface problems, such as well-size fluctuations in the atomic layer scale, rather than impurity effects since a low-energy peak is not observed in samples with an interruption time of 40 s. (2) As reported in a previous work [11], with increasing interruption time at interfaces, sufficient time allows cation to migrate and smooth the interfaces, whereas with increasing interruption time beyond 60 s, we found that peak A reemerges in the PL spectra. Therefore, we believe that interface smoothness of a long interruption is commonly better than that of a short interruption. However, this is not the best choice for strained AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs RTDs. Then, there must be another significant contribution to the degradation of interface smoothness for a longer interruption time. Normally, after the InAs sub-well was grown, we increased the substrate temperature for the growth preparation of the top In0.53Ga0.47As well layer. The lattice mismatch between In0.53Ga0.47As and InAs is 3.1%, which is considerably large. So with a too long interruption time, which means an in situ anneal, a strain-induced roughness in a highly strained In0.53Ga0.47As layer might play an important role on interface smoothness. In addition, according to the observation of an RHEED pattern, when the interruption time exceeded 60 s, streak pattern of the In0.53Ga0.47As layer was weaker than before. Therefore, strain-induced roughness is probably viewed as the main cause of abnormal PL spectra.
Figure 7a, b, c shows TEM images of active regions of RTDs with interruption times of 10, 40, and 60 s at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces. Figure 7d, e, f shows enlarged images of Figure 7a, b, c with a scale of 4 nm. In the images, the white lines are the AlAs barriers, where the upper lines correspond to the top barriers and the lower lines to the bottom barriers. '1' is the bottom In0.53Ga0.47As emitter layer, and '2' is the top In0.53Ga0.47As collector layer. The barriers with an interruption time of 40 s appear as two parallel lines, indicating the smooth interface of the AlAs barrier and In0.53Ga0.47As well. Figure 7a, d shows that the interface fluctuation of the bottom AlAs barrier further degenerates the interface roughness of the top In0.53Ga0.47As well and top AlAs barrier only because of an interruption time of 10 s at the AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As interfaces. Figure 7c, f shows a little fluctuation of AlAs barriers and In0.53Ga0.47As well. As mentioned above, enough time allows cation to migrate freely along the interface for improving interface smoothness. However, a longer interruption time might favor a strain release that accommodates the mismatch between the InAs sub-well and In0.53Ga0.47As well. The detail of strain release is unclear at present. We need to further study the stress effects of RTD growth. TEM images show that there is a correspondence with PL spectra and I-V symmetry. In our study, the measurement of RTDs with different contact areas all show similar results.
Figure 7. TEM images of RTDs with growth interruptions. (a) 10, (b) 40, (c) 60, (d) 10, (e) 40 and (f) 60 s.
Conclusion
In this work, we have shown the dependence of interface roughness on interruption time by I-V characteristics, PL, and TEM. From the analysis of PL spectra and TEM, we have determined that there is an optimum value of interruption time at interfaces for the growth of highly strained AlAs/In0.53Ga0.47As/InAs RTDs rather than adopting too long interruption times. The results are very useful to further develop the applications of InP-based RTDs.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
YZ carried out the material growth by MBE. MG and XL carried out the device fabrication. YZ participated in the measurement of RTDs. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Knowledge Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. ISCAS2009T04), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 60876043), the Beijing Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. 2112040), and the Beijing Nova Program (Grant No. 2010B056).
References
1. Orihashi N, Suzuki S, Asada M: Voltage-controlled sub-terahertz oscillation of resonant tunneling diode integrated with slot antenna.
Electron Lett 2005, 41:872-874. Publisher Full Text
2. Orihashi N, Suzuki S, Asada M: One THz harmonic oscillation of resonant tunneling diodes.
Appl Phys Lett 2005, 87:233501.1-233501.3.
3. Suzuki S, Teranishi A, Hinata K, Asada M, Sugiyama H, Yokoyama H: Fundamental oscillation of up to 831 GHz in GaInAs/AlAs resonant tunneling diode.
Appl Phys Express 2009, 2:054501.1-054501.3.
4. Magno R, Bracker AS, Bennett BR, Nosho BZ: Barrier roughness effects in resonant interband tunnel diodes.
J Appl Phys 2001, 90:6177-6181. Publisher Full Text
5. Tsao AJ, Reddy VK, Miller DR, Gullapalli KK, Neikirk DP: Effect of barrier thickness asymmetries on the electrical characteristics of AlAs/GaAs double barrier resonant tunneling diodes.
J Vac Sci Technol B 1992, 10:1042-1044. Publisher Full Text
6. Li J, Mirabedini A, Mawst LJ, Savage DE, Matyi RJ, Kuech TF: Effect of interface roughness on performance of AlGaAs/InGaAs/GaAs resonant tunneling diodes.
J Cryst Grow 1998, 195:617-623. Publisher Full Text
7. Gobato YG, Triques ALC, Rivera PH, Schulz PA: Optical probing of interface roughness in resonant tunneling structures.
J Appl Phys 1997, 82:810-812. Publisher Full Text
8. Shen WZ, Shen SC, Chang Y, Tang WG: Photoluminescence studies of InAs/InGaAs/AlAs strained single quantum well structures.
Appl Phys Lett 1996, 68:78-80. Publisher Full Text
9. Osaka J, Matsuzaki H: Effects of growth temperature on electrical properties on InP-based pseudomorphic resonant tunneling diodes with ultrathin barriers grown by molecular beam epitaxy.
Jpn J Appl Phys 2001, 40:3114-3119. Publisher Full Text
10. Sakaki H, Tanaka M, Yoshino J: One atomic layer heterointerface fluctuations in GaAs-AlAs quantum well structures and their suppression by insertion of smoothing period in molecular beam epitaxy.
Jpn J Appl Phys 1985, 24:417-420. Publisher Full Text
11. Juang F-Y, Bhattacharya PK, Singh J: Determination of the microscopic quality of InGaAs-InAlAs interfaces by photoluminescence--role of interrupted molecular beam epitaxial growth.
Appl Phys Lett 1985, 48:290-292.
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User talk:Jenny T Nguyen
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Revision as of 11:14, 14 November 2006 by ShawnDouglas (Talk | contribs)
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Nice work on the OpenWetWare:Getting started pages. I really like your improvements! --RS
• RS 09:40, 10 March 2006 (EST): Hope I didn't interfere with your work on the front page with my edits! Sorry about that.
• Austin 22:25, 15 March 2006 (EST): Fixed the calendar, was a simple case issue. The icon (at least in my browser) seems to be close to the text. If you want more layout control, look at http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-CSS2/generate.html CSS2 markers may do the job. You can also test out css without affecting the whole site by editing your user css User:Jennyn/monobook.css.
• Austin 10:34, 16 March 2006 (EST): Of course you can change the icons of anything on the page. That's the power of css. Just look at the source of any page to look for the ids or classes of the elements you want to change.
Front Page Highlight
Can we get the new highlight to be on the top of the Main Page?
• Nevermind, John did it! I love the wiki.
it was me
i didn't see you at all... it was too early to be perceptive. how's it going? i'll be giving a talk over there on the the 13th... otherwise, i'll see you at the next oww meeting. hope you are enjoying the summer
OWW logo in vector format
Hi Jenny, do you have a vector-formatted version of the OWW logo? Thanks. --smd 10:14, 14 November 2006 (EST)
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Tell me more ×
Answers OnStartups is a question and answer site for entrepreneurs looking to start or run a new business. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I am on a work visa (H1-B) in the US. From what I understand, the only way for me to make money is through my employer. I've some skills that I think I can use to create a product (or website etc). My question is:
1. Is there any legal way for me to start a company?
2. If a family member of mine has EAD or green card, can he/she start a company, do all the accounting/legal/taxes etc in their name, while I take care of the technical stuff. Of course, I remain as a non-paid part of the company, I don't make a single penny out of it (which is fine by me. I know it takes a few years to make any serious amount of revenue anyway).
3. If the above is not possible, can I incorporate a company in my country, but work from here on my freetime? And pay taxes in my country.
I know there are other options like the E visa (I think thats the name) which is given to those individuals who invest $500k or more. I am not looking into those, as I don't have that much money or expertise or risk taking ability.
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2 Answers
You can easily start a business in the U.S.; a major issue will be that you cannot work for that business here because you will not have the right type of visa (please see Visa Basics for Foreign Entrepreneurs Coming to the U.S.).
A second challenge will be obtaining an Employer Identification Number (federal taxpayer identification number) - please see Foreign Company Alert: Obtaining an EIN may be your Biggest Challenge in the U.S.
Disclaimer: This post does not constitute legal advice and does not establish an attorney-client relationship.
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You can be a founder of a company that petitions for your visa.
You'd need to quit the employer that is currently sponsoring your H-1B visa and get a new H-1B sponsored by the company you are founding.
Note that you will probably need to leave the US during this process (I did) and you will need to demonstrate that the new company isn't just a front to keep you in the country (helps if you have other founders, other employees, don't have a controlling interest, etc)
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