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^ a b Amy Davidson, "Torturing the wrong man" , New Yorker , 13 December 2012 ^ a b c Nicholas Kulish, "Court Finds Rights Violation in C.I.A. Rendition Case" , New York Times , 13 December 2012 ^ a b Amrit Singh, "European court of human rights finds against CIA abuse of Khaled el-Masri" , The Guardian , 13 December 2012 ^ a b "El-Masri a member of El-Tawhid" , msn.de , February 23, 2006 ^ Goldman, Adam; Apuzzo, Matt (9 February 2011). "CIA officers make grave mistakes, get promoted" . NBC News. Associated Press . Retrieved 2 July 2013 . ^ "Archived copy" . Archived from the original on 2013-08-12 . Retrieved 2013-08-03 . CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( link ) ^ a b c "CIA accused of detaining innocent man: If the agency knew he was the wrong man, why was he held?" , MSNBC , 21 April 2005 ^ El-Masri, Khaled (2011-05-11). "Declaration of Khaled El-Masri in support of plaintiff's opposition to the United States' motion to dismiss" (PDF) . Khaled El-Masri v. George Tenet, et al . American Civil Liberties Union. p. 9 . Retrieved 2012-12-13 . I was told that I would soon be taken into a room for a medical examination before being returned to Germany. ... I was left in my underwear. Even this they attempted to take off. ... finally they stripped me completely naked and threw me to the ground. I then felt a stick or some other hard object being forced in my anus.
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^ a b Schofield, Matthew (2016-06-30). "CIA knew it had the wrong man, but kept him anyway" . mcclatchydc.com . The McClatchy Company . Retrieved 2016-07-08 . ^ Craig S. Smith; Souad Mekhennet (2006-07-07). "Algerian Tells of Dark Odyssey in U.S. Hands" . The New York Times . Archived from the original on 2006-07-07 . Retrieved 2006-10-14 . ^ a b Carol D. Leonnig, Eric Rich (2006-11-04). "U.S. Seeks Silence on CIA Prisons: Court Is Asked to Bar Detainees From Talking About Interrogations" . Washington Post . Retrieved 2009-10-21 . The battle over legal rights for terrorism suspects detained for years in CIA prisons centers on Majid Khan, a 26-year-old former Catonsville resident who was one of 14 high-value detainees transferred in September from the "black" sites to the U.S. military prison at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. ^ "Khaled El-Masri: Torturing the Wrong Man" , New Yorker blog, December 2012 ^ a b Georg Mascolo, Holger Stark: "The US Stands Accused of Kidnapping" , Der Spiegel , 14 February 2005 ^ Natta Jr., Don Van ; Souad Mekhennet (January 9, 2005). "German's Claim of Kidnapping Brings Investigation of U.S. Link" . New York Times . Munich . Retrieved 7 August 2013 . ^ Smith, Craig S.; Souad Mekhennet (July 7, 2006). "Algerian Tells of Dark Term in U.S. Hands" . New York Times . Retrieved 7 August 2013 .
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^ German man to file suit over US 'kidnapping' [ permanent dead link ] , Reuters , November 9, 2005 ^ Glenn Kessler: Rice to Admit German's Abduction Was an Error . The Washington Post , December 6, 2005 ^ a b German Man Claims U.S. Tortured Him , Forbes , December 6, 2005 ^ "Magazine: CIA received German file on German captive" [ permanent dead link ] , Reuters , December 17, 2005 ^ Khalid El-Masri, Opinion: "America kidnapped me" , Los Angeles Times , December 19, 2005 ^ "حركة التوحيد الإسلامي" . Attawhed.org . Retrieved 2010-03-26 . ^ Serrill, Michael S. (1985-10-14). "Moscow Loses Its Immunity" . Time . Retrieved 2010-03-26 . ^ "Islamism In Lebanon" ^ Al-Qaeda-Iraq link being investigated in Germany, report says , Drudge Report , February 5, 2003, ^ Terrorists with German Passports , Der Spiegel , October 27, 2005 ^ Judge dismisses Masri torture case Archived 2005-06-20 at the Wayback Machine , Reuters , May 18, 2006 ^ Greenhouse, Linda (2007-10-10). "Supreme Court Refuses to Hear Torture Appeal" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2007-10-10 . ^ Souad Mekhennet, Craig S. Smith : "German Spy Agency Admits Mishandling Abduction Case" , The New York Times , 2 June 2006 ^ a b "ACLU To Appeal Dismissal of El-Masri Lawsuit" Archived 2006-07-29 at the Wayback Machine , DemocracyNow , July 26, 2006
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^ CIA Abduction of El-Masri: Suspected CIA Kidnappers Identified , Sept. 2006. See also reports in Fincancial Times and on Deutsche Welle ^ Craig Whitlock: "German Lawmakers Fault Abduction Probe" , The Washington Post , 4 October 2006 ^ "Germany issues CIA arrest orders" . BBC News . 2007-01-31 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ "Al-Masri case -- Chancellery aware of USG concerns" . WikiLeaks. 2010-11-28 . Retrieved 2010-11-28 . ^ "Bush-Regierung sauer – Intervenierung wegen El Masri" . n-tv. 2007-03-03 . Retrieved 2007-03-03 . ^ " El-Masri v. USA " (PDF) . The New York Times . 2007-03-03 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ "Verfassungsbeschwerde des Anwalts von El Masri gegen Telefonüberwachung erfolgreich" . Bundesverfassungsgericht . 2007-05-16 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ "U.S. Supreme Court Docket" . United States Supreme Court . 2007-06-06 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ "European Parliament resolution of July 12, 2007 on the 2006 Progress Report on the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (2006/2289(INI))" . European Parliament . 2007-07-12 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ Matthew, Schofield. "CIA knew it had the wrong man, but kept him anyway" . McClatchy DC . Retrieved July 1, 2016 . ^ "Bundesregierung verhindert Auslieferungsantrag für CIA-Agenten" . Der Spiegel . 2007-09-22 . Retrieved 2007-09-22 . ^ amicus curiae brief , The Constitution Project , 5 September 2007 ^ Greenhouse, Linda (2007-10-09). "Supreme Court Won't Hear Torture Appeal" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2007-10-09 .
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^ "US court rejects CIA kidnap case" . BBC News. 2007-10-09 . Retrieved 2007-10-09 . ^ "German sues for CIA extradition" . BBC News. 2008-06-09 . Retrieved 2008-06-10 . ^ [1] , Harper's , May 2010 ^ Kreickenbaum, Martin. "European Court orders damages for CIA torture victim" . www.wsws.org . Retrieved 2019-07-10 . ^ "Case-law analysis-Guides, Research reports" . www.echr.coe.int . Retrieved 2019-07-10 . ^ a b "European Human Rights Court rules on El Masri Rendition Case" , Deutsche Welle ^ "Khaled el-Masri in Psychiatrie eingeliefert" . Die Welt (in German). 2007-05-17 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ a b Suspended Sentence for Khaled El Masri (German Language) , Südwest-Presse , 21.12.2007 ^ "Attorney for German in CIA kidnapping case concedes client set fire to store" . International Herald Tribune . 2007-05-18 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ Tony Paterson (2007-05-19). "Rendition victim sent to mental institution after arson attack" . The Independent . London. Archived from the original on 2007-09-30 . Retrieved 2007-07-13 . ^ "Khaled el-Masri überfällt Neu-Ulmer Oberbürgermeister" [Khaled el-Masri attacks mayor of Neu-Ulm]. Der Spiegel (in German). 2009-09-11 . Retrieved 2009-09-11 . ^ "Revenge for brothels a motive for El-Masri's attack?" (in German) Augsburger Allgemeine , 20 October 2009 ^ FAZ.net: "Prison sentence for El-Masri" (in German), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , 30 March 2010. ^ Associated Press, "European court says CIA tortured German man: Suspect abducted, held in Afghan prison" , CBC News, 13 December 2012
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^ "Rendition Victim El-Masri Awarded 60,000 Euros" , Der Spiegel , 13 December 2012 ^ "Court: CIA Tortured German During Botched Rendition" , ABC News , 13 December 2012 External links [ edit ] El-Masri v Tenet , Judge T.S. Ellis' decision Khaled El-Masri v. George Tenet et al. (.pdf) , ACLU , December 6, 2005 "ECtHR judgment" , 13 December 2012 "The Kidnapping of Khaled El-Masri" – A Document Archive , Expose the War Profiteers website Alleged militants in the War on Terror who have lived in Germany People listed in italics have died. Alleged al-Qaeda members Mohammed Haydar Zammar Christian Ganczarski Hamburg cell ( September 11 attacks ) Mohamed Atta Marwan al-Shehhi Ziad Jarrah Ramzi bin al-Shibh Said Bahaji Zakariya Essabar Mounir el-Motassadeq Held in Guantanamo Bay Murat Kurnaz Ramzi bin al-Shibh Wrongly accused Murat Kurnaz Khalid El-Masri Gholam Ghaus Z. Abdelghani Mzoudi 2006 train-bombing plot Youssef Mohamad El Hajdib Jihad Hamad 2007 bomb plot Fritz Gelowicz Daniel Schneider Adem Yilmaz 1 Currently imprisoned. 2 Released after serving sentence. v t e CIA secret prisons and detainees Suspected black sites Salt Pit Dark Prison Diego Garcia Temara interrogation centre Ain Aouda Stare Kiejkuty Szczytno-Szymany Mihail Kogălniceanu Camp Nama Camp Eggers Strawberry Fields (Guantanamo) Black Jail Held in the Salt Pit Khalid El-Masri Laid Saidi Gul Rahman 1 Held in the dark prison
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Jamil el Banna Abd al-Salam Ali al-Hila Bisher Amin Khalil al-Rawi Hassan bin Attash Laid Saidi Binyam Mohamed Musab Omar Ali Al Mudwani Walid al Qadasi See also Enhanced interrogation techniques Extraordinary rendition Ghost detainees Waterboarding Destruction of interrogation tapes 1 Died in custody. Authority control GND : 1161840877 LCCN : no2016089036 VIAF : 114146936815713782462 WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 114146936815713782462 NewPP limit report Parsed by mw1250 Cached time: 20191027154730 Cache expiry: 2592000 Dynamic content: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1] CPU time usage: 1.196 seconds Real time usage: 1.484 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 3659/1000000 Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000 Post‐expand include size: 93346/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 4285/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 17/40 Expensive parser function count: 6/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 121851/5000000 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1/400 Lua time usage: 0.628/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 18.18 MB/50 MB Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 1309.184 1 -total 50.84% 665.545 1 Template:Reflist 22.90% 299.840 20 Template:Cite_news 15.47% 202.515 1 Template:Lang-ar 11.86% 155.317 1 Template:Infobox_person 10.01% 131.111 13 Template:Cite_web 8.76% 114.738 1 Template:Infobox 6.29% 82.404 3 Template:Dead_link 5.87% 76.809 1 Template:GermanTerrorism 5.86% 76.658 2 Template:Navbox Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:2997423-0!canonical and timestamp 20191027154728 and revision id 922755581 Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Khalid_El-Masri&oldid=922755581 " Categories : 1963 births Living people Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights Article 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights Central Intelligence Agency operations European Court of Human Rights cases decided by the Grand Chamber European Court of Human Rights cases involving North Macedonia German extrajudicial prisoners of the United States German Muslims German torture victims Lebanese emigrants to Germany People subject to extraordinary rendition by the United States Prisoners and detainees held in the Salt Pit Victims of human rights abuses German people of Lebanese descent Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from November 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links CS1 maint: archived copy as title Articles with dead external links from January 2018 Webarchive template wayback links CS1 German-language sources (de) Articles with hCards Articles containing Arabic-language text Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers
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Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Deutsch Español Français Македонски Nederlands Norsk Русский Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 24 October 2019, at 03:06 (UTC) . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. , a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Cookie statement Mobile view
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Pressure cooking - Wikipedia CentralNotice Pressure cooking From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about a vessel for cooking food in high pressure steam. For other uses, see Pressure cooking (disambiguation) . A stovetop pressure cooker Pressure cooking is the process of cooking food at high pressure , employing water or a water-based cooking liquid, in a sealed vessel known as a pressure cooker . High pressure limits boiling, and permits cooking temperatures well above 100 °C (212 °F) to be reached. Pressure cookers work by expelling air from the vessel, and trapping the steam produced from the boiling liquid inside. This raises the internal pressures and permits high cooking temperatures. This, together with high thermal heat transfer from the steam, cooks food far more quickly, often cooking in between half and a quarter the time for conventional boiling. After cooking the steam is released so that the vessel can be opened safely. Almost any food that can be cooked in steam or water-based liquids can be cooked in a pressure cooker. [1] Contents 1 History 1.1 First generation 1.2 Second generation 1.3 Third generation "electric pressure cookers" 2 Theory 2.1 High altitudes 2.2 Health benefits 2.3 Foods unsuitable for pressure cooking 3 Design 3.1 Capacity 3.2 Pan 3.3 Lid 3.4 Accessories 3.5 Gasket
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3.6 Safety features 3.6.1 Maximum fill levels 4 Operation 4.1 Liquid 4.2 Bringing to pressure (stove top pressure cookers) 4.2.1 Removal of air 4.3 Food containers 4.4 Pre-frying ingredients 4.5 Pressure release methods 4.5.1 Manual, normal, regular, or automatic release 4.5.2 Natural release 4.5.3 Cold water quick release 4.6 Pressure settings 5 Properties 6 Use as weapons 7 Variants 8 See also 9 References 10 External links History [ edit ] A six-quart pressure cooker manufactured by Archibald Kenrick & Sons in England, circa 1890 In 1679, French physicist Denis Papin , better known for his studies on steam, invented the steam digester in an attempt to reduce the cooking time of food. His airtight cooker used steam pressure to raise the water's boiling point, thus cooking food more quickly. In 1681 Papin presented his invention to the Royal Society of London as a scientific study; he was later elected as a member. [ citation needed ] In 1864, Georg Gutbrod of Stuttgart began manufacturing pressure cookers made of tinned cast iron . [ citation needed ] In 1918, Spain granted a patent for the pressure cooker to José Alix Martínez from Zaragoza . Martínez named it the olla exprés , literally "express cooking pot", under patent number 71143 in the Boletín Oficial de la Propiedad Industrial . [2] In 1924, the first pressure cooking pot recipe book was published, written by José Alix and titled "360 fórmulas de cocina Para guisar con la 'olla expres'", [3] or 360 recipes for cooking with a pressure cooker .
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In 1938, Alfred Vischer presented his invention, the Flex-Seal Speed Cooker , in New York City. Vischer's pressure cooker was the first designed for home use, and its success led to competition among American and European manufacturers. [4] At the 1939 New York World's Fair , the National Pressure Cooker Company, later renamed National Presto Industries , introduced its own pressure cooker. [ citation needed ] First generation [ edit ] Super cocotte décor SEB, 1973. Aluminium body, polyamide lacquered with an embossed aluminium lid and a stainless steel stirrup. On display at the Musée gallo-romain de Fourvière , Lyon. 18/10. Also known as "old type" pressure cookers, these operate with a weight-modified or "jiggler" valve, which releases pressure during operation. [5] Some people consider them loud because the valve rattles as excess steam is released. Older pressure cookers typically offered only one pressure level, but from the 1960s onwards some allow the operator to change the weight of the valve, thus changing the pressure. Today, most pressure cookers are variations on the first-generation cookers, with the addition of new safety features such as a mechanism that prevents the cooker from being opened until it is entirely depressurized. [ citation needed ] Second generation [ edit ] These operate with a spring-loaded valve that is often hidden from view in a proprietary mechanism. [5] This generation is characterized by two or more pressure settings. Some of these pressure cookers do not release any steam during operation (non-venting) and instead use a rising indicator with markings to show the pressure level. These only release steam when the pan is opened, or as a safety precaution if the heat source is not reduced enough when the pan reaches the required cooking pressure. Others use a dial that the operator can advance by a few clicks (which alters the spring tension) to change the pressure setting or release pressure; [5] these release steam during operation (venting).
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Third generation "electric pressure cookers" [ edit ] Stove top pressure cooker with battery operated timer After the stove-top pressure cookers, in 1991 [6] came the electric pressure cookers, called the "third generation" pressure cookers. These include an electric heat source that is automatically regulated to maintain the operating pressure. They also include a spring-loaded valve (as described above). This type of pressure cooker cannot be opened with a cold water quick-release method and should be operated with caution when releasing vapour through the valve, especially while cooking foamy foods and liquids ( lentils , beans , grains, milk, gravy , etc.) [ citation needed ] An electric pressure cooker integrates a timer. Depending on cooking control capability, there are three generations of electric pressure cookers: [6] First-generation Electric, with mechanical timer. There is no delayed cooking capability. Second-generation Electric, with digital controller. Delayed cooking becomes possible and the controller shows a countdown timer when working pressure is reached. Third-generation Electric, with smart programming, which includes pre-set cooking times and settings based on heating intensity, temperature, pressure and duration. Some cookers are multifunctional ( multicookers ): pressure cooker, saute / browning , slow cooker , rice cooker , yogurt maker , steamer , sous vide and stockpot warmer that can also be used to keep cooked food warm. [ citation needed ]
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Theory [ edit ] In an ordinary, non-pressurized cooking vessel, the boiling point of water is 100 °C (212 °F) at standard pressure . Once the temperature in the vessel reaches the boiling point of water, excess heat causes the water to vaporize into steam . In a sealed pressure cooker, however, the boiling point of water increases with increasing pressure. As the temperature increases, so does the pressure, resulting in superheated water . When the pressure reaches 1 bar or 100 kPa (15 psi ) above the existing atmospheric pressure , the water will have reached a temperature of 120.42 °C (248.76 °F). [7] Pressure cookers employ a regulator to limit the pressure, thereby maintaining a precise temperature. Once the desired pressure and temperature are reached, the heat can be lowered somewhat to minimize excess release of steam, saving energy. Some recipes require browning to develop flavors during roasting or frying. Browning occurs via the Maillard reaction , under temperatures higher than the roughly 250 deg F achieved in pressure cooking. One may brown foods by searing them either in the open pressure cooker or another pan beforehand. High altitudes [ edit ] A pressure cooker can be used to compensate for lower atmospheric pressure at high elevations. The boiling point of water drops by approximately 1 °C per every 294 metres of altitude (1 °F per every 540 feet (160 m) of altitude), [8] causing the boiling point of water to be significantly below the 100 °C (212 °F) at standard pressure . For example, at a mile high, 5,280 feet of altitude, the boiling point of water is 94.6 °C (202.3 °F). Without the use of a pressure cooker, boiled foods may be undercooked, as described in Charles Darwin 's The Voyage of the Beagle (chapter XV, March 20, 1835):
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Having crossed the Peuquenes [Piuquenes], we descended into a mountainous country, intermediate between the two main ranges, and then took up our quarters for the night. We were now in the republic of Mendoza . The elevation was probably not under 11,000 feet (3,400 m) [...]. At the place where we slept water necessarily boiled, from the diminished pressure of the atmosphere, at a lower temperature than it does in a less lofty country; the case being the converse of that of a Papin's digester . Hence the potatoes, after remaining for some hours in the boiling water, were nearly as hard as ever. The pot was left on the fire all night, and next morning it was boiled again, but yet the potatoes were not cooked. At higher altitudes, the boiling point of liquid is somewhat lower than it would be at sea level. When pressure cooking at high altitudes, cooking times need to be increased by approximately 5% for every 300 m (980 ft) above 610 m (2,000 ft) elevation. Since the regulators work off the pressure differential between interior and ambient pressure, the absolute pressure in the interior of a pressure cooker will always be lower at higher altitudes. Weight is a concern with backpackers, so mountaineering pressure cookers are designed to operate at a lower differential pressure than stove-top units. This enables them to use thinner, and therefore lighter materials. Generally, the goal is to raise the cooking temperature enough to make cooking possible and to conserve fuel by reducing heat lost through boiling. [ citation needed ] Lightweight pressure cookers as small as 1.5 litres (0.40 US gal) weighing 1.28 kilograms (2.8 lb) are available for mountain climbers. Sherpas often use pressure cookers in base camp. [9]
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Health benefits [ edit ] Some food toxins can be reduced by pressure cooking. A Korean study of aflatoxins in rice (associated with Aspergillus fungus) showed that pressure cooking was capable of reducing aflatoxin concentrations to 32 percent of the amount in the uncooked rice, compared to 77 percent from ordinary cooking. [10] Foods unsuitable for pressure cooking [ edit ] Some foods are not recommended for pressure cooking. Foods such as noodles , pasta , cranberries , cereals and oatmeal can expand too much, froth and sputter, potentially blocking the steam vent and creating an unsafe condition. [11] [12] Design [ edit ] The regulator in this pressure cooker is a weight on a nozzle next to the handle on the lid. Capacity [ edit ] Pressure cookers are available in different capacities for cooking larger or smaller amounts, with 6 litres' capacity being common. The maximum capacity of food is less than the advertised capacity because pressure cookers can only be filled up to 2/3 full, depending on ingredients and liquid (see Safety features section). [ citation needed ] Pan [ edit ] Metal pan body Pan handles, usually one each on opposite ends, for carrying the cooker with both hands Lid [ edit ] Lid handle, usually with a locking device button or slider that "clicks" shut and prevents removal while cooking
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Gasket (also known as a "sealing ring") that seals the cooker airtight Steam vent with a pressure regulator on top (either a weight or spring device) that maintains the pressure level in the pan Pressure indicator pin, for showing the presence or absence of any pressure, however slight Safety devices on the lid (typically over-pressure and/or over-temperature pressure release valves) Pressure gauge (usually absent but included on some costlier models) [ citation needed ] Accessories [ edit ] Steamer basket Trivet for keeping the steamer basket above liquid Metal divider, for separating different foods in the steamer basket e.g. vegetables Pressure cookers are typically made of aluminum (aluminium) or stainless steel . Aluminum pressure cookers may be stamped , polished , or anodized , but all are unsuitable for the dishwasher . They are cheaper, but the aluminum is reactive to acidic foods, whose flavors are changed in the reactions, and less durable than stainless steel pressure cookers. [ citation needed ] Higher-quality stainless steel pressure cookers are made with heavy, three-layer, or copper-clad bottoms ( heat spreader ) for uniform heating because stainless steel has lower thermal conductivity . Most modern stainless steel cookers are dishwasher safe, although some manufacturers may recommend washing by hand. Some pressure cookers have a non-stick interior. Gasket [ edit ] A gasket or sealing ring, made from either rubber or silicone , forms a gas-tight seal that does not allow air or steam to escape between the lid and pan. Normally, the only way steam can escape is through a regulator on the lid while the cooker is pressurized. If the regulator becomes blocked, a safety valve provides a backup escape route for steam. [ citation needed ]
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To seal the gasket there are several main methods used. Each determines the design of the pressure cooker: The twist-on design has slots on the lid engaging with flanges on the body, similar to a lid on a glass jar, that works by placing the lid on the pot and twisting it about 30° to lock it in place. A common modern design, it has easily implemented locking features that prevent the removal of the lid while under pressure. The center screw design has a bar that is slotted in place over the lid and a screw tightened downward to hold the lid on. Though an older design, it is still produced due to its ease of construction and simplicity. The bolt-down design has flanges on both its lid and its body for bolts to be passed through, and usually uses wingnuts that hinge on the body and so are never fully removed from the cooker; this sealing design is typically used for larger units such as canning retorts and autoclaves. It is very simple to produce, and it can seal with simple and inexpensive gaskets . The internally fitted lid design employs an oval lid that is placed inside and presses outward; the user inserts the lid at an angle, then turns the lid to align it with the pot opening on top because the lid is larger than the opening. A spring arrangement holds the lid in place until the pressure forms and holds the lid tightly against the body, preventing removal until the pressure is released.
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Because of the forces that pressure cookers must withstand, they are usually heavier than conventional pots of similar size. [ citation needed ] Safety features [ edit ] Early pressure cookers equipped with only a primary safety valve risked explosion from food blocking the release valve. On modern pressure cookers, food residues blocking the steam vent or the liquid boiling dry will trigger additional safety devices. Modern pressure cookers sold from reputable manufacturers have sufficient safety features to prevent the pressure cooker itself from exploding. When excess pressure is released by a safety mechanism, debris of food being cooked may also be ejected with the steam, which is loud and forceful. This can be avoided if the pressure cooker is regularly cleaned and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and never overfilled with food and/or liquid. [ citation needed ] Modern pressure cookers typically have two or three redundant safety valves and additional safety features, such as an interlock lid that prevents the user from opening the lid when the internal pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure, preventing accidents from a sudden release of hot liquid, steam and food. If safety mechanisms are not correctly in place, the cooker will not pressurize the contents. Pressure cookers should be operated only after reading the instruction manual, to ensure correct usage. Pressure cooker failure is dangerous: a large quantity of scalding steam and water will be forcefully ejected and if the lid separates it may be propelled with considerable force. Some cookers with an internally fitted lid may be particularly dangerous upon failure as the lid fits tighter with increasing pressure, preventing the lid from deforming and venting around the edges. Due to these dangers pressure cookers are generally over-engineered in a safety regard and some countries even have regulations to prevent the sale of non-compliant cookers. [ citation needed ]
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For first generation pressure cookers with a weighted valve or "jiggler", the primary safety valve or regulator is usually a weighted stopper, commonly called "the rocker" or "vent weight". This weighted stopper is lifted by the steam pressure, allowing excess pressure to be released. There is a backup pressure release mechanism that releases pressure quickly if the primary pressure release mechanism fails (e.g., food jams the steam discharge path). One such method is a hole in the lid that is blocked by a low melting point alloy plug and another is a rubber grommet with a metal insert at the center. At a sufficiently high pressure, the grommet will distort and the insert will blow out of its mounting hole to release pressure. If the pressure continues to increase, the grommet itself will blow out to release pressure. These safety devices usually require replacement when activated by excess pressure. Newer pressure cookers may have a self-resettable spring device, fixed onto the lid, that releases excess pressure. [ citation needed ] On second generation pressure cookers, a common safety feature is the gasket , which expands to release excess pressure downward between the lid and the pot. This release of excess pressure is forceful and sufficient to extinguish the flame of a gas stove . [ citation needed ] Pressure cookers sold in the European Union (EU) must comply with the Pressure Equipment Directive . [13]
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Maximum fill levels [ edit ] The recommended maximum fill levels of food/liquid avoids blockage of the steam valve or developing excess pressure: two-thirds full with solid food, half full for liquids and foods that foam and froth (e.g., rice, pasta); adding a tablespoon of cooking oil minimizes foaming., [14] and no more than one-third full for pulses (e.g., lentils ). [11] Operation [ edit ] This section's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia . See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. ( June 2017 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Liquid [ edit ] Pressure cooking always requires liquid. Pressure cooking cannot be used for cooking methods that produce little steam such as roasting , pan frying , or deep frying . Thick sauces do not contain enough liquid to vaporize and create pressure, so they usually burn onto the interior base of the pressure cooker after prolonged heating. Sauces should be thickened after pressure cooking. The inner pot of a pressure cooker should never be filled more than halfway when cooking beans. Bringing to pressure (stove top pressure cookers) [ edit ] Food is placed inside the pressure cooker with a small amount of water or other liquid such as stock . Food is either cooked in the liquid or above the liquid to be steamed ; the latter method prevents the transfer of flavors from the liquid. The lid is closed, the pressure setting is chosen and the pressure cooker is placed on a stove on the highest heat (less than high for induction cooking to allow air to be vented). Once the cooker reaches full pressure, the heat is lowered to maintain pressure; timing the recipe begins at this point. Recipes for foods using raising agents such as steamed puddings call for gentle pre-steaming, without pressure, in order to activate the raising agents prior to cooking and achieve a light, fluffy texture.
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It takes several minutes for the pressure cooker to reach the selected pressure level. It can take around 10 minutes or longer depending on: the quantity of food, the temperature of the food (cold or frozen food delays pressurization), the amount of liquid, the power of the heat source and the size of the pressure cooker. A common mistake is for the user to start timing when a colored pop-up indicator rises, which happens when there is the slightest increase in pressure, instead of waiting for the cooker to reach its selected pressure level. The typical pop-up indicator only shows that the cooker has pressure inside, which does not reliably signal that the cooker has reached the selected pressure. This pop-up indicator often acts as an interlock, preventing the lid from being opened while there is internal pressure. Manufacturers may use their own terminology for it, such as calling it a "locking indicator." As the internal temperature rises, the pressure also rises until it reaches the design gauge pressure . Timing the recipe begins when the selected pressure is reached. With first generation designs, the pressure regulator weight begins levitating above its nozzle , allowing excess steam to escape. In second generation pressure cookers, either a relief valve subsequently opens, releasing steam to prevent the pressure from rising any further or a rod rises with markers to indicate the pressure level, without constantly venting steam. At this stage, the heat source is reduced to the lowest possible heat that still maintains pressure, as extra heat wastes energy and increases liquid loss. [15]
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Removal of air [ edit ] Before the pressure cooker lid is sealed airtight, the internal air has to be mostly replaced by steam. Steam has a much higher specific heat than air, [16] and the presence of steam rather than air inside the pressure cooker is how it is able to transfer sufficient heat into the parts of the food that are not submerged in liquid, such as a pot roast. If the lid is sealed before enough air has been removed, not enough heat can be transferred to the food, and food may be undercooked; the presence of air would make the food cook more like it is in an oven than a pressure cooker. To remove the air, steam is vented for several minutes to replace the volume of air inside the cooker. [ citation needed ] This is why a pressure cooker takes about 10 minutes to reach pressure. For pressure cookers with a weight, the weight is placed over the steam vent pipe while steam is being emitted to ensure the air inside has escaped. [ citation needed ] The newer generation pressure cookers, which have no weights, automatically expel air from inside for several minutes before a coloured pop-up indicator pin rises to seal the lid airtight; pressure then builds in the now airtight cooker. If the pressure cooker is already hot or a stovetop pressure cooker is placed on a very strong heat source, such as induction on too high a setting, the lid can seal airtight too quickly before the air inside has been removed. In these situations, a slightly lower heat setting can be used to allow the water to boil slower in order to vent the air.
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Food containers [ edit ] Small containers such as plastic pudding containers can be used in a pressure cooker, if the containers (and any covering used) can withstand temperatures of 130 °C (266 °F) and are not placed directly on the interior base. The containers can be used for cooking foods that are prone to burning on the base of the pressure cooker. A lid for the container may be used if the lid allows some steam to come into contact with the food and the lid is securely fitted; an example is foil or greaseproof paper, pleated in the center and tied securely with string. Containers that are cracked or have otherwise sustained damage are not suitable. Cooking time is longer when using covered containers because the food is not in direct contact with the steam. Since non-metal containers are poorer heat conductors , the type of container material stated in the recipe cannot be substituted without affecting the outcome. For example, if the recipe time is calculated using a stainless steel container and a plastic container is used instead, the recipe will be undercooked, unless the cooking time is increased. Containers with thicker sides, e.g., oven-proof glass or ceramic containers, which are slower to conduct heat, will add about 10 minutes to the cooking time. Liquid can be added inside the container when pressure cooking foods such as rice, which need to absorb liquid in order to cook properly.
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Pre-frying ingredients [ edit ] The flavor of some foods, such as meat and onions, can be improved by gently cooking with a little pre-heated cooking oil, butter or other fat in the open pressure cooker [15] over medium heat for stove-top models (unless the manufacturer advises against this) before pressure cooking, while avoiding overheating the empty pressure cooker not heating the empty cooker with the lid and gasket in place to avoid damage. Electric pressure cookers usually have a "saute" or "brown" option for frying ingredients. The pressure cooker needs to cool briefly before adding liquid; [15] otherwise some of the liquid will evaporate instantly, possibly leaving insufficient liquid for the entire pressure cooking time; if deglazing the pan, more liquid may need to be added. Pressure release methods [ edit ] After cooking, there are three ways of releasing the pressure, either quickly or slowly, before the lid can be opened. Recipes for pressure cookers state which release method is required at the end of the cooking time for proper results. Failure to follow the recommendation may result in food that is under-cooked or over-cooked. To avoid opening the pressure cooker too often while cooking different vegetables with varying cooking times, the vegetables that take longer to cook can be cut into smaller pieces and vegetables that cook faster can be cut into thicker pieces. [15]
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Manual, normal, regular, or automatic release [ edit ] This method is sometimes called a quick release, not to be confused with the cold water release (mentioned below). It involves the quick release of vapor by gradually lifting (or removing) the valve, pushing a button, or turning a dial. It is most suitable to interrupt cooking to add food that cooks faster than what is already in the cooker. For example, since meat takes longer to cook than vegetables, it is necessary to add vegetables to stew later so that it will cook only for the last few minutes. Unlike the cold water release method, this release method does not cool down the pressure cooker. Releasing the steam with care avoids the risk of being scalded by the rapid release of hot steam. This release method is not suitable for foods that foam and froth while cooking; the hot contents might spray outwards due to the pressure released from the steam vent. This release method takes about two minutes to release the pressure before the lid can be opened. Natural release [ edit ] The natural release method allows the pressure to drop slowly; this is achieved by removing the pressure cooker from the heat source and allowing the pressure to lower without action. It takes approximately 10 to 15 minutes (possibly longer) for the pressure to disappear before the lid can be opened. On many pressure cookers, a coloured indicator pin will drop when the pressure has gone. This natural release method is recommended for foods that foam and froth during cooking, such as rice, legumes, or recipes with raising agents such as steamed puddings. The texture and tenderness of meat cooked in a pressure cooker can be improved by using the natural release method. [15] The natural release method finishes cooking foods or recipes that have longer cooking times because the inside of the pressure cooker stays hot. This method is not recommended for foods that require very short cooking times, otherwise the food overcooks.
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Cold water quick release [ edit ] This method is the fastest way of releasing pressure with portable pressure cookers, but can be dangerous if performed incorrectly. It is therefore safer to release pressure by following the other methods. The manufacturer's instruction book may advise against the cold water release or require it to be performed differently. The cold water release method involves using slow running cold tap water, over the edge of the pressure cooker lid, being careful to avoid the steam vent or any other valves or outlets and never immersing the pressure cooker under water, otherwise steam can be ejected from under the lid, which could cause scalding injury to the user; also the pressure cooker lid can be permanently damaged by an internal vacuum if water gets sucked into the pressure cooker, since the incoming water blocks the inrush of air. The cold water release is most suitable for foods with short cooking times. It takes about 20 seconds for the cooker to cool down enough to lower the pressure so that it can be safely opened. This method is not suitable for electric pressure cookers, as they are not immersible. The cold water release method is not recommended when cooking pulses e.g. red kidney beans, as the sudden release of pressure can cause the bean to burst its skin.
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Pressure settings [ edit ] Most pressure cookers have a cooking (operating) pressure setting between 0.8–1 bar (11.6–15 psi) (gauge) so the pressure cooker operates at 1.8 to 2.0 bar (absolute). The standard cooking pressure of 15 psi gauge was determined by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1917. At this pressure, water boils at 121 °C (250 °F) (described in vapour pressure of water article). The higher temperature causes food to cook faster; cooking times can typically be reduced to one-third of the time for conventional cooking methods. [15] The actual cooking time also depends on the pressure release method used after timing (see Pressure release methods for details) and the thickness and density of the food, since thicker (and denser) foods take longer to cook. Meat joints and some other foods like sponge puddings and Christmas puddings are typically timed according to their weight. Frozen foods need extra cooking time to allow for thawing. When pressure cooking at 1 bar/15 psi (gauge), approximate cooking times are one minute for shredded cabbage, seven minutes for boiled potatoes (if cut small, not diced) and three minutes for fresh green beans. If the pressure is released naturally after timing (see Pressure release methods for details), cooking times are even shorter. Food cooks more quickly when cut into smaller pieces. Some recipes may require cooking at lower than 1 bar/15 psi (gauge) e.g. fresh vegetables, as these can easily overcook. Many pressure cookers have 2 or more selectable pressure settings or weights.
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Some pressure cookers have a lower or higher maximum pressure than 1 bar/15 psi (gauge) or can be adjusted to different pressures for some recipes; cooking times will increase or decrease accordingly. This is typically done by having different regulator weights or different pressure settings. If the recipe is devised for a higher pressure and the pressure cooker does not reach that pressure, the cooking time can be increased slightly to compensate. Electric pressure cookers operate at lower pressures than stovetop pressure cookers. Properties [ edit ] Foods cook much faster with pressure cooking than with other methods (except for small quantities in microwave ovens ). Food is cooked more quickly in a pressure cooker because at the higher pressure (1 bar/15 psi), the boiling point of water rises from 100 °C (212 °F) to 121 °C (250 °F). The hotter steam is able to transmit its thermal energy to the food at around 4 times the rate of conventional boiling. Pressure cooking requires much less water than conventional boiling , so food can be ready sooner. Less energy is required than that of boiling, steaming , or oven cooking. Since less water or liquid has to be heated, the food reaches its cooking temperature faster. Using more liquid than necessary wastes energy because it takes longer to heat up; the liquid quantity is stated in the recipe. Pressure cookers can use much less liquid than the amount required for boiling or steaming in an ordinary saucepan . It is not necessary to immerse food in water. The minimum quantity of water or liquid used in the recipe to keep the pressure cooker filled with steam is sufficient. With sealed pressure cookers, steam isn't continually escaping, thus evaporation losses are non existent once it has reached pressure. Overall, energy used by pressure cookers can be as much as 70% lower than used by cooking in a pan.
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Because of this, vitamins and minerals are not leached (dissolved) away by water, as they would be if food were boiled in large amounts of water. Due to the shorter cooking time, vitamins are preserved relatively well during pressure cooking. [17] Several foods can be cooked together in the pressure cooker, either for the same amount of time or added later for different times. [15] Manufacturers provide steamer baskets to allow more foods to be cooked together inside the pressure cooker. Not only is this steam energy transmitted quickly to food, it is also transmitted rapidly to any micro-organisms that are present, easily killing even the deadliest types that are able to survive at the boiling point. Because of this enhanced germ killing ability, a pressure cooker can be used as an effective sterilizer for jam pots, glass baby bottles , or for water while camping . [ citation needed ] In fact, the autoclave, used in hospitals to sterilize surgical instruments, is really just a more precise and technical version of the ordinary pressure cooker. Pressure cookers are considerably more expensive than conventional saucepans of the same size. Gasket The additional gasket (sealing ring) requires special care when cleaning (e.g., not washed with kitchen knives), unlike a standard lid for a saucepan. Food debris must be cleaned from the gasket after every use.
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The gasket/sealing ring needs replacing with a new one about once a year (or sooner if it is damaged e.g. a small split). A very dry gasket can make it difficult or impossible to close the lid. Smearing the gasket sparingly with vegetable oil alleviates this problem (using too much vegetable oil can make the gasket swell and prevent it sealing properly). A gasket that has lost its flexibility makes bringing the cooker up to pressure difficult as steam can escape before sufficient pressure is generated to provide an adequate seal; this is usually a sign that the gasket needs replacing with a new one. Oiling the gasket with vegetable oil may alleviate the problem temporarily, but a new gasket is often required. Pressure cooker manufacturers sell replacement gaskets and recommend their replacement at regular intervals e.g. annually. If the pressure cooker has not been used for a long time, the gasket and other rubber or silicone parts will dry out and will likely need replacing. Cooking In order to inspect the food, the pressure cooker needs to be opened, which halts the cooking process. With a conventional saucepan , this can be done in a matter of seconds by visually inspecting the food. As a result, accurate timing is essential for the recipe e.g. with an audible timer . A minimum quantity of liquid is required to create and maintain pressure, as indicated in the manufacturer's instruction manual. More liquid is required for longer cooking times. This is not desirable for food requiring much less liquid, but recipes and books for pressure cookers take this into account.
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Logistics The increased weight of conventional pressure cookers makes them unsuitable for applications in which saving weight is a priority, such as camping . Nonetheless, small, lightweight pressure cookers are available for mountain climbers (see High altitudes ) . Use as weapons [ edit ] Main article: Pressure cooker bomb The appliance has been adapted as a crude type of bomb , which has been used in terrorist attacks. [18] 2006 Mumbai train bombings 2010 Stockholm bombings (failed to explode) 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt (failed to explode) 2013 Boston Marathon bombing 2016 New York and New Jersey bombings Variants [ edit ] An autoclave is a type of pressure cooker used by laboratories and hospitals to sterilize equipment. Large pressure cookers are often called pressure canners in the United States, because of their capacity to hold jars used in canning . Pressure canners are specifically designed for home canning , whereas ordinary pressure cookers are not recommended for canning due to the risk of botulism poisoning, because pressure canners hold heat and pressure for much longer than ordinary pressure cookers; these factors are a critical part of the total processing time required to destroy harmful microbes . [19] Pressure fryers are used for deep fat frying under pressure, because ordinary pressure cookers are not suitable for pressure frying. A pressure air fryer (not to be confused with a pressure fryer ) is a recent combination of a pressure cooker and an air fryer , with two separate lids, one for pressure cooking and one for air frying. The air frying lid has a convection fan in it that allows it to air fry foods, similar to an air fryer oven. This innovation was popularized by the Ninja Foodi Pressure Cooker, marketed as the first pressure cooker that can crisp and air fry. [20]
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A pressure oven is a recent combination of an oven and pressure cooker, usually as a countertop convection oven . They operate at low pressures, 10 kilopascals (1.5 psi), compared to other pressure cookers. [21] Their main function is as an enhanced oven or broiler for meat and poultry, avoiding drying. As such, they often include a rotisserie . Although having insufficient pressure for most conventional pressure cooking functions, they do also have non-pressure oven modes. See also [ edit ] Cooking portal List of cooking appliances Instant Pot References [ edit ] ^ "Pressure Cooking Meat Analogues" . The Gentle Chef . Retrieved 13 November 2018 . ^ "olla exprés". Boletín Oficial de la Propiedad Industrial (798): 1480. 16 November 1919. ^ Bellvis, Camilo (1924). "360 fórmulas de cocina Para guisar con la "olla exprés" . Madrid, Spain: Sucesores de Rivadeneyra. ^ Lacalamita, Tom (2002). Pressure cookers for dummies . New York, NY: Hungry Minds. ISBN 9781118053805 . ^ a b c Rick Rodgers; Arlene Ward & Kathryn Russell (2000). Pressure Cooking for Everyone . Chronicle Books. p. 12. ISBN 9780811825252 . Retrieved 30 June 2016 . ^ a b "Three Generations of Electric Pressure Cookers" . Instant Pot . Retrieved 13 November 2018 . ^ "Steam Tables" . Retrieved 22 January 2020 . ^ "Pressure Cooking At High Altitudes" . Miss Vickie's Pressure Cooker Recipes . Archived from the original on 26 July 2012 . Retrieved 13 November 2018 .
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^ The Lancet (May 2003). "A more challenging summit than Everest". The Lancet . 361 (9372): 1837. doi : 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13535-0 . ISSN 0140-6736 . ^ Park, Je Won; Kim, Young-Bae (March 2006). "Effect of Pressure Cooking on Aflatoxin B in Rice". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry . 54 (6): 2431–2435. doi : 10.1021/jf053007e . PMID 16536630 . ^ a b "Important Safeguards" . Hawkins Cookers Limited . Retrieved 13 November 2018 . Information taken from a website of a manufacturer of pressure cookers. ^ "Breville the Fast Slow Pro™ Instruction Booklet" (PDF) . shopify.com . Retrieved 13 November 2018 . ^ "Pressure equipment and gas appliances" . 2 February 2012. Archived from the original on 5 April 2012. ^ Wise, Victoria (2005). The Pressure Cooker Gourmet: 225 Recipes for Great-Tasting, Long-Simmered Flavors in Just Minutes . Harvard, Mass: Harvard Common Press. p. 262. ISBN 1-55832-201-9 . ^ a b c d e f g "Easy Tips for Better Cooking" . Retrieved 13 November 2018 . ^ Heselton, Kenneth E. (2005). Boiler Operator's Handbook . ISBN 9780881734355 . Retrieved 28 August 2019 . ^ Yadav SK, Sehgal S (February 1995). "Effect of home processing on ascorbic acid and beta-carotene content of spinach (Spinacia oleracia) and amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor) leaves". Plant Foods Hum Nutr . 47 (2): 125–31. doi : 10.1007/bf01089261 . PMID 7792260 .
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^ Borenstein, Seth (17 April 2013). "How does a pressure cooker bomb work?" . MediaWorks TV. Archived from the original on 24 March 2016 . Retrieved 13 November 2018 . ^ "Burning Issue: Canning in Pressure Cookers" . National Center for Home Food Preservation. September 2015. Archived from the original on 13 November 2018 . Retrieved 13 November 2018 . ^ "EXCLUSIVE OFFER: Ninja Foodi TenderCrisp Pressure Cooker and Air Fryer" . ^ "Blaise Pressure Oven" (PDF) . Klarstein. p. 37. External links [ edit ] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pressure cookers . Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Pressure cooking v t e Cooking techniques List of cooking techniques Dry Conduction Dry roasting Hot salt frying Searing Convection Baking Roasting (modern) Smoking Radiation Grilling (charbroiling) Roasting (traditional) Rotisserie Toasting Wet High heat Blanching Boiling Decoction Parboiling Shocking Low heat Coddling Creaming Infusion Poaching Simmering Slow cooking Smothering Steeping Stewing Indirect heat Bain-marie (Double boiling) Sous-vide Double steaming Steaming Fat-based High heat Blackening Browning Deep frying Pan frying Reduction Shallow frying Stir frying (bao) Sautéing Low heat Gentle frying Sweating Mixed medium Barbecuing Braising Flambé Fricassee Indirect grilling/Plank cooking Stir frying (chao) Device-based Air frying Microwaving Pressure cooking Pressure frying Thermal cooking Non-heat Curing Fermenting Pickling Souring See also List of cooking appliances List of cooking vessels Outdoor cooking
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Food preparation Food preservation Food safety Food portal Drink portal Category Commons Cookbook WikiProject Authority control GND : 4053041-3 NewPP limit report Parsed by mw1282 Cached time: 20200122210231 Cache expiry: 2592000 Dynamic content: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1] CPU time usage: 1.108 seconds Real time usage: 1.920 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 4283/1000000 Preprocessor generated node count: 0/1500000 Post‐expand include size: 113976/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 11914/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 12/40 Expensive parser function count: 10/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 68406/5000000 bytes Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 3/400 Lua time usage: 0.631/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 8.28 MB/50 MB Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 1667.336 1 -total 26.95% 449.312 1 Template:Reflist 18.00% 300.048 1 Template:Cooking_techniques 17.45% 290.932 19 Template:Citation_needed 15.30% 255.113 19 Template:Fix 13.88% 231.353 4 Template:Navbox 12.65% 210.867 11 Template:Cite_web 10.21% 170.224 1 Template:Authority_control 8.05% 134.249 4 Template:Cite_journal 7.48% 124.639 38 Template:Category_handler Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:52991-0!canonical and timestamp 20200122210243 and revision id 937082092 Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pressure_cooking&oldid=937082092 " Categories : Cooking appliances Cooking techniques Cooking vessels Culinary terminology French inventions Pressure Hidden categories: CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertainty All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019 Wikipedia articles with style issues from June 2017 All articles with style issues Articles with unsourced statements from January 2019 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2018 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
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Chemistry for Kids: Elements - Metalloids Parents and Teachers : Support Ducksters by following us on or . History Biography Geography Science Games Science >> Chemistry for Kids >> Periodic Table Elements for Kids Metalloids The metalloids are a group of elements in the periodic table. They are located to the right of the post-transition metals and to the left of the non-metals. Metalloids have some properties in common with metals and some in common with non-metals. What elements are metalloids? The elements that are generally considered metalloids include boron , silicon , germanium , arsenic , antimony, and tellurium. Other elements such as selenium and polonium are sometimes included as well. What are the similar properties of metalloids? Metalloids share many similar properties including: They appear to be metal in appearance, but are brittle. They can generally form alloys with metals. Some metalloids such as silicon and germanium become electrical conductors under special conditions. These are called semiconductors. They are solids under standard conditions. They are mostly nonmetallic in their chemical behavior. Order of Abundance The most abundant of the metalloids on Earth is silicon which is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust after oxygen. The least abundant is tellurium which is one of the rarest stable elements on Earth with an abundance similar to platinum. Here is a list of metalloids in order of abundance in the Earth's crust:
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Silicon Boron Germanium Arsenic Antimony Tellurium Interesting Facts about Metalloids Unlike other families of elements such as the noble gases, alkali metals, and halogens, the metalloids form a diagonal line on the periodic table rather than a vertical line. Silicon is one of the most important materials used to make electronics such as computers and mobile phones. Arsenic is known to be one of the most poisonous of the elements. Antimony and tellurium are primarily used in metal alloys. Tellurium gets its name from the Latin word "tellus" which means "earth." Antimony has been known about since ancient times and was used as a cosmetic by the Ancient Egyptians . Antimony gets its name from the Greek words "anti monos" meaning "not alone." More on the Elements and the Periodic Table Elements Periodic Table Row 1 Alkali Metals Lithium Sodium Potassium Alkaline Earth Metals Beryllium Magnesium Calcium Radium Transition Metals Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Silver Platinum Gold Mercury Col 1 Post-transition Metals Aluminum Gallium Tin Lead Metalloids Boron Silicon Germanium Arsenic Nonmetals Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Sulfur Col 2 Halogens Fluorine Chlorine Iodine Noble Gases Helium Neon Argon Lanthanides and Actinides Uranium Plutonium Col 3 More Chemistry Subjects Row 1 Matter Atom Molecules Isotopes Solids, Liquids, Gases Melting and Boiling Chemical Bonding Chemical Reactions
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How to set or break a world record | Guinness World Records Feature Detection No 'media queries' CSS & Selectivizr (CSS3 Selectors) [if lt IE 9]> <link rel="stylesheet" media="screen" href="/_styles/ie.min.css" /> <script src="/_scripts/ie.min.js"></script> <![endif] RECORDS APPLY TO SET OR BREAK A RECORD Priority Applications Invite an Adjudicator Consultancy Standard Applications PRIORITY APPLICATIONS INVITE AN ADJUDICATOR WHAT MAKES A GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS TITLE? How are records measured? Guide to record formats HOW TO SET OR BREAK A WORLD RECORD The application process Understanding guidelines Guide to evidence Record policies HALL OF FAME Burj Khalifa - Tallest building Otto - Longest human tunnel travelled through by a skateboarding dog Lee Redmond - Longest Fingernails Ever Ashrita Furman - Most Guinness World Records titles held SHOWCASE Animals Human body Food & drink Speed SPOTLIGHT MOST POPULAR VIDEOS HALL OF FAME Burj Khalifa - Tallest building Otto - Longest human tunnel travelled through by a skateboarding dog Lee Redmond - Longest Fingernails Ever Ashrita Furman - Most Guinness World Records titles held SHOWCASE Animals Gaming Human body Food and drink GWR DAY About GWR DAY How to join in PRODUCTS GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS 2020 What type of record-breaker are you? Try a viral sports record title Buy your copy GAMER'S EDITION 2020 Fortnite Challenge Buy your copy WILD THINGS Where to buy Wild Things Meet Bindi Irwin
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Bring bugs to life SCIENCE & STUFF Where to buy Science & Stuff Make & Break Robot quiz AMAZING ANIMALS Where to buy Amazing Animals Online game: Play Basketball Bunny Amazing Animals quiz GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS ATTRACTIONS GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS STORE BUSINESS SOLUTIONS GET IN TOUCH WITH A RECORD SPECIALIST CREATIVE CAMPAIGN SOLUTIONS Product launch and brand awareness Anniversaries & celebrations CSR and fundraising Tourism & community engagement EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT STRATEGIES EXPERIENTIAL MARKETING CAMPAIGNS LATEST RECORD-BREAKING BUSINESS NEWS CASE STUDIES TELEVISION PROGRAMMING Original Programmes Finished TV Programmes Clips and short-form content NEWS LATEST GWR NEWS LATEST RECORD-BREAKING BUSINESS NEWS PRESS CENTRE MOST POPULAR VIDEOS SOCIAL MEDIA ABOUT US OUR PURPOSE, VISION, MISSION AND VALUES OUR HISTORY OUR COMPANY Our record breakers Our people CAREERS Working at Guinness World Records Our culture My moments Current vacancies PARTNERS GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS TV Original programmes Finished TV programmes Clips and short-form content ☰ en English Deutsch عربي Português Español 日本語 中文 My Account Sign Out How to set or break a world record To become a record-holder requires determination, extraordinary skills and commitment. Before applying for an existing record, check the current information and make sure you’ve got what it takes to break the record. If you are suggesting a new record idea, we recommend that you spend some time searching our current records to see what may already have been achieved in your area of expertise. Every newly approved record idea has to be significantly different from existing records and demonstrate a completely new skill. Being the first to suggest a record does not immediately qualify for acceptance, with around 60% of applications for new records being rejected. However, we are always looking for new exciting ideas to reflect the world’s diversity. Ahead of applying, have a look at the key steps to follow.
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1. Explore the world records database thoroughly Check the What makes a GUINNESS WORLD RECORDS record title page and familiarise yourself with our record breaking criteria and policies. 2. Choose a world record to attempt Maybe you already have a world record in mind you want to attempt, or you can suggest a new idea. 3. Apply and wait to receive the guidelines. If your suggestion is not accepted, we will still reply and explain why. This can take up to 12 weeks or more if there is higher demand than usual. Please check current waiting times for the most up to date information. If you are in a hurry you can fast track your application by purchasing a Priority Application service (charges apply). 4. Understand the requirements and evidence needed for the attempt You will have access to a very important document called GUIDE TO YOUR EVIDENCE , which will explain in detail how to get your world record attempt verified. Many attempts are rejected because the rules have not been followed correctly. 5. Practice, practise, practise… It takes a lot of time and dedication to become the best in the world! Only move on to the following step when you are confident you can beat the world record, or the minimum requirement in the case of a new record.
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6. Carry out your official world record attempt Decide on a date, time and location for the record attempt, making sure you have the logistics planned out and the necessary equipment available. Arrange the presence of the independent witnesses and any other specialists required. You must also make sure a photographer and videographer are there to document your attempt. Be sure to check the current record you need to beat in case it’s been broken, then attempt the record and have fun! 7. Submit your evidence, cover letter and all other required documents Submit your evidence, cover letter and all other required documents More than 50% of submissions are rejected because the evidence is insufficient. Once you are confident with the submission, upload your evidence online and await the result. Our Records Management Team review each application individually and the process can take up to 12 weeks. Check current waiting times for the most up to date information. 8. The moment of truth! If you are successful, congratulations - you will receive an official Guinness World Records certificate (further certificates and merchandise can be purchased in the GWR Store). If not, do not give up, you can apply again or pick a different record to attempt. Understanding the application process The application process explained How long does it take? Reasons applications are rejected
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Current application waiting times Consultancy Priority Approval & Priority Review Standard applications Invite an Adjudicator Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram LinkedIn Snapchat Pinterest Tiktok RECORDS Apply to set or break a record Priority applications Invite an adjudicator Record consultancy The application process How long does it take? How to set or break a Guinness World Records title Understanding guidelines Guide to your evidence What makes a Guinness World Records title? Record policies FAQs PRODUCTS Books Guinness World Records 2020 Wild Things Guinness World Records Kids website Guinness World Records TV shows Guinness World Records store Educators BUSINESS SOLUTIONS Business & brand marketing solutions Creative campaign solutions Product launch strategies Corporate Social Responsibility activities & fundraising ideas Business anniversaries & celebrations Community engagement & tourism marketing activities Employee engagement strategies Experiential marketing campaigns Case studies Television programming NEWS Latest news Commercial news Press centre GWR social media channels ABOUT US Our purpose, vision, mission and values Our history Our company Careers GWR Tax strategy Privacy policy Terms & conditions Cookie policy Contact us English Deutsch عربي Português Español 日本語 中文 © Guinness World Records Limited 2019. All rights reserved. Registered in England No: 541295 Registered Office: South Quay Building, 189 Marsh Wall, London E14 9SH United Kingdom Facebook Pixel Code End Facebook Pixel Code We use cookies on this website We use cookies on this website. By using this site, you agree that we may store and access cookies on your device.
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Learn Why Melatonin Can Be Used for Anxiety | Vitagene Google Tag Manager (noscript) End Google Tag Manager (noscript) Shop Products COVID-19 Test Health + Ancestry Reports DNA Health Upload Report Premium Report Vitality Bundle Vigor Bundle Smart Supplements Blog Sign in Register Kit Register COVID-19 Test Kit Register DNA Test Kit Contact Us 0 Select Page #et-top-navigation #main-header Vitagene Blog Learn All About Why Melatonin Can Be Used for Anxiety Learn All About Why Melatonin Can Be Used for Anxiety September, 14 Supplements Melatonin, a hormone produced by your body, has been shown to improve symptoms of anxiety. Supplementing with melatonin for anxiety can improve sleep quality, regulate circadian rhythm, and ease negative feelings associated with anxiousness. Your hormone levels play a key role in your emotional state. Because of this, a hormonal imbalance can lead to anxiety. If you suffer from anxiety and have tried several corrective protocols to no avail, a DNA health test can help you learn more about your genetic predispositions. Get At-Home COVID-19 Test Kit Now .et_pb_text FDA authorized at home saliva self-collection testing kit for COVID-19. No waiting in line or uncomfortable swabs. .et_pb_text Start The Assessment .et_pb_column space .et_pb_text .et_pb_column .et_pb_row .et_pb_section Melatonin is important because it tells your body when it’s time to sleep and when it’s time to wake up. Your body produces higher levels of melatonin at night. Levels begin to rise once the sun sets, and drop in the morning as the sun rises.
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The light you are exposed to each day, plus your own internal body clock, determine how much melatonin your body will produce. Melatonin is also sold as a health supplement. It comes in pill, liquid, and chewable forms. You can typically find it at your local drugstore, supermarket, or vitamin shop. As with most things, you can buy it online, as well. Melatonin is available in both natural and synthetic forms. The natural form is created from animal pineal glands. The search for specific genes related to anxiety disorders is in the preliminary phase. What Supplements can you Use for Anxiety? There is a wide variety of supplements that can be used to help alleviate the symptoms of anxiety. Supplements are not intended to take the place of prescription medication or other medical treatments—but they can be useful additions to your healthcare plan. Get At-Home COVID-19 Test Kit Now .et_pb_text FDA authorized at home saliva self-collection testing kit for COVID-19. No waiting in line or uncomfortable swabs. .et_pb_text Start The Assessment .et_pb_column space .et_pb_text .et_pb_column .et_pb_row .et_pb_section Also Read: Why Magnesium for Anxiety Might Be Your Supplement! If appropriate for your individual needs, these supplements can be used to relieve anxiety symptoms: Vitamin A: Those who struggle with anxiety may be lacking in Vitamin A levels. Vitamin A has antioxidant properties that have been shown to help manage the symptoms of anxiety. The average dose is about 10,000 IU taken once per day (IU stands for international units).
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B-complex: B-complex supplements contain all of the B vitamins that your body requires. B vitamins are vital for maintaining a healthy, functioning nervous system. They can potentially improve the symptoms associated with depression and anxiety. Doses for B-complexes vary, ranging from 300 to 500 milligrams taken once per day. Vitamin C: Antioxidants like Vitamin C work to stop oxidative damage to your nervous system. Anxiety can be increased by this type of damage. The average dose ranges from 500 to 1,000 mg taken once or twice per day. Vitamin D: This important nutrient assists your body in absorbing other vitamins. Vitamin D deficiency can cause other vitamin deficiencies, which makes anxiety worse. The average dose is between 1,000 and 2,000 IU taken once or twice daily. Vitamin E: Another vitamin with antioxidant properties, Vitamin E is quickly burned up in times of anxiety and high stress. Taking Vitamin E supplements can help restore balance in your body and reduce stress-related symptoms. The dose is typically 400 IU taken once daily. Fish oil: Fish oil is loaded with omega-3 acids, which act as antioxidants. EPA and DHA are two omega-3 supplements that have been shown to help calm anxiousness. The average dose may contain 2,000 mg of EPA, DHA, and ALA. Each dose can be split up across multiple servings or taken at once.
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GABA: When there’s not enough GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) present in the brain, anxiety can deepen. Supplements containing GABA may help replace missing GABA in the brain, though research is ongoing. The dose is about 500 to 700 mg taken once or twice per day. L-theanine: This amino acid, often found in green tea, has been proven to reduce anxiety in both animal and human trials. The average dose is 200 mg once daily. Magnesium: Magnesium is a necessary mineral for the human body. You don’t need a lot of it, but not having enough can cause anxiety symptoms. The supplement dose is 100 to 500 milligrams once per day. 5-HTP: 5-HTP is a neurotransmitter and precursor to serotonin, the “happy brain chemical.” When used with certain therapies, 5-HTP supplements can help with anxiousness. The dose is typically 50 to 200 mg per day. Melatonin: Though your body produces melatonin on its own, you might not make enough. That can cause sleeplessness, trouble relaxing, and general anxiety. Supplementing with melatonin for anxiety can improve sleep quality, regulate circadian rhythm, and ease negative feelings associated with anxiousness. Doses are different based on the reason you’re taking the melatonin. For anxiety, a typical dose might be 3 to 10 mg. Different Ways to Take Melatonin Melatonin supplements can be taken several different ways, depending on the individual and the symptoms being treated.
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The most common method is the oral consumption of melatonin capsules or tablets. To treat anxiety, this is generally a quick and easy method. Melatonin has a myriad of uses, though, and can be administered in all of the following ways: Orally: Melatonin can be taken orally in capsule or tablet form. Be sure to take an appropriate dose for your age and symptoms. Sublingually: Melatonin can be dissolved under the tongue. This is a common method of administration for patients attempting to reduce anxiety before surgery. Topically: Melatonin has many uses, including topical skin care. Sunburn can be treated by rubbing melatonin-containing gel into the skin fifteen minutes prior to sun exposure, or four hours after sun exposure. Intravenously: Though not a common or DIY-friendly method of consumption melatonin can be administered intravenously. This might be done as part of various therapies to treat tumors. As you can see, melatonin is a very versatile supplement. Also Read: Does Fish Oil Work for Anxiety? Find Out How it Can Help What are the Benefits of Checking Melatonin Levels? There are many benefits to making yourself aware of your melatonin levels. Melatonin is a super clever and versatile hormone that can help with anxiety and depression, relieve pain from chronic disease, prevent cancer cell growth, and decrease the effects of estrogen on tumor growth. With so many amazing benefits, it’s in your best interest to check your melatonin level—and supplement if necessary.
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Your melatonin levels can be checked with a blood, saliva, or urine test. A common method of testing involves collecting a saliva sample at around ten o’clock in the evening. That’s the time when your melatonin level should be at its highest. This test isn’t always readily available at a standard medical clinic or doctor’s office. You may need to find a naturopathic or functional medicine doctor. They will interpret the results of your test and help you create a supplemental melatonin plan. Normal levels of melatonin vary throughout the twenty-four hour in a day. There is still some argument over whether it’s best to measure melatonin levels using blood, urine, or saliva. What Causes Melatonin Levels to be Low? There are a number of factors that can cause your body’s melatonin production to decrease, including: Stress Lack of natural light exposure Exposure to light at nighttime (televisions, cell phones, computers) Working night shifts at your job Traveling and changing time zones (jet lag) Lack of sleep or poor sleep quality (parents with an infant child) Nutritional deficiencies When your melatonin levels are too low, you may experience difficulty sleeping or forgetfulness. You may notice that it’s hard to get to sleep and that you feel awake, rather than sleepy, after ten o’clock in the evening. When your melatonin levels are low, your immunity is also lower.
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You’re more susceptible to catching a cold or getting the flu. If you experience any of these symptoms, your melatonin levels could be low and you should consider getting tested by a functional medicine practitioner or other qualified professional. Get At-Home COVID-19 Test Kit Now .et_pb_text FDA authorized at home saliva self-collection testing kit for COVID-19. No waiting in line or uncomfortable swabs. .et_pb_text Start The Assessment .et_pb_column space .et_pb_text .et_pb_column .et_pb_row .et_pb_section Other Benefits of Supplemental Melatonin Using supplemental melatonin for anxiety symptoms and sleep quality is a fairly well-known practice. Its applications, however, go much further. Here are a few other things melatonin supplements can do: Boost your immune system Prevent you from gaining fat Delay age-related vision loss Reduce ringing in your ears Lessen the negative side effects of smoking cessation Prevent premature aging Improve Mood Reduce occurrences of cluster headaches Also Read: What Are The Best Probiotics for Allergies? There are even more potential benefits of supplemental melatonin still being examined. They include the treatment of dementia, endometriosis, restless leg syndrome, and non-alcoholic liver disease. Seasonal Affective Disorder Seasonal affective disorder, or SAD for short, is important to mention when discussing melatonin levels and anxiety. The amount of melatonin your body produces changes due to light exposure levels. When sunlight exposure is infrequent, such as during the shortened daylight hours of winter, a temporary depression may set in.
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SAD is especially prominent in areas of higher latitude. Due to the reduction in light exposure, your melatonin levels will start fluctuating at abnormal times. Serotonin, a chemical tied to feelings of happiness, is also produced at reduced levels. There are special boxes, called SAD light boxes, that can be used to treat Seasonal Affective Disorder. The box emits a light that is twenty-five times brighter than normal daylight. Using a SAD light box for thirty minutes per day can help regulate melatonin production, relieving heightened symptoms of anxiety and restlessness. Types of Anxiety That can be Treated With Melatonin Anxiety can be broken down into different categories, based on causal factors and symptoms. Melatonin can be used to help treat the following types of anxiety: Generalized Anxiety: Those who struggle with generalized anxiety may “overreact” to daily troubles and obstacles in life. They undergo huge psychological stress in reaction to relatively minor problems. This excessive, often irrational worrying can prevent normal functioning. Supplemental melatonin can be used to decrease anxiety scores—measures of anxiety symptoms—in generalized anxiety sufferers. Age-Related Anxiety: Recent research has shown that the elderly population experience more anxiety than previously thought. A decline in physical health reduced social contact, and change in mental status could all be anxiety-inducing factors for the elderly. Melatonin, taken nightly, could alleviate anxiety and depression in older adults.
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Surgical Anxiety: Hospital and surgical anxiety is an extremely common occurrence in those requiring medical procedures. Sedatives can relieve this anxiety but often have some unwanted side effects. Melatonin has enabled some patients to get through surgeries with less anxiety and less pain. Hormone Balance is Vital for Reducing Anxiety Levels An imbalance in the body’s endocrine system will cause instability in hormone levels. This imbalance can lead to anxiety. Your hormone levels play a key role in your emotional state. The endocrine system controls your energy level and determines how well we deal with stress and remain calm. When hormones are out of balance, the result can be anxiety, depression, mood swings, agitation, and disturbed sleep. Women, especially, are prone to anxiety. That’s partly because women’s hormones can go awry during pregnancy and menstruation. The decrease in estrogen and serotonin experienced during menstruation and menopause can have a major impact on mood and cognitive function. Anxiety is a serious and debilitating condition. People with anxiety resulting from hormonal imbalance may think that they have a disorder or mental illness, but that is not necessarily the case. Your body may simply be sending you a message that something is not right internally. If you suffer from anxiety and have tried several corrective protocols to no avail, you should get tested to determine your levels of melatonin and other hormones.
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It’s important to understand that hormones are responsible for almost every process that occurs in your body. Your body is used to a very specific number of hormones, and any fluctuation can have very noticeable effects. Puberty and improper nutrition are other factors that can affect hormone levels—in men or women. Anxiety is so complex that it can cause hormonal imbalances that actually lead to more stress and anxiety! Hormone imbalances affect both men and women and produce anxiety even if you’ve never had anxiety before. If you do already have anxiety, hormonal imbalances can definitely pile on more stress. In addition to using supplemental melatonin for anxiety, there are other things you should do to help restore balance to your hormones. Proper nutrition, exercise, and sleep, for instance, should become a regular part of your routine. The good news is that anxiety induced by hormonal imbalance can be treated and corrected. By testing your melatonin and other hormone levels, you can begin taking steps to reduce your anxiety and alleviate your stress symptoms. Restoring balance to your hormones will restore balance to your life! .entry-content .et_post_meta_wrapper .et_pb_post Get At-Home COVID-19 Test Kit Now .et_pb_text FDA authorized at home saliva self-collection testing kit for COVID-19. No waiting in line or uncomfortable swabs. .et_pb_text Start The Assessment .et_pb_column space .et_pb_text .et_pb_column .et_pb_row
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.et_pb_section 48 7 Responses How Does Kefir Impact Your Acne? | Vitagene […] Also Read: Learn All About Why Melatonin Can Be Used for Anxiety […] You Must Be Logged In To Vote -1 You Must Be Logged In To Vote Reply 1 year ago What Are The Best Probiotics for Allergies? | Vitagene […] Also Read: Learn All About Why Melatonin Can Be Used for Anxiety […] You Must Be Logged In To Vote -1 You Must Be Logged In To Vote Reply 1 year ago Why Magnesium for Anxiety Might Be Your Supplement | Vitagene […] Also Read: Learn All About Why Melatonin Can Be Used for Anxiety […] You Must Be Logged In To Vote -1 You Must Be Logged In To Vote Reply 1 year ago #left-area Share this article 48 7 end .et_pb_widget end #sidebar #content-area Read more about Supplements July, 24 Supplements What is Irvingia Gabonensis Supplement and Uses? October, 13 Supplements What is Scot Thistle Plant? October, 7 Supplements Does Inositol Work on Anxiety? Learn More | Vitagene .container Want to get fresh news? Subscribe to Blog! .et_pb_text Get updates of the most trendy news delivered to your email .et_pb_text Mailchimp for WordPress v4.7.7 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/mailchimp-for-wp/ Subscribe Leave this field empty if you're human: / Mailchimp for WordPress Plugin .et_pb_text Close .et_pb_column .et_pb_column .et_pb_row
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Get At-Home COVID-19 Test Kit Now .et_pb_text FDA authorized at home saliva self-collection testing kit for COVID-19. No waiting in line or uncomfortable swabs .et_pb_text Start the Assessment Close .et_pb_column .et_pb_row .et_pb_section Feel better. Look better. Live better. .et_pb_blurb_description .et_pb_blurb_content .et_pb_blurb Vitagene proudly accepts: .et_pb_text .et_pb_column About Why Vitagene Affiliates Careers Supplements Site Map .et_pb_blurb_description .et_pb_blurb_content .et_pb_blurb Quick Links Activate a kit Login Shop How It Works? .et_pb_blurb_description .et_pb_blurb_content .et_pb_blurb Blog Blog Success Stories .et_pb_blurb_description .et_pb_blurb_content .et_pb_blurb Support </p> <li><a href="tel:8446984824">(844) 698-4824</a></li> <p> Help Center .et_pb_blurb_description .et_pb_blurb_content .et_pb_blurb News Newsroom .et_pb_blurb_description .et_pb_blurb_content .et_pb_blurb .et_pb_column .et_pb_row_inner Vitagene proudly accepts: .et_pb_text .et_pb_column .et_pb_row_inner .et_pb_column .et_pb_row .et_pb_section #main-content Shop How It Works Why Vitagene? Success Stories Blog Activate Login #et-footer-nav LinkedIn Twitter Facebook Instagram Pinterest Youtube RSS Copyright 2020 © Vitagene | Terms of Use | Privacy | Do Not Sell My PI .container #main-footer #et-main-area #page-container googleoff: all This website uses cookies to enhance your user experience, improve the quality of our site, and to show you marketing that is more likely to be relevant to your interests. We also allow third parties, including our advertising partners, to place cookies on our websites. By continuing to use this website, you consent to the placement and use of cookies as described in our Cookie Policy. More info Got it! Privacy & Cookies Policy Close
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Cream (band) - Wikipedia CentralNotice Cream (band) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Cream (disambiguation) . Cream Cream in 1967. L–R: Ginger Baker , Jack Bruce and Eric Clapton . Background information Origin London, UK Genres Psychedelic rock acid rock [1] blues rock hard rock Years active 1966 ( 1966 ) –1968 1993 ( Hall of Fame performance) 2005 Labels Reaction Polydor Atco RSO Reprise Associated acts Eric Clapton and the Powerhouse the Graham Bond Organisation John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers Blind Faith Bruce-Baker-Moore Past members Ginger Baker Jack Bruce Eric Clapton Cream were a British rock band formed in London in 1966. The group consisted of bassist Jack Bruce , guitarist Eric Clapton , and drummer Ginger Baker . Bruce was the primary songwriter and vocalist, although Clapton and Baker also sang and contributed songs. Formed from members of previously successful bands, they are widely regarded as the world's first supergroup . [2] Cream were highly regarded for the instrumental proficiency of each of their members. Their music spanned many genres of rock music , including blues rock (" Crossroads ", " Born Under a Bad Sign "), psychedelic rock (" Tales of Brave Ulysses ", " White Room "), and hard rock (" Sunshine of Your Love ", " SWLABR "). In their career, they sold more than 15 million records worldwide. [3] The group's third album, Wheels of Fire (1968), is the world's first platinum-selling double album . [4] [5]
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In 1993, Cream were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . [6] They were included in both Rolling Stone and VH1 's lists of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time", at number 67 and 61 respectively. [7] [8] They were also ranked number 16 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock". [9] Contents 1 History 1.1 Formation (1966) 1.2 Fresh Cream (1966) 1.3 Disraeli Gears (1967) 1.4 Wheels of Fire (1968) 1.5 Goodbye and break-up (1968–1969) 1.6 Post-Cream 1.7 Reunions 1.7.1 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 1.7.2 2005 concerts 1.8 Post-2005 2 Personnel 3 Discography 4 References 5 External links History [ edit ] Formation (1966) [ edit ] By July 1966, Eric Clapton 's career with the Yardbirds and John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers had earned him a reputation as the premier blues guitarist in Britain. [10] Clapton, however, found the environment of Mayall's band confining, and sought to expand his playing in a new band. In 1966, Clapton met Ginger Baker , then the leader of the Graham Bond Organisation , which at one point featured Jack Bruce on bass guitar, harmonica and piano. Baker felt stifled in the Graham Bond Organisation and had grown tired of Graham Bond 's drug addictions and bouts of mental instability. "I had always liked Ginger", explained Clapton. "Ginger had come to see me play with the Bluesbreakers. After the gig he drove me back to London in his Rover. I was very impressed with his car and driving. He was telling me that he wanted to start a band, and I had been thinking about it too." [11]
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Each was impressed with the other's playing abilities, prompting Baker to ask Clapton to join his new, then-unnamed group. Clapton immediately agreed, on the condition that Baker hire Bruce as the group's bassist; [5] according to Clapton, Baker was so surprised at the suggestion that he almost crashed the car. [12] Clapton had met Bruce when the bassist/vocalist briefly played with the Bluesbreakers in November 1965; [5] [13] the two also had recorded together as part of an ad hoc group dubbed Powerhouse (which also included Steve Winwood and Paul Jones ). Impressed with Bruce's vocals and technical prowess, Clapton wanted to work with him on an ongoing basis. In contrast, while Bruce was in Bond's band, he and Baker had been notorious for their quarrelling. [14] Their volatile relationship included on-stage fights and the sabotage of one another's instruments. [14] After Baker fired Bruce from the band, Bruce continued to arrive for gigs; ultimately, Bruce was driven away from the band after Baker threatened him at knifepoint. [15] Baker and Bruce tried to put aside their differences for the good of Baker's new trio, which he envisioned as collaborative, with each of the members contributing to music and lyrics. The band was named "Cream", as Clapton, Bruce, and Baker were already considered the "cream of the crop" amongst blues and jazz musicians in the exploding British music scene . Initially, the group were referred to and billed as "The Cream", but starting officially with its first record releases, the trio came to be known as "Cream". [13] Despite this, the band was referred to as "The Cream" on several occasions by promoters and disc jockeys, and even on occasion by the band members themselves. Before deciding upon "Cream", the band considered calling themselves "Sweet 'n' Sour Rock 'n' Roll". [4] Of the trio, Clapton had the biggest reputation in England; however, he was all but unknown in the US, having left the Yardbirds before " For Your Love " hit the American Top Ten . [10]
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The band made its unofficial debut at the Twisted Wheel on 29 July 1966. [5] [12] Its official debut came two nights later at the Sixth Annual Windsor Jazz & Blues Festival. [5] [12] Being new and with few original songs to its credit, they performed blues reworkings that thrilled the large crowd and earned it a warm reception. In October the band also got a chance to jam with Jimi Hendrix , who had recently arrived in London. Hendrix was a fan of Clapton's music, and wanted a chance to play with him onstage. [5] It was during the early organisation that they decided Bruce would serve as the group's lead vocalist. While Clapton was shy about singing, [16] he occasionally harmonised with Bruce and, in time, took lead vocals on several Cream tracks including " Four Until Late ", "Strange Brew", "World of Pain", " Outside Woman Blues ", "Crossroads", and "Badge". Fresh Cream (1966) [ edit ] Main article: Fresh Cream The band's debut album, Fresh Cream , was recorded and released in 1966. The album reached number 6 in the UK charts and number 39 in the US. It was evenly split between self-penned originals and blues covers, including "Four Until Late", " Rollin' and Tumblin' ", "Spoonful", " I'm So Glad " [17] and "Cat's Squirrel". The rest of the songs were written by either Jack Bruce or Ginger Baker. ("I Feel Free", a UK hit single, [5] was included on only the American edition of the LP.) The track " Toad " contained one of the earliest examples of a drum solo in rock music as Ginger Baker expanded upon his early composition "Camels and Elephants", written in 1965 with the Graham Bond Organisation .
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Early Cream bootlegs display a much tighter band showcasing more songs. [ citation needed ] All of the songs are reasonably short, including five-minute versions of "N.S.U.", "Sweet Wine" and "Toad". But a mere two months later, the setlist shortened, with the songs then much longer. Disraeli Gears (1967) [ edit ] Main article: Disraeli Gears Cream's "Sunshine of Your Love" First 20 seconds of intro Problems playing this file? See media help . The band first visited the US in March 1967 to play nine dates at the RKO 58th Street Theatre in New York City. There was little impact, as impresario Murray the K placed them at the bottom of a six-act bill that performed three times per date, eventually reducing the band to one song per concert. [ citation needed ] They returned to record Disraeli Gears in New York between 11 and 15 May 1967. [18] This, the band's second album, was released in November 1967 and reached the top five in the charts on both sides of the Atlantic. [ citation needed ] Produced by Felix Pappalardi (who later co-founded the Cream-influenced quartet Mountain ) and engineer Tom Dowd , it was recorded at Atlantic Studios in New York. Disraeli Gears is often considered to be the band's defining effort, successfully blending psychedelic British rock with American blues. [ citation needed ]
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In addition to "Strange Brew" and "Tales of Brave Ulysses", Disraeli Gears features "Sunshine of Your Love", which became the group's unofficial anthem, and is probably their best-known song today. [17] Bruce and Pete Brown came upon the idea in a state of near desperation in the wee hours. In a last-ditch attempt to salvage something from the long and fruitless night at his apartment, the bleary-eyed Bruce pulled out his double bass again and played a riff. At that point, Brown looked out the window and saw the sun was about to rise: "It's getting near dawn", he said to himself. Brown put the words on paper then thought some more: "When lights close their tired eyes". Cream performing on Dutch television in January 1968 The album was originally slated for release in the summer of 1967, but the record label opted to scrap the planned cover and repackage it with a new psychedelic cover, designed by artist Martin Sharp , and the resulting changes delayed its release for several months. [ citation needed ] The cover was remarkable for the time, with a psychedelic design patterned over a publicity photo of the trio. Although the album is considered one of Cream's finest efforts, it has never been well represented in the band's live sets. [ citation needed ] Although they consistently played "Tales of Brave Ulysses" and "Sunshine of Your Love", several songs from Disraeli Gears were quickly dropped from performances in mid-1967, favouring longer jams instead of short pop songs . "We're Going Wrong" was the only additional song from the album the group performed live. In fact, at their 2005 reunion shows in London , the band played only three songs from Disraeli Gears : "Outside Woman Blues", " We're Going Wrong ", and "Sunshine of Your Love"; at their three October 2005 performances in New York, "Tales of Brave Ulysses" was also included in the setlist.
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In August 1967, the band played their first headlining dates in the US, first at The Fillmore in San Francisco and later at The Pinnacle in Los Angeles. The concerts were a great success and proved very influential on both the band itself and the flourishing hippie scene surrounding them. Upon discovering a growing listening audience, the band began to stretch out on stage, incorporating more time in their repertoire, some songs reaching jams of twenty minutes. Long, drawn-out jams in numbers like "Spoonful", "N.S.U.", "I'm So Glad", and "Sweet Wine" became live favourites, while songs like "Sunshine of Your Love", "Crossroads", and "Tales of Brave Ulysses" remained reasonably short. [ citation needed ] Wheels of Fire (1968) [ edit ] Main article: Wheels of Fire Cream performing in 1968 In 1968 came the band's third release, Wheels of Fire , which topped the American charts. The album was recorded in a spate of short sessions in from July 1967 to June 1968. [ citation needed ] Still a relative novelty, the double album of two LP records was well-suited to extended solos. The Wheels of Fire studio recordings showcased the band moving way from the blues and more towards a semi- progressive rock style highlighted by odd time signatures and various orchestral instruments. [ citation needed ] However, the band did record Howlin' Wolf 's " Sitting on Top of the World " and Albert King 's "Born Under a Bad Sign". According to a BBC interview with Clapton, the record company, Atco Records , also handling Albert King, asked the band to cover "Born Under a Bad Sign", which became a popular track off the record. [ citation needed ] The opening song, "White Room", became a radio staple. Another song, "Politician", was written by the band while waiting to perform live at the BBC. [11] The album's second disc featured three live recordings from the Winterland Ballroom and one from the Fillmore. Clapton's second solo from "Crossroads" has made it to the top 20 in multiple "greatest guitar solo" lists. [19] [20]
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After the completion of Wheels of Fire in mid-1968, the band members had grown tired of their exhausting touring schedule and increasingly loud jamming, and wanted to go their separate ways. Baker stated in a 2006 interview with Music Mart magazine, "It just got to the point where Eric said to me: 'I've had enough of this', and I said so have I. I couldn't stand it. The last year with Cream was just agony. It damaged my hearing permanently, and today I've still got a hearing problem because of the sheer volume throughout the last year of Cream. But it didn't start off like that. In 1966, it was great. It was really a wonderful experience musically, and it just went into the realms of stupidity." [ citation needed ] Bruce and Baker's combustible relationship proved even worse as a result of the strain put upon the band by non-stop touring, forcing Clapton to play the perpetual role of peacekeeper. On more than one occasion Clapton was reduced to tears by their arguments. Clapton had also become interested in the music of Bob Dylan 's former backing group, now known as the Band , and their debut album, Music from Big Pink , [5] which proved to be a welcome breath of fresh air, to Clapton, in comparison to the psychedelia and volume that had defined Cream. Furthermore, he had read a scathing Cream review in Rolling Stone , a publication he had much admired, in which the reviewer, Jon Landau , called him a "master of the blues cliché". [5] In the wake of that article, Clapton wanted to end Cream and pursue a different musical direction.
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At the beginning of the band's farewell tour on 4 October 1968, in Oakland, California, nearly the entire set consisted of songs from Wheels of Fire : "White Room", "Politician", "Crossroads", "Spoonful", and "Deserted Cities of the Heart", with "Passing the Time" taking the place of "Toad" for a drum solo. "Passing the Time" and "Deserted Cities" were quickly removed from the setlist and replaced by "Sitting on Top of the World" and "Toad". [ citation needed ] Goodbye and break-up (1968–1969) [ edit ] Main article: Goodbye (Cream album) Ginger Baker at the drumkit From its creation, Cream was faced with some fundamental problems that would later lead to its dissolution in November 1968. The antagonism between Bruce and Baker created tensions in the band. Clapton also felt that the members of the band did not listen to each other enough. Equipment during these years had also improved; new Marshall amplifier stacks produced more power, and Jack Bruce pushed the volume levels higher, creating tension for Baker, who would have trouble competing with roaring stacks. Clapton spoke of a concert during which he stopped playing and neither Baker nor Bruce noticed. [14] Clapton has also commented that Cream's later gigs mainly consisted of its members showing off. [21] Cream decided that they would break up in May 1968 during a tour of the US. [22] Later, in July, an official announcement was made that the band would break up after a farewell tour of the US and after playing two concerts in London.
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Cream were eventually persuaded to do one final album. The album, the appropriately titled Goodbye , was recorded in late 1968 and released in early 1969, after the band had broken up. [ citation needed ] It featured six songs: three live recordings dating from a concert at The Forum in Los Angeles, California, on 19 October, and three new studio recordings (including "Badge", which was written by Clapton and George Harrison , who also played rhythm guitar and was credited as "L'Angelo Misterioso"). "I'm So Glad" was included among the live tracks. Cream's "farewell tour" consisted of 22 shows at 19 venues in the US from 4 October to 4 November 1968, and two final farewell concerts at the Royal Albert Hall on 25 and 26 November 1968. The final US gig was at the Rhode Island Auditorium on 4 November. The band arrived late and, due to local restrictions, were able to perform only two songs, "Toad" and a 20+ minute version of "Spoonful". [ citation needed ] The two Royal Albert Hall concerts were filmed for a BBC documentary and released on video (and later DVD) as Farewell Concert . Both shows were sold out and attracted more attention than any other Cream concert, but their performance was regarded by many as below standard. Baker himself said of the concerts: "It wasn't a good gig ... Cream was better than that ... We knew it was all over. We knew we were just finishing it off, getting it over with." Bruce had three Marshall stacks on stage for the farewell shows but one acted only as a spare, and he only used one or two, depending on the song. [22] In an interview from Cream: Classic Artists , he added that the band was getting worse by the minute.
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Jack Bruce performing on Dutch television in 1968 Post-Cream [ edit ] Eric Clapton performing in Barcelona years after leaving Cream, 1986 Blind Faith , a band that included both Clapton and Baker, was formed after the demise of Cream, following an attempt by Clapton to recruit Steve Winwood into Cream in the hope that he would help act as a buffer between Bruce and Baker. [12] Inspired by more song-based acts, Clapton went on to perform much different, less improvisational material with Delaney & Bonnie , Derek and the Dominos , and in his own long and varied solo career. [ citation needed ] Bruce began a varied and successful solo career with the 1969 release of Songs for a Tailor , while Baker formed a jazz-fusion ensemble out of the ashes of Blind Faith called Ginger Baker's Air Force , which featured Winwood, Blind Faith bassist Rick Grech , Graham Bond on saxophone, and guitarist Denny Laine of the Moody Blues and (later) Wings . [ citation needed ] All three members continued to explore new musical ideas and partnerships, play concerts and record music for over four decades after ending Cream. Reunions [ edit ] Rock and Roll Hall of Fame [ edit ] In 1993, Cream were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and re-formed to perform at the induction ceremony . [23] Initially, the trio were wary about performing, until encouraging words from Robbie Robertson inspired them to try. [24] The set consisted of "Sunshine of Your Love", "Crossroads", and "Born Under a Bad Sign", a song they had not previously played live. [ citation needed ] Clapton mentioned in his acceptance speech that their rehearsal the day before the ceremony had marked the first time they had played together in 25 years. [5] This performance spurred rumours of a reunion tour. Bruce and Baker said in later interviews that they were, indeed, interested in touring as Cream. [ citation needed ] A formal reunion did not take place immediately, as Clapton, Bruce and Baker continued to pursue solo projects, although the latter two worked together again in the mid-1990s as two-thirds of the power trio BBM with Irish blues rock guitarist Gary Moore .
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2005 concerts [ edit ] At Clapton's request, Cream reunited for a series of four shows, on 2, 3, 5, and 6 May 2005 at the Royal Albert Hall in London, the venue of their final concerts in 1968. [25] Although the three musicians chose not to speak publicly about the shows, Clapton would later state that he had become more "generous" in regard to his past, and that the physical health of Bruce and Baker was a major factor: [25] Bruce had recently undergone a transplant for liver cancer in 2003, and had almost lost his life, while Baker had severe arthritis. Tickets for all four shows sold out in under an hour. The performances were recorded for a live CD and DVD. Among those in attendance were Bill Wyman , Steve Winwood , [26] Paul McCartney , Ringo Starr , Roger Waters , Brian May , Jimmy Page , and Mick Taylor . [27] The reunion marked the first time the band had played "Badge" and "Pressed Rat and Warthog" live. [25] Inspired by the success of the reunion, the band agreed to an additional set of three shows at the Madison Square Garden in New York City, from 24–26 October 2005. [28] According to Clapton, these concerts did not live up to the Royal Albert Hall performances due to, among other reasons, lack of rehearsal and the resurgence of old grudges among band members. [29]
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Post-2005 [ edit ] In February 2006, Cream received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in recognition of their contribution to, and influence upon, modern music. [30] [31] That same month, a "Classic Albums" DVD was released detailing the story behind the creation and recording of Disraeli Gears . On the day prior to the Grammy ceremony, Bruce made a public statement that more one-off performances of Cream had been planned: multiple dates in a few cities, similar to the Royal Albert Hall and Madison Square Garden shows. However, this story was refuted by both Clapton and Baker, first by Clapton in a Times article from April 2006. The article stated that when asked about Cream, Clapton said: "No. Not for me. We did it and it was fun. But life is too short. I've got lots of other things I would rather do, including staying at home with my kids. The thing about that band was that it was all to do with its limits ... it was an experiment." In an interview in the UK magazine Music Mart , about the release of a DVD about the Blind Faith concert in Hyde Park 1969, Baker commented about his unwillingness to continue the Cream reunion. These comments were far more specific and explosive than Clapton's, as they were centred around his relationship with Jack Bruce. Ginger said, "When he's Dr. Jekyll, he's fine ... It's when he's Mr. Hyde that he's not. And I'm afraid he's still the same. I tell you this – there won't ever be any more Cream gigs, because he did Mr. Hyde in New York last year." [32]
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When asked to elaborate, Baker replied: Oh, he shouted at me on stage, he turned his bass up so loud that he deafened me on the first gig. What he does is that he apologises and apologises, but I'm afraid, to do it on a Cream reunion gig, that was the end. He killed the magic, and New York was like 1968 ... It was just a get through the gig, get the money sort of deal. I was absolutely amazed. I mean, he demonstrated why he got the sack from Graham Bond and why Cream didn't last very long on stage in New York. I didn't want to do it in the first place simply because of how Jack was. I have worked with him several times since Cream, and I promised myself that I would never work with him again. When Eric first came up with the idea, I said no, and then he phoned me up and eventually convinced me to do it. I was on my best behaviour and I did everything I could to make things go as smooth as possible, and I was really pleasant to Jack. [32] Baker and Bruce appeared on stage in London when Baker was awarded a lifetime achievement award by Zildjian . [ citation needed ] Bruce told Detroit's WCSX radio station in May 2007 that there were plans for a Cream reunion later in the year. It was later revealed that the potential performance was to be November 2007 in London as a tribute to Ahmet Ertegün . The band decided against it and this was confirmed by Bruce in a letter to the editor of the Jack Bruce fanzine, The Cuicoland Express , dated 26 September 2007:
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Dear Marc, We were going to do this tribute concert for Ahmet when it was to be at the Royal Albert Hall but decided to pass when it was moved to the O2 Arena and seemed to be becoming overly commercial. The headlining act for the O2 Arena Ahmet Ertegün Tribute Concert (postponed to December 2007) turned out to be another reunited English hard-rock act, Led Zeppelin . In an interview with BBC 6 Music in April 2010, Bruce confirmed that there would be no more Cream shows: "Cream is over." [33] Bruce died on 25 October 2014 and Baker died on 6 October 2019, leaving Clapton as the last surviving member. [34] [35] Personnel [ edit ] Ginger Baker – drums, percussion, backing and lead vocals Jack Bruce – lead and backing vocals, bass guitar, keyboards, piano, harmonica, cello, acoustic guitar Eric Clapton – lead and rhythm guitars, backing and lead vocals Discography [ edit ] Main articles: Cream discography and List of songs recorded by Cream Fresh Cream (1966) Disraeli Gears (1967) Wheels of Fire (1968) Goodbye (1969) References [ edit ] ^ Knowles, Christopher (2010). The Secret History of Rock 'n' Roll . Cleis Press . p. 199. ^ "Supergroup Cream rises again" . CNN.com . 20 December 1999 . Retrieved 2 October 2011 . ^ "Cream: Still Rising to the Top" . Time.com . 9 March 2009 . Retrieved 2 October 2011 .
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^ a b "Cream – the Band" . BBC. 20 September 2000 . Retrieved 30 June 2008 . ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cream: Classic Artists (DVD). Image Entertainment. 2007. ^ "Cream: inducted in 1993" . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum. Retrieved 25 April 2012 ^ "The Greatest Artists of All Time" . VH1/Stereogum. Retrieved 25 April 2012. ^ Waters, Roger . "Cream: 100 Greatest Artists of All Time" . Rolling Stone. Retrieved 25 April 2012 ^ "VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock (20–1)" . VH1 . 2000 . Retrieved 26 June 2008 . ^ a b Unterberger, Richie. "Cream: Biography" . AllMusic . Retrieved 30 June 2008 . ^ a b McDermott, John (November 1997). "Strange Brew". Guitar World . ^ a b c d Clapton, Eric (2007). Clapton: The Autobiography . New York City: Broadway Books. pp. 74 , 77. ISBN 978-0-385-51851-2 . ^ a b Hjort, Christopher (2007). Strange Brew: Eric Clapton & the British Blues Boom, 1965–1970 . London: Jawbone Press. pp. 29, 54. ISBN 978-1-906002-00-8 . ^ a b c White, Dave. "Cream" . about.com . Retrieved 27 June 2008 . ^ Tobler, John and Frame, Pete: Jack Bruce interview, Zigzag # 22, autumn 1971 ^ Ertegün, Ahmet (2006). Classic Albums: Cream – Disraeli Gears (DVD). Eagle Rock Entertainment.
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^ a b Gilliland, John (1969). "Show 53 – String Man. : UNT Digital Library" (audio) . Pop Chronicles . University of North Texas Libraries . ^ GP Flashback : Cream, June 1967 Archived 17 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine – Guitar Player Article – June 1967 ^ "The 25 Coolest Guitar Solos" . Rolling Stone . 6 August 2007 . Retrieved 19 August 2008 . ^ "The 100 Greatest Guitar Solos" . Guitar World . Retrieved 19 August 2008 . ^ Clapton, Eric (8 October 2007). "Eric Clapton Chronicles Music, Addiction and Romance in New Book" . Clapton: The Autobiography . spinner.com . Retrieved 8 November 2008 . ^ a b Welch, Chris (4 August 2005). "The Farewell" . Archived from the original on 16 May 2008 . Retrieved 28 June 2008 . ^ "Cream" . Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . Retrieved 26 June 2008 . ^ Eric Clapton said, when they accepted their award: "I have to be honest and say that until very recently I didn't believe in this institution at all. It seemed to me that rock & roll should never be respectable. And then a friend of mine, not so long ago, Robbie Robertson, pointed out that minor and major miracles take place in here. It deeply moved me. I looked at this from a different point of view and learned that a lot can be gained by coming here tonight. A lot has been gained. I've been reunited with two people that I lover very dearly. It's very moving. Yesterday, we played together for the first time in 25 years. It was pretty amazing." "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Reunions That Actually Happened" . Retrieved 17 July 2019 .
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^ a b c Bruce, Jack; Baker, Ginger; Clapton, Eric (2005). "Interview", Royal Albert Hall London May 2-3-5-6, 2005 special feature (DVD). Rhino Entertainment. ^ "Blu-ray review of Cream's 'Royal Albert Hall, London ' " . Goldmine . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . ^ Griffin, Matt. "Eric Clapton's most memorable Royal Albert Hall moments" . Royal Albert Hall . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . ^ Eisner, Peter. "Cream, Rising to the Occasion at Madison Square Garden" . The Washington Post . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . ^ Greene, Andy. "Flashback: Cream Put Aside Their Differences for Reunion Shows" . Rolling Stone . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . ^ Cream: Biography . Rolling Stone. Retrieved 25 April 2012 ^ Grammys To Salute Bowie, Cream, Haggard, Pryor . Billboard. Retrieved 25 April 2012 ^ a b "Ginger Baker Interview" . Slowhand . Retrieved 12 August 2009 . ^ "6Music News - Jack Bruce's Cream" . bbc.com . Retrieved 2 October 2011 . ^ "Cream bassist Jack Bruce dies, aged 71" . bbc.com . Retrieved 25 October 2014 . ^ Savage, Mark (6 October 2019). "Ginger Baker: Legendary Cream drummer dies aged 80" . bbc.com . Retrieved 6 October 2019 . External links [ edit ] Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cream (band) Eric Clapton official website Jack Bruce official website Ginger Baker official website
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v t e Cream Ginger Baker Jack Bruce Eric Clapton Studio albums Fresh Cream Disraeli Gears Wheels of Fire Goodbye Live albums Live Cream Live Cream Volume II BBC Sessions Royal Albert Hall London May 2-3-5-6, 2005 Compilations Best of Cream Heavy Cream Strange Brew: The Very Best of Cream The Very Best of Cream Those Were the Days Gold Singles " Wrapping Paper " " I Feel Free " " Strange Brew "/" Tales of Brave Ulysses " " Spoonful " " Sunshine of Your Love "/" SWLABR " " Anyone for Tennis " " White Room " " Crossroads " " Badge " " Lawdy Mama " Other songs " Four Until Late " " Rollin' and Tumblin' " " I'm So Glad " " Toad " " We're Going Wrong " " Outside Woman Blues " " Sitting on Top of the World " " Born Under a Bad Sign " " Steppin' Out " " Doing That Scrapyard Thing " Film Cream's Farewell Concert Collaborators Pete Brown Felix Pappalardi Martin Sharp Gail Collins Janet Godfrey George Harrison Mike Taylor Robert Stigwood Related articles Discography Songs The Graham Bond Organisation John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers Eric Clapton and the Powerhouse Blind Faith BBM Book Category v t e Rock and Roll Hall of Fame – Class of 1993 Performers
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Lua memory usage: 5.87 MB/50 MB Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 1151.960 1 -total 37.63% 433.497 1 Template:Reflist 18.83% 216.894 19 Template:Citation_needed 16.61% 191.289 19 Template:Fix 16.59% 191.107 19 Template:Cite_web 11.37% 131.010 1 Template:Authority_control 9.39% 108.186 3 Template:Cite_book 7.95% 91.628 1 Template:Infobox_musical_artist 7.87% 90.659 38 Template:Category_handler 7.47% 86.099 19 Template:Delink Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:53414-0!canonical and timestamp 20191126134958 and revision id 928049737 Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cream_(band)&oldid=928049737 " Categories : Cream (band) Acid rock music groups 1966 establishments in England 1968 disestablishments in England British musical trios Supergroups (music) Musical groups from London English blues rock musical groups English hard rock musical groups British rhythm and blues boom musicians British psychedelic rock music groups Musical groups established in 1966 Musical groups disestablished in 1968 Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Polydor Records artists Atco Records artists RSO Records artists Reprise Records artists Eric Clapton Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links Use British English from January 2014 Use dmy dates from January 2014 Articles with hCards All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from October 2019 Articles with hAudio microformats Articles with unsourced statements from May 2010 Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with MusicBrainz identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLP identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WorldCat-VIAF identifiers
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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek - Wikipedia CentralNotice Antonie van Leeuwenhoek From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Dutch tradesman and scientist For the eponymous microbiology journal, see Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (journal) . "Leeuwenhoek" redirects here. For other uses, see Leeuwenhoek (disambiguation) . In this Dutch name , the family name is van Leeuwenhoek , not Leeuwenhoek . Antonie van Leeuwenhoek A portrait of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) by Jan Verkolje Born ( 1632-10-24 ) 24 October 1632 Delft , Dutch Republic Died 26 August 1723 (1723-08-26) (aged 90) Delft, Dutch Republic Nationality Dutch Known for The first acknowledged microscopist and microbiologist [note 1] Microscopic discovery of microorganisms ( animalcule ) Scientific career Fields Microscopy Microbiology Influences Robert Hooke Regnier de Graaf Influenced History of biology and life sciences Natural history Scientific Revolution Age of Reason Signature Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek [note 2] FRS ( / ˈ ɑː n t ə n i v ɑː n ˈ l eɪ v ən h uː k , - h ʊ k / AHN -tə-nee vahn LAY -vən-hook, -huuk , Dutch: [ɑnˈtoːni vɑn ˈleːuə(n)ˌɦuk] ( listen ) ; [5] 24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723) was a Dutch businessman and scientist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology . A largely self-taught man in science, he is commonly known as " the Father of Microbiology ", and one of the first microscopists and microbiologists . [6] [7] Van Leeuwenhoek is best known for his pioneering work in microscopy and for his contributions toward the establishment of microbiology as a scientific discipline .
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Raised in Delft , Dutch Republic , van Leeuwenhoek worked as a draper in his youth and founded his own shop in 1654. He became well recognized in municipal politics and developed an interest in lensmaking. In the 1670s, he started to explore microbial life with his microscope. [note 3] This was one of the notable achievements of the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s). Using single-lensed microscopes of his own design, van Leeuwenhoek was the first to experiment with microbes , which he originally referred to as dierkens , diertgens or diertjes ( Dutch for "small animals" [translated into English as animalcules , from Latin animalculum = "tiny animal"]). [8] Through his experiments, he was the first to relatively determine their size. Most of the "animalcules" are now referred to as unicellular organisms , although he observed multicellular organisms in pond water. He was also the first to document microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria , spermatozoa , red blood cells , crystals in gouty tophi , and blood flow in capillaries . Although van Leeuwenhoek did not write any books, his discoveries came to light through correspondence with the Royal Society , which published his letters. Contents 1 Early life and career 2 Microscopic study 2.1 Recognition by the Royal Society 2.2 Scientific fame 3 Techniques and discoveries
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4 Legacy and recognition 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Sources 9 External links Early life and career Van Leeuwenhoek's birth house in Delft, in the Netherlands, in 1926 before it was demolished Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft , Dutch Republic , on 24 October 1632. On 4 November, he was baptized as Thonis . His father, Philips Antonisz van Leeuwenhoek, was a basket maker who died when Antonie was only five years old. His mother, Margaretha (Bel van den Berch), came from a well-to-do brewer's family. She remarried Jacob Jansz Molijn, a painter. Antonie had four older sisters: Margriet, Geertruyt, Neeltje, and Catharina. [9] When he was around ten years old his step-father died. He attended school in Warmond for a short time before being sent to live in Benthuizen with his uncle, an attorney. At the age of 16 he became a bookkeeper's apprentice at a linen-draper's shop in Amsterdam, [10] which was owned by the Scot William Davidson . Van Leeuwenhoek left there after six years. [11] [12] Van Leeuwenhoek married Barbara de Mey in July 1654, with whom he fathered one surviving daughter, Maria (four other children died in infancy). That same year he returned to Delft, where he would live and study for the rest of his life. He opened a draper's shop, which he ran throughout the 1650s. His wife died in 1666, and in 1671, van Leeuwenhoek remarried to Cornelia Swalmius with whom he had no children. [13] His status in Delft had grown throughout the years. In 1660 he received a lucrative job as chamberlain for the assembly chamber of the Delft sheriffs in the city hall , a position which he would hold for almost 40 years. In 1669 he was appointed as a land surveyor by the court of Holland ; at some time he combined it with another municipal job, being the official "wine-gauger" of Delft and in charge of the city wine imports and taxation. [14]
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The Geographer by Johannes Vermeer Van Leeuwenhoek was a contemporary of another famous Delft citizen, the painter Johannes Vermeer , who was baptized just four days earlier. It has been suggested that he is the man portrayed in two Vermeer paintings of the late 1660s, The Astronomer and The Geographer , but others argue that there appears to be little physical similarity. Because they were both relatively important men in a city with only 24,000 inhabitants, it is likely that they were at least acquaintances; van Leeuwenhoek acted as the executor of Vermeer's will after the painter died in 1675. [15] [note 4] Microscopic study See also: Microscopic discovery of microorganisms A microscopic section of a one-year-old ash tree ( Fraxinus ) wood, drawing made by van Leeuwenhoek While running his draper shop, van Leeuwenhoek wanted to see the quality of the thread better than what was possible using the magnifying lenses of the time. He developed an interest in lensmaking, although few records exist of his early activity. Van Leeuwenhoek's interest in microscopes and a familiarity with glass processing led to one of the most significant, and simultaneously well-hidden, technical insights in the history of science: By placing the middle of a small rod of soda lime glass in a hot flame, van Leeuwenhoek could pull the hot section apart to create two long whiskers of glass. Then, by reinserting the end of one whisker into the flame, he could create a very small, high-quality glass sphere. These spheres became the lenses of his microscopes, with the smallest spheres providing the highest magnifications. [16]
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Recognition by the Royal Society After developing his method for creating powerful lenses and applying them to the study of the microscopic world, [17] van Leeuwenhoek introduced his work to his friend, the prominent Dutch physician Reinier de Graaf . When the Royal Society in London published the groundbreaking work of an Italian lensmaker in their journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , de Graaf wrote to the editor of the journal, Henry Oldenburg , with a ringing endorsement of van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes which, he claimed, "far surpass those which we have hitherto seen". In response, in 1673 the society published a letter from van Leeuwenhoek that included his microscopic observations on mold, bees, and lice. [18] A 1677 letter from van Leeuwenhoek to Oldenburg, with the latter's English translation behind, the full correspondence remains in the Royal Society Library Van Leeuwenhoek's work fully captured the attention of the Royal Society, and he began corresponding regularly with the society regarding his observations. At first he had been reluctant to publicize his findings, regarding himself as a businessman with little scientific, artistic, or writing background, but de Graaf urged him to be more confident in his work. [19] By the time van Leeuwenhoek died in 1723, he had written some 190 letters to the Royal Society, detailing his findings in a wide variety of fields, centered on his work in microscopy. He only wrote letters in his own colloquial Dutch; he never published a proper scientific paper in Latin. He strongly preferred to work alone, distrusting the sincerity of those who offered their assistance. [20] The letters were translated into Latin or English by Henry Oldenburg , who had learned Dutch for this very purpose. He was also the first to use the word animalcules to translate the Dutch words that Leeuwenhoek used to describe microorganisms. [8] Despite the initial success of van Leeuwenhoek's relationship with the Royal Society, soon relations became severely strained. His credibility was questioned when he sent the Royal Society a copy of his first observations of microscopic single-celled organisms dated 9 October 1676. [21] Previously, the existence of single-celled organisms was entirely unknown. Thus, even with his established reputation with the Royal Society as a reliable observer, his observations of microscopic life were initially met with some skepticism. [22]
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Illustration of critique of Observationes microscopicae Antonii Levvenhoeck... published in Acta Eruditorum , 1682 Eventually, in the face of van Leeuwenhoek's insistence, the Royal Society arranged for Alexander Petrie, minister to the English Reformed Church in Delft; Benedict Haan, at that time Lutheran minister at Delft; and Henrik Cordes, then Lutheran minister at the Hague, accompanied by Sir Robert Gordon and four others, to determine whether it was in fact van Leeuwenhoek's ability to observe and reason clearly, or perhaps, the Royal Society's theories of life that might require reform. Finally in 1677, [23] van Leeuwenhoek's observations were fully acknowledged by the Royal Society. [24] Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was elected to the Royal Society in February 1680 on the nomination of William Croone , a then-prominent physician. [note 5] Van Leeuwenhoek was "taken aback" by the nomination, which he considered a high honor, although he did not attend the induction ceremony in London, nor did he ever attend a Royal Society meeting. [26] Scientific fame By the end of the seventeenth century, van Leeuwenhoek had a virtual monopoly on microscopic study and discovery. His contemporary Robert Hooke , an early microscope pioneer, bemoaned that the field had come to rest entirely on one man's shoulders. [27] He was visited over the years by many notable individuals, such as the Russian Tsar Peter the Great . To the disappointment of his guests, van Leeuwenhoek refused to reveal the cutting-edge microscopes he relied on for his discoveries, instead showing visitors a collection of average-quality lenses. [28]
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An experienced businessman, van Leeuwenhoek believed that if his simple method for creating the critically important lens was revealed, the scientific community of his time would likely disregard or even forget his role in microscopy. He therefore allowed others to believe that he was laboriously spending most of his nights and free time grinding increasingly tiny lenses to use in microscopes, even though this belief conflicted both with his construction of hundreds of microscopes and his habit of building a new microscope whenever he chanced upon an interesting specimen that he wanted to preserve. He made about 200 microscopes of various magnifications. [ citation needed ] Van Leeuwenhoek was visited by Leibniz , William III of Orange and his wife, Mary II of England , and the burgemeester (mayor) Johan Huydecoper of Amsterdam, the latter being very interested in collecting and growing plants for the Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam , and all gazed at the tiny creatures . In 1698, van Leeuwenhoek was invited to visit the Tsar Peter the Great on his boat. On this occasion van Leeuwenhoek presented the Tsar with an "eel-viewer", so Peter could study blood circulation whenever he wanted. [29] Techniques and discoveries Antonie van Leeuwenhoek made more than 500 optical lenses. He also created at least 25 single-lens microscopes, of differing types, of which only nine have survived. These microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-made lenses. Those that have survived are capable of magnification up to 275 times. It is suspected that van Leeuwenhoek possessed some microscopes that could magnify up to 500 times. Although he has been widely regarded as a dilettante or amateur, his scientific research was of remarkably high quality. [30]
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The single-lens microscopes of van Leeuwenhoek were relatively small devices, the largest being about 5 cm long. [31] [32] They are used by placing the lens very close in front of the eye, while looking in the direction of the sun. The other side of the microscope had a pin, where the sample was attached in order to stay close to the lens. There were also three screws to move the pin and the sample along three axes: one axis to change the focus, and the two other axes to navigate through the sample. Van Leeuwenhoek maintained throughout his life that there are aspects of microscope construction " which I only keep for myself ", in particular his most critical secret of how he made the lenses. For many years no one was able to reconstruct van Leeuwenhoek's design techniques, but in 1957, C. L. Stong used thin glass thread fusing instead of polishing, and successfully created some working samples of a van Leeuwenhoek design microscope. [33] Such a method was also discovered independently by A. Mosolov and A. Belkin at the Russian Novosibirsk State Medical Institute . [34] Van Leeuwenhoek used samples and measurements to estimate numbers of microorganisms in units of water. [35] [36] He also made good use of the huge advantage provided by his method. He studied a broad range of microscopic phenomena, and shared the resulting observations freely with groups such as the British Royal Society . [37] Such work firmly established his place in history as one of the first and most important explorers of the microscopic world. Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe cells, much like Robert Hooke . [38]
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Van Leeuwenhoek's main discoveries are: infusoria ( protists in modern zoological classification), in 1674 bacteria, (e.g., large Selenomonads from the human mouth), in 1683 [39] [note 6] [40] [note 7] the vacuole of the cell spermatozoa , in 1677 the banded pattern of muscular fibers , in 1682 In 1687, van Leeuwenhoek reported his research on the coffee bean . He roasted the bean, cut it into slices and saw a spongy interior. The bean was pressed, and an oil appeared. He boiled the coffee with rain water twice and set it aside. [41] Van Leeuwenhoek has been attributed as the first person to use a histological stain to color specimens observed under the microscope using saffron [42] Like Robert Boyle and Nicolaas Hartsoeker , van Leeuwenhoek was interested in dried cochineal , trying to find out if the dye came from a berry or an insect. [43] [44] [45] Van Leeuwenhoek's religion was "Dutch Reformed" Calvinist . [46] He often referred with reverence to the wonders God designed in making creatures great and small, and believed that his discoveries were merely further proof of the wonder of creation. [47] [48] van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes by Henry Baker A replica of a microscope by van Leeuwenhoek Legacy and recognition By the end of his life, van Leeuwenhoek had written approximately 560 letters to the Royal Society and other scientific institutions concerning his observations and discoveries. Even during the last weeks of his life, van Leeuwenhoek continued to send letters full of observations to London. The last few contained a precise description of his own illness. He suffered from a rare disease, an uncontrolled movement of the midriff , which now is named van Leeuwenhoek's disease . [49] He died at the age of 90, on 26 August 1723, and was buried four days later in the Oude Kerk in Delft. [50]
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In 1981, the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that van Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London. They were found to be of high quality, and all were well preserved. [51] [52] [53] Ford carried out observations with a range of single-lens microscopes, adding to our knowledge of van Leeuwenhoek's work. [54] In Ford's opinion, Leeuwenhoek remained imperfectly understood, the popular view that his work was crude and undisciplined at odds with the evidence of conscientious and painstaking observation. He constructed rational and repeatable experimental procedures and was willing to oppose received opinion, such as spontaneous generation , and he changed his mind in the light of evidence. [30] On his importance in the history of microbiology and science in general, the British biochemist Nick Lane wrote that he was "the first even to think of looking—certainly, the first with the power to see." His experiments were ingenious and he was "a scientist of the highest calibre", attacked by people who envied him or "scorned his unschooled origins", not helped by his secrecy about his methods. [22] The Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital in Amsterdam, named after van Leeuwenhoek, is specialized in oncology . [55] In 2004, a public poll in the Netherlands to determine the greatest Dutchman (" De Grootste Nederlander ") named van Leeuwenhoek the 4th-greatest Dutchman of all time. [ citation needed ]
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On 24 October 2016, Google commemorated the 384th anniversary of van Leeuwenhoek's birth with a Doodle that depicted his discovery of "little animals" or animalcules, now known as bacteria. [56] The Leeuwenhoek Medal , Leeuwenhoek Lecture , Leeuwenhoek (crater) , Leeuwenhoeckia , Levenhookia (a genus in the family Stylidiaceae), and Leeuwenhoekiella (an aerobic bacterial genus) are named after him. [ citation needed ] Memorial of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in Oude Kerk (Delft) Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is buried in the Oude Kerk in Delft . A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. In the early modern period, Leeuwenhoek's discovery and study of the microscopic world , like the Dutch discovery and mapping of largely unknown lands and skies, is considered one of the most notable achievements of the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (c. 1590s–1720s). See also Animalcule Regnier de Graaf Dutch Golden Age History of microbiology History of microscopy History of the microscope Robert Hooke List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field Microscopic discovery of microorganisms Microscopic organisms described by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Microscopic scale Science and technology in the Dutch Republic Scientific Revolution Nicolas Steno Jan Swammerdam Timeline of microscope technology Johannes Vermeer Notes ^ Van Leeuwenhoek is universally acknowledged as the father of microbiology because he was the first to undisputedly discover/observe, describe, study, conduct scientific experiments with microscopic organisms (microbes), and relatively determine their size, using single-lensed microscopes of his own design. [1] Leeuwenhoek is also considered to be the father of bacteriology and protozoology (recently known as protistology ). [2] [3]
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^ The spelling of van Leeuwenhoek's name is exceptionally varied. He was christened as Thonis , but always went by Antonj (corresponding with the English Antony ). The final j of his given name is the Dutch tense i . Until 1683 he consistently used the spelling Antonj Leeuwenhoeck (ending in –oeck ) when signing his letters. Throughout the mid-1680s he experimented with the spelling of his surname, and after 1685 settled on the most recognized spelling, van Leeuwenhoek . [4] ^ Note that the existence of microscopic organisms (microbes, microorganisms) was predicted or hypothesized many centuries before they were first observed by van Leeuwenhoek. ^ In A Short History of Nearly Everything (p. 236) Bill Bryson alludes to rumors that Vermeer's mastery of light and perspective came from use of a camera obscura produced by van Leeuwenhoek. This is one of the examples of the controversial Hockney–Falco thesis , which claims that some of the Old Masters used optical aids to produce their masterpieces. ^ He was also nominated as a "corresponding member" of the French Academy of Sciences in 1699, but there is no evidence that the nomination was accepted, nor that he was ever aware of it. [25] ^ The "Lens on Leeuwenhoek" site, which is exhaustively researched and annotated, prints this letter in the original Dutch and in English translation, with the date 17 September 1683. Assuming that the date of 1676 is accurately reported from Pommerville (2014), that book seems more likely to be in error than the intensely detailed, scholarly researched website focused entirely on van Leeuwenhoek.
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^ Sixty-two years later, in 1745, a physician correctly attributed a diarrhea epidemic to van Leeuwenhoek's "bloodless animals" ( Valk 1745 , cited by Moll 2003 ). References ^ Lane, Nick (6 March 2015). "The Unseen World: Reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) 'Concerning Little Animal'." Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci . 2015 Apr; 370 (1666): doi : 10.1098/rstb.2014.0344 ^ Dobell, Clifford (1923). "A Protozoological Bicentenary: Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) and Louis Joblot (1645–1723)" . Parasitology . 15 (3): 308–19. doi : 10.1017/s0031182000014797 . ^ Corliss, John O (1975). "Three Centuries of Protozoology: A Brief Tribute to its Founding Father, A. van Leeuwenhoek of Delft". The Journal of Protozoology . 22 (1): 3–7. doi : 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1975.tb00934.x . PMID 1090737 . ^ Dobell, pp. 300–05. ^ "How to pronounce Anton van Leeuvenhoek" . howtopronounce.com. 2018 . Retrieved 12 July 2018 . ^ Chung, King-thom; Liu, Jong-kang: Pioneers in Microbiology: The Human Side of Science . (World Scientific Publishing, 2017, ISBN 978-9813202948 ). "We may fairly call Leeuwenhoek "The first microbiologist" because he was the first individual to actually culture, see, and describe a large array of microbial life. He actually measured the multiplication of the bugs. What is more amazing is that he published his discoveries." ^ Scott Chimileski, Roberto Kolter. "Life at the Edge of Sight" . hup.harvard.edu . Harvard University Press . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .
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^ a b Anderson, Douglas. "Animalcules" . Lens on Leeuwenhoek . Retrieved 9 October 2019 . ^ Dobell, pp. 19–21. ^ Dobell, pp. 23–24. ^ The curious observer. Events of the first half of van Leeuwenhoek's life . Lens on Leeuwenhoek (1 September 2009). Retrieved 20 April 2013. ^ Huerta, p. 31. ^ Dobell, pp. 27–31. ^ Dobell, pp. 33–37. ^ Van Berkel, K. (24 February 1996). Vermeer, Van Leeuwenhoek en De Astronoom . Vrij Nederland (Dutch magazine), p. 62–67. ^ "Anton van Leeuwenhoek – History of the compound microscope" . history-of-the-microscope.org . Retrieved 29 September 2017 . ^ Observationes microscopicae Antonii Lewenhoeck, circa particulas liquorum globosa et animalia . Acta Eruditorum . Leipzig. 1682. p. 321. ^ Dobell, pp. 37–41. ^ Dobell, pp. 41–42. ^ Dobell, pp. 43–44. ^ Anderson, Douglas. "Wrote Letter 18 of 1676-10-09 (AB 26) to Henry Oldenburg" . Lens on Leeuwenhoek . Retrieved 3 March 2016 . ^ a b Lane, Nick (6 March 2015). "The Unseen World: Reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) 'Concerning Little Animal ' " . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015 Apr 19; 370(1666) . Retrieved 16 January 2017 . ^ Schierbeek, A.: "The Disbelief of the Royal Society". Measuring the Invisible World. London and New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959. N. pag. Print. ^ Full text of "Antony van Leeuwenhoek and his "Little animals"; being some account of the father of protozoology and bacteriology and his multifarious discoveries in these disciplines;" . Recall.archive.org. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
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^ Dobell, pp. 53–54. ^ Dobell, pp. 46–50. ^ Dobell, pp. 52–53. ^ Dobell, pp. 54–61. ^ Mesler, Bill; Cleaves, H. James (7 December 2015). A Brief History of Creation: Science and the Search for the Origin of Life . W. W. Norton & Company . p. 45. ISBN 978-0-393-24854-8 . ^ a b Brian J. Ford (1992). "From Dilettante to Diligent Experimenter: a Reappraisal of Leeuwenhoek as microscopist and investigator" . Biology History . 5 (3). ^ Anderson, Douglas. "Tiny Microscopes" . Lens on Leeuwenhoek . Archived from the original on 2 May 2015 . Retrieved 3 March 2016 . ^ Lens on Leeuwenhoek: How he made his tiny microscopes . Lensonleeuwenhoek.net. Retrieved 15 September 2013. ^ "A glass-sphere microscope" . Funsci.com. Archived from the original on 11 June 2010 . Retrieved 13 June 2010 . ^ A. Mosolov & A. Belkin (1980). "Секрет Антони ван Левенгука (N 122468)" [Secret of Antony van Leeuwenhoek?]. Nauka I Zhizn (in Russian). 09-1980: 80–82. Archived from the original on 23 September 2008. ^ F. N. Egerton (1967). "Leeuwenhoek as a founder of animal demography". Journal of the History of Biology . 1 (1): 1–22. doi : 10.1007/BF00149773 . JSTOR 4330484 . ^ Frank N. Egerton (2006). "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 19: Leeuwenhoek's Microscopic Natural History". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America . 87 : 47. doi : 10.1890/0012-9623(2006)87[47:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2 .
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^ "Robert Hooke (1635–1703)" . Ucmp.berkeley.edu . Retrieved 13 June 2010 . ^ "Life at the Edge of Sight – Scott Chimileski, Roberto Kolter | Harvard University Press" . www.hup.harvard.edu . Retrieved 26 January 2018 . ^ Anderson, Douglas. "Wrote Letter 39 of 1683-09-17 (AB 76) to Francis Aston" . Lens on Leeuwenhoek . Archived from the original on 20 August 2016 . Retrieved 26 September 2016 . ^ Pommerville, Jeffrey (2014). Fundamentals of microbiology . Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning . p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4496-8861-5 . ^ 9 May 1687, Missive 54. ^ Schulte EK (1991). "Standardization of biological dyes and stains: pitfalls and possibilities" . Histochemistry . 95 (4): 319–28. doi : 10.1007/BF00266958 . PMID 1708749 . ^ Antoni van Leeuwenhoek; Samuel Hoole (1800). The Select Works of Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Containing His Microscopical Discoveries in Many of the Works of Nature . G. Sidney. pp. 213–. ^ Rocky Road: Leeuwenhoek . Strangescience.net (22 November 2012). Retrieved 20 April 2013. ^ Greenfield, Amy Butler (2005). A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire. New York: Harper Collins Press. ISBN 0-06-052276-3 ^ "The religious affiliation of Biologist A. van Leeuwenhoek" . Adherents.com. 8 July 2005. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010 . Retrieved 13 June 2010 . ^ "The Religion of Antony van Leeuwenhoek" . 2006. Archived from the original on 4 May 2006 . Retrieved 23 April 2006 .
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^ A. Schierbeek, Editor-in-Chief of the Collected Letters of A. van Leeuwenhoek, Measuring the Invisible World: The Life and Works of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek F R S , Abelard-Schuman (London and New York, 1959), QH 31 L55 S3, LC 59-13233. This book contains excerpts of van Leeuwenhoek's letters and focuses on his priority in several new branches of science, but makes several important references to his spiritual life and motivation. ^ Life and work of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek of Delft in Holland; 1632–1723 (1980) Published by the Municipal Archives Delft, p. 9 ^ van Leeuwenhoek, Antoni (1962). On the circulation of the blood: Latin text of his 65th letter to the Royal Society, Sept. 7th, 1688 . Brill Hes & De Graaf . p. 28. ISBN 9789060040980 . ^ Biology History vol 5(3), December 1992 ^ The Microscope vol 43(2) pp 47–57 ^ Spektrum der Wissenschaft pp. 68–71, June 1998 ^ "The discovery by Brian J Ford of Leeuwenhoek's original specimens, from the dawn of microscopy in the 16th century" . Brianjford.com . Retrieved 13 June 2010 . ^ Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (in Dutch). Retrieved 25 October 2016. ^ New Google Doodle Celebrates Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Inventor of Microbiology . Retrieved 24 October 2016. Sources Cobb, Matthew: Generation: The Seventeenth-Century Scientists Who Unraveled the Secrets of Sex, Life, and Growth . (US: Bloomsbury, 2006) [ ISBN missing ]
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Cobb, Matthew: The Egg and Sperm Race: The Seventeenth-Century Scientists Who Unlocked the Secrets of Sex and Growth . (London: Simon & Schuster, 2006) Davids, Karel: The Rise and Decline of Dutch Technological Leadership: Technology, Economy and Culture in the Netherlands, 1350–1800 [2 vols.]. (Brill, 2008, ISBN 978-9004168657 ) Dobell, Clifford (1960) [1932]. Antony van Leeuwenhoek and His "Little Animals": being some account of the father of protozoology and bacteriology and his multifarious discoveries in these disciplines ( Dover Publications ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company . Ford, Brian J. (1991). The Leeuwenhoek Legacy . Bristol and London: Biopress and Farrand Press. Ford, Brian J. : Single Lens: The Story of the Simple Microscope . (London: William Heinemann, 1985, 182 pp) Ford, Brian J.: The Revealing Lens: Mankind and the Microscope . (London: George Harrap, 1973, 208 pp) Fournier, Marian: The Fabric of Life: The Rise and Decline of Seventeenth-Century Microscopy (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0801851384 ) Huerta, Robert (2003). Giants of Delft: Johannes Vermeer and the Natural Philosophers: The Parallel Search for Knowledge during the Age of Discovery . Pennsylvania: Bucknell University Press . Moll, Warnar (2003). "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek" . Onderzoeksportal [Research Portal] . University of Amsterdam. Archived from the original on 18 February 2004 . Retrieved 3 March 2016 . Indeed, in this publication "Geneeskundig Verhaal van de Algemeene Loop-ziekte..." [ Valk (1745) ] , the author uses the work of Leeuwenhoek in describing the disease, draws some (preliminary) conclusions about the cause of the disease, he warns "non-believers of Van Leeuwenhoek to use a magnifying glass" and gives commentaries on the work of Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek and his findings.
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Payne, Alma Smith (1970). The Cleere Observer: A biography of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek . London: Macmillan . Ratcliff, Marc J.: The Quest for the Invisible: Microscopy in the Enlightenment . (Ashgate, 2009, 332 pp) [ ISBN missing ] Robertson, Lesley; Backer, Jantien et al.: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek: Master of the Minuscule . (Brill, 2016, ISBN 978-9004304284 ) Ruestow, Edward G (1996). The Microscope in the Dutch Republic: The Shaping of Discovery . New York: Cambridge University Press . Snyder, Laura J. (2015). Eye of the Beholder: Johannes Vermeer, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, and the Reinvention of Seeing . New York: W. W. Norton & Company . Struik, Dirk J.: The Land of Stevin and Huygens: A Sketch of Science and Technology in the Dutch Republic during the Golden Century (Studies in the History of Modern Science) . (Springer, 1981, 208 pp) Valk, Evert (1745). Een geneeskundig verhaal van de algemeene loop-ziekte, die te Kampen en in de om-geleegene streeken heeft gewoed in 't jaar 1736 neevens een werktuigkunstige, en natuurkundige beschryvinge van de oorzaak, uitwerking en genezinge waar in word aan-getoond, dat dezelve, waarschynlyk, door bloed-loose diertjes, beschreven in de werken van Anthony van Leeuwenhoek, het werd te weeg gebragt, en door kwik voor-naamentlyk, uit-geroeid [ A work on a disease in the city of Kampen in 1736 caused by "little animals". These bloodless animals are most likely the little animals described in the work of Leeuwenhoek and they can be killed by treatment of mercury ] (in Dutch). Haarlem: Van der Vinne. p. 97 . Retrieved 3 March 2016 .
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Wilson, Catherine: The Invisible World: Early Modern Philosophy and the Invention of the Microscope . (Princeton University Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0691017099 ) External links Wikisource has original works written by or about: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Anton van Leeuwenhoek ( category ) Leeuwenhoek's letters to the Royal Society The Correspondence of Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek in EMLO Lens on Leeuwenhoek (site on Leeuwenhoek's life and observations) Vermeer connection website University of California, Berkeley article on van Leeuwenhoek Works by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Antonie van Leeuwenhoek at Internet Archive Retrospective paper on the Leeuwenhoek research by Brian J. Ford . Images seen through a van Leeuwenhoek microscope by Brian J. Ford . Instructions on making a van Leeuwenhoek Microscope Replica by Alan Shinn v t e Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Microscopic discoveries 1 Microscopic organisms Bacteria Ciliate Giardia Infusoria Protist Protozoa Rotifer Volvox Others Spermatozoa ( sperm cells ) Red blood cells Crystals in gouty tophi General topics Animalcule Bacteriology Protozoology Protistology Spontaneous generation Preformationism Microscopic discovery of microorganisms Microscopic scale History of biology History of microbiology Natural history Optical microscopy History of microscopy History of the microscope Invention of the optical microscope Timeline of microscope technology Golden Age of Dutch science and technology Science and technology in the Dutch Republic Royal Society
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